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Harper s Thirteenth Edition, improved and enlarged
LEXICON   MEDICUM;
OR
MEDICAL   DICTIONARY;
  CONTAINING AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS IN

ANATOMY,
BOTANY,
CHEMISTRY,
MATERIA MEDICA,
MIDWIFERY,
               MINERALOGY,
               PHARMACY,
               PHYSIOLOGY,
               PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,
               SURGERY,
AND THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE
      SELECTED, ARRANGED, AND COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORS.
 « Nec aranearum sane texus ideo melior, quia ex sc fila gignunt, nee
noster vilior quia ex alien* Htamu, « .,«£ .fc ^ ^ ^ ^ L
            By ROBERT gOOPER, M.D. F.L.S.



             ,^.r iwdtpaw FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION,
W1T, J^S'2S^5S?f-^i. CHE™, MATER.A .ED.CA, MI,ERALOOT, *.

                 By SAMUEL AKERLY, M.D.
                        ~~ ™™,.»«11V RESIDENT MUSICIAN TO TI1E CITY HOSPITAI,
rO»BBRLY PHVS.CTAH TO ™™™™ f^%£^Wa*X TO THE NEWARK INSTITUTE
     LAT« HOSPITAL 'g^™™™^ OF THE DEAF AND DUHB, &C &0.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
      VOL. I.
         NEW-YORK:

PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS,
       NO. S3 CLIFF-STREET,

'838. 
        w
        M187L
          1838
nJin   r»|||l£>
                                                             SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF ITftfT-TORK a
   BE iT REMEMBERED, That on the 16th day of Oct  *. A. D. I8», in the fifty-fourth yew of  the independence <f the
    United Slates of America, J. ft J. HARPER, of the said district, have deposited in  this office the title of a book, the right
whereof they c'airn as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit:

  ** I-exicon Medicum j or Medical Dictionary; containing an explanation of the terms in Anatomy, Botany, Chemistry, Materia
Medica, Midwifery, Mineralogy, Pharmacy, Physiology, practice it Physic Surgery, and the various branches of Natural Philo-
sophy connected with Medicine.  Selected, arranged, and compiled froln the best authors.
  ' Nee araoearum sane lexus ideo meiior, quia ex so hla gignunt, nee nosier vilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes.'
                                                                      Just.  Lip*. Monit. Poht. Lib. i. cap. i.
  By Robert Hooper, M.D. F.L.S. The fourth American, from the I*t London edition, with additions from Am»rican authors <n
tetany, Chemistry, Materia  Mcdica, Mineralogy, fcc.  By Samuel Akerly, M.D., formerly physician to  the New-York City
Dispensary, resident physician to the City Hospital, late hospital surgeon United States' army, physician to the New-York Institution
for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, &c. &c."

  In cocfonr ity to the Act of Congress nf the United States, entitled " An Act fbr the encouragement of Learning, by securing fho
copies of maps, charts, and looks, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned."  And alio to
ac Aot, entitle.) " An Act, supplementary tr- *n Act entitled an Act for Hie encouragement of Learning, by securing the enpius of
maps, charts, and  books, to the author'      proprietors of such copies, during  the times therein mentioned, and  extending tkj
benefits thereof to the arts of deign1'        tig, and etching historical and other prints-"
                                                                         FREDERICK I. BETTS,
                                                                 CUrKeftli* Southern District of //ap-fWk 
              ADVERTISEMENT
                       TO THE

THIRTEENTH AMERICAN   EDITION.
  In order to render the Thirteenth American editon of Hooper's
Medical Dictionary more acceptable to the Medical public of the
United States, considerable  additions  have been made, selected
from American authors,  particularly on Materia Medica, Mine-
ralogy, &c. &c.   For these  additions  an acknowledgment is due
to Dr. James Thacher, for the extracts we have made from his
Medical Biography, to Dr. John W. Webster, of Boston, for the
same liberty taken with his Manuel of Chemistry, and to Dr. Jacob
Bigelow, for  the use of  his Treatise on the  Materia Medica.
Copious extracts have also been made from Professor Cleaveland's
Mineralogy, and recourse has been had to the New-York Medical
Repository, Barns's Mineralogical Journal, Eaton's  Geology, anc.
other works,  for the purpose of introducing new and interesting
articles.  A number of obsolete terms  have been omitted, but lest
it might be thought by some to injure  the  work as  a  standard of
modern as well as of ancient Medical terms, the words omitted have
been inserted in the form of an Appendix. 
 
PREFACE.
  In the present edition of the Medical Dictionary, the principal
additions  and  improvements are  in the  introduction of  the
terms of Botany and those of Mineralogy, and the most modern
discoveries in Chemistry and Physiology.  The work, therefore, will
now be  found to contain an account of every article connected
with the study of medicine.

  In conducting this laborious undertaking, particular attention has
been given to,

  1  The accentuation, in order that the proper pronunciation of
the words may be obtained.

  2. The derivation of the terms, «•• d the declension of the words
in common use.

  3. The definitions, which are irom the most approved sources.

  4. The introduction of all the modern discoveries in the several
branches of medical science

  In the selection and arrangement of the most compendious, the
most clear, and the most perfect accoum of the several articles of
Anatomy,  Biography, Botany, Chem.stry, the Materia  Medica,
Midwifery, Mineralogy, Pathology, Pharmacy, and Physiology; the
Compiler has  again  to acknowledge his obligations to Abernethy,
Accum, Aikin, Albinus, Bell, Brande, Bergius, Blanchard, Burns, 
V1U
PREFACE.
 Burserius, Callisen, Casselli, Cooper, Cruickshank, Cullen, Davy,
 Denman, Duncan, the Editors of the London and Edinburgh Dis-
 pensaries, and of Rees' Cyclopaedia, and Motherby's Medical Dic-
 tionary,  Fourcroy,  Good, Haller, Henry, Hoffman, Innis,  Latta,
 Larcy, Lavoisier, Lewis,  Linnaeus,  Majendie, Meyer, Murray,
 Nicholson, Orfila, Pott, Richerand, Richter, Saunders,  Sauvage,
 Scarpa, Smith, Soemmering, Swediaur, Symonds, Thomas, Thomp-
 son, Turton, Ure (from whose condensed and comprehensive work
 on chemistry large extracts have been  made), Vaughan, Vossius,
 Will in, Woodville, &c.  &c.

   It was his original  intention to give to each writer the merit of
 Jhe particular description selected from his work: but having occa-
 sion to consult, frequently to abridge, and  sometimes to alter, various
 passages; and finding  it difficult, and in many instances impossible,
 to discover the original writer of several articles; and convinced at
 the same time that it would be attended with no particular advan-
 tage, he has preferred making a general acknowledgment to par-
 ticularizing the labours of each individual.  If he has been  so for-
 tunate as to have compressed within the narrow limits of the present
 publication much general and useful information, his object will be
fully answered. 
                             A  NEW

MEDICAL.    DICTIONARY.
ABB                                            ABD
 A    1. In composition this letter, the a in Greek and
 **■•  a in Latin, signifies without:  thus aphonia,
 without  voice, acaulis, without stem, aphyllus, with'
 out a leaf, &c.
  2. A. aa. (From ava, which signifies of each.)  Ab-
 breviations of ana, which word is used in prescriptions
 *fter the mention of two or  more ingredients, when it
 implies, that  the quantity mentioned of each ingredi-
 ent  should be taken; thus, ft.  Potassa nitratis—
 Saccharialbi aa 3 j. Take nitrate of potassa and white
 sugar, of each one drachm.
  AA'RON.   A physician  of Alexandria, author of
 thirty books in the Syriac tongue, containing the whole
 practice  of physic, chiefly  collected from the Greek
 writings, and supposed to have been written before A.
 D. 620.   He first mentioned, and described, the small-
 pox and measles, which were probably brought thither
 by  the Arabians. He directed the vein under  the
 tongue to be opened in jaundice, and noticed the white
 colour of the feces in that disease.  His works are lost,
 except some fragments, preserved by Rhazes.
  AA'VORA.  The fruit of a species of palm-tree
 which grows in the West Indies and Africa.  It is of
 the size of a hen's egg, and included with several more
 in a large shell.  In the middle of the fruit there is a
 bard nut, about the size of a peach stone, which  con-
 tains a  wliite almond,  very  astringent,  and useful
 against a diarrhoea.
  Aba'ctus.  Abigeatus.   Among the ancient physi-
 cians, this term was used for a miscarriage, procured
 by art, or force of medicines, in contradistinction to
 abortus, which meant a  natural miscarriage.
  A'bacus.  (From a Hebrew word, signifying dust.)
 A table for preparations, so called from the usage of
 mathematicians of drawing their figures upon tables
 sprinkled with dust.
  Abai'sir.  Abasia. Ivory black;  and also calcare-
 ous powder.
  ABALIENA'TIO.  Abalienation; or  a  decay of
 the body, or mind.
  ABALIENA'TUS. 1. Corrupted.
  2. A part so destroyed as to require immediate ex-
 tirpation.
  3. The total destruction of the senses, whether ex-
 ternal or internal, by disease.
  Abapti'sta. (From a, priv. and /Janrw, to plunge.)
 Abaptiston.  1. The shoulders of the old trepan.
  2. This term is employed by Galen, Fabricius ab
 Aquapendente, Scultetus, and others, to denote  the
 conical saw with a  circular edge, (otherwise called
 modiolus, or terebra,) which was formerly used by sur-
 geons to perforate the cranium.
  Abafti'ston.   See Abaptista.
  Abarnahas. A chemical term formerly used in the
 transmutation of metals, signifying luna plena, magnes,
 or magnesia.
  ABARTICULATION. (From ab, and articulus, a
joint.) A species of articulation which has evident
motion.  See Diarthrosis.
  Aba'sis.  See Abaisir.
  ABBREVIATION. The principal uses of medici-
nal abbreviations  are in prescriptions, in which they
arc certain marks, or half words, used by physicians
for  despatch  and conveniency when they prescribe;
thus:—B; readily supplies  the place of recipe—A. a.
that of hora soinni—n. m. that of nux moschata—elect.
that of electarium. &c; and  in general all the names
of compound  medicines, with the several ingredients,
are frequently wrote only up to their first or second
syllable, or sometimes to their third or fourth, to make
them clear and expressive.  Thus Croc. Anglic, stands
for Crocus Anglicanus—Conf. Aromat. for Confectto
Aromatica, &c.  A point being always placed at the
end of such syllable, shows the word to be incomplete.
  ABBREVIATUS.  Abbreviate;  shortened. A term
often used in botany.
  ABDO MEN.  [.Abdomen, inis. n.; from abdo, to
hide; because  it hides the viscera.  It is also derived
from abdere. to hide, and omentum, the caul; by others
omen is  said to be only a  termination, as from lego,
legumen, so from  abdo, abdomen.) The  belly.  The
largest cavity in  the body,  bounded superiorly by the
diaphragm, by which it is  separated from the chest;
inferiorly by the bones of the pubes and ischium;  on
each side by various muscles, the short ribs and ossa
ilii; anteriorly by the abdominal muscles, and posteri-
orly by the vertebra of the  loins, the os sacrum and os
coccygis.  Internally it  is invested  by a smooth mem-
brane, called peritoneum,  and externally by muscles
and common integuments.
  In the cavity of the belly  are contained,
  Anteriorly and laterally,
  1. The epiploon.  2.  The stomach. 3. The  large
and small intestines.  4. The mesentery.  5. The lac-
teal vessels.  6. The pancreas. 7. The spleen.  8. The
liver and gall-bladder.
  Posteriorly, without the peritonmtm,
  1. The kidneys.  2. The supra-renal glands.  3. The
ureters.  4.  The receptacuium chyli.  5. The descend-
ing aorta.   C. The ascending vena cava.
  Inferiorly in the pelvis, and without the peritoneum.
  In men,  1. The urinary bladder.  2. The sperma-
tic  vessels.   3.  The rectum.
  In women, besides the urinary bladder and intesti
nuin rectum, there are,
  1. The uterus. 2. The four ligaments of the uterus.
3.  The two ovaria.   4. The two Fallopian  tubes.
5. The vagina.
  The fore part of this cavity, as has been mentioned,
is covered with muscles and common  integuments, in
the middle of which is the navel.  It is this part of the
body which  is properly called abdomen;  it is distin-
guished, by anatomists, into regions.  See Body.
  The posterior part of the abdomen is called the loins,
and the sides the flanks.
  ABDOMINALIS.  (From abdomen, the belly.) Ab-
dominal ; pertaining to the  belly.
  Abdominal hernia.  See Hernia.
  Abdominal muscles.  See Muscles.
  Abdominal regions.   See Body.
  Abdominal ring.   See Annulus Abdominis.
  ABDU'CENS.  See Abducent.
  Abpucens labiorum. See Levator anguli oris.
  ABDUCENT.   (Abducens; from ab, from, and dw
cere, to draw.)   The name of some muscles which
draw parts  back in the opposite direction to others
See Abductor.
  Abducent muscles.  See Abductor.
  Abducent nerves.  See Jfervi abducentes.
  ABDUCTOR. (From abduco, to draw away.' Ak-
ducens.  A muscle, the office of which is to pull back
or draw the member to which it is affixed from apme
other.  The antagonist is called adductor.
  Abductor auricularis.  See Posterior auris
  Abductor auris.  See Posterior auris.
  Abductor brevis alter.  See Abductor polhcia
manus.
  Abductor indicis manus.  An internal  inferos
seous muscle of the fore-finger, situated on the hand.
Abductor of Douglas; Semi-interosseous indicis  of
Winslow; Abductor indicis of Cowper.  It arises from
the superior part of the metacarpal bone, and the os trs 
ABE
ABO
 pezium, on its inside, by a fleshy beginning,  runs  to-
 wards the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger, adheres to
 it, and is connected by a broad tendon to the superior
 part of the first phalanx of the fore-finger. Sometimes
 it arises by a double tendon.   Its use is to draw the
 fore-finger from the rest, towards the thumb, and to
 bend it somewhat towards the palm.
  Abductor indicis pedis.  An internal interosseous
 muscle  of the  fore-toe, which arises tendinous and
 fleshy, by two origins, from the root of the inside of the
 metatarsal bone of the fore-toe, from the outside of the
 root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and from
 the os cuneiforme internum, and is inserted tendinous
 into the inside of  the root of the first joint of the fore-
 toe.   Its use is to pull the fore-toe inwards, from the
 rest of the small toes.
  Abductor longus  pollicis manus.  See Extensor
 ossis mctacarpi pollicis manus.
  Abductor medii  digiti pedis.  An interosseous
 muscle of the foot, which arises tendinous and fleshy,
 frot/i the inside of the root of the metatarsal bone of the
 middle toe internally, and is inserted tendinous into
 the inside of the root of the first joint of the middle toe.
 Its use is to pull the middle toe inwards.
  Abductor minimi dioiti manus.   A muscle of the
 little linger, situated  on the hand.  Carpo-phalangien
 du petit doigt of  Dumas;  Extensor tertii internodii
 minimi  digiti of Douglas;  Hypothcnnr  minor  of
 Winslow. It arises fleshy from  the pisiform bone, and
 from that part of the ligamcntum  carpi annulare next
 it, and is inserted, tendinous, into the inner side of the
 upper end of the first bone of the little finger.   Its use
 is to draw the little finger from the rest.
  Abductor mimki  dioiti pedis.  A muscle of the
 little toe.  Calcuneo-phalangien da petit doigt of Du-
 mas; Adductor of  Douglas;  Parathenar major  of
 Winslow, by whom this muscle  is divided into two,
 Parathenar major and metatarsals ;  Adductor minimi
 digiti of Cowper.  It arises tendinous and fleshy, from
 the semicircular edge of a cavity on the inferior part of
 the protuberance of the os calcis,  and from the rest of
 the metatarsal  bone  of the little toe, and is inserted
 into the root of the first joint of the little toe externally.
 Its use is to bend the little toe, and its metatarsal bone,
 downwards, and to draw the little toe from the rest
  Abductor ocuu..   See Rectus czternus oculi.
 _ Abductor pollicis manus. A muscle of the thumb,
 situated on the hand.   Scaphosus-phalangien da ponce
 of Dumas; Adductor  pollicis manis, and Adductor
 brevis alter of Albinus; Adductor thenar Riolani  of
 Douglas (the  adductor brevis alter of Albinus is the
 inner portion of this  muscle); Adductor pollicis  of
Co        It arises by a broad tendinous and fleshy be-
ginning, from the ligamentum carpi annulare, and from
the  os trapezium, and is inserted tendinous into the
outer side of the root of the first  bone of the thumb. Its
 use is, to draw the thumb from the fingers.
  Abductor pollicis pedis.  A muscle of the great
toe situated on the foot. Calcaneo-phalangien du pouce
of Dumas; Abductor  of Douglas; Thenar  of Win-
Slow ; Abductor pollicis of Cowper.  It arises fleshy,
 from the inside of  the  root of the  protuberance of the
os calcis, where it forms the heel, and tendinous from
 the same bone, where it joins the os  naviculare; and
is inserted tendinous into the internal sesamoid bone
 and root of the first joint of the great toe.  Its use is
 to pull the great toe from the rest.
  Abductor tertii digiti pedis.  An  interosseous
 muscle of the  foot, thai arises tendinous and fleshy
 from the inside and the inferior  part of the root of the
 metatarsal bone of the third toe;  and is  inserted ten-
 dinous into the inside of the root of the first joint of the
 third toe.  Its use is to pull the third toe inwards.
  Abebje os.   (From a, neg. and ficSaioe, firm.)  Abe-
 b<eus.  Weak, infirm,  unsteady.  A term made use of
 by Hippocrates, dc Signis.
  AbkBjE'us.  See Abebwos.
  ABELMOSCHUS.   (An Arabian word.)  See Hi-
 biscus Abelmoschus.
  Abelmosch.   See Hibiscus Abelmoschus.
  Abelmusk.  See Hibtscus Abelmoschus.
  ABERRA'TIO.  (From ab  and  mo, to  wander
 from.)  Formerly applied  to some  deviations from
 what was natural, as a dislocation, and monstrosities.
  Abb'ssi. (An Arabian term which  means filth)
 X Be alvine excrements.                           '
  A'Bssr*. Q«iickli>ne
  Abe vacua tio.  (From ab, dim, and evacuo, to potD
out) A partial or incomplete evacuation of the pec
cant humours, cither naturally or by art.
  Abicum.  The thyroid cartilage.
  ABIES.  (Abies, etis. fern.;  from abeo, to proceed
because it rises to a great height;  or  from  amos, a
wild pear, the fruit of which  its cones something re
semble.)  The fir. See Pinus.
  Abies Canadensis.   See Pinus Balsamea.
  Abigea'tus.  See Abactus.
  ABIO'TOS.   (From a, neg. and  /3iow,  to  live.)
Deadly.  A name  given to hemlock, from its deadly
qualities.  See Conium maculatum.
  ABLACTA'TIO.  (From  ab, from, and lac, milk.)
Ablactation, or the weaning of a child from the breast
  ABLATION.  (Ablatio;  from  avfero, to  take
away.  1. The taking  away  from the body whatever
is hurtful.  A term that is seldom used but in its gene-
ral  sense, to clothing, diet, exercise, &x.  In some old
writings, it expresses the intervals between two fits oi
a fever, or the time of remission.
  2. Formerly chemists employed this term to signify
the removal of any thing that is either finished or else
no longer necessary in a process.
  AULUE'NT.    (Ablucns;  from  abluo,  to  wash
away.)   Abstergent.  Medicines which were formerly
supposed to purify or cleanse the blood.
  ABLUTION.   (Ablutio; from aMte.towash off.)
1. A washing or cleansing either of the  body or the
intestines.
  2. In chemistry it signifies the  purifying of a  body,
by repeated affusions of a proper liquor.
  Aboli'tio.  (From  aboleo,  to destroy.)   The  sepa •
ration or destruction of diseased parts.
  Aborsus.  A miscarriage.
  ABORTIENS.   Miscarrying.
  In botany, it is sometimes used synonymously with
sterilis, sterile or barren.
  ABORTION.  (Abortio ; from aborior, to be sterile.)
Aborsus; Amblosis; Diaphthora,   Ectrosis; Exam*
bloma; Examblosis ; Apopallesis ; Apopalsis; Apoph-
thora.  Miscarriage, of the expulsion of the foetus from
the  uterus, before the seventh month, after which it is
called premature labour.  It  most  commonly occurs
between the eighth and eleventh weeks of pregnancy,
but may happen at a later period. In early gestation, the
ovum sometimes comes oft'entire; sometimes the foetus
is first expelled, and the placenta afterwards.  It is pre-
ceded by floodings, pains in the back, loins, and lower
part of the abdomen, evacuation of  the water, shiver-
ings, palpitation of the heart, nausea, anxiety, syncope,
subsiding of the breasts and belly, pain in the inside of
the  thighs, opening and moisture of the os tinea.   The
principal causes of miscarriage are blows  or falls;
great exertion or fatigue; sudden frights and other vio-
lent emotions of the mind; a diet too sparing or  too
nutritious; the abuse of spirituous liquors; other dis-
eases, particularly fevers, and  hemorrhages;  likewise
excessive bleeding, profuse diarrhoea or cholic, parti-
cularly from accumulated faeces; immoderate venery,
&c.  The spontaneous vomiting  so common  in  preg-
nancy, rarely occasions this accident:  but when in-
duced and kept up by drastic medicines, it may be very
likely to  have that effect.  Abortion  often  happens
without any obvious cause, from some defect in  the
uterus, or in the foetus itself, which we cannot satis-
factorily explain.   Hence it will take place repeatedly
in the same female at a  particular period  of  preg-
nancy ; perhaps in some measure from the influence
of habit.
  The treatment of abortion  must vary considerably
according to the constitution  of the patient, and the
causes giving rise to  it.   If the incipient symptoms
should appear in a female of a plethoric habit, it may
be proper to take a moderate quantity of  blood from
the  arm, then clear the bowels by some mild cathartic,
as the sulphas magnesias in the  infusuin  rose, after-
wards exhibiting small doses of  nitrate of  potash, di-
recting the patient to remain quiet in a recumbent po-
sition, kept as cool as possible, with a low diet, and
the  antiphlogistic regimen  in  other respects.  Should
there be much flooding, cloths wetted with cold water
ought to be applied to the region of the uterus, or even
lStruduced ilUo tne vaSlna> t(> obstruct the escape of
the  blood mechanically.  Where violent forcing pains
attend, opium should be given by the mouth, or in the
form of glyster, after premising  proper evacuations. 
ABS
ABS
Should these means not avail to check the discharge of
the forcing pains, and particularly if the water be eva-
cuated, there can be  no expectation of preventing the
miscarriage; and where there is  reason for believing
the fretus dead, from the breasts having  previously
subsided,  the morning sickness gone off, the  motion
stopped, &c. it will be proper rather to encourage it by
manual assistance.
  If on the other hand females of a delicate and irri-
table habit, rather deficient in blood, be subject to abor-
tion, or where this accident  is threatened  by profuse
evacuations and other  debilitating causes, it  may be
more probably prevented by a diet nutritious, yet easy
of digestion, with tonic medicines, and the  use of the
cold bath, attending at  the same time  to the state of
the bowels, giving opium if pain attend, and carefully
avoiding the several exciting causes.
  [When  a female has suffered  several abortions, it
becomes almost  impossible to prevent a repetition at
the same  period of gestation in a subsequent preg-
nancy.  Nothing, however,  will be  so successful in
preventing a recurrence of a similar misfortune, as in
allowing the uterine vessels to recover their tone;  for
which purpose a sufficient time must intervene before
the next conception, otherwise the remedies above re-
commended will have little or no effect.  A.]
  ABORTIVE.  (Abortivus;  from aborior, to  be
sterile.) That which is capable of occasioning an abor-
tion, or  miscarriage, in pregnant women.   It is now
generally  believed, that the medicines which produce
a miscarriage, effect it by their violent operation on
the system, and not by any specific action on the womb.
  [From the violent operation of the seeale cornutum,
or spurred rye, upon the  gravid uterus, it has been
thought that it would act at any period of gestation as
an abortive; but the experiments and trials made with
it, have proved it to  be inert,  having no specific action
upon the uterus, except in time of labour.  A.]
  ABORTUS.   A miscarriage.
  Abra'sa.  (From abrado,  to shave off.)  Ulcers at
tended with abrasion.
  ABRASION.  (Abrasio; from abrado, to tear off.)
This word is  generally employed  to signify  the  de-
struction of the natural mucus of any part, as the sto-
mach, intestines, urinary bladdei, &c.  It is also  ap-
plied to any part slightly torn away by attrition, as the
skin, &c.
  A'brathan.   Corrupted from abrotanum, southern-
wood.  See Artemisia abrotanum.
  A'brette.  See Hibiscus Abelmoschus.
  Abro'ma.   (From a,  neg. and  Bpuua, food ;' i. e.
not fit to be "eaten.)  A  tree of New South Wales,
which yields a gum.
  ABROTANUM.   (Arjporavoi>;  from a, neg.  and
fiporos, mortal; because  it never decays:  or from
afipof, soft, and tovos, extension; from the delicacy of
its texture.)  Common southernwood.  See Artemisia.
  Abrotanum mas. See Artemisia.
  ABROTONI'TES.  (From abrotanum.)  A wine
mentioned by  Dioscorides,  impregnated with abro-
tanum, or southernwood, in  the proportion of about
one hundred ounces of the dried leaves,  to about seven
gallons of must,
  ABRUPTE\  Abruptly.  Applied to pinnate leaves
which terminate without an  odd leaf or lobe:—;folia
abrupti pinnata.
  Absckde'ntia.  (From abscedo, to separate.)  De-
cayed parts of the body, which, in a morbid state,  are
separated from the sound.
  ABSCESS.   (Abscessus;  from abscedo, to  depart:
because parts, which were before contiguous, become
separated, or depart from each other.)  Abscessio;
Imposthuma.  A collection of pus in the cellular mem-
brane, or in the viscera, or in  bones, preceded by in-
flammation.   Abscesses  are variously denominated
according to their seat: as empyema, when in the ca-
vity of the pleura; vomica, In  the  lungs;  panaris, in
any of the fingers; hypopyon, in the anterior chamber
of the eye; arthropuosis, in a joint; lumbar abscess, &c.
  The formation of an abscess is the result of inflam-
mation terminating  in  suppuration.  This is known
by a throbbing pain, which lessens by degrees, as well
as the heat, tension, and redness of the inflamed part;
and if the pus be near the surface, a cream-like white-
ness is soon perceived, with  a prominence about the
middle, or at the inferior part, then a fluctuation may
be felt, which becomes gradually more distinct, till at
length the  matter make!) its way externally.  When
suppuration occurs to a considerable extent, or in a
part of importance to life, there are usually rigours, or
sudden  attacks of chilliness, followed by flushes of
heal; and unless the  matter be soon discharged, and
the abscess healed, hectic  fever generally comes on.
When abscesses form in the cellular membrane in
persons of a tolerably good constitution, they are usu-
ally circumscribed, in consequence of coagulable lymph
having been previously elfused, and having obi iterated
the communication with the  adjoining cells; but in
those of a weakly, and especially a scrophulous consti
tution, from this not occurring, the pus is very apt to
diffuse itself, like the water in anasarca.   Another cir-
cumstance, which may prevent its readily reaching the
surface, is its collecting under an aponeurosis, or other
part of dense structure, when the process of ulceration
will rather extend in another direction; thus pus ac-
cumulating in the loins, may descend to the lower part
of the thigh.
  When suppuration occurs, if the inflammation have
not yet subsided, it may be necessary to employ means
calculated to moderate this, in order to limit the extent
of the abscess: but evacuations must not be carried too
far, or there will not be power in the system  to heal it
afterwards.  If the disease be near the  surface, fo-
mentations or warm  emollient poultices should be
employed, to take off the tension of the skin, and pro-
mote the process of »'ceration  in  that direction. As
soon as fluctuation is obvious, it will be generally pro-
per to make an opening, lest contiguous parts of im-
portance should be injured; and often at an  earlier
period, where the matter is prevented from  reaching
the surface by a fascia,  &c, but  it is sometimes ad-
visable to wait awhile, especially in large spontaneous
abscesses, where the constitution is much debilitated,
till by the use of a nutritious diet, with bark and other
tonic means, this can be  somewhat improved.  There
are different modes of opening  abscesses.  1. By inci-
sion or puncture; this is generally the best, as being
least painful, and most expeditious, and  the  extent of
the aperture can be better regulated. 2. By caustic; this
may be sometimes preferable when suppuration goes
on very slowly in glandular parts,  (especially in scro-
phulous  and  venereal cases,) lessening the subjacent
tumour, giving free vent to the matter, and exciting
more healthy  action  in the sore; but  it sometimes
causes much deformity, it can hardly reach deep seated
abscesses, and the delay may be often dangerous.  3.
By seton; this is sometimes advantageous in superfi-
cial abscesses, (where suppuration is likely to con-
tinue,) about the neck and face, leaving generally but
a small scar;  likewise when near  joints, or other im-
portant parts  liable  to  be injured by the scalpel or
caustic.  See Lumbar Abscess, and Ulcer.
   ABSCES'SUS.  See Abscess.
   ABSCISSION.  (Abscissio; from ab,  and  seindo,
to cut.)  1. The cutting away some morbid, or  other
part, by an edged instrument.  The abscision  of the
prepuce makes what  we call circumcision.
  2. Abscission is sometimes used by medical writers to
denote the sudden termination of a disease  in  death,
before it arrives at its decline.
  3. Celsus frequently uses  the term abscissa vox to
express a loss of voice.
  Absinthites.  Absinthiac,or absinthiated.  Some-
thing tinged or impregnated with the virtues of absin-
thium or wormwood.
  ABSINTHIUM.   (Absinthium, thii,  n. arpivBtwi
from a, neg. and xpivBoq, pleasant: so called from the
disagreeableness of the taste.)   Wormwood.  BceAr-
temisia.
  Absinthium communk.   Common   Wormwood.
See Artemisia Absinthium,
  Absinthium maritimum.  Sea Wormwood.  See
Artemisia Maritima.
  Absinthium pc nticum.  Roman Wormwood.  See
Artemisia Pontica.
  Absinthium vulgare. Common Wormwood. Sea
Artemisia Absinthium.
  ABSORBENS.  See Absorbent
  ABSORBENT.  (Absorbens; from absarbeo, to suck
up.)  1. The small, delicate, transparent vessels, which
take up substances from the surface  of the body, or
from any cavity, and carry it to *he blood, are  termed
absorbents or absorbing vessels.  They are denomi-
nated, according to the liquids which they convey 
aBV
ACA
 aete&ls  and  lymphatics.  See  Lacteal  and Lym-
 phatic.
   2 Those medicines are so  termed, which have no
 acrimony in  themselves, and destroy acidities in the
 Btoioich and bowels; such  are  magnesia, prepared
 chalk, oyster-shells, crabs' claws, &c.
   3. Substances are also so called by chemists, whicli
 have the faculty of withdrawing moisture  from the
 atmosphere.
   Absorbing vessels.  See Absorbent.
   ABSORPTION.   (Absorptio;  from  absorbeo, to
 suck up.)  1. A function  in  an  animated  body, ar-
 ranged by physiologists under the head of natural ac-
 tions.  It signifies the taking up of substances applied
 to the  mouths of absorbing vessels; thus the nutritious
 part of the food is absorbed from the intestinal canal
 by the lacteals; thus mercury is taken into the system
 by the lymphatics of the skin, &c. The principle by
 which this function takes place, is  a power inherent in
 the mouths of the absorbents, a vis  insita, dependent
 on the degree of irritability of their internal membrane
 by which they contract and propel their  contents for-
 wards.
   2. By  this term chemists understand the conversion
 of a gaseous fluid into a liquid or solid, on being united
 with some other substance. Itdirlers from condensation
 in tills being the effect of mechanical pressure.
   [Absorption by plants.—In  1604, Dr. Foote sent to
 Dr. Mitchill of New-York, a peach, with the following
 account of it:—" I present you with a peach by the
 bearer.  You will readily perceive that I could not be
 induced  to this from  any thing very promising in its
 asiiect, the richness of its flavour, or the singularity of
 its species.  On tasting, you will find it highly charged
 with muriate of soda : and when I inform you that it
 has undergone no artificial management, but possessed
 this property when plucked from  the tree,  you may
 find some difficulty in explaining the  fact.
  " This peach was presented to  me by Mr. Solomon
 Brewer,  of Westchester Co.,  New-York, my former
 residence.  Mr. B. is a respectable man, and the pre-
 sent clerk of the town in which he  lives.  The history
 he gives  me of this natural salt-peach is, that it grew
 in  his  neighbourhood, oil a tree, around the body and
 roots of which had  been  accidentally poured a quan-
 tity of pork or  beef-brine ; that its fruit ripens in the
 month of September ;\hat the effect of the brine had
 been, to produce a sickness and decay in the tree ; and
 that at this time (Sept. 1804)  it presents the singular
 fact of a tree  hanging tolerably full of  salt peaches.
 He was unable to inform me of the precise time of the
occurrence, but that it was the fore-part of summer,
 and after the fruit had obtained its  shape and some
 size.   This fact,  as  respects  the vegetable  kingdom,
 is in my mind an isolated one.
  " I have felt the more interest in noticing this fact,
as it contributes much to strengthen  and confirm  the
opinion you  long since advanced, that certain vegeta-
bles, as wheat, partake much of the  properties of the
manure wliich  is used as their aliment, and thence
 urge with much propriety the  importance of the sub-
ject to agriculturists."—See Med. Hepos. of New-York.
 vol. viii.  p. 209.  A.]                             '
  ABSTEMIOUS.  (Abstemius;  from abs, from, and
 Umetum, wine.)  Refrainiig absolutely from all use of
 wine ;  but the term is applied to a temperate mode of
 living,  with respect to food generally.
  Abste'ntio.  Cselius Aurelianus uses this word to
 express a suppression, or retention: thus,  abstentio
 stercorum, a  retention of the excrements, which he
 mentions as a symptom very frequent in  a satyriasis.
In a sense somewhat different, he uses the word  ab-
stcnta, applying it to the pleura, where he  seems to
 mean  that the humour  of the inflamed pleura  is
prevented,  by the  adjacent  bones, from  extending

  ABSTERGENT.  (MsUrgens; from abstergo, to
 cleanse away.)  Any application that cleanses or clears
 away  foulness.   The term is seldom employed bv
 modern writers.                         ^      '
  ABSTRACTION.  (From abstraho, to draw away )
 A  term employed by chemists in the process of humid
 dutillation, to signify that the fluid body is again drawn
 off from  the solid, which it had dissolved.
  A'bsus.  The Egyptian lotus.
  Abvacua'tio.  (From abvacue, to  empty.)  A mor-
 bid discharge; a large evacuation of any fluid, as of
 blood from a plethoric person.  A term used by somo
 old writers.
   ACA'CIA.   (Acacia, «. f. anaiua ; from eucaya, to
 sharpen.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 nean system.   Class, Polygamia;  Order,  Monxcia.
 The Egyptian thorn.
   Acacia  catechu.  This plant affords a drug, form-
 erly supposed to be an earthy substance brought from
 Japan, and therefore called terra  Japonica, or Japan
 earJi; afterwards it appeared to be an extract prepared
 in India, it was supposed till lately, from the juice of
 the Mimosa catechu, by b6iling the wood  and evapo-
 rating the decoction  by the heat of the sun.  But the
 shrub is now ascertained to be an acacia, and is termed
 Acacia catechu.  It grows in great abundance in the
 kingdom of Bahar, and catechu conies to us principally
 from Bengal and Bombay.  It has  received the follow-
 ing names: Acachou; Faufel;  Catchu; Caschu; Ca-
 techu;  Cadtchu; Cashow; Caitchu;  Castjoe;  Gachu;
 Cate; Kaath.  The  natives call it Cult, the English
 who reside there Cutch.  In its purest state, it is a dry
 pulverable substance, outwardly of a reddish  colour,
 internally of a shining dark brown, tinged with a red-
 dish hue;  in the mouth it discovers considerable ad-
 stringency, succeeded by a sweetish mucilaginous taste.
 It may be advantageously employed for most purposes
 where an adstringent is indicated;  and is particularly
 useful in alvine fluxes, wiiere astringents are required.
 Besides this, it is employed also in uterine profluvia,
 in laxity aud debility of the viscera in general; and it is
 an excellent topical adstringent, when suffered to dis-
 solve leisurely in the mouth, for laxities and ulcerations
 of the gums, apththous ulcers in the mouth, and simi-
 lar affections.  This  extract is  the  basis of several
 formula; in our pharmacopueias, particularly of a tinc-
 ture : but one of the best forms under which it can be
 exhibited, is that of simple infusion in warm water with
 a  proportion of cinnamon, for by this means it is at
 once freed of its impurities and improved by the addi-
 tion of the aromatic.
   Fourcroy says that catechu is prepared from the seeds
 of a kind of palm, called aieca.  Sir Humphrey Davy
 has analyzed catechu, and from his examination it ap-
 pears, that from Bombay is of uniform texture, red-
 brown colour, and specific gravity 1.39: that from Ben-
 gal is more friable and less consistent, of  a chocolate
 colour externally, but internally chocolate streaked with
 red-brown, and specific gravity 1.28. The catechu from
 either place differs little in its properties.  Its taste is
 astringent,  leaving behind a sensation of sweetness.  It
 is almost wholly soluble in water. Two hundred grains
 of picked catechu frv<m Bombay afforded 109 grains of
 tannin, 66 extractive matter, 13 mucilage, 10 residuum,
 chiefly sand and calcareous earth.  The same quantity
 from Bengal;  tannin  97 grains, extractive matter T3,
 mucilage 16, residual matter, being sand, with a small
 quantity of calcareous and aluminous earths, 14.  Of
 the latter, the darkest parts appeared to afford most
 tannin, the lightest most extractive  matter.  The Hin-
 doos prefer the  lightest coloured, which has probably
 most sweetness, to chew with the betel-nut
  Of all the astringent substances  we know, catechu
 appears to  contain the largest proportion of tannin;
 and Mr. Purkis found, that one pound was equivalent
 to seven or eight of oak bark for the purpose of tannine
 leather.  ,                                      6
  [The tinctura Japonica  is a powerful  and useful
 astringent in looseness of  the bowels.  Many persons
 take this preparation when they are not aware of it,
 and when there is no occasion.  It is used  to colour
 fictitious and imitation brandies made in the United
 States, and from the quantity used, these  liquors al-
 ways produce costiveness.  A.]
  Acacia Germanica.  German acacia.
  1.  The name of the German black-thorn or sloe-tree,
 the Prunus spinosa of Linnaeus.
  2. The name of the inspissated juice of the fruit, as
 made in Germany; which, as well  as the tree, is there
 called also Acacia Tiostras.  It is now fallen Into
 disuse.
  Acacia Indica.  See Tamarindus Indica.
  Acacia nostras.  See Acacia Germanica.
  Acacia vera.  1. The systematic name of the tree
 which affords gum-arabic, formerly supposed to be a
 Mimosa.   Acacia:—spinis  stipularibus  patcntibus,
foliis bipinnatis, partialibus extimia glandula inter-
 stinctis, spicis  globosu pedunculatis, of Wildenow 
ACA
ACA
 The Egyptian Thorn.  This tree yields the true Acacia
 Gum, or Gum-Arabic, called also Gummi acanthinum;
 Gummi thebaicum; Gummi scorpionis;  Gum-lamac;
 Gummi senega, or senica, or senegalense.
   Cairo and Alexandria were the principal marts for
 gum-arabic, till the Dutch introduced the gum from
 Senegal into Europe, about the beginning of the seven-
 teenth century, and tliis source now supplies the greater
 part of the vast consumption of this article.   The tree
 Which yields the Senegal gum, grows abundantly on the
 sands, along the whole of the Barbary coast, and par-
 ticularly about the river Senegal.  There are several
 species, some of  which yield  a red astringent juice,
 but others afford only a pure, nearly colourless, insipid
 gum, which is the great article of commerce.  These
 trees are from eighteen lo twenty feet high, with thorny
 branches.  The gum makes its appearance about the
 middle of November, when the soil has been thoroughly
 saturated with  periodical rains. The gummy juice is
 Been to ooze through the trunk and branches, and, in
 about a fortnight, it hardens into roundish drops, of a
 yellowish white, which are beautifully brilliant where
 they are broken off, and entirely so when held in the
 mouth for a short time, to dissolve the outer surface.
 No clefts are made, nor any artificial means used by
 Ihe Moors, to solicit the flow of the gum.  The lumps
 of gum-senegal are usually about the size of partridge
 eggs, and the harvest continues about six weeks.  This
 gum is a very wholesome  and  nutritious food; thou-
 sands of the Moors support themselves entirely upon it
 during the time of harvest About six ounces is suffi-
 cient to support a man for a day;  and it is, besides,
 mixed with milk,  animal broths, and other victuals.
  The gum-arabic, or that which comes directly from
 Egypt and the Levant, only differs from the gum-sene-
 gal in being  of a lighter colour, and in smaller lumps;
 and it is also somewhat more brittle. In other respects,
 they resemble each other perfectly.
  Gum-arabic is neither soluble in spirit nor in oil;
 but, in twice its quantity of water, it dissolves into a
 mucilaginous fluid, of the consistence of a thick syrup,
 B.id in this state answers many useful pharmaceutical
 purposes, by rendering oily, resinous,  and pinguious
 Bubstances miscible with water. The glutinous quality
 of gum-arabic renders it preferable to other gums and
 mucilages as a demulcent in coughs, hoarsenesses, and
 other catarrhal affections.  It  is also very generally
 employed in ardor urinae, diarrhoeas, and calculous
 complaints.
  2. The name Acacia vera has also been used to de-
 note the expressed juice of the  immature pods of the
 tree termed Acacia veravel. This inspissated juice is
 brought from Egypt in  roundish masses, wrapped  up
 in thm bladders.  It is considered as a mild astringent
medicine.  The Egyptians give it, in spitting of blood,
 in the  quantity of a drachm, dissolved in any conve-
 nient liquor, and repeat this dose occasionally.  They
 likewise employ it in collyria, for strengthening the
 eyes, and in gargles, for quinsies.  It is  now seldom
 used as a medicine, being superseded by the use of
 catechu, or kino.
  Acacia veravel.  See Acacia vera.
  Acacia Zeylonica.  See Htematozylon Campechia-
 num.
  Acacia gum.  See Acacia vera.
  Acacos.   The thrush.  See Aphtha.
  ACALYCINUS. (From a, priv. and calyx, a flower-
 cup.)   Without a calyx.
  ACALYCIS.  (From a, priv. and calyx, a flower-
 cup.)   Without a calyx or flower-cup.   Applied  to
 plants which have no crjyx.
  Aca'matos.  (From a,  neg.  and  xauva>, to grow
 weary.)  A  perfect rest of the muscles, or that dispo-
 sition of a limb which is equally distinct from flexion
 and extension.
  ACA'NTHA.  (AicavBa; from axn, a point.)
  1. A thorn; or any thing pointed.
  2. Sometimes applied to the spina dorsi.
  Acantha'bolus. (From a/cavOa, a thorn; and QaXXu,
to cost out.)   An instrument, or forceps, for taking out
or removing thorns, or whatever may stick in the flesh.
 —Paulas JEgineta.
  Aca'nthe. The name of the artichoke in  ancient
authors.
  ACANTHINUM.   (From axavOa, a thorn.)  Gum-
arabic  was called gummi  acanthinum, because  it is
produced from a thorny tree. Soe Acacia Vera,
   Acanticone.  See Epidote.
   ACA'NTHULUS.  (From axavBa,  a thom.)  A
 surgical instrument to draw out thorns or splinters, of
 to remove any extraneous matter from wounds.
   ACA'NTHUS.   (Acanthus,  i. m. axavBos;  from
 axavda, a thorn; so named from  being rough and
 prickly.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 naean system.  Class, Didynamia; Order, Angiosper-
 mia.  Bear's-breech.
   Acanthus  mollis.  The systematic name of the
 bear's-breech,  or  brank-ursine.  Acanthus:—foliia
 sinuatis inernribus, of Linnaeus. Branca ursina of the
 shops.  The leaves and root abound with a mucilage,
 which is readily extracted by boiling or infusion.  The
 roots are the most mucilaginous.  Where this plant is
 common, it is employed for the same purposes to which
 althaea and other vegetables possessing similar qualities
 are applied  among us.  It is fallen into disuse.  The
 herb-women too often sell the leaves of bear's-foot, and
 of cow's parsnip, for the bear's-breech.
   Aca'pnon.  (From a, priv. and /cairvof, smoke.)  1.
 Common wild marjoram.
   2. Unsmoked honey.
   ACAROIS.   The  name of a genus of plants,  from
 New South  Wales.
   Acarois resinifera.  The name of a tree which
 affords the Botany bay gum.  See Botany bay.
   [Gum Acaroides,  New Holland  resin, or earthy
 gum-lac.  This is the produce of the tree called Aca-
 rois resinifera, or resin-bearing Acarois.  The tree
 grows abundantly in New Holland, near Botany bay.
 The substance under consideration is usually found in
 the ground near the  trees from which it has sponta-
 neously  exuded.   From  some  resemblance  it bears
 (though by no  means a near one) to the  article called
 gum-lac, it  has been known as the earthy gum-lac
 It is of yellowish, brownish,  or yellowish brown colour,
 and sometimes contains roots, sticks, and other foreign
 substances.  It has been distinguished in commerce by
 the term Botany bay resin.  They refer its importa-
 tion into England to the year 1799. An account of its
 chemical properties was published by Lichtenstein in
 Crell's Journal, and afterwards by Dr. Thompson, in
 the fourth volume of his Chemistry, p. 138. It was
 known to the early navigator Tasman,and was brought
 to New-York  and presented to Dr. Mitchill many
 years ago by some of our navigators. For some time
 past it has been regarded in  Massachusetts as a pow-
 erful restorative, or an invigorating medicine in cases
 of gastric or general debility.
   Gum Acaroides is insoluble in water: alcohol or dis-
 tilled spirits  is its proper menstruum. Even  in pow-
 der its use is improper, as it is not acted upon by the
 intestinal or alimentary fluids.  It is therefore neither
 administered in substance, infusion, or decoction.  It is
 mostly prescribed in the  form of tincture:  Tinctura
 gummi acaroidis.   Tincture of New Holland resin.
   The proper rule is to make a saturated tincture, of
 which a tea-spoon full may  be given once in  three or
 four hours, according to the  circumstances,  in milk,
jelly,  or syrup, water being apt to decompose it.
 From Kite's essay upon this production, it appears,
   1.  That dyspepsia has been  exceedingly relieved by
 it, and even  wholly removed.
  2.  That it is an excellent  restorative in the debility
 consequent upon the depletion and exhaustion of acute
 diseases.
  3. It is said to have done good in hysteria
  4.  Cholera, with cramps of the lower extremities, is
reported to have yielded to its powers.
  5. The morbid evacuations and commotions of diar-
 rhoea are reported to  have yielded to its virtue, after
opium had failed.
  6.  Chronic and atonic catarrhs have been benefitted
 by its administration.
  7. It is alleged to have been  remarkably serviceable
in incipient dysentery, as  well  as  in  that  of  long
duration.
  8. In various spasmodic affections, such as stitches
in the sides, cramp of the stomach, rheumatic twinges,
Sec., it has often afforded relief after opiates had failed.
  It must be observed, however, that it is not to be
prescribed in cases of high  action, or phlogistic  dia-
thesis, nor during the  prevalence of inflammatory
symptoms.
  From this abstract of the practice with, this remedy,
no doulb-can be entertained of its value, nor. of tb*
                                         13 
ACE
ACE
propriety of considering the discovery of its qualities,
as worthy to be considered among the happy events
attending the modern Materia Medica.—MitcltilVs MS.
Lectures.  A.]
  A CARUS.  (From axapm, small.J  The tick.  An
insect which breeds in  the skin.  A very numerous
genus of minute insects  which infest the skin of ani-
mals, and produce various complaints.  Those which
are found on the human body are
  1. The acarus domesticus, or domestic tick.
  2. The acarus scabiei, or itch tick.
  3. The acarus autumnalis, or harvest-bug.
  AC AT ALE' PSIA.  (From o, neg. and KaraXauSavia,
to apprehend.)  Uncertainty in the prognosis or judg-
ment of  diseases.
  ACA'TALIS.   (From a, neg. and xareui, to want.)
The juniper tree:  so named from the abundance of its
seeds.
  ACATA'POSIS.  (From a, neg. and Karamva, to
swallow.)  Difficult deglutition.
  Aca'statos.  (From a, neg. and KaQtarnui, to deter-
mine.)   Inconstant
  1. Fevers were so called which are anomalous in
their  appearance and irregular in their paroxysms.
  2. Turbid urine without sediment.
  ACAULIS.   (From a, priv. and caulis, a stem.)
Without stem.  Plants  destitute of  stem are called
acaules,  stemless;  as  Cypripedium acaule, and Car-
duus  acaulis.  This term must not be  too rigidly un-
derstood.
  ACCELERATOR.  (From accelero, to hasten or
propel.)  ' The name of a muscle of the penis.
  Accelerator  urin^e.  A  muscle  of the penis.
Ejaculator  Seminis;  Bulbo-syndesmo-caverneux of
Dumas;  Bulbo-cavernosus of Winslow.   It arises
fleshy from the sphincter ani and membranous part of
the urethra, and tendinous from the crus, near as far
forwards as the beginning of the corpus  cavernosum
penis; the  inferior fibres run  more transversely, and
the superior descend in an oblique direction.  It is in-
serted into a line in the middle of the bulbous part of the
urethra,  where each joins with its fellow; by which
the bulb is completely closed.  The use of these mus-
cles is to drive the urine or semen forward, and by
grasping  the bulbous part of the urethra, to push the
blood towards its corpus cavernosum, and  the glans,
by which they are distended.
  ACCESSION. (Accesio; from accedo, to approach.)
The t ommencement of a disease.   A term mostly ap-
plied to a fever which has paroxysms or exacerbations:
thus Ihe accession of fever, means the commencement
or approach of the febrile period.
  ACCESSO'RIUS.  (From  accedo, to approach: so
callen from the course it takes.)  Connected by con-
tact or approach.
  Akcessorius lumbalis.  A muscle of  the loins.
See Sacro-lumbalis.
  A -cessorius nervus. The name given by Willis
to trio nerves which ascend, one on each side, from
the second, fourth, and fifth cervical pairs of nerves,
through  the great foramen of  the occipital' bone, ana
pas i out again from the cranium through the foramina
lac iia, with the par vagum, to be distributed on the
trapezius muscle.
  ACCI PITER.  (From accipio, to take.)
  1. The hawk; so named from its rapacity.
  2. A bandage which  was put over the nose: so called
torn  its  likeness  to the claw of a hawk, or from the
tightness  of its grasp.
  ACCIPITRINA. (From aecipiter, the hawk.) The
herb hawk-weed-  which Pliny says was so called be-
cause hawks are used to scratch it, and apply the juice
to their eyes to prevent blindness.
  ACCLI'VIS.  A muscle of the belly, so named from
Ihe oblique ascent of its fibres.  See Obliquus internus
abdominis.
  Accouchement.   The French word for the act of
delivery.
  Accoucheur.  The French for a midwife.
  ACCRETIO.   (From  ad, and cresco, to  increase.)
Accretion.
  1. Nutrition; growth.
  2. The  growing together of parts naturally separate
as the fingers or toes.
  Acccba'tio.  (From accumbo, to recline.) Child-
tad; reclining.
  At s'dia.  (From a, priT. and /cr/iJoj, care.) Careless-
 ness, neglect in the application of medicines.  Hippo-
 crates sometimes uses this word, irrjhis treatise on the
 glands, to signify fatigue or trouble.
   ACE PHALUS.  (Acephalus,  i. m.  a«0aAoc; from
 a, priv. and nedtaXn,  a head.)  Without a head.  A
 term applied to a lusus naturae, or monster, born with-
 out a head.
   [This term is also applied by modern naturalists to
 a certain portion of the gelatinous or soft bodied ani-
 mals, which were formerly classed among the Vermes
 of Linnaeus.  They are now termed Acephalous Mol-
 lusca, or headless molluscae, having  no distinct part
 corresponding to the head of other animals.   A.]
  A'CER.  (Acer, ens. neut; from acer, sharp:  be-
 cause of the sharpness of its juice.)  The name of a
 genus of plants in the Limucan system.  Class Polyga-
 mia; Order, Monascia,
  Acer campestre.  The common maple.  This tree
 yields a sweetish,soft, milky sap,  which contains a salt
 with basis of lime, possessed, according to Sherer, of
 peculiar properties.  It  is white, semitransparent,  not
 altered by the air, and soluble in one hundred parts of
 cold, or fifty of boiling water.
  Acer pskudoplatanus.  The maple-tree,  falsely
 named sycamore. It is also called Platanus  traga.
 This tree is common in England, though not much used
 in medicine.  The juice, if drank while fresh, is said
 to be a good antiscorbutic.  All its parts contain a sac-
 charine fluid; and if the root or branches be wounded
 in the spring, a large quantity of  liquor is discharged,
 which, when inspissated, yields a brown sort of sugar
 and syrup like molasses.
  Acer saccharinum.  The 6ugar maple-tree.  Large
 quantities of sugar are obtained from this tree in New-
 England and Canada, whicli  is much used in France,
 where it is commonly known by the name of Saccha-
 rum Canadense or Saccharum Acernum, maple  sugar.
 It has been supposed that all Europe might be supplied
 from the maple of America, which  grows in great
 quantities  in the western  counties of all  the middle
 States of the American Union.  It is as tall as the oak,
 and from two to three feet in diameter; puts forth a
 white blossom in  the spring, before any appearance of
 leaves; its small branches afford sustenance for cattle,
 and its ashes afford a  large quantity of excellent pot-
 ash.  Twenty years are required for it to attain its full
 growth. Tapping does not injure it; but, on  the con-
 trary, it affords more syrup, and of a better quality, the
 oftener it is tapped. A single tree has not only survived,
 but flourished, after tapping,  for forty years.  Five or
 six pounds of sugar are  usually afforded by the sap of
 one tree; though there are instances of the- quantity
 exceeding twenty pounds. The sugar is separated from
 the sap either by freezing, by spontaneous evaporation,
 or by boiling.  The latter  method is  the most used.
 Dr. Rush describes the process; which is simple, and
 practised without  any difficulty  by the farmers.
  From frequent trials of this sugar, it does not appear
 to be in any respect inferior to that of the West Indies
 It is prepared at a time of the year when neither insect,
 nor the pollen of plants, exists  to vitiate it, as  is the
 case with common sugar. From calculations grounded
 on facts, it is ascertained, that America is now capa-
 ble of producing a surplus of one-eighth more than  its
 own consumption.
  [The  Acer  Saccharinum, or   sugar-maple tree
 abounds in the  state of New-York and many other
 parts of the United States.  It furnishes a great amount
 of rough sugar in the interior of  the country and the
 new settlements, where foreign  and refined sugars are
 but little used.  Very little effort has heretofore been
 made to introduce it into market as an article of com-
 merce.   But in 1828 several hundred barrels of this
 sugar, from the Territory  of Michigan, readied the
 city of New-York by way of the great Western ca-
nal.  It was sold at auction for six cents per pound ■
and when refined and converted into loaf sugar, it af-
forded a reasonable profit to the refiner.  A.}
  ACERATE.  Aceras. A salt  formed or the acid
of the  Acer campestre with  an alkaline,  earthv  or
metallic base.                                ''
  ACE'RATOS.  From a,  neg. and Ktpau, or Ktaav
vvut, to mn.)  Unmixed; uncorrupted.  This term is
 applied sometimes to the humours of the body by Hit,
pocrates.  Paulus iEgineta mentions a plaster of thij
name,                                        ^^
  ACERB. (Acerbus   from acer sharp. 1 ■ A spectea 
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 of taste which consists in a degree of acidity, with an
 addition of roughness; properties common to many
 immature fruits.
   Ace'rbitas.  Acerbness.
   ACERIC ACID.  A peculiar acid, said to exist in
 the juice of the common  maple, Acer campeslre of
 Linnsus.  It  is decomposed by heat, Uke the other
 vegetable acids.
   ACE'RIDES.  (From o, priv. and «poy, wax.)  Soft
 plasters, made without wax.
   ACEROSUS.  (From acus, a needle.)  1. Acerose:
 having the shape of a needle. Applied to leaves which
 are so shaped, as in Pinus sylvestris and Juniperus
 communis.
   2. (From  acus, chaff.)  Chaffy: applied  to coarse
 bread, &c.
   ACESCENT.  (Acescens; from aceo, to be sour or
 tart)   Turning sour or acid.   Substances which  rea-
 dily run into the acid  fermentation, are so said to be,
 as some vegetable and  animal juices and infusions.
 The suddenness with which this change is effected,
 during a thunder-storm, even  in corked bottles, has
 not been accounted for.  In some morbid states of the
 stomach, also,  it proceeds with astonishing rapidity.
   ACE'STA.  (From ancouai, to cure.)  Distempers
 which are easily cured.
   Ace'stis.  Borax.
   ACETABULUM.  (Acetabulum, i.  n.; from  ace-
 turn, vinegar:  no called  because it resembles  the ace-
 tabulum, or old saucer in which vinegar was held for
 the  use of the table.)   A name given by Latin writers
 to the  cup-like cavity of the os iniiominatum, which
 receives the head of the thigh-bone.  See Innomina-
 tum os.
   ACETA'RIUM.  (From acetum, vinegar:  because
 it is mostly made with vinegar)  A sallad or pickle.
   ACE'TAS.  (Acetas, tis ;  f. from acetum, vinegar.)
 An acetate   A salt formed by the union of the acetic
 acid, with a salifiable base.   Those used in  medicine
 are the acetates of ammonia, lead, potassa, and zinc.
   Acetas  ammonia.   Acetate of ammonia.   See
 Ammonia acetatis liquor.
   Acetas plumbi.   Acetate of lead.   See  Plumbi
 acetas and Plumbi acetatis liquor.
   Acetas potassx. Acetate of potassa. See Potassa!
 acetas.
   Acetas zinci.  A metallic  salt composed  of zinc
 and acetic acid.  It is used by some as  an astringent
 against inflammation of the eyes, urethra, and  vagina,
 diluted in the same proportion as the sulphate of zinc.
   Acetate.  See Acetas.
   Acetate  of  Ammonia.   See  Ammonia   acetatis
 liquor.
   Acetate of Potassa.  See Potassa acetas.
   Acetate of Zinc. See Acetas unci.
   Acetated vegetable Aicali.  See Potassa acetas.
   Acetaled  volatile Aicali.   See Ammonia  acetatis
 liquor.
   ACETIC ACID. Acidum aceticum.  The same acid
 which, in a very dilute and  somewhat  impure state,
 is called vinegar.  Acetic acid is found combined with
 potassa in the juices of a great many plants; particu-
 larly the Sambucus nigra,  Phanix  dactilifera,  Ga-
 lium verum, and Rhus typhinus.   " Sweat, urine,
 and  even fresh milk, contain it.  It is frequently ge-
 nerated in the stomachs of dyspeptic patients.  Almost
 all dry vegetable substances,  and some animal, sub-
 jected in close vessels to a red heat, yield it copiously.
 It is the result likewise of a spontaneous fermentation,
 to which liquid  vegetable and animal  matters  are
 liable.  Strong acids, as the sulphuric and nitric, de-
 velope the acetic by their action on vegetables.  It was
 long supposed, on the authority offioerhaave, that the
 fermentation which  forms vinegar is uniformly pre-
 ceded  by the vinous.  This  is a mistake: cabbages
 sour in water,  making sour crout; starch, in  starch-
 makers' sour waters; and dough itself, without any
 previous production of wine.
  " The varieties of acetic acid known in commerce
 are four:  1. Wine vinegar. 2. Malt vinegar.  3. Sugar
 vineear. 4. Wood vinegar.
  " We shall describe first the mode of making these
commercial  articles, and then that of extracting the
 absolute acetic acid of the chemist, either from these
vinegars,  or  directly  from chemical  compounds,  of
which it is a constituent
  * The following  is the plan of making vlnegir  at
 present practised in Paris.  The wine destined for
 vinegar is mixed  in  a large tun with a quantity of
 wine lees, and the whole being transferred into cloth-
 sacks,  placed within a large iron-bound vat, the liquid
 matter is extruded  through the sacks by superincum-
 bent pressure. What passes through is put into large
 casks,  set upright,  having a small aperture  in  their
 top.  In these it is exposed to  the heat of the sun in
 summer, or to that of a stove in winter.   Fermenta-
 tion supervenes in a few days.  If the heat should then
 rise too high,  it is lowered by cool air and the addition
 of fresh wine. In the skilful regulation of the fermen-
 tative  temperature consists  the art  of making  good
 wine vinegar. In  summer the process is generally
 completed in a fortnight: in winter, double the time is
 requisite.  The vinegar  is then run off into barrels,
 which  contain several chips of birch- "vood.  In about
 a fortnight it is found to be clarified,  and is then fit for
 the market.  It must be kept in close casks.
   " The manufacturers at Orleans  prefer wine of a
 year old for making vinegar.  But if by age the wine
 has lost its extractive matter, it does not readily un-
 dergo the acetous fermentation.  In  this case, acetifi-
 cation, as the French term the process,  may be deter-
 mined  by adding slips of vines, bunches of grapes, or
 wieen woods.
   " Almost all the vinegar of the north of France being
 prepared at Orleans, the manufactory of that place has
 acquired  such celebrity, as  to  render their process
 worthy oi  a  separate consideration.  The Orleans'
 casks contain  neai'.y 400 pints of wine.   Those which
 have been already  used nre preferred.   The, '**o
 placed  .n three rows, one over another, and in the top
 have an aperture of two inches' diameter, kept al way,'
 open.  The wine for acetification is  kept in adjoining
 casks, containing beech shavings, to which  the lew
 adhere. The wine, thus clarified,  is  drawn off to
 make vinegar. One hundred pints  of  good vinegar,
 boiling hot, are first poured into  each  cask, and left
 there for eight days.  Ten pints of wine are mixed in,
 every eight days,  till the vessels are full.  The vinegat
 is allowed to remain in this state fifteen days before it
 is exposed to sale.
   " The used casks, called mothers, are never emptied
 more than  half,  but are successively filled again, to
 acetify  new portions of wine.  In order to judge if the
 mother  works, the vinegar-makers plunge  a  spatula
 into the liquid; and according to the quantity of froth
 which the spatula shows, they add more or  less wine.
 In summer, the  atmospheric heat is  sufficient.  In
 winter, stoves heated to about 75° Fahr. maintain the
 requisite temperature in the manufactory.
   " In  some country districts, the people keep, in a
 place where the temperature  is mild and  equable, a
 vinegar cask,  into which they pour such wine as they
 wish to acetify; and it is  always preserved  full by
 replacing the  vinegar drawn off, by new wine.  To
 establish this household manufacture, it is only neces-
 sary to  buy at first a small cask of good vinegar.
   " At Gand, a vinegar  from  beer is made, in which
 the following  proportions of grain are found to be
 most advantageous:—
            1880 Paris lbs. malted barley.
             700      —        wheat.
             500      —        buckwheat
 These grains  are ground, mixed, and  boiled, along
 with twenty-seven casks full of river water, for three
 hours.  Eighteen casks of good beer  for vinegar are
 obtained.   By a subsequent decoction, more fermenta-
 ble liquid  is  extracted, which is mixed with  the
 former.  The whole brewing yields 3000 English quarts.
  " In this  country, vinegar is  usually made  from
 malt.   By mashing with hot water, 100 gallons of wort
 are extracted in less than two  hours from 1  boll of
 malt.  When the  liquor has fallen to  the temperature
of 75° Fahr. 4  gallons of the barm of beer  are added.
 After thirty-six hours it is racked off into casks, which
are laid on their sides, and exposed, with their bung-
holes  loosely covered, to the influence of the  sun in
summer;  but  in winter they are arranged in a stove-
room.   In three months this vinegar is  ready  for the
manufacture of sugar of  lead.  To mak* vinegar for
domestic use, however, the process is somewhat  dif
ferent.  The above  liquor  is racked off into casks
placed upright, having a false  cover,  pierced with
holes fixed at about a foot from their bottom.  On this
a considerable  quantity of rap*, or the refuse from tb« 
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ACE
makers of British wine, or otherwise a quantity of low-
priced raisins, is laid.  The liquor is turned into ano-
ther barrel every twenty-four hours, in which time it
has begun  to grow  warm.  Sometimes, indeed,  the
vinegar is fully  fermented, as above, without the rape,
which is added towards the end, to communicate
flavour.  Two  large casks  are  in this case worked
together, as  is described long ago by Boerhaave, as
follows:
  "' Take two large wooden vats or hogsheads; and
in each of  these, place a wooden grate or hurdle, at
the distance of a foot from the bottom.  Set the vessel
upright;  and on the grate,  place a moderately close
layer of green  twigs, or fresh cuttings of the vine.
Then fill up the vessel with the footstalks of grapes,
commonly called the rape, to  the top  of  the vessel,
which must be left quite open.
  "' Having thus prepared the two vessels, pour into
them the wine to be converted into vinegar,  so as to
fill one of them quite up, and  the other but  half-full.
Leave them thus for twenty-four hours, and then fill
up the half-filled vessel with  liquor from that which is
quite full, and which will now in its turn only be  left
half-full.  Four-and-twenty  hours afterwards, repeat
the same operation; and thus goon, keeping the ves-
sels alternately full and  half-full during twenty-four
hours, till the vinegar be made. On  the second or
third day,  there will arise in the half-filled vessel a
fermentative  motion, accompanied  with  a sensible
heat, which will gradually increase from day to day.
On the contrary, the fermenting motion is almost im-
perceptible  in the  full vessel;  and as the two vessels
are alternately full and half-full, the fermentation is by
this means in some measure interrupted, and is only
renewed every other day in each  vessel.
  "' When  this motion  appears to  have entirely
ceased, even in the half-filled vessel, it  is a sign that
the fermentation is finished;  and therefore the vinegar
is then to be put into casks close stopped, and kept in
a cool place.
  "' A greater or less degree  of warmth accelerates or
checks this, as well as the spirituous fermentation.  In
France, it is finished in about fifteen days, during  the
summer; but if the heat  of  the air be very great, and
exceed the twenty-fifth  degree  of Reaumur's thermo-
meter  (88 1-4°  Fahr.)  the half-filled vessel  must be
filled up every twelve hours;  because, if the fermenta-
tion be not so checked in that time, it will  become
violent, and the liquor will be so  heated, that many of
the spirituous parts, on  which the strength of the vine-
gar depends, will be dissipated, so that nothing will
remain after the fermentation but a vapid liquor, sour
indeed, but effete.  The better to prevent the dissipa-
tion of the spirituous parts, it is a proper and usual pre-
caution to close the mouth of the half-filled vessel in
which the liquor ferments, with a cover made of oak
wood. As to the full vessel, it is always left  open,
that the air may act freely on the liquor it contains:
for it is not liable to the same inconveniences, because
it ferments but very slowly.'
  " Good vinegar  may be made  from a weak syrup,
consisting of 18 oz. of sugar to every gallon of water.
The yeast and  rape are to be here used as above
described.  Whenever  the vinegar (from the taste and
flavour) is  considered  to be  complete,  it ought  to be
decanted into tight barrels or bottles, and well secured
from access of air.  A momentary ebullition  before it
is bottled is found favourable to its preservation.  In a
large manufactory of  malt  vinegar,  a considerable
revenue is derived from the sale of yeast to the bakers.
  "Vinegar obtained by the preceding methods  has
more or  less of a brown colour, and a peculiar  but
rather grateful  smell.  By distillation  in glass vessels
the colouring matter, which  resides in  a mucilage, is
separated, but tbe fragrant odour is generally replaced
by an empyreumatic one.  The best French wine Vine-
gars, and also some from  malt, contain a little alcohol,
which comes over early with the watery part, and
renders the first product of distillation scarcely denser,
sometimes  even less dense,  than water. It is accord-
ingly rejected.  Towards the  end of the distillation
the  empyreuma increases.  Hence only the interme-
diate portions  are retained  as distilled vinegar.   Its
specific gravity varies  from  1.003 to 1.015, while that
w common vinegar of equal strength varies from 1.010
* L025.
  " A crude  vinegar has been long prepared fur the
       10
calico printers, by subjecting wood in Iron retorts to a
strong red heat."
  " The acetic acid of the chemist may be prepared 10
the following modes; 1st. Two parte of fused acetate
of potassa with one of the strongest oil of vitriol yield,
by slow distillation  from a glass retort into a refrige-
rated receiver, concentrated  acetic  acid.   A  small
portion  of sulphurous  acid, which contaminates it,
may be removed by re-distillation, from a little acetate
of lead.  2d. Or four parts of good sugar of lead, with
one part of sulphuric acid treated in  the same way,
afford a slightly weaker acetic acid.   3d. Gently cal-
cined sulphate of iron,  or  green vitriol, mixed w .th
sugar of lead in the proportion  of 1 of the  former to
2 1-2 of the latter, and carefully distilled from a porce-
lain retort into a cooled receiver, may be also  consi-
dered a  good economical process. Or without distilla
tion,  if 100 parts  of well-dried acetate  of lime bo
cautiously added to 60 parts of strong sulphuric acid,
diluted  with 5 parts of water, and digested for 24
hours, and strained, a good acetic  acid, sufficiently
strong for every ordinary purpose, will  be obtained.
  " The distillation of acetate  of copper, or of lead
perse, has also been employed for  obtaining strong
acid.  Here, however, the  product is  mixed with  a
portion of the fragrant  pyro-acetic spirit, which it is
troublesome to get rid of.  Undoubtedly the best pro-
cess for the strong acid is that first described, and  the
cheapest the second or third.   When  of the utmost
possible strength its sp.  gravity is 1.062.  At the tem-
perature of 50° F. it assumes the solid form,  crystal-
lizing in oblong rhomboidal plates.  It has an extremely
pungent  odour, affecting the  nostrils  and eyes even
painfully, when its vapour is incautiously snuffed up.
Its taste is eminently acid and acrid.  It excoriates and
inflames the skin.
  "The  purified wood  vinegar, which  is used  for
pickles and culinary purposes, has commonly a specific
gravity of about 1.009;  when  it is equivalent  in acid
strength to good  wine  or malt vinegar  of 1.014.   It
contains about 1-20 of  its weight of absolute acetic
acid, and 19-20 of water.  But the vinegar of fermenta-
tion=1.014 will become only 1.023 in acetate,  from
which, if 0.005 be subtracted for mucilage or extractive,
the remainder  will agree  with the  density  of the
acetate  from wood.  A glass hydrometer of Fahren-
heit's construction is used for  finding the specific gra-
vities. It consists of a globe of about 3 inches' diameter,
having a  little ballast ball drawn out  beneath, and a
stem above of  about 3 inches long, containing a slip of
paper with a transverse line in the middle, and sur-
mounted with  a little cup  for receiving weights or
poises.  The experiments on which  this  instrument,
called an Acetometer, is constructed, have been detailed
in the sixth volume  of the Journal of Science."
  " An acetic acid of very considerable strength may
also be prepared by saturating  perfectly dry  char
coal with common vinegar, and then distilling.  The
water easily comes off, and  is separated at first; but
a stronger heat is  required to  expel  the acid.  Or
by exposing vinegar to  very cold air,  or to freezing
mixtures,  its water separates  in the state of ice, the
interstices of which are occupied by a strong acetic
acid, which may be procured by draining.  The acetic
acid,  or  radical vinegar of the apotnecaries, in which
they dissolve a little camphor, or fragrant essential oil,
has a specific gravity of about 1.070.   It contains fully
1 part of water to 2 of the crystallized acid.  The
pungent smelling salt consists of  sulphate of potash
moistened with that acid.
  " Acetic acid acts on tin, iron, line, copper, and
nickel;  and it combines readily with  the oxydea of
many other metals,  by mixing  a solution of their sul-
phates with that of an acetate of lead."
  " Acetic acid dissolves resins, gum-resins, camphor,
and essential oils."
  " Acetic acid and common vinegar  are sometimes
fraudulently mixed with sulphuric acid to give  them
strength.  This adulteration may be detected by the
addition of a  little chalk, short of  their saturation.
With pure vinegar  the calcareous base forms a limpid
solution, but with  sulphuric  acid a  white insoluble
gypsum.  Muriate of barytes is a still nicer test.  Bri-
tish fermented vinegars  are allowed by law to contain
a little sulphuric acid, but  the quantity is frequent^
exceeded.  Copper  is discovered In vinegars by super-
saturating them with  ammonia, when  a tat blua 
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tokrar is produced;  and  lead by sulphate of soda,
hydrosulphurets,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, and  gallic
acid.  None of these should produce any change on
genuine vinegar."  See Lead.
  " Salts consisting of the several  bases, united in
definite proportions to acetic acid, are called acetates.
They are characterized by the pungent sinelr-of vine-
gar, which they exhale  on the affusion  of sulphuric
acid; and by their yielding on distillation in a mode-
rate red heat a very light, odorous,  and combustible
liquid called pyro-acetate (spirit) ; which see.  They
are all soluble in water ; many of them so much so as
to be  uncrystallizable.  About  30 different acetates
have been formed,  of  which  only  a very few have
been applied to the uses of life.
  " The acetic acid  unites with all the alkalies  and
most of the  earths; and with these bases it forms
compounds, some of which are crystallizable,  and
others have not yet been  reduced to a  regularity of
figure   The salts it  forms are  distinguished by their
great solubility; their decomposition by fire, which
carbonizes them; the spontaneous alteration of their
solution ;  and their decomposition by a great number
of acids, which extricate from them the acetic acid in
a concentrated state.  It unites likewise with most of
the metallic oxides.
  " With barytes the saline mass formed  by the acetic
acid does not crystallize; but, when evaporated to
dryness, it deliquesces by exposure to air. This mass
is not decomposed by acid of arsenic.   By spontaneous
evaporation, however, it will crystallize in fine trans-
parent prismatic needles,  of a  bitterish acid taste,
which do not deliquesce when exposed to the air, but
rather effloresce.
  ' With potassa  this acid unites,  and  forms a deli-
quescent  salt  scarcely crystallizable, called formerly
foliated earth of tartar, and regenerated  tartar.  The
solution of this salt, even in closely stopped vessels, is
spontaneously decomposed: itdepositesa thick, mucous,
fiocculent sediment, at first gray, and at length black;
till at the end of a few months nothing remains in the
liquor but carbonate of potassa, rendered impure by a
little coaly oil.
  " With soda it forms a crystallizable salt, which
does not  deliquesce.  This salt  has very improperly
been called mineral foliated earth.   According to the
new nomenclature, it is acetate of soda.
  " The salt formed by dissolving chalk or other calca-
reous earth in distilled vinegar, formerly called  salt
of chalk, or  fixed vegetable sal ammoniac, and by
Bergman calx acetata, has a sharp bitter taste, appears
in the form of crystals  resembling somewhat  ears of
com, which  remain  dry  when  exposed to the  air,
unless the acid has been superabundant, in which case
they deliquesce."
  Of the  acetate of strontian little is known, but  that
it has a sweet taste, is very soluble, and is easily
decomposed by a strong heat
  " The salt formed by uniting vinegar with ammonia,
called by the  various names of spirit of Mindererus,
liquid sal ammoniac, acetous  sal ammoniac,  and by
Bergman alkali volatile acetatum,  is  generally in a
liquid state, and is commonly believed not to be crys-
tallizable, as in distillation  it passes  entirely over  into
the receiver.  It nevertheless may be reduced into the
form of small  needle-shaped crystals, when this liquor
is evaporated  to the consistence of a  syrup."
  " With magnesia the acetic acid unites, and after a
perfect saturation, forms a viscid saline  mass, like a
solution of gum-arabic, which does not shoot  into
crystals,  but  remains deliquescent, has a taste sweet-
ish at first, and afterwards bitter,  and  is soluble in
spirit of wine.  The acid of  this saline  mass may be
separated by distillation without addition.
  " Glucine is readily dissolved by acetic acid.  This
solution, Vauquelin  informs us, does not crystallize;
but is reduced by evaporation to a gummy substance,
which slowly becomes dry and brittle;  retaining a
kind of ductility for a long time.   It has a saccharine
and pretty strongly astringent taste,  in which  that of
vinegar, however, is distinguishable.
  "  Yttria dissolves readily in acetic acid, and the solu-
tion yields by evaporation crystals of acetate of yttria."
  " Alumine, obtained by boiling alum with alkali, and
edulcorated by digesting in  an alkaline lixivium, is
dissolved by distilled vinegar in a very inconsiderable
quantity."
                                           0
   "Acetate of  lircone may be  formed by pouring
 acetic acid on newly precipitated zircone.   It has an
 astringent taste."
   " Vinegar dissolves the  true gums, and partly the
 gum-resins, by means of digestion.
   " Boerhaave observes, that vinegar by long boiling
 dissolves the  flesh, cartilages, bones, and ligaments of
 animals."— Ure's Chemical Dictionary.
   Moderately rectified pyrolignous  acid has been re-
 commended for the preservation of animal food ; but
 the empyreumatic taint it communicates to bodies im-
 mersed in it, is not quite removed by their subsequent
 ebullition in water.  See Acid, Pyrolignous.
   The utility of vinegar as a condiment for preserving
 and seasoning both animal and vegetable substances
 in various articles of food is very generally known.  It
 affords an agreeable  beverage, when combined with
 water in the proportion of a table-spoonful of the
 former to half a pint of the latter.  It is often employed
 as a  medicine in inflammatory and  putrid diseases,
 when more active remedies cannot be procured.  Re-
 lief has likewise been obtained in hypochondriacal and
 hysteric affections, in  vomiting, fainting, and hiccough,
 by the application of vinegar to the mouth.  If this
 fluid be poured into vessels and placed over the gentle
 heat of a lamp in the apartments of the sick, it greatly
 contributes to disperse foul or mephitic vapours, and
 consequently  to purify the air.   Its anticontagious
 powers are now little trusted to, but its odour is em-
 ployed to relieve nervous headache, fainting fits, or
 sickness occasioned by crowded rooms.
   As an external application, vinegar proves highly
 efficacious when joined with farinaceous substances,
 and applied as a cataplasm to sprained joints; it also
 forms an eligible lotion for inflammations of the sur-
 face, when  mixed with alcohol and water in about
 equal proportions.  Applied to burns and scalds, it is
 said to be highly serviceable whether there is a loss of
 substance or not, and to quicken the exfoliation of ca-
 rious bone.   (Gloucester Infirmary.)  Mixed with an
 infusion of sage, or with water, it forms a popular and
 excellent gargle for an inflamed throat, also for an in-
 jection to moderate the fluor albus.  Applied cold to
 the nose in cases of haemorrhage, also to the loios and
 abdomen in menorrhagia,  particularly after parturi-
 tion, it is said to be very serviceable.  An  imprudent
 use of vinegar internally is not without considerable
 inconveniences.  Large and frequent doses injure the
 stomach, coagulate  the chyle, and produce  not only
 leanness, but  an atrophy.  When taken to excess by
 females, to reduce a  corpulent habit, tubercles in  the
 lungs and a consumption have been the consequence.
   [" When any of  the vinous liquors are exposed to
 the free access of atmospheric air, at a temperature of
| 80 to  85 degrees, they undergo a second fermentation,
 terminating in the production of a sour liquid, called
 vinegar.  During this process a portion of the oxygen
 of the air is converted into carbonic acid;  hence, un-
 like  vinous fermentation,  the contact of the atmos-
 phere is necessary, and the most obvious phenomenon
 is the removal of carbon from the beer or wine.  Vi-
 negar is usually obtained from  malt liquor or cider,
 while wine is employed as its source in those countries
 where the grape is  abundantly cultivated.— Webster1 a
 Manuel of Chemistry.
   Vinegar for ordinary use may also be made from
 sugar, molasses, raisins, or other fruits, or from the re-
 fuse of fruits, as follows:
   " Take the skins  of raisins after they have been
 Used in making wine, and  pour three times  their own
 quantity of water upon them; stir them well about,
 and then set the cask in a warm place, also covered,
 and  the liquor in  a few weeks' time will  become a
 sound vinegar, which  drawn off from its sediments,
 put into another cask, and well bunged  down, will
 be a good vinegar for  the table."—Beastall's Useful
 Guide.  A.]
   ACETIFICATION   (Acctificalio;  from  acetum,
 vinegar, andjJo, to make.)  The action  or operation
 by which vinegar is made.
   ACETOMETER.   An instrument for  estimating
 the strength of vinegars.  See Acetic Acid.
   ACETO'SA.  (From accsco, to be sour.)  Sorrel.  A
 genus of plants in some systems of botany. See Rumex.
   ACETOSE'LLA.   (From acetosa, sorrel: so called
 from  the acidity of  its leaves.)  Wood-sonel.  Seo
 Ozalie aceiosella.
                                           17 
                      ACH

   ACETOUS.   (Acelosus;  from  acetum,  vinegar.)
 Of or belonging to vinegar.
   Acetous Acid.  See Acetum
   Acetous Fermentation.   See Fermentation.
   ACETUM.  (Acetum, i. n.; from acer, sour.)  Vi-
 negar.  A sour liquor obtained from many vegetable
 substances dissolved in  boiling water, and from fer-
 mented and  spirituous  liquors, by exposing them  to
 heat and contact with air; under which circumstances
 they undergo the acid fermentation,  and afford the
 liquor called vinegar.  Common vinegar consists of
 acetic acid combined with a large portion of water, and
 with this are in solution  portions of gluten, mucilage,
 sugar, and extractive matter, from which it derives its
 colour, and frequently some of the vegetable acids, par-
 ticularly the malic and the tartaric.   See Acetic Acid.
   Acetum aromaticum.  Aromatic vinegar. A pre-
 paration of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, thought to
 be an improvement of what has been  named thieves'
 vinegar.
   Take of the dried tops of rosemary, the dried leaves
 of sage, of each four ounces; dried  lavender flowers,
 two ounces; cloves, two drachms;  distilled vinegar,
 eight pounds.  Macerate for seven days, and strain the
 expressed juice through  paper.  Its virtues are  anti-
 septic, and it is a useful composition  to  smell at in
 crowded courts of justice, hospitals, &c. where the air
 is offensive.
   Acetum colchici.  Vinegar of meadow-saffron.
 Take of fresh meadow-saffron root sliced, an ounce;
 acetic acid, a pint; proof spirit, a fluid ounce.  Mace-
 rate the meadow-saffron root in the acid, in a covered
 glass vessel, for three days; then press out the liquor
 and set it by, that the feculencies may subside; lastly,
 add the spirit to the clear liquor.  The dose is from
 3 ss to 3 iss.
   Acetum distillatum.  See Acidum aceticum di-
 lutum.
   Acetum scilljE.  Vinegar of squills.   Take  of
 squills recently dried, one  pound; dilute acetic acid,
 six pints;  proof spirit,  half a pint.   Macerate the
 squills with the vinegar in a glass vessel, with a gentle
 heat for twenty-four hours; then express the liquor and
 *el it a*ide until  the faeces subside.  To the decanted
 liquor add the spirit.  This preparation of  squills is
 employed as  an attenuant, expectorant, and  diuretic.
 Dose, xv. to lx. drops.
   A'CHEffi.  (From a, neg. and xt'pi hand.)  With-
 out hands.
   Acui'colum.   By this word Caelius Aurelianus,
 Acut. lib. iii. cap. 17, expresses the sudatorium of the
 ancient baths, which was a hot room where they used
 to sweat.
   ACHILLE'A.   (Achillea, a, f.   k\i\\tia: from
 Achilles, who is said to have made his tents with  it,
or to have cured Telephus with  it.)  1. The  name of
 a genus of plants in  the Linnaean system.  Class Syn-
genesia; Order, Polygamiasuperfi.ua.
   2. The pharmaceutical  name of the milfoil.  See
Achillea millefolium.
   Achillea aoeratum.   Maudlin, or maudlin tansy.
 Balsamita fosmina;  Eupatorium Mesues   This plant,
 the ageratum of the shops, is described by Linnams  as
Achillea:—foliis  lanceolatis,  obtusis, acutoserratis.
It is esteemed in some countries as anthelminthic and
alterative, and  is given  in hepatic  obstructions.  It
possesses the virtues of tansy.
   Achillea millefolium. The systematic name of
the common yarrow, or milfoil. Achillea; Myriophyl-
lon; Chiliophyllon ; lAtmbus veneris; Militaris herba;
 Stratwtes ;   Carpentaria; Speculum  veneris.   The
leaves and flowers of this indigenous  plant, Achillea—
foliis bipinnatis nudis,■ laciniis  linearibus dentatis;
caulibus superne sulcatis of Linnaeus, have an agree-
 able, weak, aromatic smell, and a bitterish, rough, and
somewhat pungent taste.   They are  both directed for
medicinal use in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia; in the
 present practice, however, they are almost wholly ne-
glected.
   Achillea ptarmica.   The systematic name of the
sneeze-wort, or bastard pellitory.  Pseudopyrethrum;
 Pyrethrum sylvestre; Draco sylvestris ; Torchon syl-
vestris ; Sternutamentoria ;  Dracunculus prattnsis.
The flowers  and roots of this plant, Achillea—foliis
 lanceolatis, acuminatis, argute serratis, have a hot
 biting taste, approaching to that of  pyrethrum, with
 wiiicb they also agree in their pharmaceutical proper-
      1S
                       ACH

 ties.   Their principal use is as a masticatory and ster-
 nutatory.
   Achillea foliis pinnatis.   See Genipi verum.
   ACHl'LLES.  The son of Peleus and Thetis, one
 of the most celebrated Grecian  heroes.  A tendon is
 named after him, and also a  plant with which he is
 said to have cured Telephus.
   Acuillis tendo.   The  tendon  of the gastrocnemii
 muscles.  So  called, because,  as fable reports, Thetis,
 the mother of Achilles, held him by that part when she
 dipped him in the river Stvx, to make him Mnvulne-
 rable.  Homer describes this tendon,  and some writers
 suppose it was thus named by the  ancients, from their
 custom of calling every thing Achillean, that had any
 extraordinary strength or virtue.   Others say it was
 named from its action in conducing to swiftness of
 pace, the term importing so much.  The  tendon  of
 Achilles is the strong and powerful tendon of the heel
 which is formed by the junction of the  gastrocnemius
 and soleus muscles, and which extends along the pos-
 terior part of the tibia from the calf  to the heel. See
 Gastrocnemius externus, and Gastrocnemius internus.
   When this tendon  is unfortunately cut or  ruptured,
 as it may be in consequence of a violent exertion, or
 spasm of the muscles of which it is a continuation, the
 use of the leg is immediately lost, and unless the part
 be afterwards successfully united, the patient must re-
 main a cripple for lite.  When the tendon  has been
 cut, the division of the skin allows the accident to  be
 seen.   When the tendon has  been ruptured, the pa-
 tient hears the sound like that of the smack of a  whip,
 at the moment of the occurrence.  In whatever way
 the tendon has been  divided,  there is a sudden  inca-
 pacity, or at least an extreme difficulty, either of stand-
 ing or  walking.  Hence  the patient falls down, and
 cannot get up again.  Besides these symptoms there is
 a very palpable depression  between  the ends of the
 tendon; which depression is increased when the foot is
 bent, and diminished, or even quite removed when the
 foot is extended.   The patient can spontaneously bend
 his foot, none of the  flexor muscles  being interested.
 The power of extending the foot is still possible, as the
 peronei muscles, the tibialis posticus,  and long flexors,
 remain perfect, and may perform this  motion.   The
 indications are to bring the ends of the  divided  parts
 together, and to keep them so, until they have become
 firmly united.  The first object  is easily fulfilled by
 putting the foot in a state of complete extension ; th«
 second, namely, that  of keeping the ends of the ten
 don in  contact, is  more difficult.   It seems  unneces
 sary to enumerate the various plans devised to ac
 complish these ends.  The following  is Desault's me
 thod: After the ends of the tendon had been brough
 into contact by  moderate flection  of the  knee, am
 complete extension of the foot,  he  used to fill up th»
 hollows on each side of the tendon with soft lint and
 compresses. The roller applied to the limb, made as
 much pressure on these compresses  as on the tendon,
 and hence this part could not be depressed too much
 against the adjacent parts.  Desault next took a  com-
 press about two inches broad, and long enough to reach
 from the toes to the middle of the thigh, and placed  it
 under the foot, over the back of the  leg and lower part
 of the thigh.  He then began to apply a few circles of
 a roller round the end of the foot, so as to fix  the lower
 extremity of the  longitudinal compress; after cover-
 ing the whole foot with the roller, he used to make the
 bandage describe the figure of 8, passing it under the
 foot and across the place where the tendon  was rup-
 tured, and the  method was  finished by encircling the
limb upward with the roller as far as the upper end of
the longitudinal compress.
  A'CHLYS.  (AAuc.)   Darkness; cloudiness.   An
obsolete term, generally applied to  a  close, foggy air.
or a mist.                                        '
  1. Hippocrates, de Morbis Mulierum, lib. ii. signifies
 by this word air, condensed air  in the  womb.
  2. Galen interprets it of those, who,  during sickness,
lose that lustre and loveliness observed about the pupil
of the eye in health.
  3. Others express it by an  ulcer on the pupil of the
eye, or the scar left there by an ulcer.
  4. It means also an opacity of the cornea;  the same
 as the caligo cornea of Dr. Cullen.
  ACHME LLA.  See Spilanthus acmella.
  A CHOLUS.  (From a, priv. and yoXij, bile.'   0-s
ficient in bile. 
ACI
ACI
  A'CHOR.  (Achor, oris. m. ax^o, qu. axyao ; from
»X>"?! *>raJ1; according to Blancliard it is derived from
a, priv. and xwpoj, space, as occupying  but a small
compass.)  JLactummi ; Abas; Acores ; Cerion; Fa-
vus;  Crusta lactea of authors.  The scald-head; so
called from the branhy scales thrown off it.   A dis-
ease which attacks the haiiy scalp of the head, for
the most part, of young children, forming soft and scaly
eruptions.  Dr. Willan, in  his description of different
kinds of pustules, defines the achor, a pustule of inter-
mediate size between the phlyzacium and psydracium,
which contains a straw-coloured fluid, having the ap-
pearance and nearly the consistence of strained honey.
it appeared most frequently about the  head,  and  is
succeeded by a dull white or yellowish scab.  Pustules
of this kind, when so large as nearly to equal the size
of phlyzacia, are termed ceria or favi, being succeeded
by a yellow semi-transparent, and sometimes cellular,
scab, like  a honeycomb.  The achor  differs from the
favus and tinea only in the degree of virulence.  It is
called favus when the perforations are large; and tinea
wi"in they are like those which are made by moths in
cloch; but generally by tinea is understood a dry scab on
the hairy scalp  of children, with thick scales and an
offensive smell. When this disorder affects the face,
It is called crusta lactea or milk scab.  Mr. Bell, in his
Treatise on Ulcers, reduces the tinea capitis and crusta
lactea to some species of herpes, viz. the herpes pus-
tulosus, differing only in situation.
  ACHOR1STOS.   Inseparable.  This term was ap-
plied by the ancients, to symptoms, or signs, which are
inseparable from  particular  things.  Thus, softness is
inseparable from  humidity;  hardness from fragility ;
and a pungent pain in the side is an inseparable symp-
tom of a pleurisy.
  ACHRAS.  The name of a genus of plants  in the
Linnaean  system.   Class, Hexandria ; Order, Mono-
gynia.  The sapota plum-tree.
  Achras sapota.  The systematic name of the tree
which affords the oval-fruited sapota, seeds of which
are sometimes given in the form of emulsion in calcu-
lous complaints.  It is a native of South America, and
bears a fruit  like an apple, which  has, when  ripe, a
luscious taste,  resembling  that  of the marmalade of
quinces, whence it is called natural maunalade. The
bark of this, and  the Achras mammosa is very astrin-
gent, and is used medicinally under the name of Cor-
tex jamaicensis.
   ACHREI'ON.  Useless.  Applied  by  Hippocrates
to the limbs which, through weakness, become useless.
  ACHROI'A.  A paleness.
   A'CHYRON.  A-xypov.  This  properly  signifies
bran,  or  chaff, or  straw.   Hippocrates, de  Morbis
Mulierum, most  probably means  by this word, bran.
Achyron  also signifies a straw, hair, or any thing that
sticks upon a wall.
   A'CIA.  (From axn, a point.)  A needle with thread
in it for chirurgical operations.
   A'CICYS.  Weak,  infirm, or faint.  In this sense
it is used by Hippocrates, de Morb. lib. iv.
   ACID.   (Acidum, i.  n.)  1. That which impresses
upon the organs of taste a sharp or sour sensation. The
 word sour, which  is usually employed  to denote the
simple impression, or  lively and sharp sensation pro-
 duced on the tongue by certain todies, may be regarded
 as synonymous to the word acid.   The only difference
 which can  be  established between  them, is,  that the
 one denotes a weak sensation, whereas the other com-
 prehends all the degrees of  force,  from  the least per-
 ceptible  to the greatest degree of  causticity: thus we
 say that verjuice,  gooseberries, or lemons, are sour;
 but we use  the word  acid to express the impression
 which the nitric, sulphuric, or  muriatic acids make
 upon the tongue.
   2.  Acids are an  important class of chemical com
 pounds.  In the generalization of facts  presented by
 Lavoisier and the associated French chemists, it was
 the leading doctrine that acids resulted from the union
 of a peculiar combustible base called the radical, with
 a common principle technically called oxygen, or the
 acidifier.  This general position was founded chiefly
 on the  phenomena exhibited  in  the formation and
 decomposition of sulphuric, carbonic, phosphoric, and
 nitric acids ; and was extended by a plausible analogy
 to other acids, the  radicals of which were unknown.
   " I have already shown," says Lavoisier, " that
 phosphorus is changed by combustion into an extremely
light, white, flaky matter.  Its properties are likewise
entirely altered  by this transformation; from being
insoluble in water, it becomes not only soluble, but so
greedy of moisture as to attract the humidity of the
air with  astonishing rapidity.  By  this means  it  is
converted into a liquid, considerably more  dense, and
of more  specific gravity than water.  In  the state  of
phosphorus  before combustion,  it  had scarcely  any
sensible taste; by its union with oxygen it acquires an
extremely sharp and sour taste; in a word, from  one
of the class of combustible bodies, it is changed  into
an incombustible substance, and  becomes one of those
bodies called acids.
  "This  property of a combustible substance, to be
converted into an  acid by the addition of oxygen, we
shall presently find belongs to a great number of bodies.
Wherefore strict logic requires that we should adopt a
common term for indicating all these operations which
produce analogous results.   This is the true way to
simplify the study of science, as  it would be quite im-
possible to bear all its  specific details in the memory
if they were not classically arranged.  For this reason
we shall distinguish the conversion of phosphorus into
an acid by its union with oxygen, and in general every
combination of oxygen with a combustible substance,
by the term  oxygenation; from this I shall adopt the
verb to oxygenate; and of consequence shall say, that
in oxygenating phosphorus, we convert it into an acid.
  " Sulphur also,  in burning,  absorbs  oxygen  gas;
the resulting acid is  considerably  heavier  than the
sulphur burnt; its weight is equal to the sum of the
weights of the sulphur which has been burnt, and of the
oxygen absorbed ;  and, lastly, this acid is weighty, in-
combustible, and miscible with water in all proportions.
  " I might multiply these experiments, and show, by
a numerous succession of  facts, that all acids are
formed by the combustion of certain substances; but
I am prevented from doing so in this place by the plan
which I have laid down, of proceeding only from facts
already ascertained to  such as  are  unknown, and  of
drawing my examples only from circumstances already
explained.  In the mean time, however, the examples
above cited may suffice for giving a clear and accurate
conception of the manner in which acids are formed.
By these it may be clearly seen that oxygen is an ele-
ment common to them all, and which constitutes  or
produces their acidity ; and  that they differ from  each
other according to the several  natures of the oxyge-
nated or acidified substances.  We must, therefore, in
 every acid, carefully distinguish between the aciditia-
ble base, which de Morveau calls the radical, and ' the
acidifying principle or  oxygen.'" Elements, p. 115.
   " Although we have  not yet been able either to com-
pose or to decompound this acid of sea salt, we cannot
 have the  smallest doubt that it, like all other acids, is
composed by the union of oxygen with an acidifiable
 base.  We  have, therefore,  called this unknown sub-
stance the muriatic base, or muriatic radical." P. 122.
5th Edition.
   Bcrthollet maintains, that Lavoisier had given too
 much latitude to the idea of oxygen being the universal
 acidifying principle.   "In  fact," says he, "it is car-
 rying the limits of analogy too far to infer, that  all
acidity, even that cf the muriatic, fluoric, and boracic
 acids, arises from oxygen, because  it gives acidity to
 a great number of substances. Sulphuretted hydrogen,
 which  really possesses  the properties of  an   acid,
 proves directly that acidity is not in all cases owing to
 oxygen.   There is no better foundation for concluding
 that hydrogen is the principle of alcalinity, not only in
 the alcalies, properly so called, but also in  magnesia,
 lime, strontian, and barytes, because ammonia appears
 to owe its alcalinity to hydrogen.
   " These considerations prove that oxygen may be
 regarded as the  most  usual principle  of acidity, but
 that this species of affinity for the alcalies may belong
 to substances which do not contain oxygen; that we
 must not, therefore, always infer, from the acidity of
 a substance,  that it contains  oxygen, although this
 may be an  inducement to suspect its existence in it;
 still less should we conclude, because a substance con-
 tains oxygen, that it must  have acid properties ;  on
 the contrary, the acidity of  an  oxygenated substance
 shows that the oxygen  has only  experienced an incom-
 plete saturation in it, since its properties remain pre-
 dominant."
   This generalization of the French chemists concern- 
                      ACI

 ,ng oxygen, was first experimentally combated by Sir
 Humphry Davy, in a series of dissertations published
 in the Philosophical Transactions.
   "His first train of experiments was  instituted with
 the view of operating by voltaic electricity on muriatic
 and other acids freed from water.  Substances which
 are now known by the names of chlorides of phos-
 phorus and tin, but which he then supposed to  contain
 dry muriatic acid, led him to imagine that intimately
 combined water was the real acidifying principle, since
 acid  properties were  immediately developed  in the
 above substances by the addition of that fluid, though
 previously they exhibited  no acid  powers.  In July,
 1810, however, he  advanced those celebrated views
 concerning acidification, which, in the opinion of the
 best judges, display an unrivalled power of scientific
 research.  The conclusions to which these led him,
 were incompatible with  the  general hypothesis of
 Lavoisier.   He demonstrated that oxymuriatic acid is,
 as far as our knowledge extends, a simple substance,
 which may be classed in  the same  order of  natural
 bodies as oxygen gas, being determined  like oxygen to
 the positive surface in voltaic combinations, and like
 oxygen combining with inflammable substances, pro-
 ducing heat and  light.  The combinations of oxymu-
 riatic acid with inflammable bodies were shown to
 be analogous to oxydes and  acids  in their properties
 and powers of combination, but todiller from them in
 being, for the most part, decomposable by water; and,
 finally, that oxymuriatic acid has a stronger attraction
 for most inflammable bodies than oxygen.  His pre-
 ceding decomposition of the alcalies and earths having
 evinced  the absurdity of that nomenclature  which
 gives to the general and essential constituent of alca-
 Iine nature, the term oxygen or  acidifier; his new dis-
 covery of the simplicity of oxymuriatic acid, showed
 the theoretical system  of chemical  language to  be
 equally vicious in another  respect.  Hence this philo-
 sopher most judiciously  discarded  the  appellation
 oxymuriatic acid, and introduced in its place the name
 chlorine, which merely indicates an obvious and per-
 manent character of the substance, its greenish  yellow
 colour.  The more recent investigations of chemists on
 fluoric, hydriodic, and hydrocyanic acids, have brought
 powerful analogies in support of the chloridic theory,
 by showing that  hydrogen alone can convert certain
 undecompouuded bases into acids well characterized,
 without the aid of oxygen."
   " After these observations  on t^e nature of acidity,
 we shall now state the general properties of the acids.
   " 1. The taste of  these bodies is for the most part
 Bour,  as  their  name denotes;  and  in the  stronger
 species .t is acrid and corrosive.
   " 2. They generally combine  with  water in  every
 proportion, with a condensation of volume and evolu-
 tion of heat
   " 3. With a few exceptions they are  volatilized or
decomposed at a moderate  beat
   " 4. They usually change the purple colours of vege-
tables to a bright red.
   " 5. They unite in  definite  proportions with the
 alcalies,  earths, and metallic oxydes, and form the
important class of salts. This may be reckoned their
characteristic and indispensable property."
   " Thenard has lately succeeded in communicating to
many acids apparently a  surcharge  of oxygen, and
thus producing a supposed  new class of bodies, the
 oxygenized acids, which are, in reality, combinations
of the ordinary acids with oxygenized water, or with
the deutoxide of hydrogen."
   " The class of acids has been distributed into three
orders, according as they are derived from the mineral,
the vegetable,  or the animal kingdom.  But a more
specific  distribution is  now requisite.  They have
also been arranged into those which have a single, and
those which have a compound basis or radical.  This
arrangement  is not only vague, but liable in other
respects to considerable objections.  The chief advan-
tage of a classification is to give general views  to
beginners in the study, by grouping together such sub-
stances as  have analogous properties or composition.
These objects  will  be  tolerably well attained  by the
following divisions and subdivisions.
   "1st. Acids from inorganic  nature,  or which are
procurable  without having  recourse  to  animal or
vegetable products.
   " 2d. Acids elaborated by means of organization.
                       ACI

  "The first group is subdivided into three families:
1st. Oxygen acids; 2d. Hydrogen acids;  3d. Acida
destitute of both these supposed acidifiers.
-Oxygen acids.
Non-metallic.
 11. Hypophosphorus.
 12. Phosphorus.
 13. Phosphatic.
 14. Phosphoric.
 15. Hyposulphurous.
 16. Sulphurous.
 17. Hyposulphuric
 18. Sulphuric
 19. Cyanic 1
             Family 1st.-
             Section 1st,
 1. Boracic.
 2. Carbonic.
 3. Chloric.
 4. Perchloric?
 5. Chloro-Carbonic.
 6. Nitrous.
 7. Hyponitric.
 8. Nitric.
 9. Iodic.
10. Iodo-Sulphuric.

        Section 2d, Oxygen acids.—Metallic.
 1. Arsenic.               6.  Columbic.
 2. Arsenious.             7.  Molybdic.
 3. Antimonious           8.  Molybdous.
 4. Antimonic.             9.  Tungstic.
 5. Chromic.

           Family 2d.—Hydrogen acids.
 I. Fluoric.                6.  Hydroprussic, or
 2. Hydriodic.                Hydro-cyanic.
 3. Hydrochloric,or Muria- 7.  Hydrosulphurous.
    tic                    8.  Hydrotellurous.
 4. Ferroprussic.           9.  Sulphuroprussic.
 5. Hydroselenic.

  Family 3d.—Acids without Oxygen or Hydrogen
 I.  Chloriodic.             3.  Fluoboric.
 2.  Chloroprussic, or       4.  Fiuosilicic.
    Chlorocyanic.
       Division 2d.-
 1. Aceric.
 2. Acetic.
 3. Amniotic.
 4. Benzoic.
 5. Boletic.
 6. Butyric.
 7. Camphoric.
 8. Caseic.
 9. Cevadic.
10. CMesteric.
11. Citric.
12. Delphinie.
13. Ellagic?
14. Formic.
15. Fungic.
16. Gallic.
17. Igasuric.
18. Kinic.
19. Laccic.
20. Lactic.
21. Lampic.
22. Lithic, or Uric
23. Malic.
-Acids of
     24.
     25.
     26.
     27.
     28.
     29
     30.
     31.
     32.
     33.
     34.
     35.
     36.
     37.
     33,
     39.
     40.
     41.
     42.
     43.
     44.
     45.
     46.
 Organic Origin
 Meconic.
 Menispermic.
 Margaric.
 Melassic 1
 Mellitic.
 Moroxylic
 Mucic.
 Nanceic %
 Nitro-leucic.
 Nitro-saccharic
 Oleic.
 Oxalic.
 Purpuric.
 Pyrolithic.
 Pyromalic.
Pyrotartaric.
 Rosasic.
 Saclactic.
 Sebacic.
Suberic.
Succinic.
Sulphovinic 1
Tartaric.
  The acids of the last division are all decorti|KWable
at a red heat, and afford generally carbon, hvrlropen
oxygen, and, in some few cases,  also nitrogen.  The
mellitic is found like amber in wood coal, and  like it
is undoubtedly of organic origin."           '
  Acid, aceric.  See Aceric acid.
  Acid, acetic.  See Acetum.
  Acid, acetous. See Acetum.
  Acid, aerial.  See Carbonic acid.
  Acid, atherial.  See JEthers.
  Acid, aluminous.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid, amniotic.  See Amniotic acid.
  Acid, animal.  See Acid.
  Acid, antimonic.   See Antimony.
  Acid, antimonovs.  See  Antimony.
  Acid of ants.  See Formic acid.
  Acid, arsenical.   See Arsenic.
  Acid, arsenious.   See Arsenic.
  Acid, benzoic.  See Benzoic acid.
  Acid, boletic.  See Boletic acid.
  Acid, boracic.  See Boracic acid.
  Acid, camphoric.   See Camphoric acid.
  Add, carbonic.  See Carbonic acid.
  Acid, caseic.  See Caseic acid.
  Acid, cetic-  See Cttic acid. 
ACI
>
ACI
  Acid, chloric  See Chloric acid.                   1
  Acid, chloriodic.  See Chloriodic acid.
  Acid, chlorous.  See Chlorous acid.
  Acid, chloro-carbonic.   See Chloro-carbonous acid
a.id Phosgene.
  Acid, chloro-cyanic.  See Chloro-cyanic acid.
  Acid, chloro-prussic.  See  Chloro-cyanic acid.
  Acid, chromic.  See Chromic acid.
  Acid, citric.  See Citric acid.
  Acid, columbic.  See Columbic acid.
  Acid, cyanic.  See Prussic acid.
  Acid, depklogisticated muriatic.  See Chlorine.
  Acid, dulcified.  Now called ^Ether.
  Acid, ellegic.  See Ellagic acid.
  Acid,ferro-chyazic.  See Ferro-chyaiic acid.
  Acid, ferro-prussic.  See i<irro-j>rttMic acid.
  jJcirf, ferruretted-chyazic.   See .Ferro-yrttMtc actrf.
  Acid,fluoboric.  See Fluoboric acid.
  Acid, fluoric.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, fluoric, silicated.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid,fluosilicic.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, formic.  See Formic acid.
  Acid, fungic.  See Fungic acid.
  Acid, gallic.  See Gallic  acid.
  Acid, hydriodic.  See Hydriodic acid.
  Acid, hydrochloric.   See Muriatic acid.
  Acid, hydrocyanic.   See Prussic acid.
  Acid, hydrofluoric.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, hydrophosphorous.   See Phosphorous acid.
  Acid, hydrophtoric.  See Fluoric acid.
  Acid, hydrosulphuric.  See Sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Acid, hydrothionic.  See Sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Acid, hyponitrous.  See Hyponitrous acid.
  Acid, hypophosphorous. See Hypophosphorous acid.
  Acid, hyposulphuric.  See Hyposulphuric acid.
  Acid, hyposulphurous.  See Hyposulphurous acid.
  Acid, igasuric.  See Igasuric acid.
  Acid, imperfect.  These  acids are so called in the
chemical nomenclature, which are not fully saturated
with  oxygen.   Their  names are ended in Latin  by
osum, and in English  by ous : e. g.  acidum nitrosum,
or nitrous acid.
  Acid, iodic.  See Iodic acid.
  Acid, iodosulphuric.   See Iodosulphuric acid.
  Acid, kinic.  See Kinic acid.
  Acid, krameric.  See Krameric acid.
  Acid, laccic.  See Laccic acid.
  Acid, lactic.  See Lactic acid.
  Acid, lampic  See Lampic acid.
  Acid, lethic.  See Lelhic acid.
  Acid, malic.  Seel Malic acid.
  Acid, manganesic.   See Manganesic acid.
  Acid, margaritic. See Margaritic acid.
  Acid, mcconic.  See Meconic acid.
  Acid, mellitic.  See Mellitic acid.
  Acid, menispermic.  See Mcnispermic acid.
  Acid of milk.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, mineral.  Those acids which are found to ex-
ist in minerals, as the sulphuric, the nitric, &c. See
Acid.
  Acid, molybdic.  See Molybdic acid.
  Acid, molybdous.  See Molybdous acid.
  Acid, moroxylic.  See Moroxylic acid.
  Acid, mucic.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, mucous.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, muriatic.  See Muriatic acid.
  Acid, muriatic, depklogisticated.
  Acid, nanceic.  See Nanceic acid.
  Acid of nitre.  See Nitric acid.
  Acid, nitric.  See Nitric acid.
  Acid, nitro-leucic.  See Nitro-leucic acid.
  Acid, nitro-muriatic.  See JVttro-muriatic acid.
  Acid, nitro-saccharine.  See Nitro-saccharic acid.
  Acid, nitro sulphuric.  See Nitro-sulphuric acid
  Acid, nitrous.  See Nitrous acid.
  Acid,  (Enothionic.   See (Enothionic acid.
  Acid, oleic.  See Oleic acid.
  Acid, oxalic.  See Oxalic acid.
  Acid, oxiodic.   See Iodic acid.
  Acid, oxychloric.  See Perchloric  acid.
  Acid, oxymuriatic.  See Chlorine.
   dcid, perchloric.  See Perchloric acid.
  Acid, perfect.   An acid is termed perfect in  the che-
mical nomenclature, when  it is completely saturated
with oxygen.  The names are ended hi Latin by icum,
and in English by ic;  e. g- acidum nitricum, or nitric
Mtf.
  Acid,perlate.  See Perlate acid.
  Acid, pernitrous.  See Hyponitrous acid
  Acid, phosphatic.  See Phosphatic acid.
  Acid, phosphoric.  See Phosphoric acid.
  Acid, phosphorous.  See Phosphorous acid.
  Acid, prussic.   See Prussic acid.
  Acid, purpuric.  See Purpuric acid.
  Acid, pyro-acetic.  See Pyro-acetie acid.
  Acid, pyrocitric.  See Pyrocitric acid.
  Acid, pyroligneous.   See Pyro-ligneous acta
  Acid, pyromucous.  See Pyro-mucic acid.
  Acid, pyrotartarous.  See Pyrotartaric acid
  Acid, rheumic.  See Rheumic acid.
  Acid, saccho-lactic.   See Mucic acid.
  Acid, saclactic.  See Mucic acid.
  Acid, sebacic.  See Sebacic acid.
  Acid, selenic.  See Selenic acid.
  Acid, silicated fluoric.
  Acid, sorbic.   See Sorbic acid.
  Acid, stannic.   See Stannic acid.
  Acid, stibic.  See Stibic acid.
  Acid, stibious.  See Stibious acid.
  Acid, suberic.  See  Suberic acid.
  Acid, succinic. See Succinic acid.
  Acid of sugar.  See Oxalic acid.
  Acid, sulpho-cyanic.  See Sulphuro-prussic acid.
  Acid, sulphovinous.  See Sulphooinic acid.
  Acid, sulphureous.  See Sulphureous acid.
  Acid,  sulphuretted chyazic.  See Sulphuro-prussic
acid.
  Acid, sulphuric.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid of tartar.  See Tartaric acid.
  Acid, tartaric.  See Tartaric acid.
  Acid, telluric.   See Telluric acid.
  Acid, tungstic.  See Tungstic acid.
  Acid, uric.  See Lithic acid.
  Acid, vegetable.   Those which are found in  the
vegetable kingdom, as the citric, malic,  acetic,  &.c.
See Acid.
  Acid of vinegar.  See Acetum.
  Acid of vinegar, concentrated.  See Acetum.
  Acid of vitriol.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid, vitriolic. See Sulphuric acid.
  Acid, zumic.  See Zumic acid.
  ACIDIFIABLE.  Capable of being converted into an
acid by an acidifying principle.  Substances possessing
this property are called radicals and acidifiable bases.
  ACIDIFICATION.  (Acidificatio ; from acidum, an
acid.)  The formation of an acid; also the impreg-
nation of any thing with acid properties.
  ACIDIFYING.   See Acid.
  ACIDIMETRY.  The measurement of the strength
of acids.  This is effected by saturating a given weight
of them with an alkaline base; the quantity of which
requisite  for the purpose, is  the measure of their
power.
  ACIDITY. Aciditas.  Sourness.
  ACIDULOUS.  Acidula,  Latin;  acidule, French.
Sligntly acid: applied to those salts in which the  base
is combined with such an  excess of acid, that  they
manifestly exhibit acid properties, as the supertartrate
and the supersulphate of potassa.
  Acidulous waters.  Mineral waters, which contain
so great a quantity of carbonic acid gas, as to  render
them acidulous, or gently tart to the taste.   See Mine-
ral waters.
  ACIDULUS.   Acidulated. Any thing blended with
an acid juice in order to give it a coolness and brisk
ness.
  A'CIDUM. (Acidum, i. n.;  from aceo, to be sour.;
An acid.  See Acid.
  Acidum aceticum.  See Acidum aceticum dilutum.
  Acidum aceticum dilutum.   Dilute  acetic acid.
Take of vinegar, a gallon.
  Distil the acetic acid in a sand bath, from a glass
retort into a receiver also  of glass, and kept cold;
throw away the first pint,  and keep for  use the six
succeeding pints, which are distilled over.
  In this distillation, the liquor should be  kept mode-
rately boiling, and  the heat should not be  urged too
far, otherwise the distilled acid will have an empyrcu-
matic smell and taste, which it ought not to possess.
If the acid be prepared correctly, it will be colourless,
and of a grateful, pungent, peculiar acid taste.  One
fluid ounce ought to dissolve at least ten grains of car-
bonate of lime, or white marble.  This liquor is the
acetum distillatum ; the acidum acetosuta of the Lon-
                                           81 
ACI
ACO
 don Pharmacopoeia of 1787, and the acidum aceticum
 of that of 18B2, and the acidum aceticum  dilutum of
 the present.  The compounds of the acid of vinegar,
 directed to be used by the new London Pharmaco-
 poeia,  are  acetum  colchici, acitvm  scilla, ceratum
plumbi acetatis,  liquor  ammonia  acetatis,  liquor
plumbi acetatis, liquor plumbi acetatis dilutis,oxymel,
 oxymel scilla, potasse acetas, and the  cataplasma
 sinapis.                                   .
  Acidum  aceticum  concentratum.   When  the
 acid of vinegar is greatly concentrated, that is, de-
 prived of  its water, it  is called concentrated acid of
 vinegar, and radical vinegar.
  Distilled vinegar may be concentrated by freezing :
 the congelation takes place at a temperature below 28
 degrees, more or less, according to its strength; and
 the congealed part is merely ice, leaving, of course, a
 stronger acid.  If this be  exposed to a very intense
 cold, it shoots into crystals; which, being  separated,
 liquefy, when the temperature rise? ,  and the liquor is
 limpid as water, extremely strong, and has a highly
 pungent acetous odour.  This is the pure acid  of the
 vinegar;  the foreign matter remaining in the uncon-
 gealed liquid.
  Other methods are  likewise employed to obtain the
 pure and concentrated acid.  The  process of Westen-
 dorf, which has been often followed, is to saturate soda
 with distilled vinegar; obtain  the  acetate by crystal-
 lization ;  and pour upon it, in a retort, half  its weight
 of sulphuric acid.  By applying heat, the acetic  acid
is distilled over; and, should there be any reason to
 suspect the presence of any sulphuric acid, it may be
 distilled a second time, from a  little acetate of soda.
 According to Lowitz, the best way of obtaining this
 acid pure, is to mix three parts of the acetate of soda
with eight of supersulphate of potassa; both salts being
perfectly dry, and in fine  powder,  and to distil from
this mixture in a retort, with a gentle heat.
  It may also be obtained by distilling the verdigris of
commerce, with a gentle heat.  The concentrated acid
procured  by these  processes, was  supposed to  differ
materially from the acetous acids  obtained by distil-
ling vinegar; the two acids were regarded as differing
in their degree of oxygenizement, and were after-
ward distinguished by the  names of acetous and ace-
tic acids.  The acid distilled from verdigris was  sup-
posed to derive a quantity of oxygen from the oxyde of
copper, from which  it was expelled.   The experi-
ments of Adet have, however, proved the two acids to
be identical; the acetous  acid, therefore, only differs
from tile acetic acid in containing more water, render-
ing it  a  weaker acid, and of  a less active nature.
There exists, therefore, onlycne of acid vinegar, which
is the acetic; its compounds are termed acetates.
  Acidum acetosum.  See Acetum.
  Acidum .ethereum.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acidum aluminosum.  (So called because it exists
in alum.)  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acidum Arsenicum.  See Arsenic.
  Acidum benzoicum.  Benzoic acid.   The London
Pharmacopoeia directs it to be made thus:—Take of
gum benzoin a pound  and a half:  fresh  lime, four
ounces: water, a gallon and a half:  muriatic acid, four
fluid ounces.  Rub together the benzoin and lime;
then boil them in a gallon of the water, for half an hour,
constantly stirring; and, when  it is cold, pour off the
liquor.  Boil what remains a second  time, in four
pints of water, and pour off the liquor as before.   Mix
the liquors, and boil down to half) then strain through
paper,  and add the muriatic  acid gradually, until it
ceases to produce a precipitate.  Lastly, having poured
off the  liquor, dry the powder in a gentle  heat; put it
into a proper vessel, placed in a Hand bath; and  by a
very gentle fire, sublime the benzoic acid.  In this pro-
cess a  solution of benzoate of lime  is first obtained;
the muriatic acid then, abstracting the  lime, precipi-
tates the  benzoic acid, which is crystallized by sub-
limation.
  The  Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia forms a benzoate of
soda, precipitates the acid by sulphuric acid, and after-
ward  crystallizes  it by solution in hot  water, which
dissolves a larger quantity than cold.
  Benzoic acid has a strong, pungent, aromatic, and
peculiar odour.  Its crystals are ductile, not pulver-
izable; it  sublimes in a  moderate  heat, forming a
white irritating smoke.  It is soluble in about twenty-
four times its weight  of boiling water, which, as it
 cools, precipitates 19-20ths of what it had dissolved-
 It is soluble in alcohol.
   Benzoic acid is very seldom used in the cure of dis-
 eases ; but now and then it is ordered as a stimulant
 against convulsive coughs and difficulty of breathing.
 The dose is from one grain to five.
   Acidum Boracicum.   See Boracic acid.
   Acidum carbomcum. See Carbonic acid.
   Acidum catholicon.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Acidum citricum.  See Citric acid.
   Acidum muriaticum.  See Muriatic acid.
   Acidum muriaticum oxygenatum.  See Oxygen-
 ized muriatic acid.
   Acidum nitricum.  See  Nitric acid.
   Acidum nitricum dilutum.   Take of nitric acid a
 fluid ounce; distilled water nine fluid ounces. Mix them.
   Acidum nitrosum.  See  Nitrous acid.
   Acidum phosphoricum.  See Phosphoric acid
   Acidum primigenium.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Acidum succinici m.  See Succinic acid.
   Acidum sulphurkum.  See Sulphureous acid.
   Acidum sulphuricum.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Acidum sulphuricum dilutum.   Acidum  vitrio-
 licum dilutum.   Spiritus vitrioli  tenuis.   Take of
 sulphuric acid a fluid  ounce and a half; distilled
 water, fourteen fluid ounces and a  half.  Add  the
 water gradually to the acid.
  Acidum tartaricum. See Tartaric acid.
  Acidum vitriolicum.  See Sulphuric acid.
  Acidum vitriolicum dilutum.  See Acidum sul-
phuricum dilutum,
  A'cies.  Steel.
   ACINACIFORMIS.   (From  acinaces, a Persian
 scimitar, or  sabre, and forma, resemblance.)  Acina-
 cifonn; shaped  like a sabre,  applied  to  leaves: as
 those of the mysembryanthemum acinaciforme.
  ACINE'SIA. (From anivrjaia, immobility.)   A  loss
 of motion and strength.
  ACINIFORMIS.   (From   acinus,  a  grape,  and
forma, a resemblance.)   Aciniform.   A name given
 by the ancients to  some parts which resembled  the
 colour and form of an unripe grape, as the uvea of the
 eye, which was called tunica acinosa, and the choroid
 membrane of  the  eye, which  they  named  tunica
 acimforma.
  A'CINUS.  (Acinus, i. m.; a grape.)   1.  In ana-
 tomy, those glands which grow together in clusters are
 called by some  acini glandulosi.
  2. In  botany, a small berry, which, with several
 others, composes the fruit  of the mulberry,  black-
 berry, &c.
  Acinus biliosus.  The small glandiform bodies of
 the liver, which separate the bile from the  blood,
 were formerly called acini biliosi:  they are now,
 however, termed penicilli. See Liver.
  ACMA'STICOS.   A species of fever, wherein  the
 heat continues of the same tenor to the end. Actuarius.
  A'CME. (From attun, a point.)  The height or crisis.
 A term applied  by physicians to that period or state of
 a disease in which it is at its height. The ancients dis-
 tinguished diseases into four stages : 1. The Arcne, the
 beginning or  first attack.  2. Anabasis, the growth.
 3. Acme, the height.  4.  Paracme, or the decline of the
 disease.
  ACME'LLA.   See Spilanthus.
  A'CNE.  aicvn.  Acna.  A small pimple, or hard
 tubercle  on the face.  Foesius says, that it is a small
 pustule  or pimple,  which arises usually about  the
 time that the body is in full vigour.
  Acne'stis.   (From a, priv. and Kvaia, to scratch.)
 That part of the spine of the back, which reaches from
 the metaphrenon, which is the part between the shoul-
 der-blades, to the loins.  This part seems to have been
 originally called so  in quadrupeds only, because they
 cannot reach it to scratch.
  A'COE.  aKor].  The sense of hearing.
  ACOE'LIUS.  (From a, priv. and KotXia, the belly.)
 Without belly.  It  is applied  to thise who  are  so
 wasted, as to appear as if they had  no belly.  Galen.
   ACOE'TUS.  Akoitos.  An epithet for honey, men
 tioned by Pliny; because it has no sediment, which is
 called koittj.
  ACO'NION.   A.Kovtov.  A particular form of me
 dicine among the ancient physicians, made of powders
 levigated, and probably  like collyria for the disorders
 of the eyes.
   ACONITA.  (Aconita, <e. f.; from aconitum,  the 
ACO
ACR
 name of a plant.)  A  poisonous vegetable principle,
 probably alcaline, recently extracted from  the aconi-
 tum napellus, or wolfs bane, by Mons. Brandes  The
 details have not yet reached this country.
  ACONITE.  See Aconitum.
  ACONl'TUM.  (Aconitum, i. m.)  Aconite.  1. A
 genus of plants in the Linnuean system, all the species
 of which have powerful effects on the human body.
 Class, Polyandria; Order, Trygynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial  name of the  common, or
 blue, wolf's-bane. See Aconitum napellus.
  Aconitum anthora. The root of this plant Aconi-
 tum—floribus pentagynus, foliorum laciniis linearibus
 of Linnaeus, is employed medicinally.  Its virtues are
 similar to those of the aconitum napellus.
  Aconitum napellus.   Monk's  hood.  Aconite.
 Wolf's-bane.   Camorum.   Canicida.   Cynoctanum.
 Actonitum;—foliorum laciniis linearibus,  superne
 latioribus, linea exaratis of Linnaeus.  This plant is
 cultivated in  our gardens as an ornament, but is spon-
 taneously produced  in Germany,   and  some other
 northern parts of Europe.  Every part  is strongly poi-
 sonous, but the root  is unquestionably the most pow-
 erful ; and, when first-chewed, imparts a slight sensa-
 tion of acrimony; but afterward,  an  insensibility or
 stupor at the  apex of the tongue, and a pungent heat
 of the lips, gums, palate, and fauces  are perceived,
 followed with a general tremor and sensation of chilli-
 ness.  The juice applied to a wound seemed to affect
 the whole nervous system; even by keeping it long in
 the  hand, or on the bosom, we are told  unpleasant
 symptoms have been produced. The fatal symptoms
 brought on by this poison are, convulsions, giddiness,
 insanity, violent purgings, both upwards and down-
 wards,  faintings, cold sweats, and death  itself.  Dr.
 Stoerk appears to be the first who gave the wolf's-bane
 internally, as a medicine; and since his experiments
 were published, 1762, it lias been generally and suc-
 cessfully employed in Germany and the northern parts
 of  Europe,  particularly  as  a remedy for obstinate
 rheumatisms; and many cases are related where this
 disease was of several years' duration, and had with-
 stood the efficacy of other powerful medicines, as mer-
 cury, opium, antimony, hemlock, &c.  yet, in a short
 time, was entirely cured by the aconitum.  Instances
 are also given us of its good effects in gout, scrofulous
 swellings,  venereal  nodes,  amaurosis,  intermittent
 fevers, paralysis, ulceration, and scirrhus.  This plant
 has been generally prepared as an extract or inspis-
 sated juice, after the manner  directed in the Pharma-
 copoeia :  its efficacy is much diminished on being long
 kept.  Like all virulent medicines,  it  should first be
 administered in small doses.  Stoerk recommends two
 grains of the  extract to be rubbed into a powder, with
 two drachms of sugar, and to begin with ten grains of
 this powder, two or three times a day.  We find, how-
 ever, that the extract is oftener given  from one grain
 to ten for  a dose;  and  Stoll, Scherekbecker, and
 others, increased this quantity considerably.  Instead
 of the extract, a tincture has  been  made of the dried
 leaves macerated in six times their weight of spirits of
 wine, and forty drops given for a dose.  Some writers
 say that the napellus is not poisonous in  Sweden, Po-
 land, &c.; but  it should be noted that the  species
 which is not poisonous, is the aconitum lycoctonura of
 Linnaeus.
  Acopa.  Dioscorides's name for  the buck-bean or
 Mmyanthcs trifoliata of Linnaeus.
  A'COPON.  (From  a, priv. and kottos, weariness.)
 It signifies originally whatever is a remedy against
 weariness,  and is  used in this sense by  Hippocrates.
 Apb. viii. lib. ii.  But in time, the word  was applied
 to certain ointments.   According to Galen and Paulus
 /Egineta, the Acopa pharmaca are remedies for indis-
 positions of body which are caused by long or vehe-
 ment motion.
  Acopos.   The name of  a plant in Pliny, supposed
 to be the buck-bean or Menyanthes  trifoliata of
 Linnaeus.
  A'COR.  (Acor, oris, m.;   from aceo  to be sour.)
Acidity.  It is sometimes used to express  that sour-
ness in the stomach contracted by indigestion, and
from whence flatulencies and acid belching arise.
  Acor'dina.  Indian tutty.
  ACO'RIA.  (From a, priv. and nopcto, to satiate.)
Insatiability.  In Hippocrates, it means good appetite
and digestion.
  ACORN.  See Quercus robur.
  A'CORUS.  (Acorus, i. m.; axopov, from Kopij, the
pupil;  because it was esteemed good for the disorders
of the eyes.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linmean system. Class, Hexandria.  Order, Digynia.
  Acorus  calamus.  The systematic  name  of the
plant which is  also called Calamus aromaticus; Aco-
rus  verus ;  Calamus  odoratus;  Calamus  vulgaris ;
Diringa; Jacerantatinga ; Typha aromatica; Clava
rugosa.  Sweet-flag, or acorus.  Acorus ;  Scapi mu-
crone longissimo foliaceo of Linnaeus.   The root  has
been long employed medicinally.  It has a moderately
strong  aromatic  smell;  a warm, pungent, bitterish
taste;  and  is deemed useful as a warm  stomacliic.
Powdered, and mixed with some absorbent, it forms a
useful and pleasant dentifrice.
  Acorus palustris.  See Iris palustris.
  Acorus verus.  See Acorus calamus.
  Acorus vulgaris.  See Iris palustris.
  A'COS.  (A/coj, from axcopai, to heal.)  A remedy
or cure.
  ACO'SMIA.   (From a, neg. and icoauos, beautiful.)
Baldness; ill-health: irregularity, particularly of the
critical days of fevers.
  Aco'ste.  (Frcjn aK0$n, barley.)  An ancient food
made of barley.
  ACOTYLE'DON.  (Acotyledon, onis, n. from a,
priv. and koti/AjjiW.  Without a cotyledon ; applied
in botany to a seed or plant which is  not  furnished
with a cotyledon; Semen acotyledon.)  All the mosses
are planta acotyledoncs.
  ACOU'STIC.   (Acousticus: from a/covio, to hear.)
1. Belonging to the ear or to sound.
  2.  That which is employed with a view to restore
the sense of hearing, when wanting or diminished.
No remedies of this kind, given internally, are known
to produce any uniform effect
  Acoustic  nerve.  See Portio mollis.
  Acoustic duct.  See Meatus  auditorius.
  AcRjE'palos.  See Acraipala.
  Acrai'pala.  (AicpaiTaAoj.  From a, neg. and ncpai-
KaXy, surfeit)  Remedies for the effects of a debauch
  Acra'sia.   (From o,  and  Ktpaw, to mix.)  Un-
healthiuess; intemperance.
  Acrati'a.  (From o, and Kpaios, strength.) Weak-
ness or intemperance.
  Acrati'sma.  (From a/cparov, unmixed wine.  The
derivation of this  word is the same as Acrasia, be-
cause the wine used on the occasion was  not  mixed
with water.)  A breakfast among  the old Greeks,
consisting of a morsel of bread,  soaked in pure  un-
mixed wine.
  Acrato'meli.   (From  aicparov, pure wine; and
utKi, honey.)   Wine mixed with  honey.
  A'CRE.  (From axpoi,  extreme.)   The  extremity
of the nose or any other part.               *
  A'CREA. (From aicpoc, extreme.)  Acroteria.  The
extremities; the legs, arms, nose,  and ears.
  Acribei'a.  (From aKpi6rjs,  accurate.)   An  exact
and accurate description and diagnosis, or distinction,
of diseases.
  ACRID.  Acris.  A term employed in medicine to
express a taste, the characteristic of which is pungency
joined with heat.
  ACRIMONY.   (Acrimonia, from acris, acrid.)  A
quality in substances by which they irritate, corrode,
or dissolve others.  It has been supposed until very
lately, there were acid and alkaline acrimonies in the
blood, which produced certain diseases ;  and although
the humoral pathology is nearly and improperly ex-
ploded, the term venereal acrimony, and some others,
are still and must be retained.
  A'CRIS.   1. Acrid.  See ./Jena*.
  2.  Any fractured extremity.
  Acri'sia.  (From a, priv. and icpivw, to judge or
separate.)  A turbulent state of a disease, which will
scarcely suffer any judgment to be formed thereof.
  A'critus.  (From a, neg. and icpivo), to judge.) A
disease without a regular crisis, the event of which it
is hazardous to judge.
  ACROBY'STIA.   (From aicpoc, extreme, and /?«<■>,
to cover.)  The prepuce which covers the  extremity
of the penis.
  ACROCHEIRE'SIS.    (From  aicpoc, extreme, and
Ytip, a hand.)  An exercise among the ancients. Pro-
bably a species of wrestling, where they only held by
the hands.
                                        S3 
ACT
ACT
   ACROCHEI'RIS.  (From expos, extreme, and x«p.
 a hand.)  Gorraeus says, it sigmfies the arm from  the
 elbow to the ends of the  fingers; x"p signifying  the
 arm, from the scapula to the fingers' end.
   ACROCHO'RDON.  (From aKpos, extreme, and
 \opit), a string.)  Galen describes  it as a  round  ex-
 crescence on the skin, with a slender  base ; and that
 it hath its name because of its situation on the surface
 of the skin.  The Greeks  call that  excrescence an
 achrochordon, where  something hard concretes under
 the skin, which is rather rough, of the same colour as
 the skin,  slender  at the base and broader  above.
 Their size rarely exceeds that of a bean.
   ACROCO'LIA.  (From aicpos, extreme, and  ku>\ov,
 a limb.)  These are the extremities of animals which
 are used in food, as the feet of calves, swine, sheep,
 oxen, or lambs, and of the broths of which jellies are
 frequently made.  Castellus from Budaeus  adds, that
 the internal parts  of animals are  also called by this
 name.
  Achrole'nion.   Castellus  says  it is the same as
 Olecranon.
  ACROMA'NIA.  (From axpog, extreme, and pavia,
 madness.)   Total or incurable madness.
  ACRO'MION.  (From axpov, extremity, and  ouioy,
 the shoulder.)  A process of the scapula or  shoulder-
 blade.  See Scapula.
  ACROMPHA'LIUM.   (AxpouqiaXov;  from  aicpos,
 extreme, and oudtaXos, the navel.) Acromphalon. The
 tip of the navel.
  ACKO'MPHALON.  See Acromphalium.
  Acro'nia.  (From axpov, the extremity.)  The am-
 putation of an extremity, as a finger.
  ACHO'PATHOS.   (From aicpos, extreme, and tsa-
 6os, a disease.)  Acropathus.  It  signifies literally a
 disease at the top or superior part.   Hippocrates in his
 treatise De Superfoetatione, applies  it to the internal
 orifice of the uterus; and in Praidict. lib. ii. to cancers
 which appear on the surface of the body.
  ACROPATHUS.   See Acropathos.
  A'CROPIS.   (From axoov, the extremity, and o>/>,
 the voice.)   Imperfect articulation, from a fault in the
 tongue.
  ACROPOSTHIA.   (From  axpos,  extreme, and
 tsoaOn, the  prepuce.)  The extremity of the prepuce ;
 or that part which is cut off in circumcision.
  ACRO'PSILON.  (From aicpos, extreme, and u^Aos
 naked )  The extremity  of the denuded glans penis.
  ACRO'SPELOS.   (From aicpos, extreme, and rrcXos
 black, so called because its ears,  or tops, are often of a
 blackish colour.)  Acrospclus. The bromus discordis,
 or wild oat grass.
  ACRO'SPELUS.   See Acrospelos.
  ACROTE'RIA.  (From aicpos, extreme.)  The ex-
 treme parts of the body ;  as the hands, feet, nose, ears
 chin, (kc.
  ACROTERIA'SMUS.   (From   aKpos, summus.)
 The amputation of an extremity.
  Acrothv'mia.  See Acrothymion.
  ACROTHYMION.   (From  aKpos, extreme, and
 dvuos, thyme.)   Acrothymia.  Acrothymium.  A sort
 of wart, described by  Celsus, as hard, rough, with a
 narrow basis, and broad top; the top of the  colour of
 thyme; it easily splits and bleeds.
  Acrothymium.  See Acrothymion.
  ACROTICUS.   (From  a«pof, summus;  whence
 aKp6rrjs, nros; summitas ; cacumen.)   A disease affect
 ing  the external surface.
  Acrotica.  7'he name of an  order  in Good's No-
sology.
  ACROTISMUS.   Acrotismus; (From a. priv. and
 Kporos, pulsus, defect of pulse.)   Acrotism or pulse-
 lessness.  A term synonymous with  asphyxia, and ap-
 plied to a species of entasia in Good's Nosology.
  ACTJE'A.  (From ayia, to break.)  Acte.  The el-
 der-tree, so called from its being easily broken.  See
 Sambucus nigra.
  A'CTINE. The herb  Bunias, or  Nanus
  ACTINOBOLISMUS.  (From okZ, a  ray, and
 PoA>w, to cast out.)  Diradiatio.  Irradiation.   It  is
 applied to the spurts, conveying the inclinations of the
 mind to the body.
  ACTINOLITE.  The  name of a  mineral which  is
round in primitive districts.
  ["This mineral possesses all the essential characters
of hornblende.  In fact, common hornblende and ac-
(ynohte, separated  only  by slight differences, when
viewed in the extremes, do in other cases insensibly
pass into each /other.  The actynolite has usually a
greater transparency,  a more lively green  colour,
arising from the chrome which it contains, and differs
also in the result of fusion by the blow-pipe.
  " The actynolite occurs in prismatic crystals which
are  commonly  long  and  incomplete,  sometimes
extremely minute and  even fibrous, and  variously
aggregated into masses more or less large.  Its pre-
vailing  colour  is  green, sometimes   pure  emerald
green, but varying from a dark or leek  green to a pale
green, which is sometimes shaded with gray, yellow,
or brown. Its colours are  liable to change in  conse-
quence of decomposition. It scratches grass, but its
prisms are often very brittle in a transverse direction.
Its cross fracture  is often  a little chonchoidal, and
more shining than  that of common hornblende.  Its
specific gravity is, about 3.30.
  " It melts by the blow-pipe into a gray or yellowish-
gray enamel.  It contains, according to Langier, of
    Silex................................ 50.00
    Magnesia............................ 19.25
    Lime................................  9.75
    Alumine............................  0.75
    Oxideofiron  ........................ 11.00
    Oxide of chrome ....................  5.00
95.75
 Its green colour is derived from the chrome,  but is
 often modified by the large quantity of iron which is
 present.  It presents the  following varieties, which
 pass into each other:  1. common actynolite -  2. glassy;
 3. acicular; 4. fibrous.
   " Actynolite is found in primi?!ve rocks, or in veins
 which traverse them ; it is sometimes in metallic beds.
 It is perhaps most common in minerals which contain
 magnesia.   Its  more  distinct crystals occur in talc,
 quartz, and limestone.
   " It is found  in various parts of the United States.
 In Maryland,  near Baltimore, all its varieties  occur
 in granite or gneiss.  In  Pennsylvania, at Concord in
 Chester  county, in large masses of an  emerald-green
 colour.   In Connecticut, near New-Haven, in serpen-
 tine ; its structure  generally radiated.  In Maine, at
 Brunswick, all its varieties occur, sometimes in granite
 and gneiss,  but more  frequently  in limestone."__
 Cleaveland's Mineralogy.  A.]
  ACTION. (Actio,  nis.  f.;  from  ago,  to act.)  1.
 The operation or exertion of an active power.
  2. Any faculty, power, or function.  The actions or
 functions of the body are usually divided  by physiolo-
 gists  into vital,  natural,  or  animal.   1. The  vital
 functions, or actions, are those which are absolutely
 necessary to life, and  without which animals cannot
 exist; as the action  of the heart, lungs, and arteries.
 2. The natural  functions are  those which  are instru-
 mental in repairing the several losses which the body
 sustains: digestion, and  the formation  of chyle, &c.
 fall under this head.  3. The animal actions are  those
 which we perform at will, as muscular motion, and all
 the voluntary motions of the body.
  Independently of these properties, each  part may be
 said to have an action peculiar to itself—for instance
 the liver, by virtue of a power which is peculiar to it'
 forms continually a liquid which is called bile ■  the
 same thing takes place in the kidneys with regard to the
 urine.   The voluntary muscles, in certain states  be-
 come hard, change  their form, and  contract. These
 are, however, referrible  to vitality.  It is upon  these
 the attention of the physiologist ought to  be particu-
 larly fixed.   Vital action depends evidently upon nu-
 trition,  and  reciprocally,  nutrition  is influenced  by
 vital action.—Thus, an organ that ceases  to  nourish
 loses at  the same time its faculty of acting; conse-
 quently the organs, the action of which is oftenest  re-
 peated, possess  a more active nutrition;  and, on the
 contrary, those that act least possess a much slower
 nutritive motion.
  The mechanism of vital action is unknown.  There
 passes into the organ that acts an insensible molecular
 motion, which is as little susceptible of description as
 the nutritive motion.    Every vital action, however
 simple, is the same in this respect.

 a,£a ZY.AL' This word is aPP|ied  to any thing en-
dued with a property or virtue which  acta  by an im-
mediate power  inherent in it:  it is the reverse  of
potential: thus, a red-hot iron or fire is called an actual 
ACU
ADA
 eautery, in contradistinction from caustics, which are
 called potential  cauteries.  Boiling water is actually
 hot; brandy, producing heat in the body, is potentially
 hot, though of itself cold
   Actual  cautery.  The  red-hot iron, or any red-hot
 substance.  See Actual.
   ACTU A' RH/S.  This word was originally a title of
 dignity given to physicians at the court of Constanti-
 nople ;  but became afterward the proper name of a
 celebrated Greek physician, John, (the son of Zachary,
 a Christian writer,) who flourished there  about the
 12th or 13th century.  He is said to be the first Greek
 author  who has  treated of mild cathartics, as manna,
 cassia, &c, though they were long before in use among
 the Arabians. He appears also to have first  noticed
 distilled waters.   His works,  however, are  chiefly
 compiled from his predecessors.
   ACTUATION.   (From ago, to act)   That change
 wrought on a medicine, or any thing taken into the
 body, by the vital heat, which is necessary, in elder to
 make it act and have its effect.
   ACUTTAS.  Acrimony.
   Acui'tio.  (From acuo, to sharpen.)  The sharpen-
 ing  an acid medicine by an addition of something
 more acid; or, in general, the increasing the force of
 any medicine, by an addition of something  that hath
 the same sort of operation in a greater degree.
   ACULEA'TUS.  (From aculeus, a prickle.) Prickly;
 covered with sharp-pointed bodies:  applied to stems
 covered with sharp-pointed bodies, the prickles of which
 separate with the epidermis, as in Rosa ccntifolia.
   ACU'LEUS.  (From acus, a needle;  from  c\kt], or
 uKif, cuspis, a point.)   A prickle or  sharp point.  A
 species  of armature with which the  stems, branches,
 and other parts of several plants are furnished; as in
 the rose, raspberry, gooseberry.  The part on which it
 grows is said to be aculeated, thus:—
   Caulis aculeatds ; as in the Rosa canina.
   Folia aculeata; as in Solanum marginatum.
   Calix aculeatus ;  as in Solanum aculeatum.
   Stipula aculeata ; as in Rosa cinnamomia.
   Legumen aculeatum ; as in Scorpiurus muricata.
   From the direction it has:—
   Aculeus  rectus, not curved;  as in Rhamnus spina
 chrisli, and Rosa eglanteria.
   Aculeus incurvus, curved inward ; as in Mimosa
 cineraria.
   Aculeus recurvus, curved downward;  as  in Rubus
 fruticosus, and Rosa rubiginosa.
   From the number in one place:—
   Aculeus solitarius ; as in Rosa canina.
   Aculeus bifidus, or geminatus, in pairs ; there being
 two joined at the basis; as in Rhamnus spina christi.
   Aculeus trifidus,  three in one; as in Barbaris vul-
 garis.
   A'culon.  (From a, neg. and kvXoio, to roll round ;)
 so called because its fruit is not involved in a cup, or
 sheath, like others.
   Aculos.  The fruit or acorn of the ilex.
   A'culos.   See Aculon.
   ACUMEN.  1. A point.
   2. The extremity  of a bone.
   ACUMINATUS.  (From  acuo, to  point.)  Acumi-
 nate; or terminated by a point somewhat elongated.
 Applied by botanists to several parts of plants.  An
 acuminate leaf is seen in the Syringa vulgaris.  Acu-
 minate leaf-stalk; as that of Saxifraga stcllaris.
   ACUPUNCTU'RA.   (From acus, a needle,  and
 punctura, a prick.)  Acupuncture.  A bleeding per-
 formed by making many small punctures.
   [The operation of making small punctures in certain
 parts of the body with a needle,  for the purpose of
 relieving diseases, is practised in Siam, Japan,  and
 other oriental countries, for the cure of headaches,
 lethargies,  convulsions, colics, &.c.   The practice of
 acupuncture  is not followed in England nor America.
 In a modern French work it has  been  highly com-
 mended ; but, the author sets so rash  an example, and
 is so wild in his expectations of what may be done
 by the thrust of a needle, that the tenor of his observa-
 tionswill not meet with many approvers.  For instance,
 in one case, he ventured to pierce the epigastric region
so deeply,  that the coats of the stomach were supposed
to have been perforated :  this was done for the cure
of an obstinate cough  and is  alleged  to have effected
a cure.  But  if this be not enough to excite wonder,
I am sure the author's suggestion to run a long needle
 into the right ventricle of the heart, in cases of
 asphyxia, must create  that sensation.—See Cooper's
 Surg. Diet.  A.J
   A curon.  (From a, neg. and icvpia, to happen.)  A
 name of the Alisma, because it produces no effect if
 taken  internally.
   ACUSPASTO'RIS.   A  name of the Scandix an-
 thrisens, the shepherd's needle, or Venus'scomb.
   ACUTANGULARIS.  Aculangulatus.  Acutan-
 gular: applied to parts of plants,  as caulis acutan-
 gularis.
   ACUTE\   Sharply.  Applied in natural history to
 express form; as folium acut  dentatum;  acuti emar-
 ginatus, which means sharply dentate, and with sharp
 divisions.
   ACUTENA'CULUM. (From acus, a needle, and
 tenaculum, a handle.)   The handle for a needle, to
 make  it  penetrate easy when  stitching  a wound.
 Heister calU the portaiguille by this name.
   ACUTUS.  Sharp.  1. Used by naturalists to de-
 signate form;  thus acute-leaved; as in rumex acutus
 &c.
   2. In pathology,  it is applied to a  sharp pungent
 pain;  and to a disease which is attended with violent
 symptoms, terminates in a few days, and is attended
 with danger.   It is  opposed to  a chronic disease,
 which is slow in its progress, and not so generally
 dangerous.
   ACY'ISIS.   (From a, neg. and kvo),  to  conceive.)
|A defect of conception, or barrenness in  women.
   A'cyrus.  (From a, priv. and icvpos, authority; so
 named from its little note in medicine.)  The German
 leopard's-bane.  See Arnica montana.
   ADvEMO'NIA.  (From a, priv.  and Saiuav, a ge-
 nius of fortune.)  See Ademonia.
   Adam's Apple.  See Pomum Adami.
   Adam's needle.  The roots of this plant, Yucca
 gloriosa of Linnaeus, are thick and tuberous, and are
 used by the  Indians instead of bread; being first re-
 duced into a coarse meal.  This, however, is only in
 times of scarcity.
   ADAMANTINE SPAR.  A stone remarkable for
 its extreme hardness, which comes from the peninsula
 of Hither India, and al'so from China.
   [Its  colour  is  dark  brown,  and  its internal lustre
 usually very strong.  It comes from China, and almost
 always contains grains of magnetic oxide of iron.  A
 specimen was found by chemists to contain,
    Alumine  ............................  86.50
    Silex................................  5.25
    Oxide of iron  .......................  6.50

                                         98.25
 The corundum appears to belong to primitive rocks,
 and particularly to  granite, into the composition of
 which it sometimes enters ;  hence scales of mica  and
 particles of feldspar sometimes adhere to its surface.
   In the United States, it is by some supposed to exist
 in Maryland, near Baltimore;  and  in Connecticut, at
 Haddam, in the same granite, which contains chryso-
 beryl, &c.  It may be employed, like emery, in polish-
 ing hard substances.—Cleav. Min.   A.]
   A'DAMAS.  (From a neg. andSauaoi, to conquer;
 as not being easily broken.)  The adamant or diamond,
 the most  precious of all stones, and which was for-
 merly supposed to possess extraordinary cordial virtues.
  Adami'ta, or  Adamitum.   A hard  stone in  the
 bladder.
  [ADAMS, DR. SAMUEL, was  the  only son  of
 Samuel Adams, late governor of Massachusetts.  He
 was born at  Boston, in October,  1751.  His  prepa-
 ratory education was at a Latin school  in  his native
 town.  He entered  Harvard University at the age of
 fourteen years, and was graduated in 1770.  His pro-
 fessional education  was acquired under the direction
 of Dr. Joseph Warren, and he practised in Boston.
 When hostilities commenced with  Great Britain, in
 1775, Dr. Adams,  imbued with the  patriotic spirit of
 his father, engaged  as surgeon in the hospital depart-
 ment of the  United States' army.  Commencing fiis
 public  services at Cambridge, by attending the soldiers
 who were wounded at Lexington and  Bunker's Hill,
 he afterward removed to Danbury, and successively
 to various stations in several of the states, and conti-
 nued  in  the  service during the revolutionary war;
 after which he returned to his native town with a
 broken constitution, and unable to recommence his
                                         25 
ADD
ADE
 professional pursuits: he died on the 17th of January,
 1788.  He possessed a substantial mind, social feelings,
 and a generous heart; and his greatest  pleasure was
 to do good to his fellow-men.—Thacher's Med. Bio-
 graphy.  A.]
   ADANSO NIA.   (From  Adanson who first  de-
 scribed the ./Ethiopian sour  gourd, a species of this
 genus.)  The name of a genus  of plants.  Class, Po-
 lyandria; Order, Monadelphia.  Monkeys' bread.
   Adansonia dioitata.  This is the only species of
 the genus  yet discovered.   It is called the ./Ethiopian
 sour gourd and monkeys'bread. Baobab.  Bahobab.
 It grows mostly on the west coast of Africa, from the
 Niger to the kingdom of Benin. The bark is called
 lalo: the negroes dry it in the shade; then powder
 and keep it in little cotton bags; and put two or three
 pinches into their food.  It is mucilaginous, and gene-
 rally promotes  perspiration.  The mucilage obtained
 from this bark is a  powerful  remedy againsfcthe epi-
 demic fevers of the country that produces these trees ;
 so is a decoction of the dried leaves.  The fresh fruit
 is as useful as the leaves, for the same purposes.
   Ada'rces.  (From a, neg. and  Scpxio, to see.)  A
 saltish concretion found about the reeds and grass in
 marshy grounds in Galatia, and so called because it
 hides them.  It is used to clear the skin with, in lepro-
 sies, tetters, tec. Dr. Plott gives an  account of this
 production in his Natural  History of Oxfordshire. It
 was formerly in repute for cleansing the skin from
 freckles.
   Adarticulation.  See Arthrodia.
   ADDEPHA'GIA.  (From  a<V>  abundantly, and
 6ayti>, to eat)   Insatiability.  A voracious appetite.
 See Bulimia.
   ADDER.  See Coluber berus.
   ADDITAME'NTUM.  (From addo, to add.)  An
 addition  to any part, which,  though not always, is
 sometimes  found.   A  term  formerly employed as
 synonymous with epiphysis, but now only applied to
 two portions of sutures of the  skull.  See Lambdoidal
 and Squamous  Sutures.
  Additamentum coli.  See Appendicula caci ver-
 Wliformis.
  ADDUCENS. (From ad, and duco, to draw.) The
 name of some  parts which draw  those  together to
 which they are connected.
  Adducens oculi.  See Rectus internus oculi.
  ADDUCTOR.   (From ad, and duco, to draw.)  A
 drawer or contractor.  A name given to several mus-
 cles, the office of which is  to bring forwards or draw
 together  those parts of  the body to  which they are
 annexed.
  Adductor brevij femoris.  A muscle of the
 thigh, which, with the adductor longus and magnus
femoris, forms the triceps adductor femoris.  Adduc-
 tor femoris secundus of Douglas; Triceps secundus
 of Winslow. It is situated on the posterior part of the
 thigh, arising tendinous  from the os pubis, near its
joining with the opposite os pubis below, and behind
 the adductor longus femoris, and is inserted tendinous
 and fleshy, into the inner and  upper part of the linea
 aspera, from a little below the trochanter minor, to
 the beginning of the insertion  of the adductor longus
 femoris.  See Triceps adductor femoris.
  Aiductor femoris primus.  See Adductor longus
femoris.
  Adductor femoris   secundus.   See  Adductor
 brevis femoris.
  Adductor femoris tertius.  See Adductor mag-
 nus femoris.
  Adductor femoris quartus. See Adductor mag-
 nusfemoris.
  Adductor indicis pedis.   An external interrosse-
 ous muscle of the fore-toe, which arises tendinous and
 fleshy by two origins, from the  root of the inside of
 the metatarsal bone of the fore-toe, from  the outside
 of the root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe, and
 from the  os cuneiform internum. It is inserted, ten-
 dinous, into the inside of the  root of the first joint of
 ihe fore-toe.  lis use is  to pull  the fore-toe inwards
 from the rest of the small toes.
  Adductor longi s fkmokij).  A muscle situated
 on  the posterior part of the  thigh,  which,  wih  the
 adductor brevis, and magnus femoris, forms the tri-
 ceps adductor femoris  Adductor femoiis primus of
 Douglas.  Triceps minus of Winslow.  It arises by a
 pretty strong roundish tendon, from the upper and
      26
 interior part of the os pubis, and ligament of its syn
 chondrosis, on the inner side of the pecUneus, and is
 inserted along the middle part of the linea  aspera
 See Triceps adductor femoris.
   Adductor magnus femoris.  A  muscle  which,
 with the adductor brevis femoris, and the adductor
 longus femoris, forms the Triceps adductor femoris ;
 Adductor femoris tertius et quartus of Douglas.  Tri-
 ceps magnus of Winslow.  It  arises from the symphy-
 sis  pubis, and all  along the  flat edge of the  thyroid
 foramen, from whence it goes to be inserted into the
 linea aspera throughout its whole length.  See Tri-
 ceps adductor femoris.
   Adductor  minimi dioiti pedis.  An internal inter-
 rosseous muscle of the foot.  It arises, tendinous and
 fleshy, from the inside of the root of the metatarsal
 bone of the little toe.  It is inserted, tendinous, into
 the inside of the root of the first joint of the little toe.
 Its use is to pull the little toe inwards.
   Adductor  oculi.  See Rectus internus oculi.
   Adductor pollicis.   See Adductor pollicis manus.
   Adductor  pollicis manus.  A  muscle  of  the
 thumb, situated  on the hand.  Adductor  pollicis;
 Adductor ad minimum digitum.  It arises, fleshy, from
 almost the whole length of the metacarpal bone that
 sustains the middle finger; from thence its fibres are
 collected together.  It is  inserted, tendinous, into the
 inner part of the root of the first bone of the thumb.
 Its use is to pull the thumb towards the fingers.
   Adductor  pollicis pedis.  A muscle of the great
 toe,  situated on the foot.  Antitlienar of Winslow.  It
 arises, by a long, thin tendon, from the os calcis, from
 the os cuhoides, from the os cuneiforme externum, and
 from the root of the metatarsal bone of the second toe.
 It is inserted  into the external os sesamoideum, and
 root of the metatarsal bone of the great toe.  Its use is
 to bring this toe nearer to the rest.
   Adductor  prostata.  A name given by Sanc-
 torini to a muscle, which he also calls Levator pros-
 tata, and which Winslow calls Prostaticus superior.
 Albinus, from its office, had  very properly called it
 Compressor prostata.
   Adductor  tertii  dioiti  pedis.  An  external
 interosseous muscle of the foot, that arises, tendinous
 and  fleshy, from the rpots of the metatarsal  bones of
 the third and little toe.  It is inserted, tendinous, into
 the outside of the root of the first  joiut of the third toe
 Its use is to pull the third toe outward.
  ADE'LPHIA. ('A.SeXd>ta, a relation.)  Hippocrates
 calls diseases by this name that resemble each  other.
  ADEMO'NIA.  (From a, priv. and 5aiu<i>v, a genius,
 or divinity,  or  fortune.)   Adamonia.  Hippocrates
 uses this word for uneasiness,  restlessness, or anxiety
 felt in acute diseases, and some hysteric fits.
  A'DEN.  (Aden, enis, m.; a&nv, a gland.)
  1.  A gland.  See Gland.
  2.  A bubo.   See Bubo.
  Adende'ntes.   An epithet applied to ulcers which
 eat and destroy the glands.
  ADE N1FORMIS. (From aden, a gland, and forma,
 resemblance.)   Adeniform.  1. Glandiform, or resem-
 bling a gland.
  2.  A term sometimes applied to the prostate eland
  ADENO'GRAPH Y.  (Adenographia ; from a&nv a
 gland,  and ypa^ut, to  write.)  A  treatise  on  the
 glands.
  ADENOl'DES.  (From aSnv,  a  gland,  and  eiSos
 resemblance.)   Glandiform : resembling a gland.  An
 epithet applied also to  the prostate gland
  ADENO'LOGY.  (Adenologia; from aSnv, a gland,
 and Aovoj, a treatise.)  The doctrine of the glands.
 „,ADENOUS-  (Adenosus, from  aim,  a gland.)
 Gland-like.                                °     '
  ADEPHA'GIA.   (From   aSnv,  abundantly, and
 4>ayw, to eat.)  Insatiable appetite.  See Bulimia.
  A DEPS.  (Adeps, ipis, ni. aud f.)  Fat.  An oily
 secretion from  the blood into the cells of the cellular
 membrane. See Fat.
  Adeps anserinus.  Goose-grease.
  Adeps pr/eparata.   Prepared lard.  Cut the lard
into small pieces, melt it over a slow fire, and Dress it
through a linen cloth.
  Adeps suilla.  Hog's  lard.  This forms the basis
of  many ointments, and is used extensively for culi-
nary purposes.                          '      uu
  ADEPT. (From Adipiscor, to obtain.) 1. A skilful
alchyrmat.  Such are  called so  as pretend to soma 
AD1
ADI
 extraordinar"tkiU in chemistry; but these have too
 often proved'euner enthusiasts or impostors.
   2. The professors  of the Adepta Philosophia, that
 philosophy  the  end of which is the transmutation
 of metals, and  a universal remedy, were also called
 Adepts.
   3. So Paracelsus calls that which treats of the dis-
 eases that are contracti d by celestial operations, or
 communicated from heaven.
   ADFLA'TUS.  A  blast; a kind of erysipelas, or
 Bt Anthony's fire.
   ADH^ESION.  (Adhesio;  from adharo, to stick
 to )  The growing together of parts.
   ADHjESIVE. (Adhasivus; from  adharo, to stick
 to.)  Having the property of sticking.
   Adh.esive inflammation.  That species of inflam
 mation which  terminates by an adhesion  of  the
 inflamed surfaces.
   Adh.csive plaster. A plaster made of common
 litharge plaster and resin, is so called because it is  used
 for its adhesive properties.  See Emplastrum resina.
   Adhato'da.  (A Zeylanic term, signifying expel-
 ling a dead foetus.)  See Justicia adhatoda.
   Adiachy'tos. (From a, neg. and (Siaxuw, to diffuse,
 scatter, or be profuse.) Decent in point of dress.  Hip-
 pocrates thinks the dress of a  fop derogatory from the
 physician, though thereby he hide his  ignorance, and
 obtain the good opinion of his patients.
   ADIA'NTHUM.  (Adiantum, i. n.  a6iav]ov ; from
 a, neg. and Staivio, to grow wet: so called, because its
 leaves are not easily made wet.)  The name of a genus
 of plants in the Linnaean system  Class, Cryptoga-
 tnia; Order, Filice.i.  Maiden-hair.
   Adiantrum  aureum   The golden maiden-hair.
 See Polytrichum.
   Adianthum  capillus   veneris.    Maiden-hair.
 The leaves of this plant are somewhat sweet and aus-
 tere to the palate, and possess mucilaginous qualities.
 A syrup, the syrop de capillaire is prepared from them,
 which  is much esteemed  in  France against catarrhs.
 Orange-flower water, and a proportion of honey, it is
 said, are usually added.  It acts chiefly as a demulcent,
 sheathing the inflamed sides of the glottis.
   Adianthum pedatum. Adianthum canadense. This
 plant is in  common use in France for the same pur-
 poses as the common adianthum capillus veneris in
 this country, and appears to be far superior to it.
   ADIAPHOROUS.   Adiaphorus.   A term  which
 implies the same with neutral; and  is particularly
 used of some spirits and salts, which are neither of an
 acid nor alcaline nature.
   ADIAPNEU'STIA.  (From the privative particle
 a, and iianvco), perspiro.)   A  diminution or obstruc-
 tion of  natural  perspiration,  and that in which the
 ancients chiefly placed the cause of fevers.
   ADIARRHOE'A.  (From a, priv. and Sta^eio, to
 flow out or through.)  A suppression of the necessary
 evacuations from the bowels.
  ADIPOCI'RE.  (Adipocera, a. f. ; from adeps, fat,
 and cera, wax.)  A particular spermaceti or  fat-like
 substance formed  by the  spontaneous conversion  of
 animal  matter, under certain  conditions.  This  con-
 version has  long been well known, and is said to have
 been  mentioned in the works  of Lord Bacon.  " On
 the occasion of the removal of a very great number of
 human  bodies  from  the  ancient  burying-place des
 Innocens at Paris, facts of this nature were observed in
 the most striking manner.  Fourcroy may be called
 the scientific discoverer of this peculiar matter, as well
 as the saponaceous ammoniacal substance contained in
 bodies abandoned to spontaneous destruction in large
 masses.  This chemist read a memoir on the subject
 in the year 1789 to the  Royal Academy of  Sciences,
 from which  the general contents are here abstracted.
   "At  the time of  clearing the before-mentioned
 burying-place,  certain  philosophers  were  specially
 charged to direct the precautions requisite for securing
 the health of the workmen.  A new and singular ob-
ject of research presented itself, which had been neces-
 sarily unknown to preceding chemists.   It was impos-
 sible to  foretell what might be the contents of a soil
 overloaded for successive ages with bodies resigned to
 the putrefactive process.  This spot differed from com-
 mon burying-grounds, where each individual object is
 surrounded by a portion of the soil.  It was the bury-
 Ing-ground of a large district, wherein successive gene-
 rations of the inhabitants had been deposited for up-
 wards of three centuries.  It could not be foreseen
 that the entire decomposition might be retarded for
 more than forty years; neither was there any reason
 to suspect that  any remarkable difference would arise
 from the singularity of situation.
   " The remains of the human bodies immersed in this
 mass of putrescence, were found  in  three  different
 states, according to the time they had been buried, the
 place they occupied, and their relative situations with
 regard to each other-.  The most  ancient were simply
 portions of bones, irregularly dispersed in  the soil,
 which had been frequently disturbed.  A second state,
 in certain bodies which had  always been insulated,
 exhibited the skin, the muscles, the tendons, and apo-
 neurosis, dry, brittle, hard,  more  or  less gray, and
 similar to what are called mummies in certain caverns
 where this change has been observed, as in the cata-
 combs at  Rome, and the vault  of the Cordeliers at
 Toulouse.
   "The third and most singular state of these soft
 parts was observed in the bodies which filled the com-
 mon graves or repositories.   By this appellation are
 understood cavities of thirty feet in depth, and twenty
 on each side, which were dug in the burying-ground of
 the Innocents,  and were appropriated to contain the
 bodies of the poor; which were placed in very close
 rows, each in its proper wooden bier.  The  necessity
 for disposing a great number, obliged the men charged
 with this employment to arrange them so near each
 other that these cavities might be  considered  when
 filled, as an entire mass of  human bodies separated
 only by two planks of about half an inch thick.  Each
 cavity contained  between one thousand and fifteen
 hundred.  When one common grave of this magnitude
 was filled a covering of about one foot deep of earth
 was laid upon it, and another excavation of the same
 sort was made at some distance. Each grave  remained
 open about three years, which was  the time required
 to fill it.  According to the urgency of circumstances,
 the graves were again made on the same spot after an
 interval of time, not less than fifteen years, nor more
 than thirty.   Experience  had taught the workmen,
 that this time was not sufficient for the entire destruc-
 tion of the bodies, and had shown them the progress-
 ive changes which form the object of Fourcroy's me-
 moir.
  " The first of these large graves, opened in the pre-
 sence of this chemist, had been closed for fifteen  years.
 The coffins were in good preservation, but a little set-
 tled, and the wood had a yellow tinge.  When the
 covers of several were taken  off, the bodies were ob-
 served at the bottom, leaving  a considerable distance
 between their  surface and the cover, and flattened as
 if they had suffered a strong compression. The linen
 which had covered them was slightly adherent  to the
 bodies; and with the form of the different regions ex-
 hibited on  removing the linen, nothing but irregular
 masses of a soft ductile matter of  a gray-white colour.
 These masses environed the bones on all sides, which
 had  no solidity, but  broke  by any  sudden  pressure.
 The appearance of this matter, its obvious composition,
 and its softness, resembled common white cheese; and
 the resemblance was more striking from the print
 which the threads of the linen had made upon its sur-
 face.  This  white substance yielded to the touch, and
 became soft when rubbed for a time between  the
 fingers.
  " No very offensive smell was  emitted from these
 bodies.  The novelty and singularity of the spectacle,
 and the example of the grave-diggers, dispelled every
 idea  either of disgust or apprehension.  These men
 asserted that they  never found this matter, by them
 called gras  (fat) in bodies interred alone;  but that
 the accumulated bodies  of the common graves only
 were subject to this change.   On a very attentive ex-
 amination of a  number of  bodies passed to this state,
 Fourcroy remarked, that the conversion appeared in
 different stages of advancement, so that, in various
 bodies, the  fibrous texture and colour, more or less
 red, were discernible within the fatty matter; that the
 masses covering the bones were entirely of the same
nature, offering indistinctly in all the regions a gray
substance, for the  most part  soft and ductile,  some-
times dry,  always easy to be separated in porous frag-
ments, penetrated with cavities, and no longer cihl
biting any traces of membranes,  muscles,  tendons,
 vessels, or nerves.  On the first  inspection  of thee* 
ADI                                               ADI
 white masses, it might have been concluded that they
 were simply the cellular tissue, the compartments  and
 vesicles of which they very well represented.
   " By examining this substance  in  the  different re-
 gions of the body, it was found that the skin is particu-
 larly disposed to this remarkable alteration.  It was
 afterward perceived that the ligaments and  tendons
 no longer existed, or at least had lost their tenacity;
 so that the  bones were  entirely unsupported, and left
 to the action of their own weight.   Whence their rela-
 tive places were preserved in a certain degree by mere
 juxtaposition: the least effort being sufficient to sepa-
 rate them.  The grave-diggers availed themselves of
 this circumstance in the removal of the bodies.  For
 they rolled  them up from head to feet,  and by that
 means separated from each other  the extremities of
 the  hones, which bad formerly been articulated.  In
 all those  bodies which were  changed into the fatty
 matter, the  abdominal cavity had disappeared. The
 teguments and muscles of this region  being converted
 into the white matter, like the other soft parts, had
 subsided upon the vertebral column, and were so flat-
 tened as to leave no place for  the viscera; and  ac-
 cordingly there was scarcely ever any trace observed
 in the almost obliterated cavity.  This  observation
 was for a long time matter of astonishment to the in-
 vestigators.   In vain did they seek in the greater num-
 ber of bodies, the place and substance of the stomach,
 the  Intestines, the bladder,  and even the liver, the
 spleen, the kidneys, and the matrix  in females.  All
 these viscera were confounded together,  and for the
 most part no traces of them were left.   Sometimes
 only certain irregular masses were found, of the same
 nature as the white  matter, of different bulks, from
 that of a nut to two or three inches in diameter, in the
 regions of the liver or of the spleen.
   "The thorax likewise  offered an assemblage of facts
 no less singular and interesting.  The external part of
 this cavity was flattened and compressed like the rest
 of the organs;  the ribs, spontaneously  luxated  in
 their articulations  with  the  vertebrae, were  settled
 upon the dorsal column; their arched part left only a
 small space  on each side between them and the ver-
 tebrae.  The pleura, the mediastinum, the large vessels,
 the aspera arteria, and even the lungs and the heart,
 were no longer distinguishable;  but for the most part
 had entirely disappeared, and in their place nothing
 was seen but some parcels of the fatty substance.  In
 this case, the matter which was the product of decom-
 position of the viscera charged with blood  and various
humours, differs from that of the surface of the body,
and the long bones, in the red or brown  colour pos-
sessed by the former.  Sometimes the observers found
in the thorax a mass irregularly rounded,  of the same
nature as the latter, which appeared to them to have
arisen from the fat and fibrous substance of the heart
They supposed that this mass, not constantly found in
all the subjects, owed its existence to  a superabun-
dance of fat in this viscus, where it was found. For
the general observation presented itself, that, in similar
circumstances, the fat parts undergo this conversion
more evidently than the others, and afford  a larger
 quantity of the white matter.
   " The external region  in females exhibited the glan-
 dular and adipose mass of the breast converted into the
 futty matter, very white and very homogeneous.
   " The head was, as has already been remarked, en-
 vironed with the fatty matter; the face was no  longer
distinguishable in the greatest number of subjects; the
 mouth, disorganized, exhibited neither tongue nor pa-
 late ; and the jaws, luxated and more or less displaced,
 were environed  with irregular layers of the  white
 matter.  Some pieces of the same matter usually oc-
cupied the place of the parts situated in the mouth ;
the cartilages of the nose participated in  the general
 alteration of the skin; the orbits, instead of eyes, con-
 tained white masses ; the ears were equally disorgan-
ized ; and the hairy scalp, having undergone a similar
 alteration  to that of the other organs, still retained the
 bair.  Fourcroy  remarks incidentally, that the hair
 appears to resist every alteration  much longer than
 any other part of the body. The cranium constantly
 contained the brain contracted in bulk; blackish at the
 surface, and  absolutely changed  like the other organs.
 In a great number of subjects which were examined,
 this viscus was never found  wanting, and it was  al-
 ways iu  the above-mentioned  state; which proves
 that the substance of the brain is greatly disposed to
 be converted into the fat matter.
   " Such was the state of the bodies found in the bu-
 rial-ground des Innocens.  Its modifications were also
 various.  Its consistence in bodies lately changed, that
 is to say, from three to five years, was soft and very
 ductile, containing a great quantity of water.  In other
 subjects converted into this matter for a long time, such
 as those which occupied the cavities which had been
 closed thirty or forty years, this matter is drier, more
 brittle, and in denser flakes.   In  several, which were
 deposited in dry earth, various portions of the fatty
 matter had  become seraitransparent  The aspect, the
 granulated texture, and brittleness of this dried matter,
 bore a considerable resemblance to wax.
   " The period of the formation of this substance had
 likewise an influence on its properties.   In general, all
 that which had been formed for a long time was white,
 uniform, and contained no foreign substance, or fibrous
 remains; such, in particular, was that afforded by the
 skin of the extremities.  On the contrary, in bodies
 recently changed, tiie fatty matter was  neither so uni-
 form nor so pure as in  the  former; but it was still
 found  to contain  portions of muscles, tendons, and
 ligaments, the texture of which, though already altered
 and changed in its  colour, was  still distinguishable.
 Accordingly, as the  conversion was more or less  ad-
 vanced, these fibrous remains were more or less pene-
 trated  with the fatty  matter, interposed  as  it  were
 between the interstices of the fibres.  This observation
 shows,  that it  is  not  merely the fat  which  is thus
 changed, as was natural enough to think at first sight.
 Other facts  confirm  this  assertion.  The skin, as haa
 been remarked, becomes easily converted into very pure
 white matter, as  does  likewise the brain, neither of
 which has been considered by anatomists to be fat.   It
 is true,  nevertheless, that  the unctuous parts, and
 bodies charged with fat, appear more easily and speed-
 ily to pass to the state under consideration. This, was
 seen in the marrow, which occupied the cavities of the
 longer bones.  And again, it is not to be supposed but
 that the greater part of these bodies had been  ema-
 ciated by the illness which terminated their lives; not-
 withstanding which, they were all absolutely turned
 into this fatty substance.
  " An experiment made by Poulletier de la Salle, and
 Fourcroy likewi e, evinced that a conversion does not
 take place in the fat alone.  Poulletier had suspended
 in his laboratory a small piece of the human liver, to
 observe what would arise to it by the contact of the
 air.  It  partly  putrefied, without, however, emitting
 any very noisome smell.  Larvae of the dermestes and
 bruchus  attacked and penetrated  it in various direc-
 tions ; at last it became dry, and after more  than ten
 years' suspension, it was converted into a white friable
 substance resembling dried agaric, which might  have
 been taken for an earthy substance.  In this  state it
 had no perceptible smell.  Poulletier was  desirous of
 knowing the state of this animal matter, and experi-
 ment soon convinced him and Fourcroy that it was  far
 from being in the state of an earth.  It melted by heat,
 and  exhaled in the form of vapour, which had the
 smell of a very fetid fat; 6piritof wine separated a
 concrescible oil, which appeared to possess all the pro
 perties of spermaceti.  Each of the three alcalies con
 verted it into soap; and, in a word, it exhibited all the
 properties of the fatty matter of the burial-ground of
 the I.inocents exposed for several months to the air.
 Here then was a glandular organ, which in the midst
 of the atmosphere had undergone a change similar to
 that of the bodies in the burying-place; and this fact
 sufficiently shows, that an animal substance which is
 very far from being of the nature of grease, may be
 totally converted into this fatty substance.
  " Among the modifications  of this  remarkable sub-
 stance in the burying-ground before-mentioned, it was
 observed that the  dry, friable, and brittle matter, was
 most commonly found  near the surface of the earth
 and the  soft, ductile matter at a greater depth.  Four-
 croy remarks, that this dry  matter did not differ  from
 the other merely in containing less water, but likewise
 by the volatilization of one of  its principles."
  The grave-diggers assert, that near three years are
 required to convert a  body into this fatty substance
 But Dr. Gibbes of Oxford  found, that lean beef secured
in a running stream, was converted into this fattyinatter
at the end of a month.  He judges from facta, that run- 
ADI
ADI
ning water is most favourable to tliis process.  He took
three lean piecesof mutton, and poured on each a quan-
tity of the three common mineral acids.  At the end of
three days, each was much changed: that in the nitric
acid w;is very soft, and converted into  the fatty mat-
ter ;  that in the muriatic acid was not in that time  so
much altered; the sulphuric acid had turned the other
black. Lavoisier thinks that this process may hereafter
prove of great use in society.  It is not easy to point
out what animal substance, or what situation, might
be the best adapted for an undertaking of this kind.
  The result of Fourcroy's inquiries into the ordinary
changes of bodies recently deposited in  the earth, was
not very extensive.  The grave-diggers  informed him,
that those bodies interred do not perceptibly change co-
lour for the first seven or eight days; that the putrid pro-
cessdisengages elastic fluid, whichinflatesthe abdomen,
and at length bursts it;  that this event instantly causes
vertigo, faintness, and nausea in such  persons as un-
fortunately are within a certain distance of the scene
where it takes place; but that when the object of its
action is nearer,  a sudden privation of  sense, and fre-
quently death, is the  consequence.  These men are
taught by experience, that no immediate  danger is to
be feared from the disgusting business they are engaged
in, excepting at this period, which they regard with the
utmost  terror.  They resisted  every inducement and
persuasion which these philosophers made use of, to
prevail  on them to assist their researches into  the
nature of?this active and pernicious vapour. Fourcroy
takes occasion from these facts, as well  as from the
pallid  and unwholesome  appearance  of  the  grave-
diggers, to reprobate  burials in great towns  or their
vicinity.
  Such bodies as are interred  alone, in the midst of a
great quantity of humid earth, are totally destroyed
by passing through the successive degrees of the ordi-
nary putrefaction; and this destruction  is more speedy,
the warmer  the temperature.  But if these  insulated
bodies be dry and emaciated; if the place of deposition
be  likewise dry, and  the locality and other circum-
stances such, that the  earth, so far from  receiving
moisture from the  atmosphere, becomes still more ef-
fectually parched by the solar rays;—the animal juices
are volatilized and absorbed, the solids contract and
harden, and a peculiar species of mummy is produced.
But every circumstance is very different in  the com-
mon bury ing-grounds.  Heaped together almost in con-
tact,  the  influence of  external bodies affects them
scarcely at all, and they become abandoned to a pe-
culiar disorganization, which destroys their texture.
and produces the  new and most  permanent state of
combination  here described.  From various observa-
tions, it was found, that this fatty matter was capable
of enduring in these burying-places for thirty or forty
years, and is at length corroded and carried off by the
aqueous putrid humidity which there abounds.
  Among other interesting facts afforded by the chemi-
cal examination of this substance are the following
from experiments by Fourcroy.
  1. This substance is fused at a less degree of heat than
that of boiling water, and may be purified by pressure
through a cloth, which disengages a portion of fibrous
and bony matter.  2. The process of  destructive dis-
tillation by a very graduated heat was begun, but not
completed, on account of its tediousness,  and the little
promise of advantage it afforded. The products which
came over were water charged with volatile aicali, a
fat oil, concrete volatile aicali, and no elastic fluid
during  the time the  operation was  continued.   3.
Fragments of the fatty matter exposed to the air during
the hot and  dry summer of 1786 became dry, brittle,
and almost pulverulent at the surface.  On a careful
examination, certain  portions were  observed to be
Bemitransparent, and more brittle than the rest.  These
possessed all the apparent properties of wax, and did
not afford  volatile  aicali  by distillation.   4. With
water this fatty matter exhibited  all the  appearanc«s
of soap, and afforded a strong lather.  The dried sub-
stance did not form the saponaceous combination with
the same facility or perfection as that which was re-
cent.  About two-thirds of this dried matter separated
from the water  by cooling, and proved to be the semi-
transparent  substance resembling wax.  This  was
 taken from  the surface  of the soapy liquor, which
being then passed through the filter, left a white soft
shining matter, which was fusible and  combustible.
5.  Attempts were made to ascertain the quantity of
volatile aicali in this substance, by the application of
lime, and of the fixed alcalies, but without success: for
it  was difficult to collect and appreciate the first por-
tions  which escaped, and likewise to disengage  the
last portions.   The caustic volatile  aicali, with  the
assistance of a gentle.heat, dissolved the fatty matter,
and the solution became perfectly clear and transpa-
rent at the boiling temperature of the mixture, which
was at 185° F.  6. Sulphuric  acid, of the specific
gravity of 2. 0, was poured upon six times its weight
of the fatty matter, and mixed by agitation.  Heat was
produced, and a gas or effluvium of the most insup-
portable putrescence was emitted, which infected the
air of an extensive laboratory foi several days.  Four-
croy says, that the smell cannot be described, but that
it  is one of the  most horrid and repulsive that can be
imagined.  It did not,  however, produce any indispo
sition either in himself or his assistants.  By dilution
with water, and the ordinary processes of evaporation
and cooling, properly repeated, the sulphates of am-
monia and of lime were obtained.  A substance was
separated from  the liquor, which  appeared to be the
waxy matter, somewhat altered by the action of the
acid.   7. The nitrous  and muriatic acids  were also
applied, and afforded phenomena  worthy of remark,
but which for the  sake of  conciseness are here omit-
ted.   8. Alcohol does not act  on  this matter at the
ordinary temperature of the air.  But  by boiling it
dissolves one-third of its own weight, which is almost
totally separable by cooling as  low as 55°.  The alco-
hol, after this process, affords by evaporation a portion
of that waxy matter which is separable by  acids, and
is therefore the only portion soluble in cold alcohol.
The quantity of fatty matter operated on was 4 ounces,
or 2304 grains, of which the boiling spirit took up the
whole except 26 grains, which  proved to be a mixture
of 20 grains of ainmoniacal soap, and 6 or 8 grains of
the phosphates of soda and of lime.  From this expe-
riment, which was  three times repeated with  similar
results, it appears that alcohol  is well suited to afford
an analysis of  the fatty matter.  It does not dissolve
the neutral  salts; when cold, it dissolves that portion
of concrete animal oil from which the  volatile aicali
had flown  off;  and when heated, it  dissolves the
whole of the truly saponaceous matter, which is after-
ward  completely separated by cooling.  And accord-
ingly it was found, that a  thin plate of the fatty mat-
ter, which had  lost nearly the  whole  of its volatile
aicali, by  exposure to the  air for three years,  was
almost dissolved by the cold alcohol.
   The concrete oily or waxy substance obtained in
these  experiments  constitutes  the leading object of
research, as being the peculiar substance with which
the other well-known matters are combined.  It sepa-
rates spontaneously by the action of the air, as well as
by that of acids. These last separate it in a state of
greater purity, the less disposed the acid may be to ope-
rate in the way of combustion. It is requisite, there-
fore,  for this purpose, that the fatty matter should
be previously diffused in 12 times its weight of hot
water; and the muriatic or acetous acid is preferable
to the sulphuric or the nitrous.  The  colour of the
waxy matter is grayish; and though exposure to the
air, and also the action of the oxygenated muriatic acid
did produce an apparent whiteness, it nevertheless dis-
appeared by subsequent fusion.  No method wax dis-
covered by which it could be permanently bleached.
   The nature of this wax or fat is different from that
of any other known substance of the like kind. When
slowly cooled after fusion, its texture appears crystal-
line or shivery, like spermaceti; but a speedy cooling
gives  it  a semitransparency resembling wax.   Upon
the whole,  nevertheless, it seems to approach  more
 nearly to the former than to the latter of these bodies.
 It has less smell than spermaceti, and melts at 127° F.;
 Dr. Bostock says 92°.  Spermaceti requires 6° more  of
 heat  to fuse it, (according to Dr. Bostock  20°.)   The
spermaceti did not so speedily become brittle by cooling
 as the adipocire.  One ounce of alcohol of the strength
 between 39 and 40  degrees of Baume's aerometer, dis-
solved when boiling hot 12 gros of this substance, but
 the same quantity in like circumstances dissolved only
 30 or 36 grains of spermaceti.  The separation of these
 matters was also remarkably different, the  spermaceti
 being more speedily deposited, and in  a much more
 regular  and  crystalline  form.   Ammonia dissolves 
ADI
ADN
with singular facility, and even in the cold, this con-
crete oil separated from the fatty matter ;  and by heat
it forms a transparent solution, which is a true soap.
But no excess of ammonia can produce such an effect
with spermaceti.
  Fourcroy concludes his memoir with some  specu-
 ations on the change to  which animal substances in
peculiar circumstances are subject   In  the modern
chemistry, soft animal matters are considered as  a com-
position of the oxydes of hydrogen and carbonated
azote, more complicated than those of vegetable mat-
ters, and therefore more incessantly tending to altera-
tion.  If then  the carbon be conceived to unite with
the oxygen, either of the water which is present, or of
the other animal matters, and thus escape in large quan-
tities in the form of carbonic acid gas, we shall perceive
the reason  why this conversion is attended with so
great a loss of weight, namely, about nine-tenths of the
whole.  The azote, a principle so abundant in  animal
matters, will form ammonia  by combining with  the
hydrogen; part of this will escape  in the vaporous
form, and the  rest will remain fixed in the fatty mat-
ter.  The residue of the animal matters deprived of a
great part of their carbon, of their oxygen, and  the
whole of their azote, will consist of a much  greater
proportion of hydrogen, together with carbon  and a
minute  quantity of oxygen.  This, according to  the
theory of Fourcroy, constitutes the  waxy matter, or
adipocire, which, in combination with ammonia, forms
the animal soap, into which the dead bodies are thus
converted.
  Muscular fibre, macerated in dilute nitric acid,  and
afterward well washed in warm water,  affords pure
adipocire, of a light yellow colour, nearly of the con-
 ,fstence of tallow, of a homogeneous texture, and of
 course free from ammonia.  This is the mode in which
 t is now commonly procured for chemical experiment.
   Ambergris appears  to contain adipocire in large
quantity, rather more than half of it being of this sub-
stance.
   Adipocire  has been more recently examined by
 Chevreul.  He found it composed of a small quantity
 of ammonia, potassa, and lime, united to much marga-
 rine, and to a very little of another fatty matter differ-
 ent from that   Weak muriatic acid seizes the three
 alcaline bases.  On treating the residue with a solu-
 tion of potassa, the margarine is precipitated in the
 form of a pearly substance, while the other fat remains
 dissolved.  Fourcroy being of opinion that the fatty
 matter of animal carcasses, the substance of biliary
 calculi, and spermaceti,  were nearly  identical, gave
 them the same name of adipocire; but it appears from
 the researches of Chevreul that these substances are
 very different from each  other.
   In the Philosophical Transactions for 1813, there is a
 very interesting paper  on the above subject by Sir E.
 Home and Mr.  Brande.   He adduces many  curious
 facts to prove that adipocire is formed by an incipient
 and incomplete putrefaction.  Mary Howard, aged 44,
 died on the 12th May, 1790, and was buried in a grave
 ten feet deep at the east end of Shoreditch churchyard,
 ten feet to the east of the great common sewer, which
 runs from north to south, and has always a current of
 water in it, the usual level of which is eight feet below
 the level of the ground, and two feet above the level of
 the coffins in the graves.  In August, 1811, the body
 was-taken up, with some others buried near it, for the
 purpose of building a vault, and the flesh in all  of them
 was converted into adipocire or spermaceti.   At the
 full and new moon the tide  raises  water into the
 graves, which at other tunes are dry.  To explain the
 extraordinary quantities  of fat or adipocire formed by
 animals of a certain intestinal construction, Sir E. ob-
 serves, that the current of water which passes through
 their colon, while the loculated lateral parts are full of
 solid matter,  places the solid contents  in somewhat
 •miliar circumstances to dead bodies in the banks of a
 common sewer.
   The circumstance of ambergris, which contains 60
 per cent, of fat, being found in immense quantities in
 the lower intestines of the  spermaceti whales, and
 never  higher up than seven feet from the anus, is an
 undeniable proof of fat being formed in the intestines;
 and ar ambergris is only met with in whales out of
 health It is most probably collected there from the ab-
 sorbents, under the influence of disease, not acting so
 as  to take it iuto the constitution.  In  the  human
       30
colon, solid masses of fat»« sometimes met with in a
diseasedstateofthatcanal.  Adescnption ana analysis
hv Doctor Ure of a mass  of ambergns, extracted in
Perthshire from the rectum of a Uving woman, were
published in a London Medical Journal in September,
1817.  There is a case communicated by Dr. Babmgton,
of fat formed in the intestines of a girl four and a halt
years old, and passing off by stool.  Mr. Brande found,
on the suggestion of Sir E.  Home, that muscle digested
in bile, is convertible into  fat, at the  temperature of
about 100°.  If the substance, however, pass  rapidly
into putrefaction, no fat is formed.  Faeces voided by a
gouty gentleman after six  days' constipation, yielded,
on  infusion in water, a fatty film. This process of
forming fat in the lower intestines by means of  bile,
throws considerable light  upon the nourishment de-
rived from clysters, a fact well ascertained, but which
could not be explained.   It also accounts for the wast-
ing of the body, which so  invariably attends all com-
plaints of the lower bowels.  It accounts too for all
the varieties in the turns of the colon,  which we meet
with  in so great  a degree in different  animals.  This
property  of the bile explains likewise the formation of
fatty concretions in the gall bladder so commonly met
with, and which, from these experiments, appear to be
produced by the action of the bile  on the  mucus
secreted  in  the  gall bladder; and it  enables us to
understand how want of the gall bladder in children,
from  mal-formation, is attended with  excessive lean-
ness, notwithstanding a great appetite, and leads to an
early death.  Fat  thus appears  to be  formed in the
intestines, and from thence received  into the circu-
lation, and deposited in almost every part of the body.
And as there appears to be no direct channel by which
any superabundance of it  can be thrown out of the
body, whenever its supply exceeds the consumption,
its accumulation becomes  a disease, and often a very
distressing one.
   [In the New-York Medical Repository, vol. ii.  p.
325, is related the case of a person  who was drowned,
and whose body  was converted into  this  substance
after lying in the mud of a river for a year.  We have
seen a piece of meat raised out of a well by pumping,
into which it had fallen, and where it  was completely
changed into adipocire. A barrel of meat, which had
undergone a change and become adipocire, was raised
from the British frigate Hussar, sunk  near  Hell-Gate
during the revolutionary war, where it had remained
in eight or ten fathoms of salt water near fifty years.
 A single body of a female, consisting of a solid mass
 of adipocire, was dug up in dry ground, near the City
 Hall in New-York.  A box of candles, taken from  a
 sunken wreck on the coast of Brazil, was changed in
 appearance and consistence, and had  become a mass
 of adipocire.  The bones of a huge cetaceous animal
 were dug up in the low grounds about New-Orleans:
 when they were  exhibited as a show in New-York,
 in 1828,  adipocire was discovered  in  the cells of the
 spongy part of the jaw-bone.  A.]
   ADIPOSE. (Adiposus; from adeps, fat.)   Fatty;
 as adipose membrane, &c.
   Adipose membrane.  Membrana  adiposa.  The
 fat collected in the cells of the cellular membrane.
   ADI'PSA.  (From a, neg. and Si\pa, thirst)  1. So
 the Greeks called medicines, &c. which abate thirst.
   2.  Hippocrates applied this word to  oxymel.
   ADI'PSIA.  (From  a,  neg.  and lt\pa, thirst.)  A
 want of thirst. A genus of disease in  the class locales,
 and  order dysorexia  of  Cullen's Nosology.   It  is
 mostly symptomatic of some disease of the brain.
   ADI'PSOS. So called  because it allays thirst.)   1.
 The Egyptian palm-tree,  the fruit of which is said  to
 be the Myrobalans, which quench thirst.
   2. Also a name for liquorice.
   ADJUTO'RIUM.   (From  ad and  juvo,  to help.)
 A name of the humerus, from its usefulness  in lifting
 up the fore-arm.
   ADJUVA'NTIA.  Whatever assists in preventing
 or curing disease.
   Adnata tunica. Albuginea oculi; Tunica albu-
 ginea oculi.  A membrane of the eye mostly confound-
 ed with the conjunctiva.  It is, however, thus formed:
 five of the muscles which move the eye, take their ori-
 gin from the bottom of the orbit,  and the sixth arises
 from the edge of it; they arc all  inserted  by a tendi-
 nous expansion, into the  anterior part of the tunica
 sclerotica, which expansion  forms the adnata, and 
ADV
JEQO
gives the whiteness peculiar  to  the fore-part of the
eye.  It lies between the sclerotica and conjunctiva.
  ADNA'TUS.  (From adnescor,  to  grow  to.)   A
term  applied to some parts which appear to grow to
others: as tunica  adnata, stipula adnata,  folium
 adnatum.
  ADOLESCE'NTIA.   See Age.
  Ado'nion.  (From ASuivis,  the youth from whose
blood it was feigned to have sprung.) Adonium.  See
Artemisia abrotanum.
  Adonium.  See Adonion.
  ADO'PTER.   Tubus  intermedins.   A  chemical
vessel with two necks, used to combine retorts to the
cucurbits or  matrasses  in distillation, with  retorts
instead of receivers.
  A'dor.  A sort of corn, called also spelta.
  A'dos.  Forge water, or water  in which red-hot
iron is extinguished.
  AD PONDUS OMNIUM. The  weight of the whole.
These words are inserted in pharmaceutical prepara-
tions, or prescriptions, when the last ingredient ought
to weigh as much as all the others put together.
  ADPRESSUS.  Approximated.  A term in botany,
applied to  branches of leaves when they rise in a
direction nearly parallel to the stem, and are closely
applied to them, as in  the branches of the Genista
tinctoria and leaves of the Thlaspi campestris.
  Adra Rhi'za.  Blancard says  the root of the Aris-
tolochia is thus  named.
  Adra'chne.  The strawberry  bay-tree.  A species
of Arbutus.
  Adr ara'gi. An Indian name for our garden-saffron.
  ADROBO'LON.  (From a<5poj, large, and /3wAoj,
a globe, bole, or mass.)   Indian bdellium, which is
coarser than the Arabian.  See Bdellium.
  ADSCENDENS.  See Ascendens.
  ADSTRICTION.  Costiveness.
  ADSTRINGENT.  See Astringent.
  [ADULARIA.  This  is the most perfect variety of
feldspar, and bears to common  feldspar, in many
respects, the relation of rock crystal to common quartz.
Adularia is more or less translucent, and sometimes
transparent and limpid.  Its colour is white, either a
little milky, or with a tinge of green, yellow, or red.
But it  is chiefly distinguished by presenting, .when in
certain positions, whitish reflections, which are often
slightly tinged with blue or green, and exhibit a pearly
or silver lustre.  These reflections, which are often
confined to certain spots, proceed in most cases from
the interior of the crystal.
  Adularia is sometimes cut into  plates and polished.
The fish's eye, moonstone, and argentine, of lapidaries,
come  chiefly from  Persia, Arabia, and Ceylon, and
belong to adularia, as  do also  the water opal and
girasole of the Italians.—Cleavl. Mtn.
  It has been found in the states of Maryland, Penn-
sylvania, New-York, and Massachusetts.  A.]
  ADUSTION.  Adustio. 1. An inflammation about
the brain, and its membranes, with a  hollowness of
the eyes, a pale colour, and a dry  body; obsolete.
  2. In surgery, adustion signifies the same as cauter-
ization, and  means the application of any substance
to the animal body,  which acts like fire.  The ancient
surgeons,  especially the Arabians, were remarkably
fond of having recourse to adustion in  local diseases;
but the use of actual heat is  very rarely admitted by
the modems.
  ADVENTITIOUS.  (Adventitius;  from  advenio,
to come to.)  Any thing that accidentally, and not in
the common course of natural  causes, happens to
make a part of another.   Something accruing or befall-
ing a  person or thing  from without   It  is used in
medicine in opposition to hereditary; as when diseases
may be transmitted from the parent  and also acquired,
as is the case with gout and scrofula. They are some-
times hereditary, and very often adventitious.
  ADVERSIFO'LIA.  (From adoersus, opposite, and
folium, a leaf.)  A plant with alternate leaves.
  Adversipo li.s plant/e.   1. Plants  the  leaves of
which stand  opposite to each other on  the same stem
or branch.
  2. The name of a class in  Sauvages' Methodus Fo-
liorum.  Valerian,  teasel,  honey-suckle,  &c.  are
examples.
  ADVERSUS.  Opposite. Applied in natural history
to parts which stand opposite to each other; as plant a
•dotrsifolia,  the  leaves  standing  opposite  to each
other on the same stem, as in valerian, teasel, honey-
suckle, &x.
  ADYNA'MIA.  (Adynamia, a, f.; ASvvauia, from
a, priv. and ivvauis, power.)  A defect of vital power.
  Adyna'mi.*:.   (The plural  of  Adynamia.)  The
second order  of the class neuroses of Cullen's Noso-
logy ; it  comprehends syncope, dyspepsia, hypochon-
driasis, and chlorosis.
  Ady'namon.  (From a, neg. and Svvapis, strength.)
Adynamum.  Among ancient physicians, it signified a
kind of weak factitious wine, prepared from must,
boiled down with water;  to  be given to  patients to
whom pure or genuine wine might be hurtful.
  Adynamum.  See Adynamon.
  [jEDELITE. A mineral described by Kirwan, con-
taining, according to Bergman, silex from 62 to 69
parts, alumiue from 18 to 20, lime from 8 to 16, watei
3 to 4.—CleaVtMin.  A.]
  •zEDOI'A.  fFrom ai8<i>s, modesty; or from a, neg.
and uScto, to  see; as not being decent to the sight)
The pudenda, or parts of generation.
  jEDOPSO'PHIA.   (From ailoia, pudenda; and
xpo'bciii, to  break  wind.)  A term used by Sauvages
and  Sagar, to signify a flatus  from  the  bladder, or
from the womb, making its escape through the vagina.
  jEDOPTO'SIS.  (JEdoptosis ;  from  aiiolov,  the
groin;  pi.  aiooca,  pudenda;  and  itswoit, a falling
down.)  Genital prolapsi.   The name of a genus of
diseases in Good's Nosology.
  iEGAGRO'PILUS.  (From aiyavpoy, a wild goat,
and pila, a ball.)  JEgagropila.
  1.  A ball found in the stomach of deer, goats, hogs,
horned cattle,  as cows, &c.   It consists of hairs which
they have swallowed from licking themselves.  They
are of different degrees of hardness, but have no medi-
cinal virtues.   Some rank these  balls among  the
Bezoars.   Hieronymus Velschius wrote a treatise on
the virtues of  this.
  2.  A species of conferva found In Wallenfenmoor,
from its resembling these concretions, is also so named.
  JE'GIAS.   A white speck on the pupil of the eye,
which occasions a dimness of sight
  jEGI'DES.   Aglia. A disorder of the  eyes men-
tioned  by Hippocrates.   Foe"sius thinks thq disease
consists of small cicatrices  (n the eye, caused by an
afflux of corrosive humours upon the  part.  But in
one passage of Hippocrates, Foesius says it signifies
small white concretions of humours which  stick upon
the pupil, and obscure the sight.      /
  iEGI'DlON. A collyrium or ointment for inflamma-
tions and defluxions of the eyes.
  jE'GILOPS.  1. The same as JEgylops.
  2.  Wild  fescue grass,  so called  from Its supposed
virtue in curing the disorder named jEgylops.  It is a
species of Bromus in the Linnaean system.
  jEGINE'TA, Paulus.  A celebrated surgeon of the
island of iEgina, from which he derived his name.  He
is placed by Le Clerc in the fourth century; by others
in the seventh.  He was eminently skilled in his pro-
fession, and his works are frequently cited by Fabri-
cius ab Aquapendente.  He is the first author that
notices the  cathartic quality of rhubarb.   He begins
his book with the description of the diseases of women;
and is said to  be the first that deserves the appellation
of a man midwife.
  •/Egine'tia.  Malabrian broom rape.  A species of
Orobancha.
  M'GIS.  A film on the eye.
  ^EGO'CERAS.   (From ai%,  a goat, and  icepas, a
horn ; so called, because the pods were supposed to
resemble  the  horns  of  a goat.)  Foenugreek.  See
Triirmella Fanumgracum.
  iEGO'LETHRON.  (From ai\, a goat, and oAtflpoj,
destruction : so named from the opinion of its being
poisonous to  goats.)  Tournefort says it is the Cha-
marododendron, now the Azelma pontica of Linnaeus.
  jEGO'NYCHON.   (From ail, a  g°at> and  wv(, a
hoof: because of the hardness of the seed.)  See
Lithospermum officinale.
  iEGOPO'DIUM.  (JEgopodium, i. n.; from ail-, a
goat, and tsovs, a foot: from its supposed resemblance
to a goat's foot.)  A genus of plants in the Linnaian
system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.  Goat-
weed.  The following  species was formerly much
esteemed.
  ^Eoopodutm podagraria.  Goalweed.   This plant
is sedative, and was formerly applied to mitigate pains 
AER
JEST
 of gout, and to relieve piles, but not now employed. In
 its earlier state it is tender and esculent.
   ./Egofroso'pon.  (From ai\, a goat, and srpoo-uirov,
 a face: so  called because goats are subject to defects
 in the eyes, or  from having in it some ingredients
 named after the goat.)  A name  of a lotion for the
 eyes, when inflamed.
   .iE'GYLOPS.   (JEgylops, opis, m.;  from  ai\, a
 goat, and wty, an eye.)  Anchilops. A disease  so
 named from the  supposition that goats were very sub-
 ject to it.   The term means a sore just under the inner
 angle of the eye.  The best modern surgeons seem to
 consider  the aegylops only as  a stage of the  fistula
 lachrymalis. Paulus^Egineta calls  it anchilops, before
 it bursts,  and aegylops after.  When the skin covering
 the lachrymal sac has been for some time inflamed, or
 subject to frequent  returning inflammations, it most
 commonly happens that the puncta lachrymalia are
 affected by it; and the fluid, not having an opportu-
 nity of passing off by them, distends the inflamed skin,
 so that at last it becomes sloughy, and bursts exter-
 nally.  This is that state of the disease which is called
 perfect aigylops, or agylops.
   ^Egt'ptia muscata.  See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
 ,  yEGYPTI'ACUM.  A name given  to different un-
 guents of the detergent or corrosive kind.  We meet
 with a black, a red, a white, a simple, a compound,
 and a magistral segyptiacum. The simple aegyptiacum,
 which is that usually found in our shops, is a composi-
 tion of verdigris, vinegar, and honey,  boiled to a con-
 sistence.   It is usually supposed to take its name from
 its dark colour, wherein it resembles that of the natives
 of Egypt  It is improperly called an unguent,  as there
 is no oil, or rather fat  in  it.
   jEgt'ptium pharmacum ad aures.  Aetius speaks
 of this as excellent for deterging foetid  ulcers of the
 ears, which he says it cures, though the patient were
 born with them.
  AEIPATHEI'A.  (From act, always, and xsaQos, a
 disease.)   Diseases of long duration.
  iENEA.  (From as, brass, so called because it was
 formerly made of brass.)   A catheter.
  iEO'NION.  The common house leek.   See Sem-
 pervivum  tectorum.
  ^EO'RA.  (From aiupcoi, to lift up, to suspend on
 high.)  Exercise without muscular action ; as swing-
 ing.  A species of exercise used by  the ancients, and
 of which A*tius gives the following account.  Gesta-
 tion, while it exercises the body, the body seems to be
 at rest.  Of this motion there are several kinds. First,
 swinging  in a hammock, which, at the decline of a
 fever, is beneficial.  Secondly, being carried in a litter,
 in which  the patient either sits or  lies along.  It is
 useful  when the gout, stone, or such other disorder
 attends, as does not admit of violent motions. Thirdly
 riding in a chariot, which is of service in  most chroni-
 cal disorders; especially  before the more violent exer-
 cises can be admitted.  Fourthly, sailing in  a  ship or
 boat  This  produces various effects, according to the
 different agitation of the waters, and, in many tedious
 chronical  disorders, is efficacious beyond what is ob-
 served from  the most skilful administration of drugs.
 These are instances of a passive exercise.
  ^EaUA'LIS.  Equal.   Applied by botanists to dis-
 tinguish  length;  as filimenta  aqualia;  pedunculi
 equates, &c.
  .-E'QUE.  Equally.  The same as ana.
  .(EaUIVALVIS.  JEquivalve.  A botanical term,
 implying,  composed of equal valves.
  AER.   (Aer, m's, m.; from 070.)  The fluid which
 surrounds  the globe.   See Air and Atmosphere.
  /E'ra.   Darnel, or lolium.
  JRrdted alkaline water.  An alkaline water impreg-
 nated with carbonic acid.
  SERIAL.  Belonging to air.
  JErial Acid. See Carbonic acid.
  JErial plants.  Those plants are so called which
after a certain time, do  not require that their roots
should be  fixed to any spot in order to  maintain their
life, which they do by absorption from the atmosphere.
Such are a curious tropical tribe of plants called caett
the epidendrum, flos aeris, and the ficus australis.    '
  /ERIT1S.  The Anagallis, or pimpernel1.
  ^EROLITE. A meteoric stone.
  AEROLO'GICE.  See Aerology.
  AEROLOGY.  (Aerologia, a, f.;  from arip, the
air, and Aoyoj, a discourse.)  Aerologice.  That part
 of medicine which treats of the nature and proper
 ties of air.
   Aero'meli.  Honey dew; also a name for manna.
   UROMETER.  An instrument for making the ne-
 cessary corrections in pneumatic experiments to ascer-
 tain the mean bulk of the gases.
   AEROPHOBIA. Fear of air or wind.
   1. Said  to be a symptom of phrenitis and hydro-
 phobia.
   2. A name of Hydrophobia.
   AERO'PHOBUS.  (From a»7p, air, and <j>o6oc, fear.)
 According to Coelius Aurelianus, some phrenetic  pa-
 tients  are afraid of a lucid, and others of an obscure
 air: and these he calls aerophobi.
   AERO SIS.   The aerial vital spirit of the ancients.
   AEROSTATION. JErostatio.  A name commonly,
 but not very correctly, given to the art of raising heavy
 bodies into the atmosphere, by buoyancy of heated air,
 or gases of  small specific gravity,  enclosed in a bag,
 which from being usuailyof a spherical form, is called
 a balloon.
   .rERO'SUS LAPIS.  So Pliny calls the Lapis cala-
 minaris, upon the supposition that it was a copper ore.
   ^Eru'ca.  Verdigris.
   ^ERU'GO.  (JErugo,  ginis, f., from  as,  copper.)
 1. The rust of any metal, particularly of copper.
   2. Verdigris.  See Verdigris.
   jErugo jeris.  Rusts of copper or verdigris.  See
 Verdigris.
   ^Erugo pr.gpara'ta.   See Verdigris.
   ^ES. Brass.
   .(ESCULA'PIUS, said  to be the  son  of Apollo,  by
 the nymph Coronis, born at Epidaurus, and educated
 by Chiron, who  taught him to cure the most dangerous
 diseases, and even raise the dead; worshipped by the
 ancients as the god of medicine.  His history is so in-
 volved in fable,  that it is useless to trace it minutely.
 His two  sons, Machaon  and Podalirius, who ruled
 over a small city in Thessaly, after his death accom-
 panied the Greeks to the siege  of Troy: but Homer
 speaks merely of their skill in the treatment of wounds;
 and divine honours were not paid to their father till a
 latter  period.  In the temples raised to  him, votive
 tablets were hung up, on which were recorded the dis-
 eases cured, as they imagined, by his assistance.
  ^E'SCULUS.   (JEsculus, i, m.; from  esca, food.>
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean  system'
 Class,  Heptandria;   Order,  Monogynia.   Horse-
 chesnut
  /Esculu8 hippocastanum.  The systematic name
 for the  common horse-chesnut tree.  Castanea equina,
pavina. JEsculus—foliolis septenis of Linnaeus. The
fruit of this tree, when  dried and powdered, is recom-
mended as an errhine.  The bark is highly esteemed
on the  continent  as a febrifuge;  and is,  by some, con-
sidered as being superior in quality to  the Peruvian
bark.   The  bark intended for  medical use  is to be
taken from  those branches which are neither very
young nor very old, and to be exhibited  under similar
forms and doses,  as directed with respect to the Peru-
vian bark.   It rarely disagrees with the stomach ; but
its astringent effects generally require the occasional
administration of a laxative.  During the late scarcity
of grain, some attempts were  made to obtain starch
from the horse-chesnut, and not without success
  iESTHE'TICA.   (From aiMvouai, to feel, or per-
ceive.)  Diseases affecting the sensation.  The name
of an order of diseases in Good's Nosology.  See No
sology.
  AESTIVALIS.  (From astas, summer.)  iEstival;
belonging to summer.  Diseases of animals and plants
which  appear in  the summer.
  ^Estivales plants.  Plants  which flower in sum-
mer.  A division according to the seasons of the year.
  iESTIVA'TIO.   ^Estivation; the action  of  the
summer, or its influence on things.
  ^Estphara.    Incineration, or burning of the flesh,
or any  other part of the body.
  jESTUA'RITJM.  A stove for conveying heat to all
parts of the  body at once.  A kind of  vapour bath.
Ambrose Pare1 calls an instrument thus, which  he  de-
scribes  for conveying heat to any particular part.  Pal-
marius, De  Morbis Contagions, gives a contrivance
under this name, for sweating the whole body.
  jEstua'tio.  The boiling up, or rather the ferment-
ing of liquors when mixed.
  jE'STUS. JEstus, tis,  m.; from the Hebrew tsh, 
iETH
AFF
heat.  Heat;  applied to the feeling merely of heat, and
sometimes to  that of inflammation in which there is
heat and redness.
  AEstus volaticus.  1.  Sudden heat, or scorching,
which soon goes off, but which for a time reddens the
part.
  2. According to Vogel, synonymous with phlogosis.
  3. Erythema volaticum of Sauvages.
  JE TAS. See Age.
  jE'THER.   (AUther, eris, m.;  from atBnp: a sup-
posed fine subtile fluid.)  /Ether.   A volatile liquor,
obtained by distillation, from a mixture of alcohol and
•a concentrated acid.
  The medical properties of aether, when  taken inter-
nally,  are  antispasmodic, cordial,  and  stimulant.
Against nervous and typhoid fever, all  nervous dis-
eases, but  especially tetanic affections, soporose dis-
eases  from debility, asthma,  palfy, spasmodic colic,
hysteria, &c.  it always enjoys some share of reputa-
tion.  Regular practitioners seldom give so much as
empirics, who sometimes venture upon  large quanti-
ties, with incredible benefit.  Applied externally, it is
of service in the headache, toothache, and other pain-
ful affections.  Thus employed, it  is capable of pro-
ducing two very opposite effects, according to its  ma-
nagement; for, if it  be prevented from  evaporating,
by covering the place to which it  is  applied closely
with the hand,  it proves a powerful stimulant and
rubefacient, and excites a  sensation of burning heat,
as is the case  with  solutions of camphor in alcohol, or
turpentine.  In this way  it is frequently used for re-
moving pains in the head  or teeth. On  the contrary,
if it be dropped on any part of the body, exposed freely
to the  air, its rapid evaporation produces an intense
degree'of cold; and, as this is attended with a propor-
tional diminution of  bulk in the part, applied in this
way, it has frequently contributed to the reduction of
the intestine,  in cases of strangulated hernia.
  .Ether rectificatus.  JEtker vitriolicus.  Recti-
fied aether.  Take of sulphuric aether, fourteen fluid
ounces.  Fused potash, half an  ounce.   Distilled
water, eleven fluid ounces.
  First dissolve the potash in two ounces of the water,
and add thereto the aether, shaking them well together,
until they are mixed.  Next, at a temperature of about
200 degrees, distil over twelve fluid ounces of rectified
aether, from a large retort into  a cooled receiver.  Then
shake the distilled auhcr well with nine fluid ounces of
water, and set the liquor by, so that  the water may
subside.   Lastly, pour off the supernatant rectified
■ether, and keep it in a well-stopped bottle.
  Sulphuric aether is impregnated with some sulphu-
reous acid, as is evident  in the smell, and with some
Ktlierial  oil:  and these require a second process to
separate  them.  Potash  unites to the acid, and re-
quires to be added in a state  of solution, and in suffi-
cient  quantities, for the purpose of neutralizing it;
and it also forms a soap with the oil.  It  is advantage-
ous also to use a less quantity of water than exists in
the ordinary  solution of potash;  and therefore the
above directions are adopted in the  last London Phar-
macopoeia.  For its virtues, see JEther.
  /Ether sulphuricus.  Naphtha vitrioli; JEther
vitriolicus.  Sulphuric aether.  Take of rectified spirit,
mlphuric acid, of each, by weight, a pound and a half.
Pour the spirit  into a glass retort, then gradually add
to it  the acid, shaking it after each addition,  and
taking care that their temperature, during the mixture,
may not exceed 120 degrees. Place the retort very
cautiously into a sand bath, previously heated  to 200
degrees, so that the liquor may boil as speedily as pos-
sible,  and ihe aether  may pass over into a tubulated
receiver, to the tubulure of which another receiver is
applied,  and  kept cold by  immersion in  ice, or water.
Continue the distillation until a heavier part also begins
to pass over,  and appear under the aether  in the bottom
of the receiver.  To the liquor which  remains  in the
retort, pour twelve fluid ounces more of rectified spirit,
and repeat the distillation in the same manner.
  It is mostly employed as an excitant, nervine, anti-
spasmodic, and diuretic, in cases of spasms, cardialgia,
enteralgia, fevers, hysteria, cephalalgia, and spasmodic
asthma.  The dose  is from  min. u to  3 ij.  Exter-
nally, it cures toothache, and violent pains in the head.
8ee JEther.
  ./Ether vitriolicus.   See JElher sulphuricus and
J&thir rectificatus.
  ^the'rea hkrba.  The plant formerly so eallrd Is
supposed to be the Eryngium.
  /Etherial oil..  See Oleum JEtherium.
  /E'THlOPS. A term  applied formerly to several
preparations, becausw of a black colour, like the skin
of an ./Ethiopian.
  /Ethiops  antimonia'lis.  A preparation of anti-
mony and mercury, once in high repute, and still em
ployed by some practitioners in cutaneous diseases
A few grains are to be given at first, and the quantity
increased as the stomach can bear it.
  ^thiops  martialis.  A preparation of iron, for
merly in repute, but now neglected.
  JEthiops mineral. The substance heretofore known
by this name, is called by the London  College, Hy
drargyri sulphuretum nigrum.
  /ETHMOID. See Ethmoid.
  JEthmoid Artery. See Ethmoid Artery.
  JF.thmoid Bone.  See Ethmoid Bone.
  ^ETHU'SA.  (JEthusa, a, f.; from  aiOovo-a, beg-
garly.)  The name of a genus of plants of the Linnsean
system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  ^thusa meum.  The systematic name of the meum
of the Pharmacopoeias.   Called also Meum athaman-
ticum; Men; Spignel;  Baldmoney.  The root of this
plant is  recommended as a  carminative, stomachic,
and for attenuating viscid humours, and appears to b«
nearly of the same nature as lovage, differing in  its
smell, being rather more agreeable, somewhat like that
of parsnips, but stronger, and being  in  its taste less
sweet, and more warm, or acrid.
  /ETIOLOGY.   (JEtiologia,a,t; amoXoyia: from
a«7ia, a cause, and Xoyos, a discourse.)   The doctrine
of the causes of diseases.
  jETITES.  Eagle stone. A stone formed of oxyde
of iron, containing in its cavity some concretion which
rattles on shaking the stone.   Eagles  were said  to
carry them to their nest, whence their name: and su-
perstition formerly ascribed wonderful virtues to them.
  [This is now arranged  among the ores of iron  by
the name of the nodular argillaceous  oxide of iron.
See Cleav. Min.  A.]
  AE'TIUS.  A  physician,  called  also Amidenus,
from the place of  his birth.  He flourished at Alexan-
dria, about the end of the fifth century, and left six-
teen  books, divided into four tetrabiblia, on the prac-
tice of physic and surgery, principally  collected from
Galen and other early writers, but with some original
observations.  He  appears very partial to  the use of
the cautery, both actual and potential, especially in
palsy; which plan of treatment Mr. Pott revived in
paraphlegia; and  it has since  often  been adopted with
success.  Afitius is the  earliest writer  who ascribed
medical efficacy to the external use of the magnet, par
ticularly in gout and convulsions;  but  rather on the
report of others, than  as what he had  personally ex-
perienced.
  jEto'cion-.  JEtolium.   The granum cnidium. See
Daphne mezercon.
  a!to'nychum.   See Lithospermum.
  AFFECTION.   (Affectio,onis,f.  This is expressed
in Greek by zzados '■ hencepathema, passio.) Any ex
isting disorder of  the whole body, or  a part of  it; as
hysterics, ieprosy, &c.   Thus, by adding a descriptive
epithet to the term affection, most  distempers may be
expressed.  And hence we say febrile affection, cuta-
neous affection, &c, using the word affection synony-
mously with disease.
  AFFINITY.   (Affinitas, atis, f.;  a  proximity of
relationship.)  The term  affinity is used indifferently
with attraction.  See Attraction.
  Affinity  of aggregation.  See Attraction.
  Affinity, appropriate. See Affinity, intermediate.
  Affinity  of composition.   See  Attraction.
  Affinity, compound.  When three or more bodes,
on account of their mutual affinity, unite and form one
homogeneous body, then the affinity is termed  com
pound affinity or  attraction:  thus,  if to a solution of
sugar and water be added spirits of wine, these three
bodies will form a homogeneous liquid by compound
affinity.
  Affinity, divellent.  See Affinity, quiescent.
  Affinity,  double.   Double elective  attraction.
When two bodies, each consisting of  two elementary
parts, come into contact, and are decomposed, so thai
their elements become  reciprocally united, and pro-
duce two new confound  bodies, the  decomposition u 
AFF
then termed decomposition by double affinity, thus, if
we add common salCwhich consists of muriatic.»c>&
and soda, to nitrate of silver, which is composed of niuic
add^d'oxydeof silver, these two bodies will °«f ex-
pounded ; for the nitric acid unites with the soda, and
the oxyde of silver with the munatic acid,  and thus
may be obtained two  new bodies.  The common salt
and  nitrate of silver therefore mutually decompose
each other by what is called double affinity.
  Affinity, intermediate.   Appropriate  affinity.
Affinity of an intermedium is, when two substances of
different kinds, that show to one another no component
affinity, do, by the assistance of a third, comoine, and
unite into a homogeneous whole: thus, oil and water
are substances of different kinds, which, by means of
aicali, combine and unite into a homogeneous sub-
stance : hence the theory of lixiviums, of washing, &c.
See Attraction.                            ,
  Affinity, quiescent.   Mr. Kirwan employs the
term quiescent affinity to mark  that, by virtue  of
which, the principle of each compound,  decomposed
by double affinity, adhere to each  other; and  Divel-
lenl affinity, to distinguish that by which the princi-
ples of one  body unite and change  order with those
of the  other:  thus, sulphate  of potash  is not com-
pletely decomposed by the nitric acid or by lime, when
either of these principles is separately presented; but
if the nitric acid be combined with lime, this nitrate of
lime will decompose the sulphate of potash.  In this
last case, the affinity of Ihe sulphuric acid with the ai-
cali is weakened by its affinity to the lime. This acid,
therefore, is subject  to two affinities, the one which
retains it to the aicali, cailed quiescent, and the other
which attracts it toward the lime,  called  divellent
affinity.
  Affinity, reciprocal.  When a compound of two
bodies is decomposed by a third, the separated  princi-
ple being in its turn capable of decomposing the new
combination : thus ammonia and magnesia will sepa-
rate each other from muriatic acid.
   Affinity, simple.  Single elective attraction.   V
 a body, consisting of two component parts, be decom-
 posed on the approach of a third, which has  a greater
 affinity with one of those component  parts than they
 have for each other, then the decomposition is termed
 decomposition by simple affinity: for  instance,  if
 pure potash be added to a combination of nitric acid
 and lime,  the union which existed  between  these two
 bodies will cease, because the potash combines with
 the  nitric acid, and the lime, being disengaged, is pre-
 cipitated.  The  reason  is, that the nitric acid has a
 greater affinity for the pure potash than for the lime,
 therefore it deserts the lime, to combine with the pot-
 ash.  When  two bodies only enter into  chemical
 union, the  affinity, which was the  cause of it, is also
 termed simple or single  elective attraction; thus the
 solution of sugar and water is produced by simple affi-
 nity, because there are but two bodies.
   AFFLA'TUS.  (From ad  and flare, to blow.)   A
 vapour or blast  A species of erysipelas,  which at-
 tacks  people suddenly, so named upon the erroneous
 supposition that it was produced  by some  unwhole-
 some wind blowing on the part.
   AFFUSION.   (Affusio;  from  ad, and  fundo,  to
 pour upon.)  Pouring a liquor upon something.  The
 affusion of cold water, or pouring two or three quarts
 on the patient's head and body, is sometimes practised
 by physicians, but lately introduced by Dr.  Currie,  of
 Liverpool, in the treatment of typhus fever, and which
 appears to possess a uniformity of success, which we
 look for in vain in almost any other branch of medical
 practice.  The remedy consists merely in placing the
 patient  in a  bathing-tub, or  other convenient vessel,
 and pouring a  pailful of cold water upon  his body;
 after which he is wiped dry, and again put  to bed.  It
 should be  noted,
   First, That it is the low contagious fever in which
 the cold affusion is to be employed: the  first symp-
  toms of which are a dull headache,  with restlessness
 and shivering; pains in the back, and all over the body,
 the tongue foul, with great prostration of strength; the
  headache becoming more acute, the heat of the body, by
  the thermometer, 102° to 105°, or more; general restless-
  ness, increasing to delirium, particularly in  the night
    Secondly, That it is in Vie early stage of  the disease
  we must employ the remedy; and generally in the state
  of  the greatest heat and exacerbation.
       3-1
                     AGA

  Thirdly, It is affusion, not immersion, that must be

GmSL first publication^of Dr. ■Cube's work ^
nractice of  affusion has been  extended  throughout
Fnehmd  and its efficacy has been established m some
stages of 'the^iseaseVfrom which the author had origin
X Drosciibed the practice of it. One of the caution-
aryVnjunions which had been  given for the affusion
Kd water in fever, was never to employ U m cases
IhTthe patient had a serise of chillmessu^njim
even if the  thermometer, app led to the trunk of the
body, indicated a preternatural degreei ofheat.In h»
last edition of Reports, however, Dr. Currie: has.given
the Darticulars of a case of this kind, in which the cow
affusion was. » managed as to produce a successful

eVfn fevers  arising from, or accompanied by, topical
inflammation, his experience does not justify.the use of
cold affusion ] though, in a great variety of these cases,
the warm  affusion  may be used with  advantage
" And," says he, " though  I have used the coldat
fusion in some instances, so late  as the twelfth or four
teenth day of contagious fever, with safety and suc-
cei  yet it can only be employed, at this advanced
period, in the instances  in  which the heat keeps up
steadily above the natural standard, and  the respira-
tion  continues free.  In  such cases, I have seen it ap-
pease  agitation and restlessness, dissipate  delirium,
and, as it were, snatch the patient from impending dis-
solution.  But it is in the early stages of fever (let me
again  repeat) that  it ought  always to be employed, if
possible; anywhere, without any regard to the heat of
the patient, it is had recourse to in the  last stage ol
fever after every other remedy has failed,  and the case
appears desperate, (of which I have heard several in-
stances,) can it appear surprising that the  issue should
sometimes be unfavourable ?"
   Numerous :ommunications from various practition
ers, in the West and East Indies, in Egypt and  Ame-
rica, also show  the  efficacy of  affusion in the raging
fevers of hot countries.                          .
   AFORA. ( From a, priv. and fores, a door.)  Having
a door or valve: applied  to  plants, the seed vessel of
which is not furnished with a valvule.
   AFTER-BIRTH.  See Placenta.
   Aba cretensium. The small Spanish milk-thistle.
   AGALACTA'TIO.  See Agalactia.
   AGALA'CTIA.   (AyaAa<c7«a;  from a, priv. and
 yaAa, milk.)  Agalaxis; Agalactio ; Agalactatio.  A
 defect of milk in childbirth.
   AGALA'CTOS.  (From  a,  priv. and  yaAa,  milk.)
 An  epithet given to women who have no milk when
 they lie in.
   AGALA'XIS.  See Agalactia.
   Agallochum.  See Lignum aloes.
   Agallochum verum.  See Lignum aloes.
   AoA'LLtaE.  See Lignum aloes.
   Agallugum.  See Lignum aloes.
   AGALMATOLITE.   See Figurestone.
   AGARIC.  See Agaricus.
  Agaricoi'des.   (From  ayapjicoj, the agaric, and
u\os,  resemblance.)   A species of fungus like the
agaric.
  AGA'RICUS.  Agaric.  The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Cryptogamia;
Order, Fungi. The plants of this genus appear to ap-
proach nearer to the nature of animal matter than any
other productions of the vegetable kingdom, as, beside
hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, they contain a consi-
derable portion of nitrogen, and yield ammonia by dis-
tillation.   Prof. Proust  has  likewise  discovered  in
them the benzoic acid, and phosphate of lime.
  The mushrooms, remarkable  for the quickness of
their growth and decay, as well as for the fcutor attend-
ing their spontaneous decomposition, were unaccount-
ably neglected by analytical  chemists, though  capable
of rewarding their trouble, as is evinced by the recent
investigations and discoveries of Messrs.  Vauquelin
and Braconnot  The insoluble fungous portion of the
mushroom, though it  resembles woody fibre in some
respects, yet being less soluble than it in alcalies, and
yielding  a nutritive food, is  evidently a peculiar pro-
duct, to  which accordingly the name of fungin has
been given.   Two new vegetable acids, the boletic and
fungic, were also fruits of these researches.
  The six following species have  been submitted to
chemical analysis; the results are  affi*ed to each.  L 
AGA
AGA
 Agaricus campestris, an ordinary article of foo  ana-1
 lyzed by Vauquelin,  gave the following consituems-
 1. Adipocire.   On expressing the juice of the agaric,
 and subjecting the remainder to the action of boiling
 alkohol, a fatty matter is extracted, which falls down
 in white flakes as the alkohol cools.  It  has a  dirty
 white colour;  a fatty feel,  like spermaceti;  and,  ex-
 posed to heat, soon melts, and then exhales the odour of
 grease.  2. An oily  matter.  3. Vegetable albumen.
 4. The  sugar  of mushrooms.  5.  An animal matter
 soluble  in water and alkohol: on, being heated, it
 evolves the odour of roasting meat, like osmazome.
 6. An animal matter not soluble in alkohol. 7. Fungin.
 8. Acetate of  potash.
  2. Agaricus volvaceus afforded  Braconnot fungin,
 gelatin, vegetable albumen, much phosphate of potash,
 Bome acetate of potash, sugar of mushrooms, a brown
 oil, adipocire, wax, a very fugacious deleterious matter,
 uncombined acid, supposed to be  the acetic, benzoic
 acid, muriate  of potash, and a deal of water; in all
 14 ingredients.
  3. Agaricus acris, or piperatus,  was found by Bra-
 connot, after a minute analysis, to contain nearly the
 same ingredients  as  the  preceding, without  the wax
 and benzoic acid, but with more adipocire.
  4. Agaricus stypticus.  From  twenty parts of this
 Braconnot obtained of resin and adipocire 1.8, fungin
 16.7, of an unknown gelatinous substance,  a potash
 salt, and a fugacious acrid principle, 1.5.
  5. Agaricus bulbosus, was examined by Vauquelin,
 who found the following constituents:  an animal mat-
 ter insoluble in alkohol; osmazome; a soft fatty matter
 of a yellow colour and acrid taste ;  an acid salt, (not a
 phosphate.)   The insoluble substance of the agaric
 yielded  an acid by distillation.
  6. Agaricus theogolus.  In this, Vauquelin found
 sugar of mushrooms; osmazome;  a bitter acrid fatty
 matter; an  animal  matter not soluble in alkohol; a
 salt  containing a vegetable acid.
  Agaricus albus.  See Boletus  laricis.
  Acaricus campestris.   There are several species
 of the agaric, which  go by the term mushroom; as the
 Agaricus chantarellus, deliciosus, violaceus, &c.;  but
 that which  is  eaten in this country is the Agaricus
 campestris of Linnaeus.   Similar to it in quality is the
 champignon,  or Agaricus pratensis.  Broiled with
 salt and pepper, or stewed with cream and some aro-
 matic, they are extremely delicious, and, if not eaten
 to excess,  salubrious. Great care should be  taken to
 ascertain that they are the true fungus, and not those
 of a poisonous nature.  Catchup is made by throwing
 salt  on  mushrooms,  which causes  them to part with
 their juice.
  Agaricus chantarellus.  A   species  of fungus,
 esteemed  a  delicacy by the French. Broiled  with salt
 and pepper, it  has much the flavour of a roasted cockle.
  Agaricus chirurgorum.   See  Boletus igniarius.
  Agaricus cinnamomeus. Brown mushroom.  This
 species  of agaric is of a pleasant smell. When broiled,
 it gives a good flavour.
  Agaricus deliciosus.  This fungus, well seasoned,
 and then  broiled, has the exact flavour of a roasted
 muscle.  It is  in season in September.
  Agaricus mineral's   A mineral; the mountain
 milk, or mountain meal, of the Germans.  It is one of
 the  purest of  the native carbonates of lime,  found
 chiefly in the clefts of rocks, and at  the bottom of some
 lakes, in a loose or semi-indurated  form.  It  has been
 used internally in haemorrhages,   strangury, gravel,
 and  dysenteries ;  and externally as an application to
 old ulcers, and weak and watery eyes.
  [It is composed of very  minute particles, feebly
 cohering, fine  or  soft to the touch, and soiling  the
 fingers.   Its texture  is  spongy, and hence it usually
 swims for a moment when placed on water. Its colour
 is white, either pure, or tinged with yellow, &c.  It is
 a very pure carbonate of lime.
  Agaric mineral  undoubtedly proceeds from the gra-
 dual disintegration of other varieties of carbonate of
 lime, and  is deposited from water in the cavities or
 fissures  of other calcareous rocks.
  Var. 1.  Fossil  Farina.   Tills   variety differs but
 little from that just described, and has  probably a
similar origin.   It  appears in thin,  white crusts, light
as cotton, and  very easily reducible to powder. These
crusts are attached to the lateral or lower surfaces of
beds of  shell, limestone, Scc.—Ckav. Min.  A.]
  Agaricus  muscarius.  Bug agaric; so called from
Its Known virtue in destroying  bugs.  This reddish
fungus is the Agaricus—stipitatus, lamellis dimidiatis
solitarus, stipite volvato, apice dilatato, basi ovalo, of
Linnaeus.  It is not much  known in this country.
Haller relates that six persons of Lithuania perished
at one time, by eating  this kind of mushroom; and
that in others it has caused delirium.  The following
account from Orfila, of the effects of this species in
the animal economy, is interesting.  Several French
soldiers ate, at  two leagues from Polosck, in Russia,
mushrooms of  the  above kind.  Four of them, of a
robust constitution, who conceived themselves proof
against the consequences under which their feebler
companions were beginning to suffer, refused obsti-
nately to take an emetic.  In the evening, the following
symptoms appeared.  Anxiety, 6ense of suffocation,
ardent thirst, intense griping pains, a small and irregu-
lar pulse, universal cold sweats, changed expression of
countenance, violet tint  of the nose and  lips, general
trembling, foetid stools.  These symptoms becoming
worse, they were carried  to the hospital.  Coldness
and livid colour of the limbs, a dreadful delirium, and
acute pains, accompanied them  to the last moment.
One of them 6unk a few hours after his admission into
the hospital; the three others had the same fate in the
course of the night  On opening their dead bodies, the
stomach and intestines displayed large spots of inflam-
mation and gangrene; and  putrefaction  seemed ad-
vancing  very rapidly.  It is  employed externally to
strumous phagedenic, and fistulous ulcers, as an escha-
rotic.
  Agaricus  piperatus.  The plant thus named by
Linnaeus, is the pepper mushroom ; also called peppet
agaric.  It is the Fungus piperatus albus, lacteo-succo
turgens of Ray.  Fungus albus  acris.  When freely
taken, fatal consequences are related by several writers
to have been the result.   When this vegetable has even
lost its  acrid juice  by drying, its caustic quality still
remains.
  Agaricus  pratensis.  The champignon of Hud-
son's Flora Anglica.  This plant  has  but little smell,
and is rather dry, yet when broiled and stewed, com
municates a good flavour.
  Agaricus  violaceus.  Violet mushroom.   This
fungus  requires much broiling, but when sufficiently
done  and  seasoned, it  is as delicious as an oyster.
Hudson's bulbosus is only a variety of this.
  AGATE.  A mineral found chiefly in Siberia and
Saxony, which  consists of chalcedony blended with
variable proportions of jasper, amethyst, quartz, opal,
heliotrope, and  carnelion.
  [This name  is usually applied to  an aggrezate of
certain quartzy or siliceous substances,  ultimately
combined, possessing a great degree of  hardness, a
compact and fine texture, agreeable colours, variously
arranged  and intermixed, and susceptible of a good
polish.  The minerals  which  most frequently  enter
into the composition of agates, are common chalce-
dony, carnelion, and jasper,  to which are sometimes
added  flint,  homstone, common quartz, amethyst,
heliotrope, and opal.  The chalcedony, however, is the
most common and abundant  ingredient, and may fre-
quently be considered the base of the agate; in fact,
some agates are composed entirely of chalcedony dif
ferently coloured.  In most cases, only two or three of
the aforementioned ingredients occur  in  the   same
agate; but, though variously intermixed,  each  ingre
dient usually remains perfectly distinct
  Agates exhibit the colours already mentioned, while
describing the simple minerals which compose  them.
But these colours are often so arranged, as to present
the resemblance of some well-known object.  Hence
arises much of the beauty of agates ;  and hence  also
most of the distinctive names they have received in
the arts.   Of these a few will be mentioned.  1. Onyx
agate.   2. Eyed  agate.   3.  Dotted agate.   4.  Mom
agate.   5. Dendritic agate.    6. Spotted or figured
agate.  7. Breccia  agate.  8.  Fortification agate.  9.
Ribband agate, &.C.  deav. Min.  A.]
  [Agatizkp wood.  This substance appears to have
been produced by the process common y called the pe
trifaction of wood.  It is essentially composed of sili-
ceous earth, which it is highly probable has been gra-
dually deposited, as the vegetable matter was decom-
posed and removed.  Both its form and texture indi-
cate its origin. Thus it presents more or less distinctly, 
AGG
AGR
the form of thf trunk, branches, roots, or knots, which
once belonged to the vegetable.  The surface is rough
or longitudinally striated.  Its texture is fibrous,  and
the fibres often intertwined like those  of wood.   Its
longitudinal fracture is usually fibrous or splintery, and
its cross fracture  imperfectly  conchoidai, with little
or no lustre.—Clean. Min.
  Agatizcd wood has been found in various parts of
the United States.   We have seen in the possession of
Dr. Mitchill some  remarkable specimens of siliceous
petrifactions or agatized madrepores, echini, &c! from
the West-Indian islands. A.]
  AGE.  JEtas.   The ancients reckoned six stages of
life.
  1.  Pueritia, childhood, which is to  the fifth year
if out age.
  2.  Adolescentia, youth, reckoned to the eighteenth,
»nd youth properly so called, to the twenty-fifth year.
  3.  Juoentus, reckoned from the twenty-fifth to the
thirty-fifth year.
  4.  Virilis atas, manhood, from the  thirty-fifth to
the fiftieth year.
  5.  Senectus, old age, from fifty to sixty.
  6.  Crepita <ctas, decrepit  age, which ends in death.
  AGENESIA.  (Aycvrjaia; from a, neg. yevvaw, or
yivo^at, to beget.)  Male sterility,  or  impotency in
man. A term employed by Vogel and Good.   See
Nosology.
  A'GER.  (Ager, gri. m.; from aypos.)  The com-
mon earth or soil.
  Acer naturje.  The womb.
  AGE'RATUM.   (Aynpalov; from a, priv. and yn-
pas, senectus : never old, evergreen ; because its flow-
ers preserve their beauty a long time.)  See Achillaa
ageratum.
  AGEU'STTA.  (From a, neg.  and ysvoaat, gusto,
to taste.)  Agkeustia; Apogeustia; Apogeusis.  A
defect or loss of taste.  A genus of disease in the class
locales, and order dysasthesia of Cullen. The causes
are fever or palsy, whence he forms two species:  the
latter he calls  organic, arising from some affection in
the membrane ofthe tongue, by which relishing things,
or those which have some taste, are prevented from
coming into contact with the nerves; the other atonic,
arising without any affection ofthe tongue.
  AGGLUTINA'NTIA. Adhesive medicines which
heal  by causing the parts to stick together.
  AGGLUTINA'TION.   (Agglutinatio;  from  ad
and glutino, to glue together.)  The adhesive union or
sticking together of substances.      '
  Agoluti'tio.  Obstruction in the oesophagus, or a
difficulty in swallowing.
  AGGREGATE.  (Aggregatus ; from aggrego, to
assemble together.)   Aggregated or added together.
1. When bodies ofthe same kind are united, the only
ronsequence is, that one larger body is produced.   In
this case, the  united mass is called an aggregate,  and
does not differ in its chemical properties from the bo-
dies  from which it was originally made.  Elementary
writers call the smallest parts into which an aggregate
can  be divided without destroying  its  chemical pro-
perties, integrant parts.  Thus the integrant parts of
common salt are the smallest parts which can be con-
ceived to remain without change; and  beyond these,
any further subdivision cannot be made without deve-
loping the component parts, namely, the aicali and the
acid ; which are still further resolvable into their con-
stituent principles.
  2.  A term applied to glands, flowers, gems, &c.  An
aggregate flo'-ver is one which consists of a number of
smaller flowers or fructifications, collected into a head
by means of some part common to them all. In  this
view aggregate flowers are opposed to simple flowers
which  have  a single  fructification, complete  in its
parts, nine of which are common to many flowers.
  Aggregate gem.  A term applied in botany when
two, three, or even  more gems  appear at the same
time.
  Aggregate glands.  (From  aggrego, to assemble
together.)  Glandula aggregata.  An assemblage of
glands, as  those on some parts of the internal surface
ofthe intestines.
  Aggregate peduncle.  Clustered  flower stalks,
so called when several grow together, as in verbascum
nigrum.
  ■Aggregation, affinity of.   See Attraction.
  •Aggregation, attraction of.  See Attraction.
  AGGREGATUS.  See Aggregate.
  AGHEU'STIA.  See Ageustia.
  AGITATO'RIA. Convulsive diseases.
  AGLACTA'TIO.  Defect of milk.
  AGLA'XIS.  Defect of milk.,
  Aglium.  1. A shining tubercle or pustule on the

  2. A white speck on the eye.  See JEgides.
  A'gnacal. A tree, which, according to Ray, grows
about the isthmus of Darien, and  resembles  a pear
tree, the fruit of which is a great provocative to venery.
  Agna'ta. See Adnata tunica.
  AGNI'NA.  (Agnina;  from  agnus,  a  lamb.)
AStius calls one ofthe membranes which involve the
foetus by the name of membrana agnina, which he
derives from its tenderness.  See Amnios.
  AGNOI'A.  (From a, priv. and yivuoKio, to know.)
Forgetfulness.
  AGNUS. A lamb.
  Agnus castus.   (Called agnus,  from the down
upon its surface, which resembles that upon a lamb's
skin ; and castus, because the chaste matrons, at the
feasts of Ceres, strewed them upon their beds and lay
upon them.) See Vitex agnus castus.
  [Agnus tartaricus.   This is a vegetable  produc-
tion, and belongs to the ferns.  It is the root of the
Polypodium Barometz, belonging to the class  Crypto-
gamia, and order Felices of Linnaeus. The root of this
plant is covered with a sort of orange-coloured wool
among the radicals, and has a peculiar oblong figure,
which, when put in a proper position, has a remote
resemblance to a sheep.  When pulled up by the roots,
the stipes of the leaves, except four, are cut away, and
those left behind are trimmed to  resemble legs, and
this Chinese juggle has had great sway in the world,
and  has  deceived even Dr. Darwin, who has figured
and noticed it in his Botanic Garden as a plant grow-
ing in the form of an animal.—Notes from  MitchilVs
Lectures.   A.]
  Agomphi'asis.  A looseness of the teeth.
  A'gone.  (kyovn; from a, neg. and yovos, offspring;
so called because it was supposed to cause barrenness.)
Henbane.   See Hyosciamus niger.
  AGO'NIA.  Sterility, impotence, agony.
  Agoni'sticum.   (Ayo)vis"ticov; from  ayuvtato,  to
struggle.)   A term  used by ancient physicians to sig-
nify water extremely cold, which was directed to be
given in large quantities, in acute erysipelatous fevers,
with a view of overpowering or struggling with the
febrile heat ofthe blood.
  A'GONOS.  (From a,  priv. and yovos, or yovn, an
offspring.)  Barren. Hippocrates calls those  women
so who have no children, though they might  have if
the impediment were removed.
  AGRE'STIS.  1. Pertaining to the field; the trivial
name of many plants.
  2. In the works of some olH writers, it expresses an.
ungovernable malignity in a disease.
  A'GRIA.  1. A name of the Ilex aquifolium, or com •
mon holly.
  2. A malignant pustule, of which  the ancient sur
geons, and particularly Celsus, describe two sorts ; one
which has been so called, is small, and casts a rough-
ness or redness over  the skin, slightly corroding it;
smooth about its centre; spreads slowly; and is  of a
round figure.  The  second ulcerates, with a violent
redness and corrosion, so  as to make the hair  fall off;
it is of an unequal form, and turns leprous.  >
  AGRIA'MPELOS.  (From  aypio?, wild, and auics-
\os, a vine.)  The wild  vine, or white bryony.  See
Bryonia.
  AGRIEL^'A.   (From ayptoc, wild, and tkata, the
olive-tree.)  The oleaster, or wild olive.
  AGRI'FOLIUM.  (From axis, a prickle, and <pv\-
Aov, a leaf.) The holly-tree.  Which should rather be
called acifolium, from its prickly leaves.
  AGRIMO'NIA.   (Agrimonia, a, f.; from  aypos, a
field, and uovos, alone: so named from its  being the
chief of all wild herbs.)   Agrimony.
  1. The name of a genus of  plants in  the Linnaean
system.  Class, Dodecandria; Order, Digynia,
  2. The pharmacopoeial  name of the common agri-
mony.  See Agrimonia eupatoria.
  Agrimonia eupatoria.  The systematic name of
the common agrimony.  Agrimonai of the pharma-
copoeias ; Agrimonia—foliis caulinis pinnatis,foliolis
undique serratis, omnibus minutis interstinctis, frue 
AGU                                            AIR
Hints hispidis of Linnaeus.  It is common infields about
hedges and shady places, flowering in June and July.
It has been principally regarded in the character of a
mild astringent and corroborant,  and many authors
recommend  it as a deobstruent, especially in hepatic
and other visceral obstructions. Chomel relates two
instances of its successful use in cases where the liver
was much enlarged and indurated.  It has been used
with advantage in haemorrhagic affections, and to give
tone to a lax and weak state ofthe solids.  In cutane-
ous  disorders, particularly in  scabies, we have  been
told that it manifests great efficacy.  For this purpose
it was given infused with liquorice in the form of tea;
but, according to Alston, it should be always exhibited
in the state of powder.  It is best used while fresh, and
the tops, before the  flowers are formed, possess the
most virtue.  Cullen observes that the agrimony has
some astringent powers, but they are feeble ;  and pays
little attention to what has been said in its favour.
  AGRIMONY.  See Agrimonia.
  Agrimony hemp.  See Bidens tripartita.
  AGRIOCA'RDAMUM.  (From aypws, wild, and
KapSauov, the nasturtium.)  Sciatica cresses, or wild
garden cress.
  AGRIOCA'STANUM.   (From aypios, wild, and
Ka$avov, the chestnut.)  Earth of pig-nut.   See Bu-
nium bulbo-castanum.
  AGRIOCI'NARA.  (From aypios, wild, and Ktvapa,
artichoke.)  Wild artichoke ;  not so good as the culti-
vated for any purpose.  See Cinara scolymus.
  AGRIOCOCCIME'LA.  (From aypios, wild, kokkos,
a berry, and pn\ea, an apple-tree.)   The Prunus spi-
nosa of Linnaeus.                               /
  AGRIOME'LA.  The crab-apple.
  A'grion.  Agriophyllon. The peucedanum silaus,
or hog's fennel.
  AGRIOPASTINA'CA.   (From aypios,  wild, and
pastinaca, a carrot.)  Wild carrot, or parsnip.
  AGRIOPHYLLON.  See Agrion.
  AGRIORI'GANUM.  (From aypios, wild, and opi-
yavov, marjoram.)  Wild marjoram. See Origanum
\ulgare.
  AGRIOSELI'NUM.   (From aypws, wild, and oe\i-
vov, parsley.)  Wild paisley.   Lee Smymium olusa-
trum.
  AGRIOSTA'RI.   (From aypios,  wild,  and  j-aij,
wheat)  Field-corn, a species of Triticum.
  AGRIPA'LMA.  (From aypios, wild, and zsa\ua, a
palm-tree.)  Agripalma gallis.   The  herb mother-
wort, or wild-palm.
  Agripa'lma gallis.  See Agripalma.
  AGRI'PP^E.  Those children which are  born with
their feet foremost are so called, because that was said
to be the case with Agrippa  the Roman,  who was
named ab agropartu, from his difficult birth.
  A'GRIUM.  An impure sort of natron.  The purer
sort was called halmyrhaga.
  AGROSTEMMA.  (Aypou  ?tuua, the garland  of
the field.) The name of a genus of plants.  Class De-
candria; Order, Pcntagynia.   Cockle.
  Agrostemma  githago.   This  plant  has  been
called Nigellastrum ; Pseudo melanthium ;  Lychnis
segetum major ; Githago; Nigella officinarum ; Lych-
noides segetum.  Cockle.  It has nr, particular virtues,
and is fallen into disuse.
  AGROSTIS.  (From aypos, a field.)   The name of
a genus of plants.   Class, Triandria ; Order, Digynia.
Bentgrass.
  AGRU'MINA.   Leeks; wild onions.
  AGRY'PNIA.   (From a, priv. and  vttvos, sleep.)
Watchfulness; sleeplessness.  The name of a  genus
in Good's Nosology.  See Nosology.
  AGRYPNOCO MA. (From aypvmos, without sleep,
and xuua, a lethargy.)  A lethargic kind of watchful-
ness, in which the patient is stupidly drowsy, and yet
cannot sleep.
  AGUE.  See Febris Intermittens.
  Ague cake.  The popular name for a hard tumour,
most probably the spleen on the left side of the belly,
lower than the false  ribs in the region of the spleen,
said to be the effect of intermittent fevers.   However
frequent it might have been  formerly, it is now very
rare, and although then said to be owing to the use of
bark, it is now less frequent since the bark has been
generally employed.
  Ague drop.  A medicine sold for the cure of agues,
composed of arsenite of potasca in solution in water.
The regular substitute for the quack medicine called
the tasteless ague drop, which has cured thousands of
that complaint, is  the liquor arsenicalis, or Fowler's
arsenical solution.
  Ague-free.  A name given by some to sassafras, on
account of its supposed febrifuge virtue.  .
  AGUST1NE.  (From a, priv. and yttria, taste, that
is tasteless.)  Auguslina.  A new earth discovered in
the Saxon beryl, or beryl of Georgien  Stadt, (a stone
greatly resembling the beryl of Siberia)  by Professor
Tromsdorff, of Erfurth, in Germany, to which he has
given the name of agustine, on account of the pro-
perty of forming salts which are nearly destitute of
taste.  This earth is white and insipid:  when  moist-
ened with water, it is somewhat ductile, but  is not
soluble in that fluid.  Exposed to a violent heat, it be-
comes extremely hard, but acquires no taste. It com-
bines with acids, forming salts which have little or no
taste.  It does not combine either in the humid or dry
way with alcalies, or with their carbonates.  It retains
carbonic acid but feebly.   It dissolves in acids equally
well after having been hardened  by exposure to heat,
as when newly precipitated.  With sulphuric acid it
forms a salt which is insipid, and  scarcely soluble, but
an excess of acid renders it soluble, and capable of
crystallizing in stars. With an excess of phosphoric
acid it forms a very soluble salt.   With nitrous  acid it
forms a salt scarcely soluble.
  Agutiguepoo'bi braziliensis.  An  Indian  name
of the arrow-root.  See Maranta.
  [AIGUE MARINE, called by some aqua marina; one
ofthe precious stones which has been found in various
parts of the United States.  It is a name sometimes
employed to designate the beryl.  A.]
  AIMATEI'A.  A black bilious and blood-like dis-
cbarge from the bowels.
  AlMORRH03'A.  See Hamorrhagia.
  AIMO'RRHOIS.  See Hamorrhois.
  AlPATHEI'A.   (From aei, always, and zsadoc. a
disease.)  Diseases of long continuance.
  Ai'pi.  Aipima coxera.  Aipipoca.   Indian  words
for Cassada.  See Jatropha manihot.
  AIR.  This term was, till lately, used as the generic
name for such invisible and  exceedingly rare fluids as
possess a very high degree of elasticity, and are not
condensible into the liquid state by any degree of cold
hitherto produced;  but as this term is commonly em-
ployed to  signify that compound of  aeriform  fluids
which constitutes our atmosphere, it has been deemed
advisable to restrict it to this signification, and to em-
ploy as the generic term the word Gas, for the different
kinds of air, except what relates  to our  atmospheric
compound.
  Air, atmospheric.  " The immense mass of perma-
nently elastic fluid which surrounds the globe we in-
habit,"  says Dr.  Ure, "must consist of a general
assemblage of every kind of air which can be formed
by the  various bodies  that compose   its surface.
Most of these, however, are absorbed by watery a
number of them are decomposed by combination with
each other; and some of them are seldom disengaged
in considerable quantities by the  processes of nature.
Hence it is that the lower atmosphere consists  chiefly
of oxygen and nitrogen, together with  moisture and
the occasional vapours or exhalations of bodies.  The
upper atmosphere seems to be composed of a large pro-
portion of hydrogen, a fluid of so much less specific
gravity than any other, that it must naturally  ascend
to the highest place, where, being occasionally set on
fire  by electricity, it appears to be  the  cause  of the
aurora borealis and  fire-balls. It may easily be un-
derstood, that this will only happen or. the confines of
the respective masses of  common atmospherical air,
and of the iuflammable air; that the combustion will
extend progressively, though rapidly, in flashings from
the place where it commences ; and that when by any
means a stream of inflammable air, in its progress to-
ward the upper atmosphere, is set on fire at  one end,
its ignition may be much more rapid than what hap-
pens higher up, where oxygen is wanting, and at the
same time  more definite in its figure and progression,
so as to form the appearance of a fire-ball.
  That the air of the atmosphere is so transparent as
to be invisible except by the blue colour it reflect.!
when in very large masses, as is seen in the  sky or
region above us, or in viewing extensive landscape*,
that it  is without smell, except that of electricity,
                                         37 
AIR
AIR
 which it sometimes very manifestly exhibits; altogether
 without taste, and impalpable; not condensible by any
 degree of cold into the dense fluid state, though easily
 changing its dimensions with its temperature;  that it
 gravitates and is highly elastic ; are among the nume-
 rous observations  and discoveries which do honour to
 the sagacity of the philosophers of the seventeenth
 century.   They likewise knew that this fluid is indis-
 pensably  necessary to combustion, but no one, except
 the great, though  neglected, John Mayow, appears to
 have formed any  proper notion of its manner of act-
 ing in that process.
   The air ofthe atmosphere, like other fluids, apjiears
 to be capable of holding  bodies in solution.  It takes
 up water in considerable quantities, with a diminution
 of its own specific gravity: from which circumstance,
 as well as from the consideration that water rises very
 plentifully in the vaporous state in vocuo, it seems pro-
 bable, that the air  suspends vapour, not so much by a
 real solution, as by keeping its particles asunder, and
 preventing their condensation.  Water likewise dis-
 solves or  absorbs air.
   Mere heating or cooling does not affect the chemical
 properties of atmospherical air;  but actual  combus-
 tion, or any process of the same  nature, combines its
 oxygen, and leaves its nitrogen separate.  Whenever
 a process of this kind is carried on in a vessel contain-
 ing atmospherical  air, which is enclosed either by in-
 verting the vessel over  mercury,  or by stopping its
 aperture in a proper manner, it is found that the  pro-
 cess ceases after a certain time; and that the remain-
 ing air (if a combustible body capable of solidifying the
 oxygen, such as phosphorus, have been employed,) has
 lost about  a fifth part of its volume, and is of such a
 nature as to be incapable  of maintaining any combus-
 tion lor a second time, or of supporting the life of ani-
 mals.  From these experiments it is clear, that one of
 the following deductions  must be true :—1. The com-
 bustible body has  emitted some principle, which, by
 combining with the air, has rendered  it unfit for the
 purpose of further combustion; or, 2. It has absorbed
 part of the air winch was fit for that purpose, and has
 left a residue of a different nature; or, 3. Both events
 have happened ; namely, that the pure part of the air
 has been absorbed, and a principal has  been emitted,
 which has changed the original properties of the re-
 mainder.
   The facts must  clear up these theories.   The first
 induction  cannot be true, because  the  residual air is
 not only of less bulk, but of less specific gravity, than
 before.   The air  cannot therefore have received so
 much as it has lost. The second is the doctrine of the
 philosophers who deny the existence of phlogiston, or
 a principle of inflammability; and the third must be
 adopted by those who maintain that such a principle
 escapes from bodies during combustion.  This residue
 was called phlogisticated air, in consequence of such
 an opinion.
  In the opinion that inflammable air is the phlogiston,
 it is not necessary to reject the second  inference that
 the air has been no otherwise changed than by the
 mere subtraction of one of its principles; for the pure
 or vital part ofthe  air may unite with inflammable air
 supposed to exist in a fixed  state in the combustible
 body;  and if the product of this union still continues
 fixed, it is  evident, that the  residue of the air, after
 combustion, will be the same as it would have been if
 the vital part had  been  absorbed  by any other fixed
 body.  Or, if the vital air be absorbed while inflam-
 mable  air  or  phlogiston is disengaged, and unites
 with the  aCriform residue,  his residue will not  be
 heavier than before, unless the inflammable air it has
 gained exceeds in weight the vital air it has lost; and
 if the inflammable air falls short of that weight, the
 residue will be lighter.
  These theories it was necessary to mention;  but it
 has been  sufficiently proved by various experiments
 that combustible bodies take oxygen from the atmos-
 phere, and leave nitrogen; and that when these two
 fluids are  again mixed in due proportions, they com-
 pose a mixture not  differing from atmospherical air.
  The respiration of animals produces the same effect
on  atmospherical air as combustion does, and their
constant heat  appears  to be an  effect of the same
nature.  When an animal  is included in a limited
quantity of atmospherical air, it dies as soon as  the
oxygen is consumed; and no other air will maintain
 animal life but oxygen, or a mixture which contains
 it.  Pure oxygen maintains the life of animals much
 longer than atmospherical air, bulk for bulk.
   It is to be particularly observed, however, that, in
 many ca.^es  of combustion, the oxygen of the  air, in
 combining with the combustible body, produces a
 compound, not solid, or liquid, but aeriform.  The re-
 sidual air will therefore be a mixture  of the  nitrogen
 of the  atmosphere with  the  consumed oxygen, con-
 verted  into another  gas.   Thus, in burning charcoal,
 the carbonic acid gas generated, mixes with  the resi-
 dual nitrogen, a> d makes up exactly, when the effect
 of heat ceases, the  bulk of  the original  air.   The
 breathing of animals, in like manner, changes the oxy-
 gen into carbonic acid gas, without altering the atmos-
 pherical volume.
   There are  many provisions in nature by which the
 proportion of oxygen in the atmosphere, which is con-
 tinually consumed in respiration and  combustion, is
 again  restored to that fluid.  In fact there appears, as
 far as an estimate can be  formed of the great and ge-
 neral operations of  nature, to be at least as great  an
 emission of oxygen as is sufficient to keep the general
 mass of the atmosphere at the same degree of purity.
 Thus, in volcanic eruptions, there seems to be at least
 as much oxygen emitted or extricated by fire from va-
 rious minerals, as is sufficient to maintain the combus-
 tion, and  perhaps even to meliorate the  atmosphere.
 And in the bodies of plants and animals, which appear
 in a great measure to derive their sustenance and aug-
 mentation from  the  atmosphere and its contents, it is
 found that a large proportion of nitrogen exists.  Most
 plants emit oxygen in the sunshine, from which it is
 highly probable that they imbibe and decompose the air
 ofthe atmosphere, retaining carbon, and  emitting the
 vital part.  Lastly, if to this we add the decomposition
 of water, there will  be numerous occasions in which
 this fluid will supply us with disengaged oxygen; while,
 by a very rational supposition, its  hydrogen  may  be
 considered as having entered into the"bodies of plants
 for the formation of  oils, sugars, mucilages, &c, from
 which it may be again extricated.
  To determine the  respirability or purity of air, it is
 evident that recourse must be had  to its comparative
 efficacy in maintaining combustion,  or  some  other
 equivalent process.
  From the latest and most accurate experiments, the
 proportion of oxygen in atmospheric air is by measure
 about 21 per cent.; and it appears to be very nearly
 the same, whether it  be in this country or on the coast
 of Guinea, on low plains  or lofty mountains, or even
 at the height  of 7250  yards above the level of the sea,
 as ascertained by Gay Lussac, in his aerial  voyage in
 September, 1805.  The remainder of the  air is  nitro-
 gen, with a small portion of aqueous vapour, amount-
 ing to about one  per cent, in the driest weather, and a
 still  less portion of  carbonic acid, not exceeding a
 thousandth part of the whole.
  As oxygen  and nitrogen differ in specific gravity in
 the  proportion of 135 to  121, according to Kirwan
 and of 139 to 120, according to Davy, it has been pre-'
 sumed, that the oxygen would be more abundant  in
 the  lower regions, and the nitrogen in the higher, if
 they constituted  a mere  mechanical mixture, which
 appears contrary to the fact.   On the other  hand it
 has  been  urged, that they cannot be  in the state 'of
 chemical combination, because they both retain their
 distinct properties unaltered, and no change  of tem-
 perature or density takes place on  their union.   But
 perhaps it may be  said, that, as they have no repug-
 nance to mix with each other, as oil and water have
 the continual agitation to which the atmosphere  is ex-
 posed, may be sufficient to prevent two fluids, differ-
 ing not more  than oxygen and nitrogen in gravity,
from separating  by subsidence, though  simply mixed
 On the contrary, it maybe  argued, that to saychemicai
 combination cannot take place without producing new
 properties, which did not  exist before in  the  compo-
nent parts, is  merely begging the question; tor though
this generally appears to be the case, and often in"a
 very striking  manner, yet  combination does  not al-
 ways produce a  change of properties, as  appears  in
 M.  Blots experiments with various  substances-  of
which we may instance water, the refraction of which
is precisely the mean of that ofthe oxygen and hydro-
gen, which are indisputably combined in it.
  To got rid of the difficulty, Mr. Dalton of Manchester 
AIR                                              AIZ
 framed an ingenious hypothesis, that the particles of
 different gases neither attract nor repel  each other; so
 that one gas expands by the repulsion of its own par-
 ticles, without any more interruption  from the pre-
 sence of another gas, than if it were  in a vacuum.
 This would account for the state of atmospheric air, it
 is true; but it does not agree with certain facts.   In
 the case of the carbonic acid gas in  the Grotto  del
 Cano, and over the surface of brewers' vats, why does
 not this gas expand itself freely upward, if the superin-
 cumbent  gases  do not  press upon it t  Mr. Dalton
 himself, too, instances as an argument  for  his hypo-
 thesis, that oxygen an'd  hydrogen gases, when mixed
 by agitation, do  not separate on standing.  But. why
 should either oxygen or hydrogen require agitation, to
 diffuse it through a vacuum, in which, according to Mr.
 Dalton, it is placed 1
   The theory of Berthollet appears consistent with all
 the facts, and  sufficient  to account for  the  phenome-
 non.  If two bodies be capable of chemical combina-
 tion, their  particles must have a mutual attraction for
 each other.  This attraction, however, may be so op-
 posed by concomitant circumstances, that  it may be
 diminished in any degree.  Thus we know, that the
 affinity of aggregation may occasion a body to combine
 slowly with a substance for which it has a powerful
affinity, or even entirely prevent its combining with it;
 the presence of a third substance may equally pre-
 vent the  combination;  and so may the absence of a
 certain quantity of caloric.  But in all these cases the
 attraction-of the particles must subsist, though diminish-
 ed or counteracted by opposing circumstances.   Now
 we know  that oxygen  and nitrogen are capable  of
 combination;  their particles, therefore, must attract
 each other; but in the circumstances in which they
 are placed in our atmosphere, that attraction is pre-
 vented from exerting itself, to such a degree  as to form
 them into a chemical compound, though it operates
 with sufficient force to prevent their separating by their
difference  of specific gravity.  Thus the state  of the
 atmosphere is accounted for, and every difficulty obvi-
 ated, without1 any new hypothesis.
  The exact  specific  gravity of atmospherical air,
 compared  to that of water, is a very nice and impor-
 tant problem.   By reducing to 60° Fahr.  and  to 30
 inches ofthe barometer, the results obtained with great
 care by Biot and Arago,  the specific gravity of atmos-
 pherical air, appears to  be 0.001-220, water  being  re-
 presented  by 1.000000.  This relation expressed frac-
 tionally is 1-820,  or water is 820 times denser than  at-
 mospherical air.  Mr. Rice, in the 77th and 78th num-
 bers of the Annals of Philosophy, deduces from  Sir
 George Shuckburgh's experiments 0.00120855 for the
specific gravity of air.  This  number gives water  to
 air as 827.437 to 1. If with Mr. Rice we take the cubic
 inch of water=252.525gr, then 100 cubic  inches  of
 air by Biot's experiments will weigh 30.808 grains, and
 by Mr. Rice's estimate 30.519.  He  considers with Dr.
 Prout the  atmosphere to be a compound of 4 volumes
 of nitrogen, and  1 of oxygen;  the specific gravity of
 the first being to that of the second as 1.1111 to 0.9722.
 Hence
   0.8 vol.  nitr. sp. gr.............  0.001166=0.000933
  05     oxy...................0.001340=0.000268
                                          0.001201
  The numbers are transposed in the Annals of Phi-
losophy by some mistake.
  Biot and Arago found the specific gravity of oxygen
to be  ...................................... 1.10359
and that of nitrogen........................ 0.96913
air being reckoned,  ......................... 1.00000
Or compared to water as unity,—
  Nitrogen i3 ............0.001182338
  Oxygen,  ..............0.001340379
  And 0.8 nitrogen....................=0.00094587
      0-2oxygen  ...................=0.00026927
And 0.79 nitrogen
    0.21 oxygen .
0.00121514
=0.000934
=0.000283
                                          0.001217
A number which  approaches very nearly to the result
of experiment  Many analogies, it must be confessed,
favour Dr. Prout's proportions;  but the greater num-
 ber of experiments on the composition and density of
 the  atmosphere agree with  Biot's results. Nothing
 can decide these  fundamental chemical proportions,
 except a new, elaborate, and most minutely accurate
 series of experiments.  We shall  then know whether
 the atmosphere contains in volume 20 or 21 per cenL
 of oxygen."—Ure's Chem. Diet.
  Air, alcaline.  See Ammonia.
  Air, azotic.  See Nitrogen.
  Air, fixed.  See Carbonic acid.
  Air, fluoric.  See Fluoric acid.
  Air, hepatic.  See Hydrogen sulphuretted.
  Air, heavy inflammable.  See Carburetted hydrogen.
  Air, inflammable.  See Hydrogen.
  Air, marine.   See Muriatic acid.
  Air, nitrous.  See Nitrous.
  Air, phlogisticated.  See Nitrogen.
  Air, phosphoric.  See Hydrogen phosphuretted.
  Air, sulphureous.  See Sulphureous acid.
  Air, vital.  See Oxygen.
  AISTHETE'RIU M.  (From atcBavouai, to perceive.)
 The sensorinm commune, or common sensory, or seat,
 or origin of sensation.
  AIX LA CHAPE'LLE. Called Akcn by the Ger-
 mans.  A town in the south of France, where there is
 a sulphureous water,  Thermae Aquis-granensis, the
 most striking feature  of which,  and what is almost
 peculiar to it, is the unusual quantity of sulphur it con-
 tains: the whole, however, is so far united to a  gase-
 ous basis,  as to be entirely volatilized by heat; so that
 none is left in the residuum after evaporation.  In co-
 lour it is pellucid, in smell sulphureous, and in taste
 saline, bitterish, and rather alcaline. The temperature
 of these waters varies considerably, according to the
 distance from the source and the spring itself.  In the
 well ofthe hottest bath, it is, according to Lucas, 136°,
 Monet, 146°; at the fountain where it is drank, it is
 112°  This thermal water is much resorted to on the
 Continent for  a variety of complaints.  It is  found
 essentially serviceable  in the numerous symptoms of
 disorders in the stomach and biliary organs, that follow
 a life of high indulgence in the luxuries of the table;
 in nephritic cases, which produce pain in the loins,
 and thick mucous urine with difficult micturition. As
 the heating qualities of this water are as decided as in
 any of the mineral springs, it should be avoided in
 cases of a general inflammatory  tendency, in  hectic
 fever and  ulceration of the lungs;  and in a disposition
 to active haemorrhagy.  As a hot bath, this water is
 even more valuable and more extensively employed
 than as an internal remedy.  The baths of Aix la Cha-
 peile may be said  to be more particularly medicated
 than any other that we are acquainted with.  They
 possess  both temperature of  any  degree that can be
 borne; and a strong impregnation with sulphur in its
 most active forms; and a quantity of aicali, which is
 sufficient to give it a very soft soapy feel, and to ren-
 der it more detergent than common water.  From these
 circumstances, these baths will- be found of particular
 service in  stiffness and rigidity of the joints and liga-
 ments, which is left by the inflammation of gout and
 rheumatism, and in the debility of palsy, where the
 highest degree of heat which the skin can bear is re-
 quired.  The sulphureous ingredient renders it highly
 active in almost every cutaneous eruption, and  in ge-
 neral in every foulness ofthe skin; and here the inter-
 nal use of the water should attend that of the bath
 These waters are also much employed in the distress-
 ing debility which follows a  long course of mercury
 and  excessive salivation.  Aken water is one of the
 few natural springs that are hot enough to be employed
 as a vapour bath, without the addition of artificial
 heat. It is employed in cases in which  the hot bath
 is used; and is found to be a remarkably powerful
 auxiliary in curing some ofthe worst  species of  cuta-
 neous disorders.   With regard to the dose of this wa-
 ter to be begun with, or the degree of heat to bathe in,
 it is in all cases best to begin with small quantities and
 low  degrees of heat, and gradually  Increase  them,
 agreeably to the effects and constitution ofthe patient.
 The usual time of the year for drinking these waters
 is from the beginning of May to the middle of June, or
 from the middle of August to the latter end of Sep
tcmber.
  Aizo'on.  (From act, always, and fu, to live.)  Aizc-
um.  1. An evergreen aquatic plant, like the aloe, said
to possess  antiscorbutic virtues. 
                      ALA

   l The house leek.  See Sempervivum tectorum.
   Aizoum.  See Aizoon.
   Aja' va.  An ancient name of a seed used in the East
 as a remedy for the colic.
   AJUGA.   (From a, priv. and fuyov,  a yoke.)  1.
 The name of a genus of plants in the Liniiaean system.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of the creeping bugloss.
 See Ajuga pyramidalis.
   Ajuoa pyramidalis.  Consolida media.  Bugvla.
 Upright bugloss.  Middle consound.  This plant, Aju-
 ga—caule tetragono  foliis radicalibus  maximis,  of
 Linnaeus, possesses subadstringent and bitter qualities:
 and has been recommended io phthisis, aphtha, and
 cynanche.
   [AKANTICONE.  The name of a mineral synony-
 mous with the epidote  of HaCiy, pistazit of Werner,
 glassy actynolite of Kirwan, &c.  A.]
   A'KENSIDE, Mark.  An English physician, born
 at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  in 1721; but more distin-
 guished  as  a poet, especially for  his  " Pleasures
 of the Imagination."   After studying at Edinburgh,
 and graduating at Leyden, he settled in practice; but
 though appointed physician to the  queen, as well
 as to St. Thomas's  Hospital, he is said  not to have
 been very successful.  He  died of a  putrid fever,  in
 his 49th year.  He has left a Dissertation on Dysentery
 in Latin, admired for its elegance ; and several small
 Tracts in  the Pliilosophical   and  London Medical
 Transactions.
   AL.  The Arabian article, which signifies the ; it is
 applied to a word by way of eminence, as the Greek o
 is. The Easterns express the  superlative by adding
 God thereto, as the mountain of God, for the hignest
 mountain; and it is probable that Al relates to the
 word Alia, God : so Alchemy, may be the chemistry of
 God,  or the most  exalted perfection  of chemical
 science.
   A'LA.  1. The wing of a bird.
   2. The arm-pit, so called because it answers to the
 pit under the wing of a bird.     I
   3. An accidental part of the seed of a plant; consist-
 ing of a membraneous prolongation from the side of the
 seed, and distinguished by the number into
   Semina monoterygia: one-winged, as in Bignonia.
   Dipterygia: two-winged, as  in Betula.
   Triptsrygia: three-winged.
   Tetrapterygia: four-winged.
   Polypterigia:  many-winged, or   Molendinacca:
 windmill-winged,  for so the many-winged  seeds of
 some umbelliferous plants are termed.
   4. The two lateral or side petals of a papilionaceous
 or butterfly-shaped flo.wer.
   Ala auris.  The upper part of the external ear.
   Ala interna minor. See Nympha.
   Ala nasi.  1. The cartilage of the nose which
 forms the outer part of the nostrils.
   2. The sides of the nose are called ala nasi.
   Ala  vespbrtilionis.  That  part of the ligament
 of the womb, which lies between the tubes and the
 ovarium ;  so called from its resemblance to the wing
 of a bat.
   ALABASTER. Among the stones which are known
 by the  name of marble, and have been distinguished
 by a considerable variety of denominations by statua-
 ries and others, whose attention is  more directed to
 their external character and appearance than their
 component parts, alabasters are those which have a
 greater or less degree of imperfect transparency, a gra-
 nular texture, are softer, take  a duller  polish than
 marble, and are usually of a  white  colour.  Some
 stones, however, of a veined and coloured appearance,
 iiave been considered as alabasters, from their possess-
 jig the first-mentioned criterion; and some transpa-
 rent and yellow sparry stones have also received this
 appellation.
   [Alabaster is  a variety of compact  gypsum.  It  is
found in compact masses of a fine grain,  whose frac-
ture is  even, or splintery, and nearly or quite dull, or
sometimes a little foliated.  It  is nearly opaque, and
its colours are commonly white or gray, sometimes
shaded with yellow, red, &x.  or variously  mingled.
Its specific gravity is sometimes only 1.87.  It is some-
times in concretions.
  Compact gypsum, and some  varieties  of granular
gypsum, are employed in sculpture and architecture,
under the name of alabaster. The same name is also
given to certain varieties of carbonate of linie.  It may
                      ALB

 be well to employ the term gypseous and calcareous
 alabaster.—Cleav. Min.
   The cabinet of the New-York Lyceum of Natural
 History contains some very fine specimens of gypseous
 alabaster, from various parts of the United States.  A.]
   ALiEFO'RMIS.  (Alwformis; from Ala, a wing,
 and forma, resemblance.)  Wing-like.  Any tiling like
 a wing.
   Alai'a phthi'sis.  (From aXaios, blind, and <j>Biats,
 a wasting.)  A consumption from a flux of humours
 from the head.
   [ALALITE.   A rare mineral, consisting principally
 of silex, magnesia, and lime, found in the form, of pris-
 matic crystals, otherwise called diopside.  A.]
   Alandahla.   The Arabian  for bitter. The bitter
 apple.   See Cucumis colocynthis.
   Alanfu'ta.  An Arabian name of a vein between
 the chin and lower lip, which was formerly opened to
 prevent foetid breath.
   Alaria ossa.  The wing-like processes of the sphe-
 noid bone.
   ALA'RIS.   (Alaris; from ala, a wing.)   Formed
 like, or  belonging to a wing.
   Alaris externus.  Musculus alaria  extemus.  A
 name of the external pterygoid muscle;  so called be-
 cause it takes its rise from the wing-like process of the
 sphenoid bone.
   Alaris vena.  The innermost of the three veins in
 the bend ofthe arm.
   Alate'rnus.  A species of rhamnus.
   ALATUS.  (From ala, a wing.)  Winged.  ] Ap-
 plied to stems and leaf-stalks, when the edges or angles
 are longitudinally expanded into leaf-like borders;  as
 in JEnopordium acanthium; Lathyrus latifalius, &c.
 and the leaf-stalk of the orange tribe, citrus, &c
  2. One who has prominent scapulae like the wings
 of birds.
  Albagras  nigra.  So Avicenna names the Lepra
 ichthyosis, or Lepra Gracorum.
  ALBAME'NTUM.   (From  albus,  white.)   The
 white of an egg.
  Alba'num.  Urinous salt.
  Alba'tio.  (From albus, white.) Albificatii   The
 calcination or whitening of metals.
  A'LBICANS.  (From albico, to grow  white ) In-
 clining to white.  Whitish.
  Albica'ntia co'rpora.  Corpora albicantia WiX-
 lisii.  Two small round bodies  or projections from the
 base ofthe brain, of a white colour.
  ALBIN.  A mineral found  in Bohemia; so called
from its  white colour.
  Albi'num.  Sec  Gnaphalium dioicum.
  ALBI'NUS Bernard Siegfred, son of a physician,
 and professor at Leyden of the same name, was born
near the end of the 17th century, and prosecuted his
studies with so  much zeal and success,  that he was
appointed, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, pro-
fessor of anatomy and surgery, when  only 20  years
old.  This office he filled for  half a century, and ac
quired a greater reputation than any of his predeces-
sors. He has left several valuable anatomical works;
 and particularly very accurate descriptions, and plates
of the  muscles  and bones, which are still highly
esteemed.
  A'LBORA.  A 'sort of itch; or rather of leprosy.
 Paracelsus says, it is a complication of the morphew,
 serpigo, and leprosy.  When cicatrices appear in the
 face like the serpigo, and then turn to small blisters of
 the nature of the  morphew, it is the albora.   It termi-
 nates without ulceration, but by foetid evacuations in
 the mouth and nostrils ; it is also seated in the root of
the tongue.
  ALBUCA'SIS, an Arabian physician and surgeon
 of considerable merit, who lived about the beginning
 of the twelfth century.  He  has copied much from
 preceding writers, but added also many original ob-
 servations; and his works  may be still perused with
 pleasure.  He insisted on the necessity of a surgeon
 being skilled in anatomy to enable him to operate with
 success, as well as acquainted  with the materia me-
 dica, that he may apply his remedies with  propriety.
 He appears to have extracted polypi from the nose, and
 performed the operation of bronchotoiny.  He is the
 first »vho left distinct  descriptions and delineations of
 the instruments used in surgery, and of the manner of
 employing them.
  ALBUGI'NEA.  (Albuginia; from albus, white:  so 
ALB
ALB
 called on account of its white colour.)  The name of a
 membrane of the eye and of the testicle.
   Albt/oinea oculi.   See Adnata tunica.
   Albuginea testis.  Tunica albuginea testis.  The
 innermost coat of the testicle. A strong, white, and
 dense membrane, immediately covering  the body or
 substance of the testicle.  On its outer surface it is
 smooth, but  rough and  uneven  on the inner.  See
 Testicle.
   ALBU'GO.  A white opacity of the cornea of the
 eye.  The Greeks named it leucoma; the Latins, albugo,
 nebula,  and nubecula.  Some  ancient writers have
 called u> pterygium, janua oculi, onyx, unguis, and
 egidcs.   It is a variety of Cuilen's Caligo cornea.
   [Albugo, (from albus, white.)  It is a white opacity
 of the cornea, not of a superficial kind, but affecting
 the very substance of this membrane.  A.]
   Album balsamum.  The balsam of copaiba.  See
 Copaiba.
   Album Grjecum.  The white dung of dogs.  It was
 formerly applied as a discutient, to the inside of the
 throat, in quinsies, being first mixed with honey; me-
 dicines of this kind have long since justly sunk into
 disuse.
   Album olus.   See Valeriana locusta.
   ALBUMEN.   Albumine.   1.  Coagulable lymph.
 This substance, which derives its name from the Latin
 for the white of an egg, in which it exists abundantly,
 and in its purest natural state, is one of the chief con-
 stituent principles of all the animal solids.  Beside the
 white of egg, it abounds in the serum of blood, the vi-
 treous and crystalline humours ofthe eye, and the fluid
 of dropsy.  Fourcroy claims to himself the honour of
 having discovered it in the  green  feculae of plants in
 general, particularly in those ofthe cruciform order, in
 very young ones, and in the fresh shoots of trees, though
 Rouelle  appears to have  detected  it there long before.
 Vauquelin says it exists  also in the mineral water of
 Plombieres.
   Seguin has found it in remarkable quantity in such
 vegetables as ferment without yest, and afford a vinous
 liquor; and from a series of experiments, he infers, that
 albumen is the true principle of fermentation, and that
 its action is more powerful in proportion to its solu-
 bility, three different degrees of which he found it to
 possess.
   The chief characteristic of  albumen is its coagula-
 bility by the action of heat.  If the white of an egg be
 exposed to a heat of about 134° F. white fibres begin to
 appear in it, and at 160° it coagulates into a solid mass
 )n a heat not  exceeding 212 it  dries, shrinks, and as-
 sumes the appearance of liorn. It is soluble in  cold
 water before it has been coagulated, but not after; and
 when diluted with  a very  large portion, it does not
 coagulate easily.  Pure alcalies dissolve it, even after
 coagulation.  It is precipitated  by muriate of mercury,
 nitro-muriate of tin, acetate of lead, nitrate of silver,
 muriate  of gold, infusion of galls and tannin.  The
 acids and metallic oxydes coagulate albumen.  On the
 addition of concentrated sulphuric acid, it  becomes
 black, and exhales a nauseous smell.  Strong muriatic
 acid gives a violet tinge to the coagulum, and at length
 becomes saturated with ammonia.   Nitric acid, at 70°
 F. disengages from it abundance of azotic gas;  and if
 the  heat  be  increased, prussic  acid is  formed; after
 wilich carbonic acid and carburetted  hydrogen are
 evolved, and the residue consists of water containing a
 little oxalic acid, and covered with a lemon-coloured
 fat oil.  If dry potassa or soda be triturated with albu-
 men, either liquid or solid, aininoniacal gas is evolved,
 and the calcination of the residuum yields an alcaline
 prussiate.
   On exposure to the atmosphere in a moist state, albu-
 men passes at once to the  state of putrefaction.
   Solid albumen maybe obtained by agitating white of
 egg with  ten  or twelve times  its  weight of alcohol.
 This seizes the water which held the albumen in solu-
 tion ; and this substance is precipitated under the form
 of white  flocks or filaments,  which cohesive attraction
 renders insoluble, and  which  consequently may be
 freely washed with water.  Albumen thus obtained is
 like fibrine, solid, white, insipid, inodorous, denser than
 water, and without action  or vegetable colours.  It
dissolves in potassa and soda more  easily than fibwne;
 but in acetic acid and ammonia, with more difficulty.
 When these two animal principles  are separately dis-
solved in  potassa, muriatic acid added to the albumi-
 nous, does not disturb the solution, but it produces a
 cloud in the other.
   Fourcroy and several other chemists have ascribed
 the characteristic coagulation of albumen by heat to its
 oxygenation.   But cohesive attraction is the real cause
 ofthe phenomenon.  In proportion as the temperature
 rises, the particles of water and albumen recede from
 each other, their affinity diminishes, and then the albu-
 men  precipitates.  However, by uniting albumen with
 a large quantity of water, we diminish its coagulating
 property to such a degree, that heat renders the solution
 merely opalescent.  A new-laid egg yields a soft coagu-
 lum by boiling; but when, by keeping, a portion of the
 water has transuded so  as to leave a void space within
 the shell, the concentrated albumen  affords a firm co-
 agulum.
   An analogous phenomenon is exhibited by acetate of
 alumina, a solution of which, being heated, gives a pre-
 cipitate in flakes, which re-dissolve as the caloric which
 separated the particles of acid and base escapes, or as
 the temperature falls.   A solution containing 1-10 of
 dry albumen forms by heat a solid coagulum; butwhen
 it contains only 1-15, it gives a glary liquid.  One-thou-
 sandth part, however, on applying heat, occasions opa-
 lescence.  Putrid white of egg, and the pus of ulcers,
 have a similar smell.  According to Dr.  Bostock, a
 drop  of a saturated solution of corrosive  sublimate let
 fall into water containing 1-2000 of albumen, occasions
 a milkiness and curdy precipitate.  On adding a slight
 excess  of the  mercurial solution  to  the albuminous
 liquid,  and applying heat, the precipitate which falls,
 being dried, contains in every 7 parts 5 of albumen.
 Hence that salt is the most delicate test of this animal
 product.  The  yellow pitchy precipitate occasioned by
 tannin, is brittle when dried, and not liable to putrefac-
 tion.   But tannin, or infusion of galls, is a much nicer
 test of gelatin than of albumen.
   The  cohesive  attraction  of  coagulated sJbumen
 makes  it  resist putrefaction.  In this state it may be
 kept  for weeks under water without suffering change.
 By long digestion in weak nitric acid, albumen seems
 convertible into gt'atin.  By the analysis of Gay Lussac
 and Thenard, 100 parts of albumen are formed of 52.883
 carbon, 23.872 oxygen, 7.540 hydrogen, 15.705 nitrogen;
 or, in other terras, of 52.883 carbon, 27.127 oxygen and
 hydrogen, in the proportion for constituting water,
 15.705 nitrogen, and, 4.285 hydrogen in excess.  The
 negative pole of a voltaic pile in high activity coagu-
 lates  albumen; but if the  pile be feeble, coagulation
 goes on only at the positive surface.  Albumen, in such
 a state of concentration as it exists in serum of blood,
 can dissolve some metallic oxydes, particularly the pro-
 toxide of iron.  Orfila has found white of egg to be the
 best antidote to the  poisonous effects of corrosive subli-
 mate on the human stomach.  As albumen occasions
 precipitates with the solutions of almost every metallic
 salt, probably it may act beneficially against other spe-
 cies of mineral poison.
   From its coagulability albumen is of great  use in cla-
 rifying liquids.
   It is likewise remarkable for the property of render-
 ing leather  supple, for  which  purpose a solution of
 whites of eggs  in water is used  by leather-dressers.—
 Ure's Chem. Diet.
  2. In botany, the term albumen is applied to a fari-
 naceous, fleshy, or horny substance, which  makes up
 the chief  bulk  of some seeds, as grapes, corn, palms,
 lilies, never rising out of the ground, nor assuming the
 office of leaves, being destined solely to nourish the ger-
 minating embryo, till its roots perform their  office. In
 the date palm,  this  part is nearly as hard as stone, In
 mirabilis it is like wheat-flour.  It is wanting in seve-
 ral tribe^  of plants, as those with compound or with
 cruciform flowers, and  the cucumber or  gourd kind,
 according to  Gardner.  Some few leguminous plants
 have it, and a great number of others, which, like them,
 have  cotyledons besides.  We are not, however, to
 suppose, that so important an organ is altogether want-
 ing, even in the above-mentioned plants.  The farina-
 ceous matter destined to nourish their embryos, is un-
 questionably lodged  in their cotyledons, the sweet taste
 of which, as they begin  to germinate, often evinces Its
 presence, and that it has undergone the same  change as
 in barley.  The albumen of the nutmeg is remarkable
 for its eroded variegated  appearance, and  aromatic
quality; the cotyledons of this plant are very small.—
 Smith.
                                          4] 
ALE
ALG
   ALBUMEN  ovi.  Albugo ovi; Albumen  albor ori ;
 Ovi albus  liquor; Ovi candidum  albumcntum; Cla-
 reta.  The white of an egg.
   ALBURNUM.  (From albus,  white.)   The soft
 white substance, which, in trees, is found between the
 liber, or inner bark, and the wood.   In process of time
 it acquires solidity, becoming itself the wood.   While
 soft, it  performs a very important part of the func-
 tions of  growth,  which  ceases  when it  becomes
 hard.   A new circle of alburnum is annually formed
 over the old, so that a transverse section of the trunk
 presents a pretty correct register of the  tree's age,
 each  zone marking one  year.  From its colour and
 comparative  softness, it  has been  called by  some
 writers, the adeps arborum.  The  alburnum is found
 in largest quantities in trees that are vigorous.  In an
 oak six inches in  diameter, this substance is nearly
 equal in bulk to the wood.
   A'LBUS. White.  This term is applied to many
 parts, from their white colour; as linea alba, lepra
 alba, macula alba, &c.
   A'LCAHEST.  An Arabic word to express a uni-
 versal dissolvent, which was pretended to by Paracel-
 sus and Van Helmont  Some say that Paracelsus first
 used this word, and that it is derived from the German
 words al and gecst, i. e. all spirit:  and that Van Hel-
 mont borrowed the word, and applied it to his inven-
 tion, which he called the universal dissolvent.
   A'LCALI.   (Arabian.)  This word is spelt indif-
 ferently with a c or a Ac.  See Alkali.
   ALCAL1ZATION. The impregnating any spritu-
 ous fluid with an aicali.
   ALCANNA.  (Indian word.) See Anchusa.
   A'lcaol. The solvent for  the preparation of the
 philosopher's stone.
   ALCARRAZES.   A species of  porous  pottery
 made in Spain.
   ALCEA.  (Alcea, a. f.; fromaA/07, strength.) The
 name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaeati  system.
 Class, Monadelphia; Order, Polyandria. Hollyhock.
   Alcea jEovptiaca villosa.  See  Hibiscus Abel-
 moschus.
   Alcea Indica.  See Hibiscus Abelmoschus.
   Alcea rosea.  Common hollyhock.  The  flowers
 of this beautiful tree are said  to possess adstringent
 and mucilaginous virtues.  They are seldom used me-
 dicinally.
   Alchemia.  See Alchemy.
   ALCHEMI'LLA.  (Alchemilla, at. f.  So called be-
 cause it was celebrated by the  old alchemists.)
   1. The name  of a genus of  plants in the Limiaean
 system.   Class,  Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia. La-
 dies' mantle.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of the plant called la-
 dies' mantle.  Sea Alchemilla vulgaris.
   Alchemilla  vulgaris.  Ladies'  mantle.   This
 plant, Alchemilla:—Foliis lobatis  of Linnaeus, was
 formerly esteemed as an adstringent in haemorrhages,
 fluor albus, &c. given internally.   It is fallen into
 disuse.
  ALCHEMIST.   One who  practises  the mystical
 art of alchemy.
  A'LCHEMY.  Alchemia; Alchimia; Alkima. That
 branch of chemistry which relates to  the transmuta-
 tion of  metals into gold;—the forming a panacea or
 universal  remedy,—an alcahest,  or universal men-
 struum,—a universal ferment, and many  other (ab-
 surdities.
  Alchimia.  See Alchemy.
  ALCHIMI'LLA.  See Alchemilla.
  A'lchitron.   1. Oil of Juniper.
  2. Also the name of a dentifrice of Messue.
  A'LCHYMY.  Alchemy.
  ALCOHOL.  See Alkohol.
  ALCYO NIUM.   It is difficult to say what  the
 Greeks  called by this name.   Dioscorides  speaks  of
 five sorts of it.  It is a spongy plant-like substance,
 met with on the sea-shore, of different  shapes and co-
lours.  This bastard sponge is calcined with a little
salt, as a dentifrice, and is used to  remove spots on
 the skin.
  ALDER.  See Betula alnus.
  Alder, berry-bearing.  See Rhamnus frangula.
  Alder wine.  See Betula alnus.
  Aldrum.  See Alzum.
  Aldum.  See Ahum.
  ALE.  CcrevUia; Liquor ctreris ;  Vinumhordea-
 ceitm.   A fermented liquor made from malt and hops,
 and chiefly distinguished from  beer, made from the
 same ingredients, by the quantity of hops used therein,
 which is greater in beer, and  therefore renders the
 liquor more bitter, and fitter for keeping.  Ale, when
 well fermented, is a wholesome  beverage,  but seems
 to disagree with  those subject to asthma, or any dis-
 order ofthe respiration, or irregularity in the digestive
 organs.   Tne  old dispensatories enumerate several
 medicated ales,  such as cerevisia  oxydorica, for the
 eyes, cerevisia  antiarthritica, against  the  gout; ct-
 phalica, epileptica, Sec.  See Beer.
  ALEI'ON.  (AXuov,  copious.)  Hippocrates uses
 this word as an epithet for water.
  ALEI'PHA.  (From aXudm, to anoint.)   Any me-
 dicated oil.
  ALELAI'ON.   (From aXs, Bait, and eXaiov, oil.)
 Oil beat up with salt, to apply to tumours.  Galen fre-
 quently used it.
  ALE'MA.   (From a. priv. and Xtuos, hunger.)
 Meat, food, or any tiling that satisfies the appetite.
  ALEMBIC.  (Alembicus.  Some derive it from the
 Arabian particle al, and ap&i\ ;  from ap6atvu>, to as-
 cend. Avicenna declares it to be Arabian.)  Moors-
 head.  A chemical utensil  made of glass, metal, or
 earthenware, and adapted to receive volatile products
 from retorts.  It consists of a body to which is fitted  a
 conical head, and out of this head descends laterally  a
 beak to be inserted into the receiver.
  ALE'MBROTH.  (A Chaldee word, importing the
 key of art.)  1. Some explain it as the name of a salt,
 sal mercurii, or sal philosophorum <$• artis; others say
 it. is named alembrot and sal fusionis or sal fixionis
 Alembroth desiccatum is said  to be  the sal tartari,
 hence this word seems to signify alkaline salt, which
 opens the bodies of metals by destroying their sulphurs,
 and promoting their separation from the ores.  From
 analogy, it is supposed to have the same effect in con-
 quering obstructions and  attenuating viscid fluids in
 the human body.
  2. A peculiar  earth, probably containing a fixed
 alkali, found in the island of Cyprus, has also  this ap-
 pellation.
  X A solution of the corrosive sublimate, to which
 the muriate of ammonia has been added, is called sal
 alembroth.
  A lepe'nsis.  A species of ash-tree, which produces
 manna.
  A'les.  (From aXs, salt.)  A compound salt
  Aleu'ron. (From aXcui, to grind.) Meal.
  ALEXANDERS   See Smymium olusatrum.
  Alexanders, round-Uavtd.   See  Smymium perfo-
liatum.
  ALEXANDRIA.   (Alexandria.)   Alexandrina.
The bay-tree, or laurel, of Alexandria.
  Alexa'ndrium.   Emplastrum viride.  A plaster
described by Celsus, made with wax, alum, &c.
  ALEXICA'CUM.  (From aAtJw, to  drive away,
and  kokov, evil.)   An antidote  or amulet, to resist
poison.
  ALEXIPHA'RMIC. (Alcxipharmicum; fromaA^a,,
to expel, and <j>appaKov, a poison.)  Antipharmicum ;
 Caco-alexiteria.  A medicine supposed to preserve the
body against the power of poisons, or to correct or ex-
pel  those taken.   The  ancients  attributed this pro-
perty to some vegetables and even waters distilled from
them. The term, however, is now very seldom used.
  ALEXIPYRE TICUM.   (From oA^cj,  to  drive
away, and •svperos. fever.)   A febrifuge.
  ALEXIPY'RETOS.  Alexipyreturn.  A remedy for
a fever.
  Ale'xir.  An elixir.
  ALEXITE'RIUM.  (Alcxiterium, i.n.; from aArfa,
to expel, and rnpeui, to preserve.)  A preservative me-
dicine against poison, or contagion.
  ALGA.  A sea-weed.
  Alg*.  1. The name of an order or division of the
class Cryptogamia in the Linnaean system of plants.
The name of one of the seven families or  natural
tribes into which  the whole vegetable kingdom is di-
 vided by Linnaeus in his  Philosophia Botanica.  He
defines them plants, the roots, leaves, and stems of which
 are all in one.  Under this description are compre-
 hended all the sea-weeds and some other aquatic plants.
  2. In the sexual system of plants  Alga  constitute
the third order of the class, Cryptogamia. From their
 admitting of little distinction of toot, leaf, or stem, end 
ALI
ALI
the parts of their flowers being equally incapable of
description, the genera are distinguished by the situ-
ation of what is supposed to  be the flowers or seeds,
or by the resemblance which the whole plant bears  to
some other substance.
  The parts of fructification of the algae are in caly-
eules of which there are three varieties:—
  I. Pelta, target; a flat, oblong fruit, seen in the Li-
then caninus.
  2. Scutella, the saucer;  a  round, hollow, or flat
fruit, as in Lichen stellaris.
  3  Tuberculum, the tubercle; a hemispherical fruit,
observable in Lichen geographicus.
  In the fuci, the parts of fructification are sometimes
in hollow bladders;  and in some ofthe ulvae, it is dis-
persed through the whole substance ofthe plant.
  A'LGAROTH.   (So called from Victorius  Alga-
roth, a physician of Verona, and its inventor.)  Alga-
rot; Algaroth;  Mercurius vita; Pulvis Algarothi;
Pulvis  angelicus •  Mercurius mortis.  The  antimo-
nial part of the butter of antimony, separated from
some of its acid by  washing  it in water.  It is vio-
lently emetic in doses of two or three grains, and is
preferred by many for making the emetic tartar.
  ALGE DO.  (From aAyos, pain.)   A  violent pain
about  the  anus, perinseum, testes, urethra, and blad-
der, arising from the sudden stoppage of a virulent go-
norrhoea.   A term very seldom used.
  ALGE'MA.   (From  aXyeto, to be  in pain.)  Alge-
modes; Algematodes.  Uneasiness;  pain of any kind.
  A'LGOR.  A sudden dullness or rigour.
   Algosarel.  The Arabian term for the wild carrot.
See Daucus sylvestris.                /
   Alha'gi.  (Arabian.)  A  species or Hcdysarum.
The leaves are hot and pungent, the flowers  pur-
gative.
   A lha'ndala.  An Arabian name for the colocynth,
or bitter apple.
   Alha'sef.  (Arabian.)  Alhasaf.  A sort of foetid
pustule, called also Hydroa.
   A'lia squilla .   (From aXtos, belonging to  the sea,
and oklXXci, a shrimp.)  The prawn.  A species  of
 the genus cancer.
   A'hca.   (From alo, to nourish )   In general signi-
fication, a grain, a sort of food admired by the ancients.
 It is not certain whether it is  a grain or a preparation
 of some kind thereof.
   Alicastrum.  (From alica, as siliquastrum from
 siliqua.)  A kind of bread mentioned by Celsus.
   A'lices.  (From a\iZ,u>, to sprinkle.)   Little  red
 spots in the skin, which precede  the eruption of pus-
 tules in the small-pox.
   Aliena'tio mentis.   Estrangement ofthe mind.
   ALIENA'TION.  (Alienatio; from alieno, to
 estrange.)   A term  applied to any wandering  of  the
 mind.
   ALIENA'TUS.   Alienated.  A  leaf  is so termed
 when the first leaves give way to others totally differ-
 ent from them, and the natural habit of the genus, as
 is the case in many of the mimosa from New Holland.
   ALIFO'RMIS.   Alaeform, or  wing-like.  A name
 given by anatomists and naturalists to some parts from
 their supposed  resemblance, as  aliform muscles,  ice.
 See Alaformis.
   ALIRIENT.   (Alimentum; from  alo, to nourish.)
 The name of aliment is given generally to every sub-
 Btance, which being subjected to  the action of the or-
 gans of digestion, is capable by itself of affording nou-
 rishment.   In this sense an aliment is extracted neces-
 sarily  from vegetables  or  animals: for only those
 bodies that have possessed life are  capable of serving
 usefully in the nutrition of animals  during a certain
 time.  This manner of regarding  aliments appears
 rather too  confined.  Why  refuse  the  name of  ali-
 ments to substances which, in reality, cannot of them-
 selves afford nourishment, but which contribute effica-
 ciously to nutrition, since they enter into the compo-
 sition of the organs, and of the animal fluids ?  Such
 are the muriate of soda, the  oxyde of iron, silicia,  and
 particularly water, which is found in such abundance
 in the bodies of animals, and is so necessary to them.
 It appears preferable to consider as  an aliment every
 substance which can serve in nutrition; establishing,
 however, the important distinction between substances
 which can nourish of themselves, and those which are
 useful to nutrition only in concert with the former.
   In respect to their  nature, aliments are different
from each other, by the proximate principles which
predominate in their composition.  They may be dis-
tinguished into nine classes:—
  1st,  Farinaceous aliments: wheat,  barley,  oats,
rice, rye, maize, potato, sago, salep, peas, haricots,
lentils, &.c.
  2d,  Mucilaginous aliments: carrots, salsafy, (.goats-
beard) beet-root, turnip, asparagus, cabbage, lettuce,
artichoke, cardoons, pompions, melons, &c.
  3d,  Sweet aliments:  the  different sorts of sugar
figs, dates, dried grapes, apricots, &c.
  4th,  Acidulous   aliments:  oranges,  gooseberries,
cherries, peaches, strawberries, raspberries, mulberries,
grapes, prunes, pears, apples, sorrel, &c.
  5th,  Fatty and  oily aliments:  cocoa, olives, sweet
almonds,  nuts, walnuts, the  animal fats, the oils,
butter, &c.
  6th,  Caseous aliments:  the different sorts  of milk,
cheese, &c.
  7th,  Gelatinous aliments:  the tendons, the aponeu-
rosis, the chorion, the cellular membrane, young ani-
mals, &c.
  8th,  Albuminous aliments:  the brain, the nerves,
eggs, &c.
  9th, Fibrinous aliments: the flesh and the blood of
different animals.
  We might add to this list a great number of sub-
stances that  are employed  as medicines, but which
doubtless are nutritive, at least  in some of their im-
mediate principles; such are manna, tamarinds, the
pulp of cussia, the extracts and saps of vegetables, the
animal or vegetable decoctions.
  Among aliments there are few employed such  as
nature presents them ; they are generally prepared,
and disposed in such a manner as to be suitable  to the
action of  the  digestive organs.  The   preparations
which they undergo are infinitely various, according
to the sortof aliment, the people, the climates, customs,
the degree of civilization: even fashion is not without
its  influence on the art of preparing aliments.
  In  the hand of the  skilful cook, alimentary sub-
stances almost entirely change  their nature-.—form,
consistence,  odour, taste, colour, composition, &c,
every thing is so modified that it is impossible for the
 most delicate tastes to recognise the original substance
of certain dishes.
  The useful object of cookery is to render aliments
 agreeable to the senses, and of easy digestion;  but it
 rarely stops here:  frequently with people advanced in
 civilization its object is to excite delicate palates, or
 difficult tastes,  or to please vanity  Then, far frem
 being a useful art, it becomes a real scourge,  which
 occasions a great number  of diseases, and has fre-
 quently brought on premature death.
   We understand  by drink, a liquid which, being  in-
 troduced into the digestive organs, quenches  thirst,
 and so  by this repairs the habitual losses of our fluid
 humours: the drinks ought to be considered as real
 aliments.
   The drinks are distinguished by their chemical com-
 position :—
   1st, Water of different sorts, spring water, river wa
 ter, water of wells, &c.
   2d, The juices  and  infusions of vegetables and ani-
 mals, juices of lemon, of gooseberries, whey, tea,
 coffee, &c.
   3d, Fermented  liquors : the different sorts of wine,
 beer,  cider, perry, &c.
   4th, The alcoholic liquors: brandy,  alcohol, ether,
 rum, sack, ratafia.
   ALIMENTARY.   Alimentarius.  Nourishing  or
 belonging to food.
   Alimentary canal.  Canalis  alimentarius. Ali-
 mentary duct.  A name  given  to the whole of those
 passages which the food  passes through from  the
 mouth to the anus.  This duct  may be said to be  the
 true characteristic of an  animal; there  being no ani-
 mal without  it, and whatever has it, being  properly
 ranged under the class of animals.  Plants receive their
 nourishment by the numerous fibres of their roots,  but
 have  no common receptacle for  digesting the food  re
 ceived, or for carrying off the excrements.  But in  all,
 even  the lowest degree of animal life, we may observe
 a stomach, if not also intestines, even where we cannot
 perceive the least formation of any  organs  of  the
 senses,  unless  that common one of  feeling, as  in
 oysters. 
ALE
ALK
   Alimentary duct. 1. The alimentary canal. See
 Alimentary canal.
   2. The thoracic duct  is sometimes so called. See
 Thoracic duct.
   Alimos.  Common liquorice.
   A'limum.   A species of arum.
   Alipa'sma.  (From aXutbw,  to  anoint)   An oint-
 ment rubbed upon the body to prevent sweating.
   Alipow.  A species of turbith, found  near  Mount
 Ceti, in Languedoc.   It is a powerful purgative, used
 instead of senna, but is much more active.
   Ahl'tTJE.  (From aXeicbio, to anoint.)  Those who
 anointed persons after bathing.
   Alisanders.  The same as  alexanders.
   ALI'SMA.   (Alisma;  from  aXs,  the  sea.)  The
 name of  a  genus  of  plants in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Hexandria; Order, Polygynia.  Water-plantain.
   Alisma  plantago aquatica.    The systematic
 name ofthe water-plantain, now fallen into disuse.
   A'lit.  Alith.   Asafostida.
   A'lkahat glaube'ri.   An alkaline salt.
   A'lkahest.  An imaginary universal  menstruum,
 or solvent.  See Alcahest.
   A'lkahest glaube'ri.  An alkaline salt.
   ALKALESCENT.   Alkalescens.  Any  substance
 in which  alkaline properties are beginning to be deve-
 loped, or to predominate,  is so termed.
   A'LKALI.   (Aicali, in Arabic, signifies  burnt; or
 from al and kali, i. e. the essence,  or the whole of
 kali, the plant from which it  was originally prepared,
 though now derived from plants of every kind. Aicali;
 alifi ;  alafor; alafort; calcadis.
   Alkalies may be defined, those bodies which com-
 bine with acids, so as to neutralize or impair their ac-
 tivity, and produce salts.  Acidity and alkalinity are
 therefore two correlative terms of one species of com-
 bination.  When Lavoisier introduced oxygen as the
 acidifying principle, Morveau proposed  hydrogen as
 the alkalifying principle, from Us being a constituent
 of volatile aicali or ammonia.  But the splendid dis-
 covery by Sir H. Davy, ofthe  metallic basis of potassa
 and soda, and of their conversion into alkalies, by com-
 bination with oxygen, has banished for ever that hypo-
 thetical conceit. It is the mode in which the consti-
 tuents are combined,  rather  than  the nature  of the
 constituents themselves, which gives  rise  to the acid
 or alkaline condition.  Some metals combined with
 oxygen in one proportion, produce a body possess-
 ed of alkaline properties; in  another proportion, of
 acid properties.  And on the other hand,  ammonia
 and prussic acid prove that both the alkaline and acid
 conditions can exist independent of  oxygen.  These
 observations, by generalizing our notions of  acids and
 alkalies, have rendered  the definitions of them very
 imperfect.  The difficulty of tracing a limit  between
 the acids and alkalies is still increased, when we find
 a body sometimes performing the functions of an acid,
 Bometimes of an alkali.  Nor can  we diminish this
 difficulty by having recourse to the beautiful law dis-
 covered by Sir H. Davy, that oxygen and  acids  go to
 the positive pole, and  hydrogen  alkalies, and inflam-
 mable bases to the negative pole.  We cannot in fact
 give the name of acid to all the bodies which go to the
 first of these poles, and that of alkali  to those that go
 to the second ; and if we  wished to define  the alkalies
 by bringing into view their electric energy,  it  would be
 necessary to compare them with the  electric energy
 which is opposite to them.  Thus we are always re-
 duced to define alkalinity  by the property which it has
 of saturating acidity,  because alkalinity and acidity
 are two correlative and  inseparable  terms.  M. Gay
 Lussac conceives the  alkalinity which the  metallic
 oxides enjoy, to be the restdt of two opposite properties,
 the alkalifying property ofthe metal, and the acidifying
of oxygen, modified both  by the combination and by
the proportions.
  The alkalies maybe arranged into three classes-
1st, Those which consist of a metallic- basis combined
with oxygen.   These are three  in  number,  potassa,
soda, and hthia. 2d, That which contains no oxygen
viz. ammonia.  3d, Those containing oxygen, hydro-
gen, and carbon. In this  class we have aconita, atro-
pia, brucia, cicuta, datura, delphia, hyosciama,  mor-
phia, strychnia, and perhaps some other truly vegeta-
blt alkalies.  The order of vegetable alkalies may be
 as numerous as that of vegetable acids.  The earths
lime, barytes, and strontites, were enrolled among the
     44
 alkalies bv Fourcroy, but they have been kept apart by
 other systematic writers, and are called alkaline earths.
   Besides neutralizing acidity, and thereby giving birth
 to salts, the first four alkalies having the following pro-
 perties :—
   1st, They change the purple colour of many vegeta
 bles to a green, the reds to a purple, and the yellows to
 a brown.  If the purple have been reddened by acid,
 alkalies restore the purple.
   2d, They possess this power on vegetable colours
 after being saturated with  carbonic acid, by which
 criterion  they are distinguishable from the  akaline
 earths.
   3d, They have an acrid and urinous taste.
   4th, They are powerful solvents  or corrosives of
 animal matter ; with which, as well as with oils in
 general, they combine, so as to produce neutrality.
   5th, They are decomposed, or volatilized, at a strong
 red heat.
   6th, They combine with water in every proportion,
 and also largely with alcohol.
   7th, They continue to be soluble  in water when neu
 tralized with carbonic acid; while the alkaline earths
 thus become insoluble.
   It is needless to detail at length Dr. Murray's specu
 lations on alkalinity. They seem to flow from a pa'.
 tial view of chemical phenomena.  According to him
 either oxygen or hydrogen  may generate alkalinity,
 but the combination of both principles is necessary to
 give this  condition  its  utmost energy.  "Thus the
 class of alkalies will exhibit the same relations as the
 class of acids.  Some are compounds of a base with
 oxygen ; such are the greater number of the metallic
 oxydes, and  probably of the  earths.  Ammonia is a
 compound of a base with hydrogen.   Potassa, soda,
 barytes, strontites, and probably lime, are compounds
 of bases with oxygen and hydrogen ; and these  last,
 like the analogous order among the acids, possess the
 highest  power."  Now, perfectly dry and caustic ba
 rytes, lime, and  strontites, as well  as the dry potassa
 and soda  obtained by Gay Lussac and Thenard, are
 not inferior in alkaline power to the same bodies after
 they are slacked or combined with water.  100 parts
 of lime destitute of hydrogen, that is, pure oxyde of
 calcium, neutralize 78 parts of carbonic acid.   But 132
 parts of Dr. Murray's strongest  lime, that is, the  hy-
 drate, are  required to produce the same alkaline effect.
 If we  ignite nitrate of barytes, we obtain, as is well
 known, a perfectly dry barytes, or protoxide of bari-
 um ; but if we ignite crystallized  barytes, we  obtain
 the same alkaline earth  combined with a prime equi-
 valent of water.  These two different states of barytes
 were  demonstrated by M. Berthollet  in an excellent
 paper published in the 2d  volume of the  Memoirs
 D'Arcueil, so far back as 1809.  " The  first barytes "
 (that from crystallized barytes) says he,  " presents all
 the characters of a combination ; it is engaged with a
substance  which diminishes its action on other bodies
 which renders it more fusible, and  which gives it by
 fusion the appearance of glass.  This substance is no-
 thing  else but water;  but  in fact, by adding  a little
 water to the second barytes  (that from ignited nitrate'
 and by urging it at the fire, we give it the properties
of the first." Page 47.   100  parts  of barytes void of
 hydrogen, or dry barytes, neutralize 28 1-2 of dry car-
 bonic  acid.   Whereas  111  2-3  parts of the  hydrate
or what Dr. Murray has styled the most energetic,  are
required to produce the same effect In fact, it is  not
hydrogen which combines with the  pure barytic earth
but hydrogen and oxygen in the state of water. The
proof of this is, that when carbonic acid and that  hy-
drate unite, the exact quantity of water  is disengaged
The protoxide of barium, or pure  barytes, has never
been combined with hydrogen by any chemist— Ure'a
 Chem. Diet.                                     *
  Alkali causticum.   Caustic alkali.  An  alkali is
so called when deprived of the carbonic acid it usually
contains, for it then becomes more caustic, and more
violent in  its action.
  Alkali, caustic volatile.  See Ammonia.
  Alkali, phlogisticated. Prussian alkali.  When a
fixed alkali is ignited with  bullock's blood,  or other
animal substances, and lixiviated, it is found to be in
a great measure saturated with prussic acid •  from the
theories formerly adopted respecting this combination
it was called phlogisticated alkali.                   '
  Alkali  rixuM.  Fixed alkali.  Those alkalies  or* 
ALK
ALK
so called that emit no characteristic smell, and  cannot
be volatilized, but with the greatest  difficulty.  Two
kinds of fixed alkalies  have only hitherto been made
known, namely potassa and soda. See Potassa and
Soda.
  Alkali, fossile.  See Soda.
  Alkali, mineral.  See Soda.
  Alkali,  Prussian.  See Alkali, phlogisticated.
  Alkali, vegetable.  See Potassa.
  Alkali, volatile. See Ammonia.
  ALKALI'NA.   Alkalines.   A class of substances
described  by Cullen as comprehending the substances
otherwise termed antacida. They consist of alkalies,
and  other substances  which  neutralize acids.  The
principal alkalines in use, are the carbonates and sub-
carbonates of soda and potassa, the  subcarbonate of
ammonia, lime-water,  chalk, magnesia and its car-
bonate.
  ALKALIZATION.   Alkalizatio.   The impreg-
nating any thing with  an alkaline salt, as spirit of
wine, Sec.
  ALKALOMETER.  The  name of an instrument
for determining the quantity  of  alkali in commercial
potassa and soda.
  A'lkanet.  (Alkanah, a reed, Arabian.)  See An-
chusa tinctoria.
  Alka'nna.  See Anchusa.
  Alka'nna ve'ra.  See Lawsonia inermis.
  ALKEKE'NGI.   (Arabian.)   The winter-cherry.
See Physalis alkekengi.
  ALKE'RMES.  A term borrowed  from the Arabs,
denoting a celebrated remedy, ofthe form and consist-
ence of a confection, whereof the kermes is the basis.
See Kermes.
  Aleima.  See Alchemy.
  A'LKOHOL.  (An Arabian word, which signifies
antimony:  so called from the usage of the Eastern
ladies to paint their eyebrows with antimony, reduced
to a most  subtile powder; whence it at  last came to
signify  any thing  exalted to  its  highest perfection.)
Alcohol; Alkol;  Spiritus vinosus rectificatus ;  Spi-
ritus vini  rectificatus ;  spiritus vini  concentratus ;
Spiritus vini rcctificatissimus.
  1.  This term  is applied in strictness only to the pure
spirit obtainable by distillation and subsequent  rectifi-
cation from all liquids that have undergone  vinous
fermentation, and from none  but such as are suscepti-
ble of it.  But it is commonly  used to signify this spirit
more or less imperfectly freed from water, in the state
in which it is usually met with  in the shops,  and in
which, as it was first obtained from the juice of the
grape, it was long distinguished by the name of spirit
of wine.  At present it is extracted chiefly from grain
or molasses in Europe, and from the juice of the sugar
cane in the  West Indies; and in  the diluted state in
which  it  commonly occurs in trade, constitutes the
basis of the several  spirituous liquors called brandy,
rum, gin,  whiskey, and cordials,  however variously
denominated or disguised.
  As we  are not able to compound alkohol  imme-
diately from its ultimate constituents, we have recourse
to the process of  fertnentation, by which its principles
are first extricated from the substances in which they
were combined, and then united into a new compound;
to distillation, by which this new compound, the alko-
hol,  is separated in a state of dilution with water, and
contaminated with essential  oil; and to rectification,
by which it is ultimately freed from these.
  It appears to  be  essential to the fermentation of
alkohol, that the fermenting fluid should contain sac-
charine matter, which is indispensable to that  species
of fermentation  called vinous.  In  France, where  a
great deal of wine  is made, particularly at the com-
mencement of the vintage, that is too  weak  to be a
saleable commodity, it is a oommon practice to subject
this  wine to distillation, in order to draw off the spirit;
and  as the essential oil that rises in this process is of a
more pleasant  flavour than that of malt or molasses,
the French brandies are preferred to any other;  though
even in the flavour  of these there is a difference, ac-
cording to the wine from which they are produced.  In
the West Indies a spirit is obtained from the juice of
the sugar-cane, which  is highly impregnated with its
essential oil, and well known  by the name of rum.
The distillers in this country use  grain, or molasses,
Whence they distinguish the products by the name of
vialt spirits, and molasses spirits.  It  is said that a
very good spirit may be extracted from the husks of
gooseberries or currants, after wine  has been  made
from them.
  As the process of malting developes the saccharine
principle of grain, it would appear to render it fitter for
the purpose;  though it is the common practice to use
about three parts of raw grain with one of malt.  For
this two reasons may be assigned: by using raw grain,
the expense of malting is saved, as well as the duty on
malt; and the process of malting requires some nicety
of attention, since, if it be carried too far, part of the
saccharine matter is lost, and if it be stopped too  soon,
this matter will not be wholly developed. Besides, if
the malt be dried too quickly, or by any unequal heat,
the spirit it yields  will be less in quantity, and  more
unpleasant in flavour.  Another object of economical
consideration is, what grain will afford the most spirit
in proportion to its price, as well as the best in quality.
Barley appears to produce less spirit than wheat; and
if three parts of raw wheat be mixed with  one of
malted barley, the produce is said to be particularly
fine.  This is the practice of the distillers in Holland
for producing a spi»it of the finest quality; but in Eng-
land they are expressly prohibited from using  more
than one part of wheat to  two of other grain.  Rye,
however, affords still more spirit than wheat.
  Other articles have been employed, though not ge-
nerally, for the fabrication of spirit, as carrots and
potatoes;  and we are lately informed  by  Professor
Proust, that from the fruit of the carob tree he has ob-
tained good brandy in the proportion of a pint from
five pounds ofthe dried fruit.
  To  obtain  pure alkohol,  different processes  have
been recommended; but the  purest rectified spirit  ob-
tained as  above described, being that which  is least
contaminated with foreign matter, should be employed.
Rouelle recommends to draw off half the spirit in a
water bath;  to rectify this  twice more, drawing off
two-thirds each time; to add water  to  this  alkohol,
which will turn it milky by separating the essential
oil remaining in it; to distil the spirit from this water;
and finally rectify it by one more distillation.
  Baume  sets apart the first running, when about a
fourth is come over, and continues the distillation till
he has drawn off about as much more, or till the liquor
runs off milky.  The last running he  puts into  the
still again, and mixes the first half of what comes
over with the preceding first product.  This process is
again repeated, and all the first products being mixed
together, are  distilled  afresh.  When about half  the
liquor is come over, this is  to be set apart as pure
alkohol.
  Alkohol in this state, however, is not so pure as
when, to use  the language of the old chemists, it has
been  dephlegmated, or still further freed from water,
by means of some alkaline salt   Boerhaave  recom-
mended, for this purpose, the  muriate of soda, deprived
of its  water of crystallization by heat, and added hot
to the spirit.  But the subcarbonate of potassa is pre-
ferable.   About a third of the weight of the alkohol
should be added to it in a glass  vessel,  well shaken,
and then suffered to subside.  The salt will be moist-
ened by the water absorbed from the alkohol; which
being decanted, more of the salt is to be added, and
this is to be continued till the salt falls dry to the bot-
tom of the vessel.   The alkohol in this state will be
reddened by a portion of the pure potassa, which it
will hold in solution, from which it must be freed by
distillation in a water bath.   Dry muriate of lime may
be substituted advantageously for the alkali.
  As alkohol is much lighter than water, its  specific
gravity is adopted as the test of its purity.  Fourcroy
considers it as rectified  to the highest point when its
specific gravity is 829, that of water being 1000;  and
perhaps this is nearly as far as it can be carried by the
process of Rouelle  or  Baume simply.   Bories found
the first measure that came over from twenty of  spirit
at 836 to be  820, at the temperature of 71° F.   Sir
Charles Blagden, by the addition of alkali, brought it
to 813, at 60°  F.  Chaussier professes to have reduced
it to 798; but he gives 998.35 as the specific gravity of
water.  Lowitz asserts that he has obtained it at 791,
by adding as much alkali as nearly to absorb the spirit;
but the temperature is not indicated.  In the shops, it
is about 835 or 840: according to the  London  College
it should be 815.
  It is by no means an easy undertaking to determine 
ALK                                              ALK
 the strength or relative value of spirits, even with suf-
 ficient  accuracy for commercial purposes.  The fol-
 lowing requisites must be obtained before this can be
 well done:  the specific gravity of a certain number of
 mixtutes of alkohol and water must be taken so near
 each other, as that the intermediate  specific gravities
 may not perceptibly differ from those deduced from
 the supposition of a  mere mixture of the fluids; the
 expansions or  variations  of specific gravity in these
 mixtures must be determined at different temperatures;
 some easy method  must be contrived of determining
 the presence and quantity of saccharine or oleaginous
 matter which the spirit may hold in  solution, and the
 effect of such  solution on  the specific gravity; and
 lastly, the specific gravity of the fluid must be ascer-
 tained by a proper floating instrument with a graduated
 stem or set of weights; or, which  may be more con-
 venient, with both.
   The most remarkable characteristic property of al-
 kohol, is its solubility or combination in all proportions
 with water; a  property jiossessed  by no other com-
 bustible substance, except the acetic spirit obtained by
 distilling the dry acetates.   When it is burned in a
 chimney which communicates with the worm-pipe of
 a distilling apparatus, the product, which is condensed,
 is found to consist of water, which exceeds the spirit
 in weight about one-eighth  part; or more accurately,
 1U0 parts of alkohol, by combustion, yield 136  of
 water.  If alkohol be bumed in closed vessels with
 vital air, the product  is found to be water and  car-
 bonic acid.  Whence it is inferred that alkohol con-
 sists of hydrogen, united either to carbonic acid, or its
 aciditiable base; and that  the oxygen uniting on the
 one part with the hydrogen, forms water; and on the
 other with the  base of the carbonic  acid, forms that
 acid.
  The  most exact  experiments  on this  subject are
 those recently made by De Saussure.  The alkohol he
 used had, at 62.8°, a specific  gravity or 0.8302; and by
 Richter's  proportions, it  consists of 13.8 water, and
 86.2 of absolute alkohol. The vapour of alkohol was
 made to traverse a  narrow porcelain  tube  ignited;
 from which the products  passed along a glass tube
 about six feet in length, refrigerated by ice.  A little
 charcoal was deposited in the porcelain, and a trace of
 oil in the glass  tube.  The  resulting gas being ana-
 lyzed in an exploding  eudiometer, with oxygen, was
 found to resolve itself  into carbonic acid  and water.
 Three volumes  of oxygen  disappeared for every two
 volumes of carbonic acid  produced;  a  proportion
 which  obtains in the analysis by oxygenation of de-
 fiant gas.  JS'ow, as nothing resulted but a combustible
gas of this peculiar constitution, and condensed water
 equal to 1000-4064 ofthe original vveightof the alkohol,
 we may conclude that vapour of water and defiant
gas are the sole constituents  of alkohol.  Subtracting
the 13.8 per cent, of water in  the alkohol at the begin-
ning of the experiment, the absolute alcohol of Richter
 will consist of 13.7 hydrogen, 5L98 carbon, and 34.32
oxygen.   Hence  Gay Lussac infers, that  alkohol, in
vapour, is composed of one volume olefiant gas, and
one volume of the vapour of water, condensed by che-
mical affinity into one volume.
  Thesp. gr. of olefiant gas is.................0.97804
            of aqueous vapour is............0.62500
                                    Sum=1.60304
                   And alkoholic vapour is=1.6133
  These  numbers approach  nearly to those which
would result from two prime equivalents of olefiant
gas, combined with one of water; or ultimately, three
of hydrogen, two of carbon, and one of oxygen.
  The mutual action between alkohol and acids pro-
duces a  light,  volatile, and inflammable substance,
called aether.  Pure alkalies unite with spirit of wine,
and form alkaline tinctures.  Few ofthe neutral salts
unite with this fluid, except such as contain ammonia.
The carbonated fixed alkalies are not soluble in it
From the strong attraction which exists between alko-
hol and water, it unites with this last  in saline solu-
tions, and in most cases precipitates the salt. This is
a pleasing experiment, which  never fails to surprise
those who  are  unacquainted with chemical effects.
If, for example, a saturated  solution of nitre in water
betaken, and an equal quantity of strong spirit of wine
be poured upon it, the mixture will constitute a weaker
spirit, which is incapable  of holding the nitre in solu-
  tion ; It therefore falls to the bottom  instantly, In the
  form of minute crystals.
    The degree  of solubility of many neutral salts in
  alkohol have been ascertained by experiments made
  by Macquer, of which an account is published  in the
  Memoirs ofthe Turin Academy.
    All deliquescent salts are soluble in alkohol.  Alko-
  hol holding the strontitic salts in solution, gives a flame
  of a rich purple.  The cupreous salts and boracic acid
  give a green ; the soluble calcareous, a reddish; the
  barytic, a yellowish.
   The alkohol of 0.825 has been subjected to a cold of
  —!)1° without congealing.
   When potassium and sodium are put in contact with
 the strongest alkohol, hydrogen  is evolved.  When
 chlorine is made to pass through alkohol in a Woolfe's
 apparatus, there is a  mutual action.  Water,  an oily-
 looking substance, muriatic acid, a little carbonic acid
 and carbonaceous matter, are the products.  This oily
 substance  does not redden turnsole, though its  analysis
 by heat shows it to contain muriatic acid. It is white,
 denser than water, has a cooling taste analogous to
 mint, and  a peculiar, but  not aethereous odour.  It is
 very soluble in  alkohol, but  scarcely in water.  The
 strongest alkalies hardly operate on it.
   It was at one time maintained, that alkohol did not
 exist in wines, but was generated and  evolved by the
 heat of distillation. On this subject Gay Lussac made
 some  decisive experiments.  He agitated wine with
 litharge in fine powder, till the liquid became as limpid
 as water, and then saturated it with subcarbonate of
 potassa.    The  alkohol immediately  separated  and
 floated on the top. He distilled another portion of
 wine in vacuo, at 59° Fahr., a temperature considera-
 bly below that of fermentation.  Alkohol came  over.
 Mr. Brande  proved the same position  by saturating
 wine with subacetate of lead, and adding potassa.
   Adem and Duportal have  substituted for  the redis-
 tillations used in converting wine or beer into alkohol,
 a single process of great elegance.  From the capital
 of the still a tube is led into  a large copper recipient.
 This is joined by a second tube to a second  recipient,
 and so on  through a series of four vessels, arranged
 like a Woolfe's apparatus. The last vessel communi-
 cates with  the worm of the first  refrigeratory.  This,
 the body of the still, and the  two recipients nearest it,
 are charged with the wine or  fermented liquor. When
 ebullition takes place in the still, the vapour issuing from
 it communicates soon the boiling temperature to the
 liquor in the two recipients. From these the volatilized
 alkohol will rise and pass into the  third vessel, which
 is empty.   After communicating a certain heat to it,
 a portion of  the finer  or  less condensible spirit will
 pass into the fourth, and  thence, in a little, into the
 worm of the first refrigeratory.   The wine round the
 worm will likewise acquire heat,  but more  slowly.
 The vapour that in that event may pass uucondensed
 through the first worm, is conducted  into a second,
 surrounded with cold  water. Whenever the still is
 worked off, it is  replenished  by a stop-cock from the
 nearest recipient, which, in its turn, is filled from the
 second, and the second from the first worm tub.  It is
 evident, from this arrangement, that  by keeping the
 third and fourth  recipients at a certain temperature
 we may cause alkohol, of any degree of lightness, to
 form directly at the remote extremity ofthe apparatus.
 The utmost economy of fuel and time is also secured,
 and a better flavoured spirit is obtained.  The am ire
gout of bad spirit can scarcely be  destroyed by  infu-
sion with charcoal and redistillation.  In this mode of
 operating, the taste and smell are excellent, from the
 first.  Several stills on the above principle have  been
 constructed at Glasgow for the West India  distillers,
 and have  been found extremely advantageous.  The
 excise laws do not permit their  employment in the
 home trade.
  If sulphur in sublimation meet with the vapour of
 alkohol, a very small portion  combines with  it, which
 communicates a hydrosulphurous  smell to  the fluid.
 The increased surface of  the two substances appears
 to favour the combination.  It had been supposed, that
 this was the only way in which they could be united •
 but Favre has lately asserted, that having digested two
 drachms of flowers of sulphur in an ounce of alkohol,
 over a gentle Are not sufficient to make it boil, for
 twelve hours, he obtained a solution that gave twenty-
 three grains of precipitate. A similar mixture left to 
ALL
ALL
stand for a month in a place exposed to the solar rays,
afforded sixteen grains of precipitate; and another from
which the light was excluded, gave thirteen grains.  If
alkohol be boiled with one-fourth of its weight of sul-
phur for an hour, and filtered hot, a small quantity of
minute crystals will be deposited on cooling; and the
clear fluid will assume an opaline hue on being diluted
with an equal quantity of water, in which state it will
pass the filter, nor will any sediment be deposited for
several hours. The alkohol used in the last-mentioned
experiment did not exceed 840.
  Phosphorus is sparingly soluble  in alkohol,  but in
greater quantity by heat than  in cold.  The addition
of water to this solution affords an opaque milky fluid,
which becomes clear by  the subsidence of the phos-
phorus.
  Earths seem to have scarcely any action upon alko-
hol.   Quicklime, however, produces some  alteration
in this fluid, by changing its flavour, and rendering it
of a yellow colour.  A portion  is probably taken up.
  Soaps are dissolved with great facility in alkohol,
with  which  they  combine more readily  than with
water.  None of the metals, or their oxydes, are acted
upon  by this fluid.  Resins, essential oils, camphor,
bitumen, and various  other substances, are dissolved
with great facility in alkohol, from which they may be
precipitated by the addition of water.  From its pro-
perty of dissolving resins, it becomes the menstruum of
some varnishes.
  Camphor is not only extremely soluble in alkohol,
but assists the solution of resins in it. Fixed oils, when
rendered drying  by metallic oxydes, are soluble in it, as
well as when combined with alkalies.
  Wax,  spermaceti, biliary calculi, urea, and  all the
animal substances of a resinous nature, are soluble in
alkohol; but it curdles milk, coagulates albumen, and
hardens the muscular fibre and coagulum ofthe blood.
  The uses of alkohol are various.  As a solvent of
resinous  substances and essential oils, it is employed
both in pharmacy and by the perfumer.  When diluted
with an equal quantity of water, constituting wnat is
called proof spirit, it is used for extracting tinctures
from vegetable and other substances, the alkohol dis-
solving the resinous parts, and the water the gummy.
From giving a steady heat without smoke when burnt
in a lamp, it was formerly much employed to keep
water boiling on the tea-table.  In thermometers, for
measuring great  degrees of cold, it is preferable to mer-
cury, as we cannot bring it to freeze.  It is in common
use for preserving many anatomical preparations, and
certain subjects  of natural  history; but  to  some it is
Injurious, the molluscae for instance, the calcareous
covering of which it in time corrodes.  It is of consi-
derable use, too, in chemical analysis, as appears under
the different articles to which it is applicable.
  From the great expansive power of alkohol, it  has
been made a question, whether it might not he applied
with  advantage in the  working of  steam engines.
From a series of experiments  made by Betancourt, it
appears, that the steam of alkohol has, in all cases of
equal temperature, more than double the force of that
of water; and that the  steam of alkohol at 174° F. is
equal to that of water 212°;  thus there is a considerable
diminution of the consumption of fuel, and where this
is so expensive as to be an object of great importance,
by contriving the machinery so as to prevent the alko-
hol from being lost, it may possibly at some future time
be used  with  advantage, if some other fluid of great
expansive power, and inferior price, be not found more
economical.
  Alkohol may be decomposed by transmission through
a red-hot tube:  it is also decomposable by the strong
acids, and thus affords that remarkable product, Ether,
and Oleum Vini.— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  2.  The alkohol  of  the London Pharmacopoeia is
directed  to be made thus:—Take of rectified spirit, a
gallon; subcarbonate of potassa, three pounds.  Add a
pound of the  subcarbonate of potassa,  previously
heated to 300°, to the spirit, and macerate for twenty-
four hours, frequently stirring them; then pour off the
spirit, and add  to it the rest  of the subcarbonate of
potassa heated to the same degree; lastly, with the aid
of a warm bath,  let the alkohol distil over, keep it iii a
well-stopped bottle. The specific gravity of alkohol is
to the specific gravity of distilled water,  as  815 to
1/100.
  ALLAGITE.  A carbosilicate of manganese.
  ALLANITE.  A mineral, first recognised as a dis-
tinct species by Mr. Allan of Edinburgh.  It is massive
and of a brownish  black colour.
  [Before the blowpipe it froths, and is converted into
scoria.  In nitric acid it forms a jelly.  It contains
silex 35.4, lime 9.2, oxide of cerium 33.9, alumine 4.1,
oxide of  iron 25.4,  volatile matter 4.0.  It  is  found in
Greenland, and associated with mica and feldspar. A.l
  Allantoi'des.  (From aAAaf, a hog's pudding, and
eiSos, likeness: because  in  some brutal annuals it is
long and thick.)  Membrana allantoides. A membrane
of the foetus, peculiar to brutes, which contains the
urine discharged from the bladder.
  ALLELUIA.   (Hebrew.  Praise the  Lord.)  So
named from its many virtues.  See  Oxalis acetosella.
  ALL-GOOD.  See Chenopodium bonushenricus.
  ALL-HEAL.  See Heraclium and Stachys.
  ALLIA'CEOUS. (Alliaceus ; from allium, garlick.)
Pertaining to garlick.
  ALLI A'RI A.  (From allium, garlick: from its smell
resembling garlick.)  See Erysimum alliaria.
  A'LLIUM.  (Allium,  i. n.; from oleo, to smell; be-
cause it  stinks: or from  aXeui, to avoid;  as  being
unpleasant to most people.)   Garlkk.
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys
tem.  Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of garlick.  See Allium
sativum.
  Allium cepa.  Cepa.  Allium:—scaponudoinferni
ventricoso longiore, foliis teretibus, of Linnaeus. The
Onion.  Dr. Cullen says, onions are acrid and  stimu-
lating, and possess  very little nutriment. With bilious
constitutions they generally produce flatulency, thirst,
headache, and febrile symptoms: but where the tem-
perament is phlegmatic,  they are of infinite service, by
stimulating the habit and promoting the natural secre-
tions, particularly expectoration and urine.  They are
recommended in scorbutic  cases, as possessing anti-
scorbutic properties.  Externally, onions are employed
in suppurating poultices, and suppression of urine in
children is said to be relieved by applying them, roasted,
to the pubes.
  Allium porrum.  The Leek or Porret   Porrum
Every part of this plant, but more particularly the root,
abounds  with a peculiar odour.  The expressed juice'
possesses diuretic qualities, and is given in the cure of
dropsical diseases,  and calculous complaints, asthma,
and scurvy.  The  fresh roe- is much employed  foi
culinary purposes.
  Allium sativum.  Allium;  Theriaca  rusticorum
Garlick.   Allium:—caule planifolio bulbifero,  bulb/
composilo, staminibus tricuspidatis, of Linnaeus.  This
species of Garlick, according to Linnaeus, grows spon-
taneously in Sicily; but, as it is much employed for
culinary  and medicinal purposes, it has been long very
generally cultivated in  gardens.  Every  part  of the
plant, but more especially the root, has a pungent acri-
monious  taste, and a peculiarly offensive strong smell.
This odour is extremely  penetrating and diffusive; for,
on the root being taken into the stomach, the alliaceous
scent impregnates  the whole system, and  is discover
able in the various excretions, as in the urine, perspi.
ration, milk, Sec.  Garlick  is generally allied  to the
onion, from which it seems only to differ in being more
powerful in its effects, and in its active matter, being in
a more fixed state.  By  stimulating the stomach, they
both favour digestion, and, as a stimulus, are readily
diffused over the system.  They may, therefore, be con-
sidered as useful condiments with the food of phleg-
matic people, or those whose circulation is languid, and
secretions interrupted; but with thosesubject to inflam-
matory complaints, or where great irritability prevails,
these roots, in their acrid state, may prove very hurtful.
The medicinal uses of garlick are various; it has been
long in estimation  as an expectorant in pituitous asth-
mas, and other pulmonary affections, unattended with
inflammation.  In  hot biiious constitutions, therefore,
garlick is improper: for it  frequently  produces flatu-
lence, headache, thirst,  heat, and other inflammatory
symptoms.  A free use of it is said to promote the piles
in habits disposed  to this complaint.  Its utility as a
diuretic in dropsies is attested by unquestionable au-
thorities ; and its febrifuge  power has not only been
experienced in preventing the paroxysms of intermit-
tents, but even in subduing  the plague. Bergius says
quartans have been cured  by  it; and he begins by
giving one bulb, or  clove, morning and evening, addi 
ALL
ALL
 every day one more, till four or five cloves be taken at
 a dose:  if the fever then vanishes, the dose is to be
 diminished, and it will be sufficient to take one or two
 cloves, twice a day, for some weeks. Another virtue of
 jarlick is that of an anthclminthic.  It has likewise been
 found of great advantage in scorbutic cases, and in cal-
 culous disorders, acting in these not only as a diuretic,
 but,  in  several instances,  manifesting a lithontriptic
 power.  That the juice of alliaceous plants, in general,
 has considerable  effects upon human calculi, is to be
 Inferred from  the experiments of Lobb; and we are
 abundantly warranted in asserting that a decoction of
 the beards of leeks, taken, liberally, and  its use  per-
 severed  in for a length of time, has been found remark-
 ably  successful in calculous  and gravelly complaints.
 The penetrating and diffusive acrimony of garlick, ren-
 ders its external application useful in many disorders,
 as a rubefacient, and more especially as  applied to the
 soles ofthe feet, to cause a  revulsion from  the head or
 breast, as was successfully practised and recommended
 by Sydenham. As soon as an  inflammation appears,
 the garlick cataplasm should be removed, and one of
 bread and milk be  applied, to obviate excessive pain.
 Garlick  has also  been variously employed externally,
 to tumours and cutaneous diseases: and, in certain
 cases of deafness, a clove, or small bulb of this root,
 wrapt in gauze or muslin, and introduced into  the
 meatus  auditorius,  has been  found an  efficacious
 remedy.  Garlick may be administered in different
 forms; swallowing  the clove entire, after being dipped
 in oil, is recommended as most effectual;  where this
 cannot be done, cutting it into pieces without bruising
 it, and swallowing  these may be found  to answer
 equally well,  producing thereby no uneasiness in  the
 fauces.  On being beaten up and formed  into pills, the
 active parts of this  medicine soon evaporate: this  Dr.
 Woodville,  in his  Medical Botany, notices, on  the
 authority of Cullen, who thinks that Lewis has fallen
 into a gross error, in supposing dry garlick more active
 than fresh.  The  syrup and oxymel of garlick, which
 formerly had a place in the British Pharmacopoeias, are
 now  expunged. The cloves  of garlick  are  by some
 bruised, and applied to the wrists, to cure  agues, and
 to the bend of  the arm to cure the toothache: when
 held in the hand, they are said to relieve hiccough;
 when beat with common oil into a poultice, they re-
 solve sluggish humours; and, if laid on  the navels of
 children, they are supposed to destroy worms in the
 intestines.
   Allium victoriale.  Victorialislonga.   The root,
 which when dried loses its alliaceous smell and taste,
 is said to be  efficacious in allaying the  abdominal
 spasms of gravid females.
  ALLOCHROITE.  A massive opaque mineral of a
 grayish, yellowish, or reddish colour.
  [This mineral resembles certain varieties of the gar-
 net in some of its physical characters, but more parti-
 cularly in composition.   It contains silex  37.0, lime
 30.0, alumine 5.0, oxide of iron 18.5, oxide of manga-
 nese 6.25 ;=96.75.  Cleav. Min.  A.]
  ALLOEO'SIS.  (From aXXos, another.)  Alteration
 in the state of a disease.
  Alloeo'tica.  (From oAXoj, another.)  Alteratives.
 Medicines which  chauge the  appearance of the dis-
 ease.
  ALLOGNO'SIS.   (From aAAos, another, and yivw-
 o-ku), to know.)  Delirium; perversion of the judgment;
 incapability of distinguishing persons.
  ALLOPHANE.  A mineral of a blue, and some-
 times a green or brown colour.
  ALLO PHASIS.  (From aXXos, another, and tbato,
 to speak.)   According to  Hippocrates, a delirium,
 where the  patient is not able to distinguish one thing
 from another.
  ALLOTRIOPHA'GIA.  (From aXXorpws, foreign,
and dtayio,  to eat.)  In Vogel's Nosology, it  signifies
 the gKeedily eating unusual things for food.  See Pica.
  ALLOY.  Allay.   1. Where any precious  metal is
mixed with another of less value, the assayers call the
latter the alloy,  and do not in general consider it in any
other point of view than as debasing or duriinishing the
value of the precious metal.
  2. Philosophical chemists have availed themselves of
this term to distinguish all metallic compounds in  ge-
neral.   Thus brass  is 6alled  an alloy of copper and
zinc; bell metal an alloy of copper and tin.
  Every alloy is distinguished by the metal which pre-
  dominates in its composition, or which gives it its va
  lue.  Thus English jewellery trinkets are ranked under
  alloys of gold, though  most of them deserve to be
  placed under the head of copper.  When  mercury is
  one ofthe component metals, the alloy is called amal-
  gam.  Thus we have an amalgam of gold, silver, tin,
  &c.  Since there are about thirty different  permanent
  metals, independent of those evanescent ones that con-
  stitute the bases of the alkalies and sarths, there ought
  to be about 870 different species of binary alloy.  But
  only 132 species have been hitherto made and exa-
  mined.  Some metals have so little affinity for others,
  that as yet no compound of them has been effected,
  whatever pains have been taken.  Most of these ob-
  stacles to alloying, arise from the difference in fusibility
  and volatility.  Yet a few metals, the melting point of
  which is nearly the same, refuse to unite.  It is obvi-
  ous that two bodies will  not combine, unless their affi-
  nity or reciprocal attraction be stronger than the cohe-
  sive attraction of their individual particles.   To over-
  come this cohesion ofthe solid bodies, and render affi-
  nity predominant, they must be penetrated by caloric.
  If one be very difficult of fusion,  and the other very
  volatile, they will not  unite unless the  reciprocal
  attraction be exceedingly strong.  But if their degree
 of fusibility be almost the same, they are easily placed
 in the circumstances  most favourable for making an
 alloy.  If we are therefore far  from knowing  all  the
 binary alloys which are possible, we are  still further
 removed from knowing all the triple, quadruple, &c.
 which may exist.  It must  be confessed, moreover,
 that this department of chemistry has been imperfectly
 cultivated.
   Besides, alloys are not, as far as we know, definitely
 regulated like oxydes in the proportions of their com-
 ponent parts.  100 parts of mercury will combine with
 4 or 8 parts of oxygen, to form two distinct oxydes,  the
 black and the red ; but with  no greater, less, or inter-
 mediate proportions.  But 100 parts of mercury will
 unite with 1, 2, 3,  or with any quantity up to 100 or
 1000, of tin or lead.  The alloys have the closest rela-
 tions in their  physical properties  with the  metals.
 They are all solid  at the  temperature of the atmos-
 phere, except some amalgams; they possess metallic
 lustre, even when  reduced to a coarse powder: are
 completely opaque, and more or less dense,  according
 to the metals which compose them ; are excellent con-
 ductors of electricity ; crystallize  more or less per-
 fectly ; some are brittle, others ductile and malleable;
 some have a peculiar odour; several  are very sono-
 rous and elastic.  When  an alloy consists of metals
 differently fusible, it is usually malleable  while cold,
 but brittle while hot; as is exemplified in brass.
  The density of an alloy is sometimes greater, some-
 times less than  the mean  density of its components,
 showing that, at the instant of their union, a diminu-
 tion or augmentation of volume takes place.  The re-
 lation between the expansion of the separate metals
 and that of their alloys, has been investigated only in
 a very few cases.  Alloys containing a volatile metal
 are decomposed, in whole or in part, at a strong heat.
 This happens with those of arsenic, mercury, tellurium'
 and zinc.   Those that consist  of two differently fusible
 metals, may often be decomposed by exposing them to
 a temperature capable of melting  only one  of them.
 This operation is called eliquation.   It is practised  on
 the great scale to extract silver from copper.   The ar-
 gentiferous copper is melted with 31-2 times its weight
 of lead; and the triple alloy is exposed to a  sufficient
 heat.  The lead carries off the silver in its fusion, and
 leaves the copper under the form of a spongy lump
 The silver  is afterward recovered from the lead  by
 another operation.
  Some alloys oxydize more readily by heat and air,
 than when the metals are separately treated.   Thus 3
 of lead and  1 of tin, at a dull red, burn visibly, and
 are almost instantly oxydized.  Each by itself in the
 same circumstances, would oxydize slowly, and with-
 out the disengagement of light.
  The formation of an alloy must be [regulated  by the
 nature of the particular metals.
  The degree of affinity between metals may be in some
 measure estimated  by the greater or less facility with
which, when of different degrees of fusibility or vola-
tility, they unite, or  with  which they can after union
be separated by heat.  Tre greater or less tendency to
separate into different proportional alloys, by lon»-con- 
ALO
ALO
tlnued fusion, may also give some information on this
subject.  Mr. Hatchett remarked, in  his  admirable
researches on metallic alloys, that gold made standard
with the usual precautions by silver, copper, lead, anti-
mony, &c. and then cast into vertical bars, was by no
means a uniform compound ; but that the top of the
bar, corresponding to the metal  at the bottom of the
crucible, contained  the larger proportion  of  gold.
Hence, for  thorough combination, two red-hot cruci-
bles  should be employed;  and the liquified metals
should be alternately poured from the one  into the
other.  And to prevent unnecessary oxydizement by
exposure to air, the crucibles should contain, besides
the metal,  a mixture of common salt and  pounded
charcoal. The melted alloy should  also be occasion-
ally stirred up with a rod of pottery.
  The most direct evidence of a chemical change hav-
ing taken place in  the two metals by combination, is
when the alloy melts at  a much lower temperature
than the fusing points of its components.  Iron, which
is nearly infusible, when alloyed with gold  acquires
almost the fusibility of this metal.  Tin and lead form
solder, an alloy more fusible  than either of its compo-
nents; but the triple compound of tin, lead, and bis-
muth, is most remarkable on this account.  The ana-
logy  is here strong, with the  increase  of solubility
which salts  acquire by mixture, as  is exemplified  in
the uncrystallizahle residue of saline solutions, or mo-
ther  waters, as they are called.  Sometimes  two me-
tals will not directly unite, which yet, by the interven-
tion of a third, are made to combine. This happens
with  mercury and iron, as has been shown by Messrs.
Aiken, who effected this difficult amalgamation by
previously uniting the iron to tin or zinc.
  The tenacity  of alloys is generally,  though not
always, inferior to the mean of the separate metals.
One part of lead will destroy  the compactness  and
tenacity of a thousand of gold. Brass  made with a
Email proportion of zinc, is  more ductile than copper
Itself; but when one-third of zinc enters into its com-
position, it becomes brittle.
  In common cases, the specific gravity affords a good
criterion whereby  to judge  of  the proportion  in an
alloy, consisting of two metals of different densities.—
 Ure.
  ALLSPICE.  See Myrtes Pimento.
  ALLUVIAL. That which is deposited in valleys,
or in plains, from neighbouring mountains, or the over-
flowing of rivers.   Gravel, loam, clay,  sand, brown
coal,  wood coal, bog iron ore, and calc tuff, compose
the alluvial deposites.
  A'LMA.  The first motion of a foetus to free itself
from its confinement.
  2.  Water.—Rulandus.
  Almabri.  A stone like amber.
  Alma'nda cathartica.   A  plant growing on the
shores of Cayenne and Surinam, used by the inhabit-
ants  as a remedy for the colic;  supposed to be ca-
thartic.
  Alme'ni.  Rock salt.
  ALMOND.  See Amygdalus.
  Almond, bitter.  See Amygdalus.
  Almond, sweet.  See Amygdalus.
  Almond paste.  This cosmetic for softening the skin
and   preventing  chops, is made of four  ounces  of
blanched bitter almonds, the white of an egg, rose wa-
ter and rectified spirits, equal parts, as much as is suf-
ficient.
  Almonds of the ears.  A popular name for the ton-
sils, which have been so called from their resemblance
to an almond in shape.  See Tonsils.
  Almonds of the throat.  A vulgar name for the ton-
sils.   See Tonsils.
  Alnabati.  In Avicenna  and Serapion, this word
means the siliqua dulcis, a  gentle laxative.  See Ce-
ratonia siliqua.
  A'LNUS.  (Alno, Italian.)  The alder.  The phar-
macopoeia! name of two plants, sometimes used in me-
dicine, though rarely employed in the present  practice.
  1.  Alnus rotundifolia;  glutinosa; virid,is.   The
common alder-tree.  See Betula alnus.
  2.  Alnus nigra.   The black or berry-bearing alder.
See Rhamnus Frangula.
  A'LOE.   (Aloe, Is. ft. from ahlah, a Hebrew word,
signifying growing near the sea.)  The name of a ge-
nus of plants of the Linnsean system.  Class Hexan-
   a ■ Order, Monogvnia.  The Aloe.                i
  Aloe Caballina.  See Aloi perfoliate
  Aloe Guineensis.   See Aloe perfoliata.
  Aloe perfoliata.  Aloe Succotorina; Alot Zor.o*
torina.  Succotorine aloes is obtained from a variety
of the Aloe perfoliata of Linnaeus:—foliis caulinis
dentatis, amplexicaulibus  vaginantibus, ftoribus co-
rymbosis cernuis, pedunculotis subcylindricis.  It is
brought over wrapped in skins, from the Island of So-
cotora, in the Indian Ocean; it is of a bright surface,
and in some degree pellucid; in the lump of a yellow-
ish red colour, with a purplish cast; when reduced
into powder, it is of a golden colour.  It is hard and
friable in very cold weather; but in summer it softens
very easily between the fingers.  It is extremely bitter,
and also accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but
not so much  as to cover its disagreeable taste. Its
scent  is rather agreeable, being somewhat similar to
that of myrrh.  Of late this sort has been very scarce,
and its  place in a great measure  supplied by another
variety, brought from the Cape of Good Hope, which
is said to be  obtained from the Aloe spicata of Lin-
naeus, by inspissating the expressed juice ofthe leaves,
whence it  is  termed in the London Pharmacopoeia
Extractum aloes spicata.
  The Aloe hepatica, vel Barbadensis, ihe common or
Barbadoes or hepatic aloes, was thought to come from
a variety of the Aloe perfoliata described .—floribus
pedunculatis, cernuis corymbosis, subcylindricis, foliis
spinosis, confertis, dentatis, vaginantibus, planis, ma-
culatis: but Dr. Smith has announced, that it will be
shovvu in Sibthorp's Flora Graeca, to be from a distinct
species,the Aloe vulgaris, or trueaAo^of Dioscorides;
and it is therefore termed in the London Pharmaco-
poeia, Aloes vulgaris extractum.  The best is brought
from Barbadoes in large gourd-shells; an inferior sort
in pots, and the worst in casks.  It is darker coloured
than the Socotorine, and not so bright; it is also drier
and more compact, though sometimes the sort in casks
is soft and clammy.  To the taste it is intensely bitter
and  nauseous, being almost wholly without that aro-
ma which is observed in the Socotorine.  To the smell
it is strong and disagreeable.
  The Aloe caballina, vel Guineensis, or horse-aloes,
is easily distinguished from both the foregoing, by its
strong rank smell;  in other respects  it agrees pretty
much with the hepatic, and is now not unfrequently
sold in its  place.  Sometimes it is prepared so pure
and bright as scarcely lo be distinguishable by the eye,
even from  the Socotorine, but its offensive smell be-
trays it;  and  if this also should be dissipated by art,
its wanting the aromatic flavour of the finer aloes will
be a sufficient criterion.  This aloe  is not admitted
into the materia medica, and is  employed  chiefly by
farriers.
  The general nature of these three kinds is nearly the
same.   Their  particular differences only consist in the
different proportions of gum to their resin, and in their
flavour.  The smell and taste reside principally in the
gum, as do the principal virtues ofthe aloes.  Twelve
ounces of Barbadoes  aloes yield nearly 4 ounces of
resin, and 8 of gummy extract.  The same quantity of
Socotorine aloes yields 3 ounces of resin and 9 of gum-
my extract
  Aloes is a well-known stimulating purgative, a pro-
perty which it possesses not only when taken inter-
nally, but also by external application. The cathartic
quality of aloes does not reside in the resinous part of
the drug, but in the gum, for the  pure resin has little
or no purgative power.  Its medium dose is from 5 to
15 grains, nor does a larger quantity operate more effec-
tually.  Its operation is exerted on the large intestines;
principally on the rectum.  In small doses  long conti-
nued, it often  produces much heat and irritation, par-
ticularly about the anus, from which  it sometimes oc-
casions a bloody discharge; therefore, to those who
were subject to piles, or of an hemorrhagic diathesis,
or even in a state of pregnancy, its exhibition has been
productive of considerable  mischief; but on the con-
trary, by those of a phlegmatic constitution, or those
suffering from uterir.e obstructions (for the stimulant
action of aloes, it Iras been supposed, may be extended
to the uterus)  and in some cases of dyspepsia, palsy,
gout, and worms, aloes may be employed as a laxative
with peculiar advantage.  In all diseases of the bilious
tribe, aloes is the strongest purge, and the best prepara-
tions for this purpose are the pilula ex aloe cum myrrha,
the  tinctura  aloes, or the extractum colocynthidis 
ALO
ALT
 lompositum.  Its efficacy: in jaundice  Is very consi-
 derable, as it proves a succedaneum  to the bile, of
 which in that disease there is a defective supply to the
 intestine either  in quantity or quality.  Aloes there-
 fore may be considered as injurious where inflamma-
 tion or irritation exists in the bowels or neighbouring
 parts, in pregnancy, or in habits disposed to piles;  but
 highly serviceable in all hypochondriac affections, ca-
 chectic habits, and persons labouring under oppression
 of the stomach caused by irregularity.  Aromatics cor-
 rect the offensive qualities of aloes the most perfectly.
 The cauella arba answers tolerably, and without any
 inconvenience;  but some rather prefer the  essential
 nils for this purpose.   Dr.  Cullen says,  "If any medi-
 cine be entitled to the appellation of a stomach purge,
 it is certainly aloes.  It is remarkable with regard to
 ft, that it operates almost  to as good a  purpose in a
 small  as in a  large dose;  that one or two grains will
 produce one considerable dejection, and 20 grains will
 do no  more, except it be that in the last dose the opera-
 tion will be attended with gripes, &c.  Its chief use
 is to render the peristaltic motion regular, and it is
 one of the best cures in habitual costiveness.   There is
 a difficulty we meet with  in the exhibition of purga-
 tives,  viz. that they will not act but in their full dose,
 and will not produce half their effect if given in half
 the  dose. For this purpose we are chiefly confined to
 aloes.  Neutral  salts in half their dose will not have
 half their effect; although even  from these,  by large
 dilution, we may obtain this  property ;  but besides
 them  and our  present  medicine, I  know no other
 which has any title to it except sulphur.  Aloes some-
 times cannot be employed.  It has the effect of stimu-
 lating  the rectum  more than other purges, and with
 justice has  been accused of exciting haemorrhoidal
 swellings, so that we ought to abstain from it in such
 cases,  except when we want to promote them. Aloes
 has  the  effect of ratifying the blood and disposing to
 haemorrhagy, and hence  it is not recommended in ute-
 rine fluxes.  Foetid  gums  are of  the  same nature in
 producing haemorrhagy, and perhaps this is the founda-
 tion of their emmenagogue  power."  Aloes  is admi-
 nistered either simply in powders, which is too nause-
 ous, or else in composition;—1.  With purgatives, as
 soap,  scammony,  colocynth, or  rhubarb.  2.  With
 aromatics,  as  canella, ginger, or essential oils.   3.
 With bitters, as gentian.   4- With emmenagogues, as
 iron, myrrh, wine, &c.  It may be exhibited in pills as
 the most convenient form, or else dissolved in wine, or
 diluted alkohol.  The officinal preparations of aloes
 are the following:—
   1. Pilulse Aloe's.
   2. Pilula AloSs Composita
   3. PiluUe Aloes cum Assafcetida.
   4. Pilula Aloe\s cum Colocynthide.
   5. Pilula  Aloes cum Myrrha.
   6 Tinctura Alofo.
   7. Tinctura Aloe's JEtherialis.
   8. Tinctura Aloe's et Myrrha.
   9. Vinum Aloes.
  10. Extractum Aloe's,
  11. Decoctum Aloe's Compositum.
  12. Pulvis Aloes Compositus.
  13. Pulvis Aloe's cum Canella.
  14. Pulvis Aloe's cum Guaiaco.
  15. Tinctura Aloe's Composita.
  16. Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum.
  17. Tinctura Benzoini Composita.
  Aloe Socotorina. See Aloi perfoliata.
  Aloe Zocotorina.  See Aloe perfoliata.
  Aloeda'ria.   (From aAsij, the aloe.)   Compound
purging medicines: so called from having aloes as the
chief ingredient.
  Aloephangina.  Medicines formed by a combina-
tion of aloes and aromatics.
  ALOES.   Felnatura.  The inspissated juice ofthe
aloe plant.  Aloes is distinguished into three  species,
socotorine, hepatic, and caballine; of  which the two
first  are directed for officinal use  in  our  pharmaco-
poeias.  See AloU perfoliata.
  Aloes^ lignum.  See Lignum Alois.
  ALOE'TIC.   A medicine wherein aloes is the chief
or fundamental ingredient
  Alogotro'phia. (From aAoyoy, disproportionate,
and rptcba, to nourish.)  Unequal  nourishment as  in
the rickets.
  ALOTECES.  (From dXu-rnl, the fox.)  The psoas
 muscles are so called by Fallopius and Vesallui be-
 cause in the fox they are particularly strong.
   ALOPECIA.  (From aAuimjj-, a fox: because the
 fox is subject to a distemper that resembles it; or, as
 some say, because the fox's urine will occasion bald
 ness.)  Baldness, or the falling off of the hair.  A ge
 nus of disease in Sauvages' Nosology.
   ALOPECUROIDEA.   (From alopecurus,  the  fox-
 tail grass.)   Resembling the  alopecurus.  The name
 of a division of grasses.
   Alo'sa.  (From aXto-Kto, to take:  because it is ra
 venous.)  See Clupea alosa.
   Alosa'nthi. (From aA$, salt, andavBos, a flower.)
 Alosanthum.   Flowers of salt
   A'losat.  Quicksilver.
   Alosohoc.  Quicksilver.
   A'LPHITA.  (Alphita,  the plural  of aA^irov, the
 meal of barley in general.)  By Hippocrates this term
 is applied to barley-meal either toasted or fried.   Ga-
 len  says that xpiuva is coarse meal, aXtvpov is  fine
 meal, and aX<pira is a middling sort
   Alphi'tidon.   Alphitedum.   It is when a bone is
 broken into small fragments like alphite or bran.
   Alpho'nsin.  The name of an instrument for ex
 trading balls.  It is so called from the name of its in-
 ventor, Alphonso Ferrier, a Neapolitan physician.  It
 consists of three branches, which separate from each
 other by their elasticity, but are capable of being closed
 by means of a tube in which they are included.
   ALPHOSIS.  The specific name of a disease in the
 genus Epichrosis of Good's Nosology.
   A'LPHUS.  (AXtpos;  from aXtpaivo), to change : be-
 cause it changes the colour ofthe skin.)  A species of
 leprosy, called by the ancients vitilago, and which
 they divided into alphus, melas, and leuce. See Lepra.
   A'lpini balsamum.  Balm of Gilead.
   ALPI'NUS,  Prosper,  a Venetian, born In 1553,
 celebrated for his skill in medicine and botany.  After
 graduating  at Padua, he went to Egypt, and during
 three years carefully studied the plants of that country,
 and the  modes  of  treating diseases there ; of which
 he afterward published a very learned account.  He
 has left also some other  less important works.  He
 was appointed  physician to  the celebrated Andrew
 Doria; and subsequently botanical professor at Padua,
 which office he retained till his death in 1616.
   A'LSINE.  (Alsine, es. f.;  from aXans, a grove: so
 called because it grows in great abundance in woods
 and shady places.)  The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Tri-
gynia.  Chickweed.
  Alsine media.  Morsus gallina centunculus. The
 systematic name for the plant called chickweed, which,
 if boiled tender, may be eaten like spinach, and forms
 also an excellent emollient poultice.
  ALSTON, CnARLEs, born in Scotland in 1683, was
early attached to the study of botany, and distinguished
himself by opposing the sexual system of Linnaeus.
He afterward studied under Bocrhaave  at Leyden;
then returning  to his  native country, was materially
instrumental, in conjunction with the celebrated Alex-
ander Monro, in establishing the medical  school at
Edinburgh, where he was appointed professor of  bo-
tany  and materia  medica.  He died  in 1700.  His
" Lectures  on the Materia Medica,"  a posthumout
work, abound in curious  and useful facts, which will
long preserve their  reputation.
  A'LTERATIVE.  (Alterans;  from altero, to
change.)   Alterative  medicines  are  those remedies
which are given with a view to re-establish the healthy
functions of the animal economy, without producing
any sensible evacuation.
  Altern^ plant*.  Alternate leaved plants.  The
name of a  class of plants in  Sauvages' Methodus
foliorum.
  ALTERNANS.   Alternate ; placed alternately.  A
term applied by botanists to leaves, gems. ice.
  ALTERNUS.  Alternate.  In botany, this term is
applied to branches and leaves when they stand singly
on each side, in such a manner that between every
two on one side there is  but one on  the opposite
side, as on  the  branches  of the Althaa  officinalis.
Rhamnus  catharticus, and leaves of the Malva  ro*
tundifolia.
  ALJ?J? A'   (Althaa> *• f-; from a\8c<o, to hial i
bo called from  its supposed qualities in healine 1   1
The name of a genus of plants of the LinniLaa system 
ALU
ALU
Class,  Mntadelphia;  Order,  Polyandria.   Marsh-
mallow.
  2.  The pharmacopoeia] name ofthe marsh-mallow.
See Althea Officinalis.
  Althaea officinalis.   The systematic name of
the marsh-mallow.  Malvaviscus ; Aristalthaa.  Al-
thaa:—foliis  simplicibus tomentosis.  Tha mucila-
ginous matter with which this plant abounds, is the
medicinal part of the plant; it is commonly employed
for its emollient and demulcent qualities  in tickling
coughs, hoarseness, and  catarrhs, in dysentery,  and
difficulty and heat of urine.  The leaves atd root are
generally selected for use.  They relax the  passages in
nephritic complaints, in which last case a decocuon is
the best preparation.  Two  or three ounces of the
fresh roots may be  boiled in a sufficient quantity of
water to a quart, to which one ounce of gum-arabic
may be added.  The following is given  where it is re-
quired that large quantities should  be used.   An ounce
of the dried roots is to be boiled in water, enough to
leave two or three pints to be poured off  for use: if
more of the root be used, the liquor will be disagree-
ably  slimy.  If sweetened, by adding a little more of
the root of liquorice, it will be very palatable.  The
root had formerly a place in  many of the compounds
in the pharmacopoeias, but now it  is only directed in
the form of syrup.
  Althb'xis.   (From aXBav, to cure, or heal.)  Hip-
pocrates often  uses this word to signify the cure of a
distemper.
  ALU DEL.  A hollow  sphere  of stone,  glass, or
earthen ware, with  a short neck projecting at each
end,  by means of which one globe might be set upon
the other.  The uppermost has no opening at the top.'
They were used in former times for the  sublimation of
several substances.
  ALUM.  See Alumen.
  Alum  earth.  A massive mineral  of  a blackish
brown colour,  a dull lustre, an earthy and somewhat
slaty fracture, sectile and rather soft, containing char-
coal  silica, alumina, oxyde of iron, sulphur, sulphates
of lime, potassa, and iron, magnesia, muriate of po-
tassa, and water.
  Alum  slate.  A massive mineral of a bluish black
colour, or slate containing alum.
  ALUMEN.   (Alum, an Arabian word.)  Assos;
Azub ; Aseb ;  Elanula ;   Sulphas  alumina acidulus
c urn  potassa;  Super-sulphas alumina et potassa ;
Argilla vitriolata.  Alum.  This important salt has
been the object of innumerable researches both with
regard to its fabrication and composition. It is pro-
duced, but in a very small quantity, in the native state;
and  this is mixed  with heterogeneous matters.   It
effloresces in various forms upon ores during calcina-
tion, but it seldom occurs crystallized. The greater
part of this salt is factitious, being extracted from mi-
nerals called alum ores, such  as,
  1.  Sulphuretted clay.  This constitutes  the  purest
of all aluminous ores, namely, that of La Tolfa, near
Civita Vecchia, in Italy.  It is white, compact, and as
hard as indurated clay, whence it is called petra alumi-
naris. It is tasteless and mealy;  one hundred parts
of this ore contain above forty of sulphur and fifty of
clay, a small quantity  of potassa, and a  little  iron.
Bergman says it contains forty-three of sulphur in one
hundred, thirty-five of clay, and twenty-two of siliceous
earth.  This ore is first torrefied to acidify the sulphur,
which then acts  on the clay, and forms the  alum.
  2.  The pyritaceousclay, which is found at Schwem-
sal, in Saxony, at the depth of ten or twelve feet.   It
is a black and hard, but brittle substance, consisting of
clay, pyrites, and bitumen. It is  exposed  to the air
for two years, by which means the pyrites  are decom-
 Sosed, and the alum is  formed.  The  alum  ores of
 [esse  and Liege are of this kind;  but they are first
torrefied,  which is said to be  a disadvantageous
method.
  3.  The schistus aluminaris  contains a variable pro-
portion of petroleum and pyrites intimately mixed with
it  When the last are  in a very large  quantity,  this
ore is rejected as containing too much iron.  Professor
Bergman  very properly  suggested,  that by adding a
proportion of clay, this ore may turn out  advantage-
ously for producing alum.  But if the petrol be consi-
derable, it must be torrefied.  The mines of Becket in
Normandy, and  those of Whitby, in Yorkshire, are
of this species.
  4.  Volcanic aluminous ore.   Such is that of Salfa-
terra near Naples.  It is in the form of a white saline
earth, after it has effloresced in the air; or else it is in
a stony form.
  5.  Bituminous alum ore is called shale, and is in the
form of  a schistus, impregnated with so much oily
matter, or bitumen, as to be inflammable.  It is found
in Sweden, and also in the coal mines at Whitehaven,
and elsevvhere.
  Chaptal has fabricated alum on a large scale from
its component parts.  For this purpose he constructed
a chamber 91 feet  long, 48 wide, and  31 high in the
middle.   The walls are of common masonry, lined
with a pretty thick coating of plaster.  The floor is
paved with  bricks, bedded in  a mixture of raw and
burnt clay; and this pavement is covered with  ano-
ther, the joints of which overlap those  ofthe first, and
instead of mortar, the bricks are joined with a cement
of equal  parts  of pitch, turpentine, and wax,  which,
after having been boiled till it ceases to swell, is  used
hot.  The roof is of wood, but the beams are  very
close together, and grooved lengthwise, the interme-
diate space  being filled up by planks fitted into the
grooves, so that the whole is  put together without a
nail.  Lastly, the whole of the inside is covered with
three or four successive coatings of the cement  above-
mentioned, the first being laid on as hot as possible;
and the outside  of the wooden roof was varnished in
the same manner.  The purest and whitest clay being
made into a  paste with water, and formed into balls
half a foot in diameter, these are calcined in a fur-
nace, broken to  pieces, and a stratum of the fragments
laid on the floor. , A due proportion of  sulphur is then
ignited in the chamber, in the.same manner as  for the
fabrication of sulphuric acid; and the fragments of
burnt clay, imbibing this as it forms, begin after a few
days to crack and open, and exhibit an  efflorescence
of sulphate of alumina.  When the earth has com-
pletely effloresced, it is taken out of the chamber, ex-
posed for some time in an open shed, that it may be
the more  intimately penetrated by the acid, and is then
lixiviated and crystallized in the usual manner.  The
cement answers the purpose of lead on this occasion
very effectually, and, according to  Chaptal, costs no
more than lead  would at three farthings a pound.
  Curaudau  has lately recommended a process for
making  alum without  evaporation.   One hundred
parts of clay and five of muriate of soda are kneaded
into  a paste with  water,  and formed  into  loaves.
With these  a reverberatory furnace is filled, and  a
brisk fire is kept up for two hours.  Being powdered,
and put into a sound cask, one-fourth of their  weight
of sulphuric acid is poured over them by degrees, stir-
ring  the mixture well at each addition.  As soon as
the muriatic gas is  dissipated, a quantity of water
equal to  the acid is added, and the mixture stirred as
before.  When  the heat is abated, a little more water
is poured in; and this is repeated till eight or ten times
as much  water as there was  acid is  added.  When
the whole has settled, the clear liquor is drawn off
into  leaden vessels, and a quantity of water equal to
this liquor is poured on the sediment.  The two liquors
being mixed, a  solution of  potassa is added to them,
the alkali in which is equal to one-fourth of the weight
of the sulphuric acid.  Sulphate of potassa may be
used, but twice as  much  of  this as of the alkali is
necessary.  After a  certain time, the  liquor, by cool-
ing, affords crystals of alum equal to three times the
weight of the acid used.  It is refined by dissolving it
in the  smallest possible quantity of  boiling  water.
The  residue  may be washed  with more water, to be
employed in lixiviating a fresh portion of the ingie
dients.
  Its sp. gravity is  about 1.71.  It reddens the vege-
table blues.  It  is soluble in 16 parts of water at 60°,
and in 3-4 of its weight at 212n.  It effloresces superfi-
cially on  exposure to air, but the interior remains long
unchanged.   Its water of crystallization is sufficient at
a gentle heat to fuse it.  If the heat  be increased it
froths up, and loses fully 45 per cent, of its weight in
water.  The spongy residue is called burnt or calcined
alum, and is used by surgeons as a mild escharotic.
A violent heat separates a great portion of its acid.
  Alum was thus analyzed by Berzelius: 1st, 20 parts
(grammes) of pure alum lost, by the heat  of a spirit
lamp, 9 parts, which gives 45 per cent, of water.  The
dry salt was dissolved in water, and its acid precipi- 
ALU
ALU
tated by muriate of barytes ; the sulphate of which,
obtained after ignition, weighed 20 parts; indicating
in 100 parts 34.3 of dry sulphuric acid.  2<i, Ten parts
of alum were dissolved in water, and digested with an
excess of  ammonia.   Alumina,  well  washed  and
burned, equivalent to 10.67 per cent, was obtained.  In
another experiment, 10.86 per cent, resulted.  3d, Ten
parts of alum dissolved in water, were digested with
carbonate of strontites, till  the  earth was completely
separated.  The sulphate of potassa, after  ignition,
weighed  1.815,  corresponding to 0.981 potassa, or in
100 parts to 9.81.
  Alum, therefore, consists of
      Sulphuric acid....."... 34.33
      Alumina..............10.S6
      Potassa...............  981
      Water...............45.00

                          100.00
   or, Sulphate of alumina........36.85
      Sulphate of potassa.........18.15
      Water.....................45.00

                                100.00
  Thenard's analysis, Ann. de Chimie, vol. 59, or Ni-
cholson's Journal, vol. 18, coincides  perfectly  with
that of Berzelius in the  product of sulphate of barytes.
From 400 parts of alum, he obtained 490 ofthe ignited
baryticsalt; but the alumina was in greater propor-
tion, equal  to  12.54 per cent, and the sulphate of po-
tassa less, or 15.7 in 100 parts.
  Vauquelin,  in his last analysis, found 48.58 water;
and by Thenard's statement there are indicated
               34.23 dry acid,
                 7.14 potassa,
               12.54 alumina,
               46.09 water.

               100.00
  If we rectify Vauquelin's erroneous estimate of the
sulphate  of barytes,  his  analysis will  also  coincide
with  the above.  Alum, therefore, differs from the
simple sulphate  of alumina  previously  described,
which consisted of 3 prime equivalents of acid and 2
of earth, merely by its assumption of a prime of sul-
phate of potassa.  It is probable  that all the aluminous
salts have a similar constitution. It is to be observed,
moreover, that  the number 34.36 resulting from the
theoretic proportions, is, according  to Gilbert's  re-
marks on the Essay of Berzelius, the just representation
of the dry acid in 100 of sulphate of barytes, by a cor-
rected analysis, which makes the prime of barytes 9.57.
  Should ammonia be  suspected in  alum,  it may be
detected, and  its quantity estimated, by mixing quick-
lime with the saline solution, and  exposing the mix-
ture to heat  in a retort, connected  with a  Woolfe's
apparatus.  The water of ammonia being afterward
saturated with an acid, and evaporated to a  dry salt,
will indicate  the quantity of pure ammonia in the
alum.  A variety of alum, containing both potassa and
ammonia, may also be found. This will occur where
urine has been used, as well as muriate of potassa, in
its fabrication.  If any of these bisulphates of allu-
mina and potassa be acted on in a watery solution, by
gelatinous  alumina, a neutral triple salt is formed,
which precipitates in a nearly insoluble state.
  When alum in powder is mixed with flour or sugar,
and calcined,  it forms the pyrophorus of Homberg.
  Mr. Winter first mentioned, that  another variety of
alum can be made with soda, instead of potassa.  This
Bait, which  crystallizes in octahedrons, has been  also
made with  pure muriate of soda, and bisulphate of
alumina, at the laboratory of Hurlett, by Mr. W. Wil-
son.  It is extremely difficult to  form, and  effloresces
like the sulphate of soda.
  On the subject of soda-alum, Dr. Ure published a
short paper in  the Journal of Science for July, 1822.
The form and taste of this salt are exactly the same as
those of common alum ; but it is less hard, being easily
crushed between  the fingers, to which it imparts an
appearance of moisture.   Its specific  gravity is 1.6.
100 parts of water at 60° F. dissolve 110 of it; forming
a solution, whose sp. gravity is 1.296.  In this respect,
potassa alum  is very different  For 100 parts of water
dissolve only  from 8 to 9 parts, forming a saturated so-
lution, the specific gravity of which  is no more than
1.0465.  Its constituents are, by Dr. Ure's analysis,—
   Sulphuric acid..........34.00    4 primes, 33.96
   Alumina...............10.75    3   -   10.83
   Soda...................  6.48    1   —    6.79
   Water..................49.00   2a   —   48.43

                         100.23            100.00
 Or it consists of 3 primes sulphate of alumina-f-1 sul-
 phate  of soda.  To each of the former, 5 primes of
 water  may be assigned,  and to the latter 10, as in
 Glauber's salts.
  The only injurious contamination of  alum is sul-
 phate  of iron.  It is  detected  by  ferro-prussiate of
 potassa.
  Oxymuriate of alumina, or the chloride, has been
 proposed by  Mr. Wilson of Dublin, as preferable to
 solution of chlorine, for discharging the turkey-red die.
  Alum is used in large quantities in many manufac-
 tories.   When  added  to tallow, it  renders it harder.
 Printer's cushions, and the blocks used in the calico
 manufactory, are rubbed with burnt alum to  remove
 any greasiness, which might prevent the ink or colour
 from sticking.  Wood sufficiently soaked in a solution
 of alum does not easily take fire ; and the same is true
 of paper impregnated with it, which is fitter to keep
 gunpowder, as  it also excludes  moisture. Paper ini
 pregnated with alum is useful ill whitening silver, and
 in silvering brass without heat.   Alum mixed in milk
 helps the separation of its butter. If added in a very
 small quantity to turbid water, in  a few minutes it
 renders it perfectly limpid, without any  bad  taste or
 quality;  while the sulphuric acid imparts to it a very
 sensible acidity, and docs not precipitate as soon, or so
 well, the opaque earthy mixtures that render it turbid.
 It is used in  making pyrophorus, in tanning, and in
 many other manufactories, particularly in the art of
 dying,  in which it is of the greatest and most impor-
 tant  use, by cleansing and opening  the pores on the
 surface of the substance to be died,  rendering  it fit for
 receiving the colouring particles, (by which the aldm
 is generally decomposed,) and at the same time making
 the colour  fixed.  Crayons generally  consist of the
 earth of alum, powdered and tinged for the purpose.—
 Ure's Chem. Diet.
  In medicine it is employed internally as a powerful
 astringent in cases of passive haemorrhages from the
 womb, intestines,  nose, and sometimes  lungs.   In
 bleedings of an active nature, i. e. attended with fever,
 and a plethoric state of the system,  it is highly impro-
 per.  Dr. Pcrcival recommends  it in the colica picto-
 nvm and other chronic disorders of the bowels, at-
 tended with  obstinate constipation.  (See  Percival's
 Essays.)  The dose advised in these cases is from 5 to
 20 grains, to be repeated every four, eight, or  twelve
 hours.   When duly persisted in, this  remedy proves
 gently laxative, and mitigates the pain.
  Alum is also powerfully tonic, and is given with this
 view in the dose of 10 grains made into a bolus three
 times a day, in such cases as require powerful tonic
 and astringent remedies. Another  mode of adminis-
 tering  it is in the form of whey made  by boiling a
 drachm of powdered alum in a pint  of milk for a few
 minutes, and to be taken in the quantity of a tea-cup
 full three times a day.  Dr. Cullen  thinks it ought to
 be employed with other astringents  in diarrhoeas.  Li
 active haemorrhages, as was observed, it is not useful,
 though a powerful medicine in those which are pas-
 sive.  It should be given in small doses, and gradually
 increased.  It has been tried in  the diabetes  without
 success;  though, joined with nutmeg, it has been more
 successful  in intermittents, given in a  large dose, an
 hour or a little longer, before the approach of the pa-
 roxysm.  In  gargles, in relaxation  of the uvula, and
 other swellings ofthe mucous membrane of the fauces,
 divested of acute inflammation, it has been used with
 advantage.
  Externally, alum  is much employed by surgeons as
 a lotion for the eyes, and is said to be preferable to sul-
 phate  of zinc or acetate  of Irad in the ophthalmia
 membrauarum.  From two to five grains dissolved in
 an ounce of rose-water, forms a proper collyrium.  It
 is also applied as a styptic to bleeding vessels, and to
 ulcers, where there is too copious a  secretion  of pus.
 It has  proved successful in inflammation of the eyes,
 in the  form of cataplasm, which is  niade by stirring
or shaking  a lump of alum in the whites  of  two
eggs, till they form a coagulum, which is applied to
the eye between two pieces of thin  linen rag.  Alum 
ALU
ALV
 ta also employed as an injection in cases of gleet or
 fluor albus.
  When deprived of its humidity, by placing it in an
 earthen pan over a gentle fire, it is termed burnt alum,
 alumen exsiccatum, and is sometimes employed by sur-
 geons to destroy fungous flesh, and is a principal ingre-
 dient in most styptic powders.
  Alum is also applied to many purposes of life; in this
 country, bakers mix a quantity with  the  bread, to
 render it white; this mixlure makes the brtad better
 adapted for weak and relaxed bowels; but in opposite
 states of the alimentary canal, this practice is  highly
 pernicious.
  The officinal preparations of alum are:
  1. Alumen exsiccatum.
  2. Solutio sulphatis cupri ammoniati.
  3. Liquor aluminis compositus.
  4. Pulvis sulphatis aluminis compositus.
  Alumen catinum.  A name of potassa.
  Alumen commune.  See Alumen.
  Alumen crvstallinum.  See Alumen.
  Alumen exsiccatum. Dried Alum.  Expose alum
 in an earthen vessel to the fire, so that it may dissolve
 and boil, and let the heat be continued and increased
 until the boiling ceases.  See Alumen.
  Alumen factitium.   See Alumen.
  Alumen romanum.  See Alumen.
  Alumen rubrum.  See Alumen.
  Alumen rupeum.  See Alumen.
  Alumen rutilum.  See Alumen.
  Alumen ustum.  See Alumen.
  ALU'MINA.  Alumine.   Terra Alumina.   Earth
 of alum.  Pure  clay.  One of the primitive  earths,
 which, as constituting the plastic principle of all clays,
 loams, and boles, was called argil or the argillaceous
 earth, but now, as being obtained  in greatest  purity
 from alum, is styled alumina.  It was deemed elemen-
 tary matter till Sir H.  Davy's celebrated electro-che-
 mical researches led to the belief of its being, like
 barytes aud lime, a metallic oxyde.
  The  purest native alumina is found in the oriental
 gems, the sapphire and ruby.  They consist of nothing
 but this earth, and a small portion of colouring matter.
 The native porcelain clays or kaolins, however white
 and soft,  can never be regarded as pure  alumina.
 They usually contain fully half their weight of silica,
 and frequently other earths.  To obtain pure alumina
 we dissolve  alum in 20 times its weight of water, and
 add to it a little ofthe solution of carbonate of soda, to
 throw down any iron which may be present  We then
 drop the supernatant liquid into a quantity of the water
 of ammonia, taking care not to add  so  much  of the
 aluminous solution as will saturate the ammonia. The
 volatile alkali unites with the sulphuric acid  of the
 alum, and the earthy basis of the latter is separated in
 a white spongy precipitate.  This must be thrown on
 a filter, washed, or edulcorated, as  the  old chemists
 expressed  it, by repeated affusions of water, and then
 dried.  Or if an alum, made with ammonia instead of
 potassa, as is the case with some French alums,  can be
 got, simple ignition dissipates its acid and alkaline con-
 stituents, leaving pure alumina.
  Alumina prepared by the first process is white, pul-
 verulent, soft to the touch, adheres to the tongue, forms
 a smooth paste without grittiness in the mouth, insipid,
 inodorous, produces no change in vegetable colours,
 insoluble in water, but  mixes with it readily in every
 proportion, and retains a small quantity with consider-
 able force; is infusible  in the strongest heat of a fur-
 nace, experiencing merely a condensation of volume
 and consequent hardness, but  is in small quantities
 melted by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.  Its  specific
 gravity is 2.000 in the state of powder, but by ignition
 it is augmented.
  Every analogy leads to the belief that alumina con-
 tains a peculiar metal, which may be called aluminum.
 The first evidences obtained of this position are pre-
 sented  in  Sir H. Davy's researches.   Iron negatively
 electrified by a very high power being fused in contact
with pure alumina, formed a globule whiter than pure
 iron which  effervesced slowly in water, becoming
covered with a white powder.  The solution of this in
muriatic acid, decomposed by an alkali, afforded alu-
mina and oxyde of  iron.  By passing potassium in
vnpour tluough  alumina  heated  to whiteness,  the
greatest part of the potassium became converted into
potassa, which formed a coherent mass with that part
 of the alumina not decompounded ; and in this mass
 there  were  numerous  gray  particles,  having the
 metallic lustre, and which became white when heated
 in the air, and which slowly effervesced in water.  In
 a similar experiment made by the same illustrious che-
 mist, a strong red heat only being applied to the alu-
 mina, a  mass was obtained, which took fire sponta-
 neously by exposure to air, and which effervesced vio-
 lently in water.  This mass  was probably an alloy of
 aluminum  and potassium.   The conversion of  potas-
 sium into  its deutoxyde,  dry potassa,  by alumina,
 proves the presence of oxygen in the latter.  When
 regarded as an oxyde, Sir H.  Davy estimates its oxygen
 and  basis to be to one another as 15 to 33; or as 10 to
 22.   The prime equivalent  of  alumina  would thus
 appear to be 1.0+2.2=3.2.  But Berzelius's analysis of
 sulphate of alumina seems  to indicate 2.136  as the
 quantity of the earth which combines with five of the
 acid.  Hence aluminum will come to be represented by
 2.136—1=1.136.
  Alumina which has lost  its plasticity  by ignition,
 recovers  it by being dissolved in an acid or alkaline
 menstruum, and then precipitated.  In this state it is
 called a  hydrate, for when  dried in a  steam heat it
 retains much water; and therefore resembles in com-
 position  wavellite,  a beautiful  mineral, consisting
 almost entirely of alumina, with about 28 per cent, of
 water.
  Alumina is widely diffused in nature.   It is a con-
 stituent of  every soil, and of almost every rock.  It is
 the basis of porcelain, pottery, bricks, and crucibles.
 Its affinity  for vegetable colouring matter, is made use
 of in the preparation of lakes, and in the arts of dying
 and  calico printing.   Native combinations of alumina,
 constitute  the fullers'  earth,  ochres,  boles,  pipe-
 clays, &c.
  The salts of alumina have the following general
 characters:
  1.  Most of them are very soluble in water, and their
 solutions have a sweetish acerb taste.
  2.  Ammonia throws down their earthy base, even
 though they have been previously acidulated with
 muriatic  acid.
  3.  At a strong red heat they give out a portion of
 their acid.
  4.  Phosphate of ammonia gives a white precipitate.
  5.  Hydriodate of potassa produces a flocculent pre
 cipitate of  a white colour, passing into a permanent
 yellow.
  6.  They  are not  affected  by oxalate of ammonia.
 tartaric acid, ferroprussiate of potassa, or tincture of
 galls: by the first two tests they are distinguishable from
 yttria; and by thelast two, from that earth and glucina.
  7.  If bisulphate of potassa be added to a solution of
 an aluminous salt moderately concentrated, octahedral
 crystals of alum will form.
  ALUMINITE.  A mineral of a snow white colour,
 dull, opaque, and having  a fine earthy fracture.  It
 consists of sulphuric acid, alumina, water, silica, lime,
 and  oxyde of.iron.
  ALUMINOUS.  Pertaining to alum.
  Aluminous waters.  Waters impregnated with par-
 ticles of alum.
  ALUMINUM.  See Alumina.
  ALUSIA.  (From aAucnj, a wandering.)  Alysis ;
 Illusion; Hallucination.   A  term used by Good to a
 species of his genus Empathemata.  See Nosology.
  ALVEAR'IUM.  (From alveare, a bee-hive.)  That
 part  of the meatus auditorius externus is so called,
 which contains the wax ofthe ear.
  ALVE'OLUS.  (A diminutive of alvcus, a cavity.)
 The  socket of a tooth.
  A'LVEUS.  (Alveus, i. m., a cavity.)  A cavity.
  Alveus ampullescens.  That part of the duct con-
 veying the chyle to the subclavian vein, which swells
 out.
  Alveus communis. The common duct, or commu-
 nication of the ampullae of the membranaceous semi-
 circular canals in the internal ear, is so termed by
 Scarpa.
  ALVIDU'CA.  (From alvus, the belly, and duco, to
 draw.)  Purging medicines.
  ALVIFLUXUS.  (From alvus, andJZuo, to flow.)
 A diarrhoea, or purging.
  ALVUS.  (Alvus, i. f. and sometimes m. ab allu-
endo, qua. sordes alluuntur.)  The belly, stomach, and
entrails.
                                        53 
AMA
AMB
  A'LTCE.  (From  aXvco, to  be anxious.)  That
•nxiety which attends low fevers.
  ALY'PIA.  (From a, neg. and Xvnn, pain.)  With-
out pain;  applied to a purgation of the humours, with-
out pain.
  ALY'PIAS.  Alypum.  A  species of turbith, the
globularia alypum; so called because it purges  with-
out pain.
  ALYSIS.  See Alusia.
  ALY'SMUS.  (From aAuu, to be restless.)  Rest-
lessness.
  ALY'SSUM.  (From a, neg. and Xvtraa, the bite of
a mad dog; so called because it was foolishly  thought
to be a specific in the cure of the bite of a mad-dog.)
Mad-wort.  See Marrubium alyssum.
  Altssum Galeni.  See  Marrubium verticillatum.
  Alyssum Plinii. See Galium album.
  Alyssum verticillatum.   The Marrubium verti-
cillatum.
  A'lzum.  Aldum; Album.  The name of  the tree
which produces gum  bdellium, according to  some
ancient authors.
  A'MA-  (A^a, together.)  A word used in  compo-
sition.
  AMADINE.  A substance, the properties of which
are  intermediate  between those of starch and  gum.
See Starch.
  AMADOU.  A  variety of the boletus  igniarius,
found on old ash and other trees. It is boiled in water
to extract its soluble parts, then dried and beat with a
mallet to loosen its texture. It has now the  appear-
ance of very spongy doe-skin leather. It is lastly
impregnated with a solution of nitre, and dried, when
it is called spunk, or German tinder; a substance much
used on the continent for lighting fires, either from the
collision of flint and steel, or from the sudden conden-
sation of air in the atmospheric pyrophorus.
  AMA'LGAM.  (Amalgama;  from aua and  yauetv,
to marry.)  A substance produced by mixing mercury
with a metal,  the two being thereby incorporated.
See Alloy.
  Amame'lis.  (From  aua, and unXea,  an  apple.)
The bastard medlar of Hippocrates.
  AMANI'TjE.  (From a, priv. and uavia, madness;
so called, because they are eatable and not poisonous,
like some others.)  A  tribe of fungous productions,
called mushrooms, truffles, and morells, and  by the
French, champignons.
  Amara dulcis.  See  Solanum dulcamara.
  Ama'racus.  (From a, neg. and uapaivio, to decay:
because it keeps its virtues a long time.)  Marjoram.
i  Amaranth, esculent.  See Amaranthus oleraceus.
  AMARA'NTHUS.  (Amaranthus, i. m.; from a,
neg. and uapaivto, to decay: because the flower, when
cut, does not  soon  decay.)  The name of a  genus of
plants in  the  Linnaean system.   Class, Monxcia;
Order, Pentandria.
  Amaranthus oleraceus.   Esculent amaranth.
The leaves of this, and several other species, are eaten
in India the same as cabbage is here.
  AMA'RUS.  Bitter.   See  Bitter.  The  principal
bitters used medicinally are,
  1. The pure  bitters;  gentiana lutea, humulus lu-
pulus, and quassia amara.
  2. Styptic bitters; cinchona officinalis, croton cas-
carilla, quassia simarouba.
  3. Aromatic bitters; artemisia absinthium, anthe-
mis nobilis, hyssopus, &c.
  Amatoria pebris.    (From amo, to  love.)  See
Chlorosis.
  Amatoria  v«n«ficia.  (From amo, to love, and
veneficium, witchcraft.)  Philters.  Love powders.
  Amato'rius.   A term given to a muscle ofthe eye,
by which  that organ is moved in ogling. See  Rectus
inferior oculi.
  ^T.^Ifr'SX?1' AnIndianterm. See Arbutus unedo.
  AMAURO SIS.   (Amauroses, is.  f.  Auavpuicis ;
from anavpoui, to darken or obscure.)  Gutta serena ■
Amblyopia.  A  disease of the eye attended with  a di-
minution or total loss of sight, without any visible in-
jury to the organ, and arising from a paralytic affection
ofthe retina and optic nerve.  A genus of disease in
the class locales, and order dysesthesia of Cullen.  It
arises generally from compression of the optic nerves ■
amaurosis compresswms;  from debility, amaurosis'
atenica; from spasm, amaurosis spasmodica; or  from
poisons, amaurosis venenata.
      54
   The symptoms of amaurosis are noted for being very
 irregular.  In many cases, the pupil is very much di-
 lated, immoveable, and of its natural black colour.
 Sometimes, however, in the most complete and incura-
 ble cases, the pupil is of its natural size, and  the iris
 capable of free motion.  In some cases, the pupil has
 a' dull, glassy, or horny appearance.  Sometimes its
 colour is greenish, occasionally whitish  and opaque,
 so as to be liable to be mistaken for an incipient cata-
 ract. Richter mentions a degree  of strabismus, as the
 only symptom, except the loss of sight, as  invariably
 attendant on amaurosis.
   The blindness  produced by amaurosis, is  generally
 preceded  by an  imaginary appearance of numerous
 insects, or substances, like cobwebs, interposing them-
 selves between objects and the eye.  The origin of a
 cataract on  the other hand,  is usually attended with
 a simple cloudiness of vision.
   Violent contusions ofthe head, apoplectic fits, flashes
 of lightning,  frequent exposure to the rays of the sun,
 severe exercise, strong  passions, drunkenness, and
 other causes of paralytic affections, are enumerated as
 producing this complaint.  Sometimes tumours within
 the cranium, bony projections, &c.  have been found
 compressing  the optic nerves: but in many instances
 no morbid appearance could be traced, to account for
 the blindness.
   The disorder is generally difficult to be removed: but
 is sometimes much benefited by general and local sti-
 mulants, persevered in  for a  considerable  time.  If
 there are marks of congestion in the head, local bleed-
 ing,  active purging, and other evacuations,  would  be
 proper in the  first instance.  Blisters and issues behind
 the ear or neck should also be tried.  Richter speaks
 of much success from the use of medicines acting stea-
 dily on the bowels, after premising  an emetic. Mr.
 Ware observes, that in  some cases  the pupil  is con-
 tracted, indicating probably,  internal inflammation;
 and  then the  internal use of mercury, especially the
 oxymuriate, will  be most beneficial.  Electricity has
 been sometimes serviceable, taking the aura or sparks,
 or even gentle shocks: but galvanism is certainly pre-
 ferable.  Errhines are often useful, as the compound
 powder of asarabacca; Mr. Ware particularly recom-
 mends the hydrargyrus vitriolatus of the former Lon-
 don Pharmacopoeia.  Stimulants have been sometimes
 usefully applied to the eye itself, as the vapour of oil
 of turpentine, an  infusion of capsicum, &c.  Where
 the intention of a blister is to stimulate, it is  best ap-
 plied to the temple on the affected  side.
  AMBER.   Succinum.   A beautiful bituminous sub-
 stance, which takes a good polish, and, after  a slight
 rubbing, becomes  so electric, as to attract straws and
 small bodies; it was called ijXexrpov, electrum, by the
 ancients, and hence the word  electricity.  " Amber is
 a hard, brittle, tasteless substance,  sometimes perfectly
 transparent, but mostly semitransparent or opaque,
 and of a glossy surface:  it is found of all colours, but
 chiefly yellow or orange, and often contains leaves or
 insects; its specific gravity is from 1.065 to 1.100; its
fracture is even, smooth, and glossy;  it is capable of a
fine  polish, and becomes electric by friction; when
 rubbed or heated,  it gives a peculiar agreeable smell,
 particularly when it melts, that is at 550° of Fahren-
heit, but  it then loses its transparency: projected on
 burning coals, it bums with a whitish flame, and  a
 whitish-yellow smoke, but  gives very little soot, and
leaves brownish ashes; it  is insoluble in water and
alcohol, though the latter, when highly rectified, ex-
tracts a reddish colour from it; but it  is soluble in the
sulphuric acid, which then  acquires  a reddish-purple
colour, and is precipitable from it by water.  No other
acid  dissolves it, nor is  it soluble  in  essontial or ex-
pressed oils, without some decomposition and  long di-
 gestion ; but pure  alkali dissolves it.  By distillation
it affords a small quantity of water, with a  little ace-
tous acid,  an oil, and a peculiar acid.  The oil rises
at first colourless:  but, as the heal increases, becomes
 brown, thick, and crapyreumatic. The oil may be
 rectified by successive distillations, or it  may be ob-
 tained very light and limpid at once, if it be put into a
glass alembic with water, ns the elder Rouelle directs,
 and distilled at a heat not greater than 212°  Fahr.  It
 requires to be kept in stone bottles, however, to retain
 this state; for in glass vessels it becomes brown by the
 action of light.
  Amber  is met with plentifully in regular mines in 
AMB
AMB
some parts of Prussia.  The upper surface is composed
of sand, under which is a stratum of loam, and under
this a bed of wood, partly entire, but chiefly mouldered
or changed into a bituminous substance.  Under the
wood is a stratum of sulphuric  or  rather aluminous
mineral, in which the amber is found.  Strong sulphu-
reous exhalations are often perceived in the pits.
  Detached pieces are also found occasionally on the
Bea-coast in various countries.  It has been found in
gravel beds  near London.  In the Royal  Cabinet at
Berlin there is a mass of 181bs. weight, supposed to be
the largest ever found.  Jussieu asserts, that the deli-
cate insects in amber, which prove the tranquillity of
its  formation, are not European.  Haiiy has pointed
out the following distinctions between mcllite and co-
pal, the  bodies which  most closely  resemble  amber.
Mellite is infusible by heat  A bit of copal heated at
the end of a knife takes fire, melting  into drops, which
flatten as they fall;  whereas amber bums with  spit-
ting and  frothing; and when its liquefied particles
drop, they rebound  from the plane which receives
them.  The origin of amber is at present involved in
perfect obscurity, though the rapid progress of vegeta-
ble  chemistry promises soon to throw light on it.  Va-
rious frauds are practised with this substance.  Neu-
mann states as the common practices of workmen, the
two following:  The one consists in surrounding the
amber with sand in an iron pot, and  cementing it with
a gradual fire for forty hours, some small pieces placed
near the sides of the vessel being occasionally taken
out for judging of the effect of the operation:  the se-
cond method, which he says is that most generally
practised, is by digesting and boiling the amber about
twenty hours with rapeseed oil, by which it is rendered
both clear and hard.
  Werner  has divided  it into two sub-species,  the
white and the yellow : but there is little advantage in
the distinction.  Its ultimate constituents are the same
with those of vegetable bodies in general; viz. carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.
  In the second volume  of the Edinburgh Philosophi-
cal  Journal, Dr. Brewster has given an  account of
Borne optical properties of amber, from which he con-
siders it established beyond a doubt  that amber is an
indurated vegetable juice; and  that the  traces of a
regular structure, indicated by its action upon polarized
light, are not the effect ofthe ordinary laws of crystal-
lization by which mellite has been formed, but are pro-
duced by the same causes which influence the mecha-
nical condition of gum-arabic, and other gums, which
are known to be  formed by the successive deposition
and induration  of vegetable  fluids."—Ure's  Chem.
Diet.  See Oleum Sutcini, and Succinic Acid.
  [Amber has heretofore  been chiefly obtained from
the shores of the Baltic in Prussia.  It  has however
been found in other countries.
  In the state of New-Jersey, on Crosswick's creek,
four miles from Trenton, it occurs in alluvial soil. The
amber is  both yellow and whitish, and occurs in grains
or small  masses, seldom exceeding an inch in  length.
It rests on lignite or carbonated wood, or  even pene-
trates it,  and is sometimes connected with  pyrites.
The stratum of lignite, which contains the amber, rests
on a coarse, ferruginous sand, and is covered by a soft
bluish clay, embracing masses of pyrites.  Above the
clay is a bed of sand.  Amber exists also near Wood-
bury, in the same state, in large plates in a bed of marl;
also at Camden, opposite Philadelphia, where a trans-
parent specimen, almost white, and  several inches in
diameter, has been found in a stratum of gravel.
  Most naturalists are induced to believe that amber is
a resinous juice, which once proceeded  from  certain
trees, but has since been gradually mineralized in the
interior of the earth.   It  occurs in masses,  whose
weight usually varies from a fraction of an ounce to a
few pounds;  and its  largest masses, which are ex-
tremely rare, do not much exceed 201bs.—Cleav. Min.
  The largest mass  perhaps ever seen, was recently
found between Memel and Koningsberg, measuring 14
inches in length, by 9 1-4 in breadth, and weighing
SUhi.—Month. Mag. Oct. 1811.  A.l
  A MBER SEED.   See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  AMBERGRIS.  (Ambragrisea, a. f.)  A concrete,
found in very irregular masses, floating on  the  sea
near the  Molucca islands, Madagascar,  Sumatra, on
the coast of Coromandel, Brazil,  America, China, and
Japan.  It has also been taken out of the intestines of
the Physeter macrocephalus, the spermaceti whale.
As it has not been found in any whales but such as
are dead or sick, its production is generally supposed
to be owing to disease, though some have a little too
peremptorily affirmed  it  to be the cause of the morbid
affection.   As no  large piece has ever been found
without a greater oi less quantity of the beaks of the
Sepia octopodia, the common food of  the spermaceti
whale, interspersed throughout its substance, there
can be little doubt of its originating in the intestines of
the whale;  for if it were occasionally swallowed by il
only, and then caused disease, it would be frequently
found without these, when it is met with floating or
thrown upon the shore.
  Ambergris  is found of  various sizes, generally in
small fragments, but sometimes so large as to weigh
near two hundred  pounds.  When taken  from the
whale it is not so hard as it becomes afterward on ex
posure to the air.  Its specific gravity ranges from 780
to 926.  If  good, it adheres like wax to the edge of a
knife with which it is scraped, retains the impression
ofthe teeth or nails, and  emits a fat odoriferous liquid
on being penetrated with a hot needle.  It is generally
brittle ;  but, on rubbing  it with the nail, it becomes
smooth  like hard  soap.  Its colour is either white,
black, ash-coloured, yellow, or blackish; or it is va-
riegated, namely, gray with black specks, or gray with
yellow specks.  Its smell is peculiar, and not  easy to
be counterfeited.  At 144° it melts, and at  212°  is
volatilized  in the form of a white vapour.   But, on a
red-hot coal, it burns, and is entirely dissipated.  Wa
ter has no action on it;  acids, except nitric, act feebly
on it; alkalies combine  with it,  and  form a soap;
tether and the volatile oils dissolve it; so do the fixed
oils, and also ammonia,  when assisted  by heat; alko-
hol dissolves a portion  of it, and is of great use in
analyzing it, by separating its constituent parts. Ac
cording to Boillon la Grange, who has given  the latest
analysis of it, 3820 parts of ambergris consist of adipo-
cire 2016 parts, a resinous substance 1167, benzoic acid
425, and coal 212.  But Bucholtz could find no benzoic
acid in it.  Dr. Ure examined two different specimens
with considerable attention.  The one yielded ben-
zoic acid, the other, equally genuine to  all appearance,
afforded none.
  An alkoholic solution of ambergris, added in minute
quantity to  lavender water, tooth  powder,  hair pow-
der, wash balls,  &c. communicates its peculiar fra-
grance.   Its retail  price being in London so high as a
guinea per oz. leads  to many adulterations.   These
consist of  various mixtures of  benzoin, labdauum,
meal, &c. scented  with musk.  The  greasy  appear-
ance and smell which heated ambergris exhibits, afford
good criteria, joined to its  solubility in hot settler and
alkohol.
  It has occasionally been employed in medicine, but
its use is mostly confined to the perfumer.   Dr. Swe-
diaur took  thirty grains  of it without  perceiving any
sensible effect.  A sailor, who took half an ounce of
it, found it  a good purgative.— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  [Ambergris, which is a concretion from the intestines
of the spermaceti whale, also contains a considerable
portion of fatty matter, amounting in some specimens
to 60 per cent.  It is only found in the unhealthy ani-
mal.  Its chief constituent is a substance very analo-
gous to cholwterine, and to which Peltier and Caven-
tou have given the name of ambreine.  By digestion in
nitric acid,  ambreine is converted into a peculiar acid
called the ambreic acid.  Webster's Manual of Chem.
Boston, 1828.  A.]
  The medical qualities of ambergris are stomachic,
cordial, and antispasmodic.  It is very  seldom  used in
this country.
  AMBLO'SIS.  (AuSXwats ; from auBXow, to cause
abortion.)  A miscarriage.
  Amblo'tica.  (AiiSXwTiKa; from auSXota, to cause
abortion.)  Medicines which were supposed to occa-
sion abortion.
  AMBLYGONITE.  A  greenish-coloured mineral
that  occurs in granite,  along with green topaz and
tourmaline, near Pinig, in  Saxony.  It seems to be a
species of spodumine.
  AMBLYOPIA.   (Amblyopia, a. f.; from  auSXos,
dull, and w\}/,  the  eye.)   Amblyosmus;  Amblytes.
Hippocrates means by this word, dimness of sight to
which old people are subject.  Paulus  Actuarius, and
the best modem writers,  seem to think that amblyopia 
                      AME

 means the same thing as  the incomplete amaurosis.
 See Amaurosis.
   Amblyo'smus.  See Amblyopia,
   Amblytes.  See Amblyopia.
   A'mbo.  An Indian name of the mango.
   A'mbon.   (From auSaivut, to ascend.)  Celsus uses
 this term to signify the margin or tip of the sockets in
 which the heads ofthe large bones are lodged.
   A'mbone.  The same as ambe.
   A'MBRA.  Amber. Also an aromatic gum.
   Ambra cineracea.  Ambergris and gray amber.
   Ambra grisea.  Ambergris.
   A'mbram.  Amber.
    AMBREINE.  See Ambergris.
   Ambreic  acid.  See Ambergris.  A.]
   Ambre'tte.  See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
   Ambulati'va.  (From ambulo, to walk.)  A species
 of herpes; so called because it walks or creeps, as it
 were, about the body.
   AMBU'STIO.   (Ambuslio, onis.  f.; from amburo,
 to burn.)  See Burn.
   AMBUSTUM.  A burn or scald.
   Ame'lla.  T«e same as achmella.
   AMENORRHEA.  (Amenorrhea, a. f.;  from a,
 priv.  pnv, a month, and peto, to flow.)  A  partial
 or total obstruction of the menses in women from other
 causes than pregnancy and old  age.  The  menses
 should be regular as to quantity and quality; and that
 this discharge should observe the monthly period, is
 essential to  health.  When it is obstructed, nature
 makes her efforts to obtain for it some other outlet.
 When these efforts of nature  fall, the consequence
 may be, pyrexia, pulmonic  diseases, spasmodic affec-
 tions, hysteria, epilepsia, mania, apoplexia, chlorosis,
 according to the  general habit and disposition of the
 patient. Dr. Cullen places this genus in the class
 locales, and order  epischeses.  His species  are, 1.
 Emansio mensium; that is, when the menses do not
 appear so early as is usually expected.  See Chlorosis.
 2. Suppressio mensium, when, after the menses ap-
 pearing and  continuing as  usual for some time, they
 cease without pregnancy occurring.  3. Amenorrhea
 difficilis, vel Menorrhagia  difficilis, when this flux Is
 too  small  in quantity,  and  attended with  great
 pain, &c.
    The causes of  a suppression of the menses appear
 mostly to operate by inducing a constriction of the ex-
 treme vessels; such as cold, fear, and other depressing
   Sassions, an indolent life, the abuse of  acids, &c.  It
   i sometimes symptomatic of other diseases, in which
 considerable debility occurs, as phthisis pulmonalis.
 When the discharge has been some time interrupted,
 particularly in persons'  previously  healthy,  haemor-
 rhages will often happen from other outlets, the nose,
 stomach, lungs, &c. even in some instances a periodi-
, cal discharge of  blood from an  ulcer  has occurred.
 The  patient generally becomes  obstinately  costive,
 often dyspeptic; colicky pains, and various hysterical
 Bymptoms likewise are apt  to attend.  The means of
 chief efficacy in restoring the uterine function are those
 calculated to relax spasm, assisted sometimes by such
  as increase arterial action, particularly in protracted
 cases.  The former will be employed with most  pro-
  bability of  success, when  symptoms of a menstrual
  effort appear.  They are, especially the hip-bath, fo-1
  mentations  to the hypogastrium, sitting over a vessel  |
  of hot water, so that the vapoui' may be applied to the
  pudenda; with  antispasmodic medicines, as the com-
  pound galbanum pill, castor, Sec. but especially opium.
  If the patient be  plethoric, venisection should be pre-
  mised. In cases of long standing, the object will be to
  bring about a determination of  blood to the uterus.
  This may be accomplished by emmenagogues, of which
  saviiie and cantharis are most to be relied  upon;
  though the latter would be improper, if hematuria had
  occurred.   Certain cathartics are also very useful, par-
  ticularly aloes, which appear to operate especially on
  the rectum, and thus sympathetically influence the
  uterus.  Electric shocks passed through the  hypogas-
  tric region, may likewise contribute to the cure.
    In cases of scanty and painful menstruation, the
  means pointed out above as calculated to take off con-
  striction of Die  uterine vessels, should  be resorted to;
  especially the hip-bath, and the free use of opium.
    Amentacb* plant*.   Amentaceous plants.   Adi-
  visionof plants in  natural  arrangements of bota-
  nists.
        56
                      AME

  AMENTA'CETTS.  Having an amentum or catkin,
as the willow, birch, beech, poplar#&c.
  AME'NTIA.  (Amentia, a. f.;  from a,  priv. and
mens, the mind.)  Imbecility of intellect, by which the
relations of things  are either not perceived, or not
recollected.  A disease in the class neuroses, and order
vesania of Cullen.  When it originates at  birth, it is
called amentia congenita, natural stupidity; when from
the infirmities of age, amentia senilis, dotage or child-
ishness ; and when from some accidental cause, amentia
acquisita.                           ....
  AME'NTUM.   (Derived from  its fancied resem
blance to a cat's-tail, and by Festus, from  the Greek
duua, a bond  or thong.)   Julus;  Nucamentum; Ca-
tulus.  Catkin.  A species of inflorescence, considered
by some as a species of calyx.  It is a simple peduncle
covered with numerous chaffy scales, under which are
the flowers or parts of fructification.  The distinctions
of catkins are  into,
  1. Cylindrical: aaiaCorylus avellana; Beta alba;
Alnus.
  2. Globose! as in Fagus sylvatica ; Platanus orien-
talis; Urtica pilulifera.
  3. Ovate : as in the Female Pinus sylvestris.
  4. Filiform: seen in Fagus pumila and Castanea
pumila.
  5. Attenuate, slender towards the end: as in Fagus
castanea.
  6. Thick: in Juglans regia.
  7. Imbrecate, scaly, as in Juniperus communis, and
Salix fusca.
  8. Paleaceous, chaffy: as in Pinus sylvestris.
  9. Naked: the scales being so small or wanting, that
the parts of fructification appear naked, as in JExcoc-
caria.
  American balsam. See Myroxylum Peruiferum.
  [American centaury.  This is the Chironia angu-
laris of Linnaeus.   It is a native of damp,  rich  soils,
in the middle and southern parts of the United States,
where it is commonly known by the name of centaury.
Every part of the plant  is a pure, strong bitter, and
communicates its qualities to  both water and alkohol.
It appears to be a  remedy in  considerable  use at the
south for intermittent fever. On the stomach it exerts
an invigorating influence, and promotes appetite and
digestion.  It may be given in powder, in doses of ten
or twenty grains, or in infusion, which is the  more
common mode.—Bigelow's Sequel, fee.  A.]
   [American columbo.   This is the Frasera TValleri
of Michaux.  It is a tall, rank, perennial plant, grow-
ing spontaneously in the southern and western  parts
of the United States.   It is the Swertia frazera of
Smith, in Rees's Cyclopedia.  The root, which is large
and fleshy, has a considerable degree of bitterness, and
when cut in slices and dried, has some resemblance to
the  imported  columbo.   Owing  to  its comparative
cheapness, it has been substituted in druggists' shops
for columbo, to which it  is incomparably inferior in
bitterness.  It is  however an article of considerable
tonic powers, and, when fresh, is said to be emetic and
cathartic.—Big. Seq.  A.]
   [American  hellebore.  Veratrum  viride.  The
plant bearing this name  grows on wet meadows, and
on the banks of brooks throughout the United States.
It sends up a tuft of large plaited leaves' early in the
spring, and in June produces a panicle of green flowers.
| It is often designated by the name of poke-root, though
[ a very different plant from the Phytolacca.
   Its properties resemble those ofthe  Veratrum Album
 of Europe, to which plant it is so  closely allied in ap-
 pearance, that many botanists have considered  them
 the same species.   The root has a bitter taste, accom-
 panied with  acrimony, and leaves  a permanent im-
 pression on the mouth and fauces. It abounds with a
 resinous juice, which adheres closely to a knife with
 which it has been cut.  This is taken up by alkohol,
 and precipitated by wateT.  The decoction  has an in-
 tensely bitter taste, probably owing to  an extractive
 principle.  The distilled water  has a slightly un-
 pleasant taste, without bitterness or pungency.  Ve-
 ratrine probably exists in this root.
   Like the white Hellebore, it is an  acrid emetic, and
 a powerful stimulant,  followed  by sedative effects.
 From the sum of my observations respecting it, I am
 satisfied that the  root,  when not  impaired by long
 keeping or exposure, is, in  sufficient doses, a  strong
 emetic, commencing its  operation tardily, but conti- 
AMM
AMM
nuing tt hi many instances for a long time;  in large
doses affecting the functions ofthe brain and nervous
system, in a powerful manner, producing giddiness,
impaired vision, prostration of strength, and  diminu-
tion ofthe vital powers.
  From three to six grains in  powder will commonly
occasion vomiting, the activity being in some degree
proportionate to the freshness of the article. Dr. Ware
found, that doses somewhat larger  did not act with
undue violence, in the case of some alms-house pa-
tients.  A wine,  prepared like that of white hellebore,
has produced relief in gout and rheumatism, in doses
of less than a fluid drachm.—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [American Senna.  Cassia Marilandica.  This is a
tall plant, with yellow flowers, growing in most parts
of  the United' States.  Its botanical  affinity to the
Cassia Senna, probably first led to  a suspicion of its
cathartic powers.  Its leaves abound with resin, and
have also some  extractive and volatile matter.  An
ounce of the dried leaves, infused in water, proves
cathartic, and the plant, being easy of acquisition, is
not unfrequently used  for this purpose by country
practitioners.—Big. Seq.  A.]
  America'num  tuberosum.   The   potatoe.   See
Solanum toberosum.
  Amethy'sta pharmaca.  (From a, neg. and utBv,
wine.) Medicines which were said either to prevent
or remove the effects of wine.—Galen.'
  AMETHY'STUS.  (From a, neg.  unducBvo-iao, to be
inebriated: so called, because in former times, accord-
ing to Plutarch, it was thought to prevent drunkenness.
~-Ruland. in Lex. Chem.)  The amethyst.  " A gem
of a violet colour, and  great brilliancy, said to be  as
hard as the ruby or sapphire, from which it only differs
in colour.  This is called the oriental amethyst, and is
very rare.   When  it inclines to the  purple or rosy
colour, it is  more esteemed than when it is nearer to
the blue. These amethysts  have the  same figure,
hardness, specific gravity, and other qualities, as the
best sapphires or rubies, and come  from the same
places, particularly from Persia, Arabia, Armenia, and
the West Indies.  The occidental amethysts are merely
coloured crystals or quartz."
   AMIANTHUS.  See Asbestos.
   Ami'culum.  A little short cloak. It is the same as
the amnios, but anciently meant  a covering for the
 pubes of boys, when they exercised  in the gymnasium.
—Rhodius.
   AMIDINE.   A substance  produced, according  to
Saussure, when we  abandon the  paste of starch to
itself, at the ordinary temperature, with or without the
contact of air.
   A'midum.  See Amylum.
   Aminje'cm.   A wine produced in Aminaea, formerly
 a  province of Italy; called also  Salernum.  Also a
strong wine vinegar.  Galen mentions Aminaum Nea-
politanum, and Aminaum Siculum.
   A'MMI.  (Ammium,  i.  n. Auui;  from apuos, sand,
 from its likeness to little gravel-stones.)  1. The name
 of a genus of plants in the Linnean  system.
   2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the herb bishop's
 weed, of which there are two sorts.  See Sison ammi
 and ammi majus.
   Ammi majus.  The systematic name for  the ammi
 vulgare of the shops.  The seeds of this plant, Ammi—
foliis inferioribus pinnatis, lanceolatis serratis ; supe-
 rioribus, multifidis,  linearibus, of Linnaeus; are less
 powerful than  those of the Sison ammi,  but  were
 exhibited with the same views.
   Ammi ve'rum.  See Sison Ammi.
   Ammi vulgare.  See Ammi majus.
   Ammion.  Ammium.  Cinnabar.
   Ammocho'sia.   (From au/ws,  sand,  and xca>, to
 pour.)  A remedy for drying the body by sprinkling it
 with hot sand.—Oribasius.
   AMMO'NIA.  (Ammonia, m. f; so  called because it
 is  obtained from sal ammoniac, which  received  its
 name from being dug out of the earth near the temple
 of Jupiter Ammon.)  Ammonia gas.  The  substance
 bo called is an aeriform or alkaline air. " There is a
 saline body, formerly brought from  Egypt, where it
 was separated from soot  by sublimation, but which is
 now made  abundantly in Europe, called sal ammo-
 niac.  From  this salt  pure ammonia can be readily
 obtained by  the following  process:   Mix unslacked
 quicklime with  its own weight of sal  ammoniac, each
 in fine powder, and introduce them into a glass retort.
Join to the beak of the retort, by a collar of caout
chouc, (a neck of an Indian rubber bottle answers
well,)  a glass tube about 18  inches long, containing
pieces  of ignited muriate of lime.  This tube should
lie in a horizontal position, and its free end, previously
bent obliquely by the blowpipe,  should dip into dry
mercury  in  a pneumatic  trough.  A slip of porous
paper, as an additional precaution, may be tied round
the tube, and kept moist with aether.  If a gentle heat
from a charcoal chaffer or lamp be now  applied to the
bottom of the retort,  a gaseous  body will bubble  up
through the mercury.  Fill a little glass  tube, sealed at
one end, with the gas, and transfer it, closely stopped
at the other end, into a basin containing  water.  If the
water rise instantly and fill the whole tube, the gas is
pure, and may be received for examination.
  Ammonia  is a transparent, colourless, and  conse-
quently invisible gas, possessed of elasticity, and  the
other mechanical properties of the atmospherical air.
Its specific gravity is an important datum in chemical
researches,  and has  been  rather  differently stated.
Now as no aSriform body is more easily obtained in a
pure state than ammonia, this diversity, among accu-
rate experimentalists, shows the  nicety  of this statical
operation.   Biot and  Arago make  it = 0.59669 by ex-
periment, and by calculation  from its elementary
gases, they make it = 0.59438.  Kirwan says that 100
cubic  inches weigh 18.16 gr.  at 30 inches of bar. and
61° F., which compared to air reckoned 30.519, gives
0.59540.  Sir H. Davy  determines  its  density to  be
= 0.590, with which estimate  the theoretic calculations
of Dr. Prout, in the sixth volume ofthe  Annals of Phi-
losophy, agree.
   This gas has an exceedingly pungent smell,  well
known by the old name of spirits of hartshorn.   An
 animal plunged into  it speedily dies.   It extinguishes
 combustion, but being itself  to a certain degree com-
 bustible, the flame of a taper immersed  in it is enlarged
 before going out.  It  has a very acrid taste.   Water
 condenses it very rapidly.
   Water is capable of dissolving easily  about one-third
 of its weight of ammoniacal gas, or 460 times its bulk.
 Hence, when placed in contact with a  tube filled with
 this gas, water rushes into it with explosive velocity.
   Ammoniacal gas, perfectly dry, when mixed with
 oxygen, explodes with the electric  spark, and is con-
 verted into water and nitrogen,  as has  been shown in
 an ingenious paper by Dr. Henry.   But the simplest,
 and perhaps most accurate  mode of resolving ammo-
 nia into Its elementary constituents, is  that first prac-
 tised  by Berthollet,  the celebrated discoverer of its
 composition.  This consists  in  making the pure gas
 traverse very slowly an ignited porcelain tube of a
 small diameter.
    The alkaline nature of ammonia is demonstrated,
 not only by its neutralizing acidity, and changing the
 vegetable reds to purple or green, but also by its being
 attracted to the negative pole of a voltaic arrangement.
 When a pretty strong electric power is applied to
 ammonia in its  liquid or solid combinations, simple
 decomposition is effected; but in contact with mercury,
 very  mysterious phenomena occur.  If a globule of
 mercury be  surrounded with a  little water of ammo-
 nia, or placed in a little cavity in a piece of sal ammo-
 niac, and then subjected to the voltaic power by two
 wires, the negative  touching  the  mercury,  and the
 positive the ammoniacal  compound,  the globule  is
 instantly covered  with a circulating  film, a white
 smoke rises from  it, and its volume enlarges, while it
 shoots out ramifications of  a  semi-solid consistence
 over the salt.  The amalgam has the  consistence of
 soft butter, and may be cut with a knife.   Whenever
 the electrization  is  suspended, the crab-like fibres
 retract towards the central mass, which soon, by the
 constant formation of white  saline films, resumes its
 pristine globular shape and size.  The  enlargement of
 volume seems to amount occasionally to ten times tiiat
 of the mercury, when a small  globule is employed.
 Sir H. Davy, Berzelius, and Gay Lussac and Thenard,
 have studied  this singular  phenomenon with great
 care. They  produced the  very same substance by
 putting an amalgam of mercury and potassium into the
 moistened cupel of sal  ammoniac.  It  becomes five or
 six times larger,  assumes the consistence of butter,
 while it retains its metallic lustre.
    What takes place in these  experiments'?  In the
 second case, the substance of metallic aspect which we
                                          57 
AxrlM
AMM
obtain is an ammoniacal hydruret of mercury and po-
tassium.  There is formed, besides, muriate of potassa.
Consequently a portion of the potassium of the amal-
gam decomposes the water, becomes potassa, which
itself decomposes the muriate of ammonia.   Thence
result hydrogen and ammonia, which, in  the nascent
state, unite to the undecomposed amalgam.  In the
first experiment, the  substance  which, as  in  the
second, presents the metallic aspect,  is only an ammo-
niacal hydruret of mercury;  its formation  is accom-
panied by the perceptible evolution of a certain quan-
tity of chlorine  at the positive pole.  It is  obvious,
therefore, that the salt is decomposed  by the electricity.
The hydrogen of the muriatic acid, and the ammonia,
both combine with the mercury.
  Ammonia is  not affected  by a  cherry-red heat.
According to Guyton de Morveau, it  becomes a liquid
at about 40°—0°, or at 0° the freezing point of mer-
cury ;  but it is uncertain whether the appearances he
observed may not have been owing to hygrometric
water, as happens with chlorine gas.  The ammo-
niacal liquid loses its pungent smell as its temperature
sinks, till at—50° it gelatinizes, if suddenly cooled; but
if slowly coole#it crystallizes.
  Oxygen, by means of electricity, or a mere red heat,
resolves  ammonia into water and nitrogen.  When
there is a considerable excess of oxygen, it acidifies a
portion of the  nitrogen into nitrous  acid,  whence
many fallacies in analysis have arisen.  Chlorine and
ammonia exercise so powerful an action on each other,
that when mixed suddenly, a sheet of white flame per-
vades them.  The simplest way of  making this fine
experiment, is to invert  a matress, with a wide mouth
and conical neck, over another with a taper neck, con-
taining a mixture of sal  ammoniac and lime, heated by
a lamp.  As soon as the upper vessel seems  to be full
of anunonia, by the overflow of the pungent gas, it is
to be cautiously lifted up, and inserted, in a perpen-
dicular direction, into a wide-mouthed glass decanter
or flask, filled with chlorine.  On seizing the two ves-
sels  thus joined with the two hands covered with
gloves, and suddenly inverting them,  like a sand-glass,
the heavy chlorine  and light  ammonia,  rushing in
opposite directions, unite, with the evolution of flame.
As one volume of ammonia contains, in a condensed
state, one and a half of hydrogen, which requires for
its saturation just one and a half of chlorine, this quan-
tity should resolve the mixture into muriatic acid and
nitrogen, and thereby give a ready analysis of the alka-
line gas.  If the proportion  of  chlorine  be less,  sal
ammoniac and  nitrogen are the results.  The same
thing happens on mixing  the aqueous solutions of
ammonia and chlorine.  But if large bubbles of chlo-
rine  be  let up  in ammoniacal water of moderate
strength, luminous streaks are seen in the dark to per-
vade the liquid, and the same reciprocal change of the
ingredients is effected.
  Gay Lussac and Thcnard state, that when 3 parts of
ammoniacal gas and 1 of chlorine are mixed together,
they condense into sal ammoniac, and azote, equal to
1-10 the whole volume, is given out.
  Iodine has an analogous  action on  ammonia;
seizing a portion of its hydrogen to form hydriodic acid,
whence hydriodate of ammonia results; while another
portion of iodine unites with the liberated  nitrogen to
form the explosive pulverulent iodine.
  Cyanogen and ammoniacal gas begin to act upon
each other whenever they come into contact, but some
hours are requisite to render the effect complete. They
unite in the proportion nearly of 1 to 1 1-2, forming a
compound which gives a dark orange-brown colour to
water, but dissolves in only a very small quantity of
water.  The-solution does not produce Prussian blue
with the salts of iron.
.  By  transmitting ammoniacal gas through charcoal
ignited in a tube, prussic or hydrocyanic acid is formed.
  The action ofthe alkaline metals on gaseous ammo-
nia, is very curious.   When potassium is fused in that
gas, a very fusible olive-green substance, consisting of
potassium, nitrogen, and ammonia is formed; and a
volume of hydrogen remains  exactly equal to what
would result from the action on water of the quantity
of potassium employed.  Hence, according to Thenard,
the ammonia is divided into two portions.  One is
decomposed, so that  its nitrogen combines with  the
potassium, and  its hydrogen remains free, while  the
other is absorbed in whole or in part  by the nitroguret
 of potassium.  Sodium acts in the tame manner.  The
 olive substance is opaque, and it is only when in plates
 of extreme thinness that it appears semitransparent; it
 has nothing of the metallic appearance; it is heavier
 than water; and, on  minute inspection, seems imper-
 fectly crystallized.  When it is exposed to a heat pro-
 gressively increased, it melts, disengages ammonia, and
 hydrogen, and nitrogen, in the proportions constituting
 ammonia; then it  becomes solid, still  preserving its
 green colour,  and  is converted  into a nitroguret of
 potassium or sodium.   Exposed  to the air at  the ordi
 nary temperature, it attracts only its humidity, but not
 its oxygen, and is slowly transformed into ammoniacal
 gas, and potassa or soda.  It burns vividly when pro-
 jected into a hot crucible, or when heated in a vessel
 containing oxygen.   Water and acids produce  also
 sudden decomposition, with the extrication  of heat
 Alkalies or  alkaline salts are produced.  Alkohol like
 wise decomposes it with similar results.  The pie-
 ceding description of the compound of ammonia with
 potassium, as  prepared by Gay Lussac and Thenard,
 was controverted by Sir H. Davy.
   The experiments of this accurate chemist led to the
 conclusion, that the presence of moisture had modified
 their results.  In  proportion as more precautions are
 taken to keep every thing absolutely dry, so in propor-
 tion is less ammonia regenerated.  He seldom obtained
 as much as 1-10 of  the quantity absorbed; and he
 never could procure hydrogen and nitrogen in the pro-
 portions constituting ammonia;  there was always nn
 excess of nitrogen.  The following  experiment was
 conducted with the utmost nicety. 31-2 gr. of potas-
 sium wen; heated in 12 cubic inches of ammoniacal
 gas; 7.5 were  absorbed, and 3.2 of hydrogen evolved.
 On distilling the olive-coloured solid in a tube  of plati-
 na, 9 cubical inches of gas were  given off, and half a
 cubical  inch remained in the tube and adapters.  Of
 the nine cubical inches, one-fifth of a cubical inch only
 was ammonia;  10 measutes of the permanent gas
 mixed with 7.5 of oxygen, and acted  upon by the
 electrical spark, left a  residuum of 7.5.  He infers that
 the results of the analysis of ammonia, by electricity
 and potassium, are the same.
   On the whole we may legitimately infer, that there
 is something yet unexplained in these phenomena.
 The potassium separates from ammonia as much hy-
 drogen, as an  equal weight of it would from water.
 If two volumes of hydrogen be thus detached from the
 alkaline gas, the remaining volume, with the volume
 of nitrogen, will be left to combine with the potassium,
 forming  a triple compound, somewhat analogous to
 the cyanides, a compound capable of condensing am-
 monia.
   When ammoniacal  gas is transmitted over ignited
 wires of iron, copper, platina, &c. it is decomposed
 completely, and though the metals are not increased in
 weight, they have become extremely  brittle.   Iron, at
 the same temperature, decomposes the ammonia, with
 double  the rapidity that  platinum does.  At a high
 temperature,  the  protoxyde of nitrogen decomposes
 ammonia.
   Of the ordinary metals, zinc is the only one which
 liquid ammonia oxydizes and then dissolves.   But it
 acts on many of the metallic oxydes.  At a high tem-
 perature the gas  deoxydizes all  those which are  re-
 ducible  by  hydrogen.   The oxydes soluble  in liquid
 ammonia, are  the oxyde of zinc; the protoxyde and
 peroxyde of copper; the oxyde of silver; the third and
 fourth oxydes of antimony ; the oxyde of tellurium;
 the protoxides of nickel, cobalt, and iron, the peroxyde
 of tin, mercury,  gold,  and platinum.  The first five
 are very soluble, the rest less so.  These combinations
 can be obtained by evaporation, in the dry state, only
 with copper, antimony, mercury,  gold, platinum, and
 silver; the four last of which are  very remarkable for
 their detonating property.  See the particular metals.
  All the acids are susceptible of  combining  with am-
 monia, and they almost all form with it neutral com-
 pounds.  Gay  Lussac  made the important discovery
 that whenever the acid is  gaseous, its  combination
 with ammoniacal gas takes place in a simple ratio of
 determinate volumes, whether a neutral or  a  subsalt
 be formed.
  Ammoniacal salts have the following general cha-
 racters :—
  1st, When "treated  with a caustic fixed  alkali or
earth, they exhale the  peculiar smell of ammonia. 
AMM
AMN
  fid, They are  generally soluble in water, and crys-

  3d,  They are all decomposed at a moderate  red
neat;  and if the acid be fixed, as the phosphoric or
boracic, the ammonia comes away pure.
  4th, When they are dropped into a solution of mu-
riate of platina, a  yellow  precipitate falls."— Ure's
Chem. Diet.
  The preparations of ammonia in use are,
  1. Liquor ammoniae.  See Ammonia liquor.
  2. The sub-carbonate of ammonia.  See Ammonia
subcarbonas, and ammonia subcarbonatis liquor.
  3. The acetate of ammonia.  See Ammonia acetatis
liquor.
  4. The muriate of ammonia.  See Sal ammoniac.
  5. Ferrum ammoniatum.
  6. Several tinctures and spirits, holding ammonia in
solution.
  Ammonia,  argentate of.  Fulminating silver.
  Ammonia acetata.  See Liquor ammonia acetatis.
  Ammonia muriata.  See Sal ammoniac.
  Ammonia fr£Parata.  See Ammonia subcarbonus.
  Ammoniac, sal.  See Sal Ammoniac.
  AMMONIACUM.  (Auuoviokov ;  so called from
Ammonia, whence it was brought.)   Gum-ammoniac.
A concrete gummy resinous juice, composed of little
lumps, or tears, of a strong and somewhat ungrateful
smell, and  nauseous  taste, followed by a bitterness.
There has, hitherto, been no information had concern-
ing the plant which affords this drug ; but Wildenow
considers it to be the Heracleum gummiferum, having
raised that plant from the seeds, which are sometimes
found in the drug.  It is imported  here from Turkey,
and from  the  East Indies.  It consists, according  to
Braconnot, of 70 resin, 18.4 gum. 4.4 glutinous matter,
6 water, and 1.2 loss in 100 parts.  Gum ammoniacum
is principally employed as an expectorant, and is fre-
quently prescribed in asthma and chronic catarrh.  Its
dose is from 10 to 30 grains.  It is given in the form of
pill or diffused in water, and is frequently combined
with  squill, or tartarized antimony.  In large doses it
 proves purgative.  Externally, it is applied as a discu-
 tient, under the form of plaster, to white swellings of
 the knee, and to indolent tumours.  The officinal pre-
 parations are ammoniacum purificatum.  Emplastrum
 smnioniuci; Empl. ammoniaci cum hydrargyro; Mis-
 tura ammoniaci.
   Ammonias acetatis liquor.  A solution  of ace-
 tate of ammonia; formerly called Aqua ammonia ace-
 tata.  Take of sub-carbonateof ammonia, two ounces;
 dilute acetic acid, four pints.   Add the acid 10 the salt,
 until bubbles of gas  shall no longer arise, and mix.
 The effervescence is occasioned by the escape  of car-
 bonic acid gas, which the.acetic acid expels, and neu-
 tralizes the ammonia.
   If the acid rather predominate, the solution is more
 grateful to the taste:  and provided that  acid  be cor-
 rectly prepared, the proportions  here given will  be
 found sufficient; where the acid  cannot,  be depended
 on, it will be right to be regulated rather by the cessa-
 tion of effervescence than by quantity.
   This preparation was formerly known in the shops
 under the name of spirit of Mindererus.  When assist-
 ed by a warm regimen, it proves an excellent and pow-
 erful sudorific; and, as it operates without quickening
 the circulation, or increasing the heat of the body, it is
 admissible in  febrile  and inflammatory diseases, in
 which the use of stimulating sudorifics are attended
 with danger.  Its action may likewise be determined
 to the kidneys, by walking about in the cool air.  The
 common dose is half  an ounce, either by itself, or
 along with other medicines, adapted to the same in-
 tention.                            ...
   Ammoni.s carbonas.  See Ammoma subcarbonas.
   Ammonia liquor.  Liquor of Ammonia.  Take of
 muriate of ammonia eight ounces; lime newly pre-
 pared, six ounces;  water, four pints.  Pour on the lime
 a pint of the water, then cover the vessel, and set them
 by for an  hour; then add the muriate of ammonia,
 and the remaining water previously made boiling hot,
 and cover the vessel again; strain the liquor when it
 has cooled; then distil from it twelve fluid ounces of
 the solution of ammonia into a receiver cooled to the
 temperature of 50°.  The specific gravity of this solu-
 tion  should be to  that of distilled water, as 4.960 to

   Lime is capable of decomposing muriate of ammo-
nia at a temperature much below that of boiling W»
ter; so  that when the materials are mixed, a solution
of ammonia and of muriate of lime is obtained.  This
being submitted to distillation, tht ammonia passes
over with a certain  portion of the water,  leaving be-
hind the muriate of lime dissolved in the rest.  The
proportion of water directed seems, however, unneces-
sarily great, which obliges the operator to employ larger
vessels than would otherwise suffice. But  the process
now directed  is certainly much easier, more economi-
cal, and more  uniform in its results,  than  that of
former pharmacopoeias.
  This preparation is colourless and transparent with
a strong peculiar smell;  it parts with the ammonia in
the form of gas, if  heated to 130 degrees, and requires
to be kept,  with a cautious exclusion of atmospherical
air, with the carbonic acid of which it readily unites
on  this latter account,  the propriety of keeping it in
small bottles instead of a large one, has been sug-
gested.
  This  is the aqua  ammonia pura of the shops,  anj
the aicali volatile causticum.
  Water of ammonia is very rarely given internally,
although it may be used in doses of ten or twenty drops,
largely  diluted, as  a powerful stimulant in asphyxia
and similar diseases.  Externally it is applied to the
skin  as a  rubefacient, and in the form of gas to the
nostrils, and  to the eyes as a stimulant:  in cases of
torpor,  paralysis, rheumatism, syncope, hysteria,  and
chronic ophthalmia.
  Ammonije  murias.  See Sal ammoniaea.
  Ammonije  nitras.  Aicali volatile nitratum;  Sal
ammoniacus  nitrosus;  Ammonia  nitrata.   A  salt
composed of the nitric acid and ammonia, the virtues
of which are internally diuretic and deobstruent, and
externally resolvent and sialogogue.
  Ammonije  subcarbonas.  Subcarbonate of ammo-
nia.  This preparation was formerly called ammonia
praparata, and sal volatilis salis ammoniaci, and sal
volatilis.  It is made thus:—Take of muriate of am-
monia,  a pound:  of'prepared chalk, dried, a pound
and a  half.   Reduce  them  separately  to powder;
then mix them together, and sublime in a heat  gra-
dually raised, till the retort becomes red.  In this pre-
paration a double decomposition  takes place, the car-
bonic acid  ofthe chalk uniting with the ammonia, and
forming subcarbonate of ammonia, which is volatilized
while muriate of lime remains in the vessel.
   This salt possesses nervine and stimulating powers,
and is  highly beneficial in the dose of from two to
eight grains, in nervous affections, debilities, flatulency,
 and acidity from dyspepsia.
   Ammonije  subcarbonatis liquor.   Liquor am-
 monia  carbonatis.  Solution of subcarbonate of am-
 monia.  Take  of subcarbonate  of  ammonia,  four
 ounces; distilled water  a pint.  Dissolve the subcar-
 bonate of ammonia in the water, and filter the solution
 through paper.  This  preparation possesses the pro-
 perties of  ammonia in  its action on the human body
 See Ammonia subcarbonas.
   Ammonicated copper, liquor of.   See Cupri ammo-
 niati liquor.
   Ammo'nion.  (From afijioy, sand.)  AStius uses this
 term to denote a collyrium of great virtue in many
 diseases ofthe eye, which was said to remove sand or
 gravel  from the eyes.
   AMMONI'TES.   Petrifactions, which have  like-
 wise been distinguished by the name of cornua ammo-
 nis, and are  called  snake-stones by the vulgar, consist
 chiefly of lime-stone.   They are found of all  sizes,
 from the breadth of half an inch to more than two feet
 in diameter; some of them  rounded,  others greatly
 compressed, and lodged in different strata of stones
 and clays.  They appear to owe their origin to shells
 ofthe nautilus kind.
   AMMO'NIUM.   Berzelius first gave this name to a
 supposed  metal which  with  oxygen he  conceives  to
 form the alkali called  ammonia.  It is now generally
 used by all chemists.  See Ammonia.
   AMNESIA.  (From a, priv. and uvnois, memory.)
 Amnestia.   Forgetfulness;  mostly a  symptomatic
 affection.
   Amne'stia.  See Amnesia.
   AMNIOS.  (From  auvos, a lamb, or lamb s skin.)
 Amnion.  The soft internal  membrane which sur-
 rounds the foetus.   It is very thin and pellucid in the
 early stage  of pregnancy, but acquires  considerable 
AMP
AMY
 HiicknesB and strength in the latter months.  The am-
 nios contains a thin watery fluid, iu which the foetus
 is suspended.  See Liquor amnii.
  AMNIOTIC.  (Amnioticus; from amnios : so called
 because it is obtained from the membrane of that
 name.)  Of or belonging to the amnios.
  Amniotic acid.  Acidum amnioticum.  A peculiar
 acid found in the liquor ofthe amnios of the cow.  It
 exists in the form of a white pulverulent powder.  It
 is slightly acid to the taste, but sensibly reddens vege-
 table blues.  It is with difficulty soluble in cold, but
 readily soluble in boiling water,  and in alkohol.
 When exposed to a strong beat, it exhales an odour of
 ammonia and of prussic acid.  Assisted by heat, it de-
 composes carbonate of potassa,  soda, and ammonia.
 It produces no change in  the solutions of silver, lead,
 or mercury, in nitric acid.  Amniotic acid may be ob-
 tained by evaporating the liquor of the amnios of the
 cow to a fourth part, and suffering it to cool; crystals
 of amniotic acid will be obtained in considerable quan-
 tity.  Whether this acid exists in the liquor of the am-
nios of other animals, is not yet known.
  AMO'MUM.  (Amomum, i. n.; from an  Arabian
word, signifying a  pigeon, the  foot  of which it was
 thought to resemble.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnsean system.   Class  Monanaria; Order,
  Amomum  cardamomum.   The former systematic
name for  the  cardamomum minus.   See Elettaria
cardamomum.
  Amomum granum paradisi.  The systematic name
of the plant which affords the grains of paradise.  Car-
damomum  majus; Meleguetta;  Maniguetta; Carda-
momum piperatium.   Grains  of  paradise, or the
greater cardamom seeds, are contained  in a large
brown, somewhat triangular  flask, the thickness of
one's thumb, and pyramidal.  The  seeds are angular,
and of a reddish brown colour,  smaller than pepper,
and resemble very much the seeds of the cardamomum
minus.  They are extremely hot, and similar in virtue
to pepper.
  Amomum vbrum.  Truestone parsley. The fruit is
about the size of a grape, of a strong and grateful aro-
matic taste, and penetrating  smell.  The seeds have
been given as a carminative.
  Amomum zingiber.  The former systematic name
of the plant which affords ginger. See Zingiber offici-
nale.
  Amo'rge.  See Amurca.
  AMPELITE.  The aluminous ampelite, is the alum
slate; and the graphic, the graphic slate.
  AMPELOSA'GRIA.  (From  auireXos, a  vine, and
aypios, wild.)  See Bryonia alba.
  AMPHEMERI'NA.  See Amphemerinos.
  AMPHEMERl'NOS.  (Fom auQt, about and Vuepa,
a day.)  Amphemerina.  A fever of one day's  du-
ration.
  AMPHIARTHRO'SIS.  AuftapBpuiats; from autbt,
both,  and  apBpuots, an articulation: so called from
its partaking both of diarthrosis and synarthrosis.)   A
mixed species of connexion of bones, which admits of
an obscure motion, as is observed in the metacarpal
and metatarsal bones,  and the vertebrae.
  AMPHIBIUM.  (From outfit,  ambo, and (3ios, vita.)
An amphibious animal, or one that lives both on land
and in the water.  The amphibious animals, according
to Linnaeus, are a class, the heart of which is fur-
nished with one ventricle and one auricle,  in which
respiration is in a considerable degree voluntary.
  AMPHIBLESTROI'DES.   (From au<pt6Xe?pov, a
net, and aios, a resemblance.)  Reteform or net-like;
a term which has been applied to the retina.
  Amphibole.  Some species of actionUte and horn-
blende have this name.
  [This is the name given by Hatty, to a mineral, the
synonyms of which are:—
           Tremolith of Wemer,
            La Tremolithe of Brochant,
            Grammatite of Brogniart,
           Tremolite of Cleaveland.  A.]
  Amttiibolites. Trap rocks  are so called in  geo-
logy, the basis of which is hornblende.
  AMPHIBRA'NCHIA.   (From au<f>t, about,  and
Bparxta, the 'jaws.)   The fauces or parts  about the
tonsils, according to Hippocrates and FoSsius.
  Amphicau'stis.  (From auibi, about, and Kav?is,
ripe corn.)  1.  A sort of wild barley.
      CO
   8. Eustachius says, it was also to express the pri-
 vate parts of a woman.
   AMPHIDEON.  (From outfit, on both  sides,  and
 Satio, to divide.)  Amphidaum; Amphidium.  The os
 tincte, or mouth of the womb, which opens both ways,
 was so cal'ed by the ancients.
   AMPHiDIARTHRO'SIS.  The same as Amphtar-
 throsis.
   Amphigene.  A name of Vesuvian.
   [This name is given by Hafiy to that crystalline sub-
 stance, frequently found among volcanic  productions,
 and which  other mineralogists have called  Leu-
 cite.  A.]
   AMPHIMERI'NA.  (From audu, about, and nucpa,
 a day.)  A fever of one day's continuance.
   AMPHIME'TRION.  (From au<pt, about, and urr
 rpa, the womb.)   Amphimetrium.   The  parts  about
 the womb. Hippocrates.
   A'mphiplex.  (From  audi, about, and izXcktui, to
 connect.)   According to Rufus Ephesius, the  part
 situated between the scrotum and anus, and which is
 connected with the thighs.
  Amphipneuma.  (From  autkt, about, and zzveopa,
 breath.)  A difficulty of breathing.—Hippocrates.
  AMPHI'POLIS.  (From autpt, about, and aoXcu, to
 attend.)  Amphipolus.  One who attends the bed of a
 Bick person, and administers to him.—Hippocrates.
  Amphismi'la.   (From au<f>t, on  both  sides, and
 autXn, an incision-knife.)  A dissecting knife, with an
 edge on both sides.  Galen.
  AMPLECTENS.  Embracing, clasping.
  AMPLEXICAULIS.  (From  amplector, to  sur-
 round, and caulis, a stem.)  Embracing  or clasping
 the stem.  Folium amplexicaule is a  leatj the base of
 which surrounds the stem, as in Papaver somntferum
 and Carduus marianus;  and the Sencsio hirsutus, has
 a leafstalk which embraces  the stem as its base.
  AMPU'LLA.  (ApfioXXa; from avaSaXXui, to  swell
out.)  A bottle.
  1. All bellied vessels are so called in chemistry, as
bolt-heads, receivers, cucurbits,  &c.
  2. In anatomy this term is applied by Scarpa to the
 dilated portions of the membranaceous semicircular
 canals, just within the  vestibulum ofthe ear.
  3.  In botany; it is a small membranaceous bag
 attached to the roots and the emersed leaves of some
 aquatic plants, rendering them buoyant.—Thompson.
  AMPULLE'SCENS.  (From ampulla,  a bottle.)
 The most tumid part of the thoracic duct is called al-
veus ampullescens.
  AMPUTA'TIO. (From amputo, to cut off.) Ectome.
 Amputation;  a surgical  operation, which consists in
 the removal of a limb  or viscus: thus we say, a leg,
 a finger, the penis, &c. when cut off, are amputated;
 but when  speaking of  a  tumour or excrescence, it is
said to be removed, or dissected out.
  AMULE'TUM.  (From  auua, a bond; because it
was tied round the person's neck;  or rather  from
apvvta, to defend.)  An amulet, or charm ; by wearing
 which  the person was supposed to be defended from
 the admission of all evil:  in particular,  an antidote
 against the plague.
  Amu'rca.   (From autpyto, to press out.)  Amorge.
 1. A small herb, whose expressed juice  is used in
dying.
  2. The sediment ofthe olive, after  the oil has been
 pressed from it;  recommended by Hippocrates and
 Galen as an application to ulcers.
  Amu'tica.   (From auvrjio, to scratch.)   Medicines
 that, by vellicating or scratching, as it were, tho  bron
 chia, stimulate it to the  discharge of whatever is to
 be thrown off' the lungs.
  A'myche.   (From apvooto, to scratch.)
  1. A superficial laceration or exuiceration of the
 skin: a slight wound.—Hippocrates.
  2. Scarification.—Galen.
  AMYGDALA. (Amygdala, a. f.; AuvydaXn; from
 apvoaw, to lancinate: so  called, because after the
 green husk is removed  from  the fruit, there appear
 upon  the shell  certain fissures, as it  were  lace-
 rations.)
  1. The fruit called  the almond.   See  Amygdalis
 communis.
  2. The tonsil glands of  the throat are sometimes
termed, from their resemblance, Amygdala.
  Amygdala, amara.  The bitter almond.  See Amur-
dalus communis.                               ■ 
AMY
ANA
  Amygdala dulcis. The sweet almond.  See Amyg-
dalus communis.
  Amygdalje oleum.  See Amygdalus communis.
  AMYGDALOID.   (Amygdaloides;  from amygda-
lus, an almond, and ttios, resemblance.) Almond-like.
  1. A name given to some parts of the body and to
parts of  vegetables  and minerals,  which  resemble
almonds.
  2. A compound mineral consisting of spheroidal par-
ticles or vesicles of lithomarge, green earth, calc spar,
steatite imbedded in  a  basis of fine-grained green-
stone or wacke, containing sometimes, also, crystals of
hornblende.
  [Amygdaloid is  a  compound  rock, composed of a
basis, in which are imbedded various simple minerals.
But these imbedded minerals are not crystals  and
grains, apparently of cotemporaneous origin with the
basis itself, as in the case of porphyry. On the con-
trary, their form, though sometimes irregular, is usually
spheroidal or oval, like that of an almond; and hence
the name of this rock, (from Amygdala, an almond.)
—Cleav. Min.   A.]
  AMY'GDALUS.   (Amygdalus, i. m.; from amyg-
dala, the derivation of which  look to.)  The name of
a genus of plants  in the Linnaean system.  Class  Ico-
sandria ; Order, Monogynia.  The almond-tree.
  Amvgdalus  communis.  The systematic name of
the plant which affords the common almond.   Amyg-
dalus—foliis serratis infimis glandulosis, floribus scs-
silibus geminis of Linnaeus.
  The almond is a native of Barbary.  The same tree
produces either bitter or sweet.  Sweet almonds are
more in use as food than medicine; but they are said
to be difficult of digestion, unless extremely well com-
minuted.  Their medicinal  qualities depend upon the
oil which they contain in the farinaceous matter, and
which they afford on expression, nearly in the  propor-
tion of half their weight.  It is very similar to olive
oil; perhaps rather purer, and  is used for the same
purposes.  The oil thus obtained is more agreeable to
the palate than most of the other expressed oils, and is
therefore preferred for internal  use,  being  generally
employed with  a  view to obtund acrid juices, and to
soften and relax the solids, in tickling coughs, hoarse-
ness, costiveness,  nephritic  pains, Sec.  Externally, it
is applied against tension  and  rigidity of particular
parts.  The milky solutions of almonds in watery
liquors, usually called emulsions, possess,  in a certain
degree, the emollient qualities ofthe oil, and have this
advantage over pure oil, that they may be given in
acute or inflammatory disorders, without danger of the
•11 effects which the oil  might sometimes  produce by
turnitig rancid. The officinal preparations of almonds
are the expressed oil, the confection, and the emulsion ;
to the latter, the addition of gum-arabic is sometimes
directed, which renders it a still more useful  demul-
cent in catarrhal affections, stranguries, &c.
  Bitter almonds yield  a large quantity  of oil,  per-
fectly similar to that obtained from sweet almonds, but
the matter remaining after the expression of the oil, is
more powerfully bitter than the almond in its entire
state.  Great part of the bitter matter dissolves by the
assistance of heat, both in water and rectified spirit;
and a  part arises also with both menstrua  in distilla-
tion.   Bitter almonds have been long known to be
poisonous to various brute animals; and some authors
have alleged that they are also deleterious to the human
species; but the facts recorded upon this point appear
to want  further  proof.  However,  as the  noxious
quality seems to reside in that matter which gives it
the bitterness  and flavour, it is very probable, that
when this is separated by distillation, and taken in a
sufficiently concentrated state, it may prove a poison
to man, as is  the case  with  the common laurel, to
which  it  appears  extremely analogous. Bergius tells
us, that bitter almonds, in the form of emulsion, cured
obstinate intermittents, after the bark  had failed.  A
simple water is distilled from bitter almonds, after the
oil is pressed out,  which possesses the same qualities,
and in  the same degree, as that drawn from cherry-
stones.  These afforded, formerly, the now-exploded
aqua cerasorum nigrorum, or black cherry-water.
  Amygdalus persica.  The systematic name of the
common peach-tree.  The fruit is known to be grateful
and wholesome, seldom disagreeing with the stomach,
unless this organ is not in a healthy state, or the fruit
has been eaten to excess, when effects similar to those
of the other  dulco-acid summer fixits may be pro*
duoed.  The flowers, including  the calyx as well  as
the corolla, are the parts of the persica used for medi-
cinal  purposes.  These  have an agreeable but weak
smell, and a bitterish taste.  Boulduc  observes, " that
when distilled, without addition, by the heat of a
water-bath, they yield one-sixth their weight, or more,
of a whitish liquid, which communicates to a consi-
derable quantity of other liquids a flavour like that of
the kernels of fruits.  These flowers have a cathartic
effect, and  especially to  children, have been success-
fully given in the character of a vermifuge ; for this
purpose, an infusion of a drachm of flowers dried, or
half an ounce in their recent state, is the requisite dose.
The leaves of the peach are also found to possess  an-
thelmintic power, and from a  great number of experi-
ments appear to nave been given with  invariable suc-
cess both  to  children and adults.  However, as the
leaves and flowers of this plant manifest, in some de-
gree, the quality of those of the laurocerasus, they
ought to be used with caution."
  A'myla. (From  arnylum, starch.)  This term has
been applied  to some chemical ftecula, or highly pul-
verized residuum.  Obsolete.
  Amy'leon.  Amylion,  Starch.
  A'MYLUM.   (Amylum, i. n.  ApvXov;  from  a,
priv. and uvXn, a mill; because it was formerly made
from wheat, without the assistance of a mill.)  Amy
lean;  Amylion.  See Starch.
  AMYRIS.   (From a,  intensive, and uvpov, oint-
ment, or balm; so called from its use,  or smell.)  The
name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class,  Octandria;  Order, Monogynia, of which two
species are used in medicine.
  Amyris elemifera.   The systematic name of the
plant  from which it is supposed we obtain the resin
called gum-elemi.  The plant is d escribed by Linnaeus:
Amyris:—foliis tcrnis quinato pinnatisque subtus to-
mentosis.   Elemi is  brought  here from  the Spanish
West Indies: it  is most esteemed when softish, some-
what transparent, of a pale whitish colour, inclining a
little to green,  and of a strong, though not unpleasant
smell.   It is only used in ointments and plasters, and is
a powerful digestive.
  Amyris gileadensis.  The systematic name ofthe
plant from which the opobalsamum is obtained.   It has
been called by a  variety of names, as Balsamum genu-
inum antiquorum ; Balsamclaon; JEgyptiacum balsa-
mum;  Balsamum Asiaticum; Balsamum Judaicum,
Balsamum Syriacum; Balsamum e Mecca; Balsamum
Alpini; Oleum balsami;  Carpobalsamum; Xylobal-
samum.  Balsam, or balm of Gilead; Balsam of Mecca.
A resinous juice, obtained by making incisions into the
bark  of the  Amyris .-—foliis ternatis  integerrimis,
pedunculis unifloris lateralibus of Linnaeus.  This tree
grows  spontaneously, particularly near to Mecca,  on
the Asiatic side of the Red Sea.  The  juice of the fruit
is termed carpobalsamum in the pharmacopoeias, and
that of the wood and branches xylobalsamum.  The
best sort is a spontaneous exudation from the tree, and
is held in so  high estimation  by the Turks, that it is
rarely, if ever, to be met with genuine among us.  The
medicinal virtues of the genuine balsam of Gilead, have
been highly rated, undoubtedly with  much exaggera-
tion.  The common balsam of Mecca is scarcely used;
but its qualities seem to be very similar to those of the
balsam of Tolu,  with perhaps more  acrimony.  The
dose is from 15 to 50 drops.
  A'myum.  (From a, priv. and pvs, muscle.)   A limb
so emaciated that the muscles  scarcely appear.
  ANA.  In   medical  prescriptions  it  means "of
each."  See A.
  Ana'basis.   (From ava6atvu>, to ascend.)
  1. An ascension, augmentation, or increase of a dis-
ease, or paroxysm.  It  is usually  meant of fevers.—
Galen.
  2. A species of the equisetum, or horse-tail plant
  Anaba'tica.  (From  ataSaivu,  to ascend.)  An
epithet formerly applied  to a continual fever, when if
increases in malignity.
  ANABE'XIS.   (From avaSvrru, to  cough up^  An
expectoration of matter by coughing.
  ANABLE'PSIS.   (From ava  and fiXenm,  to  see
again.)  The recovery of sight after it has been lost
  Anablysis.  (From ova and (3Xvgu,  to gush  out
again.)  Ebullition or effervescence.
  Ana'boli.   (From ava6a\Xu, to  cast up.) The 
AN£
ANA
 discharge of any thing by vomit;  also dilatation, or
 extension.—Galen.
   Anabroche'sis.  (From ava  and Ppoxca, to reab-
 sorb.)  The reabsorption of matter.
   Anabrochi'smos.  (From avaBpoxem, to reabsorb.)
 Anabrochismus.  The taking up and removing the hair
 on  the  eyelids,  when  they become  troublesome.—
 Galen, JEgineta, and others.
   ANABRO'SIS.  (From avafipooKt*, to devour.)  A
 corrosion  of the solid  parts, by sharp and  biting
 humours.—Galen.
   ANACA'RDIUM.  (From ava, without, and icapSta,
 a heart)   Without heart;  because the  pulp of the
 fruit, instead of having the seed enclosed, as is usually
 the case, has the nut growing out of the end of it.  The
 name of a genus of plants.   Class, Enneandria ; Order,
 Monogynia.
   Anacardium occidentals. The cashewnut  The
 oil of this nut is an  active  caustic, and employed as
 such in its native country: but neither it, nor any part
 of the fruit, is used medicinally in this country.   It is
 a useful marking ink, as any thing written on linen or
 cotton with it, is of a brown colour, which gradually
 grows blacker, and is  very durable.
   Anacardium orientals.   The Malacca bean.  See
 Avicennia tomentosa.
   ANACATHA'RSIS.  (From ava, and KaBatpouat,
 to purge up.)  An expectoration of pus, or a purgation
 by  spitting, contra-distinguished  from catharsis, or
 evacuation downwards.  In this sense  the  word  is
 used by Hippocrates and Galen.   Blanchard  denotes,
 by this word, medicines which operate  upwards, as
 vomiting, &c.
   ANACATHA'RTIC.  (Anacatharticus; from ava-
 KaBatpouai, to purge upwards.)  Promoting expecto-
 ration, or vomiting.
   Ana'chron. Mineral alkali.
   ANA'CLASIS.  (From avaxXato, to bend back.)  A
 reflection or recur vature of any of the members, accord-
 ing to Hippocrates.
   ANA'CLISIS.   (From avaKXevto, to recline.)  A
 couch, or sick-bed.—Hippocrates.
   Anaco'che.  (From avaKiaxeut, to retard.)  Delay
 in the administration of medicines;  also slowness in
 the progress of a disease.—Hippocrates.
   ANACGELIA'SMUS.  (From  ava, and xotXta, the
 bowels.)  A gentle purge, which  was sometimes used
 to relieve the lungs.
   Anacollk'ma.  (From ava, and  tcoXXaw,  to  glue
 together.)  A collyrium  made of agglutinant  sub-
 stances, and stuck on the forehead.—Galen.
   Anaconcholi'smos. (From avaxoyxoAi Jo),tosound
 as a shell.)  A gargarism: so called, because the noise
 made in the throat is like the sound of a shell.—Galen.
  ANACTE'SIS.  (From avaxraopat, to recover.)
 Restoration of strength; recovery from  sickness.—
 Hippocrates.
  ANACUPHI'SMA.  (From avaKovtbtgw, to lift up.)
 A kind of exercise mentioned by Hippocrates, which
 consists  in  lifting the body up and down, like our
 weigh jolt, and dumb bells.
  Anacyce'sis.   (From  avaicvKaw,  to  mix.)   The
 mixture of substances, or medicines, by  pouring one
 upon another.
  ANACY'CLEON.  (From avaicvKXoio,  to  wander
 about.)   Anacycleus.  A mountebank, or wandering
 quack.
  ANACYRI'OSIS.   (From ava, and kudos, autho-
 rity.)  By this word, Hippocrates means  that gravity
 and  authority which physicians should preserve among
 sick  people and their attendants.
  ANADIPLO'SIS.   (From  avaSttrXoa, to redupli-
 cate.)  A reduplication or frequent return of a parox-
 ysm, or disease.—Galen.
  Ana'dosis.  (From  avto,  upwards, and StSupi, to
 give.) ' 1. A vomit
  2.  The distribution of aliment all over the body.
  3.  Digestion.
  Ana'drome.  (From avto,  upwards,  and Speuio, to
 run.) A pain which runs from the lower extremities
 to the upper parts ofthe body.—Hippocrates.
  Anju'des.  (From a, priv. and aioW,  a shame.)
 Shameless.  Hippocrates uses this word metaphori-
 cally for without  restraint;  and  applies  it to water
 rushing into the aspera arteria.
  AN^ESTHE'SIA.  (Anasthesia, a. f. AvaioBtitria;
from a,  priv. and aiodavouai, to  feel.,  Loss of the
 sense of  touch.   A genus  of disease  In  the class
 Locales, and order Dysastliesia of Cullen.
   ANAGA'LLIS.  (From avaytXau,  to laugh; be-
 cause, by curing the  spleen,  it disposes persons to be
 cheerful.)   1. The  name of  a genus of plants  in the
 Linnaean system.
   2. The  pharmacopoeial name of  the  anagallis
 arvensis.
   Anagallis arvensis.  The systematic name for the
 Anagallis—foliis indivisis, caule procumbente of Lin-
 naeus.  A  small and  delicately formed plant, which
 does not appear to possess any particular  properties.
   Anaoargali'ctum.  (From ava, and yapyapewv, the
 throat.)  A gargarism, or wash for the throat
   Anagargari stum.  A gargle.
   ANAGLY'PHE.   (From  avayXvipto, to engrave.;
 A part of the fourth ventricle ofthe brain was formerly
 thus called, from its resemblance to a pen, or style.
   ANAGNO'SIS.  (From  avayivwaKta,  to  know.)
 The persuasion, or certainty, by which medical men
 judge of a disease from its symptoms.—Hippocrates.
   ANA'GRAPHE.  (From avaypatpu, to write.)  A
 prescription or receipt.
   ANALCINE.  Cubic zeolite.  A mineral found in
 granite, gneiss, trap rocks, and lavas, at Caltnn  Hill,
 Edinburgh, in Bohemia, and Ferroe islands. From its
 becoming feebly electrical by heat, it has got this name.
 [Derived from AvuXkis-   Weak.]
   Anale'ntia.  A  fictitious term used by Paracelsus
 for epilepsy.
   ANALE'PSIA.  (From ava, and Xau6avu>,  to take
 again.)  A species of epilepsy, which proceeds from a
 disorder ofthe stomach, and with which the patient is
 apt to be seized very often and suddenly.
  ANALE'PSIS.   (From avaXauSavta, to restore.) A
 recovery of strength after sickness.
  ANALE'PTIC.   (Analepticus; from avaXauSavw,
 to recruit  or  recover.)   That which recovers  the
 strength which has been lost by sickness.
  ANALO'SIS.  (From avaXtcKu, to consume.)  A
 consumption, or wasting;
  ANA'LYSIS.  (AvaXvms; from avaXvto, to resolve.)
 The  resolution by  chemistry, of any matter into its
 primary and constituent parts.  The processes and ex-
 periments which chemists have recourse to, are  ex-
 tremely numerous  and diversified, yet they may be
 reduced to two species, which comprehend the whole
 art of chemistry.  The first is, analysis, or decompo-
 sition ; the second, synthesis,  or composition.   In
 analysis, the parts of which bodies are composed, are
 separated from each other: thus, if we reduce cinna-
 bar,  which is composed of sulphur and mercury, and
 exhibit these two bodies in a separate state, we say
 we have  decomposed  or analyzed cinnabar.  But if,
 on the contrary, several bodies be mixed together, and
 a new substance be produced, the process is then term-
 ed chemical composition, or  synthesis: thus,  if by
 fusion and sublimation,  we  combine mercury  with
 sulphur, and produce cinnabar, Che operation is termed
 chemical composition, or composition  by synthesis.
 Chemical analysis consists of a great variety of opera-
 tions.  In these operations the most extensive  know-
 ledge of such properties of bodies as are already dis-
 covered must be applied, in order to produce simplicity
 of effect, and certainty in the results.  Chemical ana-
 lysis can hardly be executed with success, by one who
 is not in possession of a considerable number of simple
 substances  in a slate of  great  purity, many of which,
 from their effects, are called reagents.  The word ana-
 lysis is often applied by chemists to denote that series
 of operations, by which the component parts of bodies
 are determined, whether they  be merely separated, or
 exhibited apart from  each other; or whether these
 distinctive properties be exhibited by causing them to
 enter into new combinations, without the perceptible
 intervention of a separate state; and, in the chemical
 examination of bodies,  analysis or separation  can
 scarcely ever be  effected, without synthesis  taking
 place at the same time.
  AN AMNE'SIS.  (From avautuvncKw, to remember.)
 Remembrance, or recollection  of what has been done
 — Galen.
  ANAMNE'STIC.  (From the same.)  A  rem»dy
for bad memory, or whatever strengthens the memory.
  ANA'NAS.  The egg-shaped pine-apple. See Bro-
tnelia Ananas.
  Ana'nce.  (From avav/cajw,  to compel.)  Neeeg- 
ANA
ANA
■ity.  It is applied to any desperate operation.—Hip-
pocrates.
  Anaphalanti'asis.  (From avatbaXavros, bald.)  A
thinness of hair upon the eyebrows.—Gorraus.
  Ana'phora.  (From avacbepia, to  bring up.)  It is
applied to a person who spits blood.—Gorraus.
  ANAPHORY'XIS.  (From avatpopvaaw, to grind
down.)  The reducing of any thing  to dust, or a very
fine  powder.
  ANAPHRODI'SIA.  (Anaphrodisia, a. f.; from a,
priv. and  a<PpoStata, the feast  of Venus.)  Impotence.
A genus of disease in the class Locales, and order Dy-
sorexia of Cullen.  It either arises from paralysis, ana-
phrodisiaparalytica;  or from gonorrhoea, anaphrodi-
sia gonorrhoica.
  Anaphro'meli.  (From  a, neg.  a<ppos, froth,  and
ueXt, boney.)  Clarified honey.
  ANAPLA'SIS. (From ava7rAa<7<ro>, to restore again.)
A restoration of flesh where it has been lost; also the
reuniting a fractured  bone.—Hippocrates.
  ANAPLERO'SIS.   (From  avatrXvpoto, to fill again.)
The restitution or filling up of wasted parts.—Galen.
  A naplero'tica.  (From the same.)   Medicines re-
newing flesh: incarnatives, or such medicines as  fill
up a wound so as to restore it to its original shape.—
Galen.
  Anapleu'sis.  (From avairXevui, to  float  upon.)
The rotting of a bone, so that it drops off, and lies upon
the flesh.  Exfoliation, or separation of a bone.—Hip-
pocrates, JEgineta, Sec.
  ANAPNEU'SIS. (From avanvcvto, to respire.) Res-
piration.
  ANA'PNOE. Respiration.
  ANAPTO'SIS.  (From avamvlut, to fall back.)  A
relapse.
  Ana'ptysis.  The same as  Anacatharsis.
  Anarrhegni'mia.    (From ava,  and fayvuiu, to
break again.)   Anarrhexis.   A fracture; the fresh
opening of a wound.
  ANARRHCS'A.  (From ava, upwards, and fieto, to
flow.)  A flux of humours  from  below upwards.—
Schneider de Catarrho.
  Anarrho'pia.   (From ava, upwards, and ^£i(j, to
creep.)  A flux of humours,  from below upwards.—
Hippocrates.
  A'NAS.   (Anas,  Us.  f.;  from  veto,  to swim, a
nando.)   A genus of birds in the Linnaean system.
  Anas cygnus.  The swan.  The flesh of the young
swan or cygnet is tender, and a great delicacy.
  Anas domestica.  The tame duck.  The flesh of
this bird  is  difficult  of digestion,  and  requires  that
warm and stimulating condiments be taken with it to
enable the stomach lo digest it
  ANASA'RCA.  (Anasarca, a. f.; from ava, through,
and aao\, flesh.)  Sarcitcs.  A  species of dropsy from
a serous humour, spread  between the skin and flesh,
or rather  a general accumulation of lymph in the cel-
lular system.  Dr. Cullen ranks this genus of disease
in  the class Cachexia, and the order Intumescentia.
He  enumerates the  following  species, viz.   1. Ana-
sarca serosa: as when the due discharge of serum is
suppressed, &c. 2. Anasarca oppilata: as when the
blood-vessels are considerably pressed, which happens
to many pregnant women, &c.  3.  Anasarca exanthe-
matica: this  happens after  ulcers, various  eruptive
disorders, and  particularly after the erysipelas.  4.
Anasarca anemia happens when the blood is rendered
extremely poor from considerable lossesof it.  5. Ana-
sarca debilium: as when feebleness is induced by long
illness, &c.
  This species of dropsy shows itself at first with a
swelling of  the feet  and ancles towards the evening,
which, for a time, disappears  again in the morning.
The tumefaction is soft and inelastic, and when pressed
upon by the finger, retains its mark  for some time, the
skin becoming much paler than usual.   By degrees the
swelling ascends upwards, and occupies the trunk of
the body; and at last, even the  face and eyelids appear
full  and bloated; the breathing then becomes difficult,
the urine is  small  in quantity,  high coloured, and de-
posites a reddish sediment; the belly is costive, the
perspiration much obstructed, the countenance yellow,
and a considerable degree of thirst, with emaciation
ofthe whole body, prevails.  To these symptoms suc-
ceed torpor,  heaviness, a  troublesome cough, and a
slow fever.   In some cases  the  water  oozes  out,
through the pores  of the cuticle; in others, being too
gross to  pass by these, it raises the cuticle in small
blisters;  and sometimes  the  skin, not allowing the
water to escape through  it, is compressed  and hard-
ened, and is at the same time so much distended as to
give  the tumour a considerable degree of firmness.
For the causes of this disease,  see Hydrops.
  In those who have died of anasarca, the whole of
the cellular membrane has been distended with a fluid,
mostly of a serous character.  Various organic  dis-
eases have occurred; and the blood is s*id to be altered
in consistence, according to the degree  of the disease.
In general a cure can be more readily effected when it
arises from topical or general debility, than when occa-
sioned by visceral obstruction ; and in  recent cases,
than in those of long continuance.  The skin becoming
somewhat  moist, with a  diminution of thirst, and in-
creased flow of urine, are very favourable. In some
few cases the disease goes off' by a spontaneous crisis
by vomiting, purging, &c.  The indications of treat-
ment in anasarca are, 1. To evacuate the fluid already
collected. 2. To prevent its returning  again.   The
first object may be attained mechanically by an opera-
tion ; or by the use of those means, which increase the
action of the absorbents: the second by removing any
exciting  causes, which may still continue to operate  ;
and at the same time endeavouring to invigorate the
system.  Where the quantity of fluid collected is such
as  to disturb the more  important  functions,  thn
best mode of  relieving the patient is  to make a few
small incisions with a lancet, not too near each other,
through the integuments on the fore and upper part of
each  thigh; the discharge may be assisted by pressure,
and when a sufficient quantity has been evacuated, it
is better to heal them by the first intention.  In the use
of issues or blisters, there is some risk of inducing gan-
grene, especially if  applied to the legs: and the same
has happened  from scarifications with the cupping in-
strument.  Absorption may be  promoted by friction,
and bandaging the parts, which will at the same time
obviate farther effusion; but most powerfully by the
use of different evacuating remedies, especially those
which occasion a  sudden  considerable discharge of
fluids.  Emetics have  been often employed with ad-
vantage ; but it is necessary to guard against weaken-
ing the  stomach by the  frequent repetition of those
which produce much nausea; and perhaps the benefit
results not so much from  the evacuation produced by
the mouth, as  from their promoting other excretions;
antimonials in particular inducing  perspiration, and
squill increasing the flow of urine, &c.; for which pur-
pose they may be more safely given in smaller doses:
in very torpid habits, mustard may claim  the prefer-
ence. Cathartics are of much greater  and more gene-
ral utility ; where the bowels are not particularly irri-
table, the more drastic purgatives should be employed
and repeated as often as the strength will allow; giv-
ing, for example, every second or third morning, jalap,
scammony, colocynth,  or gamboge,  joined with  calo
mel or the supertartrate of potassa and some aromatic,
to  obviate  their griping.  Elaterium is perhaps the
most powerful, generally vomiting as well  as  purging
the patient, but precarious  in its  strength, and there-
fore better given in divided doses, till a sufficient effect
is  produced.  Diuretics  are  universally proper, and
may be given  in  the intervals, where  purgatives can
be borne, otherwise constantly persevered in ;  but un
fortunately the effects of most of them are uncertain.
Saline substances in general appear to stimulate the
kidneys, whether acid, alkaline,  or neutral;  but the
 acetate,  and supertartrate  of potassa, are chiefly re-
sorted to in dropsy. Dr. Ferriar, of Manchester, has
made an important remark of the latter salt, that its
diuretic  power is much promoted by a previous opera
tion on the bowels, which encourages  the more liberal
use of it; indeed, if much relied upon, a drachm or two
should be given three tunes or oftener in the day.  It is
obviously, therefore, best  adapted  to those cases, in
 which the strength is  not greatly impaired;  and the
same holds with the nauseating diuretics, squill, col-
chicum, and  tobacco.  The  latter  has been  strongly
recommended by Dr. Fowler of York, in  the form of
tincture; the  colchicum, as an oxymel by some Ger-
 man physicians; but the squill is most in use, though
certainly very precarious if given alone.  In languid
 and  debilitated habits, we prefer the  more stimulant
 diuretics, as juniper, horserudish, mustard, garlic, the
1 spiritus  setheris nitrici, &c; even  turpentine, or the 
ANA
ANC
 tinctura  canthandis, may be  proper, where milder
 means have failed.  Digitalis is often a very powerful
 remedy, from the utility of which in inflammatory dis-
 eases we might expect it to answer best  in persons of
 great natural strength, and not much exhausted by the
 disorder;  but  Dr. Withering expressly states that its
 diuretic effects appear most certainly and beneficially,
 where the pulse  is feeble or  intermitting, the counte-
 nance pale, the skin cold, and the tumours readily pit-
 ting on pressure; which has  been since confirmed by
 other practitioners: it  should be begun with in small
 doses two or three times a day, and progressively in-
 creased till the desired operation on the kidneys ensues,
 unless alarming  symptoms appear in the mean time.
 Opium and some other narcotics have been occasion-
 ally useful as diuretics in dropsy, but should be only
 regarded as adjuvants, from their uncertain effects.
 In the use of diuretics, a very important rule is, not to
 restrict the  patient from  drinking  freely.  This was
 formerly thought necessary on  theoretical grounds;
 whereby the thirst was aggravated to a distressing de-
 gree, and the operation of remedies often prevented,
 especially on the kidneys.  Sir Francis  Milman first
 taught the impropriety of this practice, which is now
 generally abandoned ;  at least  so long as the flow of
 urine is increased in proportion to the drink taken, it
 is  considered proper  to indulge  the patient with it
 Another evacuation, which it is very desirable to pro-
 mote in anasarca, is that by the skin, but this is with
 difficulty accomplished: nauseating emetics  are  the
 most powerful means, but transient in their effect, and
 their frequent use cannot be bome.  If a gentle dia-
 phoresis can be excited, it is as much as we could ex-
 pect ;  and perhaps on the whole most beneficial to the
 patient.  For this purpose the compound powder of
ipecacuanha, saline substances,  and antimonials in
small  doses, assisted by tepid drink, and warmth  ap-
plied to the surface, may be had  recourse to.  Some-
times much relief is obtained by promoting perspira-
tion locally by means of the vapour-bath.   Mercury
has been much employed in dropsy, and certainly ap-
pears  often materially  to promote the  operation of
other  evacuants, particularly squill  and digitalis; but
 its chief utility is where there are obstructions of the
viscera, especially the liver, of which, however, ascites
 is usually the first result: its power of increasing ab-
sorption hardly appears, unless it is carried so far as to
 affect the mouth, when it is apt to weaken the system
 so much as greatly to limit its use.  The other indica-
 tion of invigorating the constitution,  and particularly
the exhalant arteries, may be accomplished by tonic
 medicines, as the several vegetable bitters, chalybeates
 in those who are remarkably pale, and,  if there be a
 ■anguid circulation, stimulants  may be joined with
 them:  a similar modification will be proper in the diet,
which should be always as nutritious as the patient
can well digest; directing also in torpid habits pungent
articles, as garlic, onions, mustard, horseradish, Sec. to
be freely taken, which will be farther useful  by pro-
moting the urine.  Rhenish wine, or punch made with
hollauds and supertartrate of  potassa, may be allowed
 for the drink.  Regular exercise,  such as the patient
can bear, (the  limbs  being properly supported, espe-
cially by a well-contrived laced stocking)  ought to be
 enjoined, or  diligent friction  of the skin, particularly
ofthe affected  parts, employed when the tumefaction
 is  usually least, namely, in the morning.  The cold
 bath, duly regulated, may also, when the patient is
convalescent,  materially contribute to  obviate a
 relapse.
  ANASPA'SIS.  (From ava, and errata, to draw to-
gether.)  Hippocrates uses this word to signify a con-
 traction of the stomach.
  Ana'ssytos.   (From ava, upwards, and azvopat, to
 agitate.)  Anassytus.  Driven forcibly upwards. Hip-
 pocrates applies this  epithet  to air rushing violently
upwards, as in hysteric fits.
  Anasta'ltica.   (From avag-eXXio, to  contract.)
Styptic or refrigerating medicines.
  ANA'STASIS.   (From ava^nut, to cause to rise.)
1.  A recover;-- from sickness; a restoration of health.
  2. It likew'se signifies a migration of humours, when
expelled from one place and obliged to remove to ano-
ther.—Hippt srates.
  ANASTOMOSIS.   (From ava,through, and c-oua,
a mouth.1  The communication of vessels with one
another.
      61
   ANASTOMO'TTC   (Anttstomoticus;  from  aim,
 through, and $oua, the mouth.)  That which opens
 the pores and mouths of the vessels, as cathartics, di-
 uretics, deobstruents, and sudorifics.
   ANATASE.  A  mineral found only in  TJauphiny
 and Norway.
   [This name is given by Haiiy and  Brogniart, to the
 octahedral oxide of Titanium, which has been found in
 various parts of the United States, in the forms of
            The oxide of titanium,
            The ferruginous oxide,
            The silico-calcareous oxide.
 See  Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, in which nume-
 rous specimens are figured and described by him.'  A.]
   Ana'tks.   (From nates, the buttocks.)  A disease
 ofthe anus.   Feslus, Sec.
   ANATO'MIA.  See Anatomy.
   ANA'TOMY.  (Avarouta, or avarouv, Anatomia,
 a. f.  and Anatome, es; from  ava,  and reuyoi, to cut
 up.)  Androtomy.  The dissection or dividing of or-
 ganized substances to expose the structure, situation,
 and uses of  parts.  Anatomy is divided into that of
 animals strictly so called, also, denominated zootomy,
 and that of vegetables or phytotomy.
   The anatomy of brute  animals and  vegetables is
 comprised under the term  comparative anatomy, be-
 cause their dissection was  instituted to illustrate or
 compare by analogy their structure and functions  with
 those of the  human body.
   Anatomy, comparative. Zootomy.   The dissec-
 tion of brutes, fishes, polypi, plants,  &c. to illustrate,
 or compare them with the structure  and functions of
 the human body.
   ANATRE'SIS.  (From ava, and Tirpaut, to perfo-
 rate.)  A  perforation like  that which is made upon
 the skull by trepanning.
   ANATRI'BE.  (From avarpi&u, to rub.)  Friction
 all over the body.
   Anatri'psis.   Friction all  over  thje body.—Mos-
 chion de Morb. Mulieb. and Galen.
   Ana'tron.  (Arabian.)   The name of a  lake in
 Egypt, wh^re it was produced.   See Soda.
   Ana'trope.  (From avarptirta, to subvert.) Ana-
 trophe; Anatropha.   A relaxation  or subversion of
 the stomach, with loss of appetite and nausea.  Vo-
 miting; indigestion.—Galen.
   Ana'trum.  Soda.
   ANAU'DIA.  (From a, priv. and am5i7, the Epeech.)
 Dumbness;   privation of  voice;  catalepsy.—Hip-
pocrates.
   Ana'xyris.  (From ava\vpts, the  sole.)  The  herb
 sorrel; so called because its leaf is shaped like the sole
 ofthe shoe.
   ANCEPS. (Anccps, ipitis. adjective.)  Two-edged;
 that is, compressed, having the  edges sharp like a  two-
 edged sword; applied to stems  and leaves of plants, as
 in the Sisyrinchium  striatum, Iris  graminea,  and
 leaves of the Typha latifolia.
   A'NCHA.  (Arabian, to press  upon, as being the
 support of  the  body.)   The  thigh.—Avicenna,  Fo-
 restius. Sec.
   A'NCHILOPS.   (From  ayx'i near, and o>uV, the
 eye.)  A disease in the inward corner of the eye.   See
 JEgilops.
   ANCHORA'LIS.  (From ovkwv, the elbow.)   The
 projecting part of the elbow on which we lean, called
 generally the olecranon. See Ulna,
   Anchoralis processus.  The olecranon, a process
 of the ulna.
   ANCHOVY.  See Clupea encrasicolus.
   Anchovy Pear.  See Grias cauliflora.
   ANOHU'SA.   (Anchusa, a. f. ;   from ay%av, to
 strangle: from  its supposed constringent quality; or,
 as others say, because it strangles serpents.)  1.  The
 name of a  genus of plants in the  Linnaean system.
 Class, Pcntandria ;  Order, Monogynia.
   2. The name in some pharmacopoeias for the alka-
 net root and bugloss. See Anchusa officinalis, and
 Anchusa linctoria.
   Anchusa  officinalis.  The officinal bugloss.  In
 some pharmacopoeias it is called Buglossa ; Buglos
 sum angustifolium majus; Buglossum vulgare ma-
jus; Buglossum sylvestre ; Buglossum sativum.  An-
 chusa—foliis  lanceolatis  strigosis, spicis  secundis
 imbricatis, calycibus quinque  partitis, of  Linnauis-
 it was formerly esteemed as a cordial in melancho-'
 lie and hypochondriacal diseases.   It is seldom  used 
ANC
AND
In modern practice, and then only as an  aperient and
refrigerant.
  Anchusa tinctoria. The systematic name for the
anchusa  or  alkanna of  the pharmacopoeias.   This
plant grows wild in France, but is cultivated in our
gardens.  The root is externally of a deep purple co-
lour.  To oil, wax, turpentine, and alkohol, it imparts
a beautiful deep red colour, for which  purpose it is
used.  Its medicinal properties are  scarcely  percep-
tible.
  A'nchyle.  See Ancyle.
  ANCHYLOMERl'SMA.    (From  ayxvXouai, to
bend.)  Sagar uses this term to express  a concretion,
or growing together of the soft parts.
  ANCHYLO'SIS.   (From ayxv^uai, to bend.)  A
Stiff joint. It is divided into the true and npurious, ac-
cording as the motion is entirely or but partly lost.
This state may arise from various causes, as tumefac-
tion ofthe ends of the  bones, caries, fracture, disloca-
tion, &c. also dropsy of the  joint, fleshy excrescences,
aneurisms, and other tumours.   It may also be owing
to the  morbid contraction of the flexor muscles, in-
duced by the limb being long kept in a particular posi-
tion, as a relief to pain, after burns,  mechanical  inju-
ries, &c.  The rickets, white swellings, gout, rheuma-
tism, palsy, from lead particularly, and some other
disorders, often lay the foundation for anchylosis:  and
the joints are very apt to become stiff in advanced life.
Where the joint is perfectly immoveable, little can be
done for the patient; but in the spurious form of the
complaint, we  must first endeavour to remove  any
cause mechanically obstructing the motion of the joint,
and then to get rid of the morbid contraction of the
muscles.  If inflammation exist, this must be first sub-
dued by proper means.  Where extraneous  matters
have been deposited,  the absorbents must be excited to
remove them: and where the parts are preternaturally
rigid, emollient applications will be  serviceable.   Fo-
mentations,  gentle friction  of  the joint and of the
muscles, which appear rigid, with the camphor  lina-
ment, Sec. continued for half an hour or more two or
three times a day; and frequent attempts to move the
joint to a greater extent, especially by the patient ex-
erting  the proper  muscles, not with  violence, but
steadily for some time, are the most successful  means:
but no rapid improvement is to be expected in general.
Sometimes, in obstinate cases, rubbing the part  with
warm  brine  occasionally, or applying stimulant  plas-
ters of  ammoniacum, &c. may expedite  the cure;
and in some  instances, particularly as following rheu-
matism, pumping cold water on the part every morning
has proved remarkably beneficial.  Where there is a
great tendency to contraction of the muscles, it will be
useful  to obviate this by some mechanical contrivance.
It is proper to bear in mind, where, from the nature of
the  case, complete  anchylosis  cannot  be  prevented,
that the patient may be much less inconvenienced by
its being made  to occur in a particular position; that
is in the  upper extremities generally a bent, but in the
bip or  knee an extended one.
  A'nci.  A term formerly applied to those who  have
a distorted elbow.
  A'ncinar.   Borax.
  ANCIPITIUS.  (From Anceps.)  Two-edged: ap-
plied to a leaf which is compressed and sharp  at both
edges,  as that ofthe Typha lalifolia.
  Ancirome'le.  See Ancylomele.
  A'NCON.   (From ayxasopat, to embrace;  ajro rov
ayiccteBai crtpta of«i> to o$tov: because the bones meet-
ing  and  there uniting, are folded one into another.)
The elbow.
  ANCONE'US.  (From ay/tuv, the elbow.)   A small
triangular muscle, situated on the back part of the el-
bow.  Anconeus  minor of Winslow ;  Anconeus vel
cubitalis Riolani of Douglas.   It arises from the ridge,
and from the external condyle of the humerus, by a
thick, strong, and short tendon: from this it becomes
fleshy, and, after running about three inches obliquely
backward, it is inserted by its oblique fleshy fibres into
the back part or ridge of the ulna.  Its use is to extend
the fore-arm.
  Anconeus externus. See  Triceps extensor cubiti.
  Anconeus internus.  See Triceps extensor cubiti.
  Anconeus major.   See Triceps extensor cubiti.
  Anconeus minor.   See Anconeus.
  ANCONOID.  (Anconoideue ; from aymv, the el
bow.)  Belonging to the elbow.
  Anconoid process.  See Ulna.
  A'NCTER.  (Ay/cnjfi, a bond, or button.)  A fibula
or button, by which the lips of wounds are held to-
gether.—Gorraus.
  A.NOTERIA'SMUS. (From avicrnp, a button.) The
operation of closing the lips of wounds together by
loops, or buttons.— Galen.
  Ancu'bitus.  A disease ofthe eyes with a sensation
as if sand were in them.—Joh, Anglic. Ros. Ang.
  A'NCYLE.   (From crymiXos, crooked.)  Anchyle.
A species of contraction, called a stiff joint.—Galen
  Ancylion. See Ancyloglossum.
  ANCYLOBLE'PHARON.  (Ancyloblepharum, i. n;
from  ayicvXn, a hook, and (iXttftapov, an  eyelid.)  A
disease of the eye, by which the eylids are closed to-
gether.—Aetius.
  ANCYLOGLO'SSUM.  (Ancyloglossum,i.n.; from
ayicvXri, a  hook, and yXuioca, the tongue.)   Ancylion
of .^Igineta.  Tongue-tied.  A contraction of the frae-
nulum ofthe tongue.
  ANCYLOMELE.  (From ayicvXos, crooked, and
linXn, a probe.)  Ancyromele: Anciromele.  A crooked
probe, or a probe with a hook, with which surgeons
search wounds.—Galen, &c.
  ANCYLO'SIS.  See Anchylosis.
  Ancylo'tomus.   (From ayKvXn, a hook, and repvtit,
to cut.)  A crooked  chirurgical knife, or bistoury.  A
knife for loosening the tongue, not now used.
  A'ncyra.  (Ayicupa,  an anchor.)   A  chirurgical
hook.  Epicharmus  uses this word for the membrum
virile, according to Gorraeus.
  ANCYROI'DES.    (Ancyroides processus;  from
aymjpa, an anchor, and eitios, a likeness.)   A process
of the scapula was so called, from its likeness to the
beak of an anchor.  The coracoid process of the sca-
pula. See Scapula.
  Ancyrome'le.  See Ancylomele.
' ANDALUSITE.  A massive mineral, ofa flesh, and
sometimes rose-red colour, belonging to primitive coun-
tries, and first found in Andalusia in Spain.
  [It has been found also in the United States.  The
hardness of this mineral is  nearly equal  to that of co-
rundum.  Its specific gravity is 3.16.  Its structure is
more or less distinctly crystalline.   It is perfectly infu
sible by the blow-pipe.   It contains alumine 52, silex
38, potash 8, iron 2.
  It  differs from feldspar by its greater hardness and
its infusibility;  and from  corundum, by its  structure
and  less specific gravity.  Some  mineralogists, how-
ever, are inclined to believe this mineral to be feldspar
intimately mixed with corundum; and hence its hard-
ness.—Clcav. Min.  A.]
  Amier son's pills.  These consist of Barbadoes aloes,
with  a proportion of jalap, and oil of aniseed.
   [ANDERSON,  ALEXANDER, M.D.  Dr. Ander-
son,  of  the city of New-York, received his degree of
Doctor  in Medicine from  the Medical faculty of Co-
lumbia  College.  He  afterward turned his  attention
to the subject of engraving in wood, and finally aban-
doned his  profession of a  physician for the employ-
ment of an engraver, ,in which  he now  stands pre-
eminent, being a self-taught artist.   His wood  en-
gravings  are  excellent, and many of them  equal
copperplate.  He has made this art subservient to his
first  profession, by engravings illustrating the intes-
tines, blood-vessels,  &c, as well as subjects of botany
and  natural  history.   He is a modest, unassuming
man, and is now (1829) in the height of his reputatiou
and usefulness.   A.]
   [ANDERSON, JAMES, M.D.  Having successfully
terminated his academical pursuits at an early age,
Dr. Anderson commenced the study of medicine under
the direction of his father, a very respectable physi-
cian from Scotland.  He attended a course of lectures,
by Professors Shippcn and Morgan, in  the  school of
Philadelphia, then in its infancy ; and  next sailed for
Edinburgh, at that time the focus of medical literature.
Circumstances,  which it is unnecessary to mention,
not permitting him to remain long enough  to obtain  a
degree,  he returned to this country with an ample cer-
tificate, signed  by  his preceptors, Cullen, the elder
Munro, and the whole  board of professors.  Immedi-
ately on his return,  he commenced  the  practice of
physic in  conjunction with his father.  Deeply versed
in general, and  particularly in  medical science, and
devoted almost beyond example to the performance of
his professional duties, he soon obtained a reputation, 
ANE                                            ANE
 nnenjoyed  by any of his competitors.  For a period
 of upwards of thirty years, he retained a practice of
 an  extent certainly without a parallel in this section
 of the country.   Advancing rapidly toward his six-
 tieth year, and feeling the infirmities consequent on a
 life so laborious, he  retired to his seat near Chester-
 town. In this situation, however, he was not allowed
 the repose which  he anticipated.  Though the native
 vigour of his constitution was broken down by the in-
 vasion of disease, and by those accidents to which his
 course of life subjected him, he attended almost to
 the close of it, to  the calls of his  patients.  He died
 December 8lh, 1820, at his seat in tile vicinity of Ches-
 tertown, Maryland, in the 69th year  of his age.—
 Thacher's Med. Biog.  A.]        „.„,.,_.
  Andi'ra.   A tree of Brazil, the fruit of which is
 bitter and astringent, and used as a vermifuge.
  ANDRANATO'MIA.   (From avvp, a man,  and
 Ttuvm, to cut.)  Andranatome.  The dissection of the
 human  body, particularly of the male.—M.  Aur. Se-
 verinus, TiOotome Democrit.
  Andrapodocape'lus.  (From avSponoSov, a slave,
 and KamjXos, a dealer.)  A crimp.  Galen calls by this
name the  person  whose office it was to anoint  and
slightly to wipe the body, to cleanse the skin from foul-
ness.
  ANDREOLITE.  A species of crop-stone.
  ANDROCOSTE'SIS.  (From avep, a man, and  koi-
rtut, to cohabit with.)  1. The venereal act.
  2. The infamous act of sodomy.—Moschion, Sec.
  ANDROGYNUS. (From avtp, a man, and yvvn,
a woman.)   1. An hermaphrodite.
  2. An effeminate person.—Hippocrates.
  3. A plant is said to be androgenous, which produces
both male and female flowers from the same root, as
the  walnut, beech, horn-beam, nettle,  &c.
  ANDRO'MACHUS, of Crete,  was physician to  the
emperor Nero.  He invented a composition, supposed
to be an antidote against poison, called after him,
 1heriaca Andromachi, which he dedicated to that em-
peror  in a copy of Greek verses still preserved. This
complicated preparation  long retained  its reputation,
bat is now deservedly abandoned.
  Andro'nion.  Andronium.  A kind of  plaster used
by iEgineta for carbuncles, invented by Andron.
  ANDROPO'GON.  (From avnp, a man, and rtuiytov,
a beard.)  The name of a genus of plants in  the Lin-
iifean system.  Class, Polygamia: Order,  Monctcia.
  Andropogon  nardus.   The  systematic name of
Indian nard or spikenard.  Spicanardi;  Spica Indi-
ca.   The  root of this plant  is  an ingredient in the
mithridute  and  theriacn.; it is moderately warm  and
 fungent, accompanied with a flavour not disagreeable.
 t is said to be used by the Orientals as a spice.
  Andropogon sch*nanthus.  The systematic name
of the camel-hay,  or Sweet-rush.  Juncus oiloratus ;
Feenum camelorum; Juncus aromaticus.   The dried
plant is imported into  this country from Turkey and
Arabia.  It has an agreeable smell, and a warm,  bit-
terish, not  unpleasant taste.   It was  formerly em-
ployed as a stomachic and deobstruent
  ANDRO'TOMIA.  Androtome.  Human dissection,
particularly of the male.
  ANDRY, Nicholas, a physician, born at Lyons in
 1658.  He was made professor of medicine at Paris in
 1701, and lived to the age of 84.  Besides a Treatise on
 Worms, and other minor publications,  and contribu-
 tions in  the Medical and Philosophical Journals, he
 was author of a work, still esteemed, called  " Ortho-
 pedie," or the art of preventing and  removing defor-
 mities in  children;  which he proposed  to effect by
 regimen, exercise, and various  mechanical contri-
 vances.
  Anebium.   (From avaSacvui, to ascend.)  The
 herb  alkanet, so called from  its quick growth.  See
 Anchusa.
  ANELE'SIS.  (From avttXtto, to roll up.)  Aneile-
 ma.  An involution of the guts, such as is caused by
 flatulence and gripes. —Hippocrates.
  ANE'MIA.  (From avcuos, wind.)  Flatulence.
  ANE'MONE.   (From avcuos,  wind ;  so named, be-
 cause it does not open its flowers till blown upon by
 the wind.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 naean system.  Class,  Polyandria; Order, Polyginia.
 The wind flower.
  Anemone hkpatica.  The systematic name for the
 hepatica nobilis of the pharmacopoeias.   Merba trim
      68
 tatt*. Hepatica, or herb trinity.  This plant possesses
 mildly adstringent and corroborant virtues, with which
 intentions infusions of it have been drunk  as tea, or
 the powder of the dry leaves given to the quantity of
 half a spoonful at a time.
   Anemone nkmorosa.  The systematic name ofthe
 ranunculus albus of the pharmacopoeias.  The bruised
 leaves and flowers are said to cure  tinea capitis  ap-
 plied to the  part.  The inhabitants of Kamskatka, it
 is believed, poison their  arrows with the root of this
 plant.
   Anemone pratensis.  The systematic  name  for
 the Pulsatilla nigricans of the pharmacopoeias.  This
 plant, Anemone—pedunculo involucrato, petalis  apice
 reflexis, foliis bipinnatis, of Linnaeus,  has been  re-
 ceived into  the  Edinburgh pharmacopoeia  upon  the
 authority of Baron Stoerck, who recommended it as
 an effectual remedy for most of the chronic diseases
 affecting the eye, particularly amaurosis, cataract, and
 opacity of the cornea, proceeding from various causes.
 He likewise found  it of  great service  in  venereal
 nodes, nocturnal pains, ulcers, caries, indurated glands,
 suppressed menses, serpiginous eruptions, melancholy,
 and palsy.   The plant, in its recent state, has scarcely
 any smell;  but its taste is extremely acrid, and, when
 chewed, it corrodes the tongue and fauces.
   ANENCE'PHALUS.  (Fioma.priv.andtyKe^aAoj,
 the brain.)  A  monster without  brains. Foolish.—
 Galen de Hippocrate.
   A'neos.   A loss of voice and reason.
   ANEPITHY'MIA.  (From a. priv.  and  tmBvuia,
 desire.)  Loss of appetite.
   A'NESIS. (From avinpt, to relax.)  A remission,
 or relaxation, of a disease, or symptom.   Aetius,  Sec.
   Ane'sum.  See Anisum.
   ANETHUM   (AneOium, i. n.  AvtBov; from avev,
 afar, and Sew, to run : so called because its roots run
 out a great way.)
   1.  The name of a genus of plants  in the  Linmean
 system. Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
   2.  The pharmacopoeial  name of the  common dill.
 See Ancthum graveolcns.
   Anethum Foemculum.  The systematic  name  for
 Ihe faniculum of the shops. Sweet fennel, Ancthum—
fruclibus ovatis of Linnaeus.   The seeds and roots  of
 this indigenous  plant are  directed by the colleges  of
 London and Edinburgh.  The seeds have an aromatic
 smell, and a warm sweetish taste, and contain a  large
 proportion of essential oil.  They are stomachic and
 carminative. The root  has a sweet taste, but  very
 little aromatic warmth, and is said to be pectoral and
 diuretic.
   Anethum graveolens. The systematic, name  of
 the Anethum of the shops.  Ancthum—fructibus com-
pressis, of  Linnaeus.—Dill. Anet.   This plant is a
 native of Spain,  but  cultivated in several  parts  of
 England.  The seeds are directed for use by the  Lon-
 don and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias: they have a mo-
 derately warm,  pungent taste, and an aromatic, but
 sickly smell.  There is an essential oil, and a distilled
 water prepared from them, which  are given  in flatu-
 lent colics and dyspepsia.  They are also said to pro-
 mote the secretion of milk.
   ANE'TICA.   (Aneticus; from avtijpai,  to relax.)
 Medicines which assuage pain, according  to Andr
 Tiraquell.
   Anetus.  (From  avtnui, remilto.)  A name given
 by Good, in his  Study of Medicine, to a  genus of dis-
 eases which embraces intermittent fevers.  See  No-
 sology.
   ANEURI'SMA.  (Ancurisma, matis, neut. Avtv-
 pvoua;  from avevpvvu, to dilate.)  An  aneurism ; a
 preternatural tumour formed by the  dilatation of  an
 artery.  A  genus of disease ranked by Cullen in the
 class Locales, and order Tumores.  There  are  three
 species of aneurism: 1. The true aneurism, aneurisma
 verum, which is known by the presence of a pulsating
 tumour.  The artery either seems only enlarged at a
 small part of its tract, and the tumour  has a deter.
 minate border, or it seems dilated for a considerable
 length, in which circumstance the swelling  is oblong,
 and loses itself so gradually in the surrounding parts,
 that its margin cannot be exactly ascertained.  The
 nr3fi which  is the most common, is termed circum-
 scribed true aneurism; the last, the diffused true aneu-
 rism.  The  symptoms of the circumscribed true aneu-
 rism, take place as follows: the first thing the patient 
ANE
ANE
perceives is an extraordinary throbbing in some par-
ticular situation, and, on paying a little more attention,
he discovers there  a small  pulsating tumour, which
entirely disappears when compressed, but returns again
as soon as the  pressure is removed.  It is commonly
unattended with pain or change in  the colour of the
skin.   When once the tumour  has originated, it con-
tinually grows larger, and at length attains a very con-
siderable size.  In proportion as it becomes larger, its
pulsation  becomes  weaker,  and, indeed,  it  is almost
quite lost, when the disease  has acquired much mag-
nitude.  The diminution of the pulsation  has  been
ascribed to the coats ofthe artery, losing their dilatable
and elastic quality, in proportion as they are distended
and indurated;  and, conseujuently, the aneurismal sac
being no longer capable of an alternate diastole and
systole from the action of the heart.  The fact is also
imputed to the coagulated blood, deposited on the inner
surface of the sac, particularly in large aneurisms, in
which some of  the blood is  always interrupted in its
motion.  In true aneurisms, however, the blood does
not coagulate so soon, nor so often, as in false ones.
Whenever such coagulated  blood  lodges in the sac,
pressure can only produce a partial disappearance of
the swelling.  In proportion as the aneurismal sac
grows larger, the  communication into  the  artery
beyond the tumours is lessened.  Hence, in  this stale,
the pulse below the swelling  becomes weak and small,
and the limb frequently cold and cedematous.  On dis-
section, the lower continuation of the artery is found
preteruaturally  small, and contracted.  The pressure
of the tumour on the adjacent parts also produces a
variety of symptoms, ulcerations, caries,  &c.  Some-
times an  accidental contusion, or concussion,  may
detach a piece of coagulum from the inner surface of
the cyst, and the circulation through the  sack be ob-
structed by it.  The coagulum may possibly be im-
pelled quite into the artery below,  so as  to induce
important changes.   The  danger  of an  aneurism
arrives when it is on the point of bursting, by which
occurrence the  patient usually bleeds to  death; and |
this sometimes  happens in a tew seconds.  The fatal
event may generally be foreseen, as  the part about to
give  way becomes particularly tense, elevated, thin,
soft,  and  of a  dark purple  colour.  2. The false  or
spurious  aneurism,  aneurisma  spurium, is always
owing to  an aperture  in the artery, from which the
blood gushes into the cellular substance.   It may arise
from  an artery being lacerated in violent exertions;
but the most common occasional cause is  a wound.
This is particularly apt to occur at the bend of the arm,
where the artery is exposed to be injured in attempting
to bleed.   When this happens, as soon as the puncture
has been  made, the blood gushes  out with unusual
force, of a bright scarlet colour and in an irregular
stream, corresponding to the pulsation of the  artery.
It flows out, however, in an even and less rapid stream
when pressure is employed higher up than the wound.
These last are the most decisive marks of the artery
being opened; for blood often flows from  a  vein  with
great rapidity,  and  in a broken current, when the
vessel is very turgid and situated immediately over the
artery, which imparts its motion to it. The surgeon
endeavours  precipitately to  stop the haemorrhage by
pressure; and he commonly  occasions a diffused false
aneurism.  The external wound in the skin  is closed,
so that the blood cannot escape from it; but insinuates
itself into the cellular substance. The swelling thus
produced is uneven, often knotty, and extends upwards
and downwards,  along the  tract nf the vessel.  The
skin is also usually of a dark purple colour.  Its size
increases as long as the internal haemorrhage continues,
and, if this should proceed above a certain pitch, mor-
tification of the limb ensues.  3. The varicose  aneu-
rism, aneurisma varicosum: this was first described by
Dr. W. Hunter.  It  happens when the brachial artery
is punctured in opening a vein: the blond  then rushes
into  the  vein, which becomes varicose.  Aneurisms
may happen in  any part of the body, except  the latter
species, which can only take place where a vein runs
over an artery.   When an artery has been punctured,
the tourniquet should be applied, so as to stop the Aow
•f blood by compressing the vessel above; then the
most likely plan of obviating  the production of spurious
aneurism  appears  to  be  applying a firm  compress
immediately over the wound,  and securing it by a
bandage, or in any other way, so as effectually to ckwe
the orifice, yet not prevent the circulation through
other vessels: afterward keeping the limb as quiet aa
possible,  enjoining the  antiphlogistic regimen,  and
examining daily that no extravasation has happened,
which would require the compress being fixed more
securely,  previously applying  the  tourniquet,  and
pressing the effused blood as much as possible into the
vessel.   If there should be much coldness or swelling
ofthe limb below, it will be proper to rub it frequently
with some spirituous or other stimulant embrocation.
It  is only  by trial that it can be certainly determined
when the wound is closed; but always better not to
discontinue the pressure prematurely.  The same plan
may answer, when the disease has already come on,
if  the blood can be entirely, or even mostly, pressed
into the artery again; at any rate, by determining the
circulation on collateral  branches, it will give greater
chance of success to a subsequent operation.  There is
another mode, stated to have sometimes succeeded,
even when there was much coagulated blood; namely,
making strong  pressure over  the whole limb, by a
bandage applied uniformly, and moistened to make it
sit closer, as well as to obviate inflammation; but this
does not appear so good a plan,  at least in slighter
cases.  If however the  tumour be  very large,  and
threatens lo burst, or continues spreading, the opera-
tion should  not  be delayed.  The tourniquet  being
applied, a free incision is to be made into the tumour,
the extravasated blood removed, and the artery  tied
both above and below the wound, as near to it as may
be safe; and if any branch be given off between, this
must be  also secured.  It is better  not to make the
ligatures tighter, than may be  necessary to stop the
flow of blood; and to avoid including any nerve if pos-
sible.   Sometimes, where extensive suppuration or
caries has occurred, or gangrene is to be apprehended,
amputation will be necessary:  but this must not be
prematurely resolved  upon, for often after several
weeks the pulse has returned in the limb below.  In
the true  aneurism, when small and  recent, cold  and
astringent  applications  are sometimes  useful; or
making pressure on the tumour, or on the artery above,
may succeed; otherwise an operation becomes  neces-
sary to save the patient's life; though unfortunately it
oflener fails in this than in the spurious kind; gangrene
ensuing, or haemorrhage; this chiefly arises from the
arteries being often extensively diseased, so that they
are more likely to give way,  and there is  less vital
power  in the limb.  A great improvement  has been
made in the  mode of operating in these cases by Mr.
John Hunter,  and other modern surgeons, namely,
instead of proceeding as already explained in the  spu-
rious aneurism, securing the artery  some way above,
and leaving the rest in a great measure to the powers
of nature.  It has been now proved by many instances,
that when the current of the blood is thus interrupted,
the tumour will cease to enlarge, and often be  con-
siderably diminished  by absorption.  There  is reason
for believing loo, that the cures effected spontaneously,
or by pressure, have been usually owing  to the trunk
above  being  obliterated.  There are  many obvious
advantages in this mode of proceeding; it is more easy,
sooner performed, and disorders the system  less,  par
ticularly as you avoid having a large unhealthy sore t»
be healed ; besides there is less probability of the vessel
being diseased at some distance from  the tumour.  In
the popliteal aneurism, for example, the artery may be
secured rather below the middle of the thigh, wheie it is
easily come at The tourniquet therefore being applied,
and the vessel exposed, a strong ligature is lo be passed
round it; or, which is perhaps preferable, two ligatures
a little distant, subsequently cutting through the artery
between them, when the two portions contract among
the surrounding flesh. It is proper to avoid including
the nerve or vein, but not unnecessarily detach the
vessel from its attachments.  For greater security one
end of each ligature, after being tied, may be passed
through the intercepted portion of artery, that they
may not be forced off.  Then the wound is to be closed
by adhesive plaster,  merely leaving  the ends of the
ligatures hanging out, which will after some time come
away.   However it must be remembered that haemor-
rhage is liable to occur, when this happens, even three
or four weeks after the operation; so that proper  pre-
cautions are required, to check it as soon as possible;
likewise the system should be lowered previously, and
kept bo during the cure.  When  a  true  aneurism 
ANG
ANG
changes Into the spurious form, which is known by the
tumour spreading, becoming harder, and with a less
distinct pulsa'ionj the operation becomes immediately
necessary.  When an aneurism is out of the reach of
an  operation, life may  be  prolonged by occasional
bleeding, a spare  diet,  Sec; and when  the  tumour
becomes apparent externally,  carefully  guarding  it
from  injury.   In the varicose aneurism  an operation
will be very seldom if ever required,  the growth ofthe
tumour being limited.
  Aneurisma spurium.  See Aneurisma,
  Aneurisma varicosum.  See Aneurisma.
  Aneurisma verum.   See Aneurisma.
  ANE'XIS.   (From avcx<*> to project)   A swelling,
or protuberance.
  ANGEIOLO'G Y.  (Angeiologia, a. f.; from ayyetov,
a vessel, and  Xoyos, a discourse.)   A dissertation, or
reasoning, upon the vessels of the body.
  ANGEIO'ITSMUS.   (From  ayyetov, a vessel, and
rtuvta, to cut.)  An angeiotomist,orskilful dissectorof
the vessels.
  ANGEIO'TOMY.  (Angeiotomia; from ayyetov, a
vessel, and repvia, to cut.)  The dissection of the blood-
vessels of an animal body; also the opening of a vein,
or an artery.
  ANGE'LICA.  (So called from its supposed angelic
virtues.)   1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.   Class Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
Angelica.
  ■i. The pharmacopoeial name  ofthe garden angelica.
See Angelica archangelica.
  Angelica archangelica.   The  systematic name
for the angelica-of the shops.  MUzadella Angelica—
foliorum impart lobato of Linnaeus.  A plant, a native
of Lapland, but cultivated in our gardens.   The roots
of angelica have a fragrant, agreeable smell, and  a
bitterish, pungent taste.  The stalk,  leaves, and seeds,
which are also directed in the pharmacopoeias, possess
the same qualities, though in an inferior degree.  Their
virtues arc aromatic and carminative.  A sweatmeat
is made, by the confectioners, of this root, which is
extremely agreeable to the stomach, and is surpassed
only by that of ginger.
  Angelica, garden.  See Angelica archangelica.
  Angelica pilula.  Anderson's Scots pill.
  Angelica sativa.  See Angelica sylvestris.
  Angelica  sylvestris.  Angelica  sativa.    Wild
angelica.   Angelica—foliis  aqualibus  ovato-lanceo-
lalis  serratis, of Linnaeus.  This species of angelica
possesses similar properties to the garden species, but
in a  much inferior degree.  It is only used when the
latter cannot  be obtained.  The seeds, powdered and
put in the hair, kill lice.
  Angelica, wild.  See Angelica sylvestris.
  ANGELICUS.   (From angelus, an angel.)  Some
plants, Sec. are so called, from their supposed superior
virtues.
  Angelicus pulvis.  Submuriate of mercury.
  ANGELI'NA.  Angelina zanoni acosta.  A tree of
vast size, sometimes above sixteen feet thick, growing
in  rocky and  sandy places in  Malabar in the East
Indies.  It  bears ripe fruit in December.  The  dried
leaves healed are said to alleviate pain and stiffness of
the joints, and dismiss swelling of the testes caused by
external violence; and are also  said to be useful in the
cure of venereal complaints.
  Angelina  cortex.   The name  of the tree from
which the Cortex Angelina is procured.  It is a native
of Grenada.  This bark has been recommended as an
anthelmintic for children.
  Angeloca'cos.  The purging  Indian  plum.   See
Myrobalanus.
  A'ngi. (From angor, anguish; becauseof their pain.)
Buboes in the groin.—Fallopius de Morbo Gallico.
  ANGIGLOSSUS.  (From  ayicvXr,, a  hook,  and
yAdHrca, the tongue.)  A person who stammers.
  ANGI'NA.  (Angina, a. f.; from ayx^i tostrangle;
because it  is often attended with a  sense of strangu-
lation.)  A sore throat.  See Cynanehe.
  Angina iini.  A name used by some of the later
Greeks writers to express what the more ancient writers
of  this nation called linozostres, and the Latins epili-
num. which is the cuscuta or dodder, growing on the
limit* or flax, as that on the thyme was called epithy-
num.  See Cuscuta.
  Angina maligna.  Malignant or putrid sore throat
Bee Cynanehe maligna.
  Angina parotidka.  The mumps.   See Cynan&t
parotidca.
  Angina pectoris.  Syncope ang nosa of Dr. Parry.
An acute constrictory pain  at the  lower end of the
sternum, inclining rather to the left side, and extending
up into the left arm, accompanied with great anxiety
Violent palpitations of the heart, laborious breathings,
and a sense of suffocation, are the characteristic symp-
toms of this disease.   It is found to attack men much
more  frequently than  women,  particularly those  who
have  short necks, who are inclinable' to corpulency,
and who, at the same time, lead an inactive and seden-
tary life.  Although it is sometimes met with io per-
sons under the age of  twenty, still it more frequently
occurs in those who arc*j)etween forty and fifty.  In
slight cases, and in the first  stage of the disorder, the
fit comes on by going  up hill, upstairs, or by walking
at a quick pace after a hearty meal;  but as the disease
advances, or becomes  more violent, the paroxysms are
apt to be excited by certain passions of the mind ;  by
slow walking, by riding on horseback, or in a carriage;
or by  sneezing, coughing, speaking, or  straining  at
stool.   In some cases, they attack the patient from two
to four in the  morning, or whilst sitting or standing,
without any previous  exertion or obvious cause.   On
a sudden,  he is seized  with an  acute pain  in the
breast, or  rather at the extremity of the sternum, in-
clining to the  left side, and extending up into the  arm,
as far as the insertion of the deltoid muscle, accom-
panied by a sense of suffocation, great anxiety, and an
idea that its continuance or increase, would certainly
be fatal.  In the first  stage of  the disease, the uneasy
sensation at the end of the sternum, with the other un-
pleasant symptoms, which seemed to threaten  a sus-
pension of life by a perseverance in exertion, usually
go off upon the person's standing still, or turning from
the wind; but, in a more advanced stage, they do not
so readily recede, and the paroxysms are much more
violent.  During the fit, the  pulse sinks, in a greater
or less degree, and becomes  irregular;  the face and
extremities are pale, and bathed in a cold sweat,  and,
for a  while, the patient is perhaps deprived of the
powers of sense and voluntary motion.   The disease
having recurred more or less frequently during the
space of some years, a violent attack at last puts a
sudden period to his  existence.   Angina  pectoris  is
attended with a considerable degree of danger; and it
usually happens that the person is carried off suddenly.
It mostly depends upon an ossification ofthe coronary
arteries, and then we can never expect to effect a radi
cal cure.  During the  paroxysms, considerable relief id
to be  obtained from fomentations, and administering
powerful antispasmodics, such as opium and aethei
combined together.  The application of a blister to the
breast is likewise attended  sometimes with a good
effect.  As the painful sensation at the extremity of
the sternum often admits of a temporary relief, from
an evacuation of wind by the mouth, it may be proper
to give frequent doses of carminatives, such as pepper
mint,  carraway,  or cinnamon water.   Where these
fail in the desired effect, a few drops of ol. anisi, on a
little sugar, may be substituted.
  With the view of preventing the recurrenceof the
disorder, the patient  should carefully  guard against
passion, or other emotions of the mind: he should use
a light, generous diet,  avoiding every thing of a heat •
ing nature ; and he should take care never to overload
the stomach, or  to use any kind of exercise immedi-
ately  after eating.   Besides these precautions, he
should endeavour to  counteract obesity, which has
been considered as a predisposing cause; and this is to
be effected  most safely by a vegetable  diet, moderate
exercise at proper times, early rising, and keeping the
body perfectly open.   It has been observed that angina
pectoris is a disease always attended with considera-
ble danger, and,  in most instances, has proved  fatal
under every mode of treatment.  We are given, how
ever,  to  understand,  by Dr.  Macbride, that of  late
several cases of it have been treated with great sur>
cess, and the disease radically removed, by inserting a
large  issue on  each thigh.  These, therefore, should
never be neglected.  In one case, with a view of cor-
recting, or draining off the irritating fluid, he ordered
instead of issues, a mixture of lime water with  a  little
ofthe spirituous juniperi romp., and an alterative pro-
portion of Huxham's antiinonial wine, together  with a
plain,  light, perspirable  diet  From this course the 
ANI
AN1
 patient was soon apparently mended; but it was not
 until after the insertion of a  large issue in each 'high,
 that he was restored to perfect health.
   Anoini  tonsillaris.  See Cynanehe tonsillaris.
   Angina trachealis.  See Cynanehe trachealis.
   ANGIOCARPI.  The name given by Persoon  to a
 division of funguses which bear their seeds internaily.
 They  are  either hard or membranous  tough  and
 leathery.
   ANGIOLO'GY    (Angiologia;  from ayyetov, a
 vessel, and Xovos,  a discourse.)  The doctrine of the
 vessels ofthe human body.
   ANGIOSPERMIA.   (From ayyos,  a  vessel,  and
 nrtzpfia, a seed.)  The name  of an order of plants in
 the  class Didynamia  of  the sexual system of  Lin-
 naeus,  the seeds of which are lodged in a  pericarpium
 or seed- vessel.
   Anoiospermjb herbs.  Those plants, the seeds of
 which are enclosed in a covering or vessel.
   A'NGLICUS.   (From  Anglia,  England.)    The
 sweating sickness, which was so endemic  and fatal in
 England, was called Sudor Anglicanus.  See  Sudor
 Anglicus.
   Ango'lam. i A very tall tree of Malabar, possessing
 vermifuge  powers.
   Ango'ne.  (From ayxo), to strangle.)  A nervous
 sort of quinsy,  or  hysteric  suffocation,  where   the
 fauces are contracted and stopped up without inflam-
 mation.
   A'NGOR.  (Angor, oris', m.:  from Ango.) Agony
 or intense bodily pain.—Galen.
   A'NGOS.  (Ayyos,  a ves3el.)  A vessel.  A  col-
 lection of humours.
   ANGULATUS.  Angled.—A  term  used to desig-
 nate stem, leaves, petioles, &c. which present several
 acute angles in their circumference. There are seve-
 ral varieties of angular stems.
   1.  Triangulatus, three-angled; as in Cactus trian-
 gularis.
  2.  Quadrangulatus,  four-angled;  as  in  Cactus
 tetragonus.
   3.  Quinqueangulatus,  five-angled;  as in Cactus
 pentagonus.
  4.  Hexangulatus,  six-angled;  as in Cactus hexa-
 gonus.
   5.  Multiangulatus,  many-angled;  as  in  Cactus
 cereus.
   6.  Obtusangularis, obtuse-angled; as in  Scrofula-
 ria nodosa.
   7.  Aculangulalus. acute-angled; as  in  Scrofularia
 aquatica.
  8.  Caulis triqueter, three-sided, but with flat sides ;
 as in Hedysarum triquetrum, Viola mirabilis, Carex
 acuta.
  9.  Caulis tetaquetrus, quadrangular with flat  sides;
 as in Hypericum quadrangularc,  Mentha officinalis.
  For angular leaves, See Leaf, Petiole, Sec.
  ANGULOSUS.   Angular.
  Angustu'rje cortex.  A bark imported from An-
 gustura.  See Cusparia.
   ANHELA'TION.   (Anhelatio;  from  anhelo, to
 breathe  with difficulty.)  Anhelitus.   Shortness of
 breathing.
   ANHYDRITE.  Anhydrous gypsum.  There  are
 six varieties of this mineral su hate of lime. 1. The
 compact—2.  The granular.   3. The fibrous. 4. The
 radiated.  5.  The sparry or cube  spar.   6. The silici-
 ferous or vulpinite.
  Anhydros. A name given by the ancient Greeks,
 to express one of those kinds of Strychna  or night-
shades, which, when taken internally, caused madness.
  ANHYDROUS.   (From a, neg.  and viwp, water.
 Without water.
  Ankk'ton.  (From a, priv. and  vtien, victory.)  A
name of a plaster invented by Crito, and so called be-
cause it was thought an infallible orinvincible remedy
forachores, or scald-head. It was composed of litharge,
 alum, and turpentine, and is described by Galen.
  Anil.  The name of the Indigo plant.
  A'NIMA.  A soul: whether rational, sensitive, or
vegetative.  The word is pure Latin, formed of avc-
uos,  breath. It is sometimes used by physicians to de-
note  the principle of life in the body, in which  sense
Willis calls the blood anima brutalis.  By chemists it
was  used figuratively for the  volatile principle in bo-
dies, whereby they were capable of being raised by the
fire;  and by the old writers on botany, materia me-
 dica, and pharmacy, it  was frequenlly employed to
 denote its great efficacy: hence anima, hepates, aloes,
 rhabarbari, Sec.
   Anima aloes-   Refined aloes.
   Anima articulorum.  A name of the Hermodac
 tyles.  See Hermodactylus.
   Anima hepatis.  Sal  martis.
   Anima pulmonum.  The soul ofthe lungs. A name
 given to saffron, on account of its use in asthmas.
   Anima rhabarbari   The best rhubarb.
   Anima saturni.  A preparation of lead.
   Anima veneris.  A preparation of copper.
   ANIMAL.  An organized body endowed with life
 and voluntary motion.  The elements which enter into
 the composition of the bodies  of animals  are solid,
 liquid, gaseous, and inconfinable.
   Solid Elements.  Phosphorus, sulphur, carbon, iron,
 manganese, potassium, lime, soda, magnesia, silica,
 and alumina.
   Liquid Elements.  Muriatic acid ; water, which in
 this case may be considered as an  clement, enters into
 the organization, and constitutes three-fourths of the
 bodies of animals.
   Gaseous Elements.  Oxygen,  hydrogen, azote.
   Inconfinable Elements.   Caloric, light, electric,  and
 magnetic fluids.
   These diverse elements,  united with each  other,
 three and three, four and  four, &c. according to laws
 still unexplained,  form what we name the proximate
 principles of animals.
   Proximate Materials, or Principles. These are di-
 vided into tzotized, and non-azotized.
   The azotized  principles are:  albumen, fibrin, gela
 tin, mucus, cheese-curd  principle,  urea, uric acid,
 osmazome, colouring matter of the blood.
   The non-azotized principles are: the acetic, benzoic,
 lactic, formic, oxalic, rosacic, acids; sugar of milk,
 sugar of diabetic  urine,  picromel, yellow  colouring
 matter of bile, and  of other liquids or solids which be-
 come yellow accidentally, the blistering principle ol
 cantharides, spermaceti,  biliary calculus, the odorife-
 rous principles of  ambergris, musk, castor, civet, &c
 which are scarcely known, except for their faculty of
 acting on the organ of smell.
   Animal fats are not immediate, simple, proximate
 principles.  It is proved  that human fat, that of the
 pig, of the sheep, &c. are principally formed by two
 fatty bodies, stearin, and elain, winch present very
 different characters that may be  easily separated.
   Neither is the butter of the cow a simple body;  it
 comains acetic acid, a yellow colouring principle, an
 odorous  principle, which  is very manifest  in ferment-
 ed cheese.
   We must not reckon among these substances, adi-
 pocire, a matter which is seen in bodies-long buried in
 the earth ; it is composed  of margarinwfof a fluid acid
 fat, of an orange colouring principle, and of a peculiar
 odorous  substance.  Nor must this substance be con-
 founded  with  spermaceti, and  the  biliary  calculus,
 which  are themselves very different from each other.
 It does  not contain a  single principle analogous to
 them.
   Organic Elements.  The  materials or  principles
 above mentioned  combine among themselves,  and
 from  their combination  arise  the organic elements,
 which are solid or liquid.  The laws or forces that go-
 vern these combinations are entirely unknown.
   Organic Solids.  The solids have  sometimes  the
 form of canals, sometimes that of large or small plates,
 at other  times they assume  that of membranes.   In
 man the total weight of solids is generally eight or
 nine times less than that of liquids.   This proportion
 is nevertheless variable according to many circum-
 stances.
  The  ancients  believed that all  the organic solids
 might be  reduced by ultimate analysis to simple fibres,
 which they supposed were formed of earth,  oil, and
 iron.  Haller, who  admitted this idea of the ancients,
 owns that this fibre is visible only to the  eye of  the
 mind.  Invisibilis est eafibra sola; mentis acie dis-
 Unguimus.  This is just the same as if he had said
 that it does not exist at all, which nobody at present
doubts.
  The ancients also admitted secondary fibres, which
they supposed to be  formed  by particular  modilica
 lions of the simple fibre.  Thence, ihe nervous, mus
cular, parenchymatous, osseous fibre. 
ANN
ANO
  Chaussier has lately proposed to admit four sorts of
fibres, which he calls luminary, nerval, muscular, and
albuginous.
  Science was nearly in this state when Pinel con-
ceived the idea of distinguishing the organic solids, not
by fibres, but by tissues or systems.  Bichat applied it
to all the solid parts of the bodies of animals: the
classification of Bichat has been perfected  by Dupuy-
tren and Richerand.

           Classification  of the Tissues.
1. Cellular.............
            I Arterial.
2. Vascular < Venous.
Nervous
Osseous
( Lymphatic.
! Cerebral.
 Ganglaic.
5. Fibrous
( Fibrous.
< Fibro-cartilaginous.
( Dermoid.
Muscular  j ^XntZy.
 7. Erectile
 8. Mucous...................
 9. Serous  .. —...............
10. Horny or I Hairy.
   Epidemic  ) Epidermoid.
11. Parenchymatous, Glandular.
  These systems, associated with each other and with
the fluids, compose the organs or instruments of life.
When many organs tend by their  action toward  a
common  end, we name them, collectively considered,
an apparatus.  The number  of apparatus, and  their
disposition, constitute the differences of  animals.—
Magendie.
  Animal actions.  Actiones animates.  Those ac-
tions, or functions, are so termed, which are performed
through the means  of the mind.   To this class be-
long the external  and internal senses, the voluntary
action of muscles, voice, speech, watching, and sleep.
See Action.
  Animal Heat.  See Heat, animal.
  Animal lEconomy.  See UEconomy, animal.
  Animal Oil.  Oleum animate.  Oleum animate Dip-
polii. An einpyreumatic  oil, obtained from the bones
of animals,  recommended as an anodyne and  anti-
spasmodic.
  A'nime gummi.   The substance  which bears this
name in the shops is a resin. See Hymenea courbaril.
  A'nimi deliquium.  (From animus, the mind, and
delinquo, to leave.)  Fainting. See  Syncope.
  A'NIMUS.  This word is to be distinguished  from
anima; which generally expresses the faculty of rea-
soning, and aMimus, the being in  which  that faculty
resides.
  Anin'ga.  A  root which  grows   in  the  Antilles
islands, and is used by sugar-bakers  for refining  their
sugar.
  ANISCA'LPTOR. (From anus,   the breech, and
scalpo, to scratch.)  The latissimus  dorsi  is so called,
because it is the  muscle chiefly instrumental  in per-
forming this office.—Bartholin.
  Anisotachys.   (From avisos, unequal, and raxuj,
quick.)  A quick and unequal pulse.—Gorraus.
  ANI'SUM.  (From a. neg. and iaos, equal.)  See
Pimpinella anisum.
  Anisum sinense.  See Illicium anisatum.
  Anisum stellatum.  See Illicium.
  Anisum vulgare.  See Pimpinella anisum.
  ANNEAL.  We know too little of the arrangement
of particles to determine what it is that constitutes or
produces brittleness  in any substance.  In a conside-
rable number of instances of bodies which are capable
of undergoing ignition, it is found that sudden cooling
renders them hard and brittle.  This is a real inconve-
nience in glass, and also in steel, when this metalic
substance is required to be soft and flexible.  The in-
conveniences are avoided by cooling  them very gradu-
ally, and this process is called annealing. Glass vessels,
or other articles, are carried into an oven or apartment
near the great furnace, called the leer, where  they are
permitted to cool, in a greater or less time, according
to their thickness and bulk.  The annealing of  steel,
or other  metallic bodies, consists simply  in heating
them and suffering them to cool again, either upon the
      TO
 hearth of the furnace, or in any other situation when
 the heat is moderate, or at least the temperature is no*
 very cold.
   Annoto. See Bixa orleana.
   ANNUAL.   (Annuus, yearly.)  A term applied in
 botany to plants and roots, which are produced from
 the seed, grow to their full extent, and die in one yeai
 or season, as Papaver somniferum, Helianthus annuus,
 Hordeum  triticum, Sec.
  Annue'ntes.  (From annuo, to  nod.)  Some mus-
 cles of the head were formerly so called, because they
 perforin the office of nodding, or bending the head
 downwards.—Cowper, Sec.
  ANNULAR.  (Annularis; from Annulus, a ring,
 because it is ring-like, or the ring is worn on it, or it
 surrounds any thing like a ring; thus, annular bone, &c
  Annular bone.  Circulus osseus.  A ring-like bone,
 placed before the cavity of the tympanum in the foetus.
  Annular cartilage.  See Trachaa.
  ANNULA'RIS.   Annularis  digitus.    The  ring-
 finger.  The one between the little and  middle fingers.
  Annularis processus.  See Pons varolii.
  A'NNULUS.  (Annulus, i. m., a ring.)  A ring. In
botany applied to the slender  membrane  surrounding
the stem ofthe fungi.
  Annulus abdominis.   The abdominal  ring. An
oblong separation of tendinous fibres, called an  open-
ing, in each groin, through which the spermatic  chord
in men,  and  the round ligament of the uterus in wo-
men, pass.  It is through this part that the abdominal
viscera fall in that species of hernia, which is  called
bubonocele.  See Obliquus externus abdominis.
  A'NO. (Avu, upwards; in opposition to (carui, down-
wards.)  Upwards.
  ANOCATHA RTIC.  (From avu>,  upwards, and
KaBaipw, to purge.)   Emetic, or that which purges up-
wards.
  ANOCHEI'LON. (From avta, upwards, and x«aoc;
the lip.)  The upper lip.
  Ano'dia.  (From a, neg. and oSos, the way.)  Hip-
pocrates uses this word for inaccuracy and irregularity
in the description and treatment of a disease.
  ANO'DYNA.  See Anodyne.
  ANODYNE.  (Anodynus;  from a, priv. and wSvvn,
pain.)  Those medicines are termed Anodynes, which
ease pain  and  procure sleep.  They are divided into
three sorts; paregorics, or such as assuage pain; hyp
notics, or such as relieve by procuring sleep; and nar-
cotics, or such as ease the patient by stupifying him.
  Ano'dynum martiale.  Ferrum ammoniatum pre-
cipitated from water by potassa.
  Ano'dynum minerals.  Sal prunella.
  ANOMALOUS.   (From a- priv.  and vouos, a  law.)
This term is often applied to those diseases, the symp-
toms  of which  do not appear with that  regularity
which is generally observed in diseases.  A disease is
also said to be anomalous, when the symptoms are so
varied as not to bring it under the description of any
known affection.
  ANO'MPHALOS.  (From a, priv. and optpaXos, the
navel.)  Anomphalus.  Without a navel.
  ANO'NYMUS.   (Anonymus, from a, priv. and ovo-
ua, name.)  Nameless; some  eminences of the  brain
are called columna  anonyma; and  it was formerly
applied to one of the cricoid muscles.
  ANO'RCHIDES.   (From  a, priv. and opxts, the
testicle.)  Children are so termed which come into the
world without  testicles.  This is a very common oc-
currence.  The testicles of many male  infants  at the
time of  birth  are within the abdomen.  The time of
their  descent is very uncertain, and  instances have
occurred where they have not reached the scrotum at
the age often or fifteen.
  ANORE'XIA.  (Anorexia, a, f.; from  a, priv. and
ope\ts, appetite.)  A want of appetite,  without  loath-
ing of food.  Cullen ranks this genus of disease  in the
class Locales, and order Dysorexia.  He believes it to
be generally symptomatic, but enumerates two species,
viz. the Anorexia humoralis, and the Anorexia atonica.
See Dyspepsia.
  ANO'SMIA.  (Anosmia, a, f.; from'a, neg. and o^w,
to smell.)  A loss of the sense of smelling.  This genus
of disease is arranged by Cullen in the order Locales,
and order  Dysesthesia.   When it arises from  a dis-
ease of the Schneiderian membrane, it is termed Anos-
mia organica;  and when from no  manifest cause
Anosmia atonica.
a? 
ANT
ANT
   A'NSER.   (Anser, eris.m.;  a goose or gander.) |
 The name of a genus of birds.
   Anser dome'sticus.   The tame goose.  The flesh
 of this bird  is somewhat similar to that of the duck,
 and requires the assistance of spirituous and stimu-
 lating substances, to enable the stomach to digest it.
 Both  are very improper for weak stomachs.
   ANSERI'NA. (From anser, a goose;  so called be-
 cause geese eat it.)   See Potentilla anserina,
   ANT.  See Formica rufa.
   Ant, acid of.  See Formic acid.
,   ANTACID.  (Antacidus;  from av7ij against, and
meidus, acid.)  That which destroys acidity.  The ac-
Tion of antacids in the human stomach, is purely che-
 mical, as they merely combine with the acid present,
 and neutralize It  They are only palliatives, the gene-
 ration of acidity being to be prevented by restoring the
 tone of the stomach and its vessels.  Dyspepsia and
 diarrhoea are the diseases in which they are employed.
 The principal antacids in use are the alkalies;  e. g.
 Liquoris  potassae, gutt xv. or from 5 to 15 gr. of sub-
 carbonate of potassa, or soda dissolved in water.   The
 solution of soda called double soda-water, or that of
 potassa supersaturated with carbonic acid, is  more
 frequently used, as  being more pleasant   Ammonia
 has been recommended as preferable to every other
 antacid, from 10 to 20 drops of the liquor ammoniae in
 a cupful of water.  The liquor calcis, or lime water, is
 likewise used to correct  acidity, two or three ounces
 being taken occasionally.  Creta praeparata alone, or
 with the addition of a small quantity of any aromatic
 —chelae cancrorum praeparaue; magnesia also and its
 carbonate, are used for the same purpose.
   ANTAGONIST.  (Antagonistus, counteracting.)  A
 term applied  to those  muscles which have opposite
 functions.  Such are the flexor  and extensor of any
 limb, the one of which contracts it, the other stretches
 it out;  and also the abductors and adductors.   Soli-
 tary  muscles are those without any antagonist, as the

   ANTALGIC.  (Antalgicus;  from avft, against,
 and aAvoj, pain.) That which relieves pain.
   ANTA'LKALINE.   (Autalkalinus; from  av7t,
 against, and alkali, an aicali.)  That which possesses
 the power of neutralizing alkalies.  All the acids are
 of this class.
   ANTAPHRODISI'AC.   Antaphrodisiacus;  from
 av}i, against, and Atbpo&t'Jn, Venus.  Antivenereal, or
 whatever extinguishes amorous desires.
   Antaphrodi'tic  The same.
   Antapo'dosis.   (From  av'Jartoitiiapi, to recipro-
 cate.)  A vicissitude, or return  of the paroxysm of
 fevers.—Hippocrates.  Called by Galen eipidosis.
   Antarthri'tic.  See Antiarthritic.
   Antasthma'tic  See Antiasthmatic.
   Antatro'phic   See Antiatrophic.
   Anteche'sis.  (From av]ex°uai, to resist)  A vi-
 olent stoppage in the bowels, which resists all efforts
 to remove it.—Hippocrates.
   Antela'bium.  (From ante, before, and  labium, a
 lip.)   The extremity ofthe lip.
   Ante'mbasis.  (From avrt, mutually, and euBatvoi,
 to enter.)  A coalescence, or union of bone.—Galen.
   Anteme'tic. See Antiemetic.
   Antenea'smus.   (From avn, against, and rttvtouos,
 implacable.)  That species of madness in which the
 patient endeavours to destroy himself.
   Antephia'ltic  See Antiphialtic.
   Antepile'ptic.   See Antiepileptic.
   ANTERIOR. Before.   A term applied to  what
 may be situated before another of the same kind, as a
 muscle, a projection, eminence, lobe, artery, Sec.
   Anterior auris. Musculus anterior auris.  One
 ofthe common  muscles of the ear, situated before the
 external ear.  It arises thin and membranous, near the
 posterior part of the zygoma, and is inserted into a
 Bmall eminence on the back ofthe helix, opposite to the
 concha, which  it draws a little forwards and upwards.
   Anterior intercostal.  Ncrvusintercostalis an-
 terior.  Splanchnic nerve.  A branch of the great  in-
 tercostal that is given off in the thorax.
   Anterior mallei.  See Laxator tympani.
   ANTHE'LIX.  See Antihelix.
   Anthe lmia. (From avn, against,  and cXutvs,, a
 worm ; so called, because it was thought of great vir-
 tue iu expelling  worms.)  See Spigclia anthelmia, and
 Marilandica.
  ANTHELMINTIC.   (Anthelminticus; from avrt,
against, and eXutvs, a worm.)  Whatever procures the
evacuation of worms from the stomach and intestines.
The greater number of anthelmintics act mechani-
cally, dislodging the worms, by the sharpness or rough-
ness of their particles, or by their cathartic operation.
Some seem to have no other qualities 'nan those of
powerful bitters by which they either piove noxious to
these animals, or remove that debility of the digestive
organs, by which the food is not properly assimilated,
or the secreted fluids poured into the intestines are not
properly prepared; circumstances from which it has
been supposed the generation of worms may arise.
The principal medicines belonging to  tbis class, are,
mercury, gamboge, Geoffraea inermis,  tanacetum,  po-
lypodium  filix mas,  spigelia  marilandica, artemisia
santonica, olea Europaea, stannum pulverisatum, ferri
limaturae, and dolichos pruriens; which see under their
respective heads.
  A'NTHEMIS.   (Anthemis, midis. foem.;  from av-
Beu>,floreo ; because it bears an abundance of flowers.)
1. The  name of a genus of  plants in the  Linnaean
system.  Class, Syngenesia;  Order,  Polygamia  su-
perfiua.
  2. The name in the London Pharmacopoeia for cha-
momile.  See Anthemis nobilis.
  Anthemis cotula.   The  systematic name of the
plant called Cotula fetida •  Chamamelum fetidum, in
the  pharmacopoeias.  Mayweed.   Stinking chamo-
mile.   This plant, Anthemis:—receptaculis  conicis
paleis  setaceis, seminibus nudis, of Linnaeus, has  a
very disagreeable smell; the  leaves, a strong, acrid,
bitterish taste; the flowers, however,  are almost insi-
pid. It is said to have been useful in  hysterical affec-
tions, but is very seldom employed.
  Anthemis nobilis.  The systematic name for the
Chamamelum; Chamamelum  nobile;  Chamomilla ro-
mana;  Euanthemon of Galen.  Anthemis ofthe last
London pharmacopoeia.  Common chamomile.  Anthe-
mis—foliis pinnalo-compositis linearibus acutis sub-
villosis, of Linnaeus.  Both the leaves and flowers of
this indigenous plant have  a strong  though not un-
grateful smell, and a very bitter, nauseous taste ; but
the latter are the bitterer, and  considerably more aro-
matic.  They possess tonic and stomachic  qualities,
and are much employed to restore tone to the stomach
and intestines, and as  a pleasant and cheap bitter.
They have been long successfully used for the cure of
intermittents, as well as of fevers of the-irregular ner-
vous kind, accompanied with  visceral  obstructions.
The flowers have  been found useful in hysterical af-
fections, flatulent or spasmodic colics, and dysentery;
but, from their laxative quality,  Dr. Cullen tells us
they proved hurtful in diarrhoeas.  A simple  infusion
is frequently taken to excite vomiting, or for promoting
the operation of emetics. Externally they are used in
the decoctum pro fomenta, and are an ingredient in
the decoctum malva compositum.
  Anthemis pyrethrum.  The plant from which we
obtain  the pyrethrum  of the pharmacopoeias; Aste-
rantium;  Buphthalmum cretieum;  Bellis montana
putescens  acris; Dentaria;  Herba salivaris;  Pes
Alexandrinus.   Spanish  Chamomile;  pellitory  of
Spain.   Anthemis ;—caulibus  simplicibus unifloris
decumbentibus—foliis pinnato-multifidis, of Linnaeus.
This root, though cultivated in this country, is gene-
rally imported from Spain.  Its taste is hot and acrid,
its  acrimony residing  in a resinous principle.  The
ancient Romans, it is said, employed the root of this
plant as a pickle.  In its recent state, it is not so pun-
gent as when dried, and yet, if applied to the skin, it
produces inflammation.  Its qualities are stimulant;
but it is  never used, except as a masticatory, for re-
lieving toothaches, rheumatic affections of the face,
and paralysis of the tongue,  in which it affords relief
by  stimulating the excretory ducts of the salival glands.
  ANTHERA.   (From avBos, a flower.)
  1. A compound medicine used by the ancients; so
called from its florid colour.—Galen. JEgineta.
  2. The male part ofthe fructification of plants:—so
called by Linnaeus, by way of eminence.  The male
genital organ of plants consists of three parts, the fila-
ment, anther, and pollen.  The anthera is the little
head or extremity which rests on the  filament.
  Different terms are applied to the anthers from their
figure:
  1. Obion"; as in Lilium candidum.
           "     ■                       71 
ANT
ANT
  8.  Globose; as in Mercurialis annua.
  3,  Semilunar; as in Fragaria vesca.
  4.  Angular; as in Tuiipagesncriana,
  5.  Linear ; as in the grasses and Protea.
  6.  Didymous; as in Digitalis purpurea.
  7.  Arrow-shaped; as in Crocus sativus.
  8  •Bt/ia', parted  half way down in two ; as in the
grasses and Erica.
  9.  Shidd-like, or peltate, of a round shape; as in
Taxus baccata.
  10. Dentate, with a tooth-like margin; as in Taxus
haccata.
  11. Hairy; as in Lamium album.
  12. Bicoru, with  two divisions like horns; as in
Srbutus uva ursi and Vaccinium myrtillus.
  13. Cristate, having cartilaginous points.
  14. Crucial; as in Mellitis.
  15. Double or twin-like; as in Callisia and Hura.
  16. Rostrate; as in Osbeckia.
  17. Subulate, or awl-shaped;  as in the genus TJo-
 i'o.
  18. Cordate; as in Cupraria.
  19. Reniform, kidney-shaped; as in Tradescantia
\ nd  Ginora.
  20. Trigonal, or three-cornered ; as in the jRose.
  21. Tetragonal, or four-cornered,  as  in  Cannabis
and  Dictamnus.
  From their situation:
  22. i>ec£, with  its base upon the apex of the fila-
ment ; as in Tuiipa gesneriana.
  23. Incumbent, lying horizontally upon the filament,
as in Amaryllis fornwssima.
  24. Versatile when the incumbent anther adheres
so loosely to the filament, that the least agitation of
the plant puts it in motion ; as in Sccale cereale.
  25. Lateral, adhering laterally to the filament; as
in Dianthera.
  26. Sessile, the filament almost wanting;  as  in
Bristolochia clematitis.
  27. Free, not united to any other anther.
  28. Connate, united together;  as in Viola odorata.
  ANTHODIUM.  A species of calyx, which contains
many flowers being common  to them all.
  It  is distinguished from its structure into,
  1.  Monophyllous, consisting of one leaflet perfect at
Its base, but cut at its limb or margin; as in Trago-
vogon.
  2.  Polyphyllous, consisting  of several leaflets; as in
Carduus and Centaurea.
  3.  Simple, consisting of one series of leaflets; as in
Caealia porophyllum.
  4.  Equal, when all the leaves of the Anthodium
simplex are ofthe same length, as in Ethulia.
  5.  Imbrecate or squamose, as in Centaurea cyanus.
  6.  Squarrose, the leaflets  bent backward at their
extremities.
  7.  Scabrous, rough, consisting of dry leaflets; as in
Centaurea glastifolia and jacea.
  8.  Spinous, the leaflets having thorns; as in Cynaa
scolymus and Centaurea sonchifolia.
  9.  Turbinate ; as in Tarconanthus camphoratus.
  10. Globose;  as in Centaurea calcitrapa.
  11. Hemispherical, round below and flat above; as
in Anthemis and Chrysocoma.
  12. Cylindrical, long and round; as with Eupato-
rium.
  13. Caleyculate, the basis  surrounded by  another
small leafy anthodium; as in Leontodon taraxacum,
Senecio, and Crepis.
  ANTHOPHYLLITE.  A massive mineral, of a
brown colour, found at Konigsberg, in Norway.
  [This substance has been  observed only in amor-
phous masses, whose longitudinal fracture is foliated,
or radiated, and whose cross fracture is uneven.  The
lustre ofthe most perfect laminae is somewhat metallic.
Its natural joints, of which two are much more perfect
than the others, are parallel to the faces of  a rectan-
gular four-sided prism.  It is  rather difficult to break,
and  strongly  scratches fluate of lime, but produces
little or no effect on glass.   It is feebly translucent at
the edges, and its colour is brown, tinged with violet.
Its powder is whitish, and rough to  the  touch.  Its
specific gravity varies from 3.11, to 3.29.  Before the
blow-pipe It is infusible.  It contains silex 62.66, alu-
mine 13.33, magnesia 4 0, lime 3.33, oxide of iron 12.00,
manganese 3.25, water 1.43.  It is softer, lighter, and
has less lustre, than Labrador stone.—Gleav.  Min. \ l
      79                                         '
  ANTHOPHY'LLUS.  (Prom avOos, a flower,  and
tbvXXov, a leaf; so  called from the fragance of the
flowers and the beauty of the leaves.)  The clove is
so termed when it has been suffered to grow to matu-
rity.—Bauhin,
  ANTHOPHY'LLUS.  (From avBos, a flower, and
tpiXeot, to love.)  A florist.
  A'NTHORA. (Quasi antithora.  AvrtBopa; from
avn,  against,  and  Sopa, monkshood:  so  called,
because it is said to counteract the effects ofthe thorn
or monkshood.)  A species of Wolfsbane.  See Aco-
nitum anthora.
  A'nthos flores.  The flowers of the rosmarinus
are so termed  in some  pharmacopoeias.  See Rosma-
rinus officinalis.
  ANTHRA'CIA.  1. The name of a genus of diseases
in Good's Nosology.  See Nosology.
  2. A name of the carbuncle.  See Anthrax.
  ANTHRACITE.   Blind coal,  Kilkenny coal, or
glance coal.  There are three varieties, conchoidal,
slaty, and columnar.
  [When pulverized and heated, it becomes red,  and
slowly consumes with  a  very  light lambent flame,
without smoke, and when pure emits no sulphureous
or bituminous  odour; it leaves a variable proportion
of reddish ashes.  Slaty glance coal consists of car
bon, with from 3 to 30 per cent, of earth and iron.
This mineral  occurs in  imbedded masses,  beds, or
veins, in  primitive, transition, and floetz rocks.  It is
found in gneiss, in micaceous: shistus, in mineral veins,
with calcareous spar, native silver, mineral pitch, and
red iron ore; and has been discovered by Jameson in
the independent coal formation in the Isle of Arran.—
Phillips's Mm.
  The  coal of Rhode-Island is  mingled with quartz,
and occasionally with fibrous asbestos ; yet it has but
little hydrogen, and  less  bitumen.  It  is overlaid by
coarse shale, containing numerous and strong impres-
sions of ferns.
  In Pennsylvania there are two great coal formations;
one situated S. E. of the mountains, and the  other N.
W.  The former is the  Anthracite or glance coal, ex-
tending almost from Delaware along the head waters
of the Lehigh and Schuylkill, and to Wilkesbarre on
the Susquehanna!),  and along the Juniata.—Mitchilt's
Notes to Phil. Min.
  This formation of Anthracite has been traced for
ninety or  a hundred miles in the state of Pennsylvania,
and mines have been opened  in manv places on the
branches of the Susquehannah, Schuylkill, and Dela-
ware rivers, and some of them bordering on the states
of New-Jersey and  New-York.  In many places it is
near the surface, and appears to be inexhaustible.  It
is now extensively used as fuel, and its consumption is
increasing. A.]
  Anthraco'sis oculi. A red, livid, burning, sloughy,
very painful tumour, occurring on the eyelids.—JEgi-
neta.
  ANTHRAX.  (Anthrax, acts, m.; from avBpal, a
burning coal.)  Anlhracia;  Anthrocosia;  Anthro-
coma;  Carbunculus ; Carbo ;  Rubinus versus ; Codi-
sella;  Granatrislum;  Pruna; Persicus  imius of
Avicenna.  A hard  and circumscribed  inflammatory
tubercle like a boil, which sometimes  forms on  the
cheek, neck,  or back,  and in a few  days  becomes
highly gangrenous.   It  then discharges an extremely
foetid sanies from under the black core, which, like a
burning coal,  continues destroying the surroundine
parts   It is supposed to arise from a peculiar miasma
is most common in warm climates, and often attends
the plague.
  ANTHROPOGRA'PHY. (Anthropographia; from
avOptoTtos, a man, and ypa<pu>, to write.)  Description
of the structure of man.
  ANTHROPOLOGY.   (Anthpopologia; from
avVpwiros, a man, and Aoyoj, a discourse.)  The de-
scription of man.                       '
  ANTHYPNO'TIC.  (Anthypnolicus;  from avlt,
against,  and  vwvos,  sleep.)   That which  prevents
sleep or drowsiness.
orders ofthe hvpoctontiriaT" "" sPlntedncss or **
  ANTHYSTERIC.   (Anthystericus;  from  avlt,
ffiSf womb°  That which reUev- 
ANT
ANT
   A'NTI.  (Av7«> against)  There are many names
 compounded with this word, as Antiasthmatic; Anti-
 hysteric; Antidysenteric,  Sec;  which signify  medi-
 cines against the asthma, hysterics, dysentery, &c.
   Antia'gra.   (From  avjtas, a tonsil, and aypa, a
 prey.)  Antiagri.  A tumour of the tonsils.— Ulpian,
 Roland, Sec.
   ANTIARTHRI'TIC.  (Antiarthriticus; from
 «»7«i against, and apBpi]ts, tie gout)  Antiarthritic.
 Against the gout.
   ANTIASTHMATIC.  'Antiasthmatic^'; from
 iv'7'i against, and aoBua, an isthma.)  Antasthmatic.
 Against the asthma.
   ANTIATROPHIC.  (Antiitrophicus ;  from av7t,
 against, and a)ao6ia, an atio.ihy.)  Against an atro-
 phy or wasting away.
   ANTICACHE'CTIC  (Anticachecticus; from
 ai»7<, against,  and  tcaxe\ia,  a cachexy.)  Medicines
 against a cachexy, or bad hal.it of body.
   ANTICA'RDIUM.   (From av7c, against, or oppo-
 site, and icapSta, the heart.) Tl le hollow at the bottom of
 the breast, commonly called xcrobiculus cordis, or the
 pit of the stomach.
   ANTICATARRHA'L.   {Auticatarrhalis;  from
 017c, against, and Ka^appn. a. catarrh.)  That which
 relieves a catarrh.
   ANTICAUSO'TIC.   (Fiom  av7t, against, and
 Kavaos, a burning fever)  Ren.edies against burning
 fevers.   We read,  in Corp.  Piiarm. of Junken, of a
 syrupus anticausoticus.
   A'nticheir.   (From  av7c, against,  and %cip, the
 hand.)   The thumb.—Galm.
   Anticne'mion.  (From  avn,  against, or  opposite,
 and Kvnpn, the  calf of the Up.)  That part ofthe tibia
 which is bare of flesh, and opposite the calf of the leg.
 The shin-bone.—Galen.
   ANTICO'LIC. (From avn, against, and KtaXacn,
 the colic.)  Remedies againut the colic.
   Antidia'stole. (From aeri, against, and Sias-tXXa>,
 to distinguish.)   An exact and accurate distinction of
 one disease, or symptom, from another.
   ANTIDI'NIC.  (From avn, against, and 6tvos, cir-
 cumgyration.)   Medicines  against a vertigo,  or giddi-
 ness.—Blanchard.
   ANTIDOTARIUM.   (Antidotarium, i. n.;  from
 avnioTos, an antidote.)   A term used  by former
 writers tor what we now call a dispensatory  ; a place
 where antidotes are prescribed and prepared.  There
 are antidotaries extant of several authors, as those of
 Nicholaus, Mesue, Myrepsus, Sec.
   ANTI'DOTUS.  From avn, against, and StSuut,
 to give.)  1.  An antidote.
   2. A preservative against sickness.
   3. A remedy.—Galen.
   ANTIDYSENTERIC.  (Antidysentericus;  from
 avn, against,  and  iuacvrtpia, a flux.)   Medicines
 against a dysentery.
   ANTIEMETIC. (Antiemelicus; from aire, against,
 and tueoi, to vomit.)  Antemetic. That  which pre-
 vents or stops vomiting.
   ANTIEPHIALTIC.   (Antiephialticus ; from avn,
 against, and etbiaXrris, the nightmare.)  Antephialtic.
 Against the nightmare.
   ANTDZPILEPTIC.  (Antiepilepticus ;  from avn,
 against,  and ciriAijuVty, the  epilepsy.)  Antepileptic.
 Against epilepsy.
   ANTIFEBRI'LE. (Antifebrilis; from aire, against,
 and fehris, a fever.)  A febrifuge, a remedy against
 fever.
   ANTI HECTIC.  (Antihecticus; from avn, against,
 and Iktikos, a hectic fever.)  A remedy against a hec-
 tic fever.
   Antihe'cticum poterii.  Antimonium diaphore-
 ticum Joviale.   A  medicine invented by Poterius,
 formerly extolled as  effectual in  hectic  fevers, but
 now disregarded.  It  is  an oxyde of tin  and chaly-
 beated regulus of antimony, in consequence  of their
 deflagration with nitre.
   ANTIHE'LIX. (Antihelix, licis.  m.;  from  avn,
 against, and cXt\, the  helix.)  The inner circle of the
 external ear, so called from its opposition to the outer
 circuit, called the helix.
  ANTHELMINTIC.   See Anthelmintic.
  ANTIHYSTER'IC.  (Antihystericus;   from avn,
•gainst,  and b^eptKa, hysterics.)  Medicines which
prevent or relieve hysterics.
  Antile'psis.  (FromavnAa/ioavu, to take hold of.)
 The securing of bandages or ligatures from slipping.
 —Hippocrates.
   ANTILO'BIUM.  (From avn, opposite, and XoSos,
 the  bottom  of the ear.)  The tragus or that part of
 the ear which is opposite the lobe.
   ANTILOI'MIC. (Antiloimicus; from avn, against,
 and Xotuos, the plague.)   Remedies or  preventives
 against the plague.
   AINTI'LOPUS.  The antelope.  An African beast
 resembling a deer, the hoofs and horns of which were
 formerly given in hysteric and epilectic cases.
   ANTILY'SSUS.  (From avn, against, and Xvooa.
 the bite of a mad dogi)  A medicine or remedy against
 the bite of a mad dog.
   ANTIMONIA'L.   (Antimonialis; from antimo-
 nium,  antimony.)  An antimonial or composition in
 which antimony is a chief ingredient.  A  preparation
 of antimony.
   Antimonial powder.  See Antimonialis  pulvis.
   Antimonia'lis pulvis. Antimonial powder. Take
 of sulpburet of antimony, powdered, a pound; harts-
 horn shavings, two  pounds.   Mix and throw them
 into a  broad iron pot heated to a white heat, and stir
 the mixture constantly until it acquires an ash colour.
 Having taken it out, reduce it to powder, and put it
 into a coated crucible, upon which  another inverted
 crucible, having a small hole in its bottom, is to  be
 luted.   Then raise the fire by degrees to a  white heat,
 and keep it so for two hours.  Reduce the residuary
 mass to a very fine powder.  The dose is from five to
 ten grains.  It is in high esteem aa a febrifuge, sudo-
 rific, and antispasmodic.  The diseases in which it is
 mostly exhibited are, most species of  asthenic and
 exanthematous fevers, acute  rheumatism, gout, dis-
 eases  arising from  obstructed perspiration, dysuria,
 nervous affections, and spasms.
   Tliis preparation was  introduced into  the  former
 London pharmacopoeia as a substitute for a medicine
 of extensive celebrity, Dr. James's powder; to which,
 however, the present form more nearly assimilates in
 its dose, and it is more manageable in its adminis-
 tration, by the reduction of the proportion of antimony
 to one-half.
   Antimonic acid.  See Antimony.
   Antimonious acid.   See Antimony.
   Antimonii oxydum.   Oxyde of Antimony.  This
 preparation  is now directed to be made by dissolving
 an ounce of tartarized  antimony, and two drams  of
 subcarbonate  of ammonia, separately  in distilled
 water, mixing the solutions and boiling, till the oxyde
 of antimony is precipitated, which  is to  be washed
 with water,  and dried.  This must not be confounded
 with the old calcined or diaphoretic antimony, being
 a much more active preparation.  See Antimony.
   In its effects, it will be found to agree pretty much
 with the antimonium  tartar izatum ; but it is  very
 little employed.
   Antimonii sulphuretum frjecipitatum. Sulphur
 antimonii pracipitatum.   Precipitated sulphuret of
 antimony.  This preparation of antimony appears to
 have rendered  that called  kermes mineral imaeces-
 sary.  It is  made thus:—Take of sulphuret of anti-
 mony,  in powder, two pounds;—of the solution of
 potassa, four pints:—of distilled water, three pints.
   Mix; and  boil the mixture over a slow fire for three
 hours,  stirring it well, and occasionally adding distil-
 led water, so that the same measure may be preserved.
 Strain  the solution quickly through a double linen
 cloth, and while it is yet hot, drop in  gradually, as
 much sulphuric acid as may be required to precipitate
 the powder; then wash away the sulphate of potassa
 by hot  water; dry the precipitated sulphuret of anti-
 mony,  and reduce it to powder.  In  this process  part
 of the  water is  decomposed,  and its oxygen unites
 partly with the antimony; the oxyde of antimony, as
 well as the potassa, combines with sulphur  and hydro-
 gen, forming hydrosulphuret of antimony and hydro-
 guretted sulphuret of potassa: if the solution be allow-
 ed to cool, the former of these partly precipitates, con
slituting the  kermes mineral; but the addition of the
sulphuric acid throws dows tne whole of it at once,
 mixed with some sulphur, furnished  with the decom
 position of the hydroguretted sulphuret of potassa.
  As an alterative and sudorific, it is in high estima-
tion, and given in diseases  of the  skin and glands;
and, joined with calomel, it is one of the most power
fill and penetrating alteratives we are in possession of
                                        73 
ANT
ANT
  Antimonii tartarizati vinum.  Wine of tartar-
Ized antimony.  Take of tartarized antimony, one
scruple;  boiling distilled water, eight  fluid  ounces;
rectified spirit, two fluid ounces.  Dissolve the tartar-
ized antimony in the boiling distilled water,  and add
the spirit to the filtered liquor.  Four fluid drachms of
this contain one grain of tartarized antimony.
  ANTIMONITE.   A salt formed by  the combina-
tion of the antimonous acid with alkaline and other
bases.  Seo Antimony.
  ANTIMO'NIUM.   See Antimony
  Antimonium calcinatum.  An oxyde of antimony.
  Antimonium diaphoreticum.  An old name for
an oxyde of antimony.
  Antimonium tartarizatum.  Tartarus emeticus;
Tartarum emeticum; Tartarus antimonialus;  Tar-
tris antimonii  cum  potassa;  Tartarum stibiatum.
Tartar emetic.   It is obtained by boiling the fusible
oxyde of antimony with supertartrate of potassa, the
excess of tartaric acid dissolves the oxyde, and a triple
salt is obtained by crystallization.  The London Phar-
macopoeia directs thus  Take of glass of antimony
finely legivated, supertartrate of potassa in powder, of
each a pound; boiling distilled water a gallon; mix
the glass of antimony and the supertartrate of potassa
well together, and then add them by degrees to the
distilled water,  which is  to be kept boiling and con-
stantly stirred; boil  the whole for a  quarter of  an
hour, and then set it by.  Filter it when cold, and
evaporate the filtered liquor so that crystals may form
in it  A solution of this salt in dilute wine is ordered
in the Pharmacopoeia.  See  Antimonii  tartarizati
vinum.
  Tartar emetic is the most useful of all the  antimo-
nial preparations.  Its action is not dependent on the
state of the stomach, and, being soluble in water, its
dose is easily managed, while it also acts more speed-
ily.  In doses of from one to three, four, or five grains,
it generally acts powerfully as  an emetic, and is em-
ployed whenever we  wish to obtain the effects which
result from full vomiting.  As patients are differently
affected by this medicine, the safest mode of exhibiting
it is: R. Antimonii tartarazati, gr. iii.  Aqua distil-
lata, 5 iv. Misce et cola.  Dosis ? ss. omni horae quad-
rante, donee supervenerit vomitus.
  For children, emetic tartar is not so safe for an
emetic as ipecacuanha powder: when  great debility
of the system is present, even a small dose has  been
known to prove fatal.  Sometimes it proves cathartic.
In smaller doses it excites nausea, and proves a pow-
erful diaphoretic and  expectorant.  As an emetic it is
chiefly given in the  beginning of fevers  and febrile
diseases;  when great debility  is present, and in the
advanced stages of typhoid fever, its use is improper,
and even  sometimes fatal.  As  a diaphoretic,  it is
given in small doses, of from an eighth to a quarter of
a grain; and as an expectorant, in doses still  smaller.
Emetic tartar, in small doses, combined with calomel,
has been found a powerful yet safe alterative in ob-
stinate eruptions of the skin.   R. Antimonii tartari-
zati, gr iv.   Hydrargyri  submuriatis, gr. xvi.  Con-
fectionis rosa gallics, q. s.  Divide  in pil. xxiv.
Capiat i. mane nocteque ex thea sassafras.
  In the form of powder, or dissolved in water, it is
applied by a pencil to warts and obstinate ulcers: it is
also given in the form of clyster, with a view to pro-
duce irritation in soporose diseases, apoplexy, ileus,
and strangulated  hernia.  The powder  mixed  with
any fluid, and rubbed on thescorbiculus cordis, excites
vomiting.   Another property which tartar emetic has,
when rubbed on the skin, is that of producing a crop
of pustules very like  to the small-pox,  and with this
view it is used against rheumatic pains, white, and
other obstinate swellings.  The best antidote against
the bad effects of too  large a quantity of this andother
antimonial preparations, is a decoction of the bark of
cinchona; in defect of which, tea and other astrin-
gents may be used.  In a larger dose, this salt is capa-
ble of acting as  a violent poison.  The best antidotes
are demulcent drinks, infusions of bark, tea,  and sul-
phuretted  hydrogen  water, which instantly  converts
the energetic salt into a relatively mild sulphuret:
anodynes are useful afterward.
  Antimonium vitrifactum.  Glass  of antimony.
An oxyde of antimony, with a little sulphuret.
  ANTIMONY.   (Antimonium,  i. n.   Avriuovcov.
The origin of this word is very obscure.  The most
received etymology  is, from avn, against, and' uovof,
a  monk; because Valentine, by  an  injudicious ad-
ministration of it, poisoned  his brother monks.)   Sti-
bium.  A metal found native, but very rarely; it has.
in that state, a metallic lustre, and is found in masses
of different shapes; its colour is white, between those
of tin and silver.  It generally contains  a small por-
tion of arsenic.  It is likewise met with in the state of
an oxyde, antimonial ochre.  The  most abundant ore
of it is that in which it is combined with sulphur, the
gray  ore of antimony,  or  sulphuret of antimony
The colour of this ore is bluish, or steel-gray, of a me-
tallic lustre, and is often extremely beautifully varie-
gated.   Its  texture  is either  compact,  foliated, or
striated.   The striated  is  found both  crystallized,
massive, and disseminated:  there  are many varieties
of this ore.
  Properties of Antimony.—Antimony is a metal of
a grayish white, having a slight  bluish shade, and
very brilliant.   Its texture is lamellated,  and exhibits
plates crossing each other in every  direction.  Its sur-
face is covered with herbarisations and  foliage.  Its
specific  gravity is 6.702.  It  is sufficiently hard to
scratch  all the soft metals.  It is very brittle, easily
broken, and pulverizable. It fuses at 810° Fahr.  It
can be volatilized, and burns by a strong heat.  When
perfectly fused, and suffered  to cool gradually, it crys-
tallizes  in octabedra.  It unites  with sulphur and
phosphorus.  It decomposes water strongly  at a red
heat.  It is soluble in alkaline  sulphurets. Sulphuric
acid, boiled upon  antimony,  is feebly decomposed
Nitric acid dissolves it  in  the cold.   Muriatic acid
scarcely acts upon it.  The oxygenated muriatic acid
gas inflames it, and the  liquid acid dissolves it with
facility.   Arsenic acid dissolves it by heat with diffi-
culty.  It unites, by fusion, with gold, and renders it
pale and brittle.   Platina, silver, lead, bismuth, nickel,
copper, arsenic, iron, cobalt, tin, and  zinc, unite with
antimony by fusion,  and form with  it  compounds,
more or  less  brittle.   Mercury does not alloy with it
easily unless very pure.  We are little acquainted
with the action of alkalies upon it  Nitrate of potassa
is decomposed  by it.  It fulminates by percussion
with oxygenated muriate of potassa. Antimony forms
three,  probably four, distinct  combinations  with'
oxygen:
  1. The protoxyde, a blackish  gray powder obtained
from a mixture of powder of antimony and water at
the positive pole of a voltaic  circuit.
  2. The deutoxyde, obtained by digesting the metal
in powder, in muriatic acid,  and pouring  the solution
in water of potassa.   Wash and dry the precipitate.
It is  a powder of a dirty white colour which melts in
a moderate red heat, and crystallizes as it cools.
  3. The  tritoxyde, or  antimonious  acid, which  as
immediately produced by the combustion of the metal,
called formerly, from its fine white colour, the argen-
tine  flowers of antimony.  It  forms  the salts called
antimonites with the different bases.
  4. The peroxyde, or antimonic acid.  This is formed
when the metal  in  powder is ignited along with six
times its  weight  of  nitre in a silver crucible.  The
excess of potassa and nitre being afterward sepa-
rated by hot water, the antimoniate of potassa is then
to be decomposed by muriatic acid, when the insolu-
ble antimonic acid of a straw colour will  be obtained.
  Methods of obtaining antimony. 1. To obtain anti-
mony, heat 32 parts of filings of iron to  redness, and
project on them, by degrees, 100  parts of antimony;
when the whole is in fusion, throw on it, by degrees,
20 parts of nitrate of potassa, and after a few minutes
quiet fusion, pour it into an  iron melting cone, pre-
viously heated and greased.
  2. It may also be obtained by melting eight parts of
the ore mixed with six of nitrate of potassa, and three
of supertartrate of potassa, gradually projected into a
red-hot crucible, and fused.
  To obtain perfectly pure antimony, Margraaf melted
some pounds ofthe sulphuret  in a luted crucible, and
thus scorified any metals it might contain.   Of the
antimony thus purifi d, which lay at the bottom, he
took sixteen  ounces, which he oxydized cautiously
first with a slow, and afterward with a strong heat,
until it ceased to smell of sulphur,  and acquired  a
grayish-white colour. Of this gray powder he took four
ounces, mixed them with six drachms of supertartrate
of potassa, and three of charcoal, and  kept them in 
ANT
ANT
solve  in  boiling water the result of the evaporation,
evaporate till  the  solution  acquires  the spec. grav.
1.161, and then let it repose, that crystals be obtained,
which, by  this process,  will be  pure.   By another
recipe, copied, with some alteration, from Mr. Phil-
lips's prescription, into the  appendix of the French
Pharmacopoeia, a subsulphale of antimony is formed
first of all, by digesting two parts of sulphuret of anti-
mony in a moderate heat, with three parts of oil of
vitriol.  This insoluble subsulphate being well washed,
is then digested in a quantity of boiling water, with its
own weight of cream of tartar, and evaporated at the
density 1.161, after which it is filtered hot.  On cool-
ing, crystals of the triple tartrate are obtained.   One
might imagine, that there is a chance of obtaining by
this process a mixture of sulphate of potassa, and  per-
haps of a triple sulphate of  antimony, along with the
tartar emetic.  Probably this does  not  happen, for it
is  said to yield crystals, very pure, very  white, and
without any mixture whatever.
  Pure tartar emetic is in colourless  and transparent
tetrahedrons or octohedrons. It  reddens litmus.  Its
taste  is nauseous and caustic.  Exposed to the air, it
effloresces slowly.  Boiling water dissolves half its
weight, and cold water a fifteenth part.  Sulphuric,
nitric, and muriatic acids, when poured into a solution
of this salt, precipitate its cream of tartar; and soda,
potassa,  ammonia, or their carbonates, throw down
its oxyde of antimony.  Barytes, strontites, and  lime
waters occasion not only a precipitate of oxyde of an-
timony, like the alkalies, but also insoluble tartrates of
these earths.   That produced by the alkaline hydro-
sulphurets is  wholly formed of  kermes; while that
caused by sulphuretted hydrogen, contains both kermes
and cream of tartar.   The decoctions of several varie-
ties of cinchona, and of several bitter  and astringent
plants, equally decompose tartar emelic; and tne pre-
cipitate then always consists of the oxyde of antimony,
combined with the vegetable matter  and cream of
tartar.  Physicians ought, therefore, to beware of such
incompatible  mixtures.  When  tartar emetic is ex-
posed to a red heat,  it first blackens,  like all organic
compounds, and  afterward  leaves a residuum of me-
tallic antimony and subcarbonate  of potassa.  From
this circumstance, and the deep brownish red precipi-
tate,  by hydrosulphurets, this antimonial combination
may  readily  be  recognised.   The  precipitate  may
further be dried on a philter, and ignited with black
flux, when a globule of metallic antimony will be ob-
tained.  Infusion of galls is an  active precipitant of
tartar emetic.
   The composition of this  salt, according to M.  The-
 nard, is 35.4  acid, 39.6 oxyde,  16.7 potassa, and 8.2
 water.   The presence of the latter ingredient is obvi-
 ous,  from the  undisputed phenomenon of efflorescence.
 If we adopt the new views of M. Gay Lussac, this salt
 may be a compound of a prime equivalent of tartar =
23.825, with a prime equivalent of deutoxide of anti-
 mony = 13.   On this hypothesis, we would  have the
 following proportions:
     2 primes acid,           = 16.75      45.4
     1 prime potassa,         = 5.95      16.2
     1 prime water,          = 1.125      3.1
     4 oxyde of antimony,     =13.00      35.3
fusion in a well-covered and luted crucible, for one
hour, and thus obtained a metallic button that weighed
one ounce, seven drachms, and twenty grains.
  The metal, thus obtained, he  mixed with half its
weight of desiccated subcarbonate of soda, and cover-
ed the mixture with the same quantity of the subcar-
bonate.  He then melted it in  a  well-covered  and
luted crucible, in a very strong heat, for half an hour,
and thus obtained a button which weighed one ounce,
six drachms, and seven grains, much whiter and more
beautiful than the former.  This  he again treated with
one  and a half ounce of subcarbonate of soda, and
obtained a button, weighing one  ounce, five drachms,
and six grains.  This button was still purer than the
foregoing.  Repeating these fusions with equal weights
of subcarbonate of soda three  times more, and an
hour and a half each time, he at last obtained a button
so pure as to amalgamate  with mercury with ease,
very  hard, and in some degree malleable; the scoriae
formed in the last fusion were transparent,  which
indicated that they contained no  sulphur, and hence it
is the obstinate adherence of the sulphur that renders
Ihe purification of this metal so difficult.
  "Chlorine gas and antimony combine with combus-
tion, and a bichloride results.  This was formerly pre-
pared by distilling a mixture of two parts of corrosive
sublimate  with one  of antimony.   The substance
which came  over  having  a  fatty consistence,  was
called butter of antimony.  It is frequently crystal-
lized  in four-sided prisms.  It is fusible and volatile
at a moderate heat; and is resolved by water alone
into  the  white  oxyde and muriatic acid.  Being a
bichloride, it is  eminently corrosive,  like the  bichlo-
ride of mercury, from which it is firmed.  It consists
of 45.7 chlorine 4- 54.3  antimony, according  to  Dr.
John Davy's analysis, when  the composition of the
sulphuret  is corrected by its recent exact analysis by
Berzelius.   But 11 antimony -4- 2  primes chlorine
= 9.0, give the proportion per  cent, of 44.1 + 55.5;
a good coincidence, if we consider the circuitous pro-
cess  by which  Dr. Davy's analysis  was performed.
Three parts of corrosive sublimate, and one of metal-
lic  antimony, are the  equivalent   proportions  for
making butter of antimony.
   Iodine  and antimony combine by  the aid of heat
 into  a solid iodine, of a dark red colour.
   The pkosphvret of this metal  is obtained by fusing
 It with solid phosphoric acid.  It is a white semicrys-
 talline substance.   The sulphuret of antimony exists
 abundantly in nature.  It consists, according to Berze-
 lius, of 100 antimony -f- 37.25 sulphur.   The propor-
 tion  given by the equivalent ratio is 100 + 36.5.  The
only important  alloys of antimony are those of lead
 and tin; the former constitutes type-metal, and con-
 tains about one-sixteenth  of antimony;  the laUer
 alloy is employed for making the plates  on which mu-
 sic is engraved.
   The salts of antimony are  of two different orders;
 In the first, the deutoxyde acts the part of a salifiable
 base; in the second, the tritoxide and peroxide act the
 part of acids, neutralizing the alkaline and other bases,
 to constitute the antimonites and antimoniates.
   The only distinct combination ofthe first order enti-
 tled  to our attention, is the triple salt called tartrate of
 potassa and antimony, or tartar emetic,  and which, by
 Gay Lussac's new views, would be styled cream-tar-
 tratc of antimony.  This constitutes a  valuable and
 powerful  medicine, and therefore the  mode  of pre-
. paring it  should be correctly and clearly defined.  As
 the dull white deutoxyde of antimony is the true basis
 of this compound salt, and as that oxyde readily passes
 by mismanagement into the tritoxide or antimonious
 acid, which is  altogether unlit  for the purpose, ade-
 quate pains should be taken to guard against so capital
 an error.   In  the British pharmacopoeias, the glass of
 antimony is now directed as the basis of tartar emetic.
 More complex and precarious formulae were formerly
 introduced.  The new edition  of  the  Pharmacopee
 Frangaise has given a recipe, which appears, with a
 slight change of proportions, to be  unexceptionable.
 Take of the sulphuretted vitreous oxide of antimony,
 levigated  and  acidulous tartrate of potassa, equal
 parts. From a powder, which is to be put  into an
 earthen or silver vessel, with a sufficient quantity of
 pure water.  Boil the mixture for half an hour, adding
 boiling water from time to time;  filter  the hot liquor,
 and evaporate to dryness in a porcelain capsule; dis-
                               36.825    100.0
  But very little confidence can be reposed in such
atomical representations.
  The deutoxyde seems to have the property of com-
bining with sulphur in various  proportions.  To this
species of compound must be referred the liver of an-
timony, glass of antimony, and crocus metallorum of
the  ancient  apothecaries.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen
forms, with the deutoxide of antimony, a compound
which possessed at one time great celebrity in medi-
cine, and of which a modification  has lately been in-
troduced into the art of calico  printing.  By dropping
hydrosulphuret of potassa, or of ammonia, into the
cream tartrate, or into mild muriate of antimony, the
hydrosulphuric of the metallic oxyde precipitates of a
beautiful deep orange colour.  This is kermes mineral.
Cluzel's process for obtaining a  fiue  kermes,  light,
velvety, and of a deep purple-brown, is  the following:
one part of pulverized sulphuret of antimony, 22 1-2
parts of crystallized subcarbonate of soda, and 200
parts of water, are to be boiled together in an iron pot
Filter  the  hot liquor  into warm earthen pans, and 
ANT
ANT
 allow them to  cool very slowly.  At the end of 34
 hours, the kermes is deposited.  Throw it on a filter,
 wash it with water which had been boiled and  then
 cooled out of contact with air.  Dry the kermes  at a
 temperature of 85°, and preserve  in corked  phials.
 Whatever may be the  process employed,  by boiling
 the liquor, after cooling and filtration, on new sulphuret
 of antimony, or upon that which was left in the former
 operation, this new liquid will deposite, on cooling, a
 new quantity of kermes. Besides the hydrosulphuret-
 ted oxyde of antimony, there is formed a sulphuretted
 hydrosulphuret of potassa or soda.  Consequently the
 alkali seizes a portion of the sulphur from the antimo-
 nial sulphuret, water is decomposed; and, while a
 a portion of its hydrogen unites to the  alkaline sul-
 phuret, >ts oxygen, and the other  portion of its hydro-
 gen, combine with  the  sulphuretted antimony.   It
 seems, that the resulting kermes remains dissolved in
 the sulphuretted hydrosulphuret of potassa or soda;
 but as it is less soluble  in the cold than  the hot, it is
 partially precipitated by refrigeration.  If we pour into
 the supernatant liquid,  after the kermes is deposited
 and removed, any acid, as the dilute nitric, sulphuric,
 or muriatic, we decompose the sulphuretted hydrosul-
 phuret  of potassa or soda.  The alkaline  base being
 laid hold of, the sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur to
 which they were united are set at liberty ; the sulphur
 and kermes  fall together, combine with it, and  form
 an orange-coloured compound, called  the golden sul-
 phuret of antimony.  It is a hydroguretted sulphuret
 of antimony.  Hence, when  it is digested with warm
 muriatic acid, a large residuum of sulphur is obtained,
 amounting sometimes to 12 per cent.  Kermes is com-
 posed, by  Thenard, of 20.3 sulphuretted hydrogen, 4.15
 sulphur, 72.76 oxyde of antimony, 2.79 water and loss;
 and the golden sulphuret consists of 17.87 sulphuretted
 hydrogen, 68.3 oxyde of antimony, and 12 sulphur.
   By evaporating the supernatant kermes liquid, and
 cooling, crystals form,  which  have been  lately  em-
 ployed by the calico printer  to give a topical orange.
 These crystals are dissolved in water, and the solution,
 being thickened with paste or gum, is applied to cloth
 in the usual way.  When  the cloth is dried,  it is
 passed through a dilute acid,  when the orange precipi-
 tate is deposited and fixed on the vegetable fibres.
   An empirical  antimonial medicine, called James's
 powder, has  been  much used in this country.  The
 inventor called  it his fever powder, and was so suc-
 cessful  in his practice with  it, that it obtained very
 great reputation, which it still in some measure retains.
 Probably,  the success of Dr.  James was in a great
 measure owing lo his free use of the bark, which he
 always gave as largely as the stomach would bear, as
 soon as he had completely evacuated the  primae viae
 by the use  of his antimonial preparation, with which at
 first he used  to combine some mercurial.  His speci-
fication, lodged in chancery, is as follows: " Take
antimony,  calcine it with a continued protracted heat,
 in a flat, unglazed, earthen vessel, adding to it from
 time to time  a sufficient  quantity of any animal oil
and salt, well dephlegmated ;  then boll it  in melted
nitre for a considerable time,  and separate the powder
 from the  nitre by dissolving  it in water."  The real
recipe has been studiously concealed, and a false one
published  in  its stead.  Different formulae  have been
offered for imitating it.  That of Dr. Pearson furnishes
a mere mixture of an oxyde of antimony, with  phos-
phate of lime. The real powder of James, according
to this chemist, consists of 57 oxyde of antimony, with
43 phosphate of lime.  It seems highly probable that
luperphosphate of  lime  would act on oxyde of anti-
mony in a way somewhat similar to cream of tartar,
and produce a more chemical combination than what
can be derived from a precarious  ustulation, and cal-
cination of hartshorn shavings and sulphuret of anti-
mony, in ordinary hands.  The antimonial  medicines
are powerful deobstiuents, promoting particularly the
cuticular discharge.  The union of this metallic oxyde
with sulphuretted hydrogen,  ought  undoubtedly to
favour its  medicinal agency in chronic diseases of the
skin.  The kermes deserves  more credit than  it  has
hitherto received from British physicians.
  The compounds, formed by the antimonious and
antimonic  acids with the bases, have not been applied
to any use.  Muriate of barytes may be employed as a
test lor tartar emetic.  It will show, by a precipitate
insoluble in  nitric acid, if sulphate of potassa be pre-
 sent.  If the crystals be regularly formed, more tartar
 need not be suspected."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
   The preparations of antimony formerly in use were
 very many :  those now directed to be kept are ;—
   1.  Sulphurctum antimonii.
   2.  Oxydum antimonii.
   3.  Sulphuretum antimonii pracipitatum,
   4. Antimonium tarlarizatum.
   5.  Vinum antimonii tartarizati.
   6. Pulvis antimonialis.
   ANTl'MORIS.  (From avn, against,  and uopos,
 death, or disease.)  A medicine to prolong life.
   ANTINEPHRITIC.  (Antinephriticus; from avn,
 against,  and  vedipins, a disease of the kidneys.)  A
 remedy against disorders ofthe kidneys.
   ANTIODONTALGIC.  (Antiodontalgicus;  from
 avrt, against, and oiovraXyta, the toothache.)  Against
 the toothache.
   ANTIODONTA'LGICUS.   An insect described by
 Germi in a small work published at  Florence 1794, so
 called from its property of allaying the toothache.  It
 is a kind of curculio found on a species of thistle,  Car-
 duus spinosissimus.   If twelve or fifteen of these in-
 sects, in the state of larva, or when come to perfection,
 be bruised  and rubbed  slowly between  the fore-finger
 and thumb until they have lost  their  moisture, and if
 the painful tooth, where it is hollow, be touched with
 that finger, the pain ceases sometimes instantaneously
 A piece of shamoy leather will  answer the same pur-
 pose with the finger.  If the gums are inflamed, the
 remedy is of no avail.  Other insects possess the  pro-
 perty of curing the toothache;  such as the Scarabeus
ferrugineus of Fabricius; the Coccinclla septempunc-
 tata,  or  lady-bird;  the Chrysomela  populi, and the
 Chrysomela sanguinolenta.   This property belongs to
 several kinds of the Coleoptera.
   ANTIPARALY'TIC. (Antiparalyticus; from avn,
 against,  and  -rapaXvots, the  palsy.)   Against   the
 palsy.
   ANTIPATHY.  (Antipathia, as. f.  AvniraBns, from
 avnttaBcia,  to  bave  a natural repugnance or dislike;
 from  avn, against,  and naBos, an  affection.)  ' 1.  An
 aversion to particular objects.
  2. The name of a genus of diseases in some classifi-
cations.
  ANTIPERISTALTIC-   (Antiperistalticus; from
avn, against, and -irepi^tXXti), to contract.)  Whatsoe-
ver obstructs the peristaltic motion ofthe intestines.
  Ajthperi'statis.   (From avrt,against, and ittpi^n-
ui, to  press.)   A compression on all  sides.   Theo-
phrastus de igne.
  ANTIPHA'RMIC.   (Antipharmicus; from avri,
against, and ipapuanov, a poison.) The same as alexi-
pharmic. Remedies or preservatives against poison.—
Dioscorides.
  ANTIPHLOGISTIC.  (Antiphlogisticus; from av-
ri, against, and tbXeyot, to burn.)  A term applied to those
medicines,  plans of diet, and  other circumstances,
which tend to oppose inflammation, or which, in other
words, weaken the system by diminishing the activity
of the vital  power.
  ANTIPHTHIS1C.   (Anliphthisicus;  from avn,
against,  and  dtBiots, consumption.)  Against a con-
sumption.
  Anti'phthora.  (From avn, against, and tpBopa,
corruption.)  A speciesof wolfsbane which resists cor
ruption.  See Aconitum anthora.
  ANTIPHY'SIC. (Antiphysicus;  from avn, against,
and tpvoato, to blow.)   A  carminative or remedy
against wind.
  ANTIPLEURI'TIC.  (Antipleurilicus; from avn,
against, and TtXevnms, pleurisy.) Against a pleurisy.
  ANTIPODA'GIUC.  (Antipodagricus; from avn,
against, and irodaypa, the gout.)  That which relieves
or removes  the gout.
  Antipraxia.  (From avn against, and 7rpa<r<rta>, to
work.)  A  contrariety of functions and  temperaments
in divers parts.  Contrariety of symptoms.
  ANTIPYRE'TIC.    (Antipyreticus;  from avn,
against, and irvptros, fever.)  Against a fever.
  Antiquartana'ria.   (From  avn,  against,  and
quartana, a quartan fever.)  Remedies against quar
tan agues.
  Antiqita'rticum.  The same as Antiquartanaria.
  ANTIRRHI'NUM. (Avn^ivov; from «vn against,
and pis, the nose: so called because it represents  the
nose of a calf.)  The name of a genua of plants in the 
ANT
ANT
Llnnaean system.  Class, Didynamia; Order, Angio-
epermia.
  Antirrhinim elatine.  The systematic name of
the plant we call flu?'!.-'.:, or female speedwell.   Ela-
tine of the shops.  The leaves  of this plant have a
roughish bitter taste, but no smell.  It was formerly
much used against scurvy and old ulcerations, but now
wholly forgotten.
  Antirrhinum linaria.  The systematic name for
the linaria of the pharmacopoeias.  Osyris; Urina
ria; Antirrhinum—foliis lanceolatis linearibus con-
fertis, caule erecto, spicis terminalibus stssilibus,flo-
ribus imbricatis of Linnaeus.  Common toad-flax.  A
perennial indigenous plant, common in barren pas-
tures, hedges, and the sides of roads, flowering from
July to September.  The leaves have a bitterish and
somewhat saline taste, and  when rubbed between the
fingers, have a faint smell,  resembling that of  elder.
They are said to be diuretic and cathartic, and in both
characters to act powerfully, especially in  the first;
hence the name urinaria.  They have been recom-
mended in dropsies and other disorders requiring pow-
erful evacuations.  The linaria has also been used as a
resolvent  in jaundice, and such diseases as were sup-
posed to arise  from visceral obstructions.  But the
plant has been chiefly valued for its effects when ex-
ternally applied, especially in hemorrhoidal affections,
for which both the leaves and flowers have been em-
ployed in various forms of ointment, fomentation, and
poultice.  Dr. Wolph first  invented an ointment of
this plant for the piles.  The Landgrave of Hesse, to
whom he was physician, constantly interrogated him,
to discover  its composition;  but Wolph obstinately
refused, till the prince promised to give him a fat ox
annually for  the  discovery: hence, to the following
verse, which  was made to distinguish the linaria
from the escula, viz.
  " Escula lactescit, sine lacte linaria crescit."   The
hereditary Marshal of Hesse added,
  " Escula nil noiis, sed dot linaria taurum."
  ANTISCO'LIC. (Antiscolicus; from avn, against,
and oK<j)Xn\,  a worm.)   Remedies against worms.
See Anthelmintic.
  ANTISCORBU'TIC.  (Antiscorbuticus, from avn,
against, and scorbutus, the scurvy.)  Medicines which
cure the scurvy.                  w
  ANTISEPTIC.  (Antisepticus, from avn, against,
and or/mo, to pulrefy.)   Whatever possesses a power
of  preventing  animal substances from passing into a
state  of putrefaction,  and of obviating putrefaction
when already begun.  This class  of medicines com-
prehends four orders:
  1. Tonic antiseptics;  as  cinchona, cusparia, cha-
mamelum, fee which  are suited for  every condition
of body, and are. in general, preferable to other anti-
septics, for those with relaxed habits.
  2. Refrigerating antiseptics; as acids, which are
principally'adapted for the  young, vigorous, and ple-
thoric.
  3. Stimulating antiseptics; as wine and alkohol,
best adapted for the old and debilitated.
  4. Antispasmodic antiseptics; as camphor and asa-
fcetida, which are to be selected for irritable and hys-
terical habits.
  (" The presence of air, though not necessary to pu-
trefaction, materially accelerates it, and those gases
which contain no oxygen, are very efficient  in check-
ing or altogether preventing the process.   Carbonic
acid  also remarkably retards putrefaction; and if
boiled meat be carefully confined in vessels containing
that gas, it remains for a very long time unchanged, as
eeen in Mr. Appert's method of preserving meat."
  "There are several substances which,  by forming
new combinations with animal  matter, retard or pre-
vent putrefaction; such as chlorine, and  many of the
saline and metallic compounds; sugar, alkohol, volatile
oils, acetic acids, and many other vegetable substances,
also stand in the list of antiputrefactives, though their
mode of operating is by  no means understood."—
Webster's Man. of Chem.
  The alkaline earths and salts are antiseptics, and act
Dy absorbing the acids formed in the process of putre-
faction.   Carbon or charcoal of wood is one of the
most  powerful  antiseptics.  It  will  restore tainted
meat, and purify offensive water.  Casks  are  now
charred to contain water on long sea voyages, and it
will continue pure and sweet in these for a long lime.
Charcoal in powder Is successfully used In the cure
of looseness of the bowels, and it has been known to
cure intermittent fevers. A.]
  Anti'spasis.  (From avn, against, and  atrata, to
draw.)  A revulsion.  The turning the course of  the
humours, while they are actually in motion.—Galen.
  ANTISPASMODIC. (Antispasmodics; from avn.
against, and avavuos, a spasm.)  Possessing the power
of allaying, or removing,  inordinate  motions in  the
system, particularly those  involuntary contractions
which take place in muscles, naturally subject 11 the
command ofthe will.  Spasm may arise from various
causes. One of the most frequent is a strong irritation,
continually applied; such as dentition, or worms.   In
these cases, narcotics  prove  useful,  by  diminishing
irritability  and sensibility.  Sometimes spasm arises
from  mere debility; and the obvious means of re-
moving this is by the use of  tonics.  Both  narcotics
and tonics, therefore, are occasionally useful as anti-
spasmodics, such  as  opium, camphor, and  tether, in
the one class, and zinc, mercury, and  Peruvian bark,
in the other.   But there are,  farther, several  other
substances, which cannot  be  with propriety referred
to either of these classes; and to these, the title of an-
tispasmodics is more exclusively appropriated.  The
principal antispasmodics, properly so called, are mos-
chus, castoreum,  oleum animate  empyreumaticum,
petroleum, ammonia,  asafcetida, sagapenum,  galba-
num,  Valeriana,  crocus,  melaleuca  leucadendron.
The narcotics, used  as antispasmodics,  are  aether,
opium, camphor.  The tonics, used as antispasmodics,
are cuprum, zincum, hydrargyrum, cinchona.
  ANTI'THENAR.  (From avn, against, and Stvap,
the palm of the hand or foot.)  A muscle of the foot
See Adductor pollicis pedis.
  ANTITRA'GICUS.   Antitragus.   One  of  the
proper muscles of the ear, the use of which is to turn
up the tip of the antitragus a little outwards, and to
depress the extremity of the antihelix towards it.
  ANTITRAGUS.  (Antitragus, i. m. from avn, and
rpayos, the tragus.)  An eminence of the outer ear,
opposite to the tragus.
  ANTIVENEREAL.   (From avn, against,  and
venereus, venereal.)  Against the venereal disease.
  ANTO'NII  SANCTI IGNIS.  (So called because
St. Anthony was supposed to cure  it miraculously.
In the Roman missal, St. Anthony is implored as being
the preserver from all  sorts of fire.)   St. Anthony's
fire.   See  Erysipelas.
  Antophy'llon.  (From avn, against, and tbvXXov
a leaf; so called because its leaves are opposite.) Tha
male caryopliyllus.
  A'NTRUM.  (Antrum, i. n. a den or cave.)  1  A
cavity which has a small opening into it
  2. The cochlea of the ear.
  Antrum buccinosum.  The cochlea of the ear
  Antrum oenje.  See Antrumof Highmore.
  Antrum hiohmorianum.   See  Antrum of High-
more.
  Antrum of highmore.   (From the name of an
anatomist, who gave the first accurate description of
it.)   Antrum Highmorianum; Antrum gena; Sinus
maxillaris pituitarius; Antrum maxilla  svperioris.
Maxillary sinus.  A large caviiy in the middle of each
superior maxillary bone, between the eye and the roof
of the mouth, lined by the mucous membrane of the
nose.  See Maxillare superius, os.
  One or both  antra are liable to several morbid affec-
tions.  Sometimes their membranous lining inflames
and secretes pus.  At other times, in  consequence of
inflammation,  or other causes, various excrescences
and fungi are produced in them. Their bony parietes
are occasionally affected  with  exostosis,  or  caries,
Extraneous bodies may be lodged on them, and it is
even asserted that insects  may be generated in them,
and cause, for many years, afflicting pains.  Abscesses
in the antrum are by far the most common.  Violent
blows on  the  cheek,  inflammatory affections of the
adjacent parts, and especially of the pituitary mem
brane lining the nostrils, exposure to cold and damp
and, above all tilings, bad teeth, may  induce inflam-
mation and suppuration in the antrum.  The first
symptom  is a pain, at first imagined  to be a tooth-
ache, particularly if there should be a carious tooth at
this  part of the jaw.   This  pain, however, extends
more into the nose than that usually does which arises
from a decayed tooth;  it also affects, more or less, the
                                         77 
ANU
ANY
 eye, the orbit, and the situation of the frontal sinuses.
 But even such symptoms are insufficient to character-
 ize the disease, the nature of which is not unequivo-
 cally evinced, till a much later period.  The complaint
 is, in general, of much  longer duration  than one en-
 tirely dependent on a caries of the tooth, and its vio-
 lence  increases  more  and more, until at last a hard
 tumour becomes perceptible  below the cheek-bone.
 The swelling by degrees extends over the whole cheek;
 but  it afterward rises to a point, and forms a very cir-
 cumscribed hardness, which may be felt above the
 back grinders.  This symptom is accompanied by red-
 ness, and sometimes by inflammation and suppuration
 of the external parts.   It is  not  uncommon also, for
 the outward abscess to communicate with that within
 the  antrum.  The circumscribed elevation of the
 tumour, however, does not occur in all cases.  There
 are instances in which the matter  makes its way to-
 wards the palate, causing the bones of the part to
 swell,  and  at  length rendering them carious, unless
 timely assistance be given.   There are other cases,
 in which the  matter escapes between 'he fangs and
 sockets of the teeth.  Lastly, there are uther examples,
 in which  matter, formed in  the  antrum, makes its
 exit at the  nostril of the same sidt when the patient
 is lying with his head  on the opposite one, in a low
 position.  If this mode of evacuation should be fre-
 quently repeated, it prevents  the tumour both  from
 pointing externally, and bursting, as it would do if the
 purulent matter could find no other vent.  This eva-
 cuation of the pus from the nostril is not very com-
 mon.  The method of cure consists in extracting one
 of the  dentes molares from the affected side; and then
 perforating through the socket into the  bony cavity.
 A mild  injection  may afterward  be  employed to
 cleanse the sinus occasionally.
  Antrum maxill.e.   See Antrum of Highmore.
  Antrum maxillare.  See Antrum of Highmore.
  Antrum pylori.  A concavity of the  stomach ap-
 proaching the pylorus.
  Anty'lion.    (From Antyllus,  its  inventor.)   An
 astringent application, recommended by  Paulus ^Egi-
 neta.
  A'NUS.   (Anus, i. masc. quasi onus; as carrying
 the burden  of the bowels.)
  1.  The fundament; the lower extremity of the great
 intestine, named the rectum, is so called; and its office
 is to form  an outlet for the faeces.  The anus is fur-
 nished wiih muscles which are peculiar to it, viz. the
 sphincter, which forms a broad circular band of fibres,
 and keeps it habitually closed, and the levatores ani,
 which  serve to dilate and draw it up to its natural
 situation, after the expulsion of the faeces.   It is also
 surrounded, as well as the whole of the  neighbourine
 intestine, with muscular fibres, and a very loose sort
 of cellular substance.  The anus is subject to various
 diseases, especially piles,  ulceration, abscesses, ex-
crescences,  prolapsus; and imperforation in new-born
infants.
  2. The term anus is also applied to a small opening
 of the  third ventricle of the  brain, whicn leads into
 the fourth.
  [Fissure  of the anus.  In  the New-York Medical
 and Physical Journal, a very  interesting case of this
 malady is related by the patient himself.   He was suc-
cessfully operated upon by Professor Alexander H. Ste-
 vens, M.D., ofthe College of Physicians and  Surgeons
of New-York.  The fissure was on one side, and the
incision was made directly upon it and  through the
Bphincter.   The  relief from the most agonizing  pain
was immediate and permanent. We find a note on the
subject of this disease in the  Philadelphia edition of
 Cooper's First Lines of the Practice of Surgery, which
we quote.                              e  »i
  " Baron Boyer has recently called the  attention of
Surgeons to what he has denominated fissure of the
anus.  Though this disease was noticed by jEtius, it
passed  unobserved by modern surgeons until the  time
of Sabatier,  who  imperfectly described it  Baron
Boyer has met with many cases of it, and it is  now
understood  by all the surgeons of Paris, where it is said
to be not uncommon.  It has been generally confounded
with ulcerated piles, blind fistula, or other diseases of
the  rectum. The symptoms it occasions have  been
considered inexplicable by the surgeon, though exceed-
 tagly distressing to the patient. Fissure of the anus is
 •a oblong ulceration of  the extremity of the rectum
just where the mucous membrane joins the skin.  The
ulceration is generally a little above the anus, so that
it is not easily discovered, unless the sides of the rec-
tum are drawn outwards, and the gut partially everted.
Moreover, the  fissure  is  superficial,  and  presents
nothing striking to the  eye,  and is,  therefore, more
likely to pass unobserved.  The mucous membrane is
more red than natural  at  the edges of the ulcerated
portion, which  is  entirely absorbed;  but  there  is
nothing unnatural to be felt  wiln the fingers, except
a very remarkable constriction, which accompanies, or
rather precedes,  this disease.  It would appear, that
this constriction is, indeed, the cause of the  malady,
which results from the efforts  to expel  hardened faeces
through the contracted passage.  The introduction of
the finger causes exquisite pain."
  "The first  symptom of the disease, is pain felt  in
evacuating the rectum, greatly aggravated by costive-
ness, and rendered most excruciating by the hardness
of the faeces.  Hence the sufferer is led to use injections
and mild laxative medicines.  In the commencement,
the pain  subsides at the expiration of about  half an
hour; in its progress, the paroxysms lengthen to several
hours' duration, and the patients writhe in agony, not
knowing what position  to put themselves in.  They
suffer least in bed. and remain there several days with-
out leaving it The pain has accessions without any
known cause, and often  ceases in the same manner."
  " The pain appears to be owing  to a retention of
excrementitious matter near the extremity of the rec-
tum, the expulsion of which is prevented by the con-
striction of the sphincter ani. The faeces are, some-
times, streaked with a line of  blood,  especially if they
be hard; but  this is not always tne case: sometimes
there is a discharge per anuin of a while liquid  matter,
in small quantities; this is what would be expected
from an inflamed or ulcerated mucous membrane, but
occasionally the ulceration extends to the muscular
coat of the intestine.'"
  " These symptoms vary  in different patients.  In
delicate and nervous women, a variety of remote symp-
toms occur, and often conceal the origin of the primary
complaint, which is mistaken for caiicer of the rectum,
ulceration ofthe womb, &c."
  " In this disease there  are two distinct occurrences:
viz. constriction of the anus, and  ulceration or  fissure.
The former is the cause of the latter.  Ulceration with-
out constriction, as we every day see in fistula  in ano,
does not occasion so severe  pairi as is felt in this com-
plaint.   With  respect to the  treatment of this com-
plaint, if it be slight, it will sometimes yield to laxative
medicines and the application of leeches to the peri-
naeum.  But these means are not generally sufficient.
It is then necessary to divide with the Knife the whole
of the sphincter ani, and that if possible, immediately
at the seat of the fissure.  The incision  should be at
least one-third of an inch  deep, especially near the
verge of the  anus, and an inch long.  After the ope-
ration, or  at any rate, before cicatrization begins, a
tent is to be introduced and kept in  the rectum, with-
out  which  the  operation would  be  unsuccessful
When the fissure is in the anterior part of the anus, as
the sphincter could not be safely divided in that direc-
tion, it  is best to cut towards the coccyx.  After the
cure the rectum is found more ample than before."  A.]
  Anus, artificial.  An accidental opening  in the
parietes of the abdomen, to which opening some part of
the intestinal canal leads, and  through which the faces
are either wholly or in part discharged.  When stran-
gulated hernia occurs, in which the intestine is simply
pinched, and this event is unknown; when it has not
been relieved  by the usual means;  or when the ne-
cessary operation has not been practised in time; the
protruded part becomes gangrenous, and the faeces
escape.  But if the patient should be at last operated
upon, his faeces are discharged through the wound, and
the intestines are more easily emptied.  In both cases
the excrement continues to be discharged from the ar-
tificial  opening.  In  this way an  artificial anus  is
formed, through which the excrement is  evacuated
during life.
  Any'drion.  (From «, priv. and vSutp, water; so
called, because they who eat of it become thirsty.)  A
species of night-shade, according to Blancard.
  Anypeu'thynus.  (From  a, neg. and  vrevBvvos,
blameable.)   Hippocrates, in his Precepts, uses this
word to signify an accidental event, which cannot be 
APH
APH
charged on the physician, and for which he is not ac-
countable.
  AORTA.  (Aorta, a. f.; from ai7P, air, and rnpcia,
to keep: so called because the ancients supposed that
only air was contained in it.)  The great artery of
the body, which arises from the left ventricle of the
heart,  forms a curvature in the chest, and descends
into the abdomen.   See Artery.
  Apalachi'ne oallis.  (From  anaXaxia, to repel;
because it  is supposed to repel infection.)  See Ilex
cassine.
  APARI'NE.  (From pivn, a file;  because its bark is
rough, and rasps like a file.)  Goose-grass.   See Ga-
lium aparine.
   Aparthro'sis.   (From airo and  ipBpov,  a joint.)
Articulation.
  APATITE.  A  phosphate of  lime mineral, of  a
white  wine, yellow, green and red colour, found in
primitive rocks in Cornwall and Devonshire.
  [There are  several varieties of the  phosphate of
lime.  The first variety (apatite)  yielded  klaproth,
lime 55.00,  phosphoric acid, 45.00.
  Its solubility in  acids, and inferior hardness, may
serve to distinguish it from the chrysoberil, tourmaline,
topaz,  chrysolite, beryl, emerald, and some Varieties of
quartz; all of which it more or less resembles, espe-
cially  the emerald, beryl, and chrysolite.  From  car-
bonate of lime it differs by  its greater  hardness, and
want of effervescence in.acids; and it does not, like the
fluate  of lime, when its powder is thrown into warm
sulphuric acid, yield a gas capable of corroding glass,
unless from the accidental presence of a small quantity
of that salt.  The variety of phosphate of lime, called
apatite,  usually in crystals,  sometimes presents  a
low six-sided prism, the primitive form.
   The same gangure, which contains the crystals, often
embiaces grains or small granular masses,  having a
crystalline structure, but nearly or quite destitute of a
regular form.  The apatite occurs in veins, or is dis-
seminated in granite, gneiss, or other primitive rocks.
It is associated with quartz, feldspar, fluate of lime,
garnets, the oxydes of iron, tin, &e.
   Apatite has been found in Maryland,  Pennsylvania,
and New-York; also in the States of Connecticut and
Maine.—CI. Min.   A.]
   APE'LLA. (From a, priv. and pellis, skin.)  Short-
 ness of the  prepuce.  Galen gives this  name to all
 whose prepuce,  either through disease,  section, or
 otherwise, will not cover the glans.
   APE'PSIA.  (Apepsia, a f. Arabia; from a, priv.
and irtirni), to digest)  Indigestion. See  Dyspepsia.
   Ape'riens  palpebrarum  rectus.  See Levator
valpebra superioris.
   APERIENT.    (Aperiens; from aperio,  to open.)
 1.  That which gently opens the bowels.
   2. Applied also to muscles, the office of which is to
 open parts; as the levator palpebral  superioris, which
 is called, in some anatomical works, aperiens palpebrae.
   Aperi'staton.   See Aperislatus.
   Apkri'status.   (From a, neg. and nepi^ripi, to sur-
 round.)  Aperistaton.  An epithet used by  Galen, of
 an ulcer which is not dangerous, nor  surrounded by
 inflammation.
   Ape'rtor oculi. See Levatorpalpebra superioris.
   APETA LUS.   (From a, priv. and petalum, a petal.)
 Without a petal or corol.
   Apetalje plant.e.  Plants without  petals.   The
 name of a division of plants in most systems of botany.
   Apeuthy'smenus.  (From ajro and ivBvs, straight.)
 A name formerly given to the intestiuum rectum, or
 straight gut.
   A'PEX.  1. The extremity of a part; as the apex of
 the tongue, apex ofthe nose, &c.
   2. The extremity of a leaf, apexfolii.
   3. The anthera of a flower of Tournefort, Rivinus,
 and Ray.
   A phani'smus.  (From adtavi^to, to remove from the
 sight) The removal, or gradual decay, of a disorder.
   APHANITE.   The name given by Hafiy to a rock
 apparently homogeneous, but really  compound,  in
 which amphibole  is the predominant principle.
   APHiERESlS.   (From a<iaipao, to remove.)   This
 term was formerly much used in the schools of surgery,
 to signify that part of the art which consists in taking
 off any diseased or preternatural part of tbe body.
   APHELXIA.    (Aphelxia, a.  f.;  from a^rAicw,
 ebstraho  to separate or abstract.)   Revery.   A genus
of diseases  In  Good's classification constituted by
absence or abstraction of mind.  See Nosology.
  Aphepsb'ma.  (From airo, and euVoi, to boil.)  A
decoction.
  A'phesis.  (From atbtnut, to remit.)  The remis-
sion or termination of a disorder.
  Aphiste'sis.  (From a$(p7ju, to draw from.)  An
abscess.
  Aphlogistic lamp.  One which burns without flame.
  A'phodos.  (From atto, and ooos, departure.)  Ex-
crement.  The dejection of the body.
  APHONIA.   (Atbuvia; from a, priv. and qjuvv, the
voice.)  A suppression of the voice, without either
syncope or coma.   A genus of disease  in the class
Locales, and order Dyscinesie, of Cullen.
  1.  When it takes place from a tumour of the fauces,
or about the glottis, it is termed aphonia gutturalis.
  2.  When  from a disease of the trachea, aphonia
trachealis.
  3.  And when  from a paralysis, or want of nervous
energy, aphonia atonica.
  APHORIA.  (Aphoria, a. f.; from a, negative, and
tpepia,fero,paris.)   Barrenness.  The name of a genus
of diseases in Good's new classification.   See Noso
logy.
  A'PHORISM.  (Aphorismus; from a^opt^w, to dis-
tinguish.)  A maxim, or principle, comprehended in a
short sentence.
   APHRITE.  Earth  foam.  A  carbonate of lime
usually found in calcareous veins at Gera in Misnia and
Thuringia.
   [APHRIZITE.   A variety of schorl, sometimes in
nine-sided prisms, terminated at one extremity by three
faces, and at the  other by six, of which three are
larger than the others, and stand on those three lateral
edges of the prism, each of which contains an angle
bf 120°.—CI. Min.  A.J
   APHRODI'SIA.   (From  AtbpoStrn,  Venus.)  An
 immoderate desire of venery.
   APHRODISIAC  (Aphrodisiacus; from atppoScaia,
 venery.)  That which excites a desire for venery.
   Aphrodisia'sticon.  (From atppos, froth.)  A troch
so called by Galen, because it was given in dysenteries,
 where the stools were frothy.
   Aphrodi'sius morbus.  (From AibpoSirn, Venus.)
 The venereal disease.
   APHTHA.   (Aphtha,  a.  f. A<f>8ai; from atrrui,  to
 inflame.)  The thrush.  Frog, or sore mouth.  Aphtha
 lactucimen  of Sauvages.  Ulcera scrpentia  oris,  or
 spreading ulcers in the mouth, of Celsus.   Pustula
 oris.  Alcola.  Vesicula gingivarum. Acacos. Aphtha
 infantum.  A disease  ranked by Cullen  in  the class
 Pyrexia, order Exanthemata.   Children are very sub-
 ject to it.  It  appears  in small, white ulcers upon the
 tongue,  gums,  and around the  mouth and palate,
 resembling small particles of curdled milk.  When the
 disease is mild, it is confined to these parts; but when
 it is violent and of long standing,  it is apt to extend
 through the whole course of the alimentary canal, from
 the mouth down to the anus; and so to excite severe
 purgings, flatulencies, and  other disagreeable  symp-
 toms.  The disease when recent and confined to the
 mouth,  may in general be easily removed; but when
 of long standing, and extending down to the  stomach
 and intestines, it very frequently proves fatal.
   The thrush  sometimes occurs as a chronic disease,
 both in warm climates and in those northern countries
 where the cold  is combined with a  considerable
 degree of moisture, or where the soil is of a very
 marshy nature.  It may, in some cases, be considered
 as an idiopathic affection; but it is more usually symp-
 tomatic.  It shows itself, at first, by an uneasy sen-
 sation, or burning heat in the stomach, which conies on
 by slow degrees, and increases gradually in violence.
 After some time, small pimples, of about the size of a
 pin's head, show themselves on the tip and edges ofthe
 tongue; and these, at length, spread over the whole
 inside of the  mouth, and occasion  such  a tenderness
 and rawness, that the  patient cannot take any food of
 a solid nature ; neither can he receive any vinous or
 spirituous liquor  into his mouth, without great pun-
 gency and pain being excited; little febrile heat attends
 but there is a dry skin, pale countenance, small pulse,
 and cold extremities.  These symptoms will probably
 continue for  some weeks,  the  general  health being
 sometimes  better  and  sometimes worse, and  then the
 patient  will be attacked with acrid eructations,  o» 
API
APO
   severe purging?, which  greatly  exhaust his strength,
   and produce considerable emaciation of the whole
   body.  After a little time, these symptoms cease, and
   he again enjoys better health ; but, sooner or later, the
   acrid matter shows itself once more in the mouth, with
   greater virulence than  before,  and makes frequent
   translations to the stomach and intestines, and so from
   these to the mouth again, until,  at last, the patient is
   reduced  to a perfect skeleton.  Elderly people,  and
   persons with a shattered constitution, are most liable
   to its attacks.   The treatment of the thrush in children
   is generally to be begun with the exhibition of a gentle
   emetic: then clear the bowels, if confined, by rhubarb
   and  magnesia, castor oil, or other  mild aperients; or
   sometimes in gross, torpid habits  by a dose of calomel.
   In general the prevalence  of acid in the prima; viae
   appears to lead  to  the  complaint; whence  antacid
   remedies prove beneficial in its progress: when the
   patient is costive, giving  the preference to magnesia ;
   when relaxed, to chalk, which may be sometimes
  ,oined with aromatics, the mild vegetable astringents,"
  or even a little  opium,  if the  diarrhoea be  urgent.
  Where the child is very weak, and the aphthae of a
  dark colour, the decoction of bark or other tonics must
  be had recourse to.  The  separation ofthe sloughs and
  healing ofthe ulcers may be promoted by washing the
  mouth occasionally with  the  honey of borax,  diluted
  with  two or three parts of rose water; or where they
  are of a dark colour, by the decoction of bark,  acidu-
  lated  with sulphuric acid.  The  diet should be light
  and nutritious, especially where there is much debility.
  As the complaint is subsiding, particular attention is
  required to obviate the bowels becoming confined.  In
  the chronic aphthae  affecting grown persons,  pretty
  much the same plan of treatment  is to  be pursued:
  besides which, the compound  powder of ipecacuanha
  and other diaphoretics, assisted by the occasional  use
  of the warm bath, wearing flannel next the skin, par-
  ticularly in a  damp  cold climate,  Sec. appear  to be
  beneficial.
   APHYLLUS.   (From a, priv. and dtvXXov, a leaf.)
  Leafless.  A term applied  to parts of plants which  arc
  so conditioned when similar parts  of other plants have
  leaves.  Thus a stem is said to be  aphyllous when it is
 altogether void of leaves.  Linnaeus uses the term
  nudus.  Examples are found  in  Cuscuta Europaa,
 dodder;  Asphodelusfistulosus, Sec.
   Aphyllje plant*.   Aphyllous  plants, or  plants
 without leaves.  Some plants being  entirely devoid of
 leaves, are naturally  arranged under one head, to
 which this name is given.
   A'PIS.  The name of a  genus of insects in the Lin-
 naean system.  The bee.
   Apis mellifica.  The systematic name of the
 honey-bee.  It was formerly dried and powdered, and
 thus given internally as a diuretic.  It is to the industry
 of this little animal that we are indebted for honey and
 wax.  See Mel and  Cera. The venom  of the bee,
 according to Fontana, bears a close resemblance to
 that of the viper.  It is contained in a small vesicle,
 and has a hot acrid taste like that of the scorpion.
   A'PIUM. (Apium, i. n.; from nittos, Dorice, amos,
 mild: or from apes, bees ; because they are fond  of it.)
 1. The name of a genus of plants in  the Linnaean sys-
 tem.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the herb smallage.
 See Apium graveolens.
   Apium oraveolens.  The systematic name for the
 apium  of the pharmacopoeias.  Apium—foliolis  cau-
 linis, cunciformibus, umbellis, sessilibus, of Linnaeus.
 Smallage   The root, seeds, and fresh plant, are ape-
 rient and carminative.
  Apium  hortinsi.  See Apiumpetroselinum.
  Apium  petroselinum.  The systematic name for
 the petroselinum ofthe pharmacopoeias. Petroselinum
 vulgare.  Apium hortense.  Common parsley.  Apium
 —foliis caulinis linearibus,  involucellis minutis; of
 Linnaeus.  Both the roots and seeds of this plant were
formerly directed by the London College for medicinal
use, and  the root is  still retained in the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia: the former  have a sweetish taste
accompanied with a slight warmth or flavour, some-
what resembling that of carrot; the latter are in taste
warmer and more aromatic than any  other part of the
plant, and manifest considerable bitterness.  The roots
are said  to be aperient and diuretic, and  have been
employed in nephritic pains and obstructions of urine
80
   The seeds possess aromatic and carminative powers,
   but are seldom prescribed.
     [APLOME  of Hauy,  Brochant,  Brogniart.  This
   very rare mineral has  been observed only in dodecae-
   drons with rhombic faces, marked by striae, parallel to
   theshorter diagonals.  Thisdodecaedron is supposed to
   be derived from a cube by one ofthe most simple laws
   of decrement: viz. that of a single range of particles
   parallel to  all the edges of a cube.   Hence its name
   from the Greek AttAooj, simple.
     The Aplome gives fire with steel, and feebly scratches
   quartz.   Its specific gravity is  3.44.  Its fracture  in
  some parts is uneven and nearly dull; while in others
  it  is shining and slightly conchoidal.  Its colour is
  usually  a deep brown, sometimes  yellowish green.
  It  is usually opaque, but the small crystals often trans-
  mit an orange-coloured  light.
    It is fusible by the blow-pipe into a blackish glass.   It
  is  composed of silex, 40.0,  alumine  20.0,  lime  14.5,
  oxyde of iron  14.5, manganese  2.0,  ferruginous silex
  2.0; = 93.00.
    It differs from the garnet in the direction of its striae
  and its inferior specific  gravity.  It has been found in
  Siberia and Saxony.—CI. Min.   A.]
    APLON^E.  A  deep orange-brown mineral, mostly
  considered to be a  variety ofthe garnet.
    APNEU'STIA.   (From a, and nvcia, to breathe.)
  A defect or difficulty of respiration, such as happens in
  a cold, &c.  Foesius.
    Apncea'.  The same.—Galen.
   Apocapni'smus.  (From ano,  and tcaitvus, smoke.)
  A fumigation.
   Apocalha'rsis.  (From ano, and xaBatpio, to purge.)
  An evacuation of humours.  A discharge downwards,
  and sometimes applied, with little discrimination, to
  vomiting.
   Apocaulize'sis. (From anoKavXltw, to break trans-
  versely.)  A transverse fracture.—Hippocrates.
   APOCENO'SIS.  (From airo,  and  kcvoco, to evacu-
  ate.)  1.  A flow or evacuation of any humour.
   2. The name of an order in the class Locales of
  Cullen, which embraces diseases characterized by  a
  superabundant flux of blood, or  other fluid, without
  pyrexia.
   Apo'cope.  (From ano, and Konrio, to cut from.)
  Abscission, or the removal of a part by cutting it off.
   Apo'crisis.   (From  a-co,  and  koivw, to secrete
  from.)    A secretion  of superabundant humours.—
  Hippocrates.
   Apocru'sticon.   See  Apocrustinum.
   Apocru'stinum.   (From attoKpovta, to repel.)  Apo
 crusticon.  An  astringent or repellent medicine.—
  Galen.
   Apocye'sis.  (From a7ro, and  kvu, to bring forth V
 Parturition, or the bringing forth of a child.— Galen.
   Apodacry'tica.   (From airo,  and  oWpu,  a  tear)
 Medicines which,  by exciting tears,  remove super-
 fluous humours from the eyes, as onions tec—Pliny.
   Apogeu'sis.  See Ageustia.
   Apogeu'stia.  See Ageustia.
   Apooinome'sis.  (From  anoyivouat, to be absent)
 The remission or absence of a disease.—Hippocrates.
   Apoolauco'sis.   (From ano,  and  yXaricos,' sky-
 coloured ; so called because of its bluish appearance.)
 See Glaucoma.
   Apo'gonum.  (From airo, and ytvouat, to beget.)  A
 living foetus in the womb.—Hippocrates.
   Apolepsis.   (From a-co,   and XauSavio,  to take
 from.)  An interception, suppression,  or retention of
 urine,  or  any  other natural evacuation.—Hipvo-
 crates.
   Apouno'sis.  (From ano,  and Xivov,  flax.)  The
 method of curing a fistula, according  to jEgineta, bv
 the application of raw flax.                        '
  Apo lysis.   (From airo, and Atiw, to release.)  The
 solution or termination of a disease. The removal of
 a bandage.—Erotianus.
  APOMA'GMA.   (From airo, and parrm, to cleanse
 from.)   Any thing  used  to cleanse and  wipe awav
 filth from sores, as sponge, Sec—Hippocrates.
 i«^^MAJHK'MA'  (Fr0UI ano' ne«' and uavOavu,, to
 learn.)   Hippocrates expresses, by this term, a forget
 fulness of all thai has been learnt
  Apo'meli.  (From a™, from, and usAi, honey.)  An
oxymel, or decoction, made with honey
  APONEUROSIS.  (From ano, and vcvpot, a nerve •
from an erroneous supposition of the ancients, that it 
APO
APO
was formed by the expansion of a nerve.)  A tendi-
nous; expansion.  See Muscle.
  Al'ONIA.   (From a, priv. and novos, pain.)  Free-
dom from pain.
  Aponitro'sis.  (From ano, and virpov, nitre.) The
sprinkling an ulcer over with nitre.
  Apopalle'sis.   (From  airo-aXAu, to throw off
hastily.)   An  abortion, or premature expulsion of a
foetus.—Hippocrates.
  Avopalsis.  See Apopallesis.
  Apopeda'sis.   (From airo, and  nnSau,  to jump
front.) A luxation.
  APOPHLEGMA'SIA.   (From  airo,  and fXcyua,
phlegm.)   A discharge of phlegm or mucus.
  APOPHLEGMA'TIC.   (Apophlegmaticus; from
airo,  and <j>Xcyua,  phlegm.)   Apophlegmatizantia;
Apophlegmalizonta.  1. Medicines  which excite the
secretion of mucus from the mouth and nose.
  2- Masticatories.
  3. Errhines.
  Apophlegmatizantia.   See Apophlegmatic.
  Apophlegmatizonta.  See Apophlegmatic.
  Apophra'xis. (From ano, and tbpaoobi, to interrupt.)
A suppression of the menstrual discharge.
  Apophtha'rma.  (From airo, and tpBetpto, to cor-
rupt.) A medicine to procure abortion.
  Apophthe'gma.   (From  anof8eyyouat,  to speak
eloquently.)  A short maxim, or axiom; a rule.
  Apo'phthora.  (From  anotbBetpio, to be abortive.)
An abortion.
  Apophy'ades.  The ramifications of the veins and
arteries.—Hippocrates.
  Apo'phyas.   (From oito^dui, to proceed  from.)
Any  thing which grows  or  adheres to another, as a
wart to the finger.
  APOPHYLLITE.   Ichthyophthalmite.   Fish-eye
stone. A mineral composed of silex,  potassa, and
water, found in the iron mine of Utoe, in Sweden.
  [This  mineral occurs in  laminated  masses, or  in
regular crystals, having a strong, and peculiar externa!
lustre, which is  intermediate between  vitreous and
pearly.   When exposed to the flame of  a lamp it exfo-
liates.  Before the blow-pipe it melts with some diffi-
culty into a white enamel.  Its fragments, placed  in
cold nitric acid, are gradually converted into a whitish,
flaky substance.  Its powder forms a jelly in nitric or
muriatic acid.  It contains silex 51, lime 28, potash 4,
water 17.  It is lighter and harder than sulphate of
barytes,  but much less hard  than adularia, both of
which it may resemble.—CI. Min.  A.J
  APO'PHYSIS.  (From anocbvw, to proceed from.)
1.  In anatomy.  Appendix ; Probole, Ecphysis; Pro-
cessus ;  Productio;  Projectura;  Protuberantia.   A
process,  projection, or  protuberance of a bone beyond
a plain surface;  as the nasal apophysis of the frontal
bone, &c.
  2.  In botany, this word  is applied to  a fleshy tuber-
cle under the basis of  the capsule or dry fruit adher-
ing to the frondose mosses.
  Apople'cta vena.   A name formerly applied to the
internal jugular vein; so called because in apoplexies
it appears full and turgid.—Bartholin.
  APOPLE'CTIC.  (From airoirA^ta, an apoplexy.)
 Belonging to an apoplexy.
   APOPLE'XY.  (Apoplexy, a. f.; from airo, and
•tXrioow, to strike or knock down; because persons,
 when seized with this disease, fall down suddenly.)
 A  sudden abolition, in  some degree, of the powers of
sense and motion, the patient lying in a  sleep-like
state; the action of the heart remaining, as  well  as
the respiration, often with a stertorous noise.   Cullen
arranges it in the class Neuroses, and order  Comata:
  1.  When it takes place from a congestion of blood,
it is termed Apoplexia  sanguinea.
  2.  When there is an abundance of serum, as in per-
sons of  a cold  phlegmatic  temperament, Apoplexia
serosa.
  3.  If it arise  from  water  in  the ventricles of the
brain, it is called Apoplexia hydroccphalica.   See Hy-
drocephalus.
  4.  If from a wound, Apoplexia traumatica,
  5.  If from poisons, Apoplexia venenata.
  6.  If from  the  action  of  suffocating exhalations,
Aooplexia suffocata.
  '".  If from passions of the mind, Apoplcxiamentalis
  is.  And when it is joined with catalepsy, Apoplexia
catalcptica.
  Apoplexy makes its attack chiefly at an advanced
period of life; and most usually on those who are of a
corpulent habit, with a  short  neck, and large head;
and who lead an inactive life, make use of a full diet,
or drink to excess.  The immediate cause of apoplexy,
is a  compression of the  brain, produced either  by an
accumulation of  blood in the vessels of the head, and
distending tiv-m to such  a degree, as to compress the
medullary portion of the brain; or by an effusion of
blood from the red vessels, or of serum from the exha-
lants; which fluids are accumulated in such  a quan-
tity as  to  occasion compression. These  states, of
overdistension and of effusion, may be brought  on by
whatever  increases the  afflux, and impetus of the
blood in the arteries of the head; such as violent fits
of passion, great exertions of muscular strength, severe
exercise, excess  in venery,  stooping down  for any
length of time, wearing  any thing too tight about the
neck, overloading the stomach, long exposure to ex
cessive cold, or a vertical sun, the sudden suppression
of any long-accustomed evacuation, the application of
the fumes of certain narcotic and metallic substances,
such as opium, alkohol, charcoal, mercury, Sec. and
by blows, wounds, and  other external injuries:  in
short, apoplexy may be produced by whatever  deter-
mines too great  a flow  of blood to the brain, or pre
vents its free return from that organ.
  The young, and those  of a  full plethoric habit, are
most liable to attacks of the sanguineous apoplexy;
and  those of a  phlegmatic constitution, or who are
much advanced  in life, to the serous.  Apoplexy is
sometimes preceded by  headache, giddiness, dimness
of sight, loss of memory, faltering of the tongue  in
Fpeaking,  numbness in  the  extremities, drowsiness,
stupor,  and   nightmare, all  denoting an  affection
of the  brain; but it   more usually  happens that,
without much previous indisposition, the person falls
down suddenly, the countenance becomes florid, the
face appears swelled and puffed up, the vessels of the
head, particularly of the neck  and temples, seem tur
gid and distended with blood; the eyes are prominent
and  fixed, the breathing is difficult and performed with
a snorting noise, and the  pulse is  strong and full.
Although  the whole body is affected with the loss of
sense and motion, it nevertheless takes place often
more upon one  side than the other, which is  called
hemiplegia, and  in  this  case,  the side least  affected
with palsy is somewhat  convulsed.
  In forming an opinion as to the event, we must be
guided by the violence of the symptoms.  If  the fit is
of long duration, the respiration laborious and sterto-
rous, and the person much advanced in years, the dis-
ease, in all  probability, will  terminate fatally.   In
some cases, it goes off entirely; but it more frequently
leaves a state of mental  imbecility behind it, or termi-
nates in a hemiplegia, or in death.  Even when an
attack is  recovered from, it most frequently returns
again,  after a short period of time, and in  the end
proves fatal.  In dissections of apoplexy, blood is often
found effused on the surface and in the cavities of the
brain; and in other instances, a turgidity and disten-
tion of the blood-vessels are to be observed.   In some
cases, tumours have been found  attached to different
parts of the  substance of the brain, and in others, no
traces of any real affection of it could be observed.
  On an attack of sanguineous apoplexy, all compres-
sion should be removed  from the neck, the patient iaid
with his head a good deal raised, and a free admission
of cool air  allowed.  Then blood  should be  taken
freely from the arm or the temporal artery, or the jugu-
lar vein;  which it may be sometimes necessary to
repeat, if the symptoms continue, and the patient is
still  plethoric; or if blood can less be spared, cupping
or leeches may lessen  the congestion in the  brain.
The next object should be thoroughly to evacuate the
bowels by some active  purgative, as  calomel  joined
with jalap, or with extract of colocynth, or followed
by infusion of senna and some neutral salt, with a lit-
tle tartarized antimony  or tincture of jalap repeated
every two hours till it operates;  or a draught of tinc-
ture of senna and wine of aloes, where the bowels are
very torpid,  may answer  the purpose.   Stimulant
clysters will also be proper, particularly if the patient
cannot  swallow, as common salt and syrup of buck-
thorn, with a proper quantity  of gruel, infusion  of
senna or infusion of colocynth; or a turpentine clyster
in elderly torpid habits.   Cold should then be applied
                                          81 
APO
APO
  assiduously  »o the scalp, the hair being previously
  shaved, and a blister to the back of the neck; and
  diaphoretic  medicines  may  be exhibited, avoiding,
  however, those which contain opium. Sinapisms to the
  feet may also be useful, particularly if these are cold.
  If under these means, the sensibility does not gradually
  return, some ofthe gentle diffusible stimulants will be
  proper, as ammonia,  mustard, aether, camphor, &c.:
  and at this  period, a blister to the scalp may come in
  aid.  By some practitioners emetics arc recommended,
  but their use  is hazardous,  especially if sufficient
  evacuations  be not premised: and the same may be
  observed of sternutatories.  In the serous form of the
  disease, general bleeding is inadmissible, and  even
  the  local abstraction of blood  should  be very spa-
  ringly made; the bowels should be kept open, espe-
  cially  by aloetic or mercurial formulae, but not pro-
  curing  profuse discharges; and  the other secretions
  maintained,  especially by  the use of the diffusible
  stimulants already mentioned;  blisters to the head,
  and errhines may be here  also useful.  When  apo-
  plectic symptoms have been occasioned by opium, or
  other narcotics, the  timely discharge of  this by an
  active emetic will be the most important measure;
  but in a plethoric habit, bleeding should be premised;
  subsequently various stimulants may be employed, as
  ammonia, vinegar, &c. endeavouring to  procure a
  determination to the surface,  and rousing the patient
  from his torpid state.  The prevention of the  san-
  guineous form of the disease will be best  attempted
  by abstemiousness, regular  moderate  exercise,  and
  keeping up the evacuations ;  an issue or seton may
  also be useful; but under urgent circumstances, bleed-
  ing, especially topical, must be resorted to.   In leuco-
 plilegmatic habits,  a  more nutritious  diet will be
 proper.
   APOPNI'XIS.  (From airoirviyw, to suffocate.)  A
 suffocation.—Meschion.
   APOPSOPHE'SIS.  (From airo, and xpoipm, to emit
 wind.l   The emission of wind by the anus or uterus,
 according to Hippocrates.
   APOPSY'CHIA.   (From una, from, and uVuv»;, the
 mind.)   The highest degree of  deliquiuin, or fainting,
 nccording to Galen.
   APO'PTOSIS. (From airoiriirnj, to fall down.) A
 prolapsus, or falling down of any part through relaxa-
 tion.—Erotian.
   Aporh'xis.   (From airo, and optyta, to stretch out)
 A play with balls, in the gymnastic exercises.
   Apo'ria.  (From a, priv. and iropo?, a duct.)  Rest-
 lessness, uneasiness, occasioned by the interruption of
 perspiration, or any stoppage of the natural secretions.
   Aporrhi'psis.   (From  ano^inru, to  cast off.)
 Hippocrates used this  word to signify that kind of
 insanity where the  patient tears off his clothes, and
 casts them from him.
  Aposceparni'smus.  (From ano, from, and axtnap-
 vt^io, to strike  with a hatchet.)  Dcasciatio. A spe-
 cies of fracture, when part of a bone is chipped off.—
 Gorraus.
  Aposcha'sis.  (From airo, and oxa^io, to scarify.)
 Aposchasmus.  A scarification.  Venesection.—Hip-
 pocrates.
  [APOSEPEDINE.  The products of the  fermenta-
 tion of cheese  have been examined bv M. Bracconnot,
 who has shown that the substance," called by Proust
 castmts oxide,  has no claim to such a title, and pro-
 poses to call it Aposepedine,  from airo, and  o/irtLv,
 (result of putrefaction).  To obtain  this substance,
 the curd of skim-milk, spontaneously coagulated, is to
 be mixed with water, and exposed in an open vessel
 until the putrefaction has fully obtained its height.
 By filtration, a liquor is obtained which, on being con-
 centrated by evaporation, yields a product  of a veiy
 frond odour, owing apparently to  the  presence of an
 oily substance.  Towards the close of the evaporation,
 vapours of acetic acid pass over, and a liquid of the
 consistence of syrup remains; which, on cooliii". con-
 cretes into a granulated, reddish mass like honey, and
of a saline bitter taste.   Treated by alkohol, it is sepa-
rated into a soluble and insoluble portion.  The latter
is the Aposepedine of M. Bracconnot; the  former is
tht caseate of ammonia of Proust— fVebster's Man
 Oicm.  A.]
  Aposi'tia.   (From  ano, from,  and  o-iroj, food.)
Apositios.  A loathing of food.—Galen.
  Apospa'sma. (From anoonaw, to tear off.) A vio-
  lent, irregular fracture of a tendon,  ligament, tec-
  Galen.
    ArosPHACELi'sis.   (From airo, and cfaxcXos, a
  mortification.)  Hippocrates  uses  this word to denote
  a mortification of the flesh  in wounds, or  fractures,
  caused by too tight a bandage.
    APO'STASIS.   (From airo,  and tcvut, to recede
  from.)   1. An abscess, or collection of matter.
    2. The coming away of a fragment of bone by frac-
  ture.
    3. When a distemper passes away by some outlet,
  Hippocrates calls it an apostasis by excretion.
    4. When the morbific  matter, by its own weight,
  falls and settles on any part, an  apostasis by settle-
  ment.
    5. When one disease turns  to another, an apostasis
  by metastasis.
    APOSTA'XIS.   (From airos-as<o,  to distil from.)
  Hippocrates uses this word to express the defluxion or
  distillation of any humour, or fluid: as blood from  the
  nose.
   APOSTELUS.  An apostle.    An ointment and
  other things were formerly so designated  from some
  famous inventor; as unguentum aposteiorum, because
  it has twelve ingredients in it.
   APOSTEMA.  (Apostema, atis.  n.; from aQt^nut,
  to recede.)   The term  given  by  the  ancients to ab-
  scesses in general.  See Abscess.
   APOSTEMA'TIAI.   Those who, from an inward
  abscess,  void  pus downward,  are thus called  by
 Aretaeus.
   Aposteri'gma.  (From ano^npiyto, fulcio.)  Galen
 uses this word to denote a rest of  a diseased part, a
 cushion.
   Apo'strophe.  (From  airo, and spedtui,  to  turn
 from.)   Thus Paulus ^Egineta expresses  an aversion
 for food.
   APOSYRINGE'SIS.  (From  airo,  and ovpiy\,  a
 fistula.)   The degeneracy  of a sore into a fistula.—
 Hippocrates.
   APOSY'RMA.  (From airo, and  avpta, to rub  off.)
 An abrasion or disquamation  of the bones or skin.—
 Hippocrates.
   APOTANEUSIS.  (From airo, and rtivw, to ex-
 tend.)   An  extension, or elongation, of any membe;
 or substance.
  Apotelme'sis.  (From airo, and rtXua, a bog.) An
 expurgation of filth, or faeces.
  APOTHE'CA.  (AnoBnxn;  from  anonBnut, to re-
 posit)  A shop, or vessel, where medicines are sold,
 or deposited.
  APOTHECA'RY.  (Apothecarius; from airo,  and
 nBrjut, pono, to put: so called from  his employ being
 to prepare, and keep in  readiness, the various articles
 in the Materia Medica, and to compound them for the
 physician's use; or from anoOnKn, a shop.)  In every
 European country, except  Great Britain, the  apothe-
 cary is the sarhe as we name in England the druggist
 and chemist.
  APOTHERAPEI'A.   (From ano, and Stpamvu, to
 cure.)  A perfect cure, according to  Hippocrates.
  Apotherapku'tica.   (From anoStoanevia, to heal.)
 Therapeutics.  That part of medicine which teaches
 the art of curing disorders.
  Apothe'rmum. (From airo,  and Sepuv, heat.)  An
 acrimonious pickle, with mustard, vinegar, and oil.__
 Galen.
  APO'THESIS. (From airo,  and rtBtipi, to replace.)
 The reduction of a dislocated bone, according to Hip-
 pocrates.
  APOTHLI'MMA.  (From airo, and SXifai, to press
 from.)   The dregs or expressed juice of a plant.
  Apothrau'sis.  (From airo, and Spavw, to break.)
 The taking away the splinters of a broken  bone.
  Apo'tocus.  (From airo,  and tiktio, to bring forth.)
 Abortive; premature.—Hippocrates.
  Apotre'psis.   (From airo, aiidrprira), toturn from.)
 A resolution or reversion of a suppuiating tumour.
  Apotrop/e'a.   (From anorpento, to  avert.)  An
 amulet, or charm, te avert diseases.—Foesius.
  A'POZEM.   (Apozema.   From airo, and  ?cu, to
boil.)  A decoction.
  Apozeu'xis.  (From airo, and  gtvyvvpt, to sepa-
rate.)  The separation or removal  of morbid parts.—
 Hippocrates.
  Apo'zymos   (From am,  and ^cun, ferment.)  Fer-
mented. 
APP
AQU
  APPARA'TUS.  (From apparco, to appear, or be
ready at hand.)  This term is applied to the instru-
ments and the preparation and arrangement of every
thing necessary in the performance of any operation,
medical, surgical, or chemical.
  Apparatus  altus.  See Lithotomy.
  Apparatus  major.  See Lithotomy.
  Apparatus  minor.  See Lithotomy.
  Apparatus, pneumatic  The  discovery of afiri-
form fluids has, in modern chemistry, occasioned the
necessity of some peculiar instruments, by means of
which those substances may, in distillations, solutions,
or other operations, be caught, collected, and properly
managed.  The proper instruments for this arc styled
the pneumatic apparatus.   Any kind of air is specifi-
cally lighter then any liquid; and, therefore, if not
decomposed by it, rises through it in bubbles.  On  this
principle rests the essential part  of  the apparatus,
adapted to such operations.  Its  principal part is the
pneumatic trough, which is a kind of reservoir for the
liquid, through which the gas is conveyed and caused
to rise, and Is filled either with water or with quick-
silver.  Some inches below its brim a horizontal shelf
is fastened, in  dimension about half or the third part
ofthe tro igh, and in the water-trough this is provided
on its foremost edge with a row of holes, into which,
from underneath, short-necked funnels are fixed.  The
trough is filled  with water sufficient to cover the shelf,
to support the  receivers, which being previously filled
with water are  placed  invertedly, their open  end
turned down upon the above-mentioned holes, through
which afterward the gases, conveyed there and di-
rected by means of the funnels, rise in the form of air
bubbles.
  In roroe cases the trough must be filled with quick-
silver,  because water absorbs or decomposes some
kinds of air.  The price  and specific gravity of that
metal make it  necessary  to give to  the quicksilver
trough smaller dimensions.  It is either cut in marble,
or made of wood well joined.  The late Karsto has
contrived  an apparatus,  which, to the advantage of
saving room, adds that of great conveniency.
  To disengage gases, retorts of glass, either common
or tubulated, are employed, and placed in a sand-bath,
or heated by a  lamp.  Earthen, or coated glass retorts,
are put in the  naked fire.  If necessary, they are
joined with  a  metallic  or  glass conveying pipe.
When, besides the aeriform, other fluids are to I"? col-
lected, the middle or intermediate  bottle finds iu> use ;
and to prevent, after cooling, the  rising of the water
from the trough  into the disengaging vessel, the tube
of safety is employed.  For the extrication of gases
taking place in solutions,  for which no external heat is
required, the bottle called disengaging bottle, or proof,
may be  used.   For receivers, to collect disengaged
airs, various cylinders of glass are used, whether  gra-
duated or not, either closed at one end or open at both;
nnd in this last case, they are made air-tight by a stop-
per fitted by grinding.  Besides these, glass  bells  and
common bottles are employed.
   To combine  with water, in a  commodious way,
Borne gases that  are only gradually  and slowly ab-
sorbed by  it,  the glass  apparatus of Parker is  ser-

   APPENDI'CULA.  A  little appendage.
   Appendicula c>eci vkrmiformis.   A vermicular
process, about four inches in length, and the size of a
goose-quill, which hangs  to the intestinum caecum of
the human body.
   APEPNDicuLiB eppiloicje. Appendices coliadiposa.
The small appendices of the colon and rectum, which
are'filled with adipose substance.  See Omentum.
  APPENDICULA'TUS.  Applied to  leaves,  leaf-
stalks, Sec. that are furnished with  an additional organ
for some particular purpose not essential to it; as the
Dionaa  muscipula, the  leaves of which terminate
c?.ch in  a pair  of toothed irritable lobes, that close
over and imprison insects; as also the leaf of the Ne-
pentha distillatorea, which bears a covered pitcher full
of water;  the leaves  of  our Utriculum, which have
numerous bladders  attached to them which seem to
secrete air and  float  them ;  and the petiolus of the
Dipsacus pilosus, which has little leaves at Its base.
  APPENDIX.   1. An appendage; that which be-
Iongeth to any thing.
  2. See Apophysis.
  APPLE.  See Pyrus
  Apple, acid of.  See Malic acid".
  Apple, pine.  See Bromelia ananus.
  Apple, thorn.   See Datura stramonium.
  Appropriate affinity.  See Affinity intermediate.
  APRICOT.  See Prunus armeniaca.
  APYRE'XIA.  (From a, priv. and irupe^ia, a fever.)
Apyrexia. Without fever.—The intermission of fever-
ish heat.
  APYRI'NUS.   (From a, priv. and nvprjv, nucleus, a
kernel.)  Without a kernel.
  Apyrinje plant*.  Plants  without kernels.  The
name in Gerard's arrangement of a class of plants.
  APYROUS.  Bodies which sustain the action of a
strong heat for a considerable time, without change ot
figure or other  properties, have been called apyrous;
but the word is now very seldom used.  It is synony
mous with refractory.
  A'QUA. See Water.
  Aq.viE aeris  fixi.  Water impregnated with fixed
air.  This is  liquid carbonic acid, or water impreg-
nated with carbonic acid.  It sparkles in the glass, has
a pleasant acidulous taste, and forms an excellent  be-
verage.  It diminishes thirst, lessens the morbid heat
of the  body, and acts as a powerful diuretic.  It is
also  an excellent remedy in increasing irritability of
the stomach, as in advanced pregnancy, and it is one
of the best anti-emetics which we possess.
  Aqua aluminis composita.  Compound solution
of alum,  formerly called  aqua aluminosa  bateana.
See Liquor aluminis compositus.
  Aoj.ua ammonije acetatje.  See Ammonia acetatis
liquor.
  Aqua ammonije purje.   See Ammonia.
  Aqua aneti.  See Anethum graveolens.
  Aqua calcis.  See Calcis liquor.
  Aqua carui.  See Carum carui.
  Aqua cinnamomi. See  Laums*cinnamomum.
  Aqua ccelestis.  A preparation of copper.
  Aqua  cupri ammoniati.   See  Cupri ammoniutt
liquor.
  Aqua  cupri vitriolati  composita.  This  pie-
paration of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia  is  used
externally, to stop haemorrhages ofthe nose, and other
parts.  It is made thus: R Cupri vitriolati, Aluminis,
sing. 5 ss. Aqua  pure,  J iv. Acidi vitriolici,  3 ij.
Boil the salts in water until they are dissolved; then
filter the liquor and add the acid.
  Aqua distillata.  Distilled water.  This is  made
by distilling water in clean vessels,  until about two-
thirds have come over.   In nature, no water is found
perfectly pure.  Spring or river water always contains
a portion of saline  matter,  principally sulphate ot
lime; and, from this impregnation, is unfit for a mi in
ber  of pharmaceutic preparations.  By distillation, a
perfectly pure water is obtained.  The London Col-
lege  directs ten  gallons of  common water ; of which,
first  distil four  pints, which are to be thrown away;
then distil four gallons.  This distilled water is to bu
kept in glass vessels.  See  Water.
  Aqua fcsniculi.  See Ancthum faniculum.
  Aqua fortis.  This name is given to a weak and
impure  nitric acid, commonly used in the arts.  It is
distinguished by the terms double and single, the single
being only half the strength of the oiher.  The arlisis
who use these acids call the more concentrated acid,
which  is  much  stronger even than the double aqua
fortis, spirit of nitre.  This distinction appears to  be
of some utility, and is  therefore  not improperly re-
tained by chemical writers. See Nitric acid.
  Aqua kali prjeparati.  See Potassa subcarbuua
tis liquor.
  Aqua kali puri.  See Potassa  liquor.
  Aqua lithargyri acetati. See Plumbi ucetatis
liquor.
  Aqua   lithargyri  acetati  composita.   See
Plumbi acetatis liquor dilutus.
  Aqua marine.  See Beryl.
  Aqua menth.b piperita.  See  McntJia piperita.
  Aqua menth.« sativje. See Mentha viridis.
  Aqua menthje viridis.  Sec Mentha viridis
  Aqua de napoli.  See Aquetla.
  Aqua pimentje.  See Myrtus pimenta.
  Aqua pulegii.  See Mentha Pulegium.
  Aqua regia.  Aqua regalis. This acid, which is
a mixture of the nitric and  muriatic acids, lately called
nitro-muriatic, and now chlorine, was formerly called
aqua regalis, because it was, at that time, the only 
ACJU
ARB
    acid that was known to be able to dissolve gold.  See
    Chlorine.
      Aqua rosje.   See Rosa centifolia.
      Aqua stvptica.  A name formerly given to a com-
    bination of powerful astringents, viz. sulphate of cop-
    per, sulphate of alum,  and sulphuric acid.   It has
    been  applied topically  to check  haemorrhage, and,
    largely diluted with water, as a wash in purulent oph-
    thalmia.  See Aqua cupri vitriolati  composita.
     Aqua Toffania. See Aquetta.
     Aqua vit*.  Ardent spirit of the first distillation
   has been distinguished in commerce by this name.
    .Aqua zinci vitriolati  cum  camphora.  Aqua
   vitriolio > camphorata.   This is made by dissolving
   half an ounce of sulphate of zinc in a quart of boiling
   water, adding half an ounce of camphorated  spirit,
   and filtering.  This, when  properly diluted, is a use-
   lul collyrium for inflammations of the eyes, in which
   there is a weakness of the parts. Externally, it is ap-
   plied by surgeons to scorbutic and phagedenic ulcera-
   tions.
    Aqu/e distillate. Distilled waters.  These are
   made by introducing vegetables,  as mint, penny royal,
   Sec into a still with water; and drawing oft"as much
   as is found to possess the propertiesof the plants. The
   London College orders the waters to be distilled from
   dried herbs, because fresh are not ready at all times of
   the year. Whenever  the fresh  are used, the weights
   are to  be increased.   But whether  the fresh or dried
   herbs are employed, the operator may vary  the weight
   according to the season in which they  have been pro-
  duced and collected. Herbs and seeds, kept beyond the
  space of a year, are improper for the distillation of
  waters.  To every gallon of these waters, five ounces
  by measure, of proof spirit are to  be added.
    Aqv/e minerales.  See Mineral waters.
  waters4 STILLAT1TIJE splices.   Simple distilled

  tmlf^f ,BTILLATIT'* spirituosje.   Spirituous dis-

  inderiiI    ' B0W       °Dly SpiritUS; M sPiritus
  nol ,iU1EDUCT-   ■*?«*<*«**«*; a canal or duct, so
  named  because it  was supposed to carry a watery

  «£?r5.*„,r,ET ,0r r*L">™™-   A canal in the petrous
  by FaUoptos  temporal bone' &st accurately described
   Aquatic nut.  See Trapa nutans.
 mn^TICJB  PLANTJE-  Aquatic plants, or such as
 e^UATrrr«Ttf,r;  A "atural order of Plan^
  ori^iSVo'the^r a9Ua> Wal6n)   A^atic'

 ortS^wa(t1rSaS,Watery°  0fthe«atureof,
   Aqueous  humour.  Humor Aquosus.  The verv
 eyeP,dSeWeagy,flUid' whlch nl,s "»th chambers oflhl

 .-<,A51JE^TTtA-  Tne name of  a  lifl"id Poison, made
 Alexander VH°raTa,nW°men> Under t,,e Pontifical™ of
 ToDha^if I ToiL^aS prePared and sold j» df0PS. by
 l opnaiua, or Toffama, an  infamous  woman who re-
 ttt a PalefT' and aftervvard at Naples. From her^
 S   ^nPSn,°^AmpA *» name of Aqua ToTania
 Aqua delta Toffana ; and also Aqua diNavoli  ThU

 ■mTbVnth*ld V S^C t0 be a A>osltloZf arsenic
   AOmln-? r>rfT?SUU','i,and cantharides.          °'
 a W?« ? u yM-  (Fr0m acus> a needle> ™<* folium


 ^^J^'of^S^^  SpecieS0f ^



mercurfu enr1Cal ^ form«'y "^saVarnlnonutc
Ssopher's0 sPto„?UatUS' ^^ ™l*h™> and 'C'
    Aquilje ven*.   Branches of the  jugular veins.
  which are particularly prominent in the eagle
    AQUILE'GIA.  (From aqua, water, and lego, to
  gather; so called from the shape  of its leaves which
  retain water.)  The herb columbine

  0„LThe £fme °l f gT,s of~p1ants jn the Linn*an
  system.  Class, Polyandna; Order, Pentagynia.
   2. The nanie in the pharmacopoeias, for  the colum-
  bine,  bee Aquilegia vulgaris.
   Aquilegia vulgaris.  The systematic name of the
  columbine. The seeds, flowers, and the whole plant
  have been used medicinally, the first in exanthematous
 diseases, the latter chiefly as an antiscorbutic.  Thoueh
 retained in several foreign pharmacopoeias, their  uti-
 lity seems to be not allowed in this country
 ... Aquiu',n,a'  (Pr°m ^uilai a« eagle;  so'called from
 tne resemblance of its leaves to eagle's  wings.)  The
  To,m?reA0f aAPedeS 0f Pteri3'  See Pteris. '     °
 tutiTf^  A-   (Dim,'.nut!ve of aqua.) A small quan-
 K„7 fill,e and '"«Pid water.  This term is  ap^
 pliedI to the pellucid water, which distends the capsule
 ^„h „ ryStal'-ne 'T'  and the ,ens "self.  Paulus
 ^gineta uses  it to denote a  tumour consisting of a
 fatty substance under the skin of the eyelid     s
  Arabic gum.  See Acacia gummi.
  A racalan.  An amulet.
  Araca  mira. (Indian.)  A shrub growing in the

senteric    r°°tS °f Whl   a'e  diure"C a°d  ^d"-
  ARA'CHNE.  (From  arag, Hebrew, to weave- or
rrorn opaxiT7, a spider.)  The spider.
.^'^ntat^^anfnS  «" ^ ^~

eo^rap^aSoftn%&« «™ * ■» dis"
  Aquila vkneris.   A  nreDararinr.  ne  .u
rmade with ^^^^Ze^lmml
  .„£i    CiJN9IDV. ^radsnoides;'from apaxvn,  a
  spider, and tiSps, likeness; so named from its7e?ern-
  blance to a spider's web.)   Web-like
    Arachnoid membrane.   Membrana  arachnoides.
  l. A thin membrane ofthe brain, without vessels and
  nerves, situated between the dura and pia mater and
  surrounding  the cerebrum, cerebellum,  medulla' ob-
  longata, and medulla spinalis.
  tiini^/.h™13 ?'??  ap.plied bysome writers to the
  the eye     crystaliine lens and vitreous humour of

  nrAJtiA,<i;I^   (Indian0  An Indian spirituous liquor,
  prepared  in many ways, often from rice; sometimes
  from  sugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa-nu s

  fheqUcoco,y_ 7, t0ddy> t-he-iuice °f which *™*"»m
  sfances            y lncls,on> an« ftom other sub

  r-rSjt*'?,0!' f,(From aWeu, to be turbulent.)   Hippo-
  crates uses this  term  to signify a commotion in ihf
  stomach, occasioned by the fermentation of its contents
   arjeotica.  (From apatoio, to rarefy.)   Thills
  which rarefy the fluids of the body.       '        D
   ARA'LIA.   (From ara, a bank in the sea ; so called
 because it grows upon the banks near the sea.)  The
 ?W  °p 8, geTUS °f P'anIS "> the Linntean system.
 Class, Pentandna;  Order, Pentagynia.   The berrv



 S}crirs£Anita'''ta'"Sj!^3
   Ara'nea.  (From apato, to knit together.)
   l. 1 he name of a genus of insects.
   ». 1 he spider.

 mi«RAJ*TiFS3'-Ju'Llus Cjesar, a celebrated anafo
 5™   Aftpnys'c',an' born at Bologna, about the year
 ^uaAJieanSrt-tUdyinS unde'Vesalius and others^ he
 158    r^ha «  became Pr°fe^r there, and died in
 described'  tlT W0*' " °n tne Human Fffit^." he
 andIcarL,"5 fora'ne,.,  0vale- and duclus arteriosus;
 araviH  ■»! l d  V^*} errors jn the anatomy of the
 fie exanfn^on "f u had been «enera"y deriv<;u ^
 he hlnnH ,f,0n,?' ,brutes'  He afterward showed that
 be left tide brvb|'^'.C°Uld^'^ pass f,mn  *** tiSht "
 lun«  th.. =  y th? heart trough the vessels of the
 atiln  nf rrPrepanng.for ** "'^covery of the circ"!
 Comrnent£arVey-  A Trpi,tise ou Tumours, and a
ten°y Mm?    Part  °f HiPPocrates- w«« also writ

triviallimnl1^  Th« Plo«»eh. A plant'.as this for a
Plou3!   Z',because,ts r<>o's a^e found to hinder the 
ARC
ARE
  3. In anatomy, it is applied to parts which ramify
like a tree, as the Arbor vita ofthe cerebellum.
  3. In chemistry, applied to crystallizations which ra-
mify like branches.
  Arbor dianje.  See Silrer.
  Arbor vit*.  The tree of life.
  1. The cortical  substance of the  cerebellum is so
disposed, that, when cut transversely, it appears rami-
fied like a tree, from which circumstance it is termed
arbor vita.
  2. The name of a tree formerly in high estimation in
medicine.   See Thuya occidentalis.
  Arbores.  One of the natural divisions or families
of plants.   Trees consist of a single and durable woody
trunk, bearing branches, which  do not  perish in the
winter, as Tdia,  Fraxinus, Pyrvs, Sec.
  ARBUST1VA.  (From arbustum, a copse of shrubs
or trees.)  The name of an  order of plants  in Lin-
nams's natural method.
  ARBUTHNOT, John, a physician, born in Scotland
soon after  the restoration, celebrated for his  wit and
learning. He graduated at Aberdeen, and settling in
this metropolis, had the good fortune to be at Epsom,
when Prince George of Denmark was taken ill there;
whom, having restored to health, he was  appointed
physician to Queen Anne, but never got into very ex-
tensive practice.   His chief medical publications were
" On the Choice of Aliments," and " On the Effects of
Air upon Human Bodies."  He died in 1735.
  A'RBUTUS.  The name  of  a  genus of plants in
the Linnsan system.  Class, Decandria; Order, Mo-
nogynia.
  Arbutus, trailing.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
  Arbutus unkdo.  Amatiquitl; Unedo papyrace.a.
A decoction of the bark ofthe root of this plant is re-
commended in fevers.
  Arbutus uva ursi  The systematic name for  the
officinal trailing Arbutus; Bear's berry ; Bear's whor-
tle-berry; Bear's whorts; or Bear's bilberries; called
also Vaccaria.  Arbutus—caulibus procumbentibus,
foliis integerrimis, of Linnaeus.  This plant, though
employed by the  ancients in several diseases, requiring
adstringent medicines, had almost entirely fallen into
disuse until the middle ofthe present century, when it
first drew the aUention of physicians, as a useful re-
medy in calculous and nephritic  complaints, which
diseases it appears to relieve by its adstringent qualities.
  A'rca arca'norum.   The mercury of the philo-
sophers.
  A'rca cordis.   The pericardium.
  ARCA'NUM.   A secret  A medicine, the prepara-
tion or efficacy  of which  is kept from the world, to
enhance its value.  With the  chemists, it is a thing
secret and incorporeal; it can only be known by ex-
perience, for it is the virtue of every thing, which ope-
rates a thousand  times more than the thing itself.
  Arcanum  catholicum.  Bezoar,  plantain, and
colchicum.
  Arcanum  duplex.   Arcanum duplicatum.   A
name  formerly given to the combination of potassa
and sulphuric acid, more commonly called vitriolated
tartar, and  now sulphate of potassa.
  Arcanum tartari.  The acetate of potassa.
  Arce'rthos.  Juniper.
  ARCHiE'US.   1. The  universal archasus, or prin-
ciple of Van Helmont, was the active principle of the
material world.  See Vis vita.
  2. Good health.
  A'rche.  (From apxtf i the beginning.)  The earliest
stage of a disease.
  Arche'nda.  (Arabian.)  A  powder made of the
leaves of the Iigustruin, to check the foetid odour of
the feet.
  Archeo'stis.  White briony.
  [ARCHER, JOHN, M. D.  of the state of Maryland,
a celebrated practitioner  of medicine.   Many con-
tributions  of his, on various  subjects of  medical
science, are to be found  in the New-York  Medical
Repository.  He was the first who introduced  the
fieneca snake-root (polygaia senega) as a remedy in
Croup. He died in 1814.   A.]
  Archil.   See Lichen rocella.
  [There are several lichens  which abound in colour-
ing matter; of these the most remarkable is the lichen
rocella, which grows in the south of France, and in
the Unitary Islands;  and which affords the beautiful,
hut perishable blue, called litmus, archil, or turnsole
The moss is dried, powdered, mixed with pearlash
and urine, and allowed to ferment, during which it
becomes red and then blue; in this state it is mixed
with carbonate of potassa and chalk, and dried.  It is
used for dying silk and  ribands; and  by the chemista
as a most delicate t?st of acids, which it indicates by
passing from blue to red; the blue colouris restored by
alkalies, which do not render it green.   Cudbear ap-
pears to be  a similar preparation of the lichen tar
tareus.—Webster's Man. Chem.  A.]
  Archilla.  See Lichen rocella.
  Archi'tholos.  (From  apxi, the chief, and SoXos.
a chamber.)  The sudatorium, or principal  room of
the ancient baths.
  ARCHOPTO'MA.  (From apxos, the anus, and nrr-
tw, to fall down.)   A bearing down  of the rectum, or
prolapsus ani.
  A'rchos.   (From apxos, an arch.)   The  anus; so
called from its shape.
  ARCTA'TIO.   (From  arcto, to make  narrow.)
Arctitudo.  Narrowness.
  1  A  constipation of the intestines,  from inflam-
mation.
  2. A preternatural straitness of the  pudendum mu-
liebre.
  A'RCTIUM.  (From apxroj, a bear; so called from
its roughness.)  The name  of a genus of plants in the
Linnsean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polyga-
mia aqualis.   The burdock.
  Arctium  lappa.  The  systematic name for the
herb clot-bur, or burdock.   Bardana; Arctium;  Bri-
tannica; llaphis.  The plant so called in the pharma-
copoeias, is  the Arctium—foliis cordalis, inermibus,
petiolatis, of Linnaeus.  'It  grows wild in uncultivated
grounds. The seeds have  a bitterish  subacrid taste :
they are recommended as  very efficacious diuretics,
given either in the form of emulsion, or in powder, to
the quantity of a drachm.   The roots taste sweetish,
with a slight austerity and bitterness: they are es-
teemed aperient, diuretic, and sudorific; and are said
to act without irritation, so as to be  safely  ventured
upon in acute disorders.   Decoctions of them have
been used in  rheumatic,  gouty, venereal, and other
disorders ; and are preferred by some  to those of sar-
saparilla.  Two ounces of  the roots  are to be boiled in
three pints of water, to a quart; to this, two drachms
of sulphate of potassa have been usually added. Of
this decoction, a  pint should be taken  every  day in
scorbutic and rheumatic cases, and when intended as
a diuretic, in a shorter period.
  ARCTIZITE.    The foliated  species of scapolite.
See Scapolite.
  ARCTU'RA.  (From arcto, to straiten.)  An in-
flammation of the liuger, or  toe, from a curvature of the
nail.—Linneus.
  ARCUA'LIA.  (From  arcus, a  bow.)  Arcualis.
The sutura coronalis is so named,  from its  bow-like
shape; and, for the-sarne reason, the bones of the sin-
ciput are called arcualia ossa.—Bartholin.
  ARCUA'TIO.  (From arcus, a bow.)  A gibbosity
of the fore-parts, with a curvation of the sternum, of"
the tibia, or  dorsal vertebra.—Avicenna.
  A'rculje.   (A dim. of area, a chest.)   The orbits
or sockets of the eyes.
  A'RDAS.   (From  apivw, to defile.)  Filth, excre-
ment, or refuse.—Hippocrates.
  ARDENT.  (Ardcns ; from ardeo, to burn.)  Burn-
ing hot.  Applied to fevers, alkohol, Sec.
  ARDOR.   (Ardor, oris.  m.; from ardeo, to burn.)
A burning beat.
  Ardor febrilis.  Feverish heat.
  Ardor urinje.   Scalding of the  urine, or a sense
of heat in the urethra.
  Ardor ventriouli.  Heartburn.
  A'REA.   1. An empty space.
  2. That kind of baldness where the crown of the
head is left naked, like the  tonsure of a monk.
  ARE'CA.  The name of a genus of plants  of the
class Palma.
  Areca indica.   An inferior kind of nutmeg.
  Are'oon.  (From apnyto, to help; so called from us
valuable qualities.)  A resolvent ointment.
  Arema'ros. Cinnabar.
  ARE'NA.   Sand, or gravel.
  Arena'mkl. (From arena, sand; so called because
it was said lo be procured from sandy places.)  Arena-
men. Bole-armenic.
                                         85 
ARG                                            ARI
  ARENA"TIO.  (From arena, sand.)  Saburation,
or the sprinkling of hot 6and upon the bodies of pa-
tients.—Baccius de Thermis.
  [Arendalite.  The same  as Arendate; both of
which are synonymous with Epidote.   A.]
  Arendate.  See Epidote.
  Akk'ntes.  (From areo, to dry up.)  A sort of an-
cient cupping-glasses, used without scarifying.
  ARE OLA.  (A diminutive of area,  a void space.)
A small red or brown circle, which surrounds the nip-
ples of females.  During and after pregnancy, it be-
comes considerably larger.
  Areometer.  See Hydrometer.
  Aretjenoi'dks.  See Arytanoides.
  ARET.<E'US, of Cappadocia;  a physician, who
practised at  Rome, but at what period is uncertain,
though the most probable opinion places him between
the reigns of Vespasian and Adrian. Eight books of
his remain " On  the  Causes, Signs, and Method of
treating acute  and chronic  Diseases," written  in  the
Greek language, and admired for their pure style, and
luminous  descriptions, as well as the judicious prac-
tice generally recommended.  He  was partial  to the
use of hellebore and other drastic medicines; and ap-
pears lo have been among the first  to  recommend
cantharides for blistering the skin.
  A'RETE.   (Apern, virtue.)  Hippocrates uses this
word to mean  corporeal or mental vigour.
  Are'us.  A pessary, invented by ^Egineta.
  A'RGAL.   Argol.  Crude  tartar, in the state in
which it is taken  from  the  inside  of wine-vessels, is
known in the shops by this name.
  Argasy'llis.   (From apyos, a serpent; which it is
said to resemble.)  The plant which was supposed to
produce  gum-ammoniac.   See  Heracleum gummi-
ferum.
  A'roema.   (From apyos, white.)  Argemon.  A
small white ulcer of the globe of the eye.—Erotianus.
Galen, ire.
  Argentate of ammonia.  Fulminating silver.
  [This mineral has a laminated or rather slaty struc-
ture.  Its laminis or Uiyers, often curved or undulated,
are seldom perfectly parallel; but  their surface has
almost always a pearly lustre, somewhat shining.
According to Bournon, these lamina; are composed of
minute rhombs, whose summits are so deeply trun-
cated perpendicularly to the axis, that only a very thin
portion of the rhomb remains.  Indeed this mineral
sometimes presents the primitive rhomb. It is trans-
lucent, at  least at the edges; and. its colour is white,
snaueti with gray, green, or  red.  It is  easily broken;
and its spec. grav. is 2.64.
  It is nearly a pure carbonate of lime,  often contain-
ing a little  oxide of iron or manganese.   Hence at
a red  heat  it often  becomes  reddish brown.—CI.
Min.  A.]
  Argenti nttras.  Argentum nitratum ; Causti-
eum  lunare.   Nitrate of  silver.  Take of silver an
ounce; nitric acid, a fluid ounce ; distilled water, two
fluid ounces.  Mix the nitric acid and water, and dis-
solve the silver therein on a sand bath ; then increase
the heat gradually that the nitrate of  silver may be
dried.  Melt the salt in a crucible over a slow fire
until the  water being evaporated, it shall cease to
boil; then pour it quickly into moulds  of convenient
shape.  Its virtues are corrosive and astringent   In-
ternally it is exhibited in very small quantities, in epi-
lepsy, chorea,  and other nervous affections, and exter-
nally it is employed to destroy fungous excrescences,
callous ulcers, fistulas, Sec  In the latter disease, it is
used as an injection; from two grains to three being
dissolved in  an ounce of distilled water.
  ARGE'NTUM.   (Argentum, i. in.; from  apyof,
white, because it is of a white colour.)  Silver.  See
Silver.
  Argentum  fusum.  Crude mercury.
  Argentum  mobile.  Crude mercury.
  Argentum  nitratum.  See Argenti nitras.
  Argentum  vivum.  See Mercury.
  A'rges.  (From apyoj, white.)   A serpent, with a
whitish skin, deemed by  Hippocrates  exceedingly
venomous.
  ARGI'LLA. (Argilla, a. f.; from  apyos, white.)
Argil.  White clay.  See Alumina.
  Argilla vitriolata.  Alum.
  ARGILLACEOUS.  Of  or belonging to argilla, or
 ■luminous earth.  See Alumina,
      80
   Argillaceous earth.  See Alumina.
   Argillaceous schistus.  See Clay-slate.
   ARGILLITE.   See Clay-slate.
   [ARGILOLITE.  This mineral often strongly  re-
 sembles certain varieties of compact limestone, or cal-
 careous marl.  Its texture  is sometimes porous, and
 sometimes compact, or even slaty.  Its fracture is dull
 and earthy,  sometimes splintery or  conchoidal.  In
 hardness, also, it differs little from  indurated marl, or
 the softer varieties of compact limestone, and is some
 times nearly friable.  Its particles are  sufficiently hard
 to scratch iron, although its masses may be cut by a
 knife.
   It adheres  but slightly to the tongue, and yields  an
 argillaceous odour  when moistened.  In water it gra-
 dually crumbles, but never forms a ductile paste.  Il
 is opaque; and its colour is gray,  often tinged  with
 yellow or blue; also  rose, or pale  red, brown,  or
 brownish red, and  sometimes greenish.  It very often
 presents white, brown, or greenish spots, nearly round,
 and is sometimes striped.
   It hardens  by exposure to heat, but is generally in
 fusible by the blow-pipe: some varieties melt at their
 surface.   It does not effervesce with acids, by which it
 is distinguished from those minerals which it most re-
 sembles.
   Claystone seems  to approach very near to jasper, or
 petrosilex, in  a state of decomposition, and sometimes
 to tripoli.—CI. Min.  A.]
   Argyri'tis.  (From apyvpos, silver.)  Litharge, or
 spume of silver.   A kind of earth was formerly  so
 named, which is taken from silver mines, and is be-
 spangled with many particles of silver.
   ARGYRO'COME.    (From apyvpos, silver,  and
 kouti, hair.)  A species of gnaphahum or  cudweed
 was so named from its white silvery floscules.
   Argyroli'banos.  The white  olibanum.
   Argyro'phora.   An antidote, in the composition
 of which there is silver.
   ARGYROTROPHE'MA.  (From apyos, white, and
 rpocbnua, food.)  A white  cooling food, made with
 milk.  Milk diet.—Galen.
   Arheumati'stos.  (From  a, neg.  and ficvpan^m
 to be afflicted with  rheums.)  Not being afflicted with
 gouty rheums.
   ARICY'MON.   (From api and kvo>, to be quickly
 impregnated.)  A woman who conceives quickly an*,
 often.
   ARILLUS.  (From  arire, to be dry or parched.)
 The seed-coat or tunic of the permanent husk  that
 invests a seed, which drying falls off spontaneously.
 It is a peculiar membrane, thick, and loosely  sur-
 rounds the seed.
   The varieties of  arilli are,
   1. The succulent, pulpy; like a berry in Evonymus
 europeus and Latia.
  2. Cartilaginous ; in Coffea Arabica.
   3. Dimidiate, half round; as in Taxus baccata.
  4. Lacerate, cut-like;  as in the mace of the Myris-
 tica moschata.
  5. Reticulate, net-like, surrounding the seed like a
 net; as in the Orchis tribe.
  6. Tricuspid; as in Malva coromandiliana.
  7. Hirsute, hairy; as in Geranium  incanum.
  8. Villous ; in Geranium dissectum.
   ARISTA.   (From  areo, to dry.)   The  awn: a
 sharp beard, or point, or bristle-like filament, which
 proceeds from the husk or glume  of grasses.  Its dis-
 tinctions are into,
   1. Naked, without villi; as in Stipa arguens and
juncea.
   2. Plumose, having white villi; as in Stipa pennata.
   3. Straight, as in Bromus secalinus, and mollis.
   4. Geniculate, having a knee-like  bend;  as with
 Avena sativa.
   5. Recurved, bent back; as in Holcus lanatus, and
 Agrostis canina.
   6. Tortile,  twisted  like a  rope; as in  Agrostis
 rubra, and Aira montana.
   7. Terminal, fixed to the apex of the husk: it  is  so
 in Agrostis miliacea.
   8. Dorsal,  fixed  to the back or outward part of the
 husk;  as in Agrostis canina; Bromus; Alopecuris.
   9. Uncinate, honked; as in Panicum hirtellum.
   ARISTALTH^E'A. (From apij-oj, best, and uXfloia,
 the althaea.)  The  common marsh-mallow.   See J&
 thaa officinalis. 
ARK                                           ARN
  ABISTATUS.  (From arista, the awn.)   Awned.
Applied to leaves, leaf-stalks, Sec when terminated
by a long rigid spine, which in a leaf does not appear
as a contraction.  In Galium aristatum, the leaf-slalk
is awned.
  ARISTOLO'CHIA.    (Aristolochia, a.  f.;  from
apioTos,  good, and Xoxta ot Xoxcia, parturition; so
called because it was supposed to be of sovereign use
in disorders incident to child-birth.)  1. The name of
a genus of plants in  the  Linnaian system.  Class,
Gynandria;  Order, Hexandria.
  2. The pharmaeopoBial  name of the long-rooted
birthworl  See Aristolochia longa.
  Aristolochia  anguicida.   Snake-killing birth-
wort.   Aristolochia—foliis  cordatis,  acuminatis ;
caule volubili, fructieoso ;  pedunculis solitariis; sti-
pulis cordatis, of Linnreus. The juice of the root of
this plant has the property  of so stupifying serpents,
that they may be  handled with impunity.  One or
two drops are sufficient;  and if more be dropped into
the mouth, they become convulsed.  So ungrateful  is
the smell of  the root to  those reptiles, that it is said
they immediately turn from  it.  The juice is also
esteemed as  a preventive  against the effects usually
produced by the  bite of venomous serpents.
  AaisTOLocniA clematitis.   Aristolochia tenuis.
The systematic name of  the Aristolochia vulgaris of
some pharmacopoeias.  An extract ip  ordered by the
Wirtemberg Pharmacopoeia, and the plant is retained
in that of  Edinburgh.  It  is  esteemed as possessing
antipodagric  virtues.
  Aristolochia fabacea.  See Fumaria bulbosa.
  Aristolochia longa.  The systematic name for
the aristolochia of our pharmacopoeias.  Aristolochia
—foliis  cordatis,  petiolatis,  integerrimis,  obtusius-
culis ; caule  infirmo, floribus solitariis.   The root of
this plant  only  is in use;  it possesses  a somewhat
aromatic smell, and a warm bitterish taste, accompa-
nied with a slight degree of pungency.   The virtues
ascribed to this  root by the ancients  were very con-
siderable ; and it was frequently employed in various
diseases, but particularly in promoting the discharge
of the lochia; hence its name.  It is now very rarely
used, except  hi gouty affections, as  an aromatic sti-
mulant
  Aristolochia rotunda. The root of this species
of  birthwort, Aristolochia—foliis cordatis, subsessi-
libus, obtusis; caule infirmo; floribus solitariis, of
Linnaeus;  is used indiscriminately  with that of the
aristolochia longa. See  Aristolochia longa.
  Aristolochia  serpentaria.   The   systematic
name for the Serpentaria virginiana of the pharma-
copoeias.  Aristolochia;  Colubrina  virginiana; Vi-
perina; Viperina virginiana;  Pestilochia;  Con-
trayerva virginiana.  Virginian snake-root  The
plant which  affords this root is the  Aristolochia—
foliis  cordato oblongis  planis;  caulibus infirmis
Aexuosis teretibus ; floribus solitariis.  Caulus geni-
culata valde nodosa. Flores ad radicem of Linnmus.
Snake-root has  an aromatic  smell, approaching to
that of valerian, but more agreeable; and a warm,
bitterish, pungent taste.  It was first recommended
as a medicine of extraordinary power, in counteract-
ing the poisonous effects ofthe bites  of serpents; this,
however, is now wholly disregarded: but as it pos-
sesses tonic and antiseptic  virtues,  and is  generally
admitted as a powerful stimulant and diaphoretic, it
is employed,  in the present  day, in some fevers where
these effects are required.  A tinctura is directed both
by the London end Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias.
  Aristolochia tenuis. See Aristolochia clematitis.
  Aristolochia trilobata.  Three-lobed birthwort
The root, and every part  of this plant,  Aristolochia—
foliis trilobis, caule volubili, floribus maximis of Lin-
naeus, is diuretic, and is employed in America against
the bite of serpents.
  Aristolochia vulgaris.   See  Aristolochia  cle-
matitis.
  Aristophanei'on.   (From  Aristophanes,  its in-
ventor.)  The name of an  ancient  emollient plaster,
composed of wax, or pitch.—Gorraus.
  [ARKTIZIT.   This mineral  is  otherwise  called
Wcrneritc, after  the celebrated German mineralogist
Werner.
  The Wernerile, a rare mineral, occurs in eight-sided
prisms, terminated by four-sided summits, whose fnces
form, with  the alternate  lateral planes on which they
stand, an angle of about 121°. Oritmaybecalledafour
sided prism, truncated on its lateral edges.  The primi-
tive form appears to be a quadrangular prism, with
square bases.  It also occurs in irregular grains.
  The Wernerite strikes fire with steel, but is scratched
by feldspar.  Its fracture is both imperfectly foliated
and uneven, with a moderate lustre, a little pearly or
resinous.  Its specific gravity is 3.60.
  It is usually more or less translucent;  and its colour
is greenish gray, or olive green, and sometimes white.
The surface of the crystals sometimes has the  lustre
and aspect of an enamel.
  Before the blow-pipe, it froths and melts  into an
opaque, white enamel.  A mean of two analyses, by
John, gives silex 45.5, alumine 33.5, lime 13.SEJ, oxide
of iron 5.75, oxide of manganese 1.47=il9.44.
  Its mode of fusion by the blow-pipe, and its imper
fectly foliated structure, may serve  to  distinguish it
from most minerals which it resembles.
  This mineral is sometimes in tabular masses, but
most commonly in crystals which are easily recog-
nised.  The general  form of these  crystals,  (certain
small faces being  neglected,) is a very oblique rhomb,
or rather four-sided prism, so flattened  that some of
its edges become  thin and sharp, like the edge of an
axe.  The  primitive  form is a  four-sided  prism, the
bases of which are  parallelograms, with  angles of
lOfo 30', and 78° 30'.  The integrant  particles are
oblique, triangular prisms.  M. Uaiiy has described
live secondary forms.—CI. Min.  A.]
  ARM A.  (Arma, orum. pi. n. Arms.)  In  botany,
applied to a species of armature or offensive weapons.
They are one of the seven kinds offulcra, or props of
plants enumerated by  Linnaeus  in his  Delineatio
planta.  They are pungent points in some part of a
plant.  In the present day, arma is used as a generic
term embracing the  aculeus,  furca, spina, and sti-
mulus.
  ARMATU'RA.  1. See Arma.
  2. The amnios  or  internal  membrane which sur-
rounds the foetus.
  ARMATURE.  See Arma.
  A'rme.  (From apo>, to adapt)  1. A junction of
the lips of wounds.
  2. The joining of the sutures of the head.
  [ARMINIAN  STONE.   Cluartzy or  calcareous
substances, penetrated by the azure carbonate of cop-
per, have been called by this name, the copper giving
a most beautiful blue colour.   A.]
  Armi'lla.  (Diminutive of armus, the arm.)  The
round ligament v/liich confines the tendons of the
carpus.
  ARMORA'CIA.   (From Armorica, the  country
whence it was brought.)  See Cochlearia Armoracia.
  ARMSTRONG, John, a Scotch physician, born  in
1709, who, after graduating at  Edinburgh, settled  in
London, but  met  with little  success, having distin-
guished himself less  in his profession than as a poet,
particularly by his "Essay on the Art of Preserving
Health;" in blank verse.  He afterward attended the
army in Germany, which brought  him  more into
notice as a physician.  He attained the age of seventy,
and died in pretty good circumstances.  His profes-
sional publications are not of much note; the princi-
pal one is entitled " Medical Essays."  He is supposed,
however, to have contributed materially to a useful
Treatise on the Diseases of Children, published by his
brother  George, who, after practising many years as
an apothecary, obtained a diploma in medicine.
  A'RNICA.   (Arnica, a. f. ApvtKn;  from  aps, a
lamb;  because of the likeness of  the leaf ot this
plant to the  coat of the  lamb.)   Arnica.  1. The
name of a genus  of plants in the Linncean  system
Class, Syngcncsia; Order, Polygamia superflua.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the Mountain arnica
See Arnica montana.
  Arnica Montana.   The systematic name  for the
arnica of the pharmacopoeias.  Arnica- Joins oralis
intcgris;  caulinis geminis  oppositis,  of  Lmnajus.
Doronicum Germanicum.  Acyrus.   The flowers of
this  plant are very generally employed  on the Conti-
nent. Of the advantages  derived from their use, in
paralytic and other affections, depending upon a want
of nervous energy, theri- are several proofs; and their
extraordinary virtues,  as a febrifuge and antiseptic,
have be»m  highly  extolled by Dr. Collin, of Vienna.
Much caution is necessary in regulating the dose, as 
ARS                                               ARS
It is a medicine very apt to produce vomiting, and
much uneasiness of the stomach.  See Arnica.
  Arnica suedensis.  See Inula dysenterica.
  Arno'tto.  A  Spanish name for a  shrub.  See
Bixa orleana.
  ARO'MA.   (Aroma,  matis,  neut. ; from apt, in-
tensely, and ogui, to smell.)   Spiritis rector.  The
odorous principle of plants,  and  other substances,
which have their characteristic smell.  This is called
by the moderns, aroma.  Water charged  with aroma,
is called the distilled water of the substance made use
of: thus  lavender and peppermint waters are water
impregnated with the aroina of the lavender and
peppermint.
  Aromata.   (Apuuara,  sweet spices, herbs,  &c.)
Aromatics.
  AROMA'TIC.    (Aromalicus;  from   apwua, an
odour.)   A term  applied to a  grateful  spicy scent,
and an agreeable pungent taste, as cinnamon bark,
cardamoms, &c.
  Aromatic vinegar.  See Acetum aromaticum.
  Aromatice plants.  Odoriferous or strong and
agreeable smelling plants.  The name of a  class of
plants in some natural arrangements.
  Aroma'ticus cortex.  A name for canella alba.
Cortex wintcr-mus.
  AROMATOPO'LA.  (From apwua, an odour, and
iruXefa), to sell.)  A  druggist; a vender of drugs and
spicerics.
  ARUUEBUSA'DE.   (A  French word,  implying
good for a gun-shut wound.)  Aqua  sclopetaria;
Aqua vulneraria;  Aqua catapultarum.   The name
of a spirituous water, distilled  from  a farrago of aro-
matic plants.
  ARRA'CK.  A spirituous liquor distilled from rice,
and drunk, in the rice countries, as brandy  is in this
island.  Its effects  on the  animal  economy are  the
same.
  ARRAGONITE.   A mineral of a greenish and
pearly gray colour, found at Arragon in Spain, Eng-
land, and Scotland.
  [Although this  mineral is composed chiefly of lime
and carbonic acid, yet there is reason to believe, that
other ingredients are essential to its true  composition.
It differs from pure carbonate of lime  in  hardness,
specific gravity, and crystalline structure.
  In nitric acid it dissolves with effervescence.  The
analysis  of no mineral has ever so much  exercised
the talents, exhausted the resources, and  disappointed
the expectations of the most distinguished chemists of
Europe, as that of arragonite.   Vauquelin and Four-
croy obtained  lime  58.5, carbonic acid 41.5; and the
analysis of Biot  and Thenard, conducted with much
ingenuity, scarcely differs from  this, except  in giving
a little water.  With these, both Chevenix  and  Kla-
proth agree, in finding the arragonite to  contain lime
and carbonic acid in nearly the same proportions as in
the common carbonate of lime. Kirwan in his mine-
ralogy, published in 1794, conjectured that the arra-
gonite might  contain strontian; and very recently
Professor Stromeyer of Gottingen has discovered in
this mineral between three and four per cent, of the
carbonate of strontian.  This discovery will very pro-
bably lead to  a  solution of the preceding  difficulty;
but it is important that the analysis should be repeated
by different chemists.—CI. Min.  A.]
   A'rraphus. (From a, priv. and patpn, a  suture.)
Without suture.  It is applied to the cranium when
naturally without sutures.
   Arrangement of Minerals.  See Minerals, arrange-
ment of.
   ARRHjE' A.  (From a, neg.  and feu, to flow.)  The
suppression of any  natural flux, as the menses, &x.
   ARRHIZUS.   (From a, priv. and pi$a,  a  root:
without root) Applied to paraatical plants, which
have no roots, but  adhere and imbibe their nourish-
ment by ainastomosing of the vessels; as Viscum al-
bum, and Loranthus europeus.
   ARROWHEAD.   The  Sagittaria, sagittifolia of
Linnsus.  The roots of this plant are said to be escu-
lent, but it must be  in times of very great scarcity.
   Arrow-root. See Maranta.
   Arrow-shaped.  See Leaf.
   ARSE'NIATE.   (Arsenias, atis.m.;  from arseni-
 eum, arsenic.)  A  salt  formed by  a con.lmiation  of
 arsenic acid with salifiable bases; as arseniate of am-
 monia, which is produced by the union of ammonia
 Witil a*|emc »°id.  The only one used in medicine is
the superarseniatc of potassa, which is in solution in
the liquor arsenicalis.  See Arsenicalis liquor.
  A'RSENIC.   (Arsenicum, t. n.;  from the Arabic
term Arsanek, or from aporyv,  for appvv, mamiulus;
from its strong and  deadly powers.)  The name of a
metal scattered, in great abundance, over the minera.
kingdom.  It is found in black, heavy masses of little
brilliancy, called native arsenic or testaceous arsenic.
This exists in different parts of Germany.   Mineral-
ized  by sulphur, it  forms sulphurized arsenic.  This
mineral is met with in Italy, about Mount Vesuvius.
There are two varieties of this ore, which differ from
each other in colour, occasioned by the different pro-
portions of their component  parts.   The one is called
yellow  sulphurized arsenic, or orpiment; the other, red
sulphurized arsenic, or realgar, or ruby arsenic; both
are met with in  Hungary and different parts of Ger
many.   The colour of the first ore is a lemon-yellow,
inclining sometimes to a green;  the colourof the latter
is a ruby-red; it is more transparent than the former,
and found in compact and solid masses, sometimes
crystallized in bright needles. Arsenic united to oxy-
gen, constitutes the ore called native oxyde of arsenic.
This ore is scarce;  it is generally found of an earthy
appearance, or as an efflorescence, coating native, or
metallic arsenic;  its colour is  a whitish gray; it  is
rarely met with crystallized.  Arsenic exists  likewise
alloyed with  cobalt, antimony, tin, copper, lead, and
various other metals.
  .Mithod of obtaining Arsenic.  In order to obtain
metallic arsenic, mix two parts of the white oxyde of
arsenic of commerce, with one of black flux (obtained
by detonating one part of nitrate of potassa with two
of supertartrate of potassa),  and put the mixture into
a crucible, or melting pot.  Invert over this  anothei
crucible, lute  the  two together with a little clay and
sand, and apply gradually a red heat to the lower one.
The  oxyde of arsenic will be reduced, and be found
lining the upper crucible in small crystals of  a metal-
lic brilliancy.
  The charcoal of the black flux takes in this process
the oxygen from the white oxyde, and forms carbonic
acid  gas; which flies off' during the process,  and the
oxyde becomes reduced to the metallic state.  This re-
duction of the oxyde is greatly facilitated by the alkali
of the flux.
  Remark.—In order to obtain arsenic in a  state  of
absolute purity, the  metal thus obtained must be re-
duced to a powder, dissolved by heat in nitro-muriatic
acid, and then precipitated  by immersing into the so-
lution a plate of zinc.  The arsenic is thus precipitated
in  a fine powder, and may be reduced to a  mass, by
exposing it in a covered crucible to a moderate heat.
  " It is among the  most combustible of the metals,
burns with a blue flame, and garlic smell, and sublimes
in the state of arsenious acid.
  Concentrated sulphuric acid does not attack arsenic
when cold; but if it be boiled  upon this metal, sul-
phurous acid gas is emitted, a small quantity of sul-
phur sublimes, and the arsenic is reduced to an oxyde.
  Nitrous acid readily attacks arsenic, and converts it
into arsenious acid, or, if much be employed, into ar-
senic acid.
  Boiling muriatic acid dissolves arsenic, but  affects it
very little when cold.  This solution affords precipi-
tates upon the addition of alkalies.  The addition of
a little nitric acid expedites the solution;  aud this so-
lution, first heated and condensed in a close  vessel, is
wholly sublimed into a thick liquid, formerly termed
butter of arsenic.  Thrown in  powder into chlorine
gas, it  burns  with a bright white flame, and is con-
verted into a chloride.
   None of the earths or alkalies act upon it, unless it
be boiled a long while in fine powder, in  a large pro-
portion of alkaline solution.
   Nitrates detonate with arsenic, convert it into  ar-
senic acid, and this, combining with the base of the
nitrate, forms an arseniate, that remains at the bottom
of the vessel.
   Muriates have no action upon it: but if three parts
of chlorate of potassa be mixed with one part of ar-
senic in fine powder, which  must be done with great
precaution, and a very light hand, a very small quan-
tity  of this  mixture placed  on an anvil,  and  struck
with a hammer, will explode with  flame and a con-
siderable report;  if touched with tire, it will burn with
considerable rapidity; and if thrown into concentrated
sulphuric acid, at the instant, 0f contact a flame rises 
ARS
ARS
 into the air like a flash of lightning, which is so bright
 as to dazzle the eye.
   Aiseaic  readily combines with sulphur  by fusion
 and sublimation, and forms a yellow compound called
 orpiment, or a red called realgar.   The nature of these,
 and their difference, are  not accurately known; but
 Fourcroy considers the  first as a combination of sul-
 phur with the oxyde, and the second as a combination
 of sulphur with the metal itself, as he found the red
 sulphuret converted into the yellow by the  action of
 acids.
   Arsenic  is soluble in fat oils in a boiling heat; the
 solution is  black, and has the consistence of an oint-
 ment  when cold.   Most metals unite with arsenic;
 which exists in the metallic state in such  alloys as
 possess the metallic brilliancy.
   Iodine  and arsenic unite, forming an iodide,  of a
 dark,  purple-red colour, possessing the properties of
 an acid.  It is soluble in water, and its solution forms
 a soluble compound with potassa.
   Arsenic combines w ith hydrogen into a very noxious
 compound, called arsenuretted hydrogen gas.  To pre-
 pare it, fuse in a covered crucible 3 parts of granu
 lated tin, and 1  of metallic arsenic in powder; and
 submit this alloy, broken  in pieces, to  the  action of
 muriatic  acid in-a glass retort.   On applying a mode-
 rate heat, the arsenuretted hydrogen comes over, and
 may be received in a mercurial or water pneumatic
 trough.  Protomuriate of tin remains in the retort.
   A prime equivalent of hydrogen is to one of arsenic
 as 1 to 7(i;  and 2 consequently as 1 to 38.  Gehlen fell
 a victim  to his researches on this gas;  and therefore
 the new experiments requisite to elucidate its consti-
 tution  must be conducted with circumspection.   It
 extinguishes flame,  and instantly destroys animal life.
 Water has no effect upon it.  From the experiments
 of Sir H. Davy, and Gay Lussac and  Thenard, there
 appears to be a solid compound of hydrogen and ar-
 senic, or a  hydruret.  It is formed by  acting with the
 negative pole of a voltaic  battery on arsenic plunged
 in water.  It is reddish brown, without  lustre, taste,
 and smell.  It is not decomposed at a heat approaching
 to cherry-red; but at this  temperature it absorbs oxy-
 gen ; whilewater and arsenious acid are formed, with
 the evoluton of heat and light.  The proportion of the
 two constituents is not known.
   Arsenic is used in a variety of arts.  It enters into
 metallic combinations, wherein a white colour is re-
 quired.  Glass manufacturers use it; but its effect in
 the composition of glass does not seem to be clearly
 explained.   Orpiment  and realgar are used as pig-
 ments."
   Arsenic and its various preparations are  the most
 active  of all poisons.  That which is mostly taken, is
 the white oxyde, or arsenious acid. See Arsenious acid.
   [Arsenical pyrites, or arsenical iron, is found in the
 Highlands of New-York, on the west side of the Hud-
 son. In  the  town  of Warwick, in Orange county,
 of this state, there is a  huge vein of  it in  a  moun-
 tain range, sufficient, as is said by a traveller, to poison
 the whole world.  A.]
   ARSENIC ACID.   Acidum arsenicum; Acidum
 arsenicale.   " We  are  indebted  to  the illustrious
 Scheele for the discovery of this acid, though Macquer
 had before noticed  its combinations.  It may  be  ob-
 tained by various methods. If six parts of nitric acid
 be poured on one of the concrete arsenious acids, or
 while arsenic of the shops, in the pneumato-chemical
 apparatus,  and heat be applied, nitrous gas will be
 evolved, and a white concrete substance, differing in
 its properties from the arsenious  acid, will remain  in
 the  retort  This is the arsenic acid.  It may equally
 be procured by means of aqueous chlorine, or by.heat-
 ing  concentrated nitric acid with twice its weight of
 the  solution of the  arsenious acid in muriatic acid.
 The concrete acid should be exposed to a dull red heat
 for a few minutes.   In either case an acid is obtained,
 that does not crystallize, but attracts the moisture of
 tlie air, has a sharp, caustic taste, reddens blue vege-
 table colours, is fixed in the fire, and  of the specific
 gravity of 3 391.
  If the arsenic acid be exposed to a red heat in a glass
 retort, it melts and becomes transparent, but assumes
 a milky hue on cooling.  If the heat be  increased, so I
 tnat the retort begins  to  melt,  the acid boils, and
 sublimes into the  neck of the retort.   If a covered
crucible be  used instead of the glass retort, and a vio-
 lent heat applied, the acid  boils strongly, and  in a
 quarter of an hour  begins to emit fumes.  These, on
 being received in a glass bell, are found to be arsenious
 acid;  and  a small quantity of  a transparent glass,
 difficult to fuse, will be found lining the  sides of the
 crucible.  This is arseniate of alumina.
   Combustible substances decompose this acid.   If
 two parts of arsenic acid be mixed with about one or
 charcoal, the mixture introduced into a  glass retort,
 coated, and  a  matrass adapted to it; and the retort
 then gradually heated in a reverberatory  furnace, till
 the bottom is red; the mass will be inflamed violently,
 and the acid  reduced, and  rise to the neck of the
 retort in the metallic state, mixed with a  little oxyde
 and charcoal powder.  A few drops of water, devoid
 of acidity, will be found in the receiver.
   With  sulphur the phenomena  are different  If a
 mixture of six  parts of arsenic acid, and one of pow
 dered  sulphur, be digested  together, no change  will
 take place: but on evaporating to drynes?, and distil-
 ling in a glass  retort, fitted with a receiver, a violent
 combination will ensue, as soon as the mixture is suf-
 ficiently heated to melt the sulphur.  The  whole mass
 rises almost at once, forming a red sublimate, and sul-
 phurous acid passes over into the receiver.
   If pure arsenic acid be diluted with a small quan-
 tity of water, and hydrogen gas, as it is  evolved by
 the action of sulphuric acid  on iron, be received  into
 this transparent solution, the liquor grows turbid,  and
 a blackish  precipitate is formed, which, being well
 washed with distilled water, exhibits all  the pheno-
 mena  of arsenic.    Sometimes, too,  a blackish-gray
 oxyde of arsenic is found in this process.
   If sulphuretted hydrogen gas be employed  instead
 of simple hydrogen  gas, water and a sulphuret of ar-
 senic are obtained.
   With phosphorus, phosphoric acid is obtained, and a
 phosphuret of arsenic, which sublimes.
   The arsenic acid is much more soluble than the ar-
 senious. According to Lagrange, two parts of water
 are sufficient for this purpose. It cannot be crystal-
 lized  by any means; but, on evaporation,  assumes a
 thick honey-like consistence.
   No  acid has any  action upon  it: if some.of them
 dissolve it by means of the water that renders them
 fluid, they do not produce any alteration  in it.  The
 boracic and phosphoric are vitrifiab'e with it by means
 of heat, but without any material alteration in their
 natures.  If phosphorus  acid be  heated  upon it for
 some  time,  it saturates itself  with  oxygen,  and be-
 comes phosphoric acid.
   The arsenic acid combines with the earthy and alka-
 line bases, and forms salts very different  from those
 furnished by the arsenious acid.
   All these arsenates are decomposable by charcoal,
 which separates arsenic from them by means of heat.
   All its salts, with the exception of those of potassa,
 soda, and ammonia, are insoluble in water; but excepv
 arseniate of bismuth, and one or two more, very solu-
 ble in  an excess of arsenic acid.  Hence, after  barytes
 or oxyde of lead has been precipitated by this acid,
 its farther addition re-dissolves the precipitate. This
 is a useful criterion of the acid, joined to its reduction
 to the  metallic  state by charcoal, and the other cha-
 racters already detailed.  Sulphuric acid decomposes
 the arseniates at a low temperature, but the sulphates
 are decomposed by arsenic acid at a red heat, owing
 to the  greater fixity of the latter.   Phosphoric, nitric,
 muriatic,  and fluoric acids,  dissolve, and  probably
 convert into suhsalts all t!ie arseniates.  The whole of
 them,  as well as arsenic acid  itself when decomposed
 at a red heat by charcoal, yield the characteristic gar-
 lic smell of  the  metallic vapour.  Nitrate of silver
 gives  a pulverulent  brick-coloured piecipitaip, with
 arsenic acid.   The  acid itself does not distuib  the
 transparency of a solution of sulphate of copper;  but
 a neutral arseniate  gives with  it  a bluish  green pre-
 cipitate; with  sulphate of cobalt, a  dirty red; and
 with sulphate of nickel, an  apple-t'reen precipitate.
 These  precipitates redissolve, on adding a small quan-
 tity of the acid which previously held them in solution.
 Orfila  says,  that arsenic  acid  gives, with acetate of
copper, a bluish-white precipitate, but that  it exercises
no action either on the muriate or acetate of cobalt;
but with the ainnionio-muriate, it gives a rose-coloured
precipitate.   Arsenic acid ought to be accounted a
more violent poison than eve.'i the arsenious.
                                         83 
ARS
ARS
    The arseniate of barytes is insoluble, uncrystalliza-
  ble, soluble in an excess of its acid, and decomposable
  by sulphuric acid, which precipitates a sulphate of
  barytes.
    The bin-arseniate of potassa is made  on the great
  scale in Saxony, by fusing together equal parts of nitre
  and arsenious  acid ; dissolving the melted mass, and
  crystallizing the salt.
    Of the arseniate of strontian nothing is known, but
  no doubt it resembles that of barytes.
    With  lime-water this acid forms a precipitate  of
  arseniate of  lime, soluble in an excess of its base, or in
  an excess of its acid,though insoluble alone.  The aci-
  dulous arseniate of lime affords on evaporation little
  crystals, decomposable by sulphuric acid.   The same
  salt may be formed by adding carbonate of lime to the
  solution of arsenic acid.  This acid does not decom-
  pose the nitrate or muriate of lime: but the saturated
  alkaline arseniates decompose them by double affinity,
  precipitating the insoluble calcareous arseniate.
    If arsenic  acid be saturated with magnesia, a thick
  substance is formed near the point of saturation.   This
  arseniate of  magnesia is soluble in an excess of acid;
  and on being evaporated takes the form of a jelly, with-
  out crystallizing.  Neither the  sulphate,  nitrate, nor
  muriate  of magnesia is decomposed  by arsenic acid,
  though they are by the saturated  alkaline arseniates.
    Arsenic acid, saturated with potassa, does not easily
  crystallize.   This arseniate, being evaporated to dry-
  ness, attracts the humidity of the air, and  turns the
  syrup of violets green, without altering the solution of
  litmus. It fuses into a white glass, and with a strong
  fire is converted into an acidule, part of the alkali be-
  ing abstracted by the silex and alumina of the crucible.
  If exposed  to a red heat with charcoal in close vessels,
  it swells up very much, and arsenic is sublimed.   It is
  decomposed by sulphuric acid ; but in  the humid way
  the decomposition  is not obvious, as  the arsenic acid
  remains in solution. On evaporation, however, this
  acid and sulphate of potassa are obtained.
   If arsenic acid be added to the preceding salt, till it
  ceases to have any effect on the syrup of violets, it will
  redden the solution of litmus ; and  in this state  it
  affords very regular and very transparent crystals, of
  the figure of  quadrangular prisms, terminated  by two
  tetraedral pyramids, the angles of which answer to
  those ofthe prisms.  These crystals are the arsenical
 neutral salt of Macquer.  As this salt differs from the
 preceding arseniate by its crystallizability, its redden-
 ing solution of litmus, its not decomposing the calcare-
 ous and magnesian salts like  it, and its capability of
 absorbing an additional portion of potassa, so as to
 become neutral, it ought to be  distinguished from it by
 the term of  acidulous arseniate of potassa.
   With soda in  sufficient quantity to saturate it,  arse-
 nic acid forms a salt crystallizable like the acidulous
 arseniate  of potassa.  To form the neutral arseniate,
 carbonate of soda should be added to the acid, till the
 mixture be  decidedly alkaline. This salt crystallizes
 from the concentrated solution.  It is much  more so-
 luble in hot than in cold water.  Pelletier says, that
 the crystals  are hexaedral prisms, terminated by planes
 perpendicular to their axis. This neutral arseniate of
 soda, however, while it differs completely from that of
 potassa in this respect, and in becoming deliquescent
 instead of crystallizable on the addition of a surplus
 portion of arsenic acid,  resembles the arseniate of po-
 tassa in its decomposition  by charcoal, by acids, and
 by the earths.
   Combined with ammonia, arsenic acid forms a salt
 affording rhomboidal crystals analogous to those ofthe
 nitrate of soda.
   The arseniate  of soda and  ammonia is formed by
 mixing the two separate arseniates; and the compound
 salt gives crystals with brilliant faces.  If we redis-
 Bolve the crystals, and then recrystallize, we should
 add a little ammonia, otherwise the salt will be acidu-
 lous from the escape of some ammonia.
   Arsenic acid saturated with alumina forms a thick
solution, which,  being evaporated  to  dryness,  yields
a salt insoluble  in  water, and decomposable by the
sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic  acids, as well as by all
the other earthy and alkaline bases.  The arsenic acid
readily dissolves the alumina ofthe crucibles in which
it is reduced to a state of fusion; and thus it attacks
silex also, on which  it has no effect in the humid way.
  By the assistance of a  strong are, as Fourcroy
   asserts, arsenic acid decomposes the  alkaline and
   earthy sulphates, even that of barytes;  the  sulphuric
   acid flying off in  vapour, and the arseniate remaining
   in the retort.   It acts in the same manner on  the ni-
   trate, from which it expels the pure acid.  It likewise
   decomposes the muriates at a  high  temperature, the
   muriatic acid being evolved in the form of gas, and the
   arsenic acid combining with their bases, which it sa-
   turates; while  the arsenious acid is too volatile to
   have this effect.   It acts in the same manner on the
   filiates, and still more easily on the carbonates, with
   which, by the assistance of heat, it excites a brisk
   effervescence.  Lagrange, however, denies that it acts
   on any of the neutral salts, except the sulphate of po-
   tassa and soda, the nitrate of potassa, and the muriates
   of soda and ammonia, and this by means of heat  It
   does  not  act  on the phosphates, but  precipitates the
   boracic acids from solutions of borates when heated.
     Arsenic acid does not act on gold or platina; neither
   does it on mercury or silver, without the aid of a strong
   heat; but  it oxydizes copper, iron, lead, tin, zinc, bis-
   muth, antimony, cobalt, nickel,  manganese, and ar-
   senic.
     This  acid is not used  in the arts, at least  directly,
   though  indirectly it forms a part of some compositions
   used in  dying.  It is likewise one of the mineralizing
   acids combined by nature with some  of the  metallic
   oxydes."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
     Arsenic, oxyde of.  See Arsenious acid.
     Arsenic, white.  See Arsenious acid.
     Arse'nical caustic.  A species of caustic said to
   possess  useful  properties, independent of those of de-
  stroying morbid parts to  which  it is applied.  It is
  composed of two parts of levigated antimony to one of
  white arsenic.  This is the caustic so extensively em-
  ployed under the name of arsenical, caustic, by the late
  Mr Justamond, in his treatment of cancers.
    [Arsenic is  a powerful, a  dangerous, and  yet a
  valuable caustic.  Small tumours, excrescences, warts,
  Sec, may be easily and safely removed by it.  Alone,
  it gives much pain; and in large quantities, and ap-
  plied to an extensive surface, is extremely dangerous.
  Its painful action may be modified and more safely
  applied  by mixing  one  part of white arsenic with
  one of  powdered opium, and two of lapis  calami-
  naris.  A.]
    Arsenica'lis liquor.   Arsenical solution.  Take
  of sublimed oxyde of arsenic, in very fine powder, sub-
  carbonate  of potassa  from tartar, of each 64 grains ■
  distilled water  a pint.  Boil them together  in a glass
  vessel, until the arsenic be entirely dissolved.  When
  the solution  is cold, add compound spirit of lavender
  four fluid  drachms.   Then add as much distilled
  water as may exactly fill a pint measure.   This pre-
  paration accords with the formula of  Dr. Fowler  of
  Stafford, who first introduced it in imitation of a cele-
  brated popular remedy for intermittents, sold under the
  name of the tasteless ague-drop.  The compound spirit
  of  lavender is. only intended  to give some colour and
  taste, without which it would be more liable  to mis-
  takes.  Where the dose is small, and the  effects  so
  powerful, the most minute attention to its proiwrtion
  and preparation becomes  necessary.   Each  junce
  contains four grains of the oxyde, and each drachm
  half a grain; but it will rarely be proper to go beyond
  one-sixteenth of a grain as a dose.
   Arsenical solution.  See Arsenicalis liquor.
   Arsenici oxydum praparatum.  See Arsenici oxy.
  dum subhmatum.
   Arsenicum album.  Arsenici oxydum sublimatvm •
  Arsenici oxydum praparatum.  Reduce white arsenic
  into powder, then put it into a crucible and expose it
  to the fire, so as to sublime it into another crucible in-
  verted over the former.  This is  intended  to render
  the arsenic more pure.
   Arsenicum album.  White arsenic.   See Arsenious
  acid.

    ASScE^xT■,AI„CJlY.STALLINU,,I•  See -Arsenious  acid.
   ARSE NIOUS ACID.  White arsenic.  Oxyde of
  arsenic.  Arsenicum crystallmum, risigallum, aquala,
  arfar, aquila, zarnick, artaneck.  Rat's bane.  The
  earliest chemists were embarrassed in the determina-
  tion of the nature of the poisonous white substance
  known m  commerce by the  name of  white arsenic
   lourcroy was the first who distinguished  by thja
  name the white arsenic of the shops, which Scheele
\ had proved to be a compound of the metal arsenic with 
ARS
ARS
 oxygen, and which the authors of the new chemical
 nomenclature had consequently termed oxyde of arse-
 nic.  As, however, it manifestly exhibits the proper-
 ties of an acid, it has a fair  claim  to the title;  for
 many oxydes and acids are similar in this, that both
 consist of a base united with oxygen, and the only dif-
 ference between them is, that the compound in which
 the acid properties are manifest is termed an acid, and
 that in which they are not is called an oxyde.
   This acid, which is one of the most virulent poisons
 known, frequently occurs in a native state, if not very
 abundantly; and it  is obtained in roasting  several
 ores, particularly those of cobalt. In the chimneys of
 the furnaces where this operation is conducted, it ge-
 nerally condenses in  thick semitransparent  masses;
 though sometimes it assumes the form of a powder, or
 of little needles, in which slate it was formerly called
 flowers of arsenic.
   The arsenious acid reddens  the most sensible blue
 vegetable colours, though it turns the syrup of violets
 green  On exposure to the air it becomes opaque, and
 covered with a slight efflorescence.   Thrown on incan-
 descent coals, it evaporates in white fumes, with a
 strong smell of garlic. In  close vessels  it is volati-
 lized ; and, if the heat be strong, vitrified.  The  re-
 sult of this vitrification is a transparent glass, capable
 of crystallizing in tetraddra, the angles of which are
 truncated.  It is easily altered by hydrogen and car-
 bon, which deprive it of its oxygen at a red heat, and
 reduce the metal, the  one forming water, the other car-
 bonic acid  ivith the oxygen taken from it; as it is by
 phosphorus, and by sulphur, which are in part con-
 verted  into acids by its oxygen, and  in part form an
 arsenical  phosphuret or sulphuret with the arsenic re-
 duced to the metallic state.  Hence Margraaf and Pel-
 letier, who particularly examined the phosphurets  of
 metals, assert they might be formed with arsenious
 acid.  Its specific gravity is 3.7.
   It is soluble in thirteen times its weight of  boiling
 water,  but  requires eighty times its weight of cold.
 The  solution crystallizes, and  the acid assumes the
 form of legular tetrafcdrons, according to Fourcroy;
 but, according to Lagrange, of ociae'drons, and  these
 frequently varying in figure by different laws of decre-
 ment.  It crystallizes much better by slow evaporation
 than by simple cooling.
   The  solution is very acrid,  reddens  blue  colours,
 unites with the earthy bases, and decomposes the alka-
 line sulphurets.   Arsenious acid is also soluble in oils,
 spirits,  and  alkohol; the last taking up from 1 to 2 per
 cent.  It is composed of 9.5 of metal =3 oxygen; and
 its prime  equivalent is therefore 12.5. Dr. Wollaston
 first observed, that when a mixture of it with quick-
 lime is heated in a glass tube, at a certain temperature,
 ignition suddenly pervades the mass, and metallic arse-
 nic sublimes.  As arseniate  of lime  is found at the
 bottom of the tube, we perceive that a portion of the
 arsenious acid is robbed of its oxygen, to complete the
 acidification of the rest.
   There are even some metals,  which act upon the so-
 lution, and have a tendency to  decompose the acid so
 as to form a blackish  precipitate, in which the arsenic
 is very slightly oxydized.
   The action of the other acids upon the arsenious is
 very different from that which they exert on the metal
 arsenic.  By boiling,  sulphuric acid dissolves a small
 portion of it, which  is precipitated  as the  solution
 cools.  The nitric acid does not dissolve it, but by the
 help of heat converts it into arsenic acid.   Neither the
 phosphoric nor the carbonic acid acts upon it; yet it
 enters into a vitreous combination with the phosphoric
 and boracic acids.  The muriatic acid dissolves it  by
 means of heat, and forms with  it a volatile compound,
 which water precipitates; and  aqueous chlorine aci-
 difies it completely,  so as to  convert it into arsenic
 acid.
i  The arsenious acid combines with the cartliy and
 alkaline bases,  forming Arsenites.  The earthy arse-
 niates possess little solubility; and hence the solutions
 of barytes, strontian,  and  lime, form precipitates with
 that of arsenious acid.            .              ,
   This  acid enters into another kind of combination
 with the earths, that formed by vitrification.  Though
 b  part of this volatile acid sublimes  before the glass
enters Into fusion, part remains fixed in the vitrified
substance, to which it imparls  transparency, a homo-
geneous density, and considerable gravity.  The arse-
nical  glasses appear to contain a kind of triple salt,
since the salt and alkalies enter into an intimate com-
bination at the instant of fusion, and  remain afterward
perfectly mixed.   All of them have the inconvenience
of quickly growing dull by exposure to the air.
  With the fixed  alkalies  the arsenious acid forms
thick  arsenites, which do not crystallize; which are
decomposable by fire, the arsenious  acid being volati-
lized by the heat; and  from which all the other acids
precipitate this in  powder.  These saline compounds
were  formerly termed  livers,  because they were sup-
posed to be analogous to  the combinations of sulphur
with the alkalies.
  With ammonia it forms a salt capable of crystalliza-
tion.  If this be heated a little, the ammonia is decom-
posed, the nitrogen is  evolved, while the hydrogen,
uniting  with part of the oxygen of the acid, forms
water.
  Neither the earthy nor alkaline arsenites have yet
been much examined;  what is known of them being
only sufficient to distinguish them from the arseniates.
  The arsenious acid is used in numerous instances in
the arts, under the name  of white arsenic, or of arse-
nic simply.  In many cases it  is reduced, and acts in
its metallic state.
  Many attempts have  been made to Introduce it into
medicine ; but as it is known to be one of the ruo-.:t
violent poisons, it  is probable that the fear of its bad
effects may deprive society ofthe advantages it might
afford in this way.  An  arseniate of potassa was ex-
tensively used by the  late Dr. Fowler, of York,  who
published a treatise on it, in intermittent and remittent
fevers.  He likewise assured the writer, that he had
found it extremely efficacious in periodical headache,
and as a tonic in  nervous  and other  disorders; and
that he never saw the least ill effect  from its use, due
precaution being employed in  preparing and adminis-
tering it.   Externally it has been employed as a caustic
to extirpate cancer, combined with sulphur, with bole,
with antimony, and with the leaves  of crowfoot; but
it always gives great pain, and is not unattended with
danger.   Febvre's remedy was water one pint, extract
of  hemlock  |j. Goulard's extract  $iij. tincture of
opium 3 j. arsenious acid gr. x. With this the cancer
was wetted  morning and evening ;  and at  the same
time a small quantity of a weak solution was adminis-
tered  internally.    A stili milder application  of this
kind has been made from a solution of one grain in a
quart of water, formed into a poultice with crumb of
bread.
  It has  been more lately used as \n alterative with
advantage  in chronic rheumatism.  The symptoms
which show the system to be arsenified are thickecs?,
redness, and stiffness of the palpebra, soreness of the
gums, ptyalism, itching over the surface of the body,
restlessness, cough, pain  at stomach,  and headache.
When the latter symptoms supervene, the adminis-
tration of the medicine ought to be immediately sus-
pended.  It has also been recommended against chin-
cough ; and has been used in considerable doses with .
success, to counteract  the poison of  venomous ser-
pents.
  Since it acts on the animal economy as a  deadly
poison in quantities so minute as to be insensible to
the taste when diffused in water or other vehicles, it
has been often given  with criminal  intentions and
fatal effects.  It becomes therefore a matter  of the
utmost importance to present a  systematic  view of
the phenomena characteristic of the poison, its opera
tion, and consequences.
  It is a dense substance, subsiding speedily after agi
tation in water.   Dr.  Ure found its sp. gr. to  vary
from 3.728 to 3.730, which  is  a little higher tlian the
number  given above: ~1  parts dissolve in  1000 of
boiling water, of which 30 remain in it, after it cools.
Cold water dissolves, however, only 3-1000  or 1-10 of
the preceding quantity.  This water makes the syrup
of violets green, and  reddens litmus  paper.  Lime
water gives a fine white precipitate with it of arsenite
of lime, soluble in  an excess of the arsenious solution;
sulphuretted  hydrogen gas,  and  hydrosulphuretted
water, precipitate  a golden yellow  sulphuret  of ar-
senic.  By this means, 1-100000 of arsenious acid may
be detected in water.  This sulphuret dried on a filter,
and heated  in a glass tube with a bit of caustic po-
tassa, is decomposed in a few  minutes, and converted
into sulphuret of  potassa, which remains at the but 
ARS
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torn, and metallic  arsenic of a  bright steel  lustre,
which  sublimes, coating the sides of the tube.  The
IndTosiilphurttsof alkalies do not affect the arsenious
solution, unless n drop or two of nitric or muriatic
acid be poured in, when the characteristic golden yel-
iow precipitate falls.  Nitrate of silver  is decomposed
fty the  arsenious acid, and a very  peculiar  yellow
arsenite of silver precipitates; which, however, is apt
to be  redissolved by nitric acid, and  therefore a  very
minute addition of ammonia is requisite.  Even  this,
however, also, if in much exces.-', redissolves the silver
precipitate.
  As the nitrate of silver is justly regarded as one of
the best precipitant tests of arsenic, the mode of using
it has been a subject of much discussion.  This excel-
lent test was first  proposed by  Mr.  Hume  of Long
Acre, in May 1809.  Phil. Mag. xxxiii. 401.   The pre-
sence of muriate of soda indeed, in the arsenical solu-
tion, obstructs, to a certain  degree, the operation of
this reagent  But that salt is almost always present in
the prima via, and is a usual ingredient in soups, and
other vehicles of the poison.  If, after the water of
ammonia has been added, (by plunging the end  of a
glass  rod dipped in it into the  supposed poisonous
liquid,) we dip another rod into  a solution of  pure
nitrate of silver, and transfer it into the arsenious solu-
tion, either  a fine yellow cloud will  be formed, or at
first merely a white  curdy  precipitate.  But  at the
second or third immersion ofthe nitrate rod, a central
spot of yellow will  be perceived surrounded with the
white muriate of silver.  At the next immersion, this
yellow cloud on the surface will  become very conspi-
cuous.  Sulphate of soda does not  interfere  in  the
least with the silver test.
  The ammoniaco-sulphate, or  rather  ammoniaco-
acetate of copper, added in a somewhat dilute state to
an  arsenious solution, gives  a  line grass-green and a
very characteristic precipitate".  This green arseniate
of copper, well washed, being  acted  on by an excess
of sulphuretted hydrogen water,  changes its colour,
and becomes of a brownish-red.   Ferro-prussiate of
potassa changes it into a blood-red.   Nitrate of silver
converts it into the yellow arsenite of silver.
  Lastly, if the precipitate be dried on  a filter, and
placed on a bit of" burning coal, it will diffuse a garlic
odour.   The cupreous test will detect 1-110000 of the
weight of the arsenic in water.
  The Voltaic battery, made to act by two wires on a
little arsenious solution placed on a bit  of  window-
glass, developes metallic arsenic  at the negative  pole,
and if this wire be copper, it will  be whitened like
tombac.
  We  may here remark, however, that the most ele-
gant mode of using all these precipitation reagents U
upon  a plane of glass; a mode practised by Dr. Wol-
luston  in general chemical research, to an extent, and
with  a success, which would be incredible in other
hands  than his.  Concentrate by heat in a  capsule
the suspected poisonous solution, having previously
filtered  it if necessary.  Indeed, if it be very much
disguised with animal or vegetable matters, it is better
first of all to evaporate to dryness, and by a few drops
of nitric acid to dissipate the organic products.  The
clear liquid being now placed in  the middle of the bit
of glass, lines are to be drawn out from it in different
d irections.   To one of these a particle of weak  annno-
niacal water being applied, the weak nitrate of silver
may then be brushed over it with a  hair pencil.   By
placing the glass in different lights, either over white
paper or obliqirely before the eye, the slightest  change
of  tint  will be perceived.  The  ammoniaco-acetate
should be applied to another filament of the drop, deut-
acetate of iron to a third, weak ammoniaco-acetate of
cobalt  to a fourth, sulphuretted water to a  fifth, lime
water  to a sixth, a drop of violet-syrup to a seventh
and the two galvanic wires at the opposite ed«es ofthe
whole.   Thus with one single drop of solution many
exact experiments may be made.
  But  the chief, the decisive  trial or  experimental
crusts remains, which is to take a  little of the dry
matter, mix it with a small pinch of dry black  flux
put it into a narrow glass tube sealed at one end, and
after cleansing its sides with a feather, urge its bottom
with  a  blow-pipe till it be distiactly red-hot for  a
minute.  Then garlic fumes will be  smelt, and the
steel-lustred coating of metallic arsenic will be  seeii
in the tube about one-fourth of an inch above its bot-
tom.  Cut the tube across at that point by means oi a
tine file, detach the scale of arsenic with the point of a
penknife; put a fragment of it into the bottom of a
small wine-glass along with a few drops of ammoni-
aco-acetate  of copper, and triturate them  well toge-
ther for a fewinimites with a round-headed glass rod.
The mazarine blue colour will soon  be transmuted
into a lively grass-green, while the metallic scale will
vanish.   Thus we distinguish perfectly between a par-
ticle of  metallic arsenic and  one of  annualized char-
coal.  Another particle ofthe scale may be placed be-
tween two smooth and bright surfaces of copper, with
a touch of fiue oil; and while they are firmly pressed
together, exposed  to a  red-heat.  The tombac alloy
will appear as a white stain.  A third particle may be
placed on a bit of heated metal, and held a little under
the nostrils, when the garlic odour  will be recognised.
No danger can be apprehended, as the fragment need
not exceed the tenth of a grain.
  It is to be observed, that one or  two of the precipi-
tation tests may be equivocal from  admixtures of vari-
ous substances.  Thus tincture of ginger gives with
the cupreous  reagent a  green  precipitate;—and the
writer of this  article was  at first led to suspect from
that appearance, that an empirical tincture, put into
his hands for examination, did  contain arsenic.  But
a careful analysis satisfied him of its genuineness.
Tea covers arsenic from  the  cupreous  test.   Such
poisoned tea becomes, by its  addition,  of  au obscure
olive or violet red, but yields scarcely any precipitate.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, however, throws down  a fine
yellow sulphuret of arsenic.
  The true way of obviating all these sources of falla-
cy, is to evaporate carefully to dryness, and expose the
residue to heat in a glass tube.  The arsenic sublimes,
and  may be  afterward  operated  on without  ambi-
guity.   M. Orfila has gone into  ample details on the
modifications produced by wine, coffee, tea, broth, Sec.
on arsenical tests, of which a good tabular abstract is
given in Mr. Thomson's London Dispensatory.  But it
is evident that the differences  in  these menstrua, as
also in beers, are so  great as to render precipitations
and changes of colour by reagents  very unsatisfactory
witnesses, in a case of life and death.  Hence the me-
thod of evaporation  above described should never be
neglected.  Should the arsenic be combined with oil,
the mixture ought to be boiled with water, and the oil
then separated "by the capillary action of wick-threads.
If with resinous substances, these may be removed by
oil of turpentine, not by alkohol,  (as directed by Dr.
Black,) which is a good solvent of arsenious acid.  It
may  moreover be observed, that  both tea and coffee
should  be freed from their tannin by gelatin, which
does not act on the arsenic, previous to the use of re-
agent for the poison.  When one part ofthe arsenious
acid in  watery solution is added to ten parts of milk,
the sulphuretted hydrogen  present in the latter, occa-
sions the white colour to  pass  into  a canary yellow;
the cupreous test gives it a slight  green tint, and the
nitrate  of silver  produces no visible change, though
even  more arsenic be added; but the hydrosulphurets
throw down a golden yellow, with the aid of a few
drops of an acid.  The liquid contained in the stomach
of a rabbit poisoned  with a solution of three grains of
arsenious acid, afforded  a white precipitate with ni-
trate of silver, grayish-white with lime water, green
with the ammoniaco-sulphate, and deep  yellow with
sulphuretted hydrogen water.
  The preceding copious description of the habitudes
of arsenious acid in different circumstances, is equally
applicable to the  soluble  arsenites.  Their poisonous
operation, as well  as that of the arsenic acid, has been
satisfactorily referred by Mr.  Brodie to the suspension
ofthe functions of the heart and brain, occasioned by
the absorption of these substances into the circulation,
and their constant determination  to the nervous sys-
tem and the alimentary canal.  This proposition was
established by numerous experiments on  rabbits and
dogs.   Wounds were inflicted,  and arsenic  being ap-
plied  to them, it was found that in a short time  death
supervened with the same symptoms of inflammation
of the stomach and  bowels, as if the poison had been
swallowed.
  He divides the morbid affections into three classes:
1st, Those depending on the  nervous system, as palsy
at first of the  posterior  extremities,  and then of the
rest of the body, convulsions, dilatation of the pupils 
ARS
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 and general insensibility:  2a", Those which indicate
 disturbance in the organs of circulation; for example,
 the feeble, slow, and  intermitting pulse,  weak con
 tractions ofthe heart immediately after death, and the
 impossibility of prolonging them, as maybe done in
 sudden deaths from other causes, by  artificial respira-
 tion : 3d, Lastly, those which depend on lesion ot the
 alimentary canal, as the pains of the abdomen, nau-
 seas, and vomitings, in those animals which were suf-
 fered to vomit.  At one time it is the nervous system
 that is  most remarkably affected, and at  another the
 organs  of circulation.   Hence  inflammation of the
 stomach and  intestines, ought not to be considered as
 the immediate cause of death, by the greater number of
 cases of poisoning by arsenic.  However, should an
 animal not sink under the first violence of the poison,
 if  the inflammation has had time  to be developed,
 there is no doubt that it may destroy life. Mr. Earl
 states, that a woman who had taken arsenic resisted
 the alarming symptoms which at first appeared, but
 died on the fourth day.   On opening her body the mu-
 cous membrane of the stomach and intestines was
 ulcerated to a great extent.  Authentic cases of poison
 are recorded, where no  trace of inflammation was
 perceptible hi the prima via.
  The effects of arsenic  have been graphically repre-
 sented  by Dr. Black: ' The symptoms  produced by a
 dangerous dose of arsenic begin to appear in a quarter
 by  an hour, or not much longer, after  it is taken.   First
 sickness, and great distress  at stomach, soon followed
 by  thirst, and burning heat in the bowels.   Then come
 on  violent vomiting and severe colic pains, and exces-
 sive and painful  purging.   This brings on faintings,
 with cold sweats, and other signs of great debility.
 To this succeed painful cramps, and contractions of
 the legs and thighs, and extreme weakness, and death.'
 Similar results have followed the incautious sprink-
 ling of schirrous ulcers with powdered arsenic, or the
 application of arsenical pastes.   The following more
 minute specification of symptoms is  given by Orfila:
 'An austere taste  in the mouth; frequent ptyalism ;
 continual spitting; constriction of the pharynx and
 esophagus;  teeth  set  on  edge; hiccups;  nausea;
 vomiting of brown or bloody matter; anxiety; fre-
 quent fainting fits; burning heat  at the precordia; in-
 flammation of the lips, tongue1", palate, throat, stomach;
 acute pain of stomach, rendering the mildest  drinks
 intolerable;  black stools of an  indescribable  foetor;
 pulse frequent,  oppressed,  and irregular,  sometimes
 slow and unequal; palpitation of the heart; syncope ;
 unextinguishable thirst;  burning sensation over the
 whole body, resemb'ing a consuming fire;  at times an
 ley coldness; difficult respiration ; cold sweats; scanty
 urine, of a red or bloody appearance; altered expres-
 sion of countenance;  a livid circle round the eyelids;
 swelling and  itching of the whole  body, which be-
 comes covered with livid  spots, or with a miliary
 eruption; prostration of strength; loss of feeling, espe-
 cially in the feet and  hands; delirium, convulsions,
 sometimes accompanied with an insupportable pria-
 pism ; loss of the hair; separation of the epidermis;
 horrible convulsions; and death.'
  It is uncommon to observe all these frightful  symp-
 toms combined in one individual; sometimes they are
 altogether wanting, as is shown by the following case,
 related  by M. Chaussier:—A robust man of middle
 age swallowed arsenious acid in large fragments, and
 died without experiencing other symptoms than slight
 syncopes. On opening his  stomach,  it was found to
 contain the  arsenious acid  in the very same state in
 which he had swallowed it.  There was  no appear-
 ance whatever of erosion or inflammation in the intes-
 tinal canal.  Etmuller mentions  a young girl's being
 poisoned by arsenic, and whose stomach  and bowels
 were sound to all appearance, though the  arsenic was
 found in them. In  general, however, inflammation
 does extend along Hie whole canal, from the mouth to
 the rectum.    The  stomach and duodenum present
 frequently gangrenous points, eschars, perforations of
all  their coats; the villous  coat in particular, by this
 and all other corrosive poisons, is commonly detached,
 as if it were scraped off or reduced into a paste of a
reddish-brown colour.  From these considerations we
 may conclude, that  from the existence or non-existence
of intestinal lesions, from  the extent or  seat of the
symptoms alone, the physician should not venture  to
pionouncc definitively en the fact of poisoning.
   The result  of Mr. Brodie's experiments on brutes
 teaches, that the inflammations of the intestines and
 stomach are more severe when the poison has been
 applied to an external wound, than when it has been
 thrown into the stomach itself.
   The best remedies against this poison  in the sto-
 mach, are copious draughts of bland liquids of a muci
 laginous consistence, to  inviscate the  powder, so as
 to  procure  its complete ejection by vomiting.   Sul-
 phuretted hydrogen condensed  In water, is the only
 direct antidote to its virulence; Orfila having found,
 that when dogs were  made  to swallow that liquid,
 after getting a poisonous dose  of arsenic, they reco-
 vered, though  their  oesophagus was tied  to prevent
 vomiting;  but when the same dose  of poison  was
 administered in the same circumstances, without the
 sulphuretted water, that it proved fatal.
   When the viscera are to be subjected after death to
 chemical investigation, a ligature ought to be  thrown
 round the cesophagus  and the beginning of the colon,
 and the intermediate stomach and intestines removed.
 Their liquid contents should be emptied into a basin;
 and thereafter a portion of hot water introduced into
 the stomach, and worked thoroughly up and down this
 viscus, as well as the intestines.
  Alter filtration, a  portion of the liquid should be
 concentrated by evaporation in a porcelain capsule,
 and then submitted to the proper reagents above de-
 scribed.  We may also endeuvour to extract from  the
 stomach by digestion in boiling water, with  a little
 ammonia,  the  arsenical impregnation,  which  has
 been sometimes known to adhere in minute particles
 with  wonderful obstinacy.   This precaution ought,
 therefore,  to be attended to.  The heat will dissipate
 the  excess  of ammonia in the  above  operation;
 whereas, by adding potassa or soda, as prescribed by
 the German chemists, we introduce  animal matter in
 alkaline solution, which complicates the investigation.
  The matters rejected from the patient's bowels before
 death, should  not be neglected. These,  generally
 speaking, are best treated by cautious evaporations to
 dryness;  but we must beware of heating the resi-
 duum to 400°, since at that temperature, and perhaps
 a little under it, the arsenious acid itself sublimes.
  Vinegar,  hydroguretted  alkaline sulphurets,  and
 oils, are of no  use as counterpoisons.  Indeed, when
 the arsenic exists in  substance  in the stomach, even
 sulphuretted hydrogen water  is of no avail, however
 effectually it neutralize an arsenious solution.  Syrnps,
 linseed tea, decoction of mallows, or tragacanth,  and
 warm milk, should be administered as copiously as
 possible, and vomiting provoked by tickling the fauces
 with a feather.  Clysters of a similar  nature may be
 also employed.  Many persons have escaped death by
 having taken the poison  mixed with rich soups;  and
 it is well known, that when it is prescribed as a medi-
 cine, it acts most beneficially when given soon after a
 meal.  These  facts have led to  the prescription of
 butter and oils; the use of  which is, however, not
 adviseable, as they screen the arsenical particles from
 more proper menstrua, and even appear to aggravate
 its virulence.  Morgagni, in his great, work on the seats
 and causes of disease, states, that at an Italian feast
 the dessert was purposely sprinkled over with arsenic
 instead of flour. Those of the guests who had previ-
 ously ate and drank little, speedily perished; those who
 had their stomachs well filled, were saved by vomiiing.
 He also mentions the case of three children who ate a
 vegetable soup poisoned with arsenic.   One of them
 who took only two spoonfuls, had no vomiting,  and
 died ; the other two, who had eaten the rest, vomited,
 and got well.  Should the poisoned patient be inca
 pable of vomiting, a tube of caoutchouc, capable of
 being attached to a syringe, may be had recourse to.
 The tube  first serves to introduce the drink, and to
 withdraw it after a few instants.
  The following tests of arsenic and corrosive subli-
 mate have been lately proposed by Brugnatelli •  Take
 the starch of wheat  boiled in water until it is of a
 proper consistence, and recently prepared; to this add
 a sufficient quantity  of iodine to make it of a blue
 colour; iv is afterward to be diluted with pure watei
 until it becomes of a beautiful azure.  If to this, some
drops of a watery solution  of arsenic  be added,  the
colour changes to a reddish  hue, and finally vanishes.
The solution of corrosive sublimate poured into iodine
and  starch,  produces almost the same  change  aa 
ART                                             ART
  arsenic; but if to the fluid acted on by the arsenic we add
  some drops of sulphuric acid, the original blue colour
  is restored with more than its original brilliancy, while
  it does not restore the colour to the corrosive sublimate
  mixture.— Ure's Chem. Diet.
    ARTEMISIA.   (From a queen of that name, who
  first used it; or from Aprt/Hj, Diana; because it was
  formerly used in  the diseases of women, over whom
  she presided.)  The name of a genus of  plants in the
  Linmcan system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order,  Poly-
 gamia superflua,
    Artemisia abrotanum.  The systematic name for
  the Abrotanum of the pharmacopoeias.   Abrotanum
  mas;  Adonion;  Adonium;  Abrathan.   Common
 southernwood.  Artemisia—foliis setaceis ramosissi-
 mis of LinnEeus.  A plant possessed of a strong, and,
 to most people, an agreeable smell;  a pungent, bitter,
  and somewhat nauseous taste.   It is supposed to sti-
 mulate the whole system, but  more particularly the
 uterus.  It is very rarely used unless by way of fomen-
 tation, with which intention the leaves are directed.
    Artemisia absinthium.  The systematic name for
 the Absinthium vulgare of the pharmacopoeias. Com-
 mon  wormwood.  Falsely called  in  our markets
 Absinthium Romanum, or Roman wormwood.  Absin-
 thium Ponticum of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to
 Murray. Artemisia—foliis compositis multifidis flori-
 bus subglobosis pendulis; receptaculo villoso of  Lin-
 meus.  This plant is a native of Britain, and grows
 about rubbish, rocks, and  sides of roads.  The leaves
 of wormwood have a strong disagreeable smell:  their
 taste is nauseous,  and so intensely bitter as to be  pro-
 verbial. The flowers are more aromatic and less bitter
 than the leaves, and the  roots  discover an aromatic
 warmth without  bitterness.  This  species of worm-
 wood  may be considered  the principal of the herba-
 ceous  bitters. Its virtus, (in the words of Bergius,)
 is antiputredinosa, antacida, anthelmintica, resolvens,
 tonica, spasmodica.  And although it is  now chiefly
 employed with a view to the two last-mentioned quali-
 ties, yet we are told of its good effects in a great variety
 of diseases, as intermittent fevers, hypochondriasis,
 obstructions  of  the  liver and  spleen,  goiit,  calculi,
 scurvy, dropsy, worms, &c.  Cullen thinks it is  pos-
 sessed of a narcotic power, and that there is in every
 bitter, when  largely employed, a power of destroying
 the sensibility and  irritability of the nervous system.
   Externally, wormwood  is used in discutient  and
 antiseptic fomentations.  This plant may be taken in
 powder, but it is more commonly preferred in infusion.
 The Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia directs a tincture ofthe
 flowers, which is, in the opinion of Dr. Cullen, a light
 and agreeable bitter, and,  at the same time, a strong
 impregnation of the wormwood.
   Artemisia chinensis.  Mugwort of China.  Moxa
 Japonica;  Musia  patlra.  A  soft lanuginous  sub-
 stance, called Moxa, is  prepared in Japan, from the
 young leaves of  this species of mugwort, by beating
 them  when  thoroughly dried,  and rubbing  them
 between the  hands, till  only the fine fibres are  left.
 Moxa  is celebrated in the eastern countries for pre-
 venting and curing many disorders, by being burnt on
 the skin; a little cone of it laid upon the  part, previ-
 ously moistened, and set on fire on the top, burns down
 with a temperate and glowing heat, and  produces a
 dark-coloured spot,  the ulceration of which is promoted
 by putting a Imle garlic,  and the ulcer is either healed
 up when the  eschar separates, or kept running for a
 length  of time, as different circumstances may require.
  Artemisia glacialis.    Mountain  wormwood.
 This is found on Alpine situations, and has similar
 virtues to common wormwood.
  Artemisia judaica.   The systematic name for the
 Santtnucum of the pharmacopoeias, according to some
 botanists.  See Artemisia santonica.
  Artemisia maritima.  The systematic name  for
 ine Absinthium maritimum of  the  pharmacopoeias
 Sea wormwood.  Falsely called  in our  markets,  Ro-
 man wormwood.   Artemisia-foliis multipartitis,
 tomentosis; racemis cernuis; fiosculis femineis temis
ot i.iiina;us.   This plant grows  plentifully about  the
sea-shore, and in salt marshes.   The specific differ-
ences between it and the common wormwood, arte-
mtsia, absinthium,  are very  evident.  Its  taste  and
Bmell are considerably less unpleasant than those of the
r^n;L"0r'.w0rrauV.00d;-anleveu to essential oil, which
contains the whole of its flavour concentrated, is some-
  what less ungrateful, and the watery extract some-
  what less bitter than those of the common wormwood.
  Hence it is preferred, in those cases where the Artemi-
  sia absinthium is supposed to be too unpleasant for the
  stomach.  A conserve of the  tops of this plant wan
  directed by the London pharmacopoeia.
   Artemisia pontica.  The systematic name for the
  Absinthium ponticum, or Roman wormwood, not now
  used medicinally.
   Artemisia rupestris.  The systematic name for
  the Genipi album of the pharmacopoeias.  Artemisia-
 foliis pinnatis;  caulibus adscendentibus;  floribus
 globosis, cermuis;  receptaculo papposo.  It  has a
 grateful smell, and is used in some countries in  the
 cure of intermittents  and obstructed catamenia.
   Artemisia santonica.   Absinthium  santonicum
 Alexandrinum;  Sementina;  Absinthium seriphium
 JEgyptium;  Scheba Arabum ;  Zedoaria semen; Xan-
 tolina ;  Lumbricorum semina; Cina ;  Semen contra ;
 Semen sanctum; Artemisia Judaica.   The Tartarian
 southernwood or wormseed.  Artemisia-foliis cauli-
 nis linearibus, pinnato-multifidis; ramis indivisis,
 spicis secundis rrflexis ; floribus quinquefloris of Lin-
 nams.  The seeds are small, light, and oval, composed
 of a number of thin membraneous coats of a yellowish-
 green colour,  with a cast of brown, easily friable, upon
 being rubbed  between the fingers, into a  fine chaffy
 kind of substance.  They are brought from the Levant;
 have a  moderately strong and not  agreeable smell,
 somewhat of  the wormwood kind, and a very bitter
 subacrid taste.  Their virtues  are extracted both  by
 watery and spirituous menstrua.  They are esteemed
 to be stomachic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; but
 it is especially for the last-mentioned powers that they
 are  now administered, and from their efficacy in this
 way they have obtained the name of wormseed.  To
 adults the dose  in substance  is  from one  to two
 drachms, twice a day.  Lewis thinks that the spiritu-
 ous extract is the  most eligible preparation of the san-
 tonicum, for the purposes of an anthelmintic.
   Artemisia  vulgaris.   Mugwort.  This plant, Ar-
 temisia-foliis pinnatifidis, planis,  incisis,  subtus
 tomentosis ; racemis simplicibus, recurvatis ; floribus
 radio quinquefloro of  Linnreus,  is slightly bitter, and,
 although in high esteem in former days-, is now almost
 wholly forgotten.
   Artemo'nium.  (From Artemon, its inventor.)   A
 collyrium, or wash for the eyes.
   ARTE'RIA. (Arteria, as. f.; from  arjp,  air, and
 rnpeoi, to keep; so called because the ancients believed
 they contained air only.)  See Artery.
   Arteri'aca.   (From aprnpta, an arterv.)   Medi-
 cines formerly used against disorders of "the aspera
 arteria, or trachea.
   Arterije adiposje.  The arteries which  secrete the
 fat about the kidneys are so called.  They are branches
 ofthe capsula and diaphragmatic, renal, and spermatic
 arteries.
  Arterije venosje.  The four pulmonary veins were
 so called by the ancients.
   Arteriosus ductus.  See Ductus arteriosus.
  ARTERIO'TOMY.  (Artcriotomia, a. f.;  from ap-
 ri7pta, an artery, and rcuvw, to cut.)  The opening of
 an artery.  This operation is frequently performed on
 the temporal artery.
  A'RTERY.   Arteria.  A membraneous pulsatin"
 canal,  that arises from  the heart  and gradually be^
 comes le^s as  it proceeds  from  it.  Arteries are com-
 posed of three  membranes-  a common, or external; a
 muscular; and an internal one, which is very smooth.
 They are only  two in number, the pulmonary arterv,
 and the aorta,  and these originate from the heart; trie
 pulmonary artery from  the right ventricle,  and the
 aorta from the left:  the other arteries are all branches
 ofthe aorta.  Their termination is either in the veins,
 or in capillary exhaling  vessels, or they anastomose
 with one another.  It is by their means that the blood
 is carried from the heart to every part of the body, for
 nutrition, preservation of life, generation of heat, and
 the secretion ofthe different fluids.  The action ofthe
 arteries, called the pulse, corresponds with that of the
 heart, and is effected by the contraction of their mus-
cular, and great elasticity of their outermost coat.

              A table of the Arteries.

  All the arteries originate from the pulmonary arterv
and the aorta. 
ART                                             ART
  The pulmonary artery emerges from the right ven-
tricle of the heart, soon divides into  a right and left
branch, which are distributed by innumerable ramifi-
cations through the lungs.
  The aorta arises from the left ventricle of the heart,
and supplies every part of the body with  blood, in the
following order.
  a.  It forms an arch.
  b.  It then descends along the spine; and,
  c.  It divides into the two iliacs.
  a.  The arch or the aorta gives off three branches.
  1.  The arteria  innominata, which  divides into the
right carotid and right subclavian.
  2  The left carotid.
  *..  The left subclavian,
  I  The  carotids are divided into external  and in-
ternal.
  The external carotids give off
1. The thyroid,
2. The lingual,
3. The labial,
4. The inferior pharyngeal,
5. The occipital,
6. The posterior auris,
7. The  internal maxillary, from  which the  spinous
  artery of the dura mater, the lower maxillary, and
  several branches about  the palate and orbit arise,
B. The temporal.
  The internal carotid affords,
1. The ophthalmic,
2. The middle cerebral,
3. The communicans, which inosculates with  the ver-
   tebral.
  II. The subclavians give off the following branches.
1. The  internal mammary,  from which the  thymic,
  comes phrenici, pericardiac, and phrenico-pericar-
  diac arteries arise,
2. The inferior thyroid, which gives off the  tracheal,
  ascending thyroid, and transversalis humeri,
3. The vertebral, which proceeds within the vertebrae,
  and forms within the cranium  the basilary artery,
  from which the anterior cerebelli,  the posterior ce-
  rebri, and many branches about the brain, are given
  off,
4. The cervicalis profunda,
5. The cervicalis superficialis,
6. The superior intercostal,
7. The supra-scapular.
   As soon as the subclavian arrives at the arm-pit, it
is called the  axillary artery; and  when the latter
reaches the arm, it is called the brachial.
   The axillary artery gives off,
1. Four mammary arteries,
2. The sub-scapular,
3. The posterior circumflex,
 4. The anterior  circumflex, which ramify about the
     shoulder-joint
   The brachial artery gives  off,
 1. Many lateral branches,
 2. The profunda humeri superior,
 3. The profunda humeri inferior,
 4. The great anastomosing  artery, which  ramifies
     about the elbow-joint.
   The brachial artery then divides, about the bend of
 the arm, into the ulnar and radial arteries, which are
 ramified to the ends ofthe fingers.
   The ulnar artery gives off,
 1. Several recurrent branches,
 2. The common interosseal, of which the dorsal ulnar,
     the palmaris profunda, the palmary arch, and the
     digitals,  are branches.
   The radial artery gives off,
 1. The radial recurrent,
 2. The superficialis vola, and then divides into the
     palmaris profunda, and the digitals.
   b. The  descending aorta gives off,
   In the breast,
 I. The bronchial,
 2. The esophageal,
 3. The intercostals,
 4. The inferior diaphragmatic.
   Within the abdomen,
 1 The celiac, which divides into three branches:
  ' 1. The hepatic, from which are given off, before it
     reaches the liver,                          .
     a. The duodcno-gastric, which sends off the right
       gastroepiploic and the pancreatico-duodenal,
    R.  The pylorica superior kepatica;
  2.  The coronaria ventriculi,
  3.  The splenic, which emits the great  and small
    pancreatics, the posterior gastric, the left gastro-
    epiploic, and the vasa brevia ;
2. The superior mesenteric,
3. The emulgents,
4. The spermatics,
5. The inferior mesenteric,
6. The lumbar arteries,
7. The middle sacral.
  c.  The aorta then bifurcates into the iliacs, each
of which divide into external and internal-
  The internal  iliac, called also hypogastric, gives oft,
1. The lateral sacrals,
2. The gluteal,
3. The ischiadic,
4. The/>ttdica, from which the external hemorrhoidal,
    the perineal, and the arteria penis arise,
5. The obturatory.
  The external  iliac gives off, in the groin,
1. The epigastric,
2. The circumflexia iliaca ;
  It then pa=sos  under Poupart's ligament,  and is
called the femoral artery;  and sends off,
1. The prof 'unda,
2. The ramus  anastomoticus magnus, which runs
     about the knee joint;
  Having reached the ham, where it gives off some
small branches, it is termed the popliteal.  It then di-
vides into the anterior and posterior tibial.
  The tibialis antica gives off,
1.  The recurrent,
2.  The internal malleolar,
3.  The external malleolar,
4. The tarsal,
5.  The metatarsal,
6.  The dorsalis externa halicis.
  The posterior tibial sends off,
1. The nutritia tibia,
2. Many small branches,
3. The internal plantar,
4. The external plantar, from  which  an  arch  is
     formed, that gives off the digitals of the toes.
  ARTHANI'TA.   (From apros, bread ; because it is
the  food of swine.)  The herb sow-bread.  See Cy-
clamen Europeum.
  Arthre'mbolus.   (From apopov, a joint,  and tu-
SaXXio, to impel.)  An insmiment for reducing luxated

  ARTHRITIC.   (Arthriticus; from  apBpins, the
gout.)  Pertaining to the gout.
   Arthritica herba.  The JEgopodiumpodagrana.
 and several other plants, were so called.
   ARTHRITIS.  (Arthritis,  tidis, foem.; from ap-
 Boov, a joint: because it is commonly confined lo the
joints.)  The gout.   Dr. Cullen, in his Nosology, gives
 it the name of podagra, because he considers  the foot
 to be the seat of idiophatic gout.  It is arranged in the
 class Pyrexia,  and  order phlegmasia, and is divided
 into four species, the regular,  atonic, retrocedent, and
 misplaced.  See Podagra.            _  _
  ARTHROCA'CE.  (From apBpov, a joint, and icaicn,
 a disease.)  An ulcer of the cavity of the bone.
   ARTHRO'DIA.  (Arthrodia, a. f.;  from apBpoia, to
 articulate.)  A species of diarthrosis, or moveable con-
 nexion of bones, in which the head of one bone is re-
 ceived into the superficial cavity of another, so as to
 admit of motion in every direction, as the  head of the
 humerus with the glenoid cavity ofthe scapula.
   ARTHRODY'NIA.  (Arthrodynia, a. f.; from ap,
 Buov, a joint, and oSvvn, pain.)  Pain in a joint.  It  is
 one of the terminations of acute rheumatism.   See
 Rheumatism us.
   ARTHROPUO'SIS.   (Arthropuosis, is. f.;  from
 apBpov,  a joint,  and  nvov, pus.)   Arthropyosis.  A
 collection of pus in  a joint.  It is however frequently
 applied to other affections.  See Lumbar abscess.
   AKTHROSIA.  (Arthrosia ;  from apBaoo), to arti-
 culate :  whence arthrosis, arthrites.)  The name of a
 genus of disease in Good's new classification, which
 embraces rheumatism,  gout, and white swelling.  See
 Nosologi/                               ■  , .
   ARTHROSIS.   (From  ap0poa>, to articulate, or
 join together.)   Articulation.
   ARTICHOKE.  See f'mara scolymus.
   Artichoke, French.  See Onara studymus. 
ARU
ASA
  Artichoke, Jerusalem.  See Helianthus tuberosus.
  ARTICULA'R.   (Articularis;  from articulus,  a
toint.)   Belonging to a joint
  Articularis morbus.   A name given to a disease
which more immediately infests the articuli, or joints.
The morbus articularis is synonymous with the Greek
word arthritis, and our gout.
  Articularis vena.  A branch of the basilic vein is
so called because  it passes uuder the joint of  the
shoulder.
  ARTICULATION.  (Articulatio ; from articulus,
a joint.)  The skeleton is composed of a great number
Of bones, which are all so admirably  constructed, and
with so much affinity to each other, that the extremity
of every bone is perfectly adjusted to the  end of the
bone with which it is connected: and this connexion
is termed their articulation.  Anatomists  distinguish
three kinds of articulation; the first they name Diar-
throsis;  the  second,  Synarthrosis;  and the  third,
Amphiarthrosis;  which  see, under their respective
heads.
  ARTICULA'TUS.   Articulate; jointed.  A term
applied to roots, stems,  leaves, &c, when they are ap-
parently formed of distinct  pieces united as if one
piece grew out of another, so as to form a jointed, but
connected whole:  in the Radix articulata, radicals
shoot out from each joint, as in the Oxalis acetocella,
wood sorrel.  The  Caulis articulata is exemplified in
the Cactus flagclliformis  and  Lathyrus  sylvestris ;
the Cactus opuntia and Cactus ficus indica have arti-
culate  leaves.  The Oxalis acelosella articulate leaf-
stalks.
  ARTICULUS.   (From artus, a joint; from apBpov.)
1. A joint  See Articulation.
  2.  Botanists apply this term to that part  of the stalk
of grasses which is intercepted, or lies between two
knots;  and also to the knot itself.
  Arti'scus.   (From apros, bread.)   A troch;  so
called because it is made like a little loaf.
  Arto'creas.  (From aprof, bread, and xpcas, flesh.)
A nourishing food,  made of bread and various meats,
boiled together.—Galen.
  Arto'gala.  (From  aproy, bread, and yaXa, milk.)
A cooling food made of bread and milk.  A poultice.
  Arto'meli.  (From  apros, bread, and/ieXt, honey.)
A cataplasm made  of bread and honey.—Galen.
  A'RUM. (Arum, i. n.; from the Hebrew word ja-
ron, which signifies a dart; so  named  because  its
leaves are shaped like a dart; or apo, injury.)  1. The
name  of a genus of plants in  the Linnsjan  system.
Class,  Gynandria; Order, Polyandria.
  2.  The pharmacopoeial name of the common arum.
See Arum maculatum.
  Arum dracunculus. The systematic name of the
plant called, in English,  dragon's wort,  and many-
leaved  arum;  Dracunculus  polyphyllus ;  Colubrina
dracontia;  Serpentaria gallorum;  Erva de Sancta
Maria;  Gigarus  serpentaria;  Arum polyphyllum.
The roots and leaves of this plant  are extremely acri-
monious, more so  than the  Arum maculatum, with
which  it agrees in medicinal virtues.
  Arum maculatum.   The  systematic  name for
common arum, or wake-robin; the arum of the  phar-
macopoeias.   Arum—acaule;  foliis haslatis,  inte-
gerrimis; spadice clavato  of  Limucus.   Common
arum or wake-robin.  The root is  the medicinal part
of this plant, which, when  recent,  is very acrimo-
nious;  and, upon being chewed, excites an intolerable
sensation of burning and prickling in the tongue,
which  continues for several hours.    When cut  in
slices and applied to the skin, it has been known to
produce blisters.  This acrimony, however, is gradu-
ally lost by drying,  and may  be so far dissipated  by
the application of heat,  as to leave the root a bland fa-
rinaceous aliment.  In this state it has been made into
a  wholesome bread.  It  has also been prepared  as
starch.  Its medicinal quality, therefore, resides wholly
in the active volatile  matter,  and consequently the
powdeied root must lose much of its  power, on  being
long kept.  Arum  is certainly a powerful stimulant,
and, by promoting  the  secretions, may be,,advantage-
ously employed in cachectic and chlorotic cases in
rheumatic affections, and in various other  complaints
of phlegmatic and  torpid  constitutions; but more es-
pecially in a  weakened or relaxed state  of the sto-
mach, occasioned by the prevalence of viscid mucus.
If this root is given in  powder, great care should  be
      ill!                                         '
 taken that it be young and newly dried, when it may
 be used in the dose of a scruple, or more, twice a day,
 but in rheumatisms, and other disorders requiring the
 full effect of this medicine, the root should be given in
 a recent  state ; and, to cover the  insupportable nun-
 gency it discovers on the tongue, Dr. Lewis advises us
 to administer it in the form of emulsion, with gum-ara-
 bic and spermaceti, increasing the do?e from ten grains
 to upwards of a scruple, three or four times a day.  in
 this way, it generally occasioned a sensation of slight
 warmth about the stomach, and afterward, in the re-
 moter parts, manifestly promoted  perspiration, and
 frequently produced a plentiful  sweat.  Several obslir-
 nate rheumatic pains were removed by this medicine.
 The root answers quite as well as garlic for cataplasms,
 to be applied on the feet in deliriums.  The London
 College, in their Pharmacopoeia, 1788, ordered a con-
 serve, in  the proportion of half a pound  of the fresh
 root to a pound and a half of double refined sugar, beat
 together in a mortar, which  appears to be one of the
 best forms of exhibiting arum, as  its  virtues are de-
 stroyed by drying, and are not extracted  by any men-
 struum.   It may be given to adults in doses of a
 drachm.
   ARUNDINACEUS.  (From arundo, a reed.) Arun-
 dinaceous or reed-like.
   Arundinace*  plants.  Arundinaceous  plants.
 A name given to a class of plants by Ray, from their
 appearance.
   ARUNDO.  (Arundo, inis, f.: supposed  to be de-
 rived from areo, because it soon becomes dry.)  Tlie
 name  of  a genus of  plants in  the  Linna-an system.
 Class  Triandria ;  Order, Digynia.
   Arundo  bambos.  The bamboo plant.   The young
 shoots of this plant are prepared by the natives of both
 Indies with vinegar, garlic, pepper, tec into excellent
 pickles, which  promote the appetite and assist di-
 gestion.   A substance called Tabashcer or Tabachir,
 which is a concretion of the  liquor in the cavities of
 the cane,  and extracted at certain seasons, is much
 esteemed  as a medicine by the orientalists.
   Arundo  saccharifkra.  The name of the sugar-
 cane.  See  Saccharum officinale.
   ARYTAJ'NO.  Belonging  to the arytenoid carti-
 lage.  Some muscles are  so named because they are
 connected with this cartilage: they have also the ter
 ininal name of the part they go to; as  tcrytano-cpi
 glottideus.
   Arytjeno-epiglottideus   A muscle of  the epi
 glottis. Arytano-Eviglottici of Winslow.  It is com-
 posed of a number of fibres running between the aryte-
 noid cartilage and epiglottis.  It pulls the side of the
 epiglottis towards the external opening of the glottis,
 and when both  act,  they  pull it close  upon the
 glottis.
   ARYTiENOI'D.  (Arytanoideus and Arytanoidcs ;
 from apvjaiva, a funnel, and ciios, shape.)  The name
 of some parts, from their being  funnel-shapped.
   Arytjenoid  cartilage.  Cartilago  arytanoidia.
 The name of two cartilages  of the larynx.   See La
 rynx.
   ARYTiENOIDE'US.  Applied  to some muscles.
 vessels, nerves, &c.
   Arytjenoideus major.  See Arytanoideus trans-
 versus.
   Arytanoideus minor.   See  Arytanoideus  obli.
 quus.
   Arytjenoideus obliquus.  A muscle  of the glottis
 Arytanoideus minor  of Douglas.  It arises from the
 base of one arytenoid cartilage, and crossing ils fel-
 low, is inserted near the tip ofthe other arytenoid car-
 tilage.  This muscle is  occasionally  wanting; but
 when  present, and both muscles act, their use is  to
 pull the arytenoid cartilages towards each other.
   Aryt/Enoideus transvkrsus.  An azygos or sin-
 gle muscle  of the  glottis.   Arytanoideus  major of
 Douglas.  It arises from the side of one arytenoid car
 tilage  from near its  urticulation with the  cricoid  to
 near its tip.  The fibres run across, and are inserted In
 the  same manner into  the other arytenoid cartilage
 Its use is to shut the glottis, by bringing the two aryue-
 noid cartilages,  with their ligaments,  nearer to each
 other.
   ASAFCE'TIDA.   (Asafetida, a, f.; from the He
 brew word asa, to heal.)  See Ferula.
   Asa'phatum.  (From a, neg. and catfujs, clear,  to
; called  by reason of their minuteness.1  An intercuta 
ASB
ASC
neous  disorder,  generated in the pores, like worms
With black heads
  Asa'phia.   (From  a,  neg.  and oa<j>vs> clear.)  A
dtf ct in utterance or pronunciation
  ASARABACCA.  See Asaram Europeum.
  A'SAUUM.  (Asarum, i. n.; from a, neg. and cat-
fta, to adorn; because it was not admitted into the
ancient coronal wreaths.)  1. The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnxan system.  Class, Dodecandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of  the  asarabacca.
See Asarum Europeum.
  Asarum buropjeum.  The systematic name of the
asarabacca of the shops.  Nardus montana ; Nardus
rustica; Asarum—foliis reniformibus, obtusis, binis
of Linnxus.  This plant is a  native of England, but
not very common. Its leaves are extremely acrid, and
are occasionally used, when  powdered, as a sternuta-
tory.  For this purpose, the leaves, as being less acrid
than the roots, are preferred, and in moderate doses,
not exceeding a  few grains, snuffed  up the nose, for
several evenings, produce a  pretty large watery dis-
charge, which continues  for several days together, by
which headache,  toothache, ophthalmia, and  some
paralytic  and soporific complaints have been effectu-
ally relieved.
  Prior to the introduction of ipecacuanha, the leaves
and root  of this plant were  frequently employed  on
account of their emetic power: the dose of the dried
leaves was 20 grains ;  ofthe dried roots 10 grains. As
they were occasionally violent in their operation, they
have fallen into disuse.
  Asarum hypocistis.  A  parasitical  plant which
grows in warm climates, from the roots of the Cistus.
The juice, succus hypocistidis, is a mild astringent, of
no particular  smell nor flavour.  It has fallen into
disuse.
  ASBESTOS.  Asbestus.  A mineral of which there
are five varieties, all more or less flexible  and fibrous.
1. Amianthus occurs in very long, fine, flexible, elastic
fibres, of a white, greenish, or reddish colour.  It  is
somewhat unctuous to the touch, has a silky or pearly
lustre,  and is slightly translucent.   Sectile; tough ;
sp. grav. from 1 to 2.3.
  The ancients manufactured cloth out of the fibres
of asbestos, for the purpose, it is said, of wrapping up
the bodies of the dead, when exposed on the funeral
pile.  Several moderns have likewise succeeded in
making this cloth, the chief artifice of which seems to
consist !in the admixture  of  flax and a liberal use of
oil; both  which substances  are afterward consumed
by exposing the cloth for a certain time to a red heat.
Although the cloth of asbestos, when soiled, is restored
to its primitive whiteness by heating in  the fire, it  is
found, nevertheless, by several authentic experiments,
that its weight diminishes by such treatment.  The
fibres of asbestos, exposed to the violent heat of the
blow-pipe, exhibit slight indications effusion ; though
the parts, instead of running together, moulder away,
and part fall down, while the  rest seem  to disappear
before the current of air.  Ignition impairs the flexibi-
lity of asbestos in a might degree.
  2. Common asbestos occurs in masses of fibres of a
dull greenish colour, and of a somewhat pearly lustre-
Fragments splintery.  It is scarcely flexible, and greatly
denser  than  amianthus.   It  is more abundant than
amianthus, and  is found usually in serpentine, as at
Portsoy, the Isle of Anglesea, and  the Lizard in Corn-
wall.   It was  found in the limestone of Glentilt, by
Dr. M'CulIoch, in a pasty state, but it soon hardened
by exposure to air.
  3. Mountain  Leather consists not of parallel  fibres
like the preceding, but interwoven  and interlaced so as
to become tough.  When in very thin pieces it is called
too untain paper.  Its colour is yellowish-white, and its
touch meagre.  It  is found at Wanlockhead, in La-
narkshire.  Its specific gravity is uncertain.
  4. Mountain Cork, or Elastic Asbestos, is, like the
preceding, of an interlaced fibrous texture; is opaque,
has a meagre feel and appearance, not unlike common
cork, and like it, too, is somewhat elastic.  It swims
on water.  Its colours are white, gray, and yellowish-
krown; receives an impression from the nail; very
rough; cracks when handled, and melts with difficulty
before the blow-pipe.
  5. Mountain Wood,or Ligniformasbestos,ieum».\iy
mow-he, of a bic wn colour, and having the aspect of
 wood.  Internal lustre glimmering   Soft, sectile, and
 tough; opaque;  feels meagre;  fusible into a black
 slag.  Sp. grav. 2.0.  It is  found in the Tyrol; Dau-
 phiny; and in Scotland, at Glentilt, Portsoy, and Kil-
 drumle.
   Ascaloni'tes.   A species of onion.
   ASCA'RIDES.   The plural of ascaris.
   A'SCARIS.  (Ascaris, idis ;  from aoxca, to move
 about; so called  from its continued troublesome mo-
 tion.)  The name of a genus  of intestinal worms.
 There are several species of this genus.  Those which
 belong to the human body are:—
   1.  Ascaris vermicularis,  the thread or maw worm
 which is very small and slender, not exceeding half aa.
 inch in length; it inhabits the rectum.
   2.  Ascaris bumbricoides, the long and  round worm,
 which is a foot in length, and about the breadth of
 goose-quill.
   ASCE'NDENS.  (From ad and scando, to ascend.,
 Adscendens.  Ascending.  Applied to muscles, leaves
 stalks, &c. from their direction;  as musculus obliquus
 ascendens, folium  ascendens, caulis ascendens,  the
 leaves of the  geranium vitifolium and stems of  the
 hedysarum onobrychis, Sec.
   Ascendens obliquus   See  Obliquus internus ab ■
 dominus.
   A'scia.  An axe or chisel. A simple bandage;  so
 called from its shape in position.—Galen.
   ASCIDIATUS.  (From  ascidium.)  Ascidiato  or
 pitcherform: a term applied to a leaf and other parts
 of plants which are so formed; the folium ascidiatum
 is seen in the Nepenthes  Distillatoria, and  in Sa-
 racenia.
   ASCIDIUM.   (From  a<r*«5io»',  a small  bottle.)
 The pitcher.  A  term introduced by Willdenow into
 botany to express a hollow foliaceous appendage,  re-
 sembling  a small  pitcher.   It is of rare occurrence,
 but has been found as a caulinar, foliar, and a pedun-
 cular or floral appendage.
   1.  The caulinar belongs to the Austalasian plant Ce ■
 phalotus follicularis.
   2.  The  foliar is peculiar to the genus Nepenthes.
   3.  The peduncular on the Surubea quianensis.
   ASCI'TES.  (Ascites, a. m.;  from aoicos, a sack,
 or bottle; so called from its bottle-likeprotuberancy.)
 Dropsy of the belly.  A tense, but scarcely elastic,
 swelling of the abdomen from accumulation of water
 Cullen  ranks  this genus of  disease  in  the  class Ca-
 chexia, and order, Intumescentia.   He enumerates
 two species :
   1.  Ascites abdominalis,'Yrhen  the water is in  the
 cavity  of the peritonaeum, which is known by the
 equal swelling ofthe parietes ofthe abdomen.
   2.  Ascites  saccatus, or encysted dropsy, in which
 the water is encysted, as in the ovarium: the fluctua-
 tion  is  here less evident, and the swelling  is  at first
 partial.
   Ascites is often preceded by loss of appetite, slug-
 gishness, dryness of the skin, oppression at the chest,
 cough, diminution of the natural discharge of urine.
 and  costiveness.    Shortly after the  appearance  of
 these symptoms,  a protuberance is perceived in the
 hypogastrium, which extends gradually, and  keeps on
 increasing, until the whole abdomen becomes at length
 uniformly swelled  and  tense.   The distension and
 sense of  weight,  although considerable, vary some-
 what according to the posture of the body, the  weight
 being felt the most on that side on which the patient
 lies, while, at  the same time, the distention becomes
 somewhat less on the opposite side.  In general,  the
 practitioner may be sensible of the fluctuation of  the
 water, by applying his left hand on one side of  the
 abdomen, and then striking on the other side with  his
 right.  In some cases, it will be obvious to the ear.
 As the collection of water becomes more considerable,
 the  difficulty' of  breathing  is much increased, the
 countenance exhibits a pale and bloated appearance,
 an immoderate thirst, the skin is dry and parched, and
 the  urine is very scanty,  thick, high coloured, and
 deposits a lateritious sediment.  With respect to the
 pulse, it  is variable, being  sometimes  considerably
 quickened, and, at other times, slower than natural.
 The  principal difficulty, which  prevails in ascites, is
 the being able to distinguish, with certainty, when the
 water is in the cavity of the abdomen, or when it is in
 the different states  of pncysled  dropsy.  To form a
Just judgment, we should attend  to tiic following cir- 
ASC
ASP
   ewnstanccs:—When the preceding symptoms  gave
   suspicion of a general hydropic diathesis; when, at
   the same time, some degree of dropsy appears in other
   parts of the body; and when, from its first appearance,
   the swelling has been equally diffused over the whole
   belly, we may generally presume that the water is in
   the cavity of the abdomen.  But when an ascites has
   not been preceded by any remarkable cachectic  state
   ofthe system,  and when, at its beginning, the tumour
   and tension had appeared in one part of the belly more
   than another, there  is reason to suspect an encysted
   dropsy.   Even when the  tension and  tumour of the
   belly have  become general, yet, if the system or the
   body in  general appear  to be little affected; if the pa-
  tient's strength be little impaired ; if the appetite con-
  tinue pretty entire, and the natural sleep be little inter-
  rupted; if the  menses in females continue to flow as
  usual: if there be yet no anasarca, or, though it may
  have already taken place, if it be still confined to the
  lower extremities, and  there be no lcucophlegmatic
  paleness or sallow colour in the countenance; if there
  be no fever, nor so much thirst  and scarcity of urine
  as occur in a more general affection : then according
  as more of these different circumstances take place,
  there will be the stronger  grounds for supposing the
  ascites to be of the encysted kind.  The encysted form
  ofthe disease scarcely admits of a perfect cure, though
  its progress to  a fatal termination is  generally very
  Blow ; and the  peritoneal dropsy is mostly very Obsti-
  nate, depending usually on organic disease in the liver,
  or other abdominal viscera.  The plan of treatment
  agrees very much with that of anasarca; which  see.
  The operation  of paracentesis  should  only be  per-
  formed where the distension is very great, and  the re-
  spiration or other important functions impeded; and
  it will often  be better not to draw off the whole of the
  fluid at once; great care must be taken, too, to keep
  up sufficient pressure by a broad bandage over the ab-
  domen ; for even fatal syncope has arisen from the ne-
  glect of this. The contraction of the muscles will  be
  promoted  by friction.  Cathartics are found more de-
 cidedly beneficial than in anasarca, where the bowels
 will bear their liberal use.  Diuretics too, arc of great
 importance in the treatment; and, among other means
 of increasing the flow of urine, long-continued gentle
 friction of the abdomen  with oil has been sometimes
 very successful, probably by promoting absorption  in
 the first instance; the only use of  the oil seems to be
 that  the friction is thereby better borne.  In cases
 where visceral obstructions have led to the effusion,
 these must be removed, before a cure can be accom-
 plished : and for this purpose mercury is the remedy
 most to be depended upon, besides that  in  combina-
 tion with squill, or digitalis, it will often prove power-
 fully diuretic. Tonic medicines, a nutritious diet, and,
 if the complaint appears giving way, such exercise as
 the patient can take, without fatigue, with other means
 of improving the general health, ought not to be ne-
 glected.
   ASCLEPI'ADES, a celebrated physician, bom at
 Frusa, in  Bithynia, who flourished somewhat before
 the time of Pompey.  He originally taught rhetoric,
 but not meeting with success, applied himself to  the
 study of medicine, in which he soon became famous
 from the novelty of his theory and practice.  He sup-
 poses disease to arise from the motion of the particles
 of the blood  and other fluids  being obstructed by the
 straitness  of the vessels, whence pain, fever, Sec en-
 sued.  He deprecated the use of  violent remedies, as
 emetics and purgatives, but  frequently employed clys-
 ters, when costiveness attended.  In fevers, he chiefly
 relied on a complete abstinence from food or drink for
 three days  or more; but when their violence abated,
 allowed animal  food  and wine.  In pleurisies, and
 other complaints attended with violent pain, he pre-
 scribed bleeding; but  in  those of a chronic nature,
 depended  principally on  abstinence, exercise, baths,
 and frictions.  None of his works remain at present.
 He is said to have pledged his reputation on the pre-
 servation of his  own health, which he retained to a
great age, and died at length from a fall.
  ASCLE'PIAS. (From Asclcpias, adis. f.; so named
after its discoverer; or from JEsculapiu's, the god of
medicine.)  The name of a genus  of plants in the Lin-
nsean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  Asllepias  8YR1ACA. Syrian dog's bane. This plant
is particularly ooisonous "to dogs,  and.aUo to the hu-
   Iman species.  Boiling appears to destroy the poison ll
   the young shoots, which are then said to be esculent,
   and flavoured like asparagus.
    Asolepias  vincetoxicum.   The systematic  name
 i  for the vincctoxtcum of the pharmacopceins.  llcrmi-
 \dinaria; Asclcpias.  Swallow-wort;  Tame  poison
   The root of this plant  smells,  when  fresh, somewhat
   of valerian; chewed, it imparts at first a considerable
   sweetness, which is soon succeeded by an unpleasant
   subacrid bitterness.  It is given in some countries in
   the cure of glandular obstructions.
    Ascle'pios.   (From Asclcpias, its  inventor.)  A
  dried sinegna and collyriuin described by Galen.
    Asco'ma.  (From aoicos, a bottle.)   The  eminence
  of the pubes at the years of maturity, so called from
  its shape.
    ASCYROIDEiE.  A  name  given by Scoipoli to a
  class of  plants which  resemble  the  Ascyrum, St
 Peter's worth.
    A'sef. A pustule like a millet seed.
    A'segon.  Asegen; Asogen.   Dragon's blood.  See
  Calamus rotang.
    ASE'LLIUS, Caspar, of Cremona, bom about the
 year 1580, taught anatomy at Paris with great reputa-
 tion. In  1622, he discovered the lacteals  in  a dog
 opened soon after a meal, and noticed their valves, but
 supposed  they  went to  the liver.  These  vessels, he
 candidly observes, had been mentioned by some of the
 earliest medical writers, but not described, nor their
 function stated; and not being noticed by any modern
 anatomist previously, the discovery is properly attri-
 buted to him.  His death took place four years after,
 subsequent to which  his dissertation  on the subject
 was published by his friends.
   ASH.  See Fraxinus excelsior.
   [Ashes.  The residuum, after the incineration of
 wood.  It is also applied to the alkali extracted by
 lixiviation, under the names of Pot-ash, and Pearl-ash,
 both of which  are included in the mercantile title
 Ashes. A.]
   Asiaticum balsamum.  Balm of Gilead.
   A'SINUS.  The ass.  A species ofthe germs Equus.
 Its milk is preferred to cow's and other kinds of milk,
 in phthisical cases, and where the stomach is weak;
 as containing less oleaginous particles, and being more
 easily converted into chyle.  See Milk, Asses.
   Asini'num lac  Asses' milk.
   Asi'ti.  (From a, neg. and a-troy, food.)  Asitia
 Those are so called who take no food, for want of
 appetite.
   A'sjogam.  (Indian.)   A tree growing in Malabar
 and the East Indies, the juice of which is used against
 the colic.
   Aso'des.  (Frem aSu>, to  nauseate.)  A nausea or
 loathing, or a fever with much sense of heat and nau-
 sea.—Aretaus.
   Aspadia'lis.  A  suppression of urine from an im-
 perforated urethra.
   Aspalathum.  S,ee Lignum aloes.
   ASPALATHUS.  (From a, and anato, because  the
 thorns were  not easily  drawn  out of  the wounds
 they made.)  The name  of a genus of  plants in  the
 Linnean system. Class,  Diadelphia;  Order, Decan-
 dria.
   Aspalathus canariensis.  The  systematic name
 of the rose-wood tree, or  lignum rhodium of the an-
 cients.  An essential oil  is obtained from the roots,
 which is used principally as a perfume;  but is an  ex
 cellent cordial and carminative given internally.  The
 best preparation is a tincture, made by macerating four
 ounces of the wood in a pint of rectified spirit.
 ASP A R AGIN. White transparent crystals, of a pecu
 liar vegetable principle, which spontaneously form i|
 asparagus juice which has been evaporated to the con-
 sistence of 6yrup. They are in the form of rhomboids}
 prisms, hard and brittle, having a cool and slightly nau
 seous taste.  They dissolve in hot water, but sparingly
 in  cold water, and not at all in alkohol.  On being heat
 ed, they swell  and  emit  penetrating vapours, which
 affect the eyes and nose like wood-smoke.  Their solu-
tion does not change vegetable blues; nor is it affected
by hydrosulphuret of potassa, oxalate of ammonia, ace-
tate of lead, or infusion of galls. Lime disengages r.m
monia from it; though none is evolved by triturating it
with potassa.  The  asparagus juice should  be first
 heated to coagulate the albumen, then filtered and left
to  spontaneous evaporation for 15 or !2U days.  Along 
ASF
ASP
with the asparagin crystals, others iu needles of little
consistency appear, analogous to mannite, from which
the first, can be  easily picked out—Vauquelin and
Robiquet.  Annates de Chimie, vol. Iv.  and Nichol-
son's Journal, 15.
  ASPA'RAGUS.  (Asparagus, i. m. Acnapayos, a
young shoot before it unfolds its leaves.)  1. The
name of a genus of plants iu the Linna>an system.
Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.  Asparagus,
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the sparage.  See
Asparagus officinalis.
  Asparagus officinalis.  The systematic name of
the asparagus, the root of which has been esteemed as
a diuretic. It is  mostly employed  as a food, but it
contains very little nourishment A peculiar vegeta-
ble principle, called asparagin, has been found in this
plant.  See Asparagin.
  [ASPARAGUS STONE.  This is one of the va-
rieties of the phosphate of lime.  Vauquelin found it
to contain lime 54.28, phosphoric acid 45.7-J; by which
analysis it appears to  differ but little from Apatite,
the other variety,  which see.  A.]
  Aspa'sia.  (From a,  for aua, together, and anaui, to
draw.)  A constrictive medicine  for the pudendum
muliebrc.   Capivac.
  ASPER.  Rough.   Applied to  parts which are
rough, as linea aspera, Sec.
  In  the  language of botany, scaber and  asper are
used synonymously.
  Asper caulis.   Caulis scaber.  Scabrous stem; is
when it is thickly covered with papule which are not
visible,  but can be felt when running  the finger along
>t;  as  in Galium aperine, Lithospermum arvense,
Centaurea nigra,  Sec
  Aspera arteria.  (So called from the-fnequality
of its cartilages.)  See  Trachea.
  ASPERLFOLLE.  (From asper, rough.)  Rough-
leaved plants.  The name of a class  and of an order
of plants given by Boerhaave, Ray, Linneus, Sec.
  ASPE'RULA.  (A diminutive of asper, the seeds
being rough.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnean system.   Class, Tetrandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Asperula odorata.  The systematic name for the
officinal matrisylva.  Woodruff.  It is a low umbelli-
ferous plant, growing wild in woods and copses, and
flowering in May. It hath an agreeable odour, which
is much improved by moderate drying; the taste is a
little austere.  It imparts its flavour to vinous liquors;
and is  commended  as  a cordial and deobstruent
remedy.
  Asphalti'tis.  1.  A kind of trefoil.
  2. The last vertebra of the loins.
  ASPHALTUM. Asphaltus.  This substance, like-
wise  called Bitumen Judaicum, or Jews' Pitch, is a
smooth, hard, brittle, black or brown substance, which
breaks with a polish, melts easily when healed, and
when pure burns without leaving any  ashes.   It is
found in  a soft or liquid state on the surface of the
Dead sea, but by  age grows dry and hard.  The same
kind of bitumen is likewise found in the earth in other
parts of the world; in China; America, particularly
in the island of Trinidad; and some parts of Europe,
as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel, &c.
  According to Neumann, the asphaltum of the shops
is a very different  compound from the native bitumen;
and varies, of course, in its properties, according to
the nature of the ingredients made use of in forming
it.  On this account, and probably from other reasons,
the use of asphaltum, as an article  of the  materia
medica, is totally laid aside.
  The Egyptians used asphaltum in embalming, under
the name of mumia mineralis, for which  it is well
adapted.  It was used for mortar at Babylon.
  [This bitumen  is dry and solid, and usually very
brittle, but often  too hard to receive an impression
from the finger nail.  In some varieties its fracture is
more or less conchoidal, and shining with a resinous
lustre; in others, it is  earthy, or uneven,  or nearly
dull.  The earthy variety is less hard than the others,
and seems to be  intermediate between Maltha and
the  harder kinds of Asphaltum.—CI. Min.
  The ancient bricks  of Babylon, several of which I
have  had the best opportunities to examine, have a
portion of bitumen adhering to them.  This is black,
anil emits, by burning, a somewhat aromatic vapour.
U appears to haw lost  none of its peculiar qualities,
during the term of 3000 or 4000 years, since  it was
first incorporated as a cement, in the walls and towers
constructed  by the ancient  inhabitants  of Shinaar.
The specimens I possess  of modern  bitumen from
Bosrah, or its vicinity, are substantially the same with
that used of old.
  Asphaltum of St. Antonio,  at the western extremity
of Cuba, is compact, deep black, and capable of sup-
porting a flame when heated and set on fire.   That
from Trinidad island is not so pure; but  is stated to
be much more abundant.  Specimens from St. Ste-
phens, near the Alabama river, were sent me by Mr
Magoffin.—MitchilVs Notes to Philips's Min.   A.]
  ASPHO'DELUS.  (Asphodelus, i. m. from aoms, a
serpent, and SaXos, fearful;  because  it destroys the
venom of serpents: or from  oTrot5«Xof,  ashes, because
it was formerly sown upon the graves of the  dead.)
1.  The name of a genus of  plants in the Linnean sys-
tem.  Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the daffodil.  See
Asphodelus ramosus.
  Asphodelus ramosus.  The systematic name for
the officinal, or branched asphodel.   Asphodelus:—
caulenudo ; foliis enciformibus, carinatis, lavibus, of
Linneus.  The plant was formerly supposed to  be eftS ■
cacious in the cure of sordid ulcers.  It is now wholly
laid aside.
  ASPHY'XIA.  (Asphyxia, a. f.; from  a, priv. and
ctbvlts, a pulse.)  The state ofthe body, during life, in
which the pulsation of the heart and  arteries cannot
be perceived.  There are several species of asphyxia
enumerated  by different authors.  See Syncope.
  Aspidi'scus. (From aoms, a buckler.) The sphincter
muscle of the anus was formerly so  called  from its
shape.—Celius Aurelianus.
  [ASPINWALL, William, M.  D.   was born  in
Brookline, Mass., on the 23d of May, (old style,) 1743.
His ancestors emigrated from England about the year
1630.  He was fitted for College by the Rev. Amos
Adams, minister of Roxbury, and was graduated at
Harvard  University,  in 1764.  It was the personal
interest which he took in the revolutionary contest,
acting upon a mind  deeply imbued with a sense of
his country's wrongs, that  gave strength and tone to
his sentiments in after life.  Dr. Aspinwall's language
on political  subjects was bold and strong, his  creed
being that of a democratic republican.  In the unhappy
scenes of party excitement, he unwaveringly adhered
to what he deemed original and fundamental princi-
ples ; but he aimed to preserve a good conscience, and
to do justice to the honest opinions, the pure motives,
and  undoubted integrity of his opponents.  He was
not a political persecutor; and, when  he was  in the
councils of the State, resolutely declined acting with
his coadjutors, who were disposed to drive from office
incumbents, whose only fault was what they deemed
political heresy.
  After the death of the eminent and distinguished
Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, the first inoculator of small-pox
in America, Dr. Aspinwall  established himself in that
undertaking, and erected hospitals for that purpose in
Brookline.   Perhaps no practitioner in the United
States ever  inoculated so many persons, or acquired
such skill  and celebrity in  treating  this malignant
disease, as  Dr. Aspinwall.  Besides his practice in
this disorder when it generally spread, he was allowed,
after the year  1788,  to keep a hospital  open at all
times, to  which  great numbers resorted, and from
which they returned with warm expressions of satis-
faction.   He continued  in the successful treatment of
this disease, till the genera!  introduction of vaccine
inoculation.   He  had made ample accommodation
for enlarged practice, and  established what  might
have  been justly deemed a sure  foundation for pros-
perity, when vaccine inoculation was first introduced.
He well knew that if vaccination possessed the virtues
ascribed to it, his schemes  of fortune and usefulness
arising from inoculation at  his hospital, were ruined;
that he should be  involved in loss, and bis anticipa-
tions of fortune would be  blasted.  But as an  honest
man and faithful  physician,  he deemed it his duty to
inquire into the efficacy of the novel substitute.   With
the utmost alacrity, therefore, he gave the experiment
a fair trial,  promptly acknowledged its efficacy, and
relinquished his own establishment.  The foregoing
is  corroborated by the  following statement, recently
made by Dr. Watcrhouse.in the Medical Intelligencer 
ASP
AST
   " The late Dr. Aspinwall, a man of great sagacity,
 and uncommonly well grounded in the principles of
 bis profession, gave evidence of it on the first sight of
 a vaccine pustule.  I had invited all the elder physi-
 cians of Boston, and tho vicinity of Cambridge, to see
 the  first vaccine  pustules  ever  raised in the new
 world.  They gave them the ordinary inspection on
 the skin; all but Dr. Aspinwall, whose attention was
 rivetted on the pustule, its  areola, and efflorescence.
 He came a second time, and viewed the inoculated
 part in  every light, and reviewed it, and seemed loath
 to leave the sight of it.  He seemed wrapped in seri-
 ous thought, and said repeatedly—' This pustule is so
 like small-pox, and yet it is not small-pox, that should
 it, on scabbing, take out a portion of the true skin, so
 as to leave an indelible mark or pit behind, I shall be
 ready to conclude that it is a mild species of small-
 pox, hitherto  unknown  here.'  He had been in the
 habit of examining the small-pox pimple and pustule
 through glasses, to know if it ' had taken;' and  he
 remarked, that they were peculiar, unique, and unlike
 any other eruption he ever saw; but that this kine-
 poclc came the nearest to it.  Some time after, I gave
 him a portion of the  virus  to make his own experi-
 ments,  and  observe the  progress of its inoculation,
 and coincidence of the constitutional symptoms;  when
 he observed, that its  progress, febrile affection, and '
 mode of scabbing, were very like small-pox, and so of
 the indelible mark left  on the arm; yet, throughout
 the whole visible affection, different.  To crown the
 whole  of his honourable conduct, he some time after
 took all those of my family whom  I had vaccinated,
 into his small-pox hospital,  the only licensed one in
 the state, and there tested them to his satisfaction,
 and  one to  the very verge of rigid experiment: and
 then he said to me and others—' This new inoculation
 of yours is no sham.  As a man of humanity, I rejoice
 \n it;   although it  will  take from me a handsome
 annual  income.'  His conduct throughout was  so
 strongly marked with superior intelligence, generosity,
 and hononr, as to excite  my esteem and respect; and
 I accordingly dedicate this effusion of gratitude to the
 memory of the Hon.  William Aspinwall, M. D.; a
 gentleman respectable in public life as a counsellor,
 and  an  honour to his profession as a physician."—
 Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
   ASPLENIUM.  (Asplenium, ii. n.; from a, priv.
 o-irXi7v, the spleen; because it was supposed to remove
 disorders of the spleen.) The name of a genus  of
 plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Cryptogamia;
 Order, Filices.
  Asplenium ceterach. The systematic name  of
 the herb spleenwort  Miltwaste.  Scolopendria vera;
 Dorodilla.  This small bushy plant, Asplenium—fron-
 dibus pinnatifidis, lobis alternis covfluentibus obtusis
of Linnteus, grows upon old  walls and rocks.  It has
 an herbaceous,  mucilaginous, roughish taste, and is
recommended as a pectoral.  In Spain it is given,
with great success, in nephritic and calculous diseases.
  Asplenium ruta muraria.  The systematic name
for the  ruta muraria of the pharmacopoeias.  It is
supposed by some to possess specific virtues in the cure
of ulcers of the lungs, and is exhibited in the form of
decoction.
  Asplenium scolopendrium.  The systematic name
for the scolopendrium of the pharmacopoeias.  Philli-
tis ;  Lingua cervina.   Harts-tongue.  This indige-
nous plant, Asplenium—frondibus simplicibus,cordato
lingulatis, intcgerrimis;  stipitibus hirsutis of Lin-
neus: grows on most shady banks, walls, &c.  It has
a slightly astringent and  mucilaginous sweetish taste.
When  fresh and rubbed, it  imparts a disaereeable
smell.  Harts-tongue, which is one ofthefive capillary
 herbs, was formerly much used to strengthen the vis-
cera, restrain hemorrhages and alvine fluxes, and to
 open obstructions of theliver and spleen, and for the
 genera! purposes of demulcents and pectorals.
  Asplenium trichomanes. The systematic name
 for the trichomanes of the pharmacopoeias.  Common
maiden-hair or spleenwort.   Asplenium—frondibus
jrinnatts, pinnis subrotundis, crenatis of Linneus.
 Phis plant is admitted  into the Edinburgh Pharmaco-
 pceia: the leaves have a  mucilaginous, sweetish, sub-
 astringent taste, without any particular flavour: they
 are •.-stecined useful in disorders of the breast, being
 supposed  to  promote  the  expectoration  of tough
 *hiegin, and to open obstructions of the viscera.
   ASS.  See Asinus
   Ass's milk.  See Asinus.
   Assad a.  A shrub found on the coast of Guinea, tM
 leaves of which are supposed to disperse buboes.
   ASSAFCE'TLDA.  See  Ferula assafatida.
   ASSARABA'CCA.   See Asarum Europeum.
   Assa'rium. A Roman measure of twelve ounces.
   Assarthro'sis.  Articulation.
   ASSAY.   Essay.  This operation consists in de-
 termining the quantity of  valuable or precious metal
 contained in any mineral or metallic mixture, by ana-
 lyzing a small part thereof.  The practical difference
 between the analysis and  the assay of an  ore, con
 sists  in  this: The analysis, if properly made, deter-
 mines the nature and quantities of all the parts of the
 compound; whereas the object of the assay consists in
 ascertaining how much of the  particular  metal in
 question may be contained in  a  certain  determinate
 quantity of the material under examination.  Thus,
 in the assay of gold or silver, the baser metals are con-
 sidered as of no value or consequence ; and the prob-
 lem to be resolved is simply, how much of each is
 contained in the ingot or piece of metal intended to be
 assayed.
  ASSIMULA'TION.   (Assimilatio,  from  ad, and
 similis, to make like to.) The conversion of the food
 into nutriment.
  Assiste'ntes.   (From ad, and sisto, to stand near.)
 A name of the prostate  glands, so called because
 they lie near the bladder.
  ARSO'DES. (From aaaopat, to nauseate, or from
 assarc, to burn.) Asodes. A continual fever, attended
 with a loathing of food.
  A'STACUS.  (Astacus,  i. m.;  from a, neg.  and
 traXtfo, todistil; so called from the hardness and dryness
 of its shell.)  The name of a genus of shell-fish.
  Astacus fluviatilis.    The  officinal crevis, or
 cray-fish.  See Cancer astacus.
  Astacus marinus.  The lobster.  See Cancer gam-
 marus.
  A'stapsis.  (From sa<fus, uva passa.)  A raisin.
  Astera'ntivm.   (From  ay^p, a star.)   The pelli-
 tory;  so called from its star-like form.  See Anthemis
pyrethrum.
  Astericum. (From the star-like appearance of the
 flowers.)  The pellitory.  See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  ASTHE'NIA.  (From a, priv. and oBtvos, strength.)
 Extreme debility.   The asthenic diseases form  one
 great  branch of the Brunonian arrangement.
  ASTHENOLOGY.   (Asthenologia, a. f.; from a,
 priv. and oBtvos, strength, and Xoyos, a treatise.)  The
doctrine of diseases arising from debility.  The disci-
ples of the Brunonian  school, as they denominate
 themselves, maintain peculiar opinions on this subject.
  A'STHMA.  (Asthma, matis, neut.: from ao0/jagu>,
to  breathe  with  difficulty.)    Difficult respiration,
returning  at intervals,  with  a  sense of stricture
across the  breast,  and  in  the lungs;  a  wheezing,
hard cough, at first, but more free towards the close of
each paroxysm, with a discharge of mucus, followed
by a remission. It is ranked by Cullen in the class
Neurosis, and order Spasmi. There are, according to
him, three species of asthma:—
  1. Asthma spontaneum, when without any manifest
cause.
  2. Asthma plethoricum,xvhen it arises from plethora
  3. Asthma exanthematicum, originating from the re
pulsion of some acrid humour.
  Asthma rarely appears before the age  of puberty,
and seems to attack men  more frequently than women,
particularly those of a full  habit,  in whom it never
fails, by frequent repetition, to occasion some degree
of emaciation.  In some instances, it arises from an
hereditary predisposition, and in many others, it seems
to depend upon a particular constitution of the lungs.
Dyspepsia always prevails, and appears to be a very
prominent feature in the predisposition.  Its attacks
arc most frequent during the heats of summer, in the
dog-days, and  in general commence about midnight
On  the evening preceding  an attack of asthma, the,
spirits are often much affected, and the person expe-
riences a sense of fulness about the stomach, with las
situde, drowsiness, and a pain  in  the head.  On tho
approach of the succeeding evening, he perceives a
sense of lightness  and stricture across the breast, and
a sense of struitness in the lungs, impeding respiration.
The difficulty of breathing continuing to increase for 
AST
AST
some length of time, both inspiration and expiration
are performed slowly, and with a wheezing noise; the
speech becomes difficult and uneasy, a propensity to
coughing succeeds, and the patient can no longer re-
main in a horizontal position, being as it were threat-
ened with  immediate suffocation.   These symptoms
Usually continue till towards the approach of morn-
ing, and then a remission commonly lakes place;  the
breathing becomes less laborious  and more full, and
the  person speaks and  coughs with greater ease.  If
the cough is attended with an expectoration of mucus,
he  experiences  much relief, and soon falls asleep.
When he  awakes in the morning, he still feels some
degree of  tightness  across his breast, although  his
bieathing is probably more free and easy, and he can-
not bear the least motion, without rendering this more
difficult and uneasy; neither can he continue in bed,
unless his head and shoulders are raised to a consider-
able  height.   Towards evening,  he again becomes
drowsy, is  much troubled with flatulency in the sto-
mach, and  perceives  a return of the difficulty of
breathing, which continues to  increase gradually, till
it becomes as violent as on the night before.  After
some nights passed in this way, the fits at length mo-
derate, and suffer more considerable remissions, par-
ticularly when they are attended by a copious expec-
toration in the mornings, and this continues from time
to time throughout the day; and the disease going off
at last, the patient enjoys his usual rest by night, with-
out further disturbance.  The pulse is not necessarily
affected in this disease, though often quickened by the
difficulty of breathing; and sometimes slight pyrexia
attends.   In  plethoric habits, the  countenance  is
flushed and turgid during the fit;  but in others rather
pale and shrunk: in the former, too, some difficulty of
breathing and wheezing usually remain in the interval;
in others the recovery is more complete.  On this is
founded the common distinction  of asthma into  the
humid, pituitous, or catarrhal, and the dry, spasmodic,
or nervous forms.  The exciting causes are various:—
accumulation of blood, or viscid mucus in the lungs,
noxieus vapours, a cold and foggy  atmosphere, or a
close hot air, the repulsion of eruptions, or other me-
tastatic diseases, flatulence, accumulated feces,  vio-
lent passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera,
&.c.  Sometimes  the  fits  return at pretty  regular
periods; and it  is generally difficult to obviate future
attacks, when it has once occurred: but it often con-
tinues to  recur for many years,  and seldom proves
fatal, except as inducing hydrothorax,  phthisis, &c.
The treatment must vary according to the form ofthe
disease.  In young persons of a plethoric habit, with
great  dyspnoea, a flushed countenance, accelerated
pulse, &x.  the  abstraction of blood will be found to
afford marked  relief;  but under  opposite  circum-
stances, it  might be  highly injurious, and  we should
always avoid repeating  it unnecessarily.  In ambigu-
ous cases, cupping may be preferred, or leeches to the
chest, with blisters.   Mild  cathartics should also be
employed; or where costiveness appears to induce the
fits, those of a more active nature.  Nauseating emetics
are  of considerable service, especially where the  pa-
tient is distressed with viscid mucus, not only by pro-
moting perspiration  and expectoration, but also by
their antispasmodic power, the return of a paroxysm
may often be prevented by their  timely use.   Squill
combined with Ipecacuanha is one of the best forms.
Where the disease is of the purely spasmodic charac-
ter, opium will be found the most powerful palliative
remedy, especially if combined with ether, though it
unfortunately  loses some of its power  by repetition;
the foetid gum resins are also useful, particularly where
the bowels are torpid; and other antispasmodics may
be occasionally employed.  The practice of smoking,
or chewing tobacco, has sometimes appeared extremely
beneficial;  and a cup of strong coffee has often afforded
speedy relief.   Means should  also  be  employed  for
strengthening the system; and where there appears a
tendency to serous effusion, digitalis may be very useful.
But  by far the most  important part of the treatment
consists in obviating  or removing the several exciting
causes, whether operating on the lungs immediately,
or through  the medium of the prime vie, Sec  Indi-
vidual experience can alone ascertain what state of the
atmosphere as to  temperature, dryness, purity,  &c.
shall be most  beneficial to asthmatics, though a good
deal depends on habit in this respect: but a due regu-
lation of this, as well as of the diet, and other parts of
regimen, will  usually afford more permanent relief
than any medicines we can employ.
  A'STITES.  (From  ad, and sto,  to  stand  near.)
A name given by the ancients to the prostate glands,
because they are situated near the bladder.
  ASTRA'GALUS. (Astragalus, i. m.; As-payaXoc,
a cockle, or die;  because it is shaped like the die used
in ancient games.)  1. The ankle-bone; a bone of the
tarsus, upon which the  tibia moves.  Also called the
sling-bone, or first bone of the foot.  Ballisteos; aria-
trios; talus;  quatrio;  tetruros;  cavicula;  cavilla;
diabebos; peza.  It is placed posteriorly and superiorly
in the tarsus, and is formed of two parts, one large,
which  is called its body, the other small, like a pro-
cess.  The part where these two unite is termed the
neck.
  2. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnxan
system.   Class, Diadelphia ; Order, Decandria.
  Astragalus excapus.  Stemless milk-vetch. The
root of this plant, Astragalus acaulis excapus ;—legu-
minibus lunatis ; foliis villosis of Linneus, is said to
cure confirmed syphilis, especially when in the form
of nodes and nocturnal pains.
  Astragalus tragacantha.   The former system
atic name for the plant which affords the gum  traga-
canth.   See Astragalus verus.
  Astragalus  verus.  Goat's thorn.   Milk-vetch.
Spina hirci; Astragalus  tragacantha; Astragalus
aculeatus.  We are indebted to a French traveller, of
the name of Olivier, for the discovery that the gum
tragacanth of commerce, is the produce of a species of
astragalus not before known. He describes it under the
name of astragalus verus, being different both from A.
tragacantha of Linneus, and from the A. gummifera
of Labillardiere.   It grows in the North of Persia.
Gum-tragacanth, or gum dragant, or dragon, (which
is forced from  this plant by the intensity of the solar
rays, is  concreted into irregular lumps or vermicular
pieces, bent into a variety of shapes, and larger or
smaller proportions, according to the size ofthe wound
from which it issues,) is  brought chiefly from Turkey,
in irregular lumps, or long vermicular pieces bent into
a variety of shapes: the best sort is white, semi-trans-
parent, dry, yet somewhat soft to the touch.
  Gum-tragacanth differs from all the other known
gums, in giving  a thick consistence to a much  larger
quantity of water; and in being much more difficultly
soluble, or rather  dissolving only imperfectly.    Put
into water, it slowly imbibes a great quantity of the
liquid, swells into a large volume, and forms  a soft
but not fluid mucilage; if more water  be added,  a
fluid solution may be obtained  by agitation  but the
liquor looks turbid and wheyish, and on standing, the
mucilage subsides, the  limpid water on the surface
retaining little of  the gum.  Nor does the admixture
of the preceding more soluble gums promote its  union
with the water, or render its dissolution more durable:
when gum-tragacanth and gum-arabic are dissolved
together in water, the tragacanth separates from the
mixture more speedily than when dissolved by itself.
  Tragacanth  is usually preferred to the other gums
for making up troches, and other like purposes, and
is supposed likewise to be the most effectual as a  medi-
cine; but on  account of  its imperfect solubility, is
unfit for liquid forms.  It is commonly given in pow-
der, with the addition  of other matenals of similar
intention; thus, to one part of gum-tragacauth are
added one of  gum-arabic, one of starch, and  six of
sugar.
  According to Bucholtz, gum-tragacanth is composed
of 57 parts of a matter similar to gum-arabic, and 43
parts of a peculiar substance, capable of swelling in
cold water without dissolving, and assuming the ap-
pearance of a thick jelly.  It  is soluble in boiling
water, and then forms a  mucilaginous solution.
  The demulcent qualities  of tliis gum are to be con
sidered as similar to those of gum-arabic.   It is seldom
given alone,  but frequently in combination with more
powerful medicines, especially in the form of troches,
for which it is  peculiarly well adapted: it gives  name
to an officinal compound  powder, and was an  ingre
dient in the compound powder of cerusse.
  ASTRA'NTLA.  (From aorpov, astrum, a star; so
called from the star-like shape of its flowers.)  The
name Uff a genus  of plants in the Linnean system.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Dyginia. 
A  H
ATM
   •istrantia MAJOR.  Astrantia vulgaris.
   ■dstrantia nigra.  The  herb snnicle master-wort.
A rustic purge in the time of Gerard.
   A'strape.  (From afpanjto, to corruscate.)  Light-
ning.  Galen reckons it among  the remote causes of
epilepsy.
   ASTRI'CTUS.  (From astnngo, to bind.)  When
applied to the belly, it signifies costiveness; thus,
alvus astricta.
   ASTRINGENT.  (Aslringens; from astringo,to
constringe.)  Adstringent.   That which, when applied
to the body, renders the solids denser and firmer, by
contracting their fibres, independently of their living,
or muscular power.  Astringents thus serve to dimi-
nish excessive discharges; and by causing greater
compression ofthe nervous fibrille, may lessen morbid
sensibility or irritability.  Hence  they may tend indi
rectly to restore the strength, when impaired by these
causes. The chief articles of this class are the acids,
alum, lime-water, chalk, certain preparations of cop-
per, zinc,  iron, and lead;   the gallic acid, which is
commonly  found united with the true astringent prin-
ciple, was  long mistaken for it.  Seguin first distin-
guished them, and, from the use of this principle in
tanning skins, has given it the name of tannin.  Their
characteristic differences are, the gallic acid forms  a
black precipitate with  iron; the astringent  principle
forms an insoluble compound with albumen.
   ASTRONO'MY.  (Astronomia; from arpov, a star,
and vopos, a law.)  The knowledge  of the heavenly
bodies.  Hippocrates ranks this and astrology among
the necessary studies of a physician.
  ASTRUC, John,  a  learned  physician,  born  in
France, 1684.  He studied  and took bis degrees at
Moutpelier, and became afterward a professor there.
In 1729, he was appointed physician to the  king of
Poland, but soon returned to his native country, was
made consulting physician  to the French king, and
professor of medicine  at Paris,  where  he attained
great celebrity.  He was author of numerous medical
and  philosophical works, but especially one  " on Ve-
nereal Diseases," which deservedly became extremely
popular, and was translated into various modern lan-
guages. He lived to the advanced age of 82.
  ATA'XIA.  (From a, neg. and raaata, to order.)
Want of regularity in the  symptoms of a disease, or
of the functions of an animal body.
  ATE'CNIA.   (From a,  neg. and tiktio, to bring
forth.)  Venereal  impotency:  inability to procreate
children.
  ATHAMANTA.  (Athamanta, a. feem; so named
from Athamas in Thessaly.) The name of a genus
of plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Digynia.
  Athamanta cretensis.  The systematic name for
the daucus  creticus of the pharmacopoeias.  Myrrhus
annua.  Candy carrot  The  seeds  of this  plant,
Athamanta—foliolis linearibus planis, hirsutis ; peta-
lis bipartitis; seminibus oblongis hirsutis, of Lin-
neus, are brought from the isle  of Candy: they have
an aromatic smell, and a  slightly-biting taste;  and
are  occasionally  employed as  carminatives,  and
diuretics in diseases of the prims vie and urinary
passages.
  Athamanta oreoselinum.  The systematic name
for the officinal oreoselinum. Black mountain parsley.
The root and seed  of this plant, Athamanta—foliolis
divaricatis  of Linneus, as well  as  the whole herb,
were  formerly used medicinally   Though formerly
iu so high estimation as to obtain the epithet of polij-
chrcsta, this plant is  seldom used in the practice of
the present day.  An extract and tincture prepared
from the root were  said to be  attendant, aperient,
deobstruent, and lithontriptic.  The oil obtained by
distillation  from  the seed was  esteemed  to allay the
toothache;  and  the  whole was recommended as an
antiscorbutic and corroborant.
  ATHAMANTICUM.  See JEthusa meum.
  ATHANA'SIA.    (From  a,  priv.  and  Savaros,
death; so called because its flowers do not wither
easily.)  1. The immortal plant.  A name  given to
tansy; because when stuffed up the nose of a dead
corpse, it is said to prevent putrefaction.  See Tana-
tetum vulgare.
  2. It means also immortality.
  3. The name of an antidote of Galen, and another
of Oribasius.
      108
  4. It is the name  also of a collyrium  described by
A£tius, and of many other compositions.
  A'thara.  (From aBnp, corn.)  A panada, or pap
for children, made of bruised corn.
  ATHERO'MA.  (Atheroma, atis, n. ABnpoua, pulse,
pap.)  An encysted tumour that contains a soft sub-
stance of the consistence of a poultice.
  ATHRIX.  (AVli debilis, weak.)
  1. Weakness.
  2. (From a, priv. and Bpi\, a pair.)  Baldness.
  ATHY'MIA.  (From a, neg. and Svpos, courage.j
  1. Pusillanimity.
  2. Despondency or melancholy.
  A'TLAS.  (Atlas, antis, m.; from ArXata, to sus-
tain, because it sustains the head ;  or from the fable
of Atlas,  who  was supposed to  support the world
upon his shoulders.) The name of  the first vertebra.
This vertebra differs very much from the others.  See
Vertebra.   It has  no  spinous process which would
prevent the neck from being bent backwards, but in
its place it has a small eminence.  The great foramen
of this is much larger than that of any other vertebra
Its  body, which is small and thin, is, nevertheless, firm
and hard.  It is somewhat like a ring,  and is distin-
guished into its great arch, which serves in  the place
of its body, and its small posterior arch.   The atlas is
joined superiorly to the head by ginglymus; and infe-
riorly, to the second cervical vertebra,  by means of
the inferior oblique processes, and the odontoid process
by trochoides.
  ATMOMETER.  The name of an instrument to
measure the quantity of exhalation from  a humid sur-
face in a given time.
  ATMOSPHERE. (Atmosphera, a. f.; fromaruos,
vapour, and  odiaipa, a  globe.)  The elastic invisible
fluid which surrounds the earth to an  unknown height,
and encloses it on all sides.  Neither the properties
nor the composition of the atmosphere, seem to have
occupied  much the attention of the ancients.  Aris-
totle considered it as one ofthe four elements, situated
between the  regions of water and fire,  and mingled
with two exhalations, the dry and the moist; the first
of which  occasioned thunder, lightning, and wind;
while the second produced rain, snow, and hail.
  The opinions of the ancients were vague conjectures,
until the matter was explained by the sagacity of
Hales,  and of those philosophers who  followed his
career.
  Boyle proved beyond a doubt, that the atmosphere
contained two distinct substances:—
  1. An elastic fluid distinguished by the name of air.
  2. Water in a state of vapour.
  Besides these two bodies, it was supposed that the
atmosphere  contained a great variety of other  sub-
stances which were  continually mixing with it from
the earth, and which often altered its properties,  and
rendered it noxious  or fatal.  Since  the  discovery of
carbonic acid gas by Dr. Black, it has  been ascertained
that this elastic fluid always constitutes a part of the
atmosphere.
  The constituent parts of the atmosphere, therefore,
are:—
  1. Air.   2.  Water. 3. Carbonic acid gas.  4. Un-
known bodies.
  1. For the properties, composition, and account of
the first, see Air.
  2. Water.—That  the  atmosphere  contains water,
has been always  known.  The rain and dew which
so often precipitate from it, the clouds and fop with
which it is often obscured, and which deposite moisture
on all bodies exposed to them, have  demonstrated its
existence in every age.   Even when the atmosphere
is perfectly transparent, water may be extracted from
it in abundance by certain  substances.  Thus, if con-
centrated sulphuric acid be exposed to air, it gradually
attracts so much moisture, that its weight is increased
more than three times: it is converted  into diluted
acid, from which the water may be separated  by dis-
tillation.  Substances which have the property of ab-
stracting water from the atmosphere, have  received
the epithet of hygroscopic, because they point out the
presence of that water.   Sulphuric acid,  the fixed
alkalies, muriate of lime, nitrate of lime, and, in gene-
ral, all deliquescent  salts, possess this property.  The
greater number of animal  and vegetable bodies  like-
wise possess it. Many of them takewaterfrom  moist air,
but give it out again to the air when dry.  These bodies 
ATM
ATM
augment in bulk when  tney receive moisture,  and
diminish again when they part with it.   Hence some
of them  have been employed as hygrometers, or mea-
sures of the quantity of moisture contained in the air
around them.  This they do by means of the increase
or diminution of their length, occasioned by the addi-
tion or abstraction of moisture.  This change of length
is precisely marked by means of an index.  The most
ingenious and accurate hygrometers are those of Saus-
sure and Deluc.  In the first, the substance employed
to mark the moisture is a human hair, which by its
contractions and dilatations is made to turn round an
index.   In  the second, instead  of a  hair, a very tine
thin slip of whalebone is employed.  The scale is
divided into 100°.  The beginning of the scale indi-
cates extreme dryness, the end of  it indicates extreme
moisture.  It is  graduated by  placing it  first in air
made as dry as possible  by  means of salts, and after-
ward in air saturated with moisture. This gives the
extremes of the scale, and the interval between them
is divided into 100 equal parts.
  The water, which constitutes a  component  part of
the atmosphere, appears to be in the state  of  vapour,
and chemically combined with air in the same manner
as one gas is combined with another.  As the quantity
of the water contained in the atmosphere varies con-
siderably, it is impossible to ascertain its amount  with
any degree of accuracy.
  3. Carbonic acid gas.—The  existence of carbonic
gas as a constituent  part of the atmosphere, was ob-
served by Dr. Black  immediately  after he had ascer-
tained the nature of that peculiar  fluid.   If we expose
a pure alkali or alkaline  earth to  the atmosphere, it is
gradually converted into a carbonate by the absorption
of carbonic acid gas.  This fact, which had been long
known, rendered the inference that carbonic acid gas
existed in the atmosphere unavoidable, as soon as the
difference between a pure alkali and its carbonate had
been ascertained to depend  upon  that acid.  Not only
alkalies and alkaline earths absorb carbonic acid when
exposed to the air, but several of the metallic oxydes
also.
  Carbonic acid gas not only forms a constituent part
of the atmosphere near  the surface of the earth, but
at the greatest heights which the industry of man has
been able to penetrate.  Saussure found it at the top
of Mount Blanc, the highest point of the old continent;
a point covered with eternal snow, and not exposed
to the influence of vegetables or animals.  Lime-water,
diluted with its own weight of distilled water, formed
a pellicle on its surface after an hour and three-quarters
exposure to the open air on that mountain; and slips
of paper moistened  with pure potash,  acquired the
property of effervescing with acids after being exposed
an hour and a half in the same place.  This was at a
height no less than 15,668 feet above the level of the
sea.  Humboldt has  more lately ascertained the exist-
ence of this gas in air, brought by Mr. Garnerin  from
a height not less than 4280 feet above the surface of
the earth, to which height he had  risen in an air-bal-
loon. This fact is a sufficient proof that the presence
of carbonic acid in air does not depend upon the vici-
nity of the earth.
  Now, as carbonic  acid gas  is considerably heavier
than air, it could not rise to great  heighis in the atmo-
sphere unless it entered into combination with the air.
We are  warranted, therefore, to  conclude, that car-
bonic acid is  not merely mechanically mixed,  but that
•t is chemically combined with  the other  constituent
parts of the  atmosphere.  It is to the affinity which
exists between  carbonic  acid and air that we are to
nscribe   the  rapidity with which it disperses  itself
through  the  atmosphere, notwithstanding its great
specific gravity.  Fontana mixed  20,000 cubic inches
of carbonic acid gas with the air  of a close room, and
yet half  an hour after he could not discover the traces
of carbonic acid in that air.  Water impregnated with
cirbonic acid, when exposed to the air, very soon  loses
the whole  of the  combined  gas.   And when a phial
full of carbonic acid gas is left uncorked, the gas, as
Bergman first ascertained, very soon disappears, and
the phial is found filled with common air.
  The difficulty of separating this gas from air, has
hitherto prevented  the possibility of determining  with
accuracy the relative quantity of-  it in a given bulk of
air; but from the experiments which have been made,
we may conclude with some degree, of confidence, that
it is not very different from 0.01.  From the  experi-
ments of Humboldt, it  appears to vary from 0.005 to
0.01.  This variation will by no means appear impro-
bable, if we consider that immense quantities of car-
bonic acid gas  must be constantly mixing with the
atmosphere, as  it is formed  by the  respiration of ani-
mals, by  combustion,  and  several other  processes
which are going on continually. The quantity, indeed,
which is daily formed  by these  processes is so great,
that at first sight it appears astonishing that it does not
increase rapidly. The consequence of such an increase
would be fatal, as air containing 0.1 of carbonic acid
extinguishes light, and  is destructive to animals.  But
there is reason to conclude, that this gas is decomposed
by vegetables as rapidly as it forms.
  4. Bodies found in the atmosphere.—From what has
been advanced, it  appears  that  the atmosphere con-
sists chiefly of three  distinct  elastic  fluids  united
together by chemical affinity; namely, air, vapour, and
carbonic acid  gas; differing  in  their proportions at
different times  and in different places; the average
proportion of each is,
                  98.6 air
                  1.0 carbonic acid
                   0.4 water

                 100.0

But besides these bodies, which may be considered as
the constituent  parts of the atmosphere, the existence
of several other bodies has been suspected in it.  It is npt
meant in this  place to include  among  those bodies
electric matter, or the substance of clouds and fogs,
and those other bodies which are considered as the
active agents in the phenomena of meteorology, but
merely those foreign bodies which have been occa-
sionally found or suspected  in air.  Concerning these
bodies, however, very little satisfactory is known at
present, as we are not in the possession of instruments
sufficiently delicate to  ascertain their presence.  We
can indeed detect several of them actually mixing with
air, but what  becomes of them  afterward  we are
unable to say.
  1. Hydrogen  gas is said  to have been found  in air
situated near the crater of volcanoes, and it is very
possible that it may exist always in a very small propor-
tion in the atmosphere, but this cannot be ascertained
till  some method of detecting the presence of hydrogen
combined with  a great  proportion of air be discovered.
  2. Carburetted hydrogen gas  is often emitted  by
marshes in considerable quantities during hot weather.
But its presence has never been detected in air; so
that in all probability it is again decomposed by some
unknown process.
  3. Oxygen gas is emitted abundantly by plants during
the day.  There is some reason to conclude that this is
in consequence of the  property which plants  have of
absorbing and decomposing carbonic acid gas.  Now
as  this carbonic acid gas is formed at the expense of
the oxygen of the atmosphere, as this oxygen is again
restored to the air by  the decomposition of the acid,
and as the nature of atmospheric air remains unaltered,
it is clear that there  must be an equilibrium between
these two processes; that is to say, all the  carbonic
acid formed by combustion must be again decomposed,
and all the oxygen abstracted must be again restored.
The oxygen pas which is thus continually returning to
the  air, by combining  with it, makes its component
parts always to continue in the same ratio.
  4. The smoke and other bodies which are continually
carried into the air by evaporation, Sec are  probably
soon deposited  again,  and cannot therefore  be con-
sidered with propriety as forming part of the  atmo-
sphere.
  5. There is  another  set of bodies, which are occa-
sionally combined with air, and which, on account of
the powerful action which they produce on the human
body, have attracted a great deal of attention.  These
are known by the name of contagions.
  That there is a difference between the atmosphere in
different places, as far as respects its effects  upon the
human body, has  been considered as an established
point in all ages.  Hence some places have been cele-
brated as  healthy, and  others avoided as pernicious, to
the human constitution.  It is well known that in pits
and mines the air  is often in such  a state as to suffo-
cate almost instantaneously those who ntterapt to
                                         103i 
AfO
ATO
  breathe It.  Some places arc frequented  by peculiar
  diseases.  It is known that those who are much in the
  apartments  of  persons  ill  of certain  maladies, are
  extremely apt to catch  the infection; and in prisons
  and other places, where crowds of people are confined
  together, when diseases once commence they are wont
  to make dreadful havoc.   In all these cases,  it has
  been supposed that a certain  noxious  matter is dis-
  solved by the air, and that it  is the action of this
  matter which produces the mischief.
   This noxious matter is, in many cases,  readily dis-
  tinguished by the peculiarly disagreeable smell which
  it communicates to the air.  No doubt this matter
  differs according  to the diseases which it communi-
  cates, and the substance from which it has originated.
  Morveau lately attempted to ascertain its nature; but
  he soon found the chemical tests hitherto discovered
  altogether insufficient for that purpose.  He has put it
  beyond a doubt, however, that this contagious matter
 is of a compound nature, and that it is destroyed alto-
 gether by certain agents. He exposed infected  air to
 the  action of various bodies, and he judged of the re-
 sult by the effect  which these bodies had in destroying
 the foetid smel! of the air. The following is the result
 of his experiments:
   1. Odorous bodies, such as benzoin, aromatic plants,
 &c. have  no effect whatever.  2. Neither have the
 solutions of  myrrh, benzoin, Ac. in alkohol, though
 agitated  in  infected air.   3.  Pyroligneous  acid  is
 equally inert. 4.  Gunpowder, when fired in infected
 air, displaces a portion of it; but what  remains, still
 retains its foetid  odour.  5. Sulphuric  acid  has no
 effect; sulphurous acid  weakens the odour, but  does
 not destroy it.  Distilled vinegar diminishes the odour,
 Lut its action is slow and incomplete.  7.  Strong acetic
 acid acts instantly, and destroys the foetid odour of in-
 fected air completely.  8. The fumes of nitric acid,
 first employed by Dr. Carmichael Smith, are  equally
 efficacious.  9. Muriatic acid gas, first pointed out as
 a proper agent by Morveau himself, is  equally inef-
 fectual.  10.  But  the most powerful agent is oxymu-
 riatic acid gas, first proposed  by Mr. Cruickshanks, and
 now employed with the greatest success in the British
 navy and military hospitals.
   Thus there are four substances  which have the
 property of destroying contagious matter, and of puri-
 fying the air; but acetic acid cannot easily be obtained
 in sufficient quantity, and in a state of sufficient con-
 centration to be employed with advantage. Nitric acid
 is attended with  inconvenience, because it is almost
 always contaminated with nitrous gas. Muriatic acid
 and  oxymuriatic  acid  are  not attended with these
 inconveniences; the last deserves the preference, be-
 cause it  acts with greater energy and rapidity.  All
 that is necessary  is to mix together two parts of salt
 with one  part of the black  oxyde of manganese, to
 place the mixture in an  open vessel in the infected
 chamber, and to pour upon it two parts of sulphuric
 acid.  The fumes of oxymuriatic acid are immediately
 exhaled, fill the chamber, and destroy the contagion.
   Ato'chia.  (From a, neg. and tokos, offspring; from
 tiktu), to bring forth.)  1.  Inability to bring  forth chil-
 dren.  2. Difficult labour.
   ATOMIC THEORY.   In the chemical combina-
 tion of bodies with each other, it is observed that some
 unite in all proportions; others in all  proportions as far
 as a certain  point,  beyond which combination no
 longer  takes place; there are also many  examples, in
 which bodies unite in one proportion only, and others
in several proportions; and these proportions are defi-
 nite, and  in  the  intermediate ones no  combination
ensues.  And it is remarkable, that when one body
 enters into combination with another, in several dif-
 ferent proportions, the numbers indicating the greater
proportions are exact simple multiples of that denoting
the smallest proportion.   In other words, if the smallest
portion in which  B combines with A, be denoted by
10 A may combine with twice 10 of B, or with three
tirons 10, and  so on; but with no intermediate quan-
tities.  Examples  of this kind have of late so much
increased in number, that the law of simple multiples
bids fair to become universal with respect at least to
chemical compounds, the proportions of which  are
definite.  Mr. Dalton has founded what may be termed
the atomic theory of the chemical constitution of
bodies.  Till  this theory was proposed,  we had no
adequate explanation of the uniformity of the propor-
  tions of chemical compounds; or of the nature of the
  cause which renders combination in other proportions
  impossible.   The following is a brief illustration of the
  theory:  Though we appear, when we effect the che-
  mical union of bodies, to operate on masses, yet it is
  consistent with the most rational view of the consti-
  tution of bodies, to believe, that it is only between their
  ultimate particles, or atoms, that combination takes
  place.  By the term atoms, it has  been already stated
  we are to  understand  the smallest parts of which
  bodies are composed.  An atom,  therefore, must be
  mechanically indivisible, and of course a fraction of an
  atom  cannot exist,  and is  a contradiction in terms
  Whether the atoms of different bodies be of the same
  size, or  of different  sizes, we have no sufficient evi-
  dence.  The probability is,  that the atoms of different
  bodies are of unequal sizes; but  it cannot be deter-
  mined whether their sizes bear any regular proportion
  to their relative weights.  We are equally ignorant of
 their shape;  but it is probable, though not essential to
 the theory, that they  are spherical.  This, however,
 requires a little qualification.  The atoms of all bodies,
 probably consist of a solid corpuscle, forming a nucleus,
 and of an atmosphere of heat, by which that corpuscle
 is surrounded, for absolute contact is never supposed to
 take place between the atoms of bodies.  The figure of
 a single atom may therefore be supposed to be sphe-
 rical.  But in compound atoms, consisting of a single
 central atom  surrounded  by  other atoms of a different
 kind, it is obvious that the  figure  (contemplating the
 solid corpuscles  only) cannot be spherical; yet if we
 include the atmosphere  of heat, the figure of a com-
 pound atom may be spherical, or some shape approach-
 ing to  a sphere.  Taking for granted that combination
 takes  place  between the atoms of bodies only, Mr.
 Dalton has deduced from  the relative weights in which
 bodies unite,  the relative  weights of their ultimate par-
 ticles or  atoms.  When only one combination of any
 two elementary  bodies exists, he assumes, unless the
 contrary can  be  proved,  that its elements are united
 atom to atom; single combinations of this sort he calls
 binary.  But if  several compounds can  be obtained
 from the same elements' they combine, he supposes, in
 proportions expressed by some simple multiple of the
 number of atoms.  The following table exhibits a view
 of these combinations:

 1 Atom of A-f 1 atom of B=l atom of C, binary.
 1 Atom of A-f-2 atoms of B=l atom of D, ternary.
 2 Atoms of A+l atom of B—1 atom of E, ternary.
 1 Atom of A-f-3 atoms of B=l atom of F, quaternary
 3 Atoms of A+l atom of B=l atom of G, quaternary.

  A different classification of atoms has been proposed
 by Berzelius,  viz. into 1. Elementary atoms.   2. Com-
 pound  atoms.  The compound atoms he divides again
 into three different species; namely; 1st, Atoms formed
 of only two elementary substances, united or compound
 atoms  of the  first order. 2dly,  Atoms composed of
 more than  two elementary substances, and these, as
 they are only found  in organic  bodies, or  bodies
 obtained by the destruction of organic matter, he calls
 organic atoms.  3dly, Atoms formed by the union ot
 two or more  compound atoms; as, for example, the
 salts.  These he calls compound  atoms of the second
 order.  If elementary atoms of different kinds were of
 the same size, the greatest number of atoms of it that
 could be combined with an atom ol B would be 12 • for
 this is the greatest number of spherical bodies that'ean
 be arranged  in contact with a  sphere of  the same
 diameter. But this equality of size, though adopted by
 Berzelius, is  not necessary to the  hypothesis of Mr
 Dalton, and is, indeed, supposed by him not to exist.
  As an illustration of the mode in wliich the weight
 of the  atoms of bodies is determined, let us suppose
 that any two elementary  substances, A and B, form a
 binary  compound, and that they have been proved es
 perimentally  to unite in the  proportion by weight, of
 five  to the former, to  four  of the latter, then since
 (according to the hypothesis)  they unite particle to
 particle, those numbers will express the relative weight
of their atoms.  But besides combining atom to atom
singly,  1 atom of A may combine with 2 of B, or with
3, 4, Sec or one atom of B may combine with 2 of A
or with 3, 4,6m.  When such a series of compounds
exists, the relative proportion of their elements ought
necessarily on analysis to be proved to be 5 of A to 4 
ATO
ATO
of B, or 5 to (4+4=) 8 or 5 to (4+4+4=) 12, &c, or
contrariwise, 4 of B to 5 of A, or 4 to (5+5=) 10 or 4 to
',5+5-1-5=) 15.  Between these  there ought to be no
.ntermediate compounds, and the existence of any such
(as 5 of A to 6 of B, or 4 of B  to 7£ of A) would, if
clearly established,  militate against the hypothesis.
To verify these numbers, it may be proper to examine
the combinations of A and B with some third sub-
stance, for example,  with C.  Let us suppose that A
and C form a binary compound, in which analysis
discovers 5 parts of A, and 3 of C.  Then if C and
B are also capable of forming a binary compound, the
relative proportion of its elements ought to be 4 of B to
3 of C, for these numbers denote the relative weights
of their atoms.  Now this is precisely the method by
which Mr. Dalton has deduced the relative weights of
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the first two from the
known composition of water, and the last two from
the proportion of the elements of ammonia.  Extend-
ing the comparison to a variety of other bodies, he has
obtained a scale ofthe relative weights of their atoms.
In several instances additional evidence is acquired of
the accuracy of the  weight assigned to an element, by
our obtaining the same number from an investigation
of several of its compounds.  For example,
   1. In water, the hydrogen is to the oxygen as 1 to 8.
   2. In olefiant gas, the hydrogen is to the carbon as

Ito8-
   3. In carbonic acid, the oxygen is to the carbon as
810 6-                                 . ,   z. ,
   Whether, therefore, we determine the weight of the
atom of  carbon from the proportion in which it com-
bines with hydrogen, or with oxygen, we arive at the
same number 6, an  agreement which, as it occurs in
various other  instances, can scarcely be an accidental
coincidence.  In  similar manner, 8 is deducible, as
representing the atom of oxygen, both from the combi-
 nation of that base with hydrogen, and with carbon,
and 1 is  referred to be the relative weight of the atom
of hydrogen, from the two principal compounds  into
which it enters.  In selecting the body which should
 be assumed as unity, Mr. Dalton has been induced lo
 fix on hydrogen, because it is  that body which  unites
 with others in the smallest proportion.  Thus in water,
 we have 1 of hydrogen, by weight, to 8 of oxygen ; in
 ammonia, 1 of hydrogen to 14 of nitrogen; in carbu-
 retted hydrogen, 1 of hydrogen to 6 of carbon; and in
 sulphuretted hydrogen, 1 of hydrogen to 16 of sulphur.
 Taking for  granted that all these bodies are binary
 compounds, we have the following scale of numbers
 expressive ofthe relative weights of the atoms of their
 elements:
       Hydrogen............................. J
       Oxygen............................... °
       Nitrogen............................x*
       Carbon.............................._"
       Sulphur..............................J*
   Drs. Wollaston and Thomas, and Professor Berze-
 lius, on the other hand, have assumed oxygen as the
 decimal unit, (the first making it 10, the second 1, and
 the third 100,) chiefly with a view to facilitate the esti-
 mation of its numerous compounds with other bodies.
 This perhaps is to be  regretted,  even though the
  change may be in some respects eligible, because it is
 extremely desirable that  chemical writers should em-
  ploy a  universal  standard  of comparison for tne
  weights of  the atoms of bodies.  It is easy, however,
  to reduce the number to Mr. Dalton's by the rule ot
  proportion.  Thus, as 8, Mr. Dalton's number for oxy-
  gen, corrected by the latest  experiments, is to 1, Ins
  number for hydrogen, so is 10, Dr. Wallaston's number
  for oxygen, 1.25 the number for hydrogen. Sir H. Davy
  has assumed  with  Mr. Dalton, the atom of  hydro-
  gen as unity; but that philosopher and Berzelius also
  nave morified the  theory, by taking for granted that
  water is a compound of one proportion (atom) of oxy-
  gen and two proportions (atoms) of hydrogen.  This
  is founded on the fact that two measures of hydrogen
  gas and one of oxygen gas are necessary to form water;
  and on the supposition that equal measures of differ-
  ent gases contain equal numbers of atoms.  And as in
  water the hydrogen is to the oxygen by weight as 1 to
  8 two atoms or volumes of hydrogen must, on this hy-
  pothesis, weigh 1, and 1 atom  or volume of hydrogen
  I-  or if we denote a single atom of hydrogen by 1, we
  must express  an atom of oxygen by 16.  It is objec-
  tionable, however, to this modification of the atomic
theory, that it contradicts a fundamental proposition
of Mr.  Dalton, the consistency of which with mecha-
nical principles he has fully shown;  namely, that that
compound of any two elements which is with  most
difficulty decomposed, must  be  presumed, unless the
contrary can be proved, to be a binary one. It is  easy
to determine, in the manner already explained, the re
lative weights of the  atoms of two elementary bodies
which  unite only in one proportion; but when one
body unites in different proportions with another, it is
necessary in order to ascertain the weight of its alom,
that we should know  the smallest proportion in which
the former combines with the latter.  Thus if we have
a body A, 100 parts of which by weight combine with
not less than 32 of oxygen, the  relative weight of its
atom will be to that of oxygen as 100 to 32; or reducing
these numbers to their lowest terms, as 25 to 8; and
the number 25 will therefore express the relative weight
of the  atom of A.  But  if, in the progress of science,
it should be found that 100 parts of A are capable of
uniting with 16 parts of oxygen, then  the relative
weight of  the atom of A must  be doubled; for as 100
is to 16, so is 50 to 8.  This example will  serve to ex-
plain the changes that have been sometimes made in
assigning the weights of the atoms of certain bodies,
changes which it must  be observed always consist
either  in a multiplication or division of the original
weight by some simple number.  There are, it must be
acknowledged, a few cases  in  which one body coin
bines with  another in different proportions; and yet
the greater proportions are not multiples of the less by
any entire number.   For example, we have two ox-
ydes of iron, the first of which consists of 100 iron and
about 30 oxygen ; the second of 100 iron  and about 45
oxygen. But the numbers 30 and 45 are to each other
as 1 to IJ.   It will, however, render these numbers 1
and 14 consistent with the law of simple multiples;  if
we multiply each of them by 2, it will change them to
2 and 3; and if we suppose that there is an oxyde of
iron, though it has not yet been obtained experiment-
ally, consisting of 100 iron and 15  oxygen; for the
multiplication of this last number by 2 and 3 will then
give us the known  oxydes of iron.   In some cases
where we have the apparent anomaly of one atom of
one substance united with li of another, it has been
 proposed by Dr. Thomson to remove the difficulty by
 multiplying both numbers by 2, and by assuming that
 in such compounds  we have  two atoms of the one
 combined with 3 atoms of the  other.  Such combina-
 tions,  it is true, are  exceptions to  a law deduced  by
 Berzelius, that in all inorganic  compounds one  of the
 constituents is in the state of a single atom; but they
 are in no  respect inconsistent with the views  of Mr
 Dalton, and are indeed  expressly admitted by him to
 be compatible  with this hypothesis, as  well as con-
 firmed by experience.   Thus, it will appear  in the
 sequel, that some of the compounds of oxygen with
 nitrogen are constituted in  this way.  Several  objec-
 tions have been proposed to the theory of Mr. Dalton;
 of these it is only necessary to notice the most  impor-
 tant.  It has been contended that we have no evidence
 when  one combination only of two elements  exists,
 that it must be a binary one, and that we might equally
 well suppose it to be a compound of 2  atoms  of the
 one body with  one  atom of the other.   In answer to
 this objection, we may urge the probability, that when
 two elementary bodies A and B unite, the  most ener-
 getic combination will be that in wliich one atom of A
 is combined with one atom of B; for an additional
 atom  of B will introduce a new force, diminishing the
 attraction  of these  elements for each other, namely,
 the mutual repulsion of the atoms of B; and this re-
 pulsion will be greater  in  proportion as we increase
 the number ofthe atoms of B.  2dly, It has been said,
 that when more than one compound  of two elements
 exists, we have no proof which of them is the  binary
 compound, and which the ternary.  For example, that
 we might suppose carbonic acid to be a compound ot
 an atom of charcoal, and an atom of oxygen; and car-
 bonic oxyde of an atom of oxygen, with two atoms of
 charcoal.  To this objection, however, it is a satisfac-
 tory answer that such a constitution of carbonic acid
 and carbonic oxyde  would be directly contradictory of
 a law of chemical  combination;  namely, that it is
 attended, in most cases, with  an increase of specific
 gravity.   It would  be  absurd, therefore, to suppose
 carbonic acid, which is the heavier body, tobe only 
ATR
ATR
  Once compounded, and carbonic oxyde, which is the
  lighter, to be twice compounded. Moreover, it is uni-
  versally observed, that of chemical compounds,  the
  most simple are the most difficult to be decomposed;
  and this being the case with carbonic oxyde, we may
  naturally suppose it to be more simple  than carbonic
  acid.  3dly, It has been remarked, that instead of sup-
  posing water to consist of an atom of oxygen  united
  with an atom of  hydrogen, and that the atom of the
  former is 7£ times heavier than  that of the  latter, we
  might with equal probability conclude, that in water
  we  have 7£ times more atoms in  number of oxy-
 gen  than of hydrogen. But this, if admitted, would
  involve the absurdity that  in a mixture of hydrogen
  and  oxygen gases so contrived that the ultimate atoms
  of each should  be equal in number. 7 atoms  of oxygen
  would desert all the proximate  atoms of hydrogen in
 order to unite with  one at a distance, for which they
  must have naturally a less affinity.
   ATONIC.  Atonicus.   Having  a diminution of
 strength.
   A'TONY.   (Atonta,  from  a,  neg. and  rstva,
 to extend.)  Weakness, or a  defect  of  muscular
  power.
   ATRABI'LIS.  (Atrabilis, from atra, black, and
 bilis, bile.)  1. Black bile.
   2.  Melancholy.
   Atrabiliarje capsulje.   (From  atra, black, and
 eito.)  See Renal glands.
   ATRACHE'LUS.  (From a,  priv. and Tpaxix'h
 the neck.)  Short-necked.
   Atrage'ne.   See Clematis vitalba.
   Atra'sia.  (From a, neg. and rnpam, to perforate.)
 Atresia.  1. Imperforate.
   2. A disease where the natural openings, as the anus
 or vagina, have  not their usual orifice.
   Atreta'rum.   (From a, neg. and rpato,  to perfo-
 rate.)  A suppression of urine from the menses being
 retained in the vagina.
   A'TRICES.   (From a, priv. and $pi\, hair.)  Small
 tubercles about  the  anus upon which hairs will not
 grow.—Vaselius.
   A'trici.   Small  sinuses  in  the  rectum, which
 do not  reach so  far  up  as to perforate  into  its
 cavity.
   A'TRIPLEX.  (Atriplex, icis. f.; said to be named
 from  its dark colour, whence it was called Atrum
 olus.) The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean
 system.  Class, Polygamia; Order, Monecia.
   Atriplex fcbtida.  See Chenopodium vulvaria.
   Atriplex hortensis.  See Atriplex sativa.
   Atriplex sativa.  The  systematic name for the
 atriplex  hortensis  of the pharmacopoeias.   Orache,
 the herb and seed of  this plant, Atriplex—caule erecto
 herbaceo, foliis triangularibus, of Liuneus, have been
 exhibited  medicinally as antiscorbutics, but the prac-
 tice of the present day appears to have totally rejected
 them.
  ATROPA. (Atropa, a. f., from Arponos,  the god-
 dess of destiny:  so called from its fatal effects.)  The
 name of  a genus  of plants in  the Linnean system.
 Class, Pentandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  Atropa belladonna.  The  systematic name for
 the belladonna of the pharmacopoeias.  Solanum melo-
 nocerasus;  Solanum lethale.  Deadly nightshade or
 dwale.  Atropa—caule herbaceo;  foliis  ovatis inte-
gris of Linneus.  This plant has been  long known
 as a strong poison of the narcotic kind, and the berries
 have furnished many instances of their fatal effects,
 particularly upon children that have been tempted  to
 eat them.  The  activity of this  plant depends on a*
principle sui generis called Atropia.  (See Atropia )
The leaves were first used internally, to discuss  scir-
 rhous and cancerous tumours;   and from the good
effects attending  their use, physicians were induced to
 employ them internally, for the same disorders; and
there  are a considerable number of well-authenticated
 facts,  which prove them a very serviceable  and im-
portant remedy.  The dose, at first, should be small;
and gradually and cautiously increased.  Five grains
are considered a powerful  dose, and apt to  promote
dimness of sight, vertigo. Sec.
  Atropa  mandraoora.  The  systematic name for
the plant  which affords  the radix  mandragora of the
pharmacopoeias.  Mandrake.  The boiled root is em-
ployed in the form of poultice, to  discuss indolent tu-
mours.
      m
    ATRO'PHIA.  (Atrophia, a f.; from a, neg.  and
  Tpe<j>b>, to nourish.)  Marasmus.  Atrophy.  Nervous
  consumption.  This disease  is marked by a gradual
  wasting of the body, unaccompanied either by a diffi-
  culty of breathing, cough, or *ny evident fever,  but
  usually attended with a loss oi  appetite and  impaired
  digestion.  It is arranged by Cullen in the class  Ca-
  chexia, and order Marcores. There are four species :—
    1. When it takes place from too copious evacuations,
  it is termed  atrophia inanitorum; and tabes nutri-
  cum ;—sudatoria ;—a sanguifluxu, Sec.
    2. When from famine, atrophia famelicorum.
    3. When from corrupted nutriment, atrophia cata-
  chymica.
    4. And when from an interruption in the digestive
  organs, atrophia debilium.
    The atrophy of children is called paidatrophia. The
  causes which commonly give  rise to  atrophy, are a
  poor diet,  unwholesome air, excess in venery, fluor
  albus, severe evacuations, continuing to give suck too
  long, a free use of spirituous liquors, mental  uneasi-
  ness, and worms; but it frequently comes on without
  any evident cause.   Along with the  loss of appetite
  and  impaired digestion, there  is a  diminution  of
 strength, the face is pale and bloated, the natural heat
 of the  body is somewhat diminished, and  the lower
 extremities are  cedematous.   Atrophy,  arise from
 whatever cause  it may,  is usually very difficult to
 cure, and not unfrequently terminates in dropsy.
   A'TROPHY.  See Atrophia.
   ATROPIA.  A poisonous vegetable  principle, pro-
 bably alkaline,  recently extracted  from the Atropa
 belladonna, or deadly nightshade,  by  Brandes.  He
 boiled two pounds of dried leaves of atropa belladonna
 in a sufficient quantity of water, pressed the decoction
 out, and boiled the remaining leaves again in water
 The decoctions were mixed, and some sulphuric acid
 was added, in order to throw down the albumen and
 similar bodies; the  solution is thus  rendered thinner,
 and passes more readily through the Alter.  The de-
 coction was then  supersaturated  with potassa,  by
 which  he obtained a precipitate that, when washed
 with pure waie.i and dried, weighed 89 grains.  It con-
 sisted of  smal. crystals,  from which by solution  in
 acids, and precipitation by alkalies, the  new alkaline
 substance, atropia, was obtained in a state of purity.
   The external  appearance of atropia varies consi-
 derably, according to  the different methods by which
 it is obtained.  When precipitated from the decoction
 of the herb by solution of potassa,  it  appears  in the
 form of very small short crystals, constituting a sandy
 powder.  When thrown  down by  ammonia from an
 aqueous solution of its salts, it appears  in flakes like
 wax, if the solution is much  diluted; if concentrated,
 it is gelatinous like precipitated alumina: when ob-
 tained by the cooling of  a hot solution  in alkohol,  it
 crystallizes in long, acicular, transparent, brilliant crys-
 tals, often exceeding one inch in length, which are
 sometimes feathery, at other times star-like in appear-
 ance, and sometimes they are single crystals.  Atropia,
 however, is obtained in such  a crystalline state only
 when rendered perfectly pure by repeated solution in
 muriatic acid, and precipitation by ammonia.  When
 pure, it  has no taste.  Cold water has hardly any effect
upon dried atropia,  but it dissolves a smal] quantity
when it is recently precipitated; and  boiling water
dissolves still more.  Cold alkohol dissolves but a mi-
nute portion of atropiu; but when boiling, it  readily
dissolves it.  Ether  and  oil of turpentine, even when
boiling, have little effect on atropia.
  Sulphate of atropia crystallizes  in rhomboidal tables
and prisms with square bases.  It is soluble in four or
five parts of cold water.   It seems to effloresce in the
air, when  freed as  much  as possible from  adhering
sulphuric acid, by pressure between the folds of blot-
ting paper.  Its composition by Brandes seems to be,
      Atropia,..........................38.93
      Sulphuric acid,....................36.52
      Water,  ..........................24.55
                                     100.00
  This analysis would make the prime equivalent of
atropia ao low as 5.3, oxygen being  1.   Muriate of
atropia appears in beautiful white brilliant crystals,
which are either cubes or square plates similar to the
muriate of daturia.  He makes the composition of this
salt to bei 
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      Atropia,..........................39.19
      Muriatic acid.....................25.40
      Water,..........................35.41

                                       100.00
  This analysis was  so conducted as to he entitled to
little attention.  Nitric, acetic, and oxalic  acids dis-
solve atropia, and form acicular salts, all soluble  in
water  and alkohol.   Mr. Brandes was obliged to dis-
continue his experiments on the  properties of this
alkali.  The violent headaches, pains in the back, and
giddiness, with frequent nausea, which the vapour of
atropia occasioned while he was working on it, had
such a bad effect on his weak health, that he has en-
tirely abstained from any further experiments.
  He once tasted a small quantity of sulphate of atro-
pia.  The taste was not bitter, but merely saline; but
there soon followed violent headache, shaking in the
limbs, alternate sensations of heat and cold, oppression
of the chest, and difficulty in breathing, and diminished
circulation ofthe blood.  The violence of these symp-
toms ceased in half an hour.  Even  the vapour of the
different salts of atropia produces giddiness.  When
exposed for a long time to the vapours of a solution of
nitrate,  phosphate, or sulphate of  atropia, the pupil
of the  eye is dilated.  This  happened  frequently  to
him, and when he tasted the salt of atropia, it occurred
to such a degree, that it remained so for twelve hours,
and the different degrees of light had no influence.—
Schweigger's Journal, xxviii. 1.
  We may observe on the above, that it is highly im-
probable that atropia should have a  saturating power,
intermediate between potassa and soda.
  ATTE'NUANT.   (Attenuans;  from attenuo,  to
make thin.)  An attenuant  or diluent  is that which
possesses the power of imparting to the blood a more
thin and more fluid consistence than it  had, previous
to its exhibition; such are, water, whey, and all aque-
ous fluids.
  ATTOLLENS.  (Attollens; from attollo,  to  lift
up.  Lifting up: a term applied to some muscles, the
office of which is to lift up the parts they are affixed to.
  Attollens aurem.  A common muscle of the ear.
Attollens auricula of Albinus and Douglas;  Superior
auris of Winslow ; and Attollens auriculam of Cow-
per.  It arises thin,  broad, and tendinous, from the
tendon  of the occipito-frontalis, from  which  it  is
almost inseparable, where it covers the aponeurosis of
the temporal muscle:  and  is inserted into  the upper
part of the ear, opposite to the antihelex.  Its use is
to draw the ear upwards, and to make the  parts into
which it is inserted, tense.
  Attollens occuli.  One  of the muscles  which
pulls up the eye.—See Rutus superior occuli.
  Atto'nitus morbus.   (From attono, to surprise;
■o called because the person  falls down suddenly.)
Attonitus stupor.  The apoplexy and epilepsy.
   ATTRACTION.   (Attractio; from  attraho,  to
attract.)   Affinity.  The terms attraction, or affinity,
and repulsion, in the language of modern philosophers,
are employed merely as the expression of the general
facts, that the masses or particles of  matter have a
tendency to approach  and unite to,  or  to recede from
one another, under certain circumstances.  The term
attraction is used synonymously with  affinity.  See
Affinity.
i   All bodies have a tendency or power to attract each
other more or less, and it is this power which is called
attraction.
   Attraction is mutual: it extends to indefinite dis-
tances.   All bodies whatever, as well as their compo-
nent elementary particles, are endued  with it.  It is
not annihilated, at how great a distance soever', we
suppose them to be placed  from each  other; neither
does it disappear though they be arranged ever so near
each other.
i   The nature of this reciprocal attraction, or at least
the cause which produces it, is altogether unknown to
us.  Whether it be inherent in all matter, or whether
it be the consequence of some other agent, are ques-
tions beyond the reach of human understanding; but
its existence is nevertheless certain.
   " The instances of attraction which are exhibited by
the phenomena around us, are exceedingly numerous,
and continually present themselves to our observation.
The effect of gravity, which causes  the weight of bo-
dies, is so universal, that we can scarcely form an idea
 now  the universe could subsist  without it  Other
 attractions, such as those of magnetism and electricity,
 are likewise observable;  and  every experiment in
 chemistry tends to show, that bodies are composed of
 various principles or substance s, which adhere to each
 other with various degrees of force, and may be sepa
 rated by known methods.  It is a question among phi-
 losophers, whether all the attractions which obtain be-
 tween bodies be referrible to one general cause modi-
 fied by circumstances,  or whether various original and
 distinct  causes act upon the particles of bodies at one
 and  the same lime.  The philosophers, at the  Degin
 ning ofthe present century, were disposed to consider
 the several attractions as essentially different, because
 the laws of their action differ from each other; but the
 moderns appear disposed to generalize this subject, and
 to consider all the attractions which exist between bo-
 dies, or  at least those which are permanent, as dej end
 ing upon one and the same cause, whatever it may be,
 which regulates at once the motions of the immense
 bodies that circulate through the celestial spaces, and
 those minute particles that are transferred from one
 combination to  another in the operations of chemistry.
 The  earlier philosophers observed, for example,  that
 the attraction of gravitation acts  upon bodies with a
 force which  is inversely as the squares of the distances;
 and from mathematical deduction they have interred,
 that the law of attraction between  the particles them-
 selves follows the same ratio;  but when their observa-
 tions were applied  to bodies very near each  other, or
 in contact, an adhesion took place, which is found to
 be much grealer than could be deduced from that  law
 applied  to  the  centres of gravity.  Hence they con-
 cluded,  that the cohesive attraction is governed by a
 much higher ratio, and probably the cubes of the dis-
 tances.  The moderns, on the contrary, have remark-
 ed, that these deductions are too general, because, for
 the most part, drawn from the consideration of spheri-
 cal bodies, which admit of no contact but such as  is
 indefinitely small, and exert the same powers on each
 other, whichever side may be obverted.  They remark,
 likewise, that the consequence  depending on the sum
 of the attractions in bodies not spherical, and at mi-
 nute distances  from each other, will not follow the
 inverted ratio of the square of the distance taken from
 any point assumed as  the centre of gravity, admitting
 the particles to be governed by that law;  but that  it
 will  greatly  differ, according to the sides of  the solid
 which are presented to each other, and their respective
 distances; insomuch  that the  attractions  of certain
 particles indefinitely near each other will be indefi-
 nitely increased, though the ratio of the powers acting
 upon the remoter particles may continue nearly the
 same
   That  the  parts of bodies do attract each  other, is
 evident  from that adhesion which produces solidity,
 and  requires c certain force to overcome it  For the
 Bake of perspicuity, the various effects of attraction
 have been considered  as different  kinds of affinity or
 powers.  That  power which physical writers call the
 attraction of cohesion, is generally called the attraction
 of aggregation by chemists.   Aggregation is  consi-
 dered as the adhesion of parts of the same kind.  Thus
 a number of pieces of brimstone, united  by fusion,
 form  an aggregate, the parts of which may be sepa-
 rated again  by mechanical means   These parts have
 been called  integrant  parts; that is to  say, the mi-
 nutest parts into which a body can  be divided, either
 really or by tin! imagination, so as  not to change its
 nature,  are called integrant parts   Thus,  if sulphur
 and an alkali be combined together, and form liver of
 sulphur, we may conceive the mass  to be divided and
 subdivided to an  extreme degree, until at length the
 mass consists of merely a particle of brimstone and a
 particle  of alkali.  This then is an integrant part; and
 if it be divided  further, the effect which chemists call
 decomposition will take place;  and the particles, con-
 sisting no longer of liver of sulphur, but of sulphur
 alone, and of alkali alone, will be what chemists call
 component parts or principles.
   The union of bodies in a gross way is called mix
 ture.  Thus sand and alkali  may be mixed together.
 But when the very minute parts of a body  unite with
 those of another so intimately as to form a body which
 has properties different from those of either of them,
 the union is called combination or composition.  Thus,
, if sand  and  an alkali be exposed  to a strong lie at, 
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 the minute  parts of the mixture combine and form
 glass.
   If two solid bodies, disposed to combine together, be
 brought into contact  with each other, the particles
 which touch will  combine, and form a compound;
 and if the temperature at which this new compound
 assumes the fluid form be higher than the temperature
 of the experiment, the  process will go no farther, be-
 cause this new compound, being interposed between
 the two bodies,  will prevent their farther  access to
 each other;  but  if, on the contrary, the freezing point
 of the compound  be lower than this temperature, lique-
 faction will ensue; and the  fluid particles  being at
 liberty to arrange themselves according to the law of
 their attractions, the process will go on, and the whole
 mass  will gradually be converted into a new com-
 pound, in the fluid state.  An instance of this may be
 exhibited by mixing common salt and perfectly dry
 pounded ice'together.  The crystals of the salt alone
 will not liquefy unless very much heated; the crystals
 of the water, that is to say, the ice, will not liquefy
 unless heated as high as thirty-two degrees of Fahren-
 heit ; and we have, of course, supposed the tempera-
 ture of the experiment to be lower than this, because
 our  water is in  the solid state.  Now it is a well-
 known fact, that brine, or the saturated solution of
 sea-salt in water, cannot be frozen unless it be cooled
 thirty-eight degrees  lower than the freezing  point of
 pure water.  It follows then, that if the temperature
 ofthe experiment be higher than this, the first combi-
 nations of salt and ice will produce a fluid brine, and
 the combination will proceed until the temperature of
 the mass has gradually sunk as low as the freezing
 point of brine; after which  it would cease if it were
 not that surrounding bodies continually tend  to raise
 the temperature.   And accordingly it  is found by ex-
 periment, that if the ice and the salt be previously
 cooled below the temperature of freezing brine, the
 combination  and  liquefaction will not take place.
   The instances in which solid bodies thus combine
 together not being very numerous, and the fluidity
 which ensues immediately after the commencement of
 this  kind of experiment, have induced several che-
 mists to consider fluidity in one or both of the bodies
 applied to each other, to be a necessary circumstance,
 in order that  they may produce chemical action upon
 each order.   Corpora non agunt nisi sintfluida.
   If one of two bodies applied to each other  be fluid
 at the temperature of the  experiment, its parts will
 successively unite with the parts of the solid, which
 will by that means be suspended in the fluid, and dis-
appear.  Such a fluid is called a solvent or menstruum;
and the solid  body is said to be dissolved.
  Some substances  unite together in all proportions.
 In this way the acids unite with water.  But there are
likewise many substances which cannot be dissolved
in a fluid, at a settled temperature, in any quantity be-
yond a certain portion.  Thus, water will dissolve only
about one-third of its weight of common salt; and if
more salt be added, it will remain solid.  A fluid which
holds in solution  as much of any substance  as it can
dissolve, is said to be saturated with it.   But saturation
with one substance is so far from preventing a fluid
from dissolving another body, that it very frequently
happens, that the solvent power of the compound ex-
ceeds that of the original fluid itself.   Chemists like-
wise  use the word saturation in another sense; in
which it denotes such a union of two bodies as pro-
duces a compound th ; most remote in its properties
from the properties of the component parts themselves.
In combinations where one of the principles predomi-
nate, the one is said to be supersaturated, and the other
principle is said to be subsaturated.
  Heat in general  increases the solvent powerof fluids,
probably by preventing part of the dissolved substance
from congealing or assuming the solid form.
  Itoften happens,that bodieswhich have no tendency
to unite are made to combine together by means of a
third, which rs then called the medium.  Thus water
and fat  oils are made to unite by the medium of an
alkali, in the combination called soap.  Some writers,
who  seem  desirous  of  multiplying terms, call this
iendency to unite the affinity of intermedium.  This
case  has likewise been  called disposing affinity; but
Berthollet more property styles it 'reciprocal affinity.
He likewise  distinguishes  affinity into  elementary,
when it is between  the elementary parts of bodies;
  and resulting, when it is a compound only, and would
  not take place with the elements of that compound.
    It very frequently happens, on the contrary, that the
  tendency of two bodies to  unite, or remain in com-
  bination together, is weakened or destroyed by the ad-
  dition of a third.  Thus alkohol unites with water in
  such a manner as to  separate most salts from it.  A
  striking instance of this is seen in a saturated or strong
  solution of nitre in water.  If to this there be added
  an equal measure of alkohol, the  greater part of the
  nitre instantly falls down.  Thus  magnesia is sepa-
  rated from a solution of Epsom salt, by the addition of
  an alkali, which combines with the sulphuric acid, and
  separates the earth.  The principle which falls down
  is said to be precipitated, and in  many instances is
  called a precipitate.  Some modern chemists use the
  term  precipitation  in  a more extended, and  rather
  forced sense; for they apply it to all substances  thus
  separated.   In this enunciation, therefore, they would
  say, that potassa precipitates soda  from a solution of
  common  salt, though  no visible separation or precipi-
  tation takes place; for the soda, when disengaged from
  its acid, is still suspended  in  the water  by reason ot
  its solubility.
   From a great number of facts of this nature, it is
 clearly ascertained, not as a  probable hypothesis, but
 as simple matter of fact, that some bodies have a
 stronger tendency to unite  than others; and that the
 union of  any substance with another will exclude, o*
 separate,  a third substance, which might have been
 previously united with one of them; excepting only in
 those cases wherein the new compound has a tendency
 to unite with that  third substance, and form a triple
 compound.  This preference of uniting, which a given
 substance is  found to  exhibit with regard to other
 bodies, is by an easy metaphor called elective attrac-
 tion, and  is subject to a variety of cases, according to
 the number and the powers of the principles which
 are respectively presented to each other.  The cases
 which have been most frequently observed by chemists,
 are those called  simple  elective  attractions, and
 double elective attractions.
   When a simple substance is presented or applied to
 another substance compounded of two principles, and
 unites with one of these two principles so as to sepa-
 rate or exclude the other, this effect  is said to be pro-
 duced by simple elective attraction.
   It may be doubted whether any of our operations
 have been carried  to this  degree of simplicity.  All
 the chemical principles we are acquainted  with  are
 simple only with respect to our power of decomposing
 them; and the daily discoveries of our contemporaries
 tend to decompose those substances, which chemists a
 few years ago considered as simple.   Without insist-
 ing, however,  upon this difficulty, we may observe,
 that water is concerned in all the operations which are
 called humid, and  beyond a doubt modifies all the
 effects of such bodies as are suspended in it; and the
 variations of temperature, whether arising from an
 actual igneous fluid, or from  a mere modification of
 the  parts  of bodies, also tend greatly to disturb the
 effects of elective attraction.  These causes  render it
 difficult to point out an example of simple elective
 attraction,  which may  in strictness be reckoned  as
 such.
   Double  elective attraction takes  place when two
 bodies, each consisting of two principles,  are pre-
 sented to  each other, and mutually exchange a prin-
 ciple of each; by which means two  new bodies, or
 compounds, are produced of a different nature from
 the original compounds.
   Under the same limitations as were pointed out  in
 speaking of simple elective attraction, we may offer
 instances of double elective attraction.  Let oxyde of
 mercury be dissolved to saturation in  the nitric acid,
 the water will then contain nitrate of mercury. Again,
 let potassa be dissolved to saturation in the sulphuric
 acid, and the  result will be a solution of sulphate ot
 potassa.  If mercury were added to the latter solution,
 it would indeed tend to unite with the acid, but, would
 produce no decomposition; because the elective attrac-
 tion of the acid to the alkali is the strongest  So like-
 wise, if the nitric acid alone be added to it, its tend-
 ency to unite with the  alkali, strong as it is, will not
 effect any change,  because the alkali is already in
combination with a stronger acid.  But if the nitrate
of mercury be added to the solution of sulphate of pr> 
ATT
ATT
lassa, a change of principles will take place; the sul-
phuric acid will quit the alkali, and unite with the
mercury,  while the nitric  acid combines with the
alkali; and  these two new salts, namely, nitrate of
potassa, and sulphate  of mercury, may be obtained
separately by crystallization.  The most remarkable
circumstance in this process, is that the joint effects of
Ihe attractions of the sulphuric acid to mercury, and
the nitric acid to alkali, prove to be stronger than the
sum of the attractions between the sulphuric acid and
the alkali, and between the nitrous acid and the mer-
cury ; for if  the sum of these two  last had not been
weaker, the original combinations would  not have
been broken.
  Mr. Kir wan, who first, in the year 1782, considered
this subject with that attention it deserves, called the
affinities which tend to  preserve the original combina-
tions, the  quiescent affinities.   He  distinguished the
affinities or attractions which tend to produce a change
of principles, by the name of the divellent affinities.
  Somo eminent chemists are disposed  to consider  as
effects of double affinities, those changes of principles
only which would not  have taken place without the
assistance of a fourth  principle.   Thus, the  mutual
decomposition of sulphate of soda  and nitrate of po-
tassa, in which the alkalies are changed, and sulphate
of potassa and  nitrate of soda are  produced, Is not
considered by them  as  an instance of double  decom-
position ; because the nitre would  have been decom-
posed by simple elective attraction, upon the addition
of the acid only.
  There are various  circumstances which modify the
effects of elective attraction, and have from time  to
time misled  chemists in their deductions.  The chief
of these is the temperature, which, acting differently
upon the several parts of compounded  bodies, seldom
fails to alter, and frequently reverses the effects of the
affinities.  Thus, if alkohol be added to a solution of
nitrate of potassa, it unites with the water, and pre-
cipitates the  salt at a common temperature.   But if the
temperature be raised, the alkohol rises  on account of
its volatility, and the salt is again  dissolved.  Thus
again, if sulphuric acid be added,  in a common tem-
perature, to  a combination of phosphoric acid and
lime, it  will decompose  the salt, and  disengage the
phosphoric  acid; but  if this same mixture of these
principles be exposed to a considerable heat, the sul-
phuric acid will have its attraction to the lime so much
diminished,  that it will rise, and give place again  to
the  phosphoric, which will combine with the lime.
Again, mercury kept in a degree of heat very nearly
equal to volatilizing it will absorb oxygen, and become
converted into the red exyde formerly called  precipi-
tate per se; but if the heat be augmented still more,
the oxygen will assume  the elastic state, and fly off,
leaving the mercury in  its original state.  Numberless
instances of the like nature continually present them-
selves to the observation of chemists, which are suffi-
cient to establish the  conclusion,  that the elective
attractions are not constant but at one and the same
temperature.
  Many philosophers are of opinion, that the variations
produced  by change of  temperature arise from the
elective attraction of the matter of  heat itself.  But
there are  no decisive experiments  either in confirma-
tion or refutation of this hypothesis.
  If we except the  operation of heat, which really
produces a change in the elective attractions, we shall
find, that  most of the other difficulties  attending this
subject  arise from  the imperfect  state of chemical
science.  If to a compound  of two principles a third
be added, the effect of this must necessarily be different
according to its quality, and likewise according to the
state of saturation of the two principles of the com-
pounded body.  If the third principle which is added
be in excess, it may dissolve and suspend the compound
which may  be newly formed, and likewise that which
might have been precipitated.  The metallic solutions,
decomposed  by the  addition of an  alkali, afford  no
precipitate in various cases when  the  alkali is in ex-
cess; because this excess dissolves the precipitate,
which would else have fallen down.  If, on the other
iand, one of the two principles ofthe compound body
te in excess,  the addition of a third substance may
combine with  that  excess, and leave  a neutral sub-
stance, exhibiting very different properties from the
former.   Thus, if cream of tartar, which is a salt of
difficult solubility, consisting of potassa united to an
excess of the acid of tartar, be dissolved in water, and
chalk be added,  the  excess  unites with part of the
lime of the chalk, and forms a scarcely soluble salt;
and  the neutral compound, which remains after the
privation of this excess of acid, is a very soluble salt,
greatly differing in taste and properties from the cream
of tartar.  The metals and the acids likewise afford
various phenomena, according to their degree of oxy
dation.  A determinate oxydation is in general neces-
sary for the  solution of metals in acids; and the acids
themselves act very differently, accordingly as they are
more or less acidified.  Thus, the nitrous acid gives
place to acids which are weaker than the nitric acid;
the sulphurous acid gives place to acids greatly inferior
in attractive power or affinity to the sulphuric aci i
The deception  arising  from effects of this nature is in
a great measure produced  by the want of discrimina-
tion  on the part of chemical philosophers;  it being
evident that the properties of any compound substance
depend as much upon  the proportion of its ingredients,
as upon their respective nature.
  The presence and quantity of water is probably of
more consequence than is yet supposed.  Thus, bis-
muth is dissolved in  nitrous acid, but falls when the
water is much in quantity.
  The power of double elective attractions, too, is
disturbed by this circumstance: If muriate of lime be
added to  a solution  of carbonate of soda, they are
both decomposed, and  the  results are muriate of soda
and  carbonate of lime.  But if lime and muriate of
soda be mixed with just water sufficient to make them
into  a paste, and this  be exposed to the action of car-
bonic acid gas,  a saline efflorescence, consisting of
carbonate of soda, will be formed on the surface, and
the bottom of the vessel will  be occupied by muriate
of lime in a state of deliquescence.
  Berthollet made a great number of experiments, from
which he deduced the following law:—that in elective
attractions the power exerted is not in the ratio of the
affinity  simple, but in  a  ratio compounded of the
force of affinity and the quantity ofthe agent; so that
quantity may compensate  for weaker affinity.  Thus
an acid which  has a weaker affinity than  another for
a given base, if it be employed in a certain quantity,
is capable of taking part of that base from  the acid
which has a stronger affinity for it; so that the base
will  be divided between them in the compound ratio
of their affinity  and quantity.  This division of one
substance between two others, for which it has differ-
ent affinities, always  takes place, according to him,
when three such are  present, under circumstances in
which they  can  mutually act on each other.   And
hence it is, that the  force of affinity acts most power-
fully when two substances first come into contact, and
continues to decrease in power as either approaches
the point of saturation.  For the same reason it is so
difficult to separate the last portions of any substance
adhering to another.  Hence, if the doctrine laid down
by M. Berthollet be true, to its  utmost extent, it must
be impossible ever to free a compound completely from
any  one of its  constituent parts by the  agency of
elective attraction; so  that  all our best established
analyses are more or less inaccurate.
  The solubility or insolubility of principles, at the
temperature of any experiment, has likewise tended to
mislead chemists, who have deduced  consequences
from the first  effects of their experiments.  It  is evi-
dent, that many separations may ensue without pre-
cipitation; because this circumstance does not take
place unless the  separated principle he insoluble, or
nearly 60.  The soda cannot be precipitated from a
solution of sulphate  of soda, by the addition of potassa,
because of its great solubility; but, on the contrary,
the new compound itself, or sulphate of potassa, which
is much less soluble, may fall down, if" there be not
enough of water present  to suspend it.  No certain
knowledge can therefore be derived from  the appear-
ance or the want of precipitation, unless the products
be carefully examined.   In  some  instances all  the
products remain suspended; and in others, they all fall
down, as may be instanced iu the decomposition of
sulphate of iron by lime.  Here the acid unites with
the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, which is scarcely
at all soluble;  and the still less soluble oxyde of iron,
which was disengaged, falls down along with it.
  Many instances present themselves, in which decom
                                        100 
J                    AUR

 eosition does not take place, but a sort of equilibrium
 of affinity is  perceived.  Thus, soda, added to the
 supertartrate of potassa, forms a triple salt by  com-
 biuing with its excess of acid.  So likewise  ammonia
 combines with a portion of the  acid of muriate of
 mercury, and forms the triple compound formerly dis-
 tinguished by the barbarous name of " sal alembroth."
   Attraction, double elective. See Affinity, double.
   Aua'nte.  (From  avatvui, to dry.)  A dry disease,
 proceeding from  a fermentation  in  the stomach, de-
 scribed by Hippocrates de Morbis.
   Aua'pse.  The same.
   Au'chen.  (From a«X£to, to  be proud.)  The neck,
 which in the posture of pride, is made stiff and erect.
   AUDITORY.  (Auditorius; from audio,  to hear.)
 Belonging to the organ of hearing; as auditory nerve,
 passage, &c.
   Auditory nerve. See Portio  mollis.
   Auditory passage.  See Ear, and Meatus auditorius
 internus.
   AUG1TE. Pyroxene of Haiiy.  A green, brown, or
 black mineral, found crystallized, and in grains in vol-
 canic rocks in basaltes.  It consists of silica, lime,
 oxyde of iron, magnesia, alumina, and manganese.
   [It occurs in crystals,  amorphous,  in rounded  frag-
 ments, or in grains.   The Aunite has a foliated struc-
 ture in two directions, parallel to  the sides of the
 primitive form.  It is harder than  hornblende  or
 olivine, scratches glass,  and  gives sparks  with steel.
 Its specific gravity varies from 3.10 to 3.47.
   It is fused with difficulty by the blow-pipe; but in
 small fragments melts into an enamel, which, in the
 coloured  varieties, is  black.  Its greater hardness, the
 results of mechanical division, and  its difficult  fusi-
 bility, will  in general  be sufficient  to distinguish it
 from hornblende, which it often resembles.   It cannot
 easily be confounded with schorl.  It has two varie-
 ties. 1. Common Augite.  2. Coccolite.—CI. Min.  A.]
   Auou'stum.   An epithet formerly given to several
 compound medicines.
   Aun'scos.  (From avXos, a pipe.)  A catheter, or
 clyster-pipe.
   AU'LOS.  (AvXos, a pipe.)  A catheter, canula, or
 clyster-pipe.
   AURA.  (Aura, a. f.; from aoi, to breathe.)   Any
 subtile vapour or exhaltation.
   Aura epileptica.   A sensation which is felt by
 epileptic patients, as if a blast of cold air ascended from
 the lower parts towards the heart and head.
   Aura seminis. The extremely subtile and vivify-
 ing portion of the semen virile, that  ascends  through
 the Fallopian  tubes,  to impregnate the ovum in the
 ovarium.
   Aura vitalis. So Van Helmont calls the vital
 heat.
   AURA'NTHJM.  (Aurantium, i.  n.; so called, ab
 aureo colore, from its golden colour, or from Arantium.
 atownof Achaia.) Theorange.  See Citrus aurantium
   Aurantium curassavl-nte.  The  Curassoa, or
 Curassao apple, or orange.  The fruit so called seems
 to be the immature oranges, that by some  accident
 have been checked in their growth.  They are a grate-
 ful aromatic bitter, of a flavour very different from that
 of the peel of the ripe  fruit, and  without any acid;
 what little tartness they have when fresh, is lost in
 drying.  Infused in wine, or brandy, thev afford a good
 Ditter for  the stomach.  They are used to promote the
 discharge in issues, whence their name of issue peas,
 and to give the flavour of hops to beer.
  Auranth baccjE.  See Citrus aurantium,
   Aurantii cortex.  See Citrus aurantium,
   Aurichalcum. Brass.
   AURI'CULA.  (Auricula, a. f. dim. of auris, the
 ear.)  1.  An auricle or little ear.
  2.  The external ear, upon  which are several emi-
 nences and depressions; as the helix, antilielix, tragus,
 antitragus, concha auricula, scavha, and lobulus.  See
 Ear.                         r
  3.  Applied to some parts which resemble a little ear,
as the auricles of the heart.
  4. In botany, applied  to  parts of plants, which re-
semble an ear in figure, as Auricula juda, and Auricula
muris, «rc.
  Auricula jud.e.  See Petua auricula.
  Auricula muris.   See Hieracium.
  Auricula cordis.  The auricles of the heart.  See
 Heart.
      110
                       AUT

   AURICULA'RIS.   (Auricularis; from auris, the
 ear.)  Pertaining to the ear.
   Auricularis digitus.   The little finger;  so called
 because people generally put it into the ear, when the
 hearing is obstructed.
   AURIC ULATUS.  Auricled.  A leaf is said to be so,
 when furnished at ils base with a pair of leaflets, pro-
 perly distinct, but occasionally liable to be joined to it,
 as in Citrus aurantium.
   Auriga.  (Auriga, a wagoner.)  A bandage for the
 sides is so called because it is made like the traces of a
 wagon-horse.—Galen.
   AURI'GO.   (Ab  aureo colore;  from its yellow
 colour.)   The jaundice.  See Icterus
   AURIPI'GMENTUM.   (From  aurum, gold, and
 pigmentum, paint; so called from its colour and its use
 to painters.)   Yellow orpiment  See Arsenic.
   AU'RIS.   (Auris, is. f.; from aura, air, as being the
 medium of hearing.)  The ear, or organ of hearing
 See Ear.
   AURISCA'LPIUM.   (From auris, the  ear,  and
 scalpo, to scrape.)  An instrument for cleansing the ear.
   Auru'go   The jaundice. SeeAurigo.
   AURUM.   1. Gold.
  2.  This  term was applied to many substances by
 alchemists and chemists, which resembled  gold in
 colour or virtues.
  Aurum  fulminans.   The  precipitate  formed  by
 putting ammonia into a solution of gold.
  Aurum  graphicum.  An ore of gold.
  Aurum  horizontale.  Oil of cinnamon and sugar
  Aurum  leprosum.  Antimony.
  Aurum  musivum.  Mosaic gold.  " A  combination
 of tin and sulphur, which is thus made; Melt twelve
 ounces of  tin, and add to it three ounces of mercury;
 triturate this amalgam with seven ounces of sulphur,
 and three  of  muriate of ammonia.  Put the  powder
 into a mattress, bedded  rather deep in sand, and keep
 it for several hours in a gentle heat; which is  after-
 ward to be raised, and continued for several hours
 longer.  If the heat have been moderate, and not con-
 tinued too  long, the golden-coloured scaly porous mass,
called aurum musivum, will be found at the bottom of
 the vessel; but if it have been too strong, the aurum
 musivum fuses to a black mass of a striated texture.
This process is thus explained: as the heat increases!
the tin, by stronger affinity, seizes and combines with
the muriatic acid of the muriate of ammonia; while
the alkali of that salt, combining with a portion ofthe
sulphur, flies off in the form of a sulphuret. The com-
 bination of tin and muriatic  acid  sublimes- and is
 round adhering to the sides of the mattress. The mer-
cury, which served to divide the tin, combines with
 part of the sulphur, and forms cinnabar, which al°e
sublimes;  and the remaining sulphur, with  the re-
 maining tin, forms  the aurum musivum which  occu-
 pies the lower part of the vessel.  It must be adm itted
 however, that  this  explanation does not indicate  the
 reasons why such an indirect and complicated process
should be required to form a simple combination of tin
and sulphur.
  Aurum  musivum has no taste, though some sneci-
 mens exhibit a sulphureous smell. *lt is not soluble in*
 water, acids,  or alkaline solutions.  But in the  drv
 way it forms a yellow sulphuret, soluble in water   It
 deflagrates with nitre.  Bergman  mentions a native
 aurum musivum from Siberia, containing tin, sulnhur
 and a small proportion of copper.            »uipnur,
  This substance is used as a pigment for giv-in" a
golden colour  to small statue or plaster figures,  ft is
 ikevyise said  to be mixed with melted glass to imi-
tate lapis lazuln.
  Aurum  potabile. Gold dissolved and mixed with
oil of rosemary, to be drunk.
  Authe'meron.  (From avros, the same, and nutoa
a day.)  A medicine which gives relief, or is to be  ad'
 ministered the same day.
  AUTOCRATE'IA.   The healing power of nature
  Hippocrates.
  [AUTOMALITE. Thismineral substance is other-
wise  called Gahnite.   It  is always crystallized  in
small, but  very regular  octnedrons, which are some-
times double, like those of spinelle.  Its colour is deen
green, or greenish black, and its fragments are trans-
lucent  It scratches quartz, and  has  an uneven or
conchoidal fracture.  Its specific gravity varies from
4.26 to 4.60.  It <a not a conductor of electricity 
AVE
AXI
  Before the blow-pipe it is infusible; but with borax,
according to Eckeberg, it  gives a green glass, while
hot, which becomes colourless when cold.  It contains
Alumine CO., oxide of zinc 24.-2r>, oxide of iron 9.25,
silex, 4.75=98.25. According to Vauquelin, Alumine
42., oxide of zinc 28., oxide of iron 5., silex 4., sulphur
17., insoluble residue 4.  It has been found at a mine
of Fahlun, in  Sweden, in  a  rock abounding in talc.
—a. Min.  A.]
  AUTO'PSIA.  (From avros, himself, and orfouai,
to see.)   Ocular evidence.
  Auto'pyros.   (From  avros,  itself,  and  zsvpos,
wheat.)  Bread  made with the meal  of wheat, from
which the bran has not been removed.— Galen.
  AUXILIARY Assisting.  This term is applied to
the means which co-operate in curing diseases, and to
parts which assist others in  performing certain func-
tions.    The  pyramidales  were  called  auxiliary
muscles.
  AVANTURINE.   A  variety of quartz rock con-
taining mica spangles. It is found in Spain and Scot-
land
  AVELLA'NA. (From Abella, or Avella, a town in
Campania, where they grow.)  The specific name of
the hazel-nut.  See Corylus avellana.
  Avellana cathartica. A purgative seed or nut,
from Barbadoes, the produce of the Jatropha curcas.
See Jatropha curcas.
  Avellana mexicana.  Cocoa and chocolate nut.
  Avellana purgatrix.  Garden spurge.
  AVE'NA.   (Avena, a. f.;  from aveo, to  covet; be-
cause cattle are so fond of it.)  The oat.  1. The
name of a genus of plants  in the Linnean system.
Class, Triandria; Order-, Digynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the oat.
  Avena sativa. The systematic name for the avena
of the pharmacopoeias.  It is the seed which  is com-
monly used, and called the  oat.  There are two kinds
of oats: the black and the white.  They have similar
virtues, but the black are chiefly  sown for horses.
They are  less farinaceous, and less nourishing, than
rice, or  wheat; yet  afford sufficient nourishment, of
easy digestion, to such as feed constantly on them. In
Scotland, and some of the  northern counties of Eng-
land, oats form the  chief bread of the inhabitants.
They are much used in Germany ; but, in Norway,
oat  bread  is  a luxury  among  the common people.
Gruels,  made with the flour, or meal, called oatmeal,
digest easily,  have  a soft mucilaginous quality, by
which they obtund acrimony, and are used for com-
mon drink and food in fevers, inflammatory disorders,
coughs, hoarseness, roughness, and exulceration ofthe
fauces; and water gruels answer all the purposes of
Hippocrates's ptisan.   Externally, poultices, with oat-
meal, vinegar, and a very little oil, are good for sprains
and  bruises.   Stimulant poultices,  with the  grounds
of strong beer, mixed up with oatmeal, are made for
tumours, Sec. of a gangrenous tendency.
  Aven acu.   A Molucca tree, of a caustic quality.
  AVENS.  (Avens, entis; from aves, to desire.)  1.
The specific name of a species of dipsosis in Good's
Nosology:  immoderate thirst.
  2. The name of a plant  See Geum.
  AVEN'IUS.  Veinless.  Without a vein.  A term
applied by botanists to a leaf which  is without what
they call a vein; as in Clusia alba.
  AVLNZOAR.  A native of Seville, in Spain, who
flourished about the beginning of the twelfth century;
be was  made physician to the king, and is said, but on
imperfect evidence, to have  attained  the uncommon
age of 135.  He prepared his own medicines, and prac-
tised surgery, as well  as physic.  His  principal work
was a compendium of the practice of medicine, called,
'' Al-Theiser," containing some diseases not elsewhere
described, and numerous cases candidly related.  He
was called the Experimenter, from his careful investi-
gation of the powers of medicines by actual trial.
  AVERROES.  An eminent philosopher and  physi-
cian, born about the  middle of the 12th century, at
Corduba,in Spain.  He studied medicine under  Aven-
zoar, but does  not appear to have been much  engaged
in the practice of it, his life exhibiting  the most extra-
ordinary vicissitudes of  honours  bestowed upon him
as a magistrate, and persecutions, which he under-
went for religion. He appears to have first observed,
that the small-pox occurs but once in the same person.
His orincipal medical work called the " Universal;' is
a compendium of physic, mostly collected from other
authors.  He died about the year 1206.
  AVICENNA.  A celebrated philosopher and phy-
sician, born in Chorasan, in the year 9S0. He studied
at Bagdat, obtained a degree, and began to practise at
18:  and he soon attained  great wealth and honour in
the court of the caliph.  But during the  latter part of
his life, residing at Ispahan, after several years spent
in travelling, he impaired his constitution by intemper-
ance, and died of a  dysentery in his 58th year.  His
chief work on medicine,  called " Canon Medicine,"
though mostly borrowed from the Greek or other pre-
ceding writers, and  in  a  very diffuse style, acquired
great  reputation, and was taught  in  the  European
colleges till near the middle ofthe 17th century.
  AVICENNIA.  (Named after the celebrated phy
sician of that name.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnean  system.  Class, Didynamia;  Order,
Angiospermia.
  Avicennia tomentosa. The systematic name for
the Avicennia—foliis cordato ovatis, subtus tomentosis,
of Linneus, which affords the Malacca bean, or Ana-
cardium orientate of the pharmacopoeias. The fruit,
or nut, so called, is of a shining black colour, heart-
shaped, compressed, and about the size of the  thumb-
nail.  It is now deservedly forgot in this country.
  Avigato pear. See Laurus persea.
  Awl-shaped.  See Leaf.
  AWN.  See Arista.
  AXE-STONE.  A species of nephrite, and  a suc-
species of jade, from which it differs in not being of so
light a green, and in  having a somewhat slaty texture.
  [The fracture of this mineral is more or less splintery
and glimmering.  The structure of large specimens is
a little slaty.  Its hardness is less than that of nephrite;
it is more easily broken, and  often falls into  tabular
fragments.   It is usually  translucent, sometimes at
the edges only.  Its  colour varies from a dark or leek
green, to grass and olive green, or even greenish gray
It occurs amorphous, sometimes in rolled fragments.
  It is less easily fusible than nephrite or Saussurite,
and melts with efferverscence into a black enamel.
It often  appears to  be nearly  allied  to serpentine.
This mineral has been found chiefly in South America,
New Zealand, and the  islands of the South sea.  It
receives a tolerable polish; and is employed  by the
natives of the aforesaid islands for making hatchets,
and other instruments; and hence  its name.—Cleav.
Min.  A.J
  AXILLA.  (Axilla, a. f.   Atzil,  Heb.   Scaliger
deduces it from ago, to act; in this  manner, ago, axo,
axa, axula, axilla.)  1.  In anatomy, the cavity under
the upper part of the arm, called the arm-pit.
  2. In botany, the  angle formed by the branch and
stem of a plant, or by the leaf with either.
  AXILLARIS.  (From axilla, the arm-pit.) Axillary.
1. Of, or belonging to the axilla, or arm-pit.
  2. In botany, leaves, J&c. are said to be axillary which
proceed  from  the  angles  formed   by the  stem and
branch.
  AXILLARIS.   See Axillary.
  Axillaris gemma.  Axillary gem.  The gem which
comes out of the axilla of a  plant. It is this whieh
bears  the fruit.
  AXILLARY.   (Axillaris;  from axilla, the arm-
pit.)   Of or belonging lo the axilla, or arm-pit.
  Axillary arteries.  Arteria axillares.  The ax-
illary  arteries are continuations of the  subclavians,
and give  off, each of them, in the  axilla, four mam-
mary  arteries, the subscapular, and  the  posterior and
anterior circumflex  arteries, which ramify about the
joint
  Axillary nerves.  Nervis axillares.  Articular
nerve. A branch of the brachial  plexus, and some-
times ofthe radial nerve.   It runs outwards and hack-
wards, around  the neck of the humerus, and is lost in
the muscles ofthe scapula.
  Axillary veins.  Vena axillares.  The axillary
veins  receive the blood from the veins of the arm, and
evacuate it into the subclavian vein.
  AX1NITE.  Thumerstone.   A massive or crystal-
lized mineral, the crystals of which resemble an axe
in the form and sharpness of their edges. It is found
in beds at Thum, in Saxony, and in Cornwall.
  [This mineral  is  sometimes in tabular masses, but
most  commonly  in  crystals, which are  easily recog-
nised. The general form of these  crystals is  a very 
A 20
AZT
oblique romb, or rather four-sided prism, so flattened,
that some of its edges become thin and sharp, like the
edge of an axe. The primitive form is a Ibur-sided
prism, whose bases are parallelograms with angles of
101° 30' and 78° 30'. The integrant particles are oblique
triangular prisms. M. Hatty has described five second-
ary forms.
  Before the blow-pipe it easily melts with ebullition,
into a dark  gray enamel, which with borax  becomes
olive green.  It contains, according to Vauquelin, silex
44,  alumine  18,  lime 19, iron 14, manganese 4,=99.
  Axinite is a rare mineral.   It is found in primitive
rocks,  more  particularly in fissures or  veins which
traverse them.  In Dauphiny,  it is  associated  with
quartz, feldspar, epidote, and asbestus.  In the Pyre-
nees with quartz and limestone,   in Norway, near
Arendal, with feldspar and epidote;  and near Kons-
berg it exists in limestone with mica, quartz, Sec.  It
occurs in  lamellar masses  near Thum in  Saxony,
whence the name Thumerstone.—CI. Min.  A.]
  A'XIS.  (From ago, to act)  The second vertebra.
See Denlatus.
  AXU'NGIA.  (Axungia, a. f.; from axis, an axle-
tree, and unguo, to anoint)  Hog's lard.
  Axungia curata.  Purified hog's lard.
  Axungia de mummia.  Marrow.
  A'zac  (Arabian.)  Gum ammoniac.
  Aza'gor.  Verdigris.
  AZALjEA.   (From agaXcos, dry, from its growing
in a dry soil.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Azaljea pontica.  The Pontic azalea.
  Azamar.  Native cinnabar.  Vermilion.
  Az»d.  A fine kind of camphire.
  AZOl Z.  (From a, priv. and g«i>, to live;  because
It is unfit foi  aspiration.) Azot.  See Nitrogen.
i   /Ixotane.  The chloride of azote.
   dtote, chloride of.   See Nitrogen.
   Azote, deutoxyde of.  Sen Nitrogen
   Azote, gaseous oxyde of.  See Nitrogen.
   Azote, iodide of.  See Nitrogen.
   Azote, protoxyde of.  See Nitrogen.
   A'zoth.  An imaginary universal remedy
   A'zub. Alum.
   Azurestone. See Lapis lazuli.
   Azure spar, prismatic.  See Ainrite
   AZURITE.  Prismatic azure spar.   Lazulite of
 Werner.  A mineral of a fine blue colour, composed
 of alumina, magnesia, silica, oxyde  of iron, and lime.
 It occurs in Vorau,  in Stiria, and the  bishopric of
 Salzburg.
   Azu'rium. Quicksilver, sulphur, and sal-ammoniac.
   A'zyges.   (From a, priv. and tyyos, a yoke.)  The
 os sphenoides was so  called, because it has no fellow.
   A'ZYGOS.  (From a, priv.  and guyos, a yoke ; be-
 cause it has no fellow.)  Several single muscles, veins,
 bones, &c. are so called.
   Azygos processus.  A process ofthe os sphenoides.
   Azygos bvulje.  A  muscle of the uvula.   Palato
 slaphilinus of Douglas.  Slaphilinus, or Epistapht
 linus of Winslow.  It arises at one extremity of the
 suture which  joins the palate bones, runs down  the
 whole length of the velum and uvula, resembling an
 earth-worm, and adhering to  the tendons of the cir-
 cumflexi.  It is inserted/into the tip of the uvula.  Its
 use is to raise the uvula  upwards and forwards, and
 to shorten it.
   Azygos  vena.  Azygos vein.   Vena sine pari.
 This vein is situated in the right cavity of the thorax,
 upon the dorsal vertebre. It  receives the blood from
 the vertebral, intercostal,  bronchial, pericardiac, and
 diaphragmatic veins,  and evacuates it into the vena
 cava superior.
B.
X»ABUZICA'R1US.  (BaSougiicapios; -»om /fa6oX,ta,
■** to speak inarticulately.)  The incubin, or night-
mare : so called, because, in it, the person is apt to make
an inarticulate or confused noise.
  BA'CCA.   (Bacca, a. f.,  a  berry.)  A pulpy peri-
carpium, or seed-vessel, enclosing several naked seeds,
connected  by a slender membrane, and dispersed
through the pulp.  It is distinguished by its figure into,
  1. Bacca rotunda, round;  as in Ribes rubrum, the
currant, and Grossularia, the gooseberry.
  2. Bacca oblonga, oblong; as in Barbaria vulgaris,
common barberry.
  3. Bacca dicocca, double, as in Jasminum.
  4. Bacca recutita, circumcised  like the  prominent
glans  penis,  without the  prepuce;  as in  Taxus
baccata.
  From the substances it is denominated,
  1. Bacca succosa, juicy; as  in Ribes rubrum.
  2. Bacca corticosa, covered with a hard bark; as in
Garcinia mangostana.
  3. Bacca exsicca, dry ;  as in  Hedera helix.
  From the number of loculaments into,
  1. Bacca unilocularis, with  one; as in  the Actaa
and Cactus.
  2. Bacca bilocularis, with two; as in Lonicera.
  3. Bacca trilocularis, with three;  as in Asparagus
and R us ous.
  4. Bacca quadrilocularis,vri\h four; as Caris qua-
drifolia.
  5. Bacca quinquelocularis, with  five; as in Me-
lastoma.
  6.   Bacca  multilocularis,  with   many;   as  in
Nymphaa.
  From the number ofthe seeds into,
  1. Bacca monosperma, with one only; as in Daphne,
Viscum, and Viburnum.
  2. Bacca disperma, with  two seeds; as Barbarea
vulgaris, and Coffea arabica.
  3. Bacca trisperma, with three;  ns in Sambucus,
and Jvniperis.
     112
  4.  Bacca quadrisperma, with four; as in Ligus
trum, and Ilex.
  5.  Bacca polysperma, with many seeds;  as  in An
butus unedo, Ribes, and Gardenia.
  The Bacca is also distinguished into simple and
compound, when it is  composed of several berries,
which are called acini;  as in Rubns fruticosus.
  Bacca bermudensis.  The Bermuda  berry.  See
Sapindus saponaria.
  Bacca juniperi.  The  juniper berry.  See Junipc-
rus communis.
  Bacca lauri.  The laurel  berry.  See Lauras
nobilis.
  Bacca monspeliensis.   See Inula dysenterica.
  Bacca  norlandica.   The  shrubby  strawberry.
See Rubus arcticus.
  Bacca piscatoria.  So named because fish are
caught with them.  See Menispermum cocculus.
  Bacca'lia.    (From  baccharum copia, because it
abounds  in berries.) The  bay, or laurel-tree.  See
Laurus nobilis.
  BA'CCHARIS.   (From bacchus, wine; from  its
fragrance resembling that liquor.)  See Inula dysen-
terica.
  BACCIFERUS.  (From bacca,  a berry,  and fero,
to bear.)  Berry bearing.
  Bacciffrs plant*.  Plants  are so called which
have a berry or  pulpy pericarpium.
  BA'CCHIA.  (From bacchus, wine; because it ge-
nerally proceeds from hard drinking and  intemper-
ance.)   A name given by Linneus  to the pimpled
face, which results from free living.
  BACCILLUM.  A little berry.
  BACC1US, Andrew, a  native of Ancona, practised
medicine at Rome towards the end ofthe 16th century,
and became physician to Pope Sixtus V.  He appears
to have had great industry and learning from his nu-
merous publications; of which the chief, " De Ther-
mis," gives an extensive  examination of natural
waters. 
BAI
BM
  Ba'cculi.  1. Is used, by some writers, for a parti-
cular kind of lozenges, shaped into little short rolls.
  2.  Hildanus likewise uses it for an instrument in
surgery.
  Backer's Pills.  Pilula tonica Bacheri.   A cele-
brated medicine in France, employed for the cure of
dropsies.  Their principal ingredient is the extract of
melampodium, or black hellebore.
  Ba'coba.   The Banana.
  BACTISHUA, George, was a celebrated physician
of Chornsan, distinguished also for his literary attain-
ments.  He was successful  in curing the reigning ca-
liph of a complaint of the  stomach, which brought  him
into great honour;  he translated several of the ancient
medical  authors  into ihe Arabian  language;  and
many of his observations are recorded by Rhazes  and
other succeeding physicians.  His son, Gabriel,  was
in equal estimation with  the famous Haroun Al Ras-
chid, whom he cured of  apoplexy by blood-letting, in
opposition to the opinion of the other physicians.
  B adi a'ga.  A kind of sponge usually sold in Russia,
the powder of which is  said to take  away the livid
marks of blows and bruises within a few hours.   It is
only described  by Bauxbaum,  and its nature is  not
properly understood.
  Badian semen.  The seed of a tree which grows in
China, and smells like aniseed.  The Chinese,  and
Dutch, in imitation of them, sometimes use the badian
to give their tea an aromatic taste.
  Badi'za aqua.   See Bath waters.
  Badranum  semen.  Indian aniseed.
  Badu'cca.  The Indian name for a species of c&p-
paris.
  Ba'dzcher.  An antidote.
  Bje'os.   Batos-   In Hippocrates it means few; but
in P. jEgineta, it is an epithet for a poultice.
•"BAGLIVI, George, born at Ragusa in 1668, after
graduating at Padua, and improving himself greatly by
travelling throughout Italy, was  made  professor of
medicine  and anatomy at  Rome.  In 1696, he pub-
lished an excellent work on the practice of physic,
condemning the exclusive attachment to theory, and
earnestly recommending  the Hippocralic method of
observation; which, he  maintained,  assisted  by the
modern improvements in  anatomy and physiology,
would tend greatly to the advancement  of  medicine.
He has left also several other tracts, though he died at
the early ase of thirty-eight.
  BAGNIGGE WELLS.  A saline mineral spring,
near Clerkenwell, in London, resembling the Epsom
water.  In most constitutions, three half-pints is  con-
sidered a full dose for purging.
  BA'GNIO.  (From bagno, Italian.)  A bathing or
sweating-house.
  B v'hei ooyolli.  Ray takes it to be  the Areca, or
 Fanfel.
  Ba'hel schulli.  An Indian  tree.  See Genista
spinosa indica.
  Bahodal.  See Adansonia.
  Baikalite.  The asbestiform species of tremolite.
   [It is a variety of tremolite which Kirwan named
 Baikalite, because it was first found near lake Baikal
 in Siberia, in foliated limestone.—In Chinese Tartary
 it occurs  in dolomite.
   It is found in groups of acicular prisms, sometimes
 very long, and sometimes radiating from a centre. Its
 colour is  greenish, often  with a shade of yellow; and
 its lustre sometimes silky.   According to Kirwan, its
 spec. grav. is only 2.20, and it melts  into a dark green
 glass.  It contp.ins silex 44, lime 20, magnesia 30, oxyde
 of iron 6.—See CI. Min.  A.]
   BAILLIE, Matthew, horn in Scotland, in the year
 Z760.   His  mother was sister of the two  celebrated
 Hunters, Dr. William and Mr. John; his father, a  cler-
 gyman.  In  'he early part of his education he enjoyed
 great advantages.  After studying at Glasgow, where
 his  father was Professor of Divinity, he was sent to
 one ofthe exhibitions of that university at Baliol Col-
 lege, Oxford, where he took his degrees in  physic, by
 which  he became a Fellow of the College of Physi-
 ciai.s in London, and was soon after elected Fellow of
 the  Royal Society.   At an early period he came to
 London and was an inmate with his uncle, Dr.  Wil-
 liam Hunter,  at that time lecturing to a numerous
 class of pupils, and who had the superintendence of his
 education.   After demonstrating  in the  dissecting
 room  with the celebrated  and learned Mr Cniick-
shanks, he became, on the death of his uncle, joint
lecturer with him, and continued to lecture until 1791
  Dr. Baiilie's practice as a physician was for several
years extremely small, and he often complained ofthe
little he had to do; indeed, at one time, he thought of
leaving the metropolis.  In the year 1787,  he  was
elected  physician to St.  George's  Hospital; and h«
now began to  find  his practice increase. About this
period he married.
  Dr. Denman, the celebrated accoucheur of the day,
had two daughters; Mr. Croft, afterward Sir Richard,
married one,  Dr. Baillie, the other.  The confidence
which the two first obtained in  the higher circles of
society, was great and extensive; and they  lost no op-
portunity of requiring the opinion and attendance of
their relation.  Dr. Baiilie's pupils  had  now  gone
yearly to every part of England, and the Indies, and
were not merely enforcing the principles and doctrines
of their master, whose lectures  they had heard  deli-
vered with such lucid order,  and clearness of ex-
pression, as to convey information in the most simple
and  intelligible manner; but were sending their pa
tients from the most distant parts to profit by his advice
and  experience.  Two other circumstances soon oc-
curred, which at once placed Dr. Baillie in a practice
before  unheard of.  His  uncle's, and his own great
friend,  Dr. Pitcairn, who was in great  practice, was,
from ill health, obliged to leave England for a more
liemperate climate, and he previously introduced him
to all his patients;  and Dr. Warren, who had enjoyed
the greater part of the practice of the nobility, was
suddenly  cut  off.   There was no practitioner  left
whose opportunities had  fitted  him to take the lead;
and  thus  a field was opened for aspiring genius, abi-
lity, skill,  and perseverance, which  Dr. Baillie soon
occupied, and from which he reaped an abundant har-
vest for more than twenty years.
   Before he discontinued his lectures in 1799, he pub-
lished an  octavo volume, on  Morbid Anatomy, in
which  is  compressed more accurate and more useful
information than is to be  found in the elaborate works
of Bonetus, Morgagni, and Lieutaud.  This was fol-
lowed by a large work, consisting of a series of splen-
did engravings to illustrate Morbid Anatomy.   He also
gave a description of the gravid  uterus, and many im
portant contributions to the transactions and medical
collections of the time.
   Dr. Baillie presented his collection of specimens of
morbid parts to the college of physicians, with a sum
of money to be expended in  keeping them in order.
   The professional and moral character of this great
 physician  cannot be too highly appreciated.  To his
 brethren, among whom he might, from his extensive
 and  peculiar  practice, have exercised a high  and  re-
 served deportment, he was humble, attentive, commu-
 nicative,  and kind;  and he  never permitted the
 caprice of a  patient or  friends to interfere with the
 conduct of, or injure  a practitioner, when unjustly
 censured.
   In the exercise of his practice, he displayed a discri-
 minating and profound knowledge; happy in the con-
 ception of the cause of symptoms,  he distinguished
 diseases from those with which they might have been
 confounded, and pointed out their probable progress
 and  termination; and in delivering his opinion, he
 expressed himself with clearness, decision, and candour.
   His moral  character was adorned by the  strictest
 virtues, and amplest charities.   He died in the year
 1823, in the sixty-third year of his age, from a gradual
 decay of  the powers of nature,  continuing to practise
 until about a  year before his death,  leaving a wife, a
 son, a daughter, and a sister, Miss Joanna Baillie, who
 has acquired  a degree of eminence surpassed by none
 of her sex in any age.  A few of his private pro
 fessional  friends have directed a simple  tablet and
 bust from the chisel of Chantry, to be placed in West
 minster Abbey, to perpetuate his high and  honourable
 professional character, and  his many private virtues.
   BAILLOU, Guillaume de,  commonly called Bal-
 lonius, was born in 1538 at Paris, where he graduated,
 and attained considerable eminence.  He was very
 active in the contest for  precedence between the phy-
 sicians and surgeons, which was at length decided in
 favour of the former.  His writings are numerous,
 though not now much esteemed; but he appears to
 have been the first, who properly discriminated  be-
 tween gout and rhenmatism. 
BAL
BAL
   Bala.  The plaintain-tree.
   BALjE'NA,  (haXatva; from SoXXd), to cast, from
 Its power in casting up water.)  The name of a genus
 of animals.   Class, Mammalia; Order, Cete.
   [Baljena  mysticktus.  The systematic and Lin-
 nean name  for the common or right whale, which is
 pursued in the icy and Greenland seas, on the coast of
 Brazil, and in the Pacific Ocean, supplying, when taken,
 blubber and whalebone.  The blubber is the fat  cut
 from the body of the whale, and  being afterward
 tried, produces common whale or lamp oil.  The
 whalebone is a horny substance projecting  from  the
 jaws, and does not partake of the nature of bone. Tf le
 ends are split into numerous fibres, and the animal
 uses them as a filtering machine.  The right-whale
 lives upon the small worms and molluscous animals
 which abound in the ocean.  When it feeds, it opens
 the mouth, and swims forward, and when it has col-
 lected a large quantity of those vermes, the mouth is
 closed, and tiie water is forced through the fibrous ends
 of the whalebone,  while the  small animals are  re-
 tained within and  swallowed.—See Scorcsby'sNorth.
 Whale Fishery.  A.]
   Baljena macrocephala.  The systematic name of
 a species of whale.
   [This is the cacholet or large-headed whale, the true
 spermaceti-whale,  principally taken in  the  Pacific
 ocean.  It is called macrocephalus, from uaicpos, large,
 and KctftaXn, the head, because the  head constitutes
 two-thirds of the animal. The blubber or fat is strip-
 ped off' this  as it  is from the right-whale, and affords
 abundant oil.  There is however a cavity in the skull
 of the niarcrocephalus containing  a large quantity of.
 pure oil called head-matter, which affords the best of
 spermaceti.  In the natural state it is so liquid that it
 can be dipped out with a bucket.  A.]
   Balais ruby.  See Spinelle.
   BALANCE.  "The beginning and  end of  every
 exact chemical process  consists iu  weighing.  Willi
 imperfect instruments this operation will be tedious
 and inaccurate; but with a good balance, the result
 will be satisfactory;  and much time, which is so pre-
 cious in experimental researches, will be saved.
   The balance is a lever, the axis of  motion of which
 is formed with an edge like that of a knife;  and the
 two dishes at its extremities are hung upon edges  of
 the same kind.  These edges are first made sharp,
 and then rounded with a fine hone, or a piece of buff'
 leather.  The excellence of the instrument depends,
 in a great measure, on the regular form of this rounded
 part. When the lever is considered as a mere line,
 the two outer edges are  called points of suspension,
 and the inner the fulcrum. The points of suspension
 are supposed to be at equal distances from the fulcrum,
 and to be pressed with equal weights when loaded.
  1. If the fulcrum be placed in the centre of gravity
 of the beam, and the three edges lie all in the same
 right line, the balance will have no tendency to one
 position more than another,  but will  rest in any posi-
 tion it may be placed in, whether the scales be on  or
 off', empty or loaded.
  2. If the centre of gravity of the beam, when level,
 be immediately above the fulcrum, it will overset  by
 the smallest action; that is, the end which is lowest
 will descend : and it will  do this with more swiftness,
 the higher the centre of gravity, and the less the points
of suspension are loaded.
  3.  But if the centre of gravity ofthe beam be imme-
diately below the  fulcrum, the beam will not rest in
 any position but when level;  and, if disturbed from this
position, and then  left at liberty, it  will vibrate, and
 at last come to rest on the level.  Its vibrations will
 be quicker, and its horizontal  tendency stronger, the
 lower the centre of gravity, and the less the weights
 upon the points of suspension.
  4.  If the  fulcrum be below the  line joining the
points of suspension, and these be loaded, the beam
will overset, unless prevented  by the weight of the
beam tending to produee a  horizontal  position.   In
 tills last case, small weights will equilibrate; a certain
exact weight will  rest in any position of the beam;
 and all giealer weights will cause the beam to overset.
 Many scales are often made this way, and will over-
pel with any  considerable load.
  5.  If the fulcrum be above the line joining the points
of suspension, the  beam will  come to the horizontal
 position, unless prevented by its own weight.  If tin;
      114
 centre of gravity ofthe beam be nearly in the fulcrum,
 all the vibrations of the loaded beam will be made in
 times nearly equal, unless the weights be very small,
 when they will be slower.  The vibrations of balances
 are quicker, and the horizontal tendency stronger, the
 higher the fulcrum.
   6. If the arms of a balance be unequal, the weights
 in equipoise will be unequal in the same proportion.
 It is a severe check upon a workman to keep the arms
 equal, while he  is making the other adjustments  in  a
 strong and inflexible beam.
   7. The equality of the arms of a balance is  of use,
 in  scientific pursuits, chiefly in making weights by
 bisection.  A balance with unequal  arms will weigh
 as accurately as another  of the same workmanship
 with equal arms, provided Ihe standard weight itself
 be first counterpoised, then taken out of the scale, and
 the tiling to be weighed be put into the scale, and ad-
 justed against the counterpoise; or when proportional
 quantities only arc considered, as in chemical  and in
 other philosophical experiments, the bodies and  pro-
 ducts under examination may be weighed against the
 weights, taking  care always to put the weights  into
 the same scale.  For then, though the bodies may not
 be really equal  to the weights, yet their proportions
 among each other may be the same as if they had been
 accurately so.
  8. But though  the quality of the  arms may be well
 dispensed with, yet it is indispensably necessary thus
 their relative lengths, whatever they may be,  should
 continue invariable.  For this purpose, it is necessary,
 either that the three edges be all truly parallel, or that
 the points of suspension and support should lie always
 in the same part of the edge.  This last requisite is
 the most easily obtained.
  The balances made in London are usually construct-
 ed  in such  a manner, that  the  bearing parts form
 notches in the other parts of the edges; so that the
 scales being set to vibrate, all the  parts naturally foil
 into the  same bearing.  The balances  made  in the
 country have the fulcrum edge straight, and  confined
 to one constant bearing  by two side plates.  But the
 points of suspension  are  referred to notches  in the
 edges, like the London balances.  The balances here
 mentioned, which come from  the country, are enclosed
 in a sTnall iron japanned box; and are to be met with
 at Birmingham and Sheffield  ware-houses, though less
 frequently than  some years  ago;  because a pocket
contrivance for weighing guineas and half-guineas has
got possession of the market.  They aie, in general,
well made and adjusted, turn with the twentieth of
 a grain when empty, and will sensibly show the tentd
of a grain, with  an ounce  in earh scale.  Their price
 is from live shillings to half a guinea; but those  which
are under seven  shilling?, have not their edges hard-
ened, and consequently  are  not durable.  This may
 be ascertained by the purchaser, by passing the poinl
of a penknife across the small piece which goes througl1
one of the end boxes: if it make any mark or impres-
sion, the part is soft.
  9. If a beam be adjusted so as to have no tendency
to any one position, and the  scales be equally loaded,
 then, if a small weight be added in  one of the  scales,
 that balance will turn, and the points of suspension
 will move with an accelerated motion, similar to that
 of falling bodies, but as much slower, in pioportiou,
 very nearly,  as the added weight is less than the whole
 weight borne by  the fulcrum.
  10. The stronger the tendency to a horizontal posi-
 tion in any balance, or the quicker its vibrations, the
 greater  additional weight will be  required to cause
 it to turn, or incline to any given angle.  No balance,
 therefore, can turn so quick as the motion deduced.
 Such a balance as is there described, if it were to turn
 with  the ten-thousandth part of  the weight,  would
 move at quickest ten thousand times slower than fall-
 ing bodies;  that is, the dish containing  the weight,
 instead of falling through  sixteen feet in a second of
 time, would  fall through only two hundred parts of an
 inch, and it would require four seconds to move through
 one-third part of an inch; consequently all  accurate
 weighing must be slow.  If the indices of two balances
 be of equal lengths, that  index which  U connected
 with  the shorter  balance will move proportional iy
 quicker than the other.  Long beams are  the most in
 request, because  they are thought to have less friclioii:
 this  is doubtful,  but the quicker  angular motion, 
B/L                                            BAL
 greater strength, and less weight of a short balance,
 are certainly advantages.
   11. Very delicate balances are not only useful in
 nice experiments, but are likewise much more expe-
 ditious than others in common weighing.  If a pair of
 scales with a certain  load be barely sensible to one-
 tenth of a grain, it will require a considerable time to
 ascertain the weight to that degree of accuracy, because
 the turn must be observed several times over, and is
 very small.  But if no greater accuracy were required,
 and scales were used which would turn with ihe
 hundredth of a grain, a tenth of a grain, more  or less,
 would make so great a difference in the turn, that it
 would be seen immediately.
   12. If a balance be found to turn with a certain
 addition, and is not moved by any smaller weight, a
 greater sensibility may be given to that balance, by
 producing a tremulous motion in its parts.  Thus, if
 Hie edge of a blunt saw, a file, or other similar instru-
 ment, be drawn along any part of the case or support
 of a balance, it will  produce a jarring,  which will
 diminish  the friction on the moving parts so  much,
 that the turn will be evident with one-third or one-
 fourth of the addition that would else have been re-
 quired.  In this way, a beam  which would  barely
 turn by the addition of one-tenth of a grain, will turn
 with one-thirtieth or fortieth of a grain.
   13. A  balance, the  horizontal tendency of  which
 depends  only on its own weight, will turn with the
 same addition, whatever may be the load; except so
 far as a greater load will produce a greater friction.
   14. But a balance, the horizontal tendency of which
 depends only on the elevation of the  fulcrum, will be
 less sensible the greater the load; and the addition
 requisite to produce an equal turn will be in propor-
 tion to the load itself.
   15. Iu order to regulate the horizontal tendency in
 some beams, the fulcrum is  placed below the  points
 of suspension, and a sliding weight  is put upon the
 cock or index, by means of which the centre of gravity
 may be raised or depressed.  This is a useful con-
 trivance.
   16. Weights are made by a subdivision of a standard
 weight.  If the weight be continually halved, it will
 produce the common pile, which is the smallest num-
 ber for weighing between its extremes, without placing
 any weight in the scale with the body under examina-
 tion. Granulated lead is a very convenient substance
 to be used in this oper«.*ion of halving, which, how-
 ever, is very tedious.   The readiest way to subdivide
 small weights, consists in weighing a certain quantity
 of small wire, and afterward cutting it into such parts,
 by measure, as are desired; or the wire may be wrap-
 ped  close round two pins, and then cut asunder with
 a knife.  By this means it will be divided into a great
 number of equal lengths, or small rings.  The wire
 ought to  be so thin, as that one of these rings may
 barely produce a sensible effect on the beam.  If any
 quantity  (as, for example, a grain) of these rings be
 weiihed,  and the  number then reckoned, the  grain
 may be subdivided in any proportion,  by dividing that
 number, and making the weights equal to as many of
 the rings as the quotient of the division denotes. Then,
 If 750  of the rings amounted to a grain, and it were
 required to divide the grain decimally, downwards,
 9-10ths would be equal to 675 rings, 8-10ths would be
 equal to 600 rings, 7-10ths to 525 rings, &c.   Small
 weights may ue  made of thin leaf brass.  Jewellers'
 foil is a good  material  for weights below l-10th of a
 grain, as low as to 1 100th of a grain; and all  lower
 quantities may be either estimated by the position of
 the index, or shown by actually counting the rings of
 wire, the value of which has been determined.
  17. In philosophical  experiments, it will be  found
 very convenient  to admit no more than one dimension
 of weight. The grain is of that magnitude as to de-
serve the preference.  With regard to the number of
 weights the chemists ought to be provided with, wri-
ters have differed according to their habits and views.
 Mathematicians  have computed the least  possible
 number, with which all weights within certain limits
might be ascertained;  but iheir determination  is of
little use.  Because, with so small a number, it must
often happen, that the scales will  be heavily loaded
 with weights on  each side, put in with a view only to
determine the difference between them-   Itis not the
least possible number of weights which it is necessary
 an operator should buy to effect his purpose, that ws
 ought to inquire after, but the most convenient number
 for ascertaining his inquiries with accuracy and expe-
 dition.  The error of adjustment is the least possible,
 when only one weight is in the scale; that is, a single
 weight of five  grains is twice as likely to be true,  as
 two  weights, one  of three, and  the other  of two
 grains, put into the dish to supply the place of the sin
 gle five; because each of these last has its own proba
 bility of error in adjustment.   But since it is as incon
 sistent with convenience to provide a single weight, as
 it would be to have a single character for every nnm-
 ber;  and as we have nine characters, which we use in
 rotation, to express higher values  according  to their
 position, it will be found very serviceable to make the
 set of weights correspond  with our numerical system.
 This directs us to the set of weights as follows: 1000
 grains, 900 g. 800 g. 700 g. 600 g. 500 g. 400 g. 300. 200 g.
 100 g. 90 g. 80 g.  70 g.  60 g. 50 g. 40 g. 30 g. 20 g. 10 g.
 9g. 8g. 7g. 6g. 5g. 4g.  3g.  2g.  1 g. 9-10 g. 8-10 g.
 7-10 g.  6-10 g.  5-10 g. 4-10 g. 3-10 g. 2-10 g.  1-10 g.
 9-100 g. 8-100 g.  7-100 g. 6-100 g. 5-100 g. 4-100 g.
 3-100 g. 2-100 g. 1-100 g.  With these the  philosopher
 will always have the same number of weights in his
 scales as there are figures in the number expressing
 the weights in grains.   Thus 742.5 grains will  be
 weighed by the weights 700,40,2, and 5-10ths."— Ure's
 Chemical Dictionary.
   Balani'num oleum.   Oil of the ben-nut
   Balanoca'stanum.   (From  (SaXavos,  a nut, and
 Kas-avov, a chesnut; so called from its tuberous root.)
 The earth-nut.  See Bunium bulbocastanum.
   BA'LANOS.   (From f3aXXw, to cast;  because  it
 sheds its fruit upon the ground.)   Balanus.   1. An
 acorn.
   2. The oak-tree.  See Quercus robur.
   3. Theophrastus uses  it sometimes to express any
 glandiferous tree.
   4. From the similitude of form, this word is used to
 express suppositories and  pessaries, fiaXavos signify-
 ing a nut.
  5.  A name of the glans penis.
   Balas ruby.  See Spinelle.
  BALAU'STIUM.  (From jSaXioj, various, and ava.
 to dry; so called  from the variety of its colours, and
 its becoming soon dry; or from (JXas-avu, to germi-
 nate.)   Balaustia.  A large rose-like flower, of a red
 colour, the produce of the plant from which we obtain
 the granate.  See Punica granatum.
  BALBU'TIES.  (From /Jafiagu, to stammer; or from
 balbel, Heb.  to stammer.)   A defect of speech ; pro-
 perly, that sort of stammering where the patient some-
 times hesitates, and immediately after, speaks preci
 pilalely.  It is the Psellismus balbutiens of Cullen.
  Baldmoney.  See JEthusa meum.
  Baldwin's phosphorus.  Ignited nitrate of lime.
  BALISMUS.  (BaXXicuos;  from  (laXXigia,tripudity,
pedibus plando.)  The  specific  name of a disease in
 Good's genus Synclonus for shaking palsy.  See Chorea
 and Tremor.
  BALI'STA.  (From (SaXXa>, to cast.)  The astragu
 lus, a bone of the foot, was formerly called os balists,
 because the ancients  used to cast it from their slings.
  BALLOO'N.  (Ballon,  or  balon, French.)    1. A
 large  glass receiver in the form of a hollow globe.
 For  certain chemical operations balloons are made
 with two necks, placed  opposite to each other; one to
 receive the neck of a retort, and the other to enter the
neck of a second balloon: this apparatus is called enfi-
laded balloons.  Their use is to increase the whole
space of the receiver, because any  number of these
may be adjusted to each other.   The only one of these
vessels which is generally used, is a small  oblong bal-
loon with two necks, which is to be luted to the retort,
and to the receiver, or great balloon; it serves to re-
move this receiver from the body of the furnace, and
to hinder it from being too much heated.
  2. A spherical bag filled with a gas of a small spe-
cific gravity, or with heated air, by the buoyancy of
which it is raisediinto the atmosphere.
  BALLOTE. (From fiaXXia, to send forth, and ov(
wros the ear; because it sends forth flowers like ears.)
 Ballota.  The name of a genus of plants.  Class,
 Didynamia;  Order, Gymnospermia.
  Ballote nigra.  Stinking horehound.  A nettle-
 like plant, used, when boiled, by the country peopl«
 against scurvy' and cutaneous eruftions. 
BAL
BAL
  BALM.  See Melissa.
  Balm of Gilead.  Sec Dracocephalum.
  Balm of Mecca.  See Amyrisgileadensis.
  Balm, Turkey.  See Dracocephalum.
  BA'LNEUM.  (riilncum,d. n. tfaikavtiov, a bath.)
 A bath, or bathing-house.  See Bath.
  Balneum animals.  The wrapping any part of an
 animal just killed, round the body, or a limb.
  Balnei'M aremje. A sand-bath for chemical pur-
 poses.   See Bath.
  Balneum caliditm.  A hot-bath.  See Bath.
  Balneum frigidum.  A cold-bath.   See Bath.
  Balneum mari.e.  Balneum maris.  A warm-wa-
 ter bath. See Bath.
  Balneum medicatum.  A bath impregnated with
 drugs.             /
  Balneum siccum.  Balneum  cinerenm.   A  dry
 bath, either with ashes, sand, or iron filings.
  Balneum sulphuricum.  A sulphurous bath.
  Balneum tbpidum.  A tepid bath.   See Bath.
  Balneum vaporis. A vapour  bath.
  BA'LSAM.   (Balsamum; from baal samen,  He-
 brew.)  The term balsam  was anciently  applied to
 any strong scented, natural vegetable resin of about the
 fluidity  of  treacle, inflammable, not  miscible  with
 water, without addition, and supposed to be possessed
 of many medical virtues. All the turpentines, the Peru-
 vian balsam, copaiba  balsam, &c. are examples of
 natural  balsams.   Besides, many medicines  com-
 pounded of various resins, or oils, and brought to this
 consistence, obtained the name of balsam.  Latterly,
 however, chemists have restricted this term to-vegeta-
 ble  juices, either liquid, or  which spontaneously be-
 come concrete, consisting of a substance of a resinous
 nature,  combined with benzoic  acid, or which are
 capable of affording benzoic  acid, by being heated
 alone, or with  water.  They are insoluble  in water,
 but readily dissolve in alkohol and Ether. The liquid
 balsams are copaiva, opo-balsam, Peru, styrax, Tolu;
 the concrete are benzoin, dragon's blood, and storax.
  Balsam apple, male.  The fruit of  the elaterium.
 See Momordica elaterium.
  Balsam,  artificial.  Compound medicines  are thus
 termed which are made of a balsamic consistence and
 fragrance.  They are generally composed of expressed
 or ethereal oils, resins, and  other solid bodies, which
 give them  the consistence  of  butter.  The  basis, or
 body of thein,  is expressed oil of nutmeg,  and fre-
 quently wax, butter, Sec.   They are  usually tinged
 with cinnabar and saffron.
  Balsam of Canada.  See Pinus Balsamea.
  Balsam, Canary.  See Dracocephalum.
  Balsam of Copaiba.   See Copaifera  officinalis.
  Balsam,  natural.  A resin  which  has  not  yet
 assumed the concrete  form, but  still continues in a
 fluid state, is so called, as common turpentine, oalsa-
 uium copaiva, peruvianum, tolutanmu, &x.
  Balsam,  Peruvian. See Myroxylon Peruiferum.
  Balsam of sulphur.  See Balsamum sulphuris.
  Balsam of Tolu.  See Toluifera balsamum.
  Balsam,  Turkey.  See Dracocephalum.
  BALSAMA'TIO.  (From balsamum, a  balsam.)
 The embalming of dead bodies.
  Balsa'.mea.  (From balsamum, balsam.)  The balm
 of Gilead fir;  so  called from  its odour.  See Pinus
 balsamea.
  Balsamelje'on.   (From balsamum, balsam,  and
 tXaiov, oil.)  Balm of Gilead, or true balsamum Ju-
 daicum.
  Ba'lsami oleum.  Balm of Gilead.
  BALSA'MIC.   (Balswmica,  sc. medicamenta; from
 BiXaauov. balsam.)  A term generally applied to sub-
 stances  of a smooth and oily consistence, which  pos-
 sess emollient, sweet, and generally aromatic qualities.
 Hoffman calls those medicines by this name, which
 a e hot and acrid, and a<so the natural balsams, stimu-
 lating gums, Sec by which the vital heat is increased.
 Dr  Cullen speaks of them under the joint title of bal-
 siimwu  ei resinosa, considering that turpentine is the
 Ikvi- oi  all  balsams.
  B A l.SAMI'FERA.  (From balsamum, balsam, and
fero, 10  bear.)  Balsam berry.
  Balsamifera  braziliensis.  The copaiba tree.
 See Copaifera officinalis.
  Baisamifera indicana.   Peruvian  balsam tree.
 Sre Myroxyloi. peruiferum.
  Balsamita fceminea.  See Achillea ageratum
  Balsamita lutea.  3ee Polygonumperskaria.
  Balsamita major.  See Tanacetum balsamita.
  Balsamita mas.  See Tanacetum balsamita.
  Balsamita minor.  Sweet maudlin.
  BA'LSAMUM.   (From baal samen, the Hebrew for
the prince of oils.)  A Balsam.  See Balsam.
  Balsamum jegyptiacum.  See Amyris gileadensis
  Balsa.mi m alpinum. See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum  americanum.  See Myroxylon perui-
ferum.
  Balsamum anodynum.  A  preparation made from
tacainahacca, distilled with turpentine and soap lini-
ment; and  tincture of opium, but there were a great
number of balsams sold under this name formerly.
  Balsamum  arc/ei.   A preparation composed of
gum-eleini and suet.
  Balsamum asiaticum*  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum braziliense.  See Pinus balsamea.
  Balsamum canadknse.   See Pinus balsamea.
  Balsamum cephaliccm.  A distillation from oils,
nutmegs, cloves, amber, &c.
  Balsamum  commendatoris.  A  composition of
storax, benzoe, myrrh, aloes.
  Balsamum copaib.e.  See Copaifera officinalis.
  Balsamum embryonum.  A preparation of aniseed,
fallen into disuse.
  Balsamum genuinum antiquorum.  See Amyris
gileadensis.
  Balsamum gileadense. See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum  guaiacinum.   Balsam of Peru  and
spirits of wine.
  Balsamum guidonis.   The  same  as balsamum
anodynum.
  Balsamum hungaricum.  A balsam prepared from
a coniferous tree on the Carpathian mountains.
  Balsamum judaicum.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum lucatelli.  (Lucatelli; so called from
its inventor Lucatellus.)  A preparation made of oil,
turpentine,  wax, and red  saunders;  now  disused;
formerly exhibited in coughs of longstanding.
  Balsamum mas.  The herb costinary.   See Tana
cetum balsamita.
  Balsamum e mecca.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum  mexicanum.  See Myroxylon  perui
ferum.
  Balsamum novum.   A new balsam from a red fruit
in the West Indies.
  Balsamum odoriferum.   A  preparation of oil,
wax, and any essential oil.
  Balsamum  persicum.   A  balsam composed of
storax, benzoe, myrrh, and aloes.
  Balsamum  peruvianum.   See Myroxylon  perui-
ferum.
  Balsamum  rackasira.  This balsam, which is in
odorous when cold, but of a smell approaching to that
of Tolu balsam when heated, is brought from India In
gourd shells.  It is slightly bitter to the taste, and ad-
heres to the teeth, on chewing.  It is supposed to be
one of the factitious balsams, and is scarcely ever pre-
scribed in this country.
  Balsamum  samech.  A factitious balsam, com
posed of tartar, and spirits of wine.
  Balsamum  saponaceum.  A name given  to  the
preparation very similar to the compound soap  lini-
ment
  Balsamum  saturni.   The  remedy so named is
prepared by dissolving the acetate of lead in oil of
turpentine, by digesting the mixture till it acquires a
red colour. This is found to be a  good remedy for
cleansing foul  ulcers; but it  is not acknowledged in
our dispensatories.
  Balsamum styracisbenzoini. See S'yrax benzoin
  Balsamum  succini.  Oil of amber.
  Balsamum sulphuris.  A solution of sulphur in oil
  Balsamum sulphuris anisatcm.  Terebinthinated
balsam of sulphur, and oil of aniseed.
  Balsamum sulphuris barbadensb. Sulphur boiled
with Barbadoes tar.
  Balsamum sulphuris crassum.  Thick balsam of
sulphur.
  Balsamum sulphuris  simplex.   Sulphur boiled
with oil.
  Balsamum  sulphuris terebinthinatum.   This
is made by digesting the sulphur with oil of turpentine;
it is now confined to veterinary medicine.
  Balsamum syriacum.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum tolutanum. See Toluifera balsamum 
BAR
BAR
  Bajlsamum  traumaticum.   Vulnerary  balsam.
A form of medicine intended to supply the place of
the tincture  commonly  called Friar's  balsam, so
famous for curing old ulcers.  The  London  College
have named it Tinctura Beuzoini composita.
  Balsamum universale.  The unguentuin saturni-
num of old  pharmacopoeias.  See Ceratum  plumbi
compositum,
  Balsamum verum.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  Balsamum viride.   Linseed-oil,  turpentine,  and
verdigris mixed together.
  Balsamum vit.c hoffmanni.  Beaumedevie.  An
artificial balsam, so named from its inventor, and com-
posed of a great variety of  the warmest and most
grateful essential oils, such as nutmegs, cloves, laven-
der, Sec, with  balsam of Peru, dissolved in  highly
rectified spirit of wine; but it is now greatly abridged
in the number of ingredients, and but little used.
  Balzoi'num.  The gum-benjamin.
  BAMBA'LIO.  (From Papfiaivia, to speak inarticu-
lately.)  A person who stammers, or lisps.
  Bamoo'o.   (An Indian root.)  See Arundo bambos.
  Ba'mia moschata.  See Hibiscus.
  Bamier.  The name of a plain common in  Egypt,
the husk of which they dress  with meat, and, from its
agreeable flavour, make great use of it in their ragouts.
  Ban a'rbor.  The coffee-tree.
  Bana'na.   An Indian word.  See Musa sapientum.
  Bananei'ra.  See Banana.
  Ba'ncia.  The wild parsnip.
  BANDAGE.   Deligatio.   Fascia.   An apparatus
consisting of one or several pieces of linen, or flannel,
and intended  for covering or surrounding parts of the
body for surgical purposes.  Bandages are either sim-
ple or compound.  The chief of the simple  are the
circular, the spiral, the uniting, the retaining, the ex-
pellent, and the creeping.  The compound bandages
used insurgery, are the T bandage, the suspensory one,
the capistrum, the eighteen-tail bandage, and others,
to be met with in surgical treatises.
  Bandu'ra.   A plant which grows in  Ceylon, the
root of which is said to be astringent.
  Banou'e.   Bange. A species of opiate in great use
throughout the East, for its intoxicating qualities.  It
is the leaf of a kind of wild hemp, growing  in the
countries of the Levant, and  made into powder, pills,
or conserves.
  Ba'nica.  The wild parsnip.
  Bani'las.  See Epidendrum vanilla.
  Bani'lia.   See Epidendrum vanilla.
  Baobab.   See Adansonia digitata.
  Ba'ptica coccus.  Kermes berries.
  BAPTISTE'RIUM.   (From (3an}<o, to immerge.)
A bath, or repository of water, to wash the body.
  Bapti'strum.  (From Banjul, to dye.) A species
of wild mustard, so called from its reddish colour.
  BA'RBA.  (From barbarus, because wild  nations
are usually unshaven.)  1. Tne beard of man.
  2. In botany a species of pubescence, or down, with
which the surface of some  plants are covered some-
times in patches; as in the leaves ofthe Mesembryan-
themum barbatum.
  3.  Some vegetables have the specific name of barba,
the ramifications of which are bushy, like a beard, as
Barba, jovis, Sec.
  Barba aronis.  See Arum maculatum,
  Barba caprje.  See Spirea ulmaria.
  Barba hirci.  See Tragopogon.
  Barba jovis.  Jupiter's beard-  This name is given
to several plants, as the silver bush; the Scmperoivum
majus;  and of a species of an thy His.
  BARBADOES.   The name of an  island  in the
West, from which we obtain a  mineral tar, and seve-
ral medicinal plants.
  Barbadoes  chei-ry. See Malphigia glabra.
  Barbadoes  nut.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Barbadoes  tar.  See Petroleum barbadense, the use
of which in medicine is limited to its  external appli-
cation, at times, in paralytic cases.
  Barba'rea.  (From St Barbary, who is said  to
have found its virtues.)   See Erysimum barbarea.
  Barbaro'ss.e pilula.  Barbarossa's pill.  An an-
cient composition of quicksilver, rhubarb, diagridium,
musk, amber, Sec  It was the first internal mercurial
medicine which obtained any real credit
  Ba'rbaecm.  The name of a plaster in Scribonius
Largus.                                          i
  Barbatina.  A Persian vermifuge seed.
  BARBA TUS.  (From barba, a "beard.)  Bearded:
applied to a leaf which has a hairy or beard-like pu-
bescence; as Mencmbryanthcmum barbatum, and Spa-
nanlhepaniculuta.
  BARBEL   Barbo.   An  oblong  fish,  resembling
the pike, the eating  of the roe of which often brings
on the cholera.
  BARBERRY. See Berberis.
  BA KB E YRAC, Charles.  A French physician of
the 17th century, who graduated and settled at Mont*
pelier, where he acquired great celebrity.   He died iri
1699, at the age of about 70, having published little,
except a good account of the disease* of the chest and
stomach in females.  Mr. Locke, who became intimate
with him abroad, considered him very similar in his
manners and opinions to Sydenham.   His  practice  is
said to  have been  distinguished for simplicity  and
energy.
  Barbo'ta.  The barbut.  A small river-fish.  It is
remarkable for the size of its liver, which is esteemed
the most delicate part of it.
  [BARD, Dk. John. Dr. Bard was of French descent
His ancestors preferring their  faith to iheir country,
became exiles under  the provisions of the revocation
of the edict  of  Nantes.  Dr. Bard first settled in his
profession in Philadelphia, but after practising in that
city about five or six years, he was induced lo remove
to New-York in the year 1748.  By the urbanity of his
manners, his professional talents, and the  charms of
his conversation, which was enlivened by  an uncoin
mon flow of cheerfulness, enriched  by sound sense,
and adorned by  a large fund of anecdote, he so effec-
tually recommended himself to the notice and  friend-
ship of the  most respectable families, that  he was
almost  immediately  introduced into  a valuable scene
of business, and very soon arrived at the first rank of
professional eminence, which  he retained through  a
long life of more than fourscore years.  He died  in
March, 1799, leaving a son who afterward eclipsed his
father in his  professional career.—See Thach. Med.
Biog.  A.]
  [BARD, Samuel, M.D. LL.D. was the  son of
Dr. John Bard, and was born in Philadelphia, April  1,
1742.  He acquired  his classical education at Kings,
now Columbia College, in the city of New-York.  He
spc.it five years  abroad, and acquired his medical edu-
cation principally in  Edinburgh, where he received his
degree of Doctor in Medicine in May, 1765.  He com-
menced practice in  New-York, but the events of the
revolution prevented his success until the close of the
war in 1783, after which he rose in professional emi-
nence until he retired from practice in 1798. After his
return from Europe, he was instrumental in establish
ing the medical faculty which was annexed to Colum
bia College, his alma mater,and he was appointed the
first  professor of the practice of physic.  The esta-
blishment of the New-York hospital was  effected
principally by his exertions, and he was for many
years one of the physicians to the institution.  He
was author of several medical  essays, but the princi-
pal work of his is a system of midwifery, published
after he  retired fiom practice.  Princeton College  in
New Jersey conferred upon hiin the degree of (LL.D.)
Doctor of Laws, on  account ol  the high reputation of
his   professional skill, learning, and  abilities.—See
Thach. Med- Biog.  A.]
  BARDA'NA.  (From bardus, foolish; because silly
people are apt to throw them on the garments of pns-
seugers, having  the  property of sticking to whatever
they touch.)   Burdock.  See Arctium lappa.
  BARE'GE.  The  small village of" Bavege,celebrated
for its thermal waters, is situated on the French side
of the Pyrenees, about halfway between the .Mediter-
ranean and the Bay of Biscay.  The hot springs are
four in number.  They have all the same  component
parts, but differ somewhat in their temperature, and
in the  quantity of  sulphur, the hottest  being most
strongly penetrated with this active  ingredient. The
coolest of these  waters raises Fahrenheit's thermome-
ter to 73 deg.; the hottest to 120 deg.  Barege waters
are remarkable for  a very smooth,  soapy feel; they
render the skin very supple and pliable, and  dissolve
perfectly well  soap  and animal lymph; and  are re-
sorted to as a bath  in resolving tumours of various
kinds, rigidities, and contractions of the tendons, stiff-
ness of the joints, left by rheumatic and  gouty com-
                                        117 
BAR
BAR
plaints, and are highly serviceable in cutaneous erup-
tions.  Internally taken, this water gives considerable
relief ill disorders of the stomach, especially attended
with acidity and heart-burn, in obstinate colics, jaun-
dice, and in gravel, and other affections of the urinary
organs.
  Bari'glia.  See Barilla.
  BARI'LLA.  Barillor ; Bariglia   The term given
in commerce to the impure soda imported from Spain
and the Levant.  It is made by burning to ashes dif-
ferent plants that grow on the sea-shore, chiefly ofthe
genus  salsola, and  is  brought to  us  in hard porous
masses, of a speckled brown colour.   Kelp, which is
made in  this country  by burning sea-weeds, and is
called British barilla, is much more impure.
  [Barilla is  much  used in the  arts on account of the
soda it contains.
  " Carbonate of soda is chiefly obtained by the com-
bustion of marine plants,  the ashes of which afford,
by lixiviation,  the  impure alkali called soda.  Two
kinds of rough soda occur in the market; barilla and
kelp; besides which some native carbonate of soda is
also imported.   Barilla  is the semi fused ashes of the
salsola soda, which is largely cultivated  upon the
Mediterranean shores  of  Spain,  in  the vicinity of
Alicant.   Kelp consists of the ashes of sea-weeds
which  arc collected upon the sea coast and burned in
kilns, or merely in  excavations made in the ground
and surrounded by stones.   It seldom contains  more
than five per cent of carbonated  alkali, and  about
24 tons of sea-weed are required to produce one ton
of kelp.  The best produce is from the hardest fuci,
such as the  serratus, digitatus, nodosus, and vesicu-
loaua.  The  rough  alkali is contaminated by common
salt, and impurities, from which it may be separated
by solution in a small portion of water, filtrating the
solution, and evaporating it at a low  heat; the com-
mon salt may be skimmed off as its crystals form upon
the surface."—See  Webster's Man. of Chem.  A.]
  BARIUM.  (From barytes, from which it is ob-
tained.)  The metallic  ba>is of the earth barytes, so
named by Sir Humphrey Davy, who discovered it.
  " Take pure barytes, make it into a paste with water,
and put this on a plate of platinum.  Make a cavity in
the middle of  the  barytes, into which a globule  of
mercury is to be placed.  Touch the globule with the
negative  wire,  and the platinum  with the positive
wire, of a voltaic battery of about  100 pairs of plates
in good action.  In a short time an amalgam will  be
formed, consisting  of  mercury and  barium.   This
amalgam must  be  introduced into a  little bent tube,
made of glass free from lead, sealed at one end, which
being filled with the vapour of naphtha, is then  to  be
hermetically  sealed at the  other end.  Heat must be
applied to the recurved end of the tube, where the
amalgam lies.  The mercury will distil over, while the
barium will remain.
  This metal is of  a dark  gray colour, with a lustre
inferior to that of cast iron.  It is fusible at a red heat.
Its density is superior to that of sulphuric  acid;  for
though surrounded with globules of gas, it sinks imme-
diately in that  liquid.   When  exposed to air,  it  in-
stantly becomes covered with a crust of barytes; and
when gently heated in air, burns with a deep red
light.   It effervesces violently in water, converting this
liquid into a solution of barytes."
  BARK. A term  very frequently employed to sig-
nify, by way of eminence, Peruvian bark.  See Cin-
chona.
  Bark, Carribaan. See Cinchona Carribaa.
  Bark, Jamaica.  See  Cinchona Carribaa.
  Bark, Peruvian.   See Cinchona.
  Barkired.  See CinchonaoblongifoHa.
  Bark, yellow.  See Cinchona cordifolia.
  BARLEY. See Hordeum.
  Barley, caustic.  See  Cevadilla.
  Barley, pearl.  See Hordeum,
  BARM. See Fermentum cerevisia.
  BARNET. A town near London, where there is a
mineral water; of a purging kind, of a similar quality
to that of Epsom, and about half its strength.
  [BAROLITE. The name given by Kirwan to the
carbonate of barytes.  A.]
  BARO'METER.  (From Bapoy, weight, and uerpov,
measure.) An instrument to determine the weight of
the air; it is commonly called a weather-glass.
  Barolytb.  A carbonate of barytes
      118
  Baro'kes.  Small worms; called also Nepones.
  BA'ROS.  (Bapoj.)  Gravity.   1. Hippocrates uses
this word to express by it, uu uneasy weight in any
part.
  2. It is also the Indian name for a species of  enm-
phire, which is distilled from the roots of the true cin-
namon-tree.
  [BAROSELENITE. Kirwan's name for the sul-
phate of barytes.  A.]
  Barras.  Galipot.  The resinous incrustation  on
the wounds made in fir-trees.
  Barren Flower.  See Flos.
  BARRENNESS.  See Sterility.
  BA'RTHOLINE, Thomas,  was  born at Copen-
hagen  in  1616.  After studying in  various  parts  of
Europe, particularly Padua, and graduating at Basil,
he became professor of anatomy iu his native city; in
which office he greatly distinguished himself, as well
as in many other branches of learning.  He was the
first who  described the  lymphatics with accuracy;
though some of these vessels, as well as the lacteuls
and thoracic duct, had been  before discovered by
other  anatomists.   Besides  many  learned works
which he published, several others were unfortunately
destroyed by fire in 1670; and he particularly regretted
a dissertation on the ancient practice of midwifery, of
which an outline was afterward published by his son
Caspar.  Of those which  remain, the most  esteemed
are, his epistolary correspondence with the most cele-
brated  of his cotemporaiies:  his  collection of cases
where foetuses have been discharged by preternatural
outlets; and the "Medical and Philosophical Transac-
tions of Copenhagen," enriched by the communication-*
of many correspondents.  This last work was in four
volumes, published within the ten years preceding his
death, which happened 1680; and a fifth was after-
ward added by his son.
  Bartholinia'njE  glandulje.    See  Sublingual
glands.
  [BARTLETT, Josiah, M.D. Dr. Bartlett was born
in Amesbury in Massachusetts in 1729, and after ac-
quiring his profession commenced practice in the town
of  Kingston  in  New-Hampshire,  where  he  had
acquired  considerable reputation before the  com-
mencement of the American revolution, in which he
took an active and  decided part in favour of his
country.   " From his integrity and decision of charac ■
ter, Dr. Bartlett was soon designated as  a magistrate,
and sustained various offices from the lowest to the
highest.  In 1775 he was chosen a delegate to the con-
tinental congress.  He attended in  that honourable
assembly, and when the  vote for American Indepen-
dence was taken, Dr. Bartlett's name was first called,
as representing the most  easterly province, and he
boldly answered  in the affirmative."   After the revo-
lution he  was elected governor of the state  of New-
Hampshire under the new form of government.
  " His mind was quick and penetrating, his memory
tenacious, his judgment sound and  prospective; his
natural temper was open, humane, and compassionate.
In all his dealings he was scrupulously just, and faith-
ful  in the performance of all his engagements. These
shining talents accompanied with distinguished pro-
bity, early in  life recommended bim to the esteem and
confidence of his fellow-citizens.  But few persons, by
their own merit, without the  influence of family  or
party connexions,  have risen from one degree of
honour to another as he did; and fewer still have been
the instances in which a succession of honourable and
important offices, have been held by any man with less
envy, or executed with more general approbation."—
See Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  [BARTON, Benjamin Smith, M. D.  Dr. Barton
was born  at Lancaster in Pennsylvania in 1766.  In
1786 he went to Great  Britain,  and prosecuted his
medical studies at Edinburgh and London.   He after-
ward visited Gottingen, and there obtained the degree
of doctor in medicine.  On returning to Philadelphia,
in 1789, he established himself as a physician in that
city, and his superior talents and education soon pro-
cured him competent employment.  He was  that year
appointed Professor of Natural History and Botany in
the College of Philadelphia, and continued in  the office
on  the incorporation ofthe college w ith the university,
in 1791.  He was appointed Professor of Materia Me-
dica on the  resignation of Dr. Griffiths, and on the
death of Dr. Rush, succeeded him in the department 
BAR
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of the Theory and Practice of Medicine.  He died in
December, 1815.
  He published, " Elements of Zoology and Botany,"
M Elements of Botany, or Outlines ofthe Natural His-
tory of Vegetables," " Collections for an Essay towards
a Materia Medica of the United  States;"  besides nu-
merous essays and communications contributed to the
"Medical  and  Physical Journal."—See Thacker's
Med. Biog.  A.]
  BARYCOI'A. (From Paovs, heavy, and axovu, to
hear.)  Deafness, or difficulty of hearing.
  Baryoco'ccalon.  (From [iapvs, heavy, and kokku-
Xos, a nut; because it gives a deep sound.)   A name
for the stramonium.
  BARYPHO'NIA.   (From fiapos,  dull, and  aWi;,
the voice.)  A difficulty of speaking.
  BARYTE.  See Heavy spar.
  BARY'TES.  (From 0apvs, heavy; so called be-
cause  it is very ponderous.)   Cauk; Calk;  Terra
ponderosa; Baryta.  Ponderous  earth; Heavy earth.
United with the sulphuric acid,  it forms the  mineral
called sulphate  of  barytes, or  baroselenite.  When
united to carbonic acid, it is called afrated barytes, or
carbonate of barytes.  See Heavy spar.
  Barytes, is acompoundof barium and oxygen.  Oxy-
gen combines with two portions of barium, forming, 1.
Barytes.  2.  Deutoxyde of barium,
  1. Barytes, or protoxyde of barium, " is best obtained
by igniting, in a covered crucible, the pure crystallized
nitrate  of barytes.  It is procured in the  state  of
hydrate, by adding caustic potassa or soda to a solu-
tion of the muriate of nitrate.  And barytes, slightly
coloured with charcoal, may be  obtained  by  strongly
igniting the carbonate and charcoal mixed together in
fine powder.   Barytes  obtained  from  the  ignited
nitrate is of a whitish-gray colour; more caustic than
strontites, or perhaps even lime.  It renders the syrup
of violets green, and the  infusion of tumeric red.  Its
specific gravity  by  Fourcroy  is  4.  When water in
small quantity is poured on the dry earth, it slakes like
quicklime, but perhaps with evolution of more heat.
When swallowed it acts as a violent poison.  It is
destitute of smell.
  When pure barytes is exposed, in a porcelain tube,
at a heat verging on ignition, to a stream of dry oxy-
gen gas, it absorbs the  gas rapidly, and passes  to the
state of deutoxyde of barium.  But when it is calcined
in contact with atmospheric air, we obtain at first this
deutoxyde and  carbonate of  barytes; the former of
which passes very slowly into  the latter, by absorption
of carbonic acid from the atmosphere.
  2. The  deutoxyde of barium is of a greenish-gray
solour, it is caustic, renders the syrup of violets green,
und is not decomposable  by heat or light   The voltaic
pile reduces  it.  Exposed at a moderate heat to car-
bonic acid, it absorbs it, emitting oxygen, and becoming
carbonate  of barytes.   The deutoxyde  Is  probably
decomposed  by sulphuretted  hydrogen  at  ordinary
temperatures.  Aided by heat, almost all combustible
bodies, as  well as many  metals, decompose it.  The
action of hydrogen  is accompanied with  remarkable
phenomena.
  Water at 50° F. dissolves one-twentieth of its weight
of barytes, and at 212° about one half of its weight
It is colourless, acrid, and caustic.  It act6 powerfully
on the vegetable purples and yellows.  Exposed to the
air, it attracts carbonic acid, and the dissolved barytes
Is converted into carbonate, which falls down in inso-
luble crusts.
  Sulphur combines with barytes, when they are mixed
together, and heated in  a crucible.  The same com-
pound is  more  economically  obtained by ieniting a
mixture of sulphate of barytes and charcoal in fine
powder.  This sulphuret is of a reddish yellow colour,
and when dry without smell.  When this substance is
put into hot water, a powerful action is manifested.
The water is decomposed, and two new products are
formed, namely, hydrosulphuret, and  hydroguretted
sulphuret of barytes.  The first crystallizes  as  the
liquid cools, the second remains dissolved.   The hydro-
sulphuret is a compound of 9.75  of barytes with 2.125
sulphuretted hydrogen.  Its crystals should be quickly
separated by filtration, and dried by pressure between
the folds of porous paper.  They are white scales,
have a silky lustre, are soluble in water, and yield a
solution having a greenish  tinge.   Its taste  is  acrid,
sulphureous, and when mixed  with the hydroguretted
 sulphuret, eminently  corrosive.   It rapidly  attracts
 oxygen from the atmosphere, and is converted  into the
 sulphate of barytes. The hydroguretted sulphuret is a
 compound of 9.75 barytes  with  4.125  bisulphuretted
 hydrogen: but contaminated with sulphite and hypo
 sulphite in unknown proportions.  The dry sulphuret
 consists probably of 2 sulphur •+- 9.75  barytes.   The
 readiest way of obtaining barytes water is to boil the
 solution of the sulphuret with deutoxyde of copper,
 which seizes the sulphur, while the hydrogen  flies off,
 and the barytes remains dissolved.
   Phosphuret of barytes may be easily  formed by ex
 posing the constituents together to heat in a glass tube.
 Their reciprocal action is so intense as to cause igni-
 tion.  Like phosphuret of lime, it decomposes water,
 and causes the disengagement of phosphurelted hydro-
 gen gas, which spontaneously inflames with contact
 of air.  When sulphur is made to act on the deutoxyde
 of barytes, sulphuric acid is formed, which unites to a
 portion of the earth into a sulphate.
   The salts of barytes are white, and more or less
 transparent.   All  the  soluble sulphates  cause in the
 soluble salts of barytes a precipitate insoluble in nitric
 acid.  They are all poisonous except the sulphate; and
 hence the proper counter-poison is dilute sulphuric
 acid  for the  carbonate, and sulphate of soda for the
 soluble salts of barytes."
   Pure barytes has a much stronger affinity than any
 other body for sulphuric acid; it turns blue  tincture
 of cabbage green.  It is entirely infusible by heat alone,
 but melts when mixed with various earths.   Its spe-
 cific  gravity is 4.000.  It changes quickly  in  the air,
 swells, becomes soft, and falls into a white powder,
 with the acquisition of about one-fifth of its  weight
 This slaking is much more active and speedy than that
 of lime.  It  combines with phosphorus, which  com-
 pound decomposes water rapidly.  It unites to sulphur
 by the dry and humid  way.  Il has a powerful attrac-
 tion  for water, which  it absorbs with a hissing noise,
 and consolidates it strongly.  It  is soluble in twenty
 limes its weight of cold, and twice its weight of boiling
 water.  Its crystals are long four-sided prisms of a
 satin-like appearance.  It is a deadly poison lo ani-
 mals.
   Other Methods  of obtaining Barytes.—1. Take na-
 tive carbonate of  barytes; reduce it to a fine powder,
 and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of diluted nitric
 acid; evaporate this solution till a pellicle appears, and
 then  suffer it to crystallize in a shallow basin.   The
| salt obtained is nitrate of barytes;  expose this nitrate
 of barytes to the action of heat in a china-cup, or silver
 crucible, and keep it in a dull red beat for at least one
 hour; then suffer the vessel to cool, and transfer the
 greenish solid contents, which are pure  barytes, into a
 well-stopped bottle. When dissolved in a small quan-
 tity of distilled water, and evaporated,  it may be ob-
 tained in a beautiful crystalline form.
   In this process  the  nitric acid, added to the native
 carbonate of barytes, unites to the barytes, and expels
 the carbonic  acid, and forms nitrate of barytes; on
 exposing this nitrate to  heat, it  parts with its nitric
 acid, which becomes decomposed into its constituents,
 leaving the barytes behind.
   2.  Pure barytes may likewise  be obtained from its
 sulphate.  For this purpose, boil powdered sulphate
 of barytes in a solution of twice or three times its
 weight of carbonate of potassa, in a Florence flask, for
 about two hours;  filter  the solution, and  expose
 what remains on  the filter to the action of a violent
 beat
   Iu  this case, the sulphuric acid  of the barytes unites
 to the potassa, and the carbonic acid  of the latter
 joins  to the barytes ;  hence sulphate of potassa and
 carbonate of barytes are obtained.   The lormer is in
 solution, and passes through the filter; the latter is
 insoluble, and remains behind.  From  this artificial
 carbonate of barytes, the carbonic  acid is driven off
 by heat.
   Barytje murias.   Terra ponderosa salita.  The
 muriate cf barytes is a very acrid and poisonous pre-
 paration.  In small doses it proves sudorific, diuretic,
 deobstruent, and alterative; in an over-dose,  emetic,
 and violently purgative.  The late Dr. Crawford found
 it very serviceable in all diseases connected with scro-
 fula ; and  the Germans have employed  it with great
 success in some diseases of the skin and viscera, and
 obstinate ulcers.  The dose of the saturated solution iu
                                         IU 
BAS
BAS
distilled water, is from five to fifteen drops for children,
and from fifteen to twenty for adults.
  Basaal.  (Indian.)   The name of an Indian  tree.
A decoction of  its  leaves, with  ginger, hi water, is
used as a gargle  in disorders of the fauces. The ker-
nels of the fruit  kill worms.—Ray's Hist.
  BASA'LT ES.   (In the .rEthiopic tongue, this word
means iron,  which is the  colour of the  stone.)  A
heavy aid hard  kind of stone, found standing up in
the form of regular angular columns, eomposed of a
number of joints, one placed upon and nicely fitted to
another as if formed by the hands of a skilful archi-
tect.  It is found  in beds and veins in granite and mica
elate, the  old red sandstone, limestone, and  coal for-
mations.   It is distributed over the whole  world; but
nowhere is  it met with in greater variety than  in
Scotland.  The German basalt is supposed  to be a wa-
tery deposite; and that of France to be of volcanic origin.
  The most remarkable is the columnar  basaltes,
which  forms immense  masses, composed  of columns
thirty, forty, or more feet in height, and of enormous
thickness.  Nay, those  at Fairhead are two hundred
and fifty feet high.  These constitute some  ofthe most
astonishing scenes in  nature, for the immensity and
regularity of their parts.  The coast of A ntrim in Ire-
land, for the space of three miles in length, exhibits a
very magnificent variety of columnar cliff's: and the
Giant's Causeway consists of a  point of that coast
formed of similar columns, and projecting  into the sea
upon a  descent  for several hundred  feet.   These
columns are, for the most part, hexagonal, and fit very
accurately together; but most frequently not adherent
to each other, though water cannot penetrate between
them.  And the  basaltic appearances on the Hebrides
Islands on the coast of Scotland, as described by Sir
Joseph Banks, who visited them in 1772,  are upon a
scale very striking for their vastness and variety.
  [Basaltes belongs to a class of rocks  now called
superincumbent.  They are always found in a vertical
position, resting upon other strata of rocks which are
horizontal.  Some  of the most remarkable of these
are the Pallisado rocks, extending forty miles or more
along the  Hudson river, on its west  bank, partly  in
New-Jersey  and partly in  the state of  New-York.
There are other ridges of the same formation in other
parts of New-Jersey, all resting upon sandstone.  On the
south shore  of Lake Superior, the basaltic rocks,'as
they have been described by travellers, particularly by
Mr. Schoolcraft, have a grand and imposing  appear-
ance.  There is a ridge  of this kind of rock extending
a number of miles north from New-Haven, in the state
of Connecticut.   A singular formation  of  basaltic
rocks is found in North Carolina, constituting a wall
many miles in extent, which has given rise to much
controversy ; but Dr. Woodhouse, of Philadelphia, set-
tled the question, as to the true  nature of this for-
mation.
  " Basalt (says professor Eaton) is a hornblende rock,
not primitive, probably of volcanic origin.  Subdivi-
sions—Amygdaloid, when amorphous, of a  compact
texture, but  conta..iing  cellules,  empty or filled.
Greenstone trap, when of a columnar structure, or in
angular blocks, often coarse-grained.  Variety—Toad-
atone, when  the amygdaloid has a warty appearance,
and resembles slag."  A.J
  Basaltic hornblende.  See Hornblende.
  BASANITE.  See Flinty slate.
  Basani'tes. (From Bacravigo}, to find out.)   A stone
said, by Pliny, to contain a bloody juice, and useful in
diseases of the liver: also a  stone  upon which, by
some, tlie purity of gold was formerly said  to be tried,
and of which medical mortars were made.
  BASE.  See Basis.
  Base, acidifiable.  See Acid.
  Base, acidifying.  See Acid.
  Basia'tio.  (From basio, to kiss.!  Venereal con-
nexion between the sexes.
  Basia'tor.  See Orbicularis oris
  BASIL.  See Ocimum basilicum.
  BASILARIS.   See Basilary.
  Basilaris arteria.  Basilary artery. An artery of
■**e brain; so called, because it lies upon the  basilary
process of the occipital  bone. It is formed by the junc-
tion of the two vertebral arteries within the skull, and
runs forwards to  the sella turcica along the pons varo-
lii, which it supplies, as well as the adjacent parts, with
Mood
      120
   Basilaris torcessus.   See Occipital bone.
   Basilaris apophysis.  See Occipital bone.
   BASILA'RY.  (Basilaris ; from BaoiXtvs, a king.)
 Several parts of the body, bones, arteries, veins, pro-
 cesses, &c. were so named  by the ancients, from their
 situation being connected with or leading to the liver
 or brain, which they considered as the seat of the soul
 or royalty.
   Basi'lica mediana.   See Basilica vena.
   Basilica nux.  The walnut.
   Basilica vena.   The large vein that runs in the in-
 ternal part of the arm, and evacuates its blood into the
 axillary vein.  The branch which crosses, at the head
 of the arm,  to join this  vein, is  called  the basilic
 median.  They may either  of them  be opened in the
 operation of bloodletting.
   Basilicon.   See Basilicum unguentum.
   BASI'LICUM.  (From  BaaiXixos, royal; so called
 from its great virtues.)   See Ocimum basilicum.
   Basilicum  unguentum.    Unguentum  basilicum
ftavum.  An  ointment  popularly so  called from its
 having the ocimum basilicum  in its composition.  It
 came afterward to be composed of wax, resin, Sec.
 and is now called ceratum resina.
   BASILICUS. (From BaotXevs, a king.  See Basi-
 lary.) Basilic.
   Basilicus pulvis.  The royal powder. A prepara-
 tion formerly composed of calomel, rhubarb, and jalap.
 Many compositions were, by the ancients, so called,
 from their supposed pre-eminence.
   Basili'dion. An itchy ointment was formerly so
 called by Galen.
   Ba'silis.  A name formerly given to collyriums of
 supposed virtues, by Galen.
   BASILI'SCUS.   (From (SactXcvs, a king.)  1. The
 basilisk, or cockatrice, a poisonous  serpent; so called
 from a white spot upon its  head, which resembles a
 crown.
   2. The philosopher's stone.
   3. Corrosive sublimate.
   BASIO.  Some muscles  so  have the first part of
 their names, because they originate  from the basilary
 process of the occipital bone.
   Basio-cerato-chondro-glossus. See Hyoglossus.
   Basio-glossum.   See Hyoglossus.
   Basio-pharynqjeus.   See Constrictor pharyngis
 medius.
   BA'SIS.   (From Batvio, to go: the  support of any
 thing, upon which it stands or goes.)   Base.   1. This
 word is frequently applied anatomically to the body of
 any part, or to that part from which  the other parts
 appear, as it were, to proceed, or by which they are
 supported.
   2. In pharmacy it signifies the principal ingredient.
   3. In chemistry, usually applied to alkalies, earths,
 and metallic oxydes, in their relations to the acids and
 salts.  It is sometimes also applied to the particular
 constituents of an  acid or oxyde, on  the supposition
 that the substance  combined with the oxygen, &c. is
 the basis of the compound to which it owes its parti-
 cular qualities.  This notion seems unphilosophical,
 as these qualities depend as much on the  state of com
 bination as on the nature of the constituent.
   Basi colica.  The name of a medicine in Scribo
 nius Largus, compounded of aromatics and honey.
   BASSORINE.  This  substance is  extracted from
 the gum resins which contain it, by treating them suc-
 cessively with water, alkohol, and  anher.  Bassorine
 being insoluble in these liquids, remains mixed merely
 with the woody particles, from which  it is  easy to
 separate it, by repeated  washings and decantations:
 because one of its characteristic  properties is to swell
 extremely in the water  and to become very buoyant.
 This substance swells up in cold as well as in boiling
 water, without any of its parts dissolving.  It is solu-
 ble however almost completely by the  aUl of heat, in
 water sharpened with  nitric  or muriatic acid.  If
 after concentrating with a gentle heat the nitric solu-
 tion, we  add highly rectified alkohol,  there results a
 white precipitate, flocculent and bulky, which, washed
 with much alkohol and dried, does not form, at the
 utmost, the tenth of the quantity  of bassorine  em
 ployed, and which  presents all the properties of gum
 arable.   Vauquelin, Bulletin de Pharmaeie, iii. 56.
   BASTARD. A term  often employed  in medicine,
 and botany, to designate a disease or plant which has
 the appearance of, but is not in reality what it resent* 
BAT
BAT
bles: The name of that which it similates is generally
attached to it, as bastard peripneuinony, bastard pel-
litory, Sec
  Bastard pcllitory.  See Achillea ptarmica.
  Bastard pleurisy.  See Peripneumonia notha.
  Bata'tas.  (So the natives of Peru call the root of
a convolvulus falso.  The potato, which is a native
of that country.  See Solanum tuberosum, and Con-
volvulus batatas.
  [The Solanum tuberosum  is the  common potato,
from which all the edible varieties are derived   The
Convolvulus batatas  is the Carolina or sweet potato
ofthe United Slates.  A.]
  Batatas pereorina.  The purging potato.
  BATH.   BaXavciov  BaUcum.  A bath.
  '1.  A convenient receptacle of water, for persons to
wash or plunge in, either for health or pleasure. These
are distinguished into hot and cold; and  are  either
natural or artificial. The natural hot baths are formed
■ >f the water of  hot springs, of  which there are many
in different parts of  the world;  especially in those
countries  where there  are, or have evidently  been,
volcanoes.   The artificial hot  baths consist either of
water, or of some  other fluid, made hot by art.  The
cold bath consists of water, either fresh or  salt, in its
natural degree of heat;  or it  may be made colder by
art, as by a mixture of nitre, sal-ammoniac, Sec  The
chief hot baths  in our country are those of Bath and
Bristol, and those of Buxton and Matlock; which lat-
ter, however, are rather warm, or tepid, than hot. The
use of baths is  found to be  beneficial in diseases of
the  head,  as  palsies, Sec.; in  cuticular  diseases,  as
leprosies, Sec; obstructions and constipations of the
bowels, the scurvy, and stone;  and in many diseases
of women and children.  The cold bath, though popu-
larly esteemed one of  the most  innocent remedies yet
discovered, is  not, however, to be adopted indiscrimi-
nately. On the contrary, it is liable to do considerable
mischief in some cases of diseased viscera, and is not,
in any case, proper to be used during ihe existence of
costiveness.  As a preventive remedy for the young,
and  as a general bracer for persons of a relaxed fibre,
especially of the female sex, it often  proves highly
advantageous;  and, in general, the popular idea is
a correct one, that the glow which succeeds the use of
cold or temperate bath, is a test of their utility; while,
on  the other  hand, their producing  chilliness, head-
ache, &c. is a proof of their being pernicious.
  1. The Cold Bath.  The diseases and morbid symp-
toms,  for which the  cold  bath, under one form or
another, may be  applied with advantage, are very
numerous; and some  of them deserve particular atten-
tion.   One of the most  important of its uses is in ar-
dent fever; and, under proper management, it forms a
highly valuable remedy in this dangerous disorder.  It
is highly important, however, to attend to the precau-
tions which the use of this  vigorous  remedial process
requires.  "Affusion with cold  water," Dr.  Currie ob-
serves, " may be used  whenever the heat of the body
is steadily above the  natural  standard, when there is
no sense of chilliness, and especially when there is no
general nor profuse perspiration.  If used during the
cold stage  of a fever, even though the heat be higher
than natural, it brings on interruption of respiration,  a
fluttering, weak, and  extremely quick pulse, and cer-
tainly  might be carried so far  as to extinguish anima-
tion entirely."  Tlieino.-.t salutary consequence which
follows the proper use of this powrrftil remedy, is the
production of free and general perspiiation.  It is this
circumstance thai appears to give so much  advantage
to a general affusion of cold water in fevers, in prefer-
ence to any partial application.  The cold bath is bet-
ter known, especially in this country, as a general tonic
remedy in various chronic diseases.  The general cir-
cumstances of disorder for which cold bathing appears
to be of service,  according to Dr. Saunders, are a Ian-1
gour and weakness of circulation, accompanied with
profuse sweating and  fatigue, on very moderate exer-
tion ; tremors  in the  limbs, and many of those symp-
toms usually called nervous;  where the moving pow-
ers are weak, and  the mind listless and indolent*, but,
at the same time, where  no  permanent 11101 bid ob-
struction, or visceral disease, is present.  Such a state
of body is often the consequence of a long and debili-
tating  sickness, or of  a sedentary life, without  using
the  exercise requisite to keep  up  the activity of the
bodily powers.   In all these cases, the great object to
be fulfilled, is to produce a considerable reaction, from
the shock of cold water, at the expense of as little
heat as possible ; and when cold bathing does barm,
it is precisely where the powers of the body are  too
languid to bring on reaction, and the chilling effects
remain unopposed.   When the patient feels the shock
of immersion  very severely, and, from experience of
its  pain, has acquired an  insuperable dread  of this,
application; when he has felt little or no friendly glow
to succeed the  first shock, but  on  coining out of the
bath remains cold, shivering, sick at the stomach, op-
pressed with headache, languid, drowsy, and listless.
and averse  to  food and exercise during the whole or
the day, we may be  sure  that the  bath iVas been too
cold, the shock  too severe, and no reaction produced at
all adequate to the impression on the surface of the
body.
  There is a kind of slow, irregular fever, or rather
febricula, in which Dr. Saunders has often found  the
cold bath of singular service.   This  disorder princi-
pally affects persons naturally of a sound constitution,
but who lead a sedentary life, and at the same time
are employed in some  occupation which strongly en-
gages  their attention,  requires much  exertion of
thought, and excites a degree of anxiety.  Such persons
have constantly a pulse rather  quicker than natural,
hot hands, restless nights, and  an  impaired appetite,
but without any considerable derangement in  the di-
gestive organs.  This disorder will continue for a long
time in an  irregular way, never entirely preventing
their ordinary occupation, but  rendering it more than
usually anxious and fatiguing, and often preparing the
way for confirmed hypochondriasis.  Persons in  this
situation Care remarkably  relieved  by the cold bath,
and, lor tne most part, bear it well ;  and Us use should
also, if possible, be aided by that relaxation from busi-
ness, and tiiat diversion ofthe  iniud from its ordinary
train of thinking, which are obtained by attending a
watering place. The Doctor also lOund cold battling
hurtful in chlorosis, and observes, that it is seldom  ad-
visable in those cases of disease in the stomach which
are brought on by high living, and constitute what may
be termed the true dyspepsia.
  The topical application of cold water, or of a cold
saturnine lotion, iu cases of local  inflammation-, has
become an established practice; the efficacy of which
is daily experienced.  Bums of every description will
bear a most liberal use of cold water, or even of ice:
and this may be applied to a very extensive  inflamed
surface, without even producing the  ordinary effects
of general chilling, which would be brought on from
the same application to a sound  and healthy skin.
Another very distressing symptom, remarkably relieved
by  cold water, topically applied, is that intolerable
iichingin  the vagina, which women sometimes expe-
rience, entirely unconnected with any general cause,
and which appears to be a kind of herpes confined to
that part.   C'oid water has also been used topically in
the various cases of strains, bruises, and similar inju-
ries, in teutinous and ligamentous parts, with success,
also in rigidity of muscles,  that have been long kept at
rest, in order to favour the union of bone,  where there
appears to have been no organic injury, but only a de-
ficiency of nervous energy, and in mobility of parts, or
at most, only slight adhesions, which would give way
to regular exercise of the weakened limb.  Another
very striking instance, of the powerful effects of topical
cold, in stimulating a part to action, is shown in  the
use of  cold, or even iced water, to  the vagina of per-
turien* women, during  the  dangerous lutmorrhages
that take place from  the uterus, on the partial separa-
tion of the placenta.
  2.  The shower Bath.  A species  of cold bath.  A
modern invention, in which the water falls through
numerous apertures on the body. A proper apparatus
for this purpose i3 to be obtained at the shops. The
use of  the shower bath  applies, in  every case, to the
same pur|ioses as the cold  bath, and is often  attended
with particular  advantages.  1.  From the sudden con-
tact of the water, which, in the common cold bath, is
only momentary, but which, in  the shower bath, may
be prolonged,  repeated, and modified, at pleasure;
and, secondly, from the head  and  breast, which are
exposed to some  inconvenience and  danger in  the
common bath, being  here  effectually secured,  by  re-
ceiving the first shock ofthe water.
  3 The  Tepid Bath.   The range of temperature,
            *                            ism 
BAT
BAT
 from the lowest degree of the hot bath to the highest
 of the cold bath, forms what may be termed the tepid.
 In general, the heal of water which we should term
 tepid, is about 90 deg.  In a medicinal  point of view,
 It produces the greatest effect in ardent fever, where
 the temperature is little above that  of  health, but the
 powers of the body weak, not able to bear the vigor-
 ous application of cold immersion.  In  cutaneous dis-
 eases, a tepid bath is often quite sufficient to produce
 a salutary relaxation, and perspirability of the skin.
  4. The Hot Bath.  From 93 to96deg. of Fahrenheit,
 the hot  bath has a peculiar tendency to bring on a
 state of repose, to  alleviate  any local  irritation, and
 thereby induce sleep.  It  is, upon the  whole, a safer
 remedy than the cold bath, and more peculiarly appli-
 cable to  very weak and irritable constitutions, whom
 the shock produced by cold  immersion would over-
 power, and who have not sufficient vigour of circulation
 for an adequate  reaction.  In cases of topical inflam-
 mation,  connected  with a phlogistic  state  of body,
 preceded by rigour  and general  fever, and where the
 local formation of matter is the solution of the general
 inflammatory symptoms, experience directs us to the
 use of the warm relaxing  applications, rather than
 those which, by exciting a general reaction, would in-
 crease the local complaint  This object is particularly
 to be consulted when the  part affected is one  that is
 essential to life.  Hence it is that in fever, where there
 is a great  determination to the lungs,  and the respi-
 ration appears to be locally affected, independently of
 the oppression produced by  mere febrile increase of
 circulation, practitioners have avoided the external
 use of cold, in order to promote the solution of the
 fever; and have trusted lo the general antiphlogistic
 treatment, along with  the topically relaxing applica-
 tion of warm vapour, inhaled by the lungs.   Warm
 bathing appears to be peculiarly well calculated to re-
 lieve those complaints that seem to depend on an irre-
 gular or diminished action of  any part ofthe aliment-
 ary  canal;  and the state of  the skin, produced by
 immersion in warm water, seems highly favourable to
 the healthy action of the stomach and bowels.  Ano-
 ther very important  use of the warm bath, is in her-
 petic eruptions, by relaxing the skin, and rendering it
 more pervious, and  preparing it admirably for receiv-
 ing the stimulant applications of tar ointment, mercu-
 rials, and the like, that are intended to  restore it to a
 healthy state.   The constitutions of  children seem
 more extensively relieved by the warm bath than those
 of adults;  and this remedy seems more generally ap-
 plicable to acute fevers in them than in persons of a
 more advanced age.  Where  the warm  bath produces
 its salutary operation, it is almost always followed by
 an  easy and profound sleep.  Dr. Saunders strongly
 recommends the use of the tepid  bath, or even one of
 a higher temperature, in the true inenorrhagia of fe-
 males.  In paralytic affections of particular parts, the
 powerful stimulus of heated water is generally allowed;
 and in these cases, the effect  may be assisted by any
 thing which will increase the stimulating properties
 of the water; as, for instance, by the addition of salt.
 In these cases, much benefit may be expected from the
 use of warm sea-baths.  The application of the warm
 bath topically, as in pediluvia, or fomentations to the
 feet, often produces the most  powerful  effects in qui-
 eting irritations in fever, and  bringing on a sound and
 refreshing repose.  The cases in which the warm bath
 is likely to  be attended with  danger, are particularly
 those where there exists a strong tendency to a deter-
 mination  of blood  to  the head; and  apoplexy has
 sometimes been thus brought on.  The lowest temper-
 ature will be required for  cutaneous complaints, and
 to bring on relaxation in the skin, during febrile irrita-
 tion ; the warmer will be necessary in paralysis: more
 heat should be employed on a deep-seated part than
one that is superficial.
  5.  The Vapour Bath.  The vapour bath, called also
 Balneum laconicum, though not much  employed in
England, forms  a valuable  remedy in  a  variety of
 cases.  In most of the hot natural waters on the Con-
tinent, the  vapour bath forms a  regular part of the
bathing apparatus, and is there highly valued.  In no
country,  however, is this application  carried to so
great an extent as in Russia,  where  it forms the prin-
cipal and almost daily luxury of all the people, in every
rank ;  and it is employed as a sovereign remedy for a
8reat v.*™ V of disorders.  The Hon. Mr. Basil Coch-
 rane has  lately published a Treatise on the Vapour
 Bath, from which, it appears, he has brought the  ap-
 paratus to such perfection, that he can apply it to all
 degrees of  temperature,  partially  or generally, by
 shower, or by steam, with a great force or a small one;
 according to the particular circumstances under which
 patients are so variously placed, who  require such
 assistance.   See Cochrane  on Vapour Baths.  Con-
 nected with this article, is the air-pump vapour bath;
 a species of vapour bath, or machine, to which the in-
 ventor has given this name. This  apparatus has been
 found efficacious in removing  paroxysms of the gout
 and preventing their recurrence; in acute and chronic
 rheumatism, palsy,  cutaneous diseases, ulcers,  Sec.
 It has also been proposed in chilblains, leprosy, yaws,
 tetanus, amenorrhea, and dropsy.
   [The vapour bath has been introduced and success-
 fully applied in many cutaneous and other diseases, in
 the city of New-York.  This bath may be either aque-
 ous or spirituous.  Its immediate  effect is to produce
 relaxation  of the  skin  and copious perspiration.  It
 may be made a medicated bath by passing the steam
 or vapour through a quantity of herbs, belbre it is ap
 plied to the body of the person requiring it.  A.]
   H. Those applications  are called dry baths, which
 are made of ashes, salt, sand, &c.  The ancients had
 many  ways of exciting a sweat, by means of a dry
 beat,  as by the use of hot sand, stove rooms, or arti-
 ficial bagnios;  and even  from certain  natural  hot
 steams of the earth, received  under  a proper arch, or
 hot-house,  as we learn  from Celsus.  They had also
 another kind of bath by  insolation, where the body
 was exposed to the sun for some time, in order to draw
 forth the superfluous moisture from the inward parts;
 and to this day it is a practice, in  some nations, to
 cover  the  body over with  horse-dung, especially  in
 painful chronic diseases.  In New-England, tlieymake
 a kind  of stove  of turf, wherein the sick are shut up
 to bathe, or sweat  It was probably from a knowledge
 of this  practice, and of the exploded doctrines of Cel-
 sus, that the noted empiric Dr. Graham  drew  his
 notions of the salutary effects of what he called cartA
 bathing; a practice  which, in the way he used it,
 consigned some of his patients to a perpetual mansion
 under  the ground.   The like  name of dry bath, is
 sometimes  also given to another kind of bath, made
 of kindled coals, or  burning  spirit  of wine.   The
 patient being placed in a convenient  close chair, for
 the reception of  the fume, which rises and provokes
 sweat in a plentiful manner ; care being taken to keep
 the head out, and to secure respiration.  This bath
 has been said to be very  effectual m removing old ob-
 stinate pains in the limbs.
  HI. Medicated baths are such as are saturated with
 various mineral, vegetable, or sometimes animal sub-
 stances.  Thus we have sulphur and  iron baths, aro-
 matic and milk baths.  There can be no doubt that
 such ingredients, if duly mixed, and a proper tempera-
 ture given  to the water, may, in certain complaints,
 be productive of effects highly beneficial.  Water, im-
 pregnated with sulphate  of iron, will abound with the
 bracing particles of that  metal, and may be useful for
strengthening the part to  which it is applied, re-invi-
 gorating debilitated limbs, stopping various kinds of
 bleeding, restoring the menstrual and hemorrhoidal
 discharges when obstructed, and, in short, as a substi-
 tute for the natural iron  bath.  There are various
 other medicated  baths, such as those prepared with
 alum, and quick-lime, sal-ammoniac, &c. by boiling
 them together, or separately, in pure  rain water.  These
 have long been reputed as  eminently serviceable in
 paralytic, and all other diseases arising from nervous
 and muscular debility.
  IV. A term in chemistry, when the vessels in which
 bodies are exposed to the action of heat, are not placed
 in immediate contact with the fire,  but receive the
required degree of  heat by another intermediate body,
such apparatus is termed  a bath.  These have been
variously named, as drv, vapour, &c. Modern chemists
distinguish three kinds:
  1.  Balneum arena, or the sand  bath.  This consists
merely of an open iron, or baked clay  sand-pot, whose
bottom is mostly convex, and exposed to the  furnace.
Finely sifted sea-sand is put into this, and the vessel
containing the substsnee to be heated, &c. in the sand
bath, immersed in the middle.
  2.  Balneum marie, or the water bath.  This is vet" 
BAT
BAT
simple,  and requires no particular apparatus.  The
object is to place the vessel containing the substance
to be heated, in another, containing water;  which
 ast must be of such a nature as to be fitted for the
application of fire, as a common still, or kettle.
  3.  The vapour bath.  When any substance is heated
by the steam, or vapour, of boiling water, chemists
say it is done by means of a vapour bath.
  Bath waters.  Bathonie aqua; Solis aqua; Badi-
gua aqua.  Bath is the  name of a city in Gloucester-
shire, that has  been celebrated, for a long series of
years, for its numerous hot springs, which are  of a
higher temperature than any in this kingdom, (from
112° to 116°,) and, indeed, are the only natural waters
which we possess that are at all hot to  the  touch;  all
the other thermal waters being of a heat  below the
animal  temperature, and only deserving that appella-
tion from being invariably warmer than the general
average of the heat of common springs.  By the  erec-
tion of  elegant  baths, these waters are  particularly
adapted to the  benefit of invalids, who find  here a
variety  of establishments,  contributing  equally  to
health,  convenience, and amusement.   There are
three principal springs in the city  of Bath, namely,
those called the King's Bath, the Cross Bath, and the
Hot Bath; all within a short distance of each other,
and emptying themselves into  the  river Avon,  after
having passed through the several baths.  Their sup-
ply is so copious, that all the large reservoirs used for
bathing are filled every evening with fresh water  from
their respective fountains.  In their sensible and medi-
cinal  properties, there is but a slight difference.  Ac-
cording to Dr. Falconer, the former are—1. That the
water, when newly drawn, appears clear and  colour-
less, remains perfectly inactive, without bubbles, or
any sign of briskness, or effervescence.  2. After being
exposed to the open air for some hours, it becomes
rather turbid, by the separation of a pale yellow, ochery
precipitate, which gradually subsides.  3.  No odour
is perceptible from a glass of the fresh water, but a
slight pungency to tho taste  from a large mass of it,
When fresh drawn:  which, however, is neither fcetid
nor sulphureous.  4. When hot from the pump, it
affects the mouth with a strong chalybeate impression,
Without being of a saline  or  pungent taste.   And,
fifthly, on growing coid, the chalybeate taste is entirely
lost, leaving only a very slight sensation on the tongue,
by which it can scarcely he  distinguished  from  com-
mon  hard spring-water.   The  temperature  of the
King's  Bath water, which  is  usually preferred for
drinking,  is, when  fresh drawn  in the glass, above
116°; that of the  Cross Bath, 112°.  But,  after flow-
ing into the spacious bathing vessels, it is generally
from 100° to J06° in the hotter baths, and from 92° to
94° in the Cross Bath; a temperature which remains
nearly stationary, and is greater than that of any other
natural spring in Britain.  A small quantity of gas is
also disengaged from these waters, which Dr. Priestley
first discovered to contain no more than one-twentieth
part of  its bulk of fixed air, or carbonic acid.  The
chemical properties  of the Bath waters, according to
the most accurate analyzers, Doctors Lucas, Falconer,
and (Jibbs, contain so small a proportion of iron, as
to amount only to one-twentieth or one-thirty-eighth
of a grain in the pint;  and, according to  Dr. Gibbs,
fifteen grains  and a quarter  of siliceous earth in the
  Sallon.  Dr. Saunders estimates a gallon ofthe King's
  lath water to contain about eight cubic inches of car-
bonic acid, and a similar quantity of air, nearly azotic,
about eighty grains of solid  ingredients,  one-half  of
which probably consists of sulphate and muriate of
soda, fifteen grains and a half of  siliceous  earth, and
the remainder is selenite, carbonate of lime, and  so
small a portion of oxyde of iron as to be scarcely cal-
culable.  Hence he  concludes,  that the King's  Bath
water is the strongest chalybeate; next in  order, the
Hot Bath water; and, lastly, that of the  Cross Bath,
which contains the smallest proportions of chalybeate,
gaseous and saline, but considerably more of the
earthy particles; while its water, iu the pump, is also
two degrees lower than that of the others.  It is  like-
wise now ascertained, that these springs do not exhibit
the slightest traces of sulphur, though it was formerly
believed, and erroneously supported, on the authority
of Dr. Charleton, that the subtile aromatic vapour in
the Bath waters, was a sulphureous principle entirely
similar to common brimstone.
  With regard to the effect of the Bath waters on the
human system, independent of theirspecific properties,
as a medicinal remedy not to be imitated  completely
by  any chemical  process,  Dr.  Saunders  attributes
much  of  their  salubrious influence to the  natural
degree of warmth peculiar to these springs, which, for
ages, have preserved an admirable degree of uniformity
of temperature.  He thinks too, that one of their most
important uses is that of an external application, yet
supposes that, in this respect, they diner little from
common water, when  heated to the same temperature,
and applied under similar circumstances.
  According  to  Dr. Falconer, the Bath water, when
drunk fresh from the spring, generally raises, or rather
accelerates the pulse, increases the heat, and promotes
the  different secretions.  These symptoms in most
cases, become perceptible soon after drinking  it, and
will sometimes  continue for a considerable time.  It
is, however, remarkable, that they are  only produced
in invalids.   Hence  we may conclude,  that  these
waters not only possess heating properties, but their
internal use is likewise attended with a peculiar stimu-
lus,  acting more immediately on the nerves.
  One of the most salutary effects of the Bath water,
consists in its action on the urinary organs, even when
taken in moderate doses.  Its operation on the bowels
varies in  different individuals, like that of all other
waters, which do not  contain any cathartic salt; but,
in general, it is productive  of costiveness: an effect
resulting from the want  of an active stimulus to the
intestines, and  probably also from the  determination
this water occasions to the skin, more than from any
astringency which it may possess; for, if perspiration
be suddenly checked during  the use of it, a diarrhoea
is sometimes  the consequence.  Hence it appears that
its stimulant powers are  primarily, and more particu-
larly exerted in the stomach, where it  produces  a
variety of symptoms, sometimes slight and transient,
but, occasionally, so considerable and  permanent, as
to require it to be discontinued.   In those individuals
with whom it is likely to agree, and prove beneficial,
the Bath waters excite, at first, an  agreeable glowing
sensation in the stomach, which is speedily followed
by an increase both of appetite and spirits, as well as
a quick secretion of urine.  In others, when  the use
of them is attended with  headache, thirst, and constant
dryness o'f the tongue, heaviness, loathing of the sto-
mach, and sickness;  or  if they are not evacuated
either  by urine or  an increased  perspiration, it may
be justly inferred that their further continuance is im-
proper.
  The diseases for which these celebrated waters are
resorted to, are very numerous, and are some of the
most important  and difficult to cure of all  that come
under medical treatment  In most of them, the bath
is used along with the wateis, as an internal medicine.
The general indications,  of the propriety of using this
medicinal water, are iu those cases where a gentle,
gradual, and  permanent stimulus,  is required.  Bath
water may certainly he considered as a chalybeate, in
which the iron is very small in quantity, but in a highly
active form; and the degree of temperature is in itself
a stimulus, often of considerable  powers.  These cir-
cumstances again point out the  necessity of certain
cautions, which, from a  view of the mere quantity ol
foreign contents, might  be thought superfluous.  Al-
though, in  estimating the powers  of  this  medicine,
allowance  must be made for local prejudice in its
favour, there  can be no doubt but that its employment
is hazardous, and might often do considerable mischief,
in various cases of active  inflammation, especially in
irritable habits, where there  exists a strong tendency
to hectic fever; and  even in  the  less  inflammatory
state of diseased and suppurating viscera; and, in
general, wherever a quick pulse and dry tongue indi-
cate a degree of general  fever.  The cases, therefore,
to which this water are  peculiarly suited, are  mostly
of the chronic kind; and by a steady perseverance iu
this remedy, very obstinate disorders have given way
The following, Dr. Saunders, in his Treatise on Mine
ral Waters, considers as the principal, viz. 1. Chlorosis
a disease  which, at all  time3, is  much  relieved by
steel, and will bear it, even where there is a consider
able degree of feverish  irritation, receives particular
benefit from the bath  water; and its use, as a warm
bath, excellently contributes to remove that languor of
circulation, and obstruction of the natural evacuations, 
BAT
BAY
 which constitute the leading features of this common
 and troublesome disorder.  2. The complicated dis-
 eases, which are often brought on by a long residence
 rn hot  climates, affecting  the secretion of  bile, the
 functions of the stomach, and alimentary canal, and
 which generally produce organic derangement in some
 part of the hepatic system, often receive much benefit
 from the bath water, if used at  a time when suppu-
 rative inflammation is  not  actually present.  3. An-
 other and less active disease of the biliary organs, the
 jaundice, which arises from a simple obstruction of
 the gall-ducts, is still oftener removed by both the in-
 ternal and external use of these waters.  4.  In  rheu-
 matic complaints, the power of this  water, as Dr.
 Charleton well  observes, is chiefly confined to that
 species ot' rheumatism which is unattended  with in-
 flammation, or in  which the patient's  pains are not
 increased by the warmth of  his bed   A great number
 ofthe patients that resort to  Bath, especially those that
 are admitted into the  hospital, are affected with  rheu-
 matism in all its stages; and it appears, from  the most
 respectable testimony, that a large proportion of  them
 receive a permanent cure.  (See Falconer on  Bath
 Water in Rheumatic Cases.)  5. In  gout, the greatest
 benefit is derived from this water, in  those cases where
 it produces anomalous affections of the head, stomach,
 and bowels;  and it is here a  principal advantage  to be
 abie to  bring, by warmth, that active local inflamma-
 tion in  any limb, which relieves all  the other trouble-
 some and dangerous symptoms.  Hence  it is that  Bath
 water is  commonly said  lo produce the gout; by
 which is only meant that, where persons have a gouty
 affection,  shifting from  place to  place, and thereby
 much disordering the system, the internal and external
 use of the bath water will soon bring on a general in-
 crease of action, indicated by a flushing in the  face,
 fulness  in the  circulating vessels,  and relief of the
 dyspeptic symptoms; and the whole disorder will ter-
 minate  in a regular fit of the gout in the extremities,
 which is the crisis always  to be wished for.  6.  The
 colica pictonuin, and the paralysis or ioss of nervous
 power in particular limbs, which is one of its most se-
 rious consequences, is found to be peculiarly relieved
 by the use of the Bath waters, more especially when
 applied  externally, either generally,  or upon  the pari
 affected.
   The quantity of water taken daily, during a fuH
 course, and by adults, is recommended by Dr. Falconer,
 not to exceed a pint and a half, or two  pints; and in
 chlorosis, with irritable habits, not more than one pint
 is employed ; and when the  bath is  made use of, it is
 generally two or three times a week, in the morning.
 The Bath waters require a considerable time to be lei-
 severed in, before a full and lair trial can be male.
 Chronic rheumatism, habitual gout, dyspepsia, Iron, a
 long course of high and intemperate living, and the
 like, are disorders not to be removed by a short course
 of any mineial water, and  many of those who  have
 once received benefit at the fountains, find it necessary
 to  make an annual visit to them, to repair the waste
 in health during the preceding year.
   Bath, cauteres.  A sulphureous  bath near Barege,
 which raises the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer
 to 131°.
   Bath, St. Saviour's.  A  sulphureous and  alkaline
 bath,  in the valley adjoining  Barege,  the  latter of
 which raises Fahrenheit's   thermometer »as  high as
 131°.  It is much resorted to from the South of France,
 and used chiefly externally, as a simple thermal water.
  Bath, cold.  See Bath.
   Bath, hot.  See Bath.
   Bath, tepid.  See Bath.
  Bath, vapour. See Bath.
  Ba'thmis.    (From Batvu, to enter.)   Bathmus.
 The seat, or base; the cavity of a bone, with  the pro-
 tuberance of  another, particularly those at the articu-
 lation of the  humerus and ulna, according to Hippo-
 crates and Galen.
  Batho'nijE aquje.  See Bath waters.
  Ba'thron.   (From (iaivu, to enter.)   Bathrum.
 The same as bathmis; also an instrument used in the
 extension  of  fractured limbs, called  scamnum.—Hip-
pocrates.  It is described by Oribasius and Scultetus.
  Ba'tia.  A retort   Obsolete.
  Bati'non-moron.   (From Bans, a bramble, and
 jsopov, a raspberry.)   The raspberry.
  Batra'chiuk.  (From (3arpaxoSi  a frog; so called
 from its likeness to a frog.)  The herb crow's foot, or
 ranunculus.
   BA TRACHUS.  (From /Jarpaxoy, a frog; so called
 because they who are infected with it croak like a
 fiog.)  An inflammatory tumour under the  tongue
 See Ranula.
   [Batrachian. Batrachian animals.  A term used in
 natural history, intended to include all animals of the
 frog, toad, or lizard kind.   A.]
   Battari'smus.  (From Butj-os, a Cyrenaean prince
 who stammered.) Stammering;  a  defect in  pronun-
 ciation.  See  Psellismus.
   Batta'ta virginiana.   See Batatas, and Convol-
 vulus batatas.
   Batta'ta pereorina.  The cathartic potato; per-
 haps a species  of ipomaa.  If about two  ounces of
 them  are  eaten at bed-time, they  greatly move the
 belly the next morning.
   BATTIE, William, was  born in Devonshire,  in
 1704.  He graduated at Cambridge, and after prac-
 tising  some years successfully at  Uxbridge, settled 'in
 Loudon, and became a fellow of  the College of Phy-
 sicians, as  well as of the Royal Society.  The insuf-
 ficiency of Bethlehem  hospital to  receive all the indi-
 gent objects labouring under insanity in this metropolis,
 naturally led to the establishment of another similar
 institution; and Dr. Battie having been very active in
 promoting  the subscription for that purpose,  he  was
 appointed physician to the new institution, which was
 called St. Luke's Hospital, then situated on the north
 side of Moorfields.  In 1757 he published a treatise on
 madness; and a few years after, having exposed be-
 fore the House  of Commons the abuses often com
 mitted in private mad-houses, they became the subject
 of legislative interference, and were at length  placed
 under  the  control of the College  of Physicians,  and
 the  magistrates in the country.   He  died  at  tho
 age of 72.
   BAUHIN, John, was born at Lyons, in 1541. Being
 greatly attached to botany, he accompanied thecele-
 braied Gesner in his travels through  several countries
 of Europe, and  collected abundant  materials  for his
 principal work, the "Historia Plantarum," which con-
 tributed greatly  to the improvement of his  favourite
 science.  He was, at the  age of 32, appointed phy-
 sician  to the duke of Wirtemberg, and died in 1613.
 A Treatise on Mineral Waters, and  some other pub-
 lications by him  also remain.
   BAUHIN, Gaspard, was brother  to the  preceding,
 but younger by 20 years.  He graduated at Basle, after
 studying at several universities, and was chosen Greek
 professor at the early age of 22: afterward  professor
 of anatomy and botany ; then of medicine, with other
 distinguished honours, which he retained till his death
 in 1024.  Besides the plants' collected by himself, be
 received  material assistance  from  his pupils and
 friends, and was enabled to add considerably lo the
 knowledge  of botany; on which  subject, as well as
 anatomy, he has left numerous publica.ious.  Among
 other anatomical improvements, he  claims the disco-
 very ofthe  valve ofthe colon.   His " Pinax" contains
 the names of six thousand  plants mentioned  by the
 ancients, tolerably well arranged;  and being continu-
 ally referred to In Linnanis, must long retain its value.
   BAULMONEY.  See jEthusa meum.
 ■  BAUME, Anthony, an apothecary, born at Senlis,
 in 1728.  He distinguished himself at an early age by
 his skill in  chemistry and pharmacy: and was after-
 ward admitted a member of the Royal  Academy of
 Sciences of Paris.  He also gave lectures on chemistry
 for several years with  great credit.  Among other
 works, he published " Elements of  Pharmacy," and
 a  "Manual of Chemistry,"  which met with consider-
 able approbation; also a' d  tailed  account of tne dif-
 ferent kinds of soil, and the method of improving them
 for the purposes of agriculture.
   Baxa'na.  (Indian)  Rabuxit.  A poisonous tree
 growing near Ormuz.
   BAY.  A name of several articles; as bay-cherry,
 bay-leaf, bay-salt, &c.
   Bay-cherry.  See Prunus Lauro-cerasus.
   Bay-leavs.  See Laurus.
   Bay-leaced Passion-flower.   See Passiflora lauri-
folia.
   Bay-salt.  A  very pure  salt, prepared from sea-
 water by spontaneous evaporation.
   [BAYLJEY, Da. Ricbakd, a celebrated surgeon and 
BEC
BEE
practitioner in the city of New-York.  Dr. Bayley was
born at Fairfield, Connecticut, in the year 1745.  His
father was of English, and  his mother of French, de-
Ecent.  After returning from Loudon, where he studied
anatomy under Dr. John Hunter, he commenced piac
  Be'chion.  (From Bv\, a cough; so called from Its
supposed virtues in relieving coughs.)  See Tusilago
farfara.
  Bechi'ra nux.   A large nut growing in Brazil, from
which a balsam is drawn that is held  in estimation in
tice in connexion with Dr. Charleton of New-York, I  rheumatisms.
with whom he had previously studied.  At that time the
croup (cynanehe trachealis) was confounded with the
angina maligna,or putrid sore throat, and both treated
with stimulants.  Dr. Bayley was the first to point out
the difference, and demonstrate that the croup was an
inflammatory disease, and reauired a  different treat-
ment.
  "In the year 1782, he successfully removed the arm
from its glenoid cavity by the operai ion at the shoulder
joint; an opeiaiion at which Dr. Wright Fost, then a
student, assisted; and which, as  far as it  has been in
our power 10 examine, is the first instance of its being
practised in the United States."  His surgical skill was
often displayed in operations upon the eye.  With Dr.
Bard and others, he was o.ie of the earliest promoters
of the New  York City Dispensary.  In 1797, be pub-
lished his work on yellow fever, in which he advocates
the opinion of iis local origin and noncoutagiousness.
He aiterward, while health officer of the port of New-
York, published a series of letters on the same subject,
addressed to the New-York common  council, or cor-
poration of the city.   He died in August, 1801, " leaving
behind  him a high character as a clinically instructed
physician, an excellent  and bold operator,  a prompt
practitioner, of  rapid diagnosis, and unhesitating de-
cision."—See Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  Bde'lla.   (From  BSaXXw, to suck.)   Bdellerum.

  BDELLIUM. (From bedallah, Arab.)  Adrabolon;
Madeleon;  Bulchon;  Balchus.  Called  by the Ara-
bians, Mokel.   A gurn  resin, like very impure myrrh.
The best  bdellium is of a yellowish-brown, or  dark-
brown colour, according to its age; unctuous to  the
touch, brittle, but soon soitening, and growing  tough
between the fingers; in  some degree transparent, not
unlike myrrh; of a bitterish taste, and a moderately
strong smell.  It does not easily take flame, and, when
set on  fire, soon goes  out.  In burning, it  sputters a
little, owing to its aqueous humidity.   Its sp. grav. is
1.371.  Alkohol dissolves about three-filths of bdellium,
leaving a mixture of gum and cerasin.   Its  constitu-
ents, according to Pelletier, are 59 resin, 9.2 gum, 30.6
cerasin, 1.2 volatile oil and loss.  It is one of the weak-
est of the deobstruent gums.  It was  sometimes used
as a pectoral  and an emmenagogue.   Applied  exter-
nally, it is stimulant, and  promotes suppuration.  It is
never met with in the shops of this country.
   BEAK.  See Rostrum.
   BEAN.  See Vicia faba.
   Bean, French.  See Phaseolus vulgaris.
   Bean, Kidney.  See  Phaseolus vulgaris.
   Bean, Malacca.   See Avicennia tomentosa.
   Bean of Cartkagena.  See Be.juio.
   Bean, St. Ignatius.  See Ignatia amara.
   BEAR.  Ursa.  The name of  a well-known ani-
 mal.  Several tilings are designated after it, or a part
 of it.
   Bear's berry.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
   Bear's bilberry.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
   Bear's breech. See Acanthus.
   Bear's foot.  See Helleborus fetidus.
   Bear's whortleberry.   See Arbutus uva ursi.
   Bear's whorts.  See  Arbutus uva ursi.
   BEARD.  1. The hair growing on  the chin and ad-
  acent parts of the face, in adults of the male sex.
   2.  In botany.  See Barba;  Arista.
   Be'cca.  A fine  kind of resin from the turpentine
 and mastich trees of Greece and Syria, formcily held
 in great repute.                               ,
   BECCABU'NGA.  (From bachbungen, water-herb.
 German, because it grows in rivulets.)  See Veronica
 beccabunga.
   Bf'cha.  See Bechica.
   BE'CHICA.  (Bechicus; from Bn\, a cough.)  Be-
 ehita.  Medicines to relieve  a cough.  An obsolete
 term.  The trochisci bechici albi consist of starch and
 liquorice, with a small proportion of Florentine orris
 root  made into lozenges, wilh mucilage of gum traga-
 canth.  They  are  a soft pleasant demulcent.  The
 trochisci bechici nigri consist chiefly of the juice of
 liquorice, with sugar and gum tragacanth.
  Bede'ouar.  (Arabian.)   Bedeguar.  The  Car-
duos lacteus  syriacus is so called, and also the Rosa
canina.
  Bedengian.  The name of the love-apples in Avi-
cenna.
  BEDSTRAW.  See Galium aparine.
  BEE.  Sec Apis mellijica.
  BEECH.  See Fagus.
  BEER.  The wine of grain made from malt and
Imps in the  following manner.  The grain is steeped
for two or three days in water, until it swells, becomes
somewhat tender, and tinges the water of a bright red-
dish brown  colour.  The water being then  drained
away, the barley is spread  about two feet thick upon
a floor, where it  heats spontaneously, and begins to
grow"^ by first shooting out  the radical.  In this state
the germination is slopped by spreading it thinner, and
turning it over for Iwo days; after which it is again
made into a heap, and suffered to become sensibly hot,
which usually  happens in little  more than  a day.
Lastly, it is conveyed to the kiln, where, by a gradual
and low beat, it  is rendered  dry and crisp.  This  is
malt; and its qualities differ accoiding as it is more or
less soaked, drained, germinated, dried,  and baked
In this, as in other manufactories, the intelligent opera-
tors often make  a  mystery of their processes from
views of profit; and others pretend to peculiar secrets
who really possess none.
   Indian corn, and  probably all large grain, requires
to be suffered to grow into the blade, as well as root,
before it is fit to be made into malt.  For this purpose
it is buried  about  two or three  inches  deep  in the
ground, and covered with loose earth;  and in tenor
twelve davs it springs up.  In this state it is taken up
and washed, or fanned, to clear it from its dirt; and
then dried in the  kiln for use.
   Barley, by being converted into malt, becomes one-
fifth lighter, or 20 percent ; 12 of which are owing to
kiln-diying,  1.5 are carried off by the  steep-water, 3
dissipated on the  floor, 3 loss in cleaning the roots, and
0.5 waste or loss.
   The degree of heat to which the malt is exposed  in
 this process, gradually changes its colour from very
 pale to actual' blackness, as it simply dries it, or con-
 verts it to charcoal.
   The colour of the malt not only affects the colour of
 the liquor brewed from it; but, in consequence of the
 chemical operation, of the heat applied, on the princi-
 ples that are developed in tho grain during the process
 of malting,  materially alters the quality  of the beer,
 especially with regard to  the properties of becoming fit
 for drinking and  growing line.
   Beer is made from malt previously ground, or cut to
 pieces by a mill.  This is placed in a tun, or tub With
 a false bottom: hot water  is poured upon it, and the
 whole stirred about with a proper  instrument.  The
 temperature of  the water in this operation,  called
 mashing, must not be equal to boiling; for, in that
 case, the malt would be converted into a paste, from
 which the  impregnated water could not be separated.
 This is called setting.  After the infusion has remained
 for some time upon the malt,  it is drawn off, and is
 then distinguished by the name of Sweat Wort  By
 one or more sulwequ nt infusions of water, a quantity
 of weaker wort  is made, which is cither added to the
 foregoing, or kept apart, accoiding to the intention of
 the operator.  The wort is  then  boiled with hops,
 which gives it aa aromatic bitter taste, and is supposed
 to render it less liable to be spoiled in keeping; after
 which it is cooled in shallow vessels, and suite:ed to
 ferment, with  the addition of a proper quantity  of
 yest.   The fermented  liquor is  beer;  and  differs
 greatly in its quality, according to the nature of the
 grain, the malting, the mashing, the quantity and kind
 of the hops and the yest, the purity or admixtures of
 the water made use of, the temperature and vicissi-
 tudes of the weather, Sec.
    Beside the various qualities of malt  liquors of a
 similar kind,  there are  certain  leading features  by
 which they are distinguished, and classed under differ
I ent names, and  to produce which, different inodes jI 
BEE
BEL
 management must be pursued.  The principal distinc-
 tions are into beer,  properly so called ;  ale ; table, or
 small beer;  and porter, which  u commonly termed
 beer in London.  Beer is a strong, fine, and thin
 liquor; the greater part of  the mucilage having been
 separated by boiling the wort longer than for ale, and
 carrying the  fermentation farther, so as to convert  the
 saccharine matter inio alkohol.  Ale is of a more sy-
 rupy consistence, and sweeter taste; more ofthe mu-
 cilage being  retained in it, and the fermentation  not
 having been carried so far as to decompose all  the
 sugar.  Small beer, as  its  name implies, is a weaker
 liquor; and is made, either by adding a  large  portion
 of water to the malt, or by mashing with a fresh quan-
 t ty of water what is left after the beer or ale  wort is
 drawn off.  Porter was  probably made  originally
 from very high dried malt;  but it is said,  that its pecu-
 liar flavour cannot be imparted by malt and hops alone.
   Mr. Brande obtained the  following quantities of
 alkohol from 100 parts of different  species of beers.
 Burton ale, 8.88;  Edinburgh ale,  6.2; Dorchester ale,
 5.56; the  average being = 6.87.   Brown stout, 6.8;
 London porter (average) 4.2; London small beer (ave-
 rage)  1.28.
   As long ago as the reign  of Queen  Anne, brewers
 were forbid to mix sugar, honey, Guinea pepper, essen-
 tia bina, cocculus indicus, or any other unwholesome
 ingredient, in beer,  under  a certain  penalty;  from
 which we may infer, that such at least was  the prac-
 tice of some; and writers, who profess to discuss the
 secrets of the trade, mention most of these, and some
 other articles, as  essentially necessary.  The essentia
 bina is sugar  boiled down to a dark colour, and empy-
 reumatic flavour.   Broom tops, wormwood, and other
 bitter plants, were formerly used to render beer fit for
 keeping, before hops were introduced into this coun-
 try ; but are  now prohibited to be used in beer made
 for sale.
   By the present law of this country, nothing is allow-
 ed to enter into the composition of beer, except malt
 and hops.  Quassia and wormwood are often fraudu-
 lently introduced; both of which are easily discovera-
 ble by their'nausfous bitter  taste.  They form  a  beer
 which does not preserve so well as hop beer.   Sulphate
 of iron, alum, and salt, are o<iuu added by the publi-
 cans, under the name of berr heading,  to impart a I
 frothing property to beer, when it is poured out of one
 vessel into another.  Molasses and extract of gentian
 root are added with the same view.  Capsicum, grains
 of paradise, gi riser root, coriander seed, and orange
 peel, are also  employed to give pungency and flavour
 to weak or bad beer.   The following is  a  list of some
 of the unlawful  substances seized at different brew
 eries, and  brewers' druggists' laboratories, in London,
 as copied  from the minutes of the committee of the
 house  of commons.  Cocculus indicus multuiu, (an
 extract of the cocculus) colouring, honey, hartshorn
 shavings, Spanish juice, orange powder, ginger, grains
 of paradise, quassia,  liquorice, caraway seeds, cop-
 peras, capsicum, mixed drugs.  Sulphuric acid is very
 frequently added to bring beer forward, or make it hard,
 giving new beer  instantly  the taste of what is  18
 months old.  According  to  Mr. Accum,  the present
 entire beer of the London brewer  is composed of all
 the waste  and spoiled beer  of the publicans, the bot-
 toms of buts, the leavings ofthe pots, the  drippings of
 the machines for drawing the beer, the  remnants of
 beer that lay in the leaden pipes of the  brewery, with
 a portion of brown stout, bottling beer, and mild beer.
 He says that opium, tobacco, nux vomica, and extract
 of poppies, have been likewise used to adulterate beer.
 By evaporating a portion of beer to dryness, and ignit-
 ing the residuum with chlorate of potassa, the iron of
 the copperas will  be procured  in an  insoluble oxyde.
 Muriate of barytes will throw down an abundant pre-
 cipitate from  beer contaminated with  sulphuric acid
or_ copperas;  which  precipitate  may be collected,
dried, and  ienited   It will be insoluble in nitric acid.
  Beer appears to  have been of ancient use, as Tacitus
 mentions it among the Germans, and has been usually
supposed to have been peculiar to the northern na-
tions; but the ancient Egyptians, whose country was
not adapted to the culture of the grape, had also con-
trived this  F-jbstitute  for wine ;  and  Mr. Park has
found the  art of making malt, and brewing from  it
Very good beer, amon« the negroes in the interior parts
of Africa.   See Wheat.
      126
    Bees' wax.  See Cera.
    BEET.  See Beta.
    Beet, red.  See Beta.
    Beet, white.  A variety of red beet,  The juice and
 powder of the root are said to be good to excite sneez-
 ing, and will bring  away a considerable quantity of
 mucus.
    Be'gma.  (From (3naoio, to cough.)  A cough; also
 expectorated mucus, according to Hippocrates.
   BE'HEN.  The Arabian for finger.
   Behen album.   (From behen, a finger, Arabian,
 See Centaurea behen.     k
   Behen officinarum.  See Cucubalus lelien.
   Behen rubrum.  See Statice Limonium.
   Beide'lsar.  Beidellopar.  A species of Asclepias,
 used in Africa as a remedy for fevers and the bites of
 serpents.  The  caustic juice  which issues  from the
 roots when wounded, is used by the negroes to destroy
 venereal and similar swellings.
   Beju'io.  Habilla de Carthagend.  Bean of Car-
 thagena.  A kind of bean in South America, famed
 for being an effectual  antidote against the poison of
 all serpents, if a small quantity is eaten immediately.
 This bean is the peculiar product of the jurisdiction
 of Carthagena.
   Bela-aye.  (An Indian word.)  See Nerium anti-
 dysentericum.
   BELEMNOI'DES.  (From BtXepvov,  a dart,  and
 siooc, form;  so  named from their dart-like shape.)
 Belonoides;  Beloidos.   The styloid process of ths
 temporal bone, and  the lower end  of the ulna, were
 formerly so called.
   Bele'son.  (An Indian word.)  Belilia. SeeMus*
 senda frondosa.
   BELL METAL.   A mixture of tin and copper.
   BELLADO'NNA.   (From bella  donna, Italian, a
 handsome lady;  so called because the ladies of Italy
 use it, to take a way the too florid colour of their faces
 See Atropa belladonna.
  Be'llegu.  See Myrobalanus bellirica.
  Bellere'oi. See  Myrobalanus bellirica.
  Belle'ricje.  See Myrobalanus bellirica.
  Bellidioi'des.  (From belles, a  daisy, and tiSos,
 form.)  See Chrysanthemum.
  BELLI'NI, Laurence, an ingenious physician, bom
 at Florence in  1643.  He was greatly attached to the
 mathematics, of which he was made professor at Pisa,
 when only twenty years of age. He was soon after
 appointed professor of anatomy, which office  he filled
 with credit for nearly thirty years.  He  was one  of
 the chief  supporters of the mathematical theory of
 medicine, which attempted to explain the functions of
 the body, the causes of diseases, and the operations of
 medicines on mechanical principles: and  having  im-
 prudently regulated  his practice accordingly, he was
 generally unsuccessful,  and lost the confidence of the
 public, as well as of Cosmo III. of Florence, who had
 appointed him  his physician.  In his anatomical re-
s' arches he was more successful, having first  accu-
rately described the nervous papilla; of the tongue, and
discovered  them to be  the  organ of taste; and also
having made better known the  structure of the kid-
ney.  He was  author of several other publications,
and died in 1704.
  BE'L LIS.  (A* bello  colore, from  its fair  colour.)
The name of a genus of plants in the Linnsan system.
Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia superflua.  The
daisy.
  Ballis major.  See  Chrysanthemum.
  Bellis minor.  See Bellis perennis.
  Bellis perennis.   The systematic name of  the
common daisy.  Bellis; Bellis  minor; Bellis pc-en
nis—scapo nudo, of Liunsus,  or bruisewort, was for-
merly directed in the  pharmacopoeias by this name.
Although the leaves and flowers are rather acrid, and
are said to cure several species of wounds, they are
never employed by modern surgeons.
  Bello'culus.   (From  bellus,faiT, and  oculus, the
eye.}  A precious stone, resembling the eye, and for-
merly supposed to be useful in its disorders.
  Be'lt.on.  The Colica pictonum.
  BELLONA'RIA   (From Bellona, the  goddess of
war.) An herb which, if eaten, makes people mad, and
act outrageously, like the votaries of Bellona.
  BELLOSTE, Augustin, a  surgeon, born at Paris
in 1654.  After practising several years there, and as
an army surgeon, he was invited to attend the mother 
                       BEN

of the Queen of Sardinia, and continued at Turin till
his death in 1730.  He was inventor of a mercurial
pill, called by his name, by which he is said to have
acquired a great fortune.  The work by which he is
principally known, is called tire "Hospital Surgeon,"
which  passed through numerous editions,  and  was
translated into m06t of  the  European languages.—
Among  other useful observations, he recommended
piercing carious bones,  to promote exfoliation, which
indeed Celsus had advised before; and he blamed the
custom of frequently changing  the dressings of wounds,
as retarding the cure.     g
  Belmu'schus.  A  name of  the Abelmoschus.  See
Hibischus abelmoschus.
  Be'lnileg.   See Myrobalanus Bellirica.
  Belo'ere.   (Indian.)  An evergreen plant of Ame-
rica, the seeds  of which purge  moderately, but the
leaves roughly.
  Belonoi'des. See Belemnoides.
  Belu'lcum.   (From BtXos, a dart, and  cXkw, to
draw out.)  A surgeon's instrument for extracting
thorns, or darts.
  Belzo'e.  See Styrax benzoin.
  Belzoi'num.  See  Styrax Benzoin.
  Bem-ta'mara.  The  faba jEgyptiaca.
  BEN.   An Arabian word formerly very much used.
See Guilandina moringa.
  Ben magnum. Monardus calls a species of esula, or
garden spurge, by this name, which purges and vomits
violently.
  Ben tamara. The Egyptian bean.
  BE NEDICT.  Benedictus.  A specific name pre-
fixed to many compositions and herbs on account of
their supposed  good qualities;  as Benedicta herba,
Bencdicta aqua, Sec.
  Benedicta ao.ua.   Many compound waters have
been so called, especially lime-water, and a water dis-
tilled from Herpyllum.  In Schroeder, it is the name
for an emetic.
  Benedicta herba.  See Gcum urbanum.
  Benedicta laxativa.   A  compound  of turbcth,
scammony, and spurges, with  some warm aromatics.
  Benedictum laxativum. Rhubaib, and sometimes
the lenitive electuary.
  Benedictum  lignum.  Guaiacum.
  Benedictum  vinum.  Antimonial wine.
  BENEDICTUS.   (From benedico, to bless.)  See
Benedict.
  Benedictus  carduus.  See Centaurea benedicta.
  Benedictus  lapis.  A name for the philosopher's
stone.
  BENEOLE'NTIA.  (From bene, well, and oleo, to
smell.)  Sweet-scented medicines.
  Beng.  A name given by the Mahomedans to the
leaves of hemp, formed into pills, or conserve.  They
possess exhilarating and intoxicating powers.
  Bengal quince.  $ee  Erateva marmelos.
  Benga'ljE radix.  (From Bengal, Us native place.)
See Cassumuniar.
  Uenga'lle Indorum.  (From Bengal, its native
place.)  See Cassumuniar.
  Be'noi eiri.  A  species of evergreen.  Indian ri-
cinus, which grows in Malabar.
  BENIT. See Gcum urbanum.
  Beni'vi arbor.  See Styrax benzoin.
  BENJAMIN.  See Styrax benzoin.
  Benjamin flowers.  See Benzoic acid.
  [Benne seed.  Among the  negroes, in Georgia, a
plant is  cultivated which appears to be a species of
sesamum.  They call it benne, which is probably its
African  name.  The seeds are of a brownish-white,
and about the size of flaxseed,  abounding in oil.
  Several barrels of benne seeds were shipped by John
Milledge, from Savannah  to New-York, in 1807, con-
Rigncd to Col. Few.  By direction of this latter gentle-
man, they were pressed, and have been found to yield
plenty of oil; three gallons, at  least, to a bushel.  The
benne plant is an annual, and may hereafter become
of some importance to this country.  One difficulty in
its cultivation, since ascertained, arises from the  laci-
lity with which the plant sheds its seeds before the
whole are mature.—See Med.  Repos. vol. ii.  A.]
  [Benne oil.   This vegetable oil is clear, mild, and
well-flavoured,  and excellent for salads.  Its qualities
are so good and wholesome that it may be employed
in lieu of the oil of olives, both in medicine and  diet.
tusvad of importing tlus article from the south of Fu-
                      BEN

rope, the Americans may prepare the oil of sesamum
from their own fields.  The grains are of a tender
structure, and may be crushed under the screw without
previous grinding.  In addition to all which circum-
stances  it may be added, that the oil separates freely
by cold  expicssion;  and it may hence be hoped that
our tables will, in process of time, be furnished with
plentiful supplies of this sweet and nutritious sub-
stance.—See Med. Repos. vol. ii, p. 88.
  The sesamum orientate is cultivated in Asia, Africa,
and  the West Indies, principally on account of its oil.
Its seeds were used by the ancient Egyptians for food,
and are still employed by the negroes and Asiatics for
this  purpose.  The  plant is now cultivated in the
southern parts of the United States.  The seeds afford
a copious quantity  of oil,  amounting,  according to
some authors, to nearly one half of their weight.  This
oil is bland,  sweet, and is said to keep some years
without turning rancid.  Ii  is applicable to the same
purposes as olive oil, and in  sufficient  doses proves
purgative on the same principle as other animal and
vegetable fixed oils."—See Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  BENZO'AS.  Abcnzoate.  A salt formed  by the
union of benzoic acid with salifiable bases;  as benzo-
ate of alumine, Sec
  BENZO'E.  See Styrax benzoin.
  Benzoe amygdaloides.  See Styrax benzoin.
  Benzoes flores.  See Benzoic acid.
  BENZOIC ACID.  See Acidum benzoicum.  "This
acid  was first described in 1608, by Blaise de Vigenere,
in his Treatise on Fire and  Salt, and has been gene-
rally known since by the name of flowers of benjamin
or benzoin, because it was obtained by sublimation
from the resin of this name.  As it is still most com-
monly procured from this substance, it has  preserved
the epithet of benzoic, though known to be a peculiar
acid, obtainable not  from benzoin alone,  but from dif-
ferent vegetable balsams, venello,  cinnamon, amber-
gris,  the urine of children, frequently that  of adults,
and  always, according to Fourcroy  and Vauquelin,
though Gicse denies this, from that of quadrupeds liv-
ing on grass and hay, particularly the camel, the horse,
and the cow.  There is reason to conjecture that many
vegetables,  and among them some of the grasses, con-
tain  it, and that it passes from them into the urine.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin found  it combined with po-
tassa and lime in the liquor of dunghills, as well as in
the uiinc of the quadrupeds above-mentioned; and
they strongly suspect it to exist in the Anthoxanthum
odoratum, or  sweet-scented vernal-grass, from which
hay  principally derives its fragrant  smell.   Giese,
however, could find none cither in this grass  or in oats.
  The usual method of obtaining it affords a very ele-
gant and pleasing example of the chemical process  of
sublimation.  For this purpose a thin stratum of pow-
dered benzoin is spread  over the bottom of a glazed
earthen pot, to which a tall conical paper covering is
fitted : gentle heat is then to be applied to the  bottom
of the pot, which fuses the benzoin, and fills the apart-
ment with a fragrant smell, arising from  a portion of
essential oil and acid of benzoin, which are dissipated
into  the air, at the same time the acid itself rises very
suddenly in the paper head, which may be occasion-
ally  inspected   at the  top, though with some little
care,  because Ihe fumes will excite coughing. This
saline sublimate  is  condensed in  the form cf long
needles, or straight filaments of a white colour, cross-
ing each other in all directions.   When the acid cea>es
to rise, the cover may be changed, a new one applied,
and the  heat raised : more flowers of a yellowish co-
lour  will then rise, which will  require a second sub-
limation to  deprive them of the empyreuinatic oil they
contain.
  The sublimation of the acid of benzoin may be con-
veniently perlbrined by substituting an inverted earth-
en pan  instead of the paper cone.  In this case the
two pans should be made to fit,  by grinding on a stone
with sand, and they must be luted together with paper
dipped in paste.  This method seems preferable to the
other, where Ihe presence of the operator is required
elsewhere;  but the paper head can  be more  easily in-
spected  and changed.   The heat applied  must  be
gentle, and  the vessels ought not to be separated till
they  have become cool.
  The quantity of acid obtained  in  these methods
differs according to the management, and probably
also from difference of purity, and in other respects, of
                                        127 
BEN
BEN
 the resin itself.  It usually amounts to no more than
 about one-eighth part of the  whole weight.  Indeed
 Scheele says, not more than a tenth or twelfth.  The
 whole acid of benzoin  is obtained with greater cer-
 tainty in the humid process of Scheele: this consists in
 boiling the powdered balsam with  lime water, and
 afterward  separating  the  lime by the addition of mu-
 riatic acid.  Twelve ounces of water are to be poured
 upon four ounces of slaked lime; and, after the ebulli-
 tion is over, eight  pounds, or uiiiety-six ounces, more
 of water are to be added;  a pound of finely-powdered
 benzoin being then  put into a tin vessel,  six ounces of
 the lime water are to lis added, and mixed well with
 the powder; and afterward the rest of Die lime water
 iu the same gradual manner, because the  benzoin
 would coagulate into a mass, if the whole were added
 at once.  This mixture must be gently boiled for half
 an hour with constant agitation, and afterward suf-
 fered to cool and subside during an hour. The super-
 natant liquor  must be  decanted,  and the residuum
 boiled with eignt pounds  more of lime  water; after
 which the sam.-  process is to be once more repeated:
 the remaining powder  must  be  edulcorated on  the
 filter  by affusions of  hot water.  Lastly, all the de-
 coctions, being mixed  together, must be evaporated
 to two pounds, and  strained into a glass vessel.  This
 fluid consists of the acid  of benzoin combined with
 lime.   After it is become cold, a quantity of muriatic
 acid must  be added, with constant stirring, until the
 fluid tastes a little sourish.  Duirng Ibis time the last-
 mentioned  acid unites with the limp, and forms a so-
 luble  salt,  which remains suspended, while  the less
soluble acid of benzoin being diseiijjaged, falls to the
bottom in  powder.   By  repeated affusions  of  cold
 water upon the filter, it may be deprived of the muriate
of lime and muriatic  acid with which it may happen
to be  mixed.  If it be  required  to have a shining
appearance, it may  be dissolved in a small quantity of
boiling water, from which it  will  separate  in silky
filaments by cooling.  Ly this process the benzoic acid
may be procured from other substances, in  which it
exists.
  Mr. HatchtU has shown, that, by digesting benzoin
 in hot sulphuric  acid, very  beautiful  crystals are
 sublimed.  This  is  perhaps the best process for ex-
 tracting the acid.   If we concentrate the  urine of
 horses or cows, and pour muriatic acid into it, a copi-
 ous precipitate of benzoic acid takes place.  This is
 the cheapest source of it."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  As an economical mode of obtaining this acid, Four-
croy recommends the extraction of it f. om  the water
that drains from  dunghills, cowhouses, and stables, by
means of the  muriatic  avid,  which decomposes the
benzoate of lime contained in them, and  separates the
 benzoic acid, as in Scheele's  process.   He confesses
the smell of the acid thus obtained differs a little from
that of the acid  extracted from benzoin; but this, he
says, may be remedied, by dissolving the acid in boiling
water, filtering the  solution, letting it cool,  and  thus
suffering the acid to crystallize, and repeating tins ope:
ration  a second time.
  The acid of benzoin is so inflammable, that it bums
 with a clear yellow flame without the assistance of a
wick.  The sublimed  flowers in ilieir purest state, as
white  as ordinaly  writing paper, were fused into a
clear transparent yellowish fluid, at the two  hundred-
 and-thirtieth degree of Fahrenheit's tbermomUer, and
 at the same time began to rise iu sublimation.  It is
probable that a heat somewhat greater than  this may
 be required to separate it from the refill.  It is strongly
disposed to take  ihe crystalline form  in cooling.  The
concentiated sulphuric and 'litric acids dissolve this
concrete acid, and it is agaiu separated without altera-
 tion, by adding water.  Othei  acids dissolve it by the
 assistance of heat, from whicl  it separates by cooling,
 unchanged. It  is plentifully soluble in  ardent spirit,
 from which It may likewise bs: separated by diluting
 the spirit with water.   It readily dissolves in oils, and
in melted tallow.  If it be added in a small proportion
 to this last  fluid,  pat of the tallow congeals before the
resl, iu the form  of white opaque clouds.   If the quan-
tity of acid be more considerable, it separates in part
 by cooling, in the form of needles or feathers.  It did
not communicate any considerable degree of hardness
to the tallow, which was the objectof this experiment.
 When the  tallow was heated nearly to ebullition, it
 emitted fumes which affected the respiration, like those
      128
 ofthe acid of benzoin, but did not possess the peculiar
 and agreeable smell of that  substance, being probably
 the sebacic acid.   A stratum of this tallow, about one-
 twentieth of an inch thick, was fused upon a plate of
 brass, together with other fat substances, with a view
 to determine its relative disposition to acquire and
 retain the solid state.  After it had cooled, it was left
 upon  the plate, and, in the course of some weeks, it
 gradually became tinged throughout of  a bluish-green
 colour.   If this circumstance be not supposed to have
 arisen from a solution of the copper during the fusion,
 it seems a remarkable instance ofthe mutual action of
 two bodies in tne solid state, contrary to that axiom of
 chemistry which affirms, that bodies do not act on each
 other, unless one or more of them be in the fluid state.
 Tallow itself, however, has the same effect.
  Pure benzoic acid is in the form of a light powder,
 evidently crystallized  in  fine needles,  the  figure of
 which is difficult to be determined  from  their  small-
 ness.   It has a white and  shining  appearance;  but
 when contaminated by  a portion of volatile  oil, is
 yellow or brownish.   It is not brittle, as might  be ex-
 pected from its appearance, but has rather a kind of
 ductility and elasticity, and, on rubbing in a mortar,
 becomes a sort of paste.   Its taste is acrid, hot, acidu-
 lous, and bitter.  It reddens  ihe infusion of litmus, but
 not syrup of violets.  It has a peculiar aromatic smell,
 but not strong utiles;; heated.  This, however, appears
 not to belong to ihe acid ; for Mr. Giese informs us, that
 on dissolving the benzoic acid in as little alkohol as
 possible, filtering the solution, and  precipitating by
 water, the acid will be obtained pure, and void of
 smell, the odorous oil remaining dissolved in the spirit.
 Its specific gravity is 0.667.  It is not perceptibly altered
 by the air, and has been kept in an open  vessel twenty
 years  without losing any of its weight.   None of the
 combustible substances have any effect on  it;  but it
 may be refined by mixing it with charcoal powder and
subliming,  being  thus  rendered  much  whiter and
better crystallized.   It  is not very soluble in  water;
 Wenzel and  Lichtenstein say four hundred parts of
cold water dissolve but one, though the same quantity
of boiling water dissolves twenty parts, nineteen of
which separate on cooling.
  The benzoic  acid unites  without much  difficulty
 with  the earthy and  alkaline  bases.  These com-
 pounds are called benzoatcs.
  The benzoate of  barytes is soluble, crystallizes tole-
 rably well, is not affected by exposure to  the air, but is
decomposable by fire, and by the stronger acids.  That
of lime is very soluble in  water, though much less in
cold than in hot, and crystallizes on cooling. It is in
 like manner decomposable by the acids and by barytes.
 The benzoate of magnesia is soluble, crystallizable, a
 liille deliquescent,  and more decomposable than the
 former.  That of alumina is very soluble, crystallizes
 in dendrites,  is deliquescent, has an  acerb and bitter
 taste,  and is decomposable by lire,.and even by most of
 the vegetable acids.  The benzoate of potassa crystal-
lizes on cooing in little compacted needles.  AII theacids
decompose it, and the solution of barytes  and lime form
 with it a p.ecipitate.  The benzoate of roda is very
 crystallizable, very soluble,  and not  deliquescent like
 that of potassa, but it is  decomposable by  the same
 means.   It is sometimes found native in the urine of
graminivorous quadrupeds, but by no means so abun-
dantly as that of lime.  The benzoate of  ammonia is
 volatile, and decomposable by all the acids and all the
 bases.  The solutions of all  the benzoates, when dry-
 ing on the  sides of a vessel wetted with  them,  form
 dendritical crystallizations.
  Trommsdorf found in his experiments, that benzoic
 acid united readily with metallic oxydes.
  The benzoates ate all decomposable by heat, which,
 when it is  slowly applied, first separates a portion of
 the acid in a vapour, that condenses in crystals.  The
 soluble  benzoates  are decomposed by  the  powerful
 acids, which separate their acid in a crystalline form.
  The benzoic acid is occasionally used in  medicine,
 but not so much as formerly ; and enters into the com-
 position of the camphorated tincture of opium of the
 London collegi', heretofore called paregoric elixir.
  BENZOl l'ERA.  See Styrax benzoin.
  BENZOI'NUM.  (From the Arabic term benzoah.)
 See Styrax benzoin.
  Benzoini magistkrium.  Magistery, or precipitate
 of gum-benjamin. 
BER
BET
   Bbnzoini oleum.  Oil of benjamin.
   BERBERIA.  (Origin uncertain.)   Berber!.  The
 name of a species of disease iu the genus Synclonus of
 Good's Nosology   See Beribcria.
   BERBERIS.  (Berberi, wild Arab, used by Aver-
 rhoes, and officinal writers.)
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean
 system.   Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.  The
 barbery, or pepperidge bush.
   2. The pharmacopceial name for the barberry.  See
 Berberis vulgaris.
   Berberis gelatina.   Barberry jelly.  Barberries
 boiled in sugar.
   Berberis vuloaris.  The systematic name for the
 barberry of the pharmacopoeias.  Oxycantha Galeni;
 Spina acida; Crespinus.  This tree, Berberis; pedun-
 eulis racemosis, spinus  triplicibus, of  Linnaeus,  is a
 native of England.  The fruit, or berries, which are
 gratefully acid, and moderately astringent, are said to
 be of great use in biliary  fluxes, and in all cases where
 heat, acrimony, and putridity of the humours prevail.
 The filaments of this shrub possess a remarkable de-
 gree of irritability;  for on being touched near the base
 with the point of a pin,  a sudden contraction is  pro-
 duced, which may be repeated several times.
   BERENGA'RIUS, James, bom about the end ofthe
 15th century at Carpi, in  Modena, whence he is often
 called Carpus.  He was one of the restorers of  ana-
 tomy, of which he was professor, first at Padua, after-
 ward at Bologna, which he  was in  a  few years
 obliged to quit, being accused  of having opened the
 bodies of two Spaniards  alive.  By his numerous dis-
 sections, he corrected many previous errors concerning
 the structure of the human body, and paved the  way
 for his successor Vesalius.  He was among the first to
 use mercurial frictions in  sypliilis, whereby he acquired
 a large fortune, which he left to the Duke of Ferrara,
 into whose territory he  retired; at his death in 1527.
 His principal works are  an enlarged Commentary on
 Mundinus, and a Treatise on Fracture ofthe Cranium.
   Bereni secum.   See Artemisia vulgaris.
   Bereni'ce.  (The city from whence it was formerly
 brought.)  Amber.
   Bereni'cium.  (From tbcpw, to bring, and vikv vic-
 tory.)  A term applied  by the old Greek writers  to
 niire, from its supposed power in healing wounds.
   BERGAMO'TE.   A species of citron.  See Citrus
 mtdica.
   B ERG M A NITE.  A massive mineral of a greenish,
 grayish-white, or reddish colour, which fuses into a
 transparent glass, or a semitransparcnt enamel:   It is
 found in Frederickswam, in Norway, in quartz and in
 felspar.
   [This mineral has not yet been satisfactorily ana-
 lyzed.  Its masses  are composed of fibres, or little
 needles,  confusedly grouped, and often so  closely ap-
 plied to  each other, that  the  texture  becomes nearly
 compact. Some of the needles have a foliated shining
 fracture.  Its colour is a deep  gray.  Its sharp frag-
 ments scratch glass, and even quartz in a slight degree.
 Its spec.  grav. is 2.30.  When  moistened by the breath,
 it yields an argillaceous odour.   A fragment exposed
 to the flame of  a candle,  or placed on a  hot coal, be-
 comes white and friable. It  melis by the blow-pipe
 into a white translucent glass.—See Cleav. Min.   A-]
   BERIBE'RI.  (An Hindostan word  signifying a
 sheep.)   Beribcria.   A species  of palsy, common in
 some parts of the East Indies,  according to Bontius.
 In this disease, the patients lift up their legs very much
 iu the same manner as is usual with sheep.  Bontius
 adds, that this  palsy is a kind of trembling, in which
 there is deprivation ofthe motion and sensation ofthe
 hands and feet, and sometimes of the body.
  BERKENHOUT, John,  born at Leeds, about the
 year 1730.  His medical studies were commenced  late
 in life, having graduated  at Leyden only in 1765;  nor
did he long continue  the practice of medicine.   His
" Pharmacopoeia Medica," however, was very much
approved, and  has  since passed through many edi-
tions ; his other medical  publications are of little  im-
portance. He died in 1791.
  Bermudas berry.  See Sapindus saponaria.
  BERRY.  See Bacca.
  Bers.   Formerly  the name  of an  exhilarating
electuary.
  Be'rula.  An old name for brooklime.
  Be'eula OAtLicA.  Upright water parsnip.
   BERYL.   Aqua marine.   A  precious  mineral,
 harder than the emerald, of a green, or greenish-yellow
 colour, found in Siberia,  France,  Saxdny, Brasil,
 Scotland, and Ireland.
   Bessa'nen.  (An Arabian word.)  A redness of the
 external parts, resembling that which  precedes the
 leprosy;  it occupies the face and extremities.—Avi-
 cenna.
   Be'sto.  A name in Oribasius for a species of
 saxifrage.
   BE'TA   (So called from the river Betis, in Spain,
 where it grows naturally; or, according to Blanchard,
 from the Greek letter Btjra, which it is said to resem-
 ble when turgid with seed.)  The beet.
   1. The name of a genus of plants in  the Linnean
 system.  Class, Pcntundria; Order, Digynia.  The
 beet
   2. The pharmacopceial name of (he common beet
 See Beta vulgaris.
   Beta uybrida.  The plant which affords the root
 of scarcity.  Mangel  wurztl of the Germans; a  large
 root.  It contains much of the saccharine  principle,
 and is very nourishing.  Applied externally it is useful
 in cleaning foul  ulcers; and is a better application
 than the carrot.
   Beta vulgaris.   The systematic name for the
 beet of the pharmacopoeias.  Beta .-—floribus conges-
 lis of Linnaeus.  The  root of this plant  is frequently
 eaten  by the  French; it may be considered as nutri-
 tious and antiscorbutic, and forms a very elegant pickle
 with vinegar.  The  root and  leaves, although for-
 merly employed as laxatives and emollients, are now
 forgotten.  A considerable quantity of sugar may be
 obtained from the root of the beet.  It is likewise said,
 that if beet roots be dried in the same manner as  malt,
 after the greater part of their juice is pressed out  very
 good beer may be made from them.  It is occasionally
 used to improve the colour of claret.
   Bctele.  Bet hie;  Belle;  Betelle.   An  oriental
 plant, like the tail of a lizard.  It is chewed by the In-
 dians, and makes the teeth black;  is cordial and  exhi-
 larating, and in very general use throughout the east.
 It is supposed to be the long pepper.
   BETONICA.  (Corrupted from Vettonica, which
 is derived from the  Vectones, an ancient people of
 Spain.)  Betony.
   1. The  name  of a genus of  plants in  the  Lin
 nrtan system.  Class,  Didynamia;  Order,  Gymnos-
 permia,
   2. The  pharmacopceial  name of the wood betony
 See Betonica officinalis.
   Betonica aquatica.  See  Scrophularia aquatica.
   Betonica officinalis. The systematic  name of
 the betony ofthe pharmacopoeias. Betonica purpurea j
 Betonica vulgaris ; Cestrum;  Vetonica cordi;  Beto-
 nica—spica interrupta, corollarum labii lacinia inter-
 media  emarginata of  Linnaeus.  The leaves and tops
 of this plant have an  agreeable, but weak smell; and
 to the taste they discover a slight warmth, accompa-
 nied with some degree of adstringency and bitterness.
 The powder of the leaves of betony, snuffed up the
 nose, provokes sneezing;  and hence  it is somiiimes
 made  an   ingredient  in  sternutatory powders.   Its
 leaves are sometimes smoked like tobacco.  The  roots
 differ greatly, in their quality, from  the  other parts;
 their taste is  very bitter and nauseous;  taken  in  a
 small dose, they vomit and purge violently,  and are
 supposed to have somewhat in common with the roots
 of hellebore.  Like many other plants,  formerly  in
 high medical estimation, betony is now almost entirely
 neglected.  Antonius Musa, physician to the emperor
 Augustus, filled a whole volume with enumerating its
 virtues, stating it as a remedy for  no less than forty-
 seven disorders; and hence in Italy the proverbial
 compliment, You have more virtues than betony.
  Betonica pauli.  A species of veronica.
  Betonica vulgaris. See Betonica officinalis
  BETONY.  See Betonica.
  Betony,  water.  See Scrophularia aquatica
  BETULA.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Monecia; Order, Telrandria.
Alder and birch.
  2. The phannacopceial name of the white birch.
See Betula alba.
  Betula alba.  The systematic name ofthe betula
of the pharmacopoeias.  Betula:—foliis ovatis,  acu-
mtnatis, serratis, of Linnajus.  The juice, 'eaves, and 
BEZ
BIC
 bark have been employed medicinally.  If the tree be
 bored early in the spring, there issues, by degrees, a
 large quantity of limpid, watery, sweetish juice; it is
 said that one tree will afford from one to two gallons a
 day.  This juice is esteemed as an antiscorbutic, de-
 obstruent, and diuretic.   When well fermented, and
 having a proper addition of raisins  in its composition,
 it is frequently a rich and strong liquor;  it keeps better
 than many ofthe other made-wines, often for a num-
 ber of years, and  was formerly supposed to possess
 many medical virtues; but these experience does not
 seem to sanction; and  the virtues of the alder, like
 those of many other simples formerly prized, have
 sunk into oblivion.  The leaves and bark were used
 externally  as resolvents, detergents, and  antiseptics.
   Betula alnus.  The systematic name for the alnus
 ofthe pharmacopoeias.  The common alder.
   BEX.   (From Bnoota,  to cougtj.)  A cough. Dr.
 Good, in his Nosology, has applied this term to a genus
 of diseases, which embraces three species, bex humida,
 sicca, convulsiva.
   Bexagui'llo. A name given to the white ipecacu-
 anha, which the Spaniards bring from Peru, as the
 Portuguese do the brown from Brazil.
   Bexu'go.  The root of the JEmatitis peruviana of
 Caspar Bauhin; one drachm of which is sufficient for
 a purge.
   Be'zahan. The fossile bezoar.
   Beze'tta coerulea.  See Croton tinctorium
   BE'ZOAR.   (From pa-zahar, Persian, a destroyer
 of poison.)  Lapis bezoardicus.   Bezoard.  A  pre-
 ternatural or morbid concretion formed  in the bodies
 of land-animals. Several of these kinds of substances
 were formerly celebrated for their  medicinal virtues,
 and distinguished by the names of the countries from
 whence they came, or the animal in which they were
 found.  There are eight kinds, according to Fourcroy,
 Vauqueliu, and Berthollet.
   1. Superphosphate of lime, which forms concretions
 in the intestines of many mammalia.
   2. Phosphate of magnesia, semitransparent and yel-
 lowish, and of sp. grav. 2.160.
   3. Phosphate of  ammonia and magnesia.  A con-
 cretion of a gray or brown colour, composed of radia-
 tions from a centre.  It  is found in the intestines of
 herbiverous animals, the elephant, horse, &c.
   4. Biliary, colour reddish-brown, found frequently in
 the intestines and  gall-bladder of oxen, and used by
 painters for an orange-yellow pigment.  It is inspis-
 sated bile.
  5. Resinous.  The oriental bezoars, procured from
 unknown animals,  belong to this class of concretions.
 They consist of concentric layers, are fusible, combus-
 tible, smooth, soft, and  finely polished.  They are
 composed of bile and resin.
  6. Fungous, consisting of pieces of the Boletus igni-
 arius, swallowed by the animal.
  7.  Hairy.
  8.  Ligniform. Three bezoars sent to Bonaparte by
 the king of Persia, were  found by Berthollet to be no-
 thing but woody fibre agglomerated.
  Bezoars were formerly considered as very powerful
 alexipharmics, so much  so, indeed, that other medi-
 cines, possessed, or supposed to be possessed, of alexi-
 pharmic powers, were called bezoardics;  and so effi-
 cacious were they once thought, that they were bought
 for ten  times their weight in gold.  These virtues,
 however, are in the present day justly denied them, as
 they produce no other effects than  those common to
 the saline particles which they contain, and which may
 be given to greater  advantage from other sources.  A
 composition of  bezoar with absorbent powders, has
 been  much  in repute, as a popular remedy for disor-
 ders in children, by the name  of Gascoigne's powder
 and Gascoigne's ball; but the real bezoar was rarely,
 if ever, used for these, its price offering such a tempta-
 tion to counterfeit it.  Some have employed for this
 purpose, a resinous  composition, capable of melting in
 the fire, and soluble in alkohol; but Newmann sup-
posed that those nearest  resembling it, were made of
gypsum,  chalk, or  some other earth, to which the
proper colour was imparted by some vegetable juice.
 We  understand, however, that  tobacco-pipe  clay,
tinged with  ox-gall, is commonly employed, at least
*»r the Gascoigne's powder; this giving a yellow tint
to paper, rubbed with chalk, and a green to paper rub-
bed over with auick-lime; which  are considered as
      130
 proofs of genuine bezoar, and which a vegetable juice
 would not effect.
   Bezoar bovinum.  Bezoar of the ox.
   Bezoar germanicum.  The bezoar from the alpine
 goat.
   Bezoar hystricis.   Lapis porcinus; Lapis ma
 lacensis; Petro del porco.  The bezoar of the Indian
 porcupine; said to be found in the gall-bladder of an
 Indian porcupine, particularly in the province of Ma-
 lacca.  This concrete differs from others: it has an
 intensely bitter taste ; and on  being steeped in water,
 for  a  very little time, impregnates the fluid with its
 bitterness, and with aperient, stomachic, and, as it is
 supposed, with alexipharmic virtues.  How far it dif
 fers in virtue from the similar concretions found  in
 the gall-bladder ofthe ox, and other animals, docs not
 appear.
   Bezoar microcosmicum.  The calculus found in
 the human bladder.
   Bezoar occidentale.  Occidental bezoar.  This
 concretion is said to be found in the stomach of an ani-
 mal of the stag or goat kind, a native of Peru, Sec  It
 is of a larger size than the oriental bezoar, and some-
 times as large as a hen's egg ; its surface is rough, and
 tile colour green, grayish, or brown.
   Bezoar orientals.   Lapis  bezoar  orientalis.
 Oriental bezoar stone. This concretion is  said to be
 found  in the pylorus, or fourth stomach of an animal
 of the goat kind, which  inhabits  the mountains of
 Persia.  It is generally about the size  of a kidney
 bean, of a roundish or oblong figure, smooth, and of a
 shining olive or dark greenish colour.
   Bezoar porcinum.  See Bezoar hystricis.
   Bezoar simije.  The bezoar from the monkey.
   Bezoardica radix. See Dorstenia.
   Bezoardicum joviale.  Bezoar with tin.  It dif-
 fered very little from the Antihecticum Poterii.
   Bezoardicum lunale.  A preparation of antimony
 and silver.
   Bezoardicum martiale.  A preparation of iron
 and antimony.
   Bezoardicum minerals.  A preparation of  anti-
 mony, made by adding nitrous acid to butter of anti-
 mony.
   Bezoardicum saturni.  A preparation of  anti-
 mony and lead.
   Bezo'ardicus lapis.  See Bezoar.
   Bezoardicus pulvis.  The powder of the oriental
 bezoar.
   Bezoarticum minerals.  A calx of antimony.
   BI.  (From bis,  twice.)   In composition signifies
 twice  or double, and  is frequently attached to other
 words  in anatomy, chemistry, and botany; as biceps,
 having two heads; bicuspides, two points, or fangs;
 bilocular, with two cells; bivalve, with two valves, &c.
   Bijeon.  Wine made from sun-raisins, fermented
 in sea water.
   Bibine'lla.  See Pimpinella.
   BIBITO'RIUS.   (Bibitorius, from bibo, to  drink,
 because by drawing the eye inwards towards the  nose,
 it  causes those who drink  to look into the cup.)  See
 Rectus internus oculi.
   BIBULUS.  Bibulous;  attracting moisture; ckarta
 bibula, blotting paper.
   BICAPSULARIS.  Having two capsules.  Pericar-
pium bicapsulare.  See Capsula.
   BI'CEPS.  (From bis,  twice, and caput, a head.)
 Two heads.  Applied to muscles from their  having
 two distinct origins or heads.
   Biceps braciiii.  See Biceps flexor cubiti.
   Biceps cruris.  See Biceps flexor cruris.
   Biceps cubiti.   See Biceps flexor cubiti.
   Biceps  externus.  See Triceps extensor cubiti.
   Biceps flexor cruris.  Biceps cruris of Albinus.
 Biceps of Winslow, Douglas, and Cowper; and Ischio-
femoroperonien of Dumas.  A muscle of the leg, situ
 ated on the hind part of the thigh.  It arises by two
 distinct heads; the first, called longus, arises in  com-
 mon with  the semitendinosus, from the upper and
 posterior part of the tuberosity of the  os ischium.
 The  second, called brevis, arises from the linea aspera,
 a little below the termination ofthe glutaeus maximus,
 by a  fleshy acute beginning, which soon grows broader,
 as it  descends to join with the first head, a little above
 the external condyle of the os femoris. It is insurtmi
 by a strong tendon, into the upper part of  the head ot
 the fibula.  Its use is to bend  the leg.  This  muscle 
BIF
BIL
forms what is called the outer hamstring; and, between
it and the inner, the nervous popliteus, arteria and
vena poplitea, are situated.
  Biceps flexor cubiti.  Biceps brachii of Albinus.
Coraco-radialis, sen biceps  of Winslow.  Biceps in-
ternus of Douglas.  Biceps internus humeri of Cow-
per.  Scapulo coracoradial of Dumas.  A muscle of
the forearm, situated on the forepart of the os humeri.
It arises by two heads.   The first  and outermost,
called longus, begins tendinous from the upper edge
of the glenoid cavity of the scapula, passes over the
head of the os  humeri within  the joint, and  in its
descent without the joint, is enclosed in a groove near
the head of the os  humeri, by a membraneous liga-
ment that  proceeds from the capsular  ligament and
adjacent tendons.   The second, or innermost head,
called breiris, arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the
coracoid process of the scapula, in common with the
coracobrachialis muscle.  A little below the middle of
the forepart of the os humeri, these heads unite. It is
inserted by a strong roundish tendon into the tubercle
on the upper end  of the radius internally.   Its use is
to turn the hand supine, and to bend the forearm. At
the bending of the elbow, where it begins to grow ten-
dinous,  it sends off  an aponeurosis, which  covers all
the muscles on the inside of the forearm, and joins
with  another tendinous membrane, which is sent off
from the  triceps  extensor  cubiti, and covers all the
muscles on the outside of the forearm, and a number
of the fibres, from opposite sides, decussate each other.
It serves  to strengthen the muscles, by keeping them
from swelling too  much outwardly  when in action,
and a  number of their fleshy fibres  take their origin
from it.
   Biceps internus.  See Biceps flexor cubiti.
   Bichi'chije.   An epithet of  certain pectorals, or
rather troches, described by Rhazes, which were made
of liquorice, Sec
   Bi'chos. A Portuguese name for  the worms that
 get under the toe of the people in the Indies, which
 are destroyed by the oil of cashew nut.
   Bici.  The Indian name of an intoxicating liquor,
 made  from Turkey wheat in  South America.  See
 wheat,  Turkey.
   BI'CORNIS.   (From bis, twice, and cornu, a horn.)
 1. An epithet sometimes applied to the os hyoides,
 which  has two processes, or horns.
   2. In former times, to  muscles that had two termi-
 nations.
   3. A name given to those plants, the anthers of
 which have the appearance of two horns.
   Bicornes plantje.   The name of an order of
 plants  in the natural method of Linnaeus and Gerard.
   BICUSPIDATUS.  Having two  points.   See Bi-
cuspis.                     ...
  BICU'SPIS.  (From bis, twice, and cuspis, a spear.)
1. The name of those teeth which have double points,
or fangs.  See Teeth.
  2. Applied to leaves which terminate by two points;
folia bicuspida, or bicuspidata.
  BI'DENS.  (From bis, twice, and dens, a tooth; so
called  from  its being  deeply  serrated, or  indented.)
The name of a genus of plants in the Linnssan system.
Class, Syngenesia ; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
  Bidens tripartita.  The systematic name of the
hemp agrimony, formerly used as a bitter and aperient,
but not in the practice of the present day.
   BIDLOO, Godfrey, a celebrated  anatomist, born at
Amsterdam, in 1649. After practising several years as
a surgeon, he was appointed physician to William HI.,
and in 1694, made professor of anatomy and surgery
at Leyden.  He published 105 very splendid, though
rather inaccurate anatomical tables, with explana-
tions ;  and several minor works. His nephew, Nicho-
las  was physician to the Czar Peter I.
  BIENNIS.   Biennial.  A biennial plant is one, as
the term imports, of two year's duration.  Of this
tribe there  are numerous plants, which being  raised
one year from the seed, generally attain perfection the
same year, or within  about twelve months, shooting
up stalks, producing flowers, and perfecting seeds in
the following  spring or summer, and soon after com-
monly perish.
   Bifariam.  In two parts.
   BIFER.  (From bis, twice, and fero, to bear.)  A
plant is so called, which bears twice in the year, in
spring and autumn, as is common between the tropics.
  BIFIDUS.  Forked.  Divided into two; as a bifid
seed-vessel in Adoxa moschatellina, petala bifida in the
Hilcne nocturna and Alyssum incanum.
  BIFLORUS.  Boating two flowers; aspeduncnlus
biflorus.
  BIFORIUM.  Applied to a leaf which points two
ways.
  BIFORUS.  (From it's, twice, and forus, a door.)
Two-doored, or bivalved.  A class of plants is so de-
nominated  in some natural arrangements, constituted
by those which have a pericarp,  or seed-vessel, fur-
nished with two valves.
  BIFURCATE.   (Bifurcus;  from bis, twice, and
furca, a fork.)  A vessel, or nerve, stem, root, Sec is
said to bifurcate when  it divides into two  branches;
thus the  bifurcation of the aorta, Sec.
  BIFURCATIO. Bifurcation.
  BIFURCATUS.  (From bis, twice, and furca, a
fork.)  Forked.  See Bifurcate and Dichotomus.
  BIGA'STER.   (Bigaster:  from bis, twice, and
y ostip, a belly.)  A name given to muscles which have
two bellies.
  BIGEMINATUS.   (From bis, and gemini, twins i
Twice paired.   Biconjvgatus.  A  leaf is so called
when near the apex of the common  petiole there is a
single pair of secondary petioles, each of which sup-
port a pair of opposite leaflets;  as in  Mimosa un-
guis cati.
  BIH'ERNIUS.  (From  bis,  double, and hernia,  a
disease so called.)  Having a double hernia or one on
each side.
   Bihydromiret of carbon.  See Carburetled hydrogen.
   B1JUGUS.   A winged leaf is termed folium biju-
gum, which bears two pairs of leaflets.
   B1LABIATUS.  Two-lipped.  Often  used in bo-
 tany ; as pericarpium bilabiatum; corolla bilabeata, tec.
   BILACINIATUS.   Applied to a leaf  Folium bila-
 ciniatum;  when cut into two segments.
   Bila'den.  A name of iron.
   B1LAMELLATUS.  Composed of two lamina.
   Bilberry bean.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
   BILDSTEIN.   See Figurestone.
   BILE.  (Bilis.  Ntevius derives it from bis, twice,
 and lis, contention;  as being supposed to be the cause
 of anger and  dispute.)  The gall.  A bitter fluid, se-
 creted in the glandular substance of the  liver;  in part
 flowing into the  intestines, and in  part regurgitating
 into the gall-bladder. The secretory organs of this
 fluid are the penicilli of the liver, which terminate  in
 very minute canals, called biliary ducts.  The biliary
 ducts pour their bile  into the ductus hepaticus, which
  conveys it into the ductus communis choledochus, from
  whence it is in part carried into the duodenum.  The
  other part of the  bile regurgitates through the cystic
  duct into the gall-bladder: for hepatic bile, except du-
  ring digestion, cannot flow into the duodenum, which
  contracts  when  empty; hence it necessarily regurgi-
  tates into the gall-bladder.  The branches of the vena
  porta contribute most to the secretion of bile; its pe-
  culiar blood, returning from the abdominal viscera, is
  supposed  to be, in some  respects, different from other
  venal blood, and to answer exactly to  the  nature of
  bile.  It is not  yet  ascertained  clearly whether the
  florid blood in the hepatic artery, merely nourishes the
  liver, or whether, at the same time, it contributes a
  certain principle, necessary for the formation of bile.
  It has been supposed, by physiologists, that cystic bile
  was secreted by the arterial vessels of the gall-bladder;
  but the fallacy of this opinion is proved by making a
  ligature on the cystic duct of a living animal.  From
  what has been  said, it appears that there are, us it
  were, two kinds of bile in the human body:—
    1.  Hepatic bile, which flows from the liver into the
  duodenum: this  is thin, of a faint yellow colour, m
  odorous, and  very slightly bitter, otherwise the liver
  of animals would not be eatable.
    2.  Cystic bile, which regurgitates from the hepatic
  duct into  the gall-bladder, and there, from stagnating,
  becomes thicker, the aqueous part  being  absoibed by
  lymphatic vessels, and more acrid from  concentration
  Healthy bile is of a yellow, green colour; of a plastic
  consistence, like thin oil, and when very  much agitated,
  it  froths  like soap and  water:  its smell is fatuous,
  somewhat like musk, especially the putrefying or eva-
  porating bile of animals : its taste is bitter.
    The primary uses of this fluid, so important to the
  animal economy, are:
131 
B1L
BIP
        1. To separate the chyle from the chyme: thus chyle
      is never observed in the duodenum before the chyme
      has been mixed with the bile: and thus it is that oil
      is extricated from linen by the bile of animals.
        2. By its acridity it excites the peristaltic motion of
      the intestines; hence the bowels are so inactive in
      people with jaundice.
        3. It imparts a  yellow colour to the excrements :
      thus we observe the white colour ofthe faeces in jaun-
      dice, in which disease the flow of bile into the duode-
      num is entirely prevented.
        4. It prevents the abundance of mucus and acidity
      in the prima; via;;  hence acid, pituitous, and vermin-
      ous saburra are common from deficient or inert bile.
        The chemical  analysis of bile has been principally
      illustrated by  Mons. Thenard.  " Ox bile is usually
      of a greenish-yellow  colour, rarely of a deep  green.
      By its colour it changes the blue of turnsole and violet
      to a reddish-yellow.  At once very bitter, and slightly
      sweet, its taste is scarcely  supportable.  Its  smell,
      though feeble, is easy to recognise,  and approaches
      somewhat to the nauseous odour of certain fatty mat-
      ters, when they are heated.   Its specific gravity  varies
      very little.  It is about 1.026 at 43°  F.  It is  some-
      times limpid, and  at others  disturbed with a yellow
      matter, from which it may be  easily separated  by
      water:  its consistence varies  from that of a thin muci-
      lage, to viscidity." Cadet regarded  it as a kind of
      soap.   This opinion  was first refuted  by Thenard.
      According to this  able chemist, 800 parts  of ox  bile
      are composed  of 700  water, 15 resinous matters, 6'J
      picromel, about  4  of a yellow  matter, 4 of soda, 2
      phosphate of soda, 3.5 muriates of soda and  potassa,
      0.8 sulphate of soda, 1.2 phosphate  of  lime, and a
      trace of oxide of iron.  When distilled to dryness, it
      leaves from l-8th to l-9th of solid matter, which, urged
      with a higher heat, is resolved into the usual igneous
      products of animal analysis; only with more oil and
     less carbonate of ammonia.
       Exposed for some time in  an open vessel, the bile
     gradually corrupts,  and lets full a small quantity of a
     yellowish  matter; then its mucilage decomposes.
     Thus the putrefactive process is very inactive, and the
     odour it exhales is not  insupportable, but in some
     cases  has been  thought  to  resemble that of musk.
     Water and alkohol combine in all proportions with
     bile.  When a very little acid is poured into bile, it
     becomes slightly turbid,  and reddens litmus;  when
     more is added, the precipitate augments, particularly
     if sulphuric acid be employed.  It is formed of a yel-
     low animal matter, with very little  resin.   Potassa
     and soda increase  the thinness and transparency of
     bile. Acetate of lead precipitates the yellow matter,
     and the sulphuric  and phosphoric  acids of the  bile.
     The solution of  the subacetate  precipitates not only
     these bodies, but also the picromel  and the muriatic
     acid, all combined with the oxide of lead.  The acetic
     acid remains in the liquid united to  the soda.   The
     greater  number  of fatty substances  are capable of
     being dissolved by bile.  This property, which made it
     be considered a soap, is owing to the soda, and to the
     triple compound of soda, resin, and picromel. Scourers
     sometimes prefer it  to soap, for cleansing woollen.
     The bile of the calf, the dog, and the sheep, are similar
     to that of the ox.  The bile  of the sow contains no
     picromel.  It is merely a soda-resinous soap.   Huiqan
     bile is peculiar.  It  varies in  colour, sometimes  being
     green, generally yellowish-brown, occasionally almost
     colourless.  Its taste  is not very bitter.   In  the gall-
—   bladder it is seldom limpid, containing often, like that
     of the ox, a certain quantity  of yellow matter in sus-
     pension.  At times  this is in such quantity, as to ren-
     der the bile somewhat grumous.  Filtered and boiled,
     it becomes very turbid, and diffuses the odour of white
     of egg.   When evaporated to dryness, there results a
     brown extract, equal in weight to 1-lltli of the bile.
     By calcination we obtain the same salts as from ox bile.
       All the acids  decompose human bile, and occasion
     an abundant precipitate of albumen and resin, which
     are easily separable by alkohol.  One part of nitric
     acid, sp grav. 1.210, saturates  100 of bile.  On pouring
     into it a solution of  sugar of lead, it is changed into a
     liquid of a light-yellow colour, in which no picromel
     can be  found,  and which contains only acetate of
     soda and some traces of animal matter.  Human bile
     appears hence to be formed, by Thenard, in  1100
     parts;  of 1000 water; from 2 to 10 yellow insoluble
 matter;  42 albumen; 41  resin; 5.6 sodi;  and  45
 phosphates of soda of lime, sulphate of soda, muriate
 of soda, and oxide of iron.  But by Berzelius, its con-
 stituents are in 1000  parts: 0O8.4 water; 80 picromel;
 3 albumen;  4.1 soda;  0.1 phosphate of lime; 3.4
 common salt;  and 1 phosphate of soda,  with some
 phosphate of lime.
   BILGUER, John  Ulrick, was born at Coire,  in
 Swisserland.    He practised surgery at Berlin with
 such reputation, that he was appointed, by the great
 Frederick,  Surgeon-General to  the  Prussian  army.
 It was then the general  practice to amputate in bad
 compound fractures; and being  struck with the  small
 proportion of those who recovered after the operation,
 he was led  to try more lenient methods; from which
 meeting with much better  success, he published as a
 thesis, on graduating at Halle, in 1761, a pr* tty general
 condemnation of amputation.   This work attracted
 much notice throughout Europe,  and materially check-
 ed the unnecessary use ofthe knife.   In his " Instruc-
 tions for Hospital  Surgeons," which appeared  soon
 after, he insisted farther on the same subject;  and
 where amputation was unavoidable, he advised  leav-
 ing a portion of the integuments, which is  now gene-
 rally adopted.
   BILIARY.   (Biliaris;  from lilis, the  bile.) Of
 or belonging to the  bile.
   Biliary duct.   Ductus  biliosus.  The  very vas-
 cular glandules, which  compose almost the whole
 substance of the liver, terminate in very small canals,
 called biliary ducts, which at length form one trunk,
 the ductus hepaticus.   Their use is to convey the bile,
 secreted by the liver, into the hepatic duct; this uniting
 with a duct from the gall-bladder, forms one common
 canal, called the ductus communis  choledochus, which
 conveys the bile into the intestinal canal.
  Bili'mbi.   (Indian.) See Malus Indica.
  BI'LIOUS.   (Biliosus, from bilis, bile.)   A  term
 very generally made use of,  to express diseases which
 arise from too copious a secretion of bile:  thus bilious
 colic, bilious diarrhoea, bilious fever, &c.
  BILIS.  See Bile.
  Bilis  atra.  Black bile.  The  supposed cause
 among the ancients of melancholy.
  Bilis cystica.  Bilis fellea.  Cystic bile.  The bile
 when in the gall-bladder is so called  to distinguish it
 from that which is found in the liver:  See Bile.
  Bilis hepatica.  Hepatic bile.  Bile that has not
 entered the gall-bladder.  See Bile.
  BI'LOBUS.  (From bis, double, and lobus, the end
 of the ear.)  Having two lobes, resembling the tips of
 ears; applied  to a  leaf, folium  biloburn, when  it is
 deeply divided into rounded segments, as the petals of
 the Geranium pyrenaicum and  striatum which are
 bilobed.
  BILOCULARIS   (From  bis, twice, and  loculus, a
 little cell.)  Two-celled ;  applied to a capsule which
 has two cells.
  Biloculares.  Is the name of a natural order of
 plants.
  BIME'STRIS.   (From bis, twice, and mensis
 month.)  Two months old.
  BINATUS.   Binus.  Binate.   A  term applied to
 compound leaves, when consisting of a pair of leaflet*
 only, on one footstalk as in the great everlasting  pea
 and other species of lathyrus.
  BINDWEED.  See Convolvulus septum.
  BINERVIUS.  Two-nerved.   Having two ribs oi
nerves very apparent   Hence, folium binerium.
  Binga'lle.  See Casumuniar.
  Bino'culus.  (From binus, double, and oculus, the
eye.) A bandage forsecuring the dressings on bolli eyes.
  Bi'nsica.  A disordered mind.—Helmont.
  Binsica mors.  The binsical, or that death which
follows a disordered mind.
  BINUS.   (From  bis, twice.)   Two by  two;  by
couplets; applied to leaves when there are  only twe
upon a plant, folia bina; as in Convallaria majalis, Sec
  Bioly'ciinium.  (From fiios,  life, and Xvxviov, a
lamp.)   Vital heat:  also the name  of an officinal
nostrum.
  Bi'ote.  (From f3tos, life.) Life.  Also light food.
  BIOTHA'NATI.  (From Bia, violence, or (Stos, life
and ^ava'Jos, death.)  Those who die a violent death,
or suddenly, as if there were no space between life
 and death.
  BU'ARTITUS.  Bipartite. Deeply divided almost 
BIS
BIS
to the basis; as calyx bipartitus; folium bipartilum ;
perianthium bipartitum;  and petala bipartita.
  Bipemo'lla.  See Pimpinella.
  Bipene'lla.  See Pimpinella.
  BITINATIFIDUS.  Doubly  pinnatifid;  as in the
long rough-headed  poppy, Papaver  anemone.   See
Pinnatifidus.
  BIPINNATIFIDUS.   Doubly pinnatifid; applied
to a leaf.  See Leaf.
  B1PINNATUS.   Doubly pinnate.   A  compound
leaf is  so termed when the secondary petioles arc
arranged in pairs on the common petiole, and  each
secondary petiole is pinnate.
  Bi'ra.  Malt liquor or beer.
  Bira'o.  Stone Parsley.
  BIRCH.   See Betula.
  BIRDLIME.  The best birdlime  is made of the
middle bark of the holly, boiled seven or  eight hours
in water, till it is soft and tender; then laid in heaps
in pits in the ground and  covered with stones, the
water being previously drained from it; and in this
state left for two or three  weeks lo ferment, till it is
reduced to a kind of mucilage.  This being taken from
the pit is pounded in a mortar  to a paste, washed in
river water, and kneaded, till it is freed from extrane-
ous matters.   In this state it is left four or five days in
earthen vessels, to ferment and purify itself, when it is
fit for use.
  It may likewise be obtained from the misletoe, the
 Viburnum lantana, young  shoots of elder, and  other
vegetable substances.
  litis sometimes adulterated with turpentine, oil, vine-
gar, and other matters.
  Good birdlime is of a greenish colour, and sour fla-
vour ;  gluey, stringy, and tenacious ; and in smell re-
sembling linseed oil. By exposure to the air it becomes
dry and brittle, so that it  may be powdered; but  its
viscidity is restored by wetting it.  It reddens tincture
of litmus. Exposed to a gentle heat it liquefies slightly,
swells in bubbles, becomes grumous, emits a smell re-
sembling that of animal  oils, grows brown, but  reco-
vers its properties on cooling, if not heated too much.
With a greater heat it burns, giving out a  brisk flame
and much smoke.   The residuum contains sulphate
and muriate  of potassa, carbonate of lime and alu-
mina, with a small portion of iron.
  BIRDSTONGUE. A name  given to the seeds of
the Flaxinus  excelsior of Linnaeus.
  Bi'rsen.   (Hebrew for an aperture.)  A deep ulcer,
or iinposthume in the breast.
  BIRTHWORT.   See Aristolochia.
  Birthwort, climbing.   See Aristolochia  clematitis.
  Birthwort, long-rooted.  See Aristolochia longa.
   Birthwort,  snake-killing.   See  Aristolochia  o»-
guicida.
  Birthwort, three-lobcd   See Aristolochia trilobata.
  BISCO'CTUS.   (From  bis,  twice,  and coquo,  to
boil.)  Twice dressed.   It is chiefly applied to bread
much baked, as biscuit.
  Biscute'lla.  Mustard.
   Bise'rmas.   A name formerly given to clary, or
garden clary.
  BISHOP'S  WEED.  See Ammi.
  BIS1L1NGUA.   (From bis, twice, and lingua, a
tongue; so called from us appearance of being double-
tongued ; that is, of having upon each leaf a less loaf.)
The Alexandrian laurel.
   Bisma'lva.   From vismalva, quasi viscum malva,
from its superior viscidity.  The  water, or marsh-
mallow.
  BISMUTH.   (Bismuthum,  from Bismut, Germ.)
A metal which  is found in the earth in very few dif-
ferent states, more generally native or in the metallic
state.   Native  bismuth is  met with  in  solid  masses,
and also in small particles dispersed in and frequently
deposited on different stones, at Schreeberg, in Saxony,
Sweden, &c.   Sometimes  it is crystallized in four-
sided tables, or indistinct cubes.  It e.rists combined
With oxygen in the oxide of bismuth (bismuth hoehre,)
found in small  particles, dispersed, of a bluish or yel-
lowish-gray colour, needle-shaped and capillary; some-
times laminated, forming small cells. It is also, though
more seldom,  united to sulphur and  iron in the form of
a sulphuret in  the martial sulphuretted bismuth ore.
This ore has a yellowish-gray appearance, resembling
somewhat the martial  pyrites.  And it is sometimes
combined with arsenic.
  Bismuth is  a metal of a yellowish or reddish-white
colour, little subject to change in the air.  It is some-
what harder than lead, and is scarcely, if at all malle-
able; being easily broken, and  even "reduced to pow-
der, by the  hammer. The internal face, or place  of
fracture, exhibits large shining  plates, disposed in a
variety of positions; thin pieces are considerably sono-
rous. At. a temperature of 480° Fahrenheit, it melts,
and its surface becomes covered with a greenish-gray
or brown oxide.  A stronger heat ignites it, and causes
it to burn with a small blue flame;  at  the same  time
that a yellowish oxide, known by the name of flowers
of bismuth, is driven up.  The oxide appears to rise in
consequence  of the combustion ; for it is very fixed,
and  runs into a greenish glass wben exposed to heat
alone.
  Bismuth  urged by a strong  heat in a close vessel,
sublimes entire, and crystallizes very distinctly when
gradually cooled.
  The sulphuric acid has a slight action upon bismuth,
when it is concentrated and boiling.  Sulphurous acid
gas is exhaled, and part of the  bismuth is converted
into a white  oxide.  A small portion combines with
the sulphuric  acid, and affords a deliquescent salt in
the form of small needles.
  The  nitric  acid dissolves bismuth with the greatest
rapidity  and  violence;  at the same time that much
heat is extricated, and a large quantity of nitric oxide
escapes.  The solution, when saturated, affords crys-
tals us it cools; the salt detonates weakly, and leaves
a yellow oxide behind, which  effloresces in the air
Upon dissolving this salt in water, it renders that fluid
of a milky white, and lets fall an  oxide of the same
colour.
  The nitric solution of bismuth exhibits the same pro
perty when diluted with water, most of the metal
falling down  in the form of a white oxide, called ma-
gistery of bismuth.  This precipitation of the nitric
solution, by the addition of water, is the criterion  by
which bismuth is distinguished from most other metals.
The magistery or oxide  is a very white and  subtile
powder; when prepared  by  the addition of a large
quantity of water, it is  used  as a paint for  the com-
plexion, and  is thought gradually to impair the skin.
The liberal use of any paint for the skin seems indeed
likely to do this;  but there is reason to suspect,  from
the resemblance between th? general properties of lead
and bismuth, that  the oxide of this  metal may  be
attended with effects similar  to those which the oxides
of lead are known to produce.  If a small portion of
muriatic acid be  mixed with the nitric, and the preci-
pitated oxide  be washed with but a small quantity  of
cold water, it will appear in minute scales of a pearly
lustre, consisting the  pearl poader  of perfumers.
These paints are liable to be turned black by sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas.
  The muriatic acid does not readily act upon bismuth.
  When bismuth is exposed to chlorine gas it takes
fire, and is converted into a chloride, which, formerly
prepared by  heating the  metal with corrosive subli-
mate, was  called butter of bismuth.  The chloride is
of a grayish-white  colour, a granular texture, and Is
opaque.  It is fixed at a red heat.   When iodine and
bismuth  are  heated together,  they readily form  an
iodide of an orange yellow colour, insoluble in water,
but easily dissolved  in potassa ley.
  Alkalis likewise precipitate its oxide; but not of so
beautiful a white colour  as that afforded  by the affu
sion of pure water.
  The gallic  acid precipitates bismuth of a greenish
yellow, as ferroprussiate of potassa does of a yellow-
ish colour.
  There appears to  be two sulphurets, the first a  com-
pound of 100 bismuth to 22.34 sulphur; the second of
100 to 46.5: the second is a bisulphuret.
  The metal unites with most metallic substances, and
renders them  in general more fusible.  When calcined
with the imperfect metals, its glass dissolves them, and
produces the same effect as lead  in  cupillation; in
which process it is even said to be preferable to lead.
  Bismuth is  used in the composition of pewter, in the
fabrication of printers' types, and in various other me-
tallic mixtures.   With an equal weight of lead,  it
forms a brilliant white  alloy, much harder than lead,
and more malleable than  bismuth, though not ductile'
and if the proportion of  lead be increased, it is ren
dered still more malleable.  Eight parts of bismuth 
BIS
BIT
five  of lead, and three of tin,  constitute the fusible
metal, sometimes called Newton's, from its discoverer,
which melts at the heat of boiling water, and may be
fused over a candle in a piece of stiff paper without
burning the paper.   One part of bismuth, with five of
lead, and three of tin, forms plumbers' solder.  It forms
the basis  of a sympathetic ink.  The oxide of bis-
muth precipitated  by  potassa from nitric acid, has
been recommended  in spasmodic disorders  of the
stomach, and given in doses of four grains, four times
a day.  A writer in the Jena  Journal says he has
known the dose carried gradually to one scruple with-
out injury.
  Bismuth is easily separable, in the dry way, from its
ores, on account of its great fusibility.   It is usual, in
the processes at large, to throw the bismuth ore into a
fire of wood; beneath  which a hole is made in the
ground to receive the metal, and defend it from oxi-
dation.   The same  process may be imitated in the
small way, in the examination of the ores of this metal;
nothing more being necessary, than to expose it to a
moderate  heat  in a  crucible, with a quantity of re-
ducing flux; taking care, at the same time, to perform
the operation as speedily as possible, that the  bismuth
may be neither oxidized nor volatilized.
  ["In the United States, native bismuth has  been
found in Connecticut.  The  officinal preparation of
this  metal is the subnitratc.   As a small portion of
nitric acid remains combined with the oxide of bis-
muth in its preparation, it is  properly called a subni-
trate.  The precipitation which  takes place from the
nitric solution, by adding mere water, is a criterion by
which bismuth is distinguished from most other me-
tals.   Subnitrate of bismuth is a fine, soft powder, of a
pearly white colour, and nearly destitute of taste and
smell.  It changes to a dark  colour on the contact of
sulphuretted or carburetted hydrogen.
  Under the name of magistery  of bismuth, this sub-
stance was formerly regarded as noxious to the human
system.  But during the last forty years it has  been
brought into the practice of medicine, and found to be
a salutary tonic to the stomach  and organs of diges-
tion.  Its use commenced iu Geneva, and it has since
had  the testimony of some of the most distinguished
physicians in France and England in  its favour.  It
has also in this country generally satisfied the expecta-
tions formed of it. In dyspeptic complaints, especially
in patients of a  nervous temperament, it is  found  a
very useful palliative, and  sometimes does much to-
ward promoting a cure.  It is an  important medicine
in the case of persons habitually subject to cramp of
the stomach, and does more to fortify that organ against
the returns of the disease than perhaps any of the to-
nics in common use.  In habitual vomiting or nausea,
both from a primary affection of the stomach, and from
sympathy with  other  parts, it frequently gives great
relief.  Its tonic  effect appears not to  be confined to
the stomach, since it is found to do good in different
spasmodic affections,  such as palpitations and chorea.
Recently, it has been  announced  to cure intermittents.
  A drachm ofthe bismuth, with an equal quantity of
liquorice powder, divided into twelve papers, three of
which are to be taken during the day, will commonly
be sufficient to display the activity of  the  medicine.
Large quantities taken at once are unsafe."—Big.
Mat. Med. A.]
  BISMU'THUM.    (From  bismut, German.)  See
bismuth.
  BISSET, Charles, was born about the year 1716.
After studying  at  Edinburgh, and practising some
years as an  hospital-surgeon in Jamaica, he entered
the army; but soon after settled in Yorkshire, and in
1755,  published a Treatise on the Scurvy.   But his
most celebrated work is an  " Essay on the Medical
Constitution of Great Britain," in 1762.  He obtained
three years after a diploma  from St Andrew's, and
reached his 75th year.
  BISTORT. SeeBislorta.
  BISTO'RTA.  (From bis, twice,  and torqueo, to
bend; so  called from  the contortions  of its roots.)
Bistort  See Polygonum bistorta,
  BISTOURY.  (Bistoire, French.) Any small knife
for surgical purposes.
  BISTRE.   A brown pigment, consisting of the finer
parts of wood soot,  separated  from  the grosser by
washing.  The soot of the beech is said to make the
•est
      134
  BISULPHATE.  A sulphate with  an  additional
quantity of sulphuric acid.
  BIT NOBEN.  Salt  of bitumen. A white saline
substance has lately been imported from India by this
name, which is not a natural production, but a Hindoo
preparation of great antiquity.  It is called in the
country,  bit noben, padanoon, and soucherloon, and
popularly khala mimuc, or black salt Mr. Henderson,
of Bengal, conjectures it to be the sal asphaltites and
sal sodomenus of Pliny  and Galen.  This salt is far
more extensively used in Hindostan than any other
medicine whatever.  The Hindoos use  it to improve
their  appetite and digestion.  They consider  it as  a
specific for obstructions of the liver and spleen ; and it
is in high estimation with them in paralytic disorders,
particularly those  that affect the organs of speech,
cutaneous affections,  worms, old  rheumatisms,  and
indeed all chronic disorders of man and beast.
  BITERNATUS.  Twice-ternate.  Applied lo com-
pound leaves, when  the common footstalk supports
three secondary petioles on its apex, and each of these
support three leaflets;  as in JEgopodium.
  Bithi'nici emplastrum.  A plaster for the spleen.
  Bi'tiiinos.  A Galenical plaster.
  BITTER.  Amarus.
  BITTER APPLE.  See Cucumis Colocynthis.
  BITTERN.   The mother  water  which remains
after the crystallization of common salt in sea-water,
or the water of salt springs. It abounds with sulphate
and  muriate of  magnesia, to which its bitterness is
owing.
  BITTERSPAR.   Rhombspar.   A mineral of  a
grayish or yellowish colour, and  somewhat pearly
lustre, usually found embedded in serpentine, chlorite,
or steatite, and found in  the Tyrol, Salsburg, Dau-
phiny, Scotland, and the Isle of Man.
  BITU'MEN.   (U.i]vpa,  ni]vs,  pine; because it
flows from the pine-tree; or, qudd  vi tumeat i terra,
from its bursting  forth from the earth.) This term in-
cludes a  considerable range of inflammable mineral
substances, burning with flame in the open air. They
are of different consistency, from a  thin fluid to  a
solid; but the solids are for the most part liquefiable
at a moderate heat.  The fluid are,
  1.  Naphtha; a fine, white, thin,fragrant,colourless,
oil, which issues out of white, yellow, or black clays
in Persia  and Media.  This  is highly inflammable,
and is decomposed by distillation.   It dissolves resins,
and the  essential oils of thyme and lavender; but is
not itself soluble either in  alkohol or aether. It is the
lightest of all the dense fluids, its specific gravity being
0.708. See Naphtha.
  2.  Petroleum, which is  a yellow,  reddish, brown,
greenish, or blackish oil, found dropping from rocks,
or issuing from the earth, in the dutchy of Modena, and
in various other parts of Europe and Asia.  This like-
wise is insoluble in alkohol, and  seems  to  consist of
naphtha, thickened by exposure to the atmosphere.  It
contains  a portion of the succinic  acid.  Seo  Pe-
troleum.
  3.  Barbadoes tar, which is a viscid, brown, or black
inflammable substance, insoluble in alkohol, and con-
taining the succinic acid.   Tnis appears to be the mi-
neral oil in its third state of alteration.
  The solid are, 1.  Asphaltum, mineral  pitch, of
which there are three varieties: the cohesive;  the
semi-compact,  maltha;  the compact, or  asphaltum.
These are smooth, more or less hard or brittle, inflam-
mable substances, which melt easily, and burn with
out leaving any or but little ashes, if they be pure.
They are  slightly and partially acted on by alkohol
and aether.  See Asphaltum.
  2.  Mineral tallow, which is a white  substance of
the consistence of tallow, and as greasv,  although
more brittle.  It was  found in the sea on the coasts of
Finland,  in the  year 1T36; and is also  met with in
some rocky parts of Persia.  It is near one-fifth lighter
than tallow ; burns with a blue flame, and a smell of
grease, leaving a black viscid matter behind, which is
more difficultly consumed.
  3.  Elastic bitumen, or mineral caoutchouc, of which
there are two varieties.  Besides these, there are other
bituminous substances, as jet and amber, which  ap-
proach the harder bitumens in their  nature; and all
the varieties of pit coal, and the bituminous schistus,
or shale, which  contain more or less of bitumen in
their composition. 
BLA
BLA
  Bitumen barbadense.  See Petroleumbarbadense.
  Bitumen judaicum.  Asphaltus.  Jews' pitch.  A
solid, light, bituminous substance; of a dusky colour on
the outside, and a deep shining black within;  of very
little taste, and scarcely any smell, unless  heated;
when it  emits  a strong pitchy one.  It is said to be
found  plentifully in the earth in  several parts of
Egypt, and floating on the surface of the Dead sea.
It is now wholly expunged from the catalogue of offi-
cinals of this country; but was formerly esteemed as
a discutient, sudorific, and emmenagogue.
  Bitumen liquidum. See Petroleum.
  BITUMINOUS.  Of the nature of bitumen.
  [Bituminous coal.  In the United States, coal  has
been explored in several districts, and undoubtedly ex-
ists in great abundance.  In Virginia, near Richmond,
is a deposite of coal about 20 miles in length,  and  ten
miles in breadth; it is accompanied byawhitish sand-
stone and shale, with vegetable impressions, as is usual
in the independent coal formation, which here lies over,
and is surrounded by, primitive rocks. In Pennsylvania,
coalisfound on the west branch of the Susquehannah;
in various places west of that branch; also on the Ju-
niata, and on the waters ofthe Alleghany and Monon-
gahela.   Indeed, according to Mr. Maclure, the inde-
pendent coal formation extends from the head waters
of tie Ohio, with some interruptions, to the waters of
tin Tombigbee river, in Alabama.—See d. Min.  A.l
  Bituminous limestone.   Found near Bristol, and
in Galway, in Ireland.  The Dalmatian is so  charged
with bitumen, that it may be cut like soap, and is used
for building houses.  When the walls are reared,  fire
Is applied to them, and they burn white.
  BIVALVIS.  Two-valved.  Applied to the valves
of the absorbents in anatomy, and in botany to cap-
sules.—Capsula bivalvis.
  BIVASCULARIS.  (From bis, twice,  and vascu-
lum, a  little vessel.)  Having two cells.
  BIVENTER.   (From bis,  twice, and venter, a
belly.)   A muscle is so termed, which has  two bellies.
  Biventer cervicis.  A muscle of the  lower jaw.
  Biventkr maxill/e inferioris.  See Digastricus.
  BI'XA. The  name of a genus  of plants.   Class,
Polyandria,  Order, Monogynia.
  Bixa  orellana.   The systematic name  for  the
plant affording the terra orellana  or annottq of the
shops and pharmacopoeias.  The substance so  called
is a ceraceous mass obtained from the pellicles of the
seeds,  in Jamaica and other warm climates, it is con-
sidered as a useful remedy in dysentery, possessing
adstringent and stomachic qualities;  but here it is
only used to colour cheese, and some other articles.
  Bla'ccije.  The measles.—Rhazes.
  BLACKBERRY.  The fruit of the common  bram-
bles.—See Rubus fruticosus.
  [In the United States, there are two species  of the
blackberry, the fruit of which is eaten, and the roots
used as astringents.  They are the Rubus trivialis, or
Dewberry, or running blackberry, and the Rubus  vil-
losus. or standing blackberry.
  "The bark of the  root of the  dewberry, or  low
blackberry, a common native briar, is highly astrin-
gent, possessing both tannin  and gallic  acid  in large
quantity. It is a popular remedy in cholera infantum,
to which disease it appears well suited after liberal
evacuations have been made.  In the secondary stages
of dysentery, and  in diarrhoea, after the  removal of
offending causes from the alimentary canal, it  has
been resorted to with success in controlling  the  dis-
charges, and  giving tone to the bowels.  It is usually
exhibited in strong decoction.
  The Rubus villosus is commonly distinguished from
the preceding by the name of high, or tall  blackberry.
The properties of the two are  the same."—See Big.
Mat. Med.
  A jelly made of the fruit is an excellent domestic
remedy for young children in cholera infantum, after
proper evacuations.  A.j
  BLACK CHALK.  A mineral of a bluish  black
colour, and slaty texture, which soils the Angers.  It
is found in primitive mountains, and occurs  in Caer-
narvonshire, and the island of Isla.
  [Black drop.  " The formula for this  preparation
in the Pharmacopoeia, is essentially the same with  the
one made public by Dr. Armstrong, and which, under
the name of Black Drop, has been known and  prized
in England for a century and upwards.  As the recipe
wants the usual precision of pharmaceutical formulaj,
it may be proper to secure a tolerable uniformity of
strength, by boiling the first ingredients no longer than
is necessary to blend them together, and  by afterward
exposing them in a warm place, until about one-fourth
of their original volume is evaporated.   The compound
directed in the Pharmacopoeia should afford about two
pints of strained liquor.  As the filtration of so viscid
a liquor is difficult, it may be strained without pressure
through a double linen bag.
  The black drop is a fermented aromatic vinegar of
opium.  Its taste, when properly prepared, is bitter and
acid, the saccharine  principle being  changed by the
fermentation.  Its consistence is moderately viscid.
  Acetous solutions of opium have been in use since
the days of Van Helmont, and  even earlier.  Our me-
dical chemists of the present day consider that the
peculiarities which attend the operation of these  pre-
parations depend upon the formation of an acetate of
morphia.  The black drop has sustained its popularity
for a great length of time on account of its favourable
operation.  According to Dr. Armstrong, it often stays
in the stomach when other  preparations will not, and
it also affects the head less than laudanum.  Dr. Paris
and other medical writers give  their  testimony to its
usefulness.
  About ten or twelve minims form a dose.  Notwith-
standing the advantages ascribed to this preparation, it
is not always uniform in its strength, or in the amount
of sediment it deposites. It is probable that a better
vinegar of  opium might be prepared."—Big. Mat.
Med.  A.]
  BLACK JACK.  Blende, or mock lead;  an ore
of zinc.
  BLACK LEAD.  See Plumbago.
  BLACKMORE, Sir Richard,  was born in Wilt
shire about the year 1650.  After studying at Oxford,
he took his degree in medicine at Padua, then settled
in London, and met with considerable success, inso-
much that he was appointed physician to William HI.
and retained the same office under Queen Anne.  He
then published several long and dull epic poems, which
appear to have materially lessened his reputation; so
that his opposition to the inoculation for small-pox had
very little weight.  He  wrote  also several medical
tracts, which are little known at present.
  BLACK WADD.  One of the ores of manganese.
   [Black vomit.  This is one of  the fatal symptoms
of yellow fever, it being a very rare case for a patient
to recover after its occurrence.
  " A memoir on the analysis  of black vomit, by Dr.
Cathral, was  read before the American Philosophical
Society at Philadelphia, on the 20th June, 1800. The
experienced and intrepid author has given a description
of the  black vomit, has  analyzed  the fluids ejected a
few hours before the commencement of black vomiting
itself, to which he has added experiments to ascertain
the effects of black vomit on the living system of man
and other animals, and a synopsis  of the opinions of
authors concerning its formation and qualities. The
experiments show that this singular morbid excretion
contains  an acid, which is neither carbonic, phospho-
ric, nor sulphuric; and, what our  readers will  hardly
expect, that  the  black vomit may be smelted, tasted,
and swallowed, without inducing yellow fever, or even
any sickness at all—so little infection or contagion does
it seem to contain.  He concludes it to be an altered
secretion from the liver."—New-York  Med.  Repos
vol. iv. p. 75.
  " Dr. May, of Philadelphia, dropped the matter of
black vomit into his eyes, and never experienced in-
convenience or sickness."—Med. Rep. vol. v. p. 131.
  " Dr. Ffirth of Salem, in New-Jersey, has published
a Dissertation on Malignant Fever, with an attempt to
prove that it is not contagious.  In this he  relates a
number of experiments which he  has made upon the
matter of black vomit, as discharged by persons labour-
ing under that disease.  He inoculated himself in the
left fore-arm with black vomit just discharged from a
moribund patient;  a  slight  inflammation  ensued,
which subsided in three  days, and the wound readily
healed, and without the formation of pus.  To avoid
cavil and deception, he repeated  these  experiments
above twenty times on various parts of his body, with
the black matter collected in Philadelphia during the
seasons of 1802 and 1803.  He put it into his eye, with-
out experiencing more inconvenience than coid water 
BLE
BL1
 produces.  He exposed himself to the exhalations of
 ft while acted upon by heat in an iron skillet, and ex-
 perienced no unpleasant sensation.   He swallowed
 the thick extractive matter which remained after eva-
 poration, in the form of pills, without incommoding
 his stomach. He even went so far as to mix half an
 ounce of fresh black vomit with an ounce and a half
 of water, and to drink it.   It produced no more effect
 upon his stomach than so much water.  He increased
 the dose to two  ounces, and finally swallowed  the
 black vomit in  like quantity without any dilution at
 all, and without sustaining the  least injury.   He ino-
 culated himself with saliva and serum, with as little
 inconvenience!!"—Med. Rep. vol. viii. p. 70.  A.]
  BLADDER.    See Urinary bladder,  and  Gall-
 bladder.
  Bladder, inflamed.  See Cystitis.
  BLADE-BONE.  See Scapula.
  BLjE'SITAS.  (From blasus.)  A defect in speech,
 called stammering.
  Blje'sus.  (From  fJXavJu),  to injure.)   A stam-
 merer.
  Bla'nca.  (Blanc, French.)  A purging  mixture;
 so called  because it  was supposed to evacuate  the
 white phlegmatic humours.  Also white lead.
  BLANCARD, Stephen, was born at Leyden, and
 graduated at Franeker, in 1678.  He settled at Amster-
 dam, and published  many anatomical and  medical
 works; especially one on morbid anatomy, contain-
 ing 200 cases, and a "Lexicon Mcdicum," which
 passed through numerous editions.
  Bla'sa.  (Indian.)  A tree, the fruit of which the
 Indians powder, and use to destroy worms.
  BLASIUS, Gerard, son of a physician at Amster-
 dam, from whom he derived a great predilection  for
 comparative anatomy. After graduating at Leyden
 about the year 1646, he returned to his native city, and
 acquired so much reputation,  that he was made pro-
 fessor of medicine in 1660, and soon after physician to
 the hospital.  Besides publishing new editions of seve-
 ral  useful works, with notes  comprehending subse-
 quent improvements, he was author of various original
 ones, especially  relating to  comparative and morbid
 anatomy.  He claimed the discovery  of the ductus
 salivaris, asserting he had pointed it out to Steno;  to
 whom it has been commonly ascribed.
  Blaste'ma.  (From f3Xa^-avtii, to germinate.)   A
 bud or shoot. Hippocrates uses it to signify a cutane-
 ous pimple like a bud.
  Bla'stum mosylitum.  Cassia bark kept with the
 wood.
  Bla'tta.   (From  pXarrta, 'to hurt)  A  sort  of
 beetle, or bookworm; so called from its injuring books
or clothes;  the kermes insect.
  [Blatta is the generic name given by Linnaeus to the
cock-roach, which infests houses, and preys upon pro-
visions, and not upon clothes.  A.]
  Blatta'ria lutea.  (From blatta; so called, be-
cause,  according  to Pliny,  it engenders the blatta.)
The  Verbascum  blattaria, or herb  yellow moth-
 mullein.
  BLEACHING.  The chemical art by which  the
various articles used for clothing are deprived of their
natural dark colour, and rendered white.
  Bleaching powder.   The chloride of lime.
  Ble'chon.  (From BXnxaouat, to bleat; so called
according to Pliny, because if sheep taste it they bleat.)
The herb, wild penny-royal.  See Mentha pulegium.
  BLEEDING.   See Blood-letting and Hamorrhage.
  BLE'MA.  (From 6aXXo>, to inflict.)  A wound.
  BLE'NDE.  A species of zinc ore, formed of zinc
In combination with sulphur, forming a sulphuret of
 zinc.
  BLE'NNA.  BXtvva.  Blena.  Mucus, a thick ex-
erementitious humour.
  BLENNORRHA'GIA.  (From [3Xewa, mucus, and
few,  to flow.)   The  discharge of mucus from ,the
urethra.
  BLENNORRHEA.  (From BXtvva,  mucus, and
freto,  to flow.)  1. A  gleet; Gonorrhea  mucosa.   A
discharge of mucus from the  urethra, arising  from
 weakness.
  2 The name of a genus of diseases in Good's Noso-
 logy, embracing three species, Blennorrhea  simplex,
 luodes, and chronica.
  BLE'PHARA.  (Quasi BXewovs ifiapos, as being  the
 cover and defence of the sight)  The eyelids.
      136
   Blepha'rides.  (From BXttbapov.)  The hair upon
 the eyelids ; also the part of the eyelids where the hair
 grows.
   BLEPHAROPHTHA'LMIA.  (From BXttbapov, the
 eyelid, and ocbBaXpia, a disease of the eye.)'  An in-
 flammation of the eyelid.
   BLEPHAROPTO'SIS.   (From BXtiiapov, the eye-
 lid, and izltao-is, from  ainju, to fall.)  A prolapse, or
 falling down of the upper eyelid, so as to cover the
 cornea.   See Ptosis.
   BLEPHARO'TIS.  (From  (3Xt<papov, the eyelid.)
 An inflammation ofthe eyelids.
   Blepharo'xysis. (From fSXtcbapov, the eyelid, and
 {cm, to scrape off!)   1.  The cleansing ofthe eyelids.
   2. Inflammation of the eyelids.
   Blepharoxy'ston.   (From BXvpapov, the  eyelid,
 and \tut, to scrape off.)  A brush for the eyes.   An in-
 strument for cleansing  or scraping off foul substances
 from the eyelids.
   BLESSED.   Bcnediclus.  Applied to remedies and
 plants from their supposed virtues.  See Benedictus.
   Blessed Thistle.   See Centaurea benedicta.
   Blestri'smus.   (From  /JoXAoi, to throw  about.)
 Phrenitic restlessness.
   Ble'ta.  A  word used  by Paracelsus to signify
 white, and applied to urine when it is milky, and pro-
 ceeds from a disease of the kidneys.
   Ble'ti.  (Bletus, from BaXXu,  to strike.)   Those
 seized with dyspnoea or suffocation.
   BLISTER.   Vesicatorium;  Epispasticum.   1. The
 name of a topical application, Emplastrum vesicato-
 rium, which when put  on the skin raises the cuticle in
 the form of a vesicle, filled with a serous fluid.  Vari-
 ous substances produce this effect on the skin; but the
 powder of the cantharis, or blistering fly, is what ope-
 rates with most  certainty and expedition, and is now
 invariably made use of for the purpose.
   It is a principle sufficiently established with  regard
 to the living system, that where a morbid action exists,
 it may often be  removed by inducing an action of a
 different kind in the same or neighbouring part.  On
 this principle is explained the utility of blisters in local
 inflammation and  spasmodic action, and it  regulates
 their application in pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis,
 phrenitis,  angina, rheumatism, colic, and spasmodic
 affections of the  stomach; diseases in which they are
 employed with the most marked advantage.  A simi-
 lar principle exists with respect to  pain; exciting one
 pain often relieves another.  Hence blisters often give
 relief in toothache, and some other painful affections
 Lastly, blisters,  by  their operation,  communicate a
 stimulus to the whole system, and raise the vigour of
 the circulation.  Hence, in part, their utility in  fevers
 of the typhoid kind, though in such cases they are used
 with still  more advantage to obviate  or remove local
 inflammation.
  When it is not wished to maintain a discharge from
 the blistered part, it is sufficient to make a puncture In
 the cuticle to let  out  the fluid;  but when the case re-
 quires keeping up a secretion of pus, the surgeon must
 remove the whole of the detached cuticle with  a  pair
 of scissors, and dress the excoriated surface  in a par-
 ticular manner.   Practitioners  used  formerly to  mix
 powder of cantharides with an  ointment, and dress the
 part with  this composition.  But s-ich a dressing not
 unfrequently occasioned very painful  affections of the
 bladder, a scalding sensation in making of water, and
 very afflicting stranguries.   The treatment of such
 complaints consists in removing every particle  of the
 fly from the blistered part, making the patient drink
 abundantly of mucilaginous drinks, giving emulsions
 and some doses of camphor.
  These objections  to the employment of salves con-
 taining the lytta, for dressing blistered surfaces, led to
 the use of mezereon, euphorbiuin, and other irritating
 substances, which, when  incorporated with ointment,
 form very proper compositions for keeping blisters open,
 which they do without  the inconvenience of irritating
 the  bladder, like the blistering fly.  The favourite ap-
 plication, however, for keeping open blisters,  is the
 savine cerate, which wa3 brought  into notice by Mr.
 Crowther in his book  on white swellings.  (See Ce-
 ratum Sabine.)   On the use of the savine cerate, im-
 mediately after the cuticle raised by the blister is re-
 moved, says Mr. Crowther, it should be observed  that
 experience has proved the advantage of using the ap
, plication  lowered by  a half or  two-thirds  of  the 
BLO
BLO
unguentum  cene.  An attention to this direction will
produce less irritation and more discharge, than if the
savine cerate were  used in  its full strength.  Mr.
Crowther says also, that he has found fomenting the
part with flannel, wrung out of warm water, a more
easy and  preferable way of keeping the blistered sur-
face clean, and lit for the impression of the  ointment,
than scraping the part, as has been directed  by others.
An occasional dressing of unguentum resinae flavte,
he has found a very useful application for  rendering
the sore free from an appearance of slough, or rather
dense lymph, which has sometimes been so firm in its
texture as to be separated by the probe, with as much
readiness as the cuticle is detached after blistering.
As the discharge diminishes, the strength ofthe savine
dressing should be proportionably increased.  The ce-
ratum sabinae must be used in a stronger, or weaker
degree, in proportion to the excitement produced on
the patient's skin.
  2. The name of a  vesicle  on the skin, whether
formed by a blistering application, or arising from any
other cause.
  BLISTER-FLY.   See Cantharis.
  Bli'tum fuetidum.  See Chenopodium vulvaria.
  BLONDEL, James Augustus, was born in Eng-
land of a French family, and admitted licentiate of the
College of Physicians about 1720.  He chiefly distin-
guished himself by controverting, in a very able man-
ner, the opinion then generally received, that marks
could be imprinted on the foetus by the imagination of
the mother, and he has the  merit of contributing very
largely to the removal  of this prejudice, which had
prevailed for ages, and often produced much mischief.
  BLOOD.   Sanguis.  A red  homogeneous fluid, of
a saltish taste, and somewhat  urinous smell, and glu-
tinous consistence, which circulates in the cavities of
the heart, arteries, and veins.  The quantity is esti-
mated to be about twenty-eight pounds in an adult; of
this, four pans are contained in the veins, and a fifth
in the arteries. The colour of  the blood is red; in the
arteries it is of a florid hue, in the veins darker; ex-
cept only the pulmonary vessels in which the colour is
reversed.  The blood is the most important fluid of our
body.   Some physicians and  anatomists have  con-
sidered  it as alive, and  have formed many  ingeni us
hypotheses in support of its vitality.  The temperature
of this fluid  is of considerable importance, and appears
to depend upon the circulation  and respiration.   The
blood of man, quadrupeds, and birds is hotter than the
medium they inhabit; hence they are  termed animals
of warm blood; while in fishes and reptiles, animals
with cold blood, it is nearly of  the temperature of the
medium they inhabit.  The blood possesses remarkable
physical properties.  Its colour is of a dark red, it is
less deep in certain  cases, and perhaps even scarlet.
Its odour  is insipid, and sui generis;  its taste is also
peculiar; however, it is known to contain  salts, and
principally the muriate of soda.  Its specific gravity is
a little  more  than that of  water.  Haller  found its
medium as 1.0527: 1.0000. Its capacity for caloric may
be expressed by 934, that of arterial blood being 921.
Its mean  temperature is 31 degrees of Reaumur, =
102 F.
  Venous blood, being extracted from its proper vessels,
and  left  to  itself, in a short time forms a soft mass;
this  mass separates spontaneously into two  parts, the
one liquid,  yellowish, transparent, called  serum: the
other soft, almost solid, of a deep brown red, entirely
opaque:  this is the cruor, or clot.  This occupies the
bottom  of  the vessel; the  serum is placed above.
Sometimes a thin layer forms at the top of the serum,
which is soft and reddish, and to which has  been very
improperly given  the name  of rind, buff, or crust of
the blood.
  This spontaneous separation of the elements of the
Dlood does not take place quickly, except when it is in
repose.  If it  is agitated it  remains liquid,  and pre-
serves its  homogeneity much longer.
  If the venous blood  is placed in contact  with the
atmosphere, or with oxygen gas, it takes  a  vermilion
red colour;  with ammonia it becomes cherry  red;
with azote  a deeper brown red,  &c.  In  changing
colour it absorbs a considerable quantity of these dif-
ferent gases; it exhales a considerable quantity of car-
bonic acid, when  kept some time under a  bell upon
mercury.
  The serum sometimes presents a whitish  tint, as if
milky, which has made it be supposed that it contained
chyle: it appears to be a fatty matter which gives it
this appearance.
  The cruor, or clot of the blood is essentially formed
of fibrin, and colouring matter.
  The fibrin, separated from  the colouring matter, is
whitish, insipid, and  inodorous; heavier than water,
without action upon vegetable colours, elastic when
humid, it becomes brittle by being dried.
  In distillation it gives out a great deal of carbonate
of ammonia, and a vast quantity of carbon, the ashes
of which contain much phosphate of  lime, a little
phosphate of magnesia, carbonate of lime,  and car-
bonate of soda.  A hundred  parts of fibrin  arc com-
posed of,
      Carbon......................... 53.360
      Oxygen......................... 19.685
      Hydrogen......................  7.021
      Azote.......................... 19.934

                       Total........100.000
  The colouring  matter Is soluble in water and in the
serum of the blood.  Examined with the  microscope
in solution  with these liquids, it appears like most
fluids of the animal economy,  formed  of small glo-
bules ; dried and calcined in  contact with the  air, it
melts and swells up, burns with flame, and yields a
coal that is difficultly reduced to ashes.
  It is of importance to remark, that in none of the
parts of the blood  are any gelatine or  phosphate of
iron found, as was at first supposed.
  The respective relations in  quantity of the serum to
the coagulum, and those ofthe colouring matter to the
fibrin, have not yet been carefully examined.  It is to
be presumed, as we shall see afterward, that they are
variable according to an infinity of circumstances.
  The coagulation of the  blood has been,  by  turns,
attributed to refrigeration, to  the contact of the air, to
the state of repose, Sec.; but J. Hunter and  Hewson
have demonstrated by experiments, that this phenome-
non cannot  be  attributed to  any of  these causes.
Hewson took fresh blood, and froze it, by exposing it
to a low temperature.  He afterward thawed it: the
blood appeared fluid at first,  and shortly afterward it
coagulated as usual.  An experiment of the same kind
was made by J. Hunter, with a similar result.  Thus,
blood does not  coagulate because it is cooled.  It even
appears that a  temperature a little elevated  is favour-
able to its coagulation.  We  also know by experience
that the blood thicken3 when it is deprived of the con
tact of the air, and agitated; its coagulation is, how-
ever, generally favoured  by repose and the contact of
the air.
  The elements  of venous blood, such as  we have
noticed, are known by its analysis;  but as all the mat-
ters absorbed  from the  intestinal  canal, the serous
membranes,  the cellular tissue, &c, are immediately
mixed with the venous-blood, the composition of this
liquid must vary in proportion to the matter  absorbed.
There will be found in  it, in different  circmstances,
alkohol, tether, camphor, and salts, which it does not
usually contain, &c, when these substances have been
submitted to absorption in any part of the body
  When, by the aid of a strong lens, or a microscope,
we observe the transparent parts of cold-blooded ani-
mals, we see in the blood-vessels an immense multi-
tude of small,  rounded molecules, which swim in the
serum, and  roll  upon each other, while they flow
through the arteries and the veins
  Similar observations have  never been made upon
the hot-blooded animals; the membranes and sides of
the vessels  being opaque.   But as, in separating a
drop of blood  in water, rounded  particles are often
seen with the microscope, the existence  of globules
has been admitted for the blood of animals, and con
sequently for that of man.
  Authors have  related  marvellous things of these
globules.  According to Lcuwenhoeck, a thousand mil-
lions of those  globules are not larger than a grain of
sand.  Haller,  in speaking of cold-blooded animals,
for he never could  see those of hot-blooded animals,
says, that they are  to an  inch as one  inch  is to five
thousand. Some will have  them of the  same form
and diameter in all  animals:  others, on the  contrary,
assert, that they have a particular form and size for
each animal;  some declare that they  are  spherical
and solid, others that they are flattened, and pierced
                                        137 
BLO
BLO
with a small hole in the centre; lastly, many believe
that a globule is a species of small bladder, which con-
tains a certain number of smaller globules.
  Probably  many errors of imagination and optical
illusions, have slid  into these different opinions.  Dr.
Magendie made a great number of microscopic expe-
riments, in order to satisfy himself  in this respect
  He has never seen, in the blood of man diluted in
water, any  thing but particles of colouring matter,
generally rounded, of different sizes, which, according
as they arc placed exactly or not in the focus of the
microscope, appear sometimes spherical, sometimes
flat, and, at other times, of the figure of a disc, pierced
in the centre.   All  these appearances, he says, can
be produced at pleasure, by varying  the position  of
the particles  relatively to the instrument, and  he
believes that bubbles of air have often been described
and drawn for globules of blood;  at least, nothing has
more resemblance to certain figures of Hewson, than
very small bubbles of air that are produced by slightly
agitating the liquid submitted to the microscope.
  The latest and most accurate chemical analysis of
blood is as  follows:
  The specific  gravity of the serum  is  about 1.029,
while that  of blood itself is 1.058. It changes syrup
of violets to a  green, from its containing free soda.
At 156° serum coagulates, and resembles boiled white
of egg.  When this coagulated albumen is squeezed,
a muddy fluid exudes, which has been called the sero-
sity.  According to Berzelius, 1000 parts of the serum
of bullock's blood consist of 905 water, 79.99 albumen,
6.175 lactate of soda and extractive matter, 2.565 mu-
riates of  soda and potassa, 1.52 soda and animal mat-
ter, and  4.75 loss.  1000 parts  of serum of human
blood  consist, by the same chemist, of 905 water, 80
albumen, 6 muriates of potassa and soda, 4 lactate  of
soda with animal matter, and 4.1 of soda, and phos-
phate of soda with animal matter.  There is no gelatin
In serum.
  The cruor has a specific gravity of about 1.245.  By
making a stream of water flow upon it till the water
runs off colourless, it is separated into insoluble fibrin,
and the soluble colouring  matter.  A little albumen
has also been found in cruor.  The proportions of the
former two are, 64 colouring matter, and 36 fibrin  in
100. To obtain the colouring matter pure,  we mix
the cruor with 4 parts of oil of vitriol previously diluted
with 8 parts i of water, and expose the mixture to a
heat of about 160° for 5 or 6 hours.  Filter the liquid
while  hot, and  wash the residue with a few ounces
of hot water.  Evaporate the  liquid to one-half, and
add ammonia, till the acid  be almost, but not entirely
saturated.   The colouring matter  falls.   Decant the
supernatant liquid, filter and wash the residuum from
the whole of the sulphate  of ammonia.   When it is
well drained, remove it with a platina blade, and dry
it in a capsule.
  When solid, it appears of a black colour, but becomes
wine-red by diffusion through  water, in which, how-
ever, it is not soluble.  It has neither taste nor smell.
Alkohol and aether convert it into an unpleasant smell-
ing kind of adipocire.   It is soluble both in alkalies
and acids.  It approaches to fibrin in  its  constitution,
and contains iron in a peculiar  state, £ of a  per cent.
ofthe oxide of which may be extracted from it by cal-
cination.  The  incinerated  colouring  matter weighs
]-80th of the whole;  and these ashes consist of  50
oxide of  iron, 7.5 subphosphate of iron, 6 phosphate
of lime, with traces of magnesia, 20  pure lime, 16.5
carbonic acid and loss; or the  two latter ingredients
may be  reckoned 32 carbonate  of lime.  Berzelius
imagines that none of these bodies existed in the colour-
ing matter, but only their bases, iron, phosphorus,
calcium,  carbon, See; and that  tbey were formed
during the incineiation.  From the albumen of blood,
the same proportion of ashes may be obtained, but  no
iron.
  The importance  of the blood is very considerable;
it distends the cavities of the heart and blood vessels,
and prevents them  from collapsing;  it stimulates to
contraction  the cavities of the heart  and vessels,  by
which means the circulation of the blood is performed;
it generates within itself animal heat, which it propa-
 ates  throughout the  body; it nourishes  the  whole
 ody; and, lastly, it is that source from which every
secretion of the body is separated.
  [In the winter of 1824-5, Dr. MitchiU then Professor
of Materia Medica in the College of Physicians and
Surgeons of New-York, read the following letter to his
class, while speaking on the operation of remedies, and
their effects upon the blood.

Dr. Akerly to Dr. Samuel L. MitchiU, Professor, be.

  Dear Sir.—While speaking on the operation of re-
medies, it reminds me of an occurrence which  took
place in 1819, connected with this subject  A  man
called on me in the summer of that year, stating that
he had fallen in the street in a fit, from which  having
recovered he requested to be bled to relieve his head, as
from the distress there he was apprehensive of another.
Mr. Knapp having just commenced the study of medi-
cine with me, I desired him to take a stick and stir the
blood to collect the fibrin, and to show him that the
blood would not coagulate after being deprived of it.
His attention as soon as he began to stir the blood was
attracted  by the strong smell of  spirituous  liquor
arising from it.  We both satisfied ourselves that the
alkoholic  odour actually arose from  the blood,  and
that it was more perceptible when agitated, than when
undisturbed.  I immediately went out and made in-
quiries at a neighbouring store of the character and
habits ofthe man, and ascertained that he was a great
lover of ardent spirits, and daily drank  a quart or more
by small glasses.  This appeared to me a case in which
the fluid taken into the stomach  reached  the blood
vessels without change, and as it may throw some light
on the operation of remedies upon  the human consti-
tution, I communicate the  fact  for your  considera-
tion.  A.]
  Blood, dragon's.  See Calamus rotang.
  Blood, spitting of.  See Hemoptysis.
  Blood, vomiting of.  See Hamatemesis.
  BLOOD-LETTING.  Under this term is compre-
hended every artificial discharge of blood made with
a view to cure or prevent a disease.   Blood-letting is
divided into general and topical.   As examples of the
former,  venasection  and arteriotomy may be men-
tioned ;  and of the latter, the  application of leeches,
cupping-glasses, and scarification.
  [Blood-root. " Thisisan indigenous article, derived
from the Sanguinaria Canadensis, one of our earliest
flowering plants, common in woods in various parts of
the United States.
  The root is brownish externally; but, when broken,
emits a  bright vermilion or orange-coloured juice.
This root has a bitter taste, leaving a sense of acrimony
in the throat when swallowed.  Besides fibrous matter,
it contains resin, faecula, bitter extractive, and an acrid
principle.
  The medicinal properties of blood-root are those of
an  acrid narcotic.  When taken in  a large dose, it
irritates the fauces, leaving a disagreeable sensation in
the throat for some  time after  it is  swallowed.  It
occasions heartburn, nausea, fainting, and frequently
vertigo, and diminished vision.  It also vomits; but in
this operation it is less certain than many other emetics
in common use.   When given in smaller doses, such
as produce nausea without vomiting, and repeated at
frequent intervals, it lessens the frequency ofthe pulse
in a manner somewhat analogous to the operation of
digitals.  This, however, is a secondary effect, since, in
its primary operation, it seems to accelerate the circu-
lation.  In still smaller doses, such as do  not disturb
the stomach, it has required some reputation as a tonic.
It has been given in phthisis, both  as  a preventive in
the early symptoms  and as a palliative in the  con-
firmed disease; also in catarrh, typhoid pneumonia,
dyspepsia and various other complaints;  in  which,
however, its use should not exclude the employment of
more active means.   It should be dried a short  time
before it is to be used, as the virtues are much impaired
by age.
  From ten to twenty grains ordinarily produce vomit-
ing.  Many country physicians prefer an infusion
made with a drachm of the powder to a gill of water,
of which a table-spoonful may be repeated till  the
effect of the medicine is obtained.  As a  tonic,  the
tincture  is more frequently  used."—See  Big. Mat
Med.  A.]
  Blood-stone.  See Hematites, and Calcedony.
  Bloody flux.  See Dysenteria.
  BLOWPIPE.  A very simple and useful instrument.
That used by the anatomist is made of silver or brass, 
BOD
BOD
ef the size of a common probe, or larger, to inflate
vessels and other parts.
  The chemical blowpipe is made of brass, is of about
one-eighth of an  inch diameter at one end, and the
other tapering to a much  less size, with a very small
perforation for the wind to escape.  The smaller end
is beveled on one side.
  [BLUE IRON EARTH.  This is the earthy phos-
phate of iron of some mineralogists.  " The original
colour of this variety is generally grayish, yellowish, or
greenish white, or with a very slight tinge of blue; but by
exposure to the air it absorbs oxygen, becomes indigo
blue of different shades, sometimes pale.  It is some-
times in small masses, considerably compact and solid,
but more frequently it is  friable, or even loose, and
soils the fingers.  It is often a mere coat.
  Before the blowpipe it becomes reddish-brown, and
then melts into a magnetic, blackish globule.  In oil it
usually acquires a shade of brown.  A specimen yielded
kiaproth iron slightly oxidated 47.5, phosphoric  acid
32.0,  water 20.0; =99.5.   But  the  proportion  of acid
appears to be extremely variable indifferent specimens.
  This mineral is sometimes employed with advantage
as a pigment. It has been found in Maine and Massa-
chusetts, but principally in New-Jersey.   It generally
accompanies bog ore, or certain argillaceous deposites.
It is  sometimes in  masses weighing 301bs. or more,
with a texture more or less compact and solid.   When
first obtained it is yellowish white; but by exposure to
Ihe air, it assumes a fine blue colour.  In some in-
stances it appears to contain very little phosphoric
acid.—See CI. Min.   A.l
  BLUE, PRUSSIAN. A combination  of oxide of
iron with the ferro-prussic acid.
  BLUE, SAXON.  Made by digesting sulphuric acid
and water, on powdered indigo.
  BO'A.   (From Bovs, an ox.)  1. A pustulous erup-
tion like the small-pox, so  called because it was cured,
according  to Pliny, by anointing it with hot ox-dung.
  2. The name of a genus of serpents.
  Boche'tum.  Decoctum secundarium.  A decoction
of the woods prepared by a second boiling with fresh
water.
  Bo'chia.  A subliming vessel.
   Bo'chiuk.  A swelling  ofthe bronchial glands.
   BODY.  Whatever is capable of acting on our senses
may be so denominated.
   Bodies in Natural Philosophy are divided into Pon-
 derable and Imponderable.
   The first are those  which  may act upon several of
 our senses, and of which  the existence is sufficiently
established; of this kind are solids, fluids, and gases.
 The second are those which, in general, only act on
one of our senses, the existence of which is by no
means demonstrated, and which, perhape,  are only
forces, or a modification  of other bodies; such are
caloric, light, the electric and magnetic fluids.
  Ponderable  bodies  are  endowed  with common or
general properties, and likewise with particular or
secondary properties.
  The general properties of bodies are,—extent, divi-
sibility, impenetrability, mobility.  A ponderable body,
of whatever kind, always presents these four pro-
perties combined.  Secondary properties are variously
distributed among different bodies; as hardness, poro-
sity, elasticity, fluidity, Sec.  They constitute, by their
combination with the general properties, the condition
or state of bodies.  It is by gaining or losing some of
these  secondary properties that bodies  change their
state:  for instance, water may appear under the form
of ice, of a fluid, or of vapour, although it is always
the same body.   To present itself successively under
these  three forms, nothing more is necessary than the
addition or abstraction of some of its secondary qua-
lities.
  Bodies are simple, or compound.
  Simple bodies are rarely met with in  nature; ihey
are almost always the product  of art, and  we even
name them simple, only because art has not arrived
at their decomposition. At present, the bodies regarded
as simple are the following:—Oxygen, chlorine, iodine,
fluorine, sulphur, hydrogen, boracium, carbon, phos-
phorus, azote, silicium, zirconium, aluminum, yttrium,
glucinum, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium,
sodium, potassium, manganese, zinc, iron, tin, arsenic,
molybdenum, chromium, tungsten, columbium, anti-
mony, uranium, cerium, cobalt, titanium,  bismuth,
copper, tellurium, nickel, lead, mercury, osmium, sil ver,
rhodium, palladium, gold, platinum, iridium, selenium,
lithium, thorenum, wood, anium, cadmium.
  Compound bodies occur every where; they form
the mass ofthe globe, and that of all the beings which
are seen on its  surface.   Certain bodies have a con-
stant  composition; that is to say, a  composition that
never is changed, at least from accidental circum-
stances: there are, on the contrary, bodies, the compo-
sition of which  is changed at every instant.
  This diversity of bodies is extremely important; it
divides them naturally into two classes; bodies,  the
composition of which is constant,  are  named brute,
or gross, inert,  inorganic; but those, the elements of
which continually vary,  are called  living, organized
bodies.
  Brute and  organized bodies differ from each other
in respect, 1st, of form; 2d, of composition;  3d, of the
laws  which regulate their changes of state.   The
following table  presents the differences which are best
marked.
                                           TABLE I.

                      differences  between inorganic and livino bodies.

                                           1. Form.
Inorganic  \ Angular form.                          Living   j Rounded form.
 Bodies.   {Indeterminate Volume.                   Bodies.   ( Determinate Volume.

                                        2. Composition
           ' Sometimes simple.
            Seldom of more than 3 elements.
            Constant
"°7?a"lc  i Each  part capable of existing,  inde-
 JDOOieS.       »mJ.nt r.f lh. r.*hara
  pendent of the others.
Capable of  being decomposed and re-
  composed.
Living
Bodies.
'Never simple.
 At least 4 elements, often 8 or 10.
 Variable.
 Each  part more or less depending on
   the whole.
 Capable of decomposition, but totally
   incapable of recomposition.
Inorganic ( Entirety subject to attraction, and che-
 Bodies.   I   mical affinity.
Living
Bodies.
                                    3. Regulating Laws.
                                                            In part "subject to attraction and che-
                                                              mical affinity.
                                                             In  part subject to a power unknown.
Living bodies are divided into two classes, one of which comprehends  Vegetables, the other Animals.

                                         TABLE II.

                      DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VEGETABLES AND ANIMALS.
                   Vegetables,
Are fixed to the ground.
Have carbon for the principal base of their composition.
Composed of four or five elements.
Find and assume in their vicinity their nourishment in
  a state of preparation.
Are nourished by tubes opening externally.
                    Animals,
Move on the surface of the ground.
Have azot for the base of their composition.
Often composed of eight or ten elements.
Must act on their aliments, in order to render them fit
  for nourishment.
Are nourished by an internal canal.
                                       188 
BOE                                             BOE
    Hi Anatomy.  The human body is divided by ana-
  tomists into the trunk and extremities: i. e. the head,
  and inferior and superior extremities, each of which
  have certain regions before any part is removed, by
  which the physician is enabled to direct the applica-
  tion of  blisters and the like, and  the  situation of dis-
  eases is better described.
    The head is distinguished into the hairy part and the
  face. The former has five regions, viz. the crown of
  the head or  vertex, the fore-part of the head or sinci-
 put, the hind-part or occiput, and the sides, partes la-
 terales capitis.  In the  latter are  distinguished, the
 region of the forehead, frons;  temples, or tcmpora;
 the nose, omasus; the eyes, or oculi; the mouth, or
 os ;  the cheeks, bucca; the chin, or mentum; and the
 ears, or  aures.
   The trunk is distinguished into three principal parts,
 Ihe neck, thorax, and abdomen.   The neck is divided
 into the anterior region  or pars antica, in which, in
 men, is an eminence calledpomum Adami; the poste-
 rior region is called nucha colli; and the lateral re-
 gions, partes laterales colli.
   The thorax is distinguished into the anterior region,
 in which  are the sternum and mamma, and at the
 inferior part of which is a pit or hollow called  scrobi-
 culus cordis; a posterior region, called dorsum;  and
 the sides, or  latera thoracis.
   The abdomen is distinguished  into an anterior re-
 gion, properly the abdomen; a posterior region, called
 the loins, or lumbi;  and lateral regions or flanks, called
 latera abdominis.   The anterior region of the abdo-
 men  being very extensive, is subdivided  into the  epi-
 gastric,  hypochondriac,  umbilical,  and  hypogastric
 regions,  which are described under their respective
 names.  Immediately below the  abdomen  is the mons
 veneris, and  at its sides the groins  or inguina.  The
 space between the organs of generation and the anus,
 or fundament, is called the perineum.
   The superior extremity is distinguished  into  the
 shoulder, summitas humeri, under which is the arm-pil,
 called axilla  or fovea axillaris ; the brachium, or arm;
 the antibrachium, or fore-arm, iu which anteriorly is
 the bend of the  arm, where the veins  are generally
 opened, called flexura antibrachii; and posteriorly the
 elbow, called angulus cubiti; and the hand, in which
 are the  carpus ot wrist, the back or dorsum manus,
 and the palm or vola.
   The inferior extremity is divided into, 1. the  region
 of the femur, in which is  distinguished the coxa or
 regio-ischiadica, forming the outer and superior part;
 2. the leg, in  which are the knee or genu, the bend or
 cavum poplitis, and the calf or sura • 3. the foot, in
 which are the  outer and inner ankle, or malleolus ex-
 temus and internus, the back or  dorsum, and the sole
 or planta.
  Body,  combustible.  This term is giyen by che-
 mists to alt substances which, on account of their affi-
 nity for oxygen, are capable of burning.
  Body, gaseous.   See Gas.
  Body, inflammable.  Chemists give this name to
euch bodies as burn with facility, and flame in an  in-
creased temperature, although, strictly speaking,  all
combustible bodies are inflammable bodies; such  are
 the diamond,  sulphur, bitumens, Sec.
  Body,  phosphorescent.  Bodies which produce
light, though their temperature be not increased.
  Bo'e.   (From Boato, to  exclaim.)   Clamour, or
moaning  made by a sick person.
  BOERHAAVE, Herman, was  born at  Voorhout,
In Holland, December 31, 1668. His father, the pastor
of the village, having  nine children, educated them
himself, and  intending  Herman for the church, was
careful to ground him well in the  learned languages;
in which he  made such rapid progress, that he was
sent at 14 to  Leyden.   His father dying soon after in
slender circumstances, he  was fortunately supported
by the burgomaster,  Daniel Van Alphin;  which Boer-
haave ever remembered with gratitude.  Among other
studies, he was very partial to the mathematics, and
improved so  much, as to be able to give private  in-
structions in  them, whereby he partly maintained
himself.  In 1690, he took  his degree  in philosophy,
and in an inaugural thesis refuted  the errors of the
materialists.   But he  soon after turned  his  mind
to the study of medicine, and attended  dissections^
under Nuck;  he greatly preferred Hippocrates among
«he ancient, and Sydenham among the modern physi-
  cians. He was made doctor of medicine atHarderwyce.
  in 1693; and  in his dissertation on that occasion, in
  sisted on the utility of observing the excretions in
  disease, especially  the urine.  He was then engaged in
  forming a new theory of medicine, by a judicious se-
  lection from all that had been before advanced ; which
  was so well arranged, and so ably supported by him,
  that  it  became  generally  adopted,  and  prevailed
  throughout Europe for more than half a century.  He
  also gave lectures on chemistry, with considerable, re-
  putation, about the same  period.  The university of
  Leyden therefore appointed him, in 1701, professor of
  the theory of medicine; when he  read an oration  re-
  commending the study  of Hippocrates; and,  as he de-
  clined some very advantageous offers from other parts,
  they  afterward augmented his  salary.   About  this
  time, he published another Latin oration,  " On the
  Use  of mechanical Reasoning in  Medicine," which
  contributed to  extend his fame.  In  1709, he was ap-
  pointed professor of botany, to which study he was
  ever after eminently attached.  On that occasion, he
  produced another oration, maintaining  that  medicine
  would be best  improved by observation, and by sim-
  plicity in prescriptions. His " Aphorisms,"  had  ap-
  peared the year before, giving a  brief account of the
  history and cure of diseases, a work universally ad-
  mired ; to which his pupil Van Swietcn afterward at-
 tached a very ample commentary.  About the same
 time he published  his "Institutes," treating  of physi-
 ology.   These  two works, with successive improve-
 ments, passed  through numerous editions, and were
 translated  into every European, nay, even  into the
 Arabic language.   In the year after, he  printed  a
 catalogue of the plants  in  the university garden.  In
 1714,  he was made rector of the university, and at
 the end of the  year for which he held the office, de-
 livered a discourse " On attaining  Certainty in Phy
 sics."  About this period he was made professor  of
 the  practice of medicine, and in 1718,  of chemistry
 also.   His  lectures  on these subjects, and  on botany,
 were delivered  with such clearness and precision, that
 students thronged from every part to hear him ; inso-
 much that Leyden could scarcely afford accommoda-
 tions for them.  He was also often consulted  in diffi-
 cult cases by physicians even  in distant parts of the
 world.  When  appointed to the chemical chair, he had
 published a short work  on that subject, but some of
 his pupils having printed his lectures without authority,
 and very incorrectly, he was  led to prepare them for
 the press in 1732.  In his conversation, Boerhaave was
 generally familiar, in  his demeanour grave,  but dig.
 posed to occasional  pleasantry: he was  distinguished
 for piety,  and  on  his  moral character, his  disciple
 Haller has passed a very high eulogium.  Having  ac-
 quired considerable wealth by his exertions, and being
 plain in his dress, as well  as abstemious in his diet,
 he was by some accused of parsimony: but he spared
 no reasonable  expense  in  procuring rare books, and
 foreign plants.  Being of a vigorous constitution, and
 accustomed to much exercise abroad, he met with little
 interruption from illness; but iu 1729, having  become
 corpulent, and incapable of riding, his health began to
 suffer, and he was induced to resign  his botanical and
 chemical appointments.  In an oration then delivered,
 he recounted the chief events of his life, expressing
 himself grateful for  the  patronage which  he  had re-
 ceived from individuals; as well as to his own pro-
 fession, for the little opposition shown to his opinions.
 It perhaps never happened,  that so great a revolution
 in science was  so readily brought about.   The great
 reputation acquired by his extensive  abilities, and the
 moderation of his character, particularly averse from
 contention, no  doubt contributed materially  to this
 result.  In the year following, he was again  made rec
 tor of the university of Leyden; and also elected a
 fellow of the Royal Society in London, having been
 previously admitted  to the Royal Academy of Sciences
 in Paris. The remainder of his life was chiefly occu-
 pied  in revising his own  numerous productions, in
 publishing more correct  editions of  several esteemed
 authors, and in  domestic recreations at his  seat near
 Leyden, with his wife and daughter.   Toward  the end
of 1737, he was attacked with symptoms of disease in
 the chest, which terminated his existence in the Sep-
tember following  His fellow-citizens erected  an ele-
gant monument  to his memory.
  Boethb'ma.  (From (doifleu, to assist.)  A remedy 
BOL                                            BON
  Boethema'tica.  (From BonBtu, to  assist.)  Fa-
 vourable symptoms.
  BOG-BEAN.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  Bo'gia gummi.  Gamboge.
  BOHEA.  See Thea.          ,
  BOHN, John, was born at Leipsic, in 1640;  and
 after studying in  many parts of Europe, graduated
 there, and was made successively professor of anato-
 my, and of therapeutics, public physician to the city,
 &c.  Among numerous publications, he chiefly distin-
 guished  himself by his " Circulus anatomico physio-
 logicus,"  and a treatise " De officio  medici clinico et
 forcnsi,"  which latter particularly  has  great  merit.
 He also well explained  the judgment  to be formed con-
 cerning  wounds;  and recommended purging with
 calomel in the beginning of small-pox. He died in 1718.
  Bois de coissi.  See Quassia.
  Bolar earths.  See Bole.
  BOLE, (BujXos, a mass,)  in chemistry, is a massive
 mineral,  having a perfectly conchoidal fracture, a
 glimmering internal lustre, and a  shining streak.   Its
 colours are yellow-red, and brownish-black, when it
 is called mountain soap.  It is translucent or opaque.
 Soft, so as to be easily cut, and to  yield to the nail. It
 adheres to the tongue, has a greasy feel, and falls to
 pieces in water,  sp. grav. 1.4 to 2.  It may be po-
 lished.  If it be immersed in water after it is dried, it
 falls asunder with a  crackling  noise.  It occurs in
 wacke and  basalt, in  Silesia, Hessia, and Sienna in
 Italy, and also in the cliffs of the Giant's Causeway,
 Ireland.   The black variety is found in the trap rocks
 of the isle of ?ky.  Several compou nds were formerly
 used in  medicine, particularly the Armenian  and
 French; and in old pharmacopoeias  mention is made
 of red boles from Armenia, Lemnos,  Strigonium, Por-
 tugal, Tuscany, and Livonia; yellow boles from  Ar-
 menia, Tockay, Silesia,  Bohemia, and  Blois; white
 boles from  Armenia, Lemnos, Nocera,  Eretria,  La-
 mos, Chio,  Malta, Tuscany,  and  Goltberg.  Several
 of  these earths have been commonly made into little
 cakes or flat  masses, and stamped  with certain  im-
 pressions ; from which  circumstance they received the
 name of terra sagillata, or sealed earths.
  Bole, Armenian.   Bolus Armenia.  Bole  arme-
 nic.  A pale but bright red-coloured earth, which is
 occasionally mixed with honey, and applied  to child-
 ren's mouths when afflicted with aphthae.  It forms,
 like all argillaceous earths, a good  tooth-powder, when
 mixed with, some aromatic.
  BOLETIC  ACID.   Acidum boleticum.   An acid
 extracted from  the expressed juice of  the Boletus
 osendo-igniarius, by M.  Braconnot.  The juice con-
 centrated to a syrup by a very gentle heat, was acted
 on  by strong alkohol.   What remained was dissolved
 In water.  When nitrate of lead was dropped into this
 solution, a white precipitate fell, which, after being
 well washed with water, was decomposed by a cur-
 rent  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen gas.  Two  different
 acids were found in the liquid after filtration and eva-
 poration.   One  in  permanent crystals  was  boletic
 acid; the other was a small proportion of phosphoric
 acid.  The former was purified by a solution in alko-
 hol, and subsequent evaporation.
  It consists of irregular four-sided prisms, of a white
 colour, and permanent in the air.  Its taste resembles
 cream of tartar; at the temperature  of 68° it dissolves
 in 180 times its weight of water, and  in 45 of alkohol.
 Vegetable blues are reddened by it. Red oxide of iron,
 and the oxides of silver and mercury, are precipitated
 by  it from their solutions in nitric  acid; but lime  and
 barytes waters  are  not  affected.  It  sublimes when
 heated, in white vapours, and is condensed in a white
 powder.—Ann. de Chimie, lxxx.
  BOLE'TUS.  (From BioXos, a mass, or BtaXirris,
 from its  globular  form.)  The name of a genus of
 plants in  the Linnean  system.  Class, Cryptogamia ;
 Order, Fungi.  Boletus;  Spunk.
  Boletus  cervi.  The mushroom.
  Boletus igniarius.  The systematic  name for the
 agaricus ofthe pharmacopoeias.   Agaricus chirurgo-
 rum; Agaricus quercus ; Fungus igniarius. Agaric
 of  the  oak;  Touchwood  boletus;  Female agaric.
 This fungus Boletus :—acaulis pulvinatus levis, poris
 tenuissimis of LinntEus, has been  much  used by sur-
 geons as an external styptic.  Though still employed
on the continent, the surgeons in this  country have not
 much confidence in it
  Boletus laricis.  The  systematic name for the
officinal  agaricus albus, which is met with on old
larch trees, in different parts of Europe.  Several pre-
parations, as troches, an extract, and pHls, are ordered
to be made with it in foreign pharmacopoBias, which
are administered against phthisical complaints.
  Boletus pini laricis.   A species of agaric which
grows on the larch.
  Boletus suaveolens.  The systematic name for
the fungus salicis of the pharmacopoeias.  This spe-
cies of fungus, Boletus—acaulis superne lavis, salici-
bus, of Linmcus, and the Boletus albus of Hudson,
when fresh, has a suburinous smell, and at first an
acid taste, followed by a bitter.  It is seldom used at
present,  but was formerly given in phthisical com-
plaints.
  Boli'smcs.   A  voracious  appetite,  according to
Avicenna; but most probably meant for bulimus.
  BOLOGNIAN STONE.  A mixture of mucilage
and powdered sulphate of barytes.
  [Bolognian phosphorus.  When native sulphate
of baryta is heated it decrepitates, and at a high tern
peratuie, fuses into an opaque white enamel:  it was
employed in the manafacture of Jasper ware  by the
late Mr. Wedgewood.  When heated to  redness,  it
acquires  the property of phosphorescence.  This was
first ascertained by Vincenzo Cascarioli,  of Bologna,
whence the term Bologna phosphorus is applied to it.
This kind of phosphorus, after being exposed for a few
minutes to the sun's rays, shines in the dark sufficiently
to render visible the dial of a watch.  This prosperty is
lost by repeated uses, in consequence of tbe oxygena-
tion ofthe sulphur: but it may be restored by a second
calcination.—See Webster's Man. of Chem.   A.]
  BO'LUS.  (BioXos, a bole,  or bolus.)   Any "medi-
cine, rolled round, that is larger than an ordinary sized
pea, and yet not too large to be swallowed.
  Bolus armena.  See Bole, Armenian.
  Bolus armena alba.  The white Armenian bole.
  Bolus armoniac  See Bole, Armenian.
  Bolus blessensis.  Bole of Blois. See Bole.
  Bolus gallica.  French bole.  A pale red-coloured
bolar earth, variegated with irregular specks and veins
of white  and yellow.   It is  occasionally administered
as an absorbent and antacid.
  BOMBAX.  See Gossypium.
  BOMBIATE.  Bombias.   A salt formed by the
union of the bombic  acid with salifiable bases ; thus,
bombiate of alumine,  Sec.
  BO'MBICACID.   Acidum  bombicum.  Acid of the
silkworm.  Silkworms  contain, especially when in
the state of chrysalis, an acid liquor in a reservoir
placed near the anus.  It is  obtained by expressing
their juice in a cloth, and  precipitating the mucilage
by spirit  of wine, and likewise by infusing the chrysa-
lides in that liquor.   This acid is very penetrating, of
a yellow amber colour, but its nature and combinations
are not yet well known.
  BO'MBUS.   BouSos-  1- A resounding noise, or
ringing of the ears.
  2. A sonorous expulsion of flatus from the intestines.
  3. Dr.  Good  gives this name to that variety of ima-
ginary sound, parapsis illusoria, which is character-
ized by a dull, heavy, intermitting sound.
  Bon arbor.  A name given to the coffee-tree.
  Bo'na.  Boona.  The phaseolus, or kidney-beans.
  [BOND, Thomas, M.D.   This celebrated physician
and surgeon was a native of Maryland, and studied his
profession there under Dr. Hamilton, a  very learned
practitioner.  Afterward he travelled in  Europe and
spent a considerable time in Paris, where he attended
the practice of the H6tel Dieu.  He began the practice
of medicine in Philadelphia about the year 1734, and
soon  attracted the  public attention.  He was the
founder of the College and  Academy, and one of the
most active managers ofthe Pennsylvania Hospital, at
its commencement.  He was a contributor to some of
the Medical Journals of  Great Britain  before (he
establishment of one  in this country. In 1783 he de-
livered the annual address before the American Philo-
sophical Society.  The subject was, " The rank and
dignity of man in  the scale of being, and the con-
veniences and advantages he derives from the Arts and
Sciences, and the prognostic of the unceasing grandeur
and glory of America, founded on the nature of its cli-
mate."   He was for half a century  in the first practice
in Philadelphia, and  remarkable for attention to the 
BON
BON
eases under his care, and his sound judgment.  He
died in the year 1784, aged 72.—See Thach. Med.
Biog.  A.]
  Bo'nduch indorum.  See Guilandina.
  BONE.  Os.  Bones are hard, dry, and insensible
parts of the body, of a whitish colour, and composed
of a spongy, compact, or recticular substance.  They
vary much in their appearances, some being long and
hollow, others flat aud compact, &c.   The greater
number of bones have several processes and cavities,
which are distinguished from their  figure, situation,
use, Sec.   Thus, processes extended from  the end of a
bone, if smooth and round, are called heads; and con-
dyles, when flattened either above or laterally.  That
part which is beneath the  head,  and which  exceeds
the rest of the bone in smallness  and levity, is called
the neck.  Rough, unequal processes are called tube-
rosities, or tubercles: but the longer and more acute,
spinous, or styloid processes, from their resemblance
to a thorn. Thin broad processes, with  shurp extre-
mities, are known  by the name of crista, or sharp
edges.  Other processes are  distinguished  by their
form, and  called  alar, or ptergoid; mamillary,  or
mastoid;  dentiform, ot odontoid, tec Others, from
their situation, are called superior, inferior, exterior,
and interior.  Some have their name from their di-
rection;  as oblique,  straight, transverse,  Sec;  and
some from their use,  as  trochanters, rotators, Sec.
Furrows, depressions, and cavities, are destined either
for the reception of contiguous bones, to form an arti-
culation  with them, when they arc  called articular
cavities, which are sometimes deeper, sometimes shal-
lower ; or they receive  hard parts, but do not consti-
tute a joint with them.  Cavities serve also  for the
transmission and attachment of soft parts.  Various
names are given to them, according to the magnitude
and figure of bones.   If they be broad and large at the
beginning, and not deep, but contracted at their ends,
they are called fovea, or pits.  Furrows are open
canals, extending longitudinally  in  the surface  of
bones. A hollow, circular tube, for the most part of
the same diameter from beginning to  end, and more or
less crooked or straight, long or short, is named a canal.
Foramina  are the  apertures of  canals, or they are
formed ofthe excavated margins of two bones, placed
against each other.  If such be the form of the margin
of a bone, as if a portion were taken out of it, it is
called a notch.
  With respect to the formation of  bone, there have
been various opinions.  Physiologists of the present
day assert, that it is from a  specific action of small
arteries, by which ossific matter is separated from the
blood, and deposited where it is  required.  The first
thing observable  in the embryo, where bone  is to  be
formed, is a transparent jelly, which becomes gradu-
ally firmer, and is formed into cartilage.  The carti-
lage gradually increases to a  certain size,  and when
the process of ossification commences, vanishes as it
advances.  Cartilages,  previous to the ossific action,
are solid, and without any cavity;  but when the ossific
action of  the arteries is about to commence, the ab-
sorbents become very active, and form a  small cavity
in which the bony matter is deposited; bone continues
to be separated, and the absorbents model the mass
into its required shape.  The process of ossification is
extremely  rapid in utero: it advances slowly after
birth, and is not completed in the human body till about
the twentieth year.  Ossification in  the flat bones,  as
those of the skull, always begin from central points,
and the radiated fibres meet the radii of other ossifying
points, or the edges of the adjoining bone.   In  long
bones, as those of the arm and leg, the clavical, meta-
carpal, and metatarsal bones, a central ring is formed
in the body of the bone, the head and extremities being
cartilage, in the centre of which ossification afterward
begins.   The central ring of the body shoots  its bony
fibres towards the head and extremities, which extend
towards  the body of the bone. The head  and extre-
mities it  length come so close to the body as to  be
merely separated  by a cartilage, which becomes gra-
dually thinner until the twentieth year.  Thick and
round bones, as  those of the  tarsus, carpus, sternum,
and patella, are, at first, all cartilage: ossification be-
gins in the centre of each.  When  the bones are de-
prived of their soft parts, and are  hung together  in
their natural situation, by means of wire, the whole is
termed an artificial skeleton; but when tney are kept
      142
together by means of their ligaments,  it is carted a
natural skeleton.—The uses of the bones are various,
and are to be found in the account of each bone; it is,
therefore, only necessary to observe,  in this place, that
they give shape to the body, contain and defend  the
vital viscera, and afford an attachment to  all  the
muscles.
A  Table of the Bones.
No
Bones of the cranium _
or skull..........
Bones of the face.
Denies or teeth.
Bone of the tongue.
Bones  of  the  ear,
  within the temporal
  bones.......
  'Frontal...............  1
  Parietal..............  2
  Occipital.............  1
  Temporal.............  2
  Ethmoid..............  1
  Sphenoid.............  1
  ' Superior maxil........  2
  Jugal.................  2
  Nasal................  2
  Lachrymal...........  2
  Palatine..............  2
  Inferior spongy.......  2
  Vomer...............  1
  Inferior maxil.........  1
  ' Incisores.............  8
 < Cuspidati.............  4
 I'Molarcs.............. 20
  Hyoidesos............  I
  Malleus..............  2
  Incus................  2
  Stapes...............  2
' ( Orbiculare os.........  2
                             ( Cervical
Vertebra.....................< Dorsal
                             ( Luuibar
Sacrum.................................
Coccygis os.............................
                      < Sternum.......
Ribs.
The shoulder.

The arm.....
The fore-arm..
    The thorax...........
    The pelvis...................Innominata ossa  2

                        J Clavicle...............  2
                        | Scapula..............  2
                        ..Humerios............  2
                        jUlna.................  2
                        (Radius...............  2
                         Naviculareos.........  2
                         Lunare os............  2
                         Cuneiforme os........  2
        Carpus ot wrist  I Orbtailare os.........  2
                        « Trapezium os.........  2
                         Trapezoides os........  2
                         Magnum os...........  2
                         Ucciformeos.........  2
        Metacarpus............................. 10
        Phalanges............................... 28

   'The thigh.............Femur...............  2
                        (Patella...............  2
    The leg.............{ Tibia................  2
                        ^Fibula...............  2
                         {Calcaneus............  2
                         Astragalus............  i
                         Cuboidesos...........  2
                         Naviculareos.........  2
                         Cuneil'ormia ossa.....  6
    .5  I Metatarsus............................. 10
   .E"1  [Phalanges............................... 28

Sesamoid  bones of the  thumb and great  toe,)  a
  occasionally found..........................\  a

                                        Total 248

  Calcined human bones, according to Berzelius, are
composed, in 100 parts, of 81.9 phosphate of lime,  3
fluate of lime, 10 lime. 1.1 phosphate of magnesia, 2
soda, and 2 carbonic acid. 100 parts of bones by cal-
cination are reduced to 63.   Fourcroy and Vauquelin
found the following to be the composition of 100 parts
of ox bones: 51 solid gelatin, 37.7 phosphate of lime, 10
carbonate of lime, and 1.3 phosphate of magnesia; but
Berzelius  gives the following as their constituents:
33.3 cartilage, 55.35 phosphate of lime, 3 fluate of lime,
3.85 carbonate of lime, 2.05 phosphate jf magnesia, and
2.45 soda, with a little common salt.
  About l-30th of phosphate of magnesia was obtained
from the calcined benes of fowls, by Fourcroy and 
BON
BOR
 Vauquelin.  When the enamel of teeth, rasped down,
 •is dissolved in muriatic acid, it leaves no albumen, like
 the other  bones.  Fourcroy and Vauquelin state  its
 components to be, 27.1 gelatin  and water, 72.9 phos-
 phate of lirne.  Messrs. Hatchett and  Fepys rate  its
 composition at 78 phosphate of lime, 6 carbonate  of
 lime, and  16 water and loss.  Berzelius, on the other
 hand, found only 2 per cent of combustible matter iu
 teeth.  The teeth of adults, by Mr. Pepys, consist  of
 64 phosphate of lime, 6 carbonate'of lime, 20 cartilage,
 and 10 water or loss.  The fossil bones  of Gibraltar
 are composed of phosphate of lime and  carbonate, like
 burnt bones.  Much difference of opinion exists with
 regard to the existence of fluoric acid  in the teeth of
 animals; some of the most eminent chemists taking
 opposite sides of the question.   It appears that bones
 buried for many centuries still retain  their albumen,
 with very little diminution of its quantity.
   Fourcroy and Vauquelin discovered phosphate  of
 magnesia  in  all  the  bones they examined,  except
 human  bones. The  bones of the  horse and sheep
 afford about l-36th of phosphate of magnesia; those of
 fish nearly the same quantity as those of the ox.  They
 account for this by observing, that  phosphate of mag-
 nesia is found in the urine of man, but not in that of
 animals, though both equally take in a portion of mag-
 nesia with their food.
   The experiments of Mr. Hatchett show, that the
 membranous or cartilaginous substance, which retains
 the earthy salts within its interstices, and appears to
 determine the  shape of the bone, is albumen.  Mr.
 Hatchett observes, that the enamel of tooth is analo-
 gous to the porcellaneous shells, while mother of pearl
 approaches in its nature to true bone.
   A curious phenomenon with  respect  to bones is the
 circumstance of their acquiring a red tinge, when mad-
 der is given to animals with their food.  The bones  of
 young pigeons will thus be tinged of a rose colour in
 twenty-four hours, and of a deep scarlet in three days;
 but the bones of adult animals will be a fortnight  in
 acquiring a rose colour.  The bones most remote from
 the heart are the longest in acquiring this tinge.  Mr.
 Gibson informs us, that extract of logwood too, incon-
 siderable quantity,  will  tinge  the  bones of  young
 pigeons purple.  On desisting from the use of this food,
 however, the colouring matter is again taken up into
 the circulation, and carried off, the  bones regaining
 their natural hue in a  short time.  It was said  by Du
 Hamel,  that the  bones would  become coloured  and
 colourless  in concentric layers,  if an animal were fed
 alternately  one week with madder, and one week
 without; and hence he inferred, that the bones were
 formed in the same manner as the woody parts  of
 trees.  But he was mistaken  in the fact;  and indeed
 had it  been true, with the inference he naturally draws
 from it, the bones of animals must have been out of all
 proportion larger than they are at present.
  Bones are of extensive use  in the  arts.  In their
 natural state, or  dyed of various colours, they are
 made into handles  of knives and forks,  and numerous
 articles of  turnery.  We have  already  noticed the
 manufacture of volatile alkali from bones, the coal of
 which forms bone-black; or, if they be  afterward cal-
 cined to whiteness in the oiien air, they constitute the
 bone ashes of which cupels  are made,  and which,
 finely levigated, are used for cleaning articles of paste,
 and some other trinkets, by the name of burnt harts-
 horn.  The shavings of hartshorn, which is a species
 of  bone, afford an elegant jelly; and the shavings of
 other bones, of which those of the calf are the best, are
 often employed in their slead.
  On this principle, Mr. Proust  has recommended an
 economical  use of bones, particularly with a view  to
 improve the subsistence of the soldier.   He first chops
 them into small pieces, throws  them into a kettle of
 boiling water, and  lets them boil about a quarter of an
 hour.  When this has stood till it is cold, a quantity of
 fat, excellent for culinary purposes when fresh, and  at
 any time fit for making candles, may be taken off the
 liquor.   This, in  some instances, amounted  to an
eighth, and in others even to a fourth, of the weight of
the bones.  After this the bones may be ground, and
boiled  in eight or ten times their weight of water, of
which  that already used may form a part, till  about
half is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly will  be
obtained.  The boiler should not be of copper, as this
metal is easily dissolved by the jelly;  and the cover |
 should fit very tight, so that the heat may be greater
 than that of boiling water, but not equal to that of
 Papin's digester, which would give it an empyreuma.
 The bones of meat that have been boiled are nearly as
 productive as fresh bones;  but Dr. Young found those
 of meat that had been roasted afforded no jelly, at least
 by simmering, or gentle boiling.
   Bones, growth of.  See Osteogeny.
   BONEBINDER.  See Osteocolla.
   [Boneset.  Thoroughwort  Eupatorium  perfolia
 turn.  This is an indigenous vegetable, growing in wet
 meadows throughout the United States.  The whole
 plant is medicinal, but the leaves and flowers are most
 active.  See Eupatorium perfoliatum.  A.]
   BONET, Theophilus, was bom at Geneva in 1620,
 and graduated at Bologna.  He had considerable prac
 tice, and was extremely zealous in the pursuit of mor
 bid  anatomy, as well as in extracting valuable obser-
 vations from authors.   His hearing becoming impaired,
 he devoted the latter part of his life to the arrangement
 of the materials which he had prepared.   His princi-
 pal  work,  entitled  " Sepulchretum," published 1679,
 was highly approved: and laid the foundation of Mor-
 gagni's excellent treatise, " De Sedibus et Causis Mor-
 borum."  Another publication of his," Mercurius com-
 pilatitius," is an index of medical literature to the time
 of its  appearance, 1682. His death occurred seven
 years after.
   Bononie'nsis lapis.  The Bononian stone.  Called
 also phosphorus bononiensis, plwsphorus kircheri, the
 light carrier, or Bononian phosphorus.  As a medicine,
 Ihe stone is caustic and emetic.
   BONTIUS, James, was bom at  Leyden, where he
 studied medicine, and then went to practice in India.
 After his return, he wrote several valuable works on
 the diseases and practice of that country, as well as on
 Its natural  productions, animal  and vegetable.  The
 most esteemed is  entitled " De Medicina Indorum,"
 and  appeared in 1642.
   BO'NUS.  Good.  A term applied to plants, and
 remedies from their supposed efficacy.
   Bonus henricus.  (Henricus; so called,  because
 its virtues were detected by some one whose name
 was Henry.) See Che.nopodium bonus Henricus.
   BONY.  Osseus.  Of, or belonging to, or resembling
 bone.
   BORACIC ACID.  Acidum boracicum.   Sedative
 salt  of Homberg.   Acid of Borax.  Boracine  acid.
 "The  salt composed of this acid and soda had long
 been used  both in  medicine  and the arts under the
 name of borax, when  Homberg first obtained the acid
 separate in  1702, by distilling a mixture of borax and
 sulphate of iron.  He supposed, however, that it was
 a product of the latter; and gave it the name of vola-
 tile narcotic salt of vitriol, or sedative salt.  Lemery
 the younger, soon after discovered that it could be ob-
 tained from borax  equally  by means of the nitric or
 muriatic acid;  Geoffroy detected soda in borax: and
 at length Baron proved, by a number of experiments,
 that borax is a compound of soda and a peculiar acid.
 Cadet  has  disputed this; but he has merely shown,
 that the borax of the shops is frequently contaminated
 with copper; and Struve and Exchaquet have endea-
 voured to prove that the boracic and phosphoric acids
 are the same; yet their experiments only show, that
 they resemble each other in certain respects, not in all.
  To procure the  acid, dissolve borax in  hot  water,
 and filter the solution, then add sulphuric acid by little
 and little, till the liquid has a sensibly acid taste. Lay
 it  aside to cool, and a great number of small shining
 laminated crystals will form.  These  are the boracic
 acid.  They are to  be washed with  cold watei^ and
 drained upon brown paper.
  Boracic acid  thus procured is in the form of thin
 irregular hexagonal  scales, of  a silvery whiteness,
 having some resemblance to spermaceti, and the same
 kind of greasy feel.  It has a sourish taste at first, then
 makes  a bitterish cooling impression, and at last leaves
 an agreeable sweetness. Pressed between the teeth,
 it  is  not brittle but ductile.  It has no smell; but,
 when sulphuric acid is poured on it, a transient odoui
of musk is produced.  Its specific gravity in the form
of scales is 1.479 ; after it has been fused, 1.803.  It is
not altered by light.   Exposed to the fire it swells up,
from losing  its water of crystallization, and in this
state is called calcined boracic acid.  It melts a little
before  it is  red-hot, without  perceptibly  losing any 
                      BOB
                i
water, but it does not flow freely till it is red, and then
less than the borate of soda.   After this fusion it is
a hard transparent glass, becoming a little opaque on
exposure to the air, without abstracting moisture from
it, and unaltered in its properties, for  on being dis-
solved in boiling water it crystallizes as before.  This
glass is used in the composition of false gems.
  Boiling water scarcely  dissolves one-fiftieth part,
and cold water much less.  When this solution is dis-
tilled  in close vessels, part of the acid rises with the
water, and crystallizes in the receiver. It is more solu-
ble in alkohol, and alkohol containing it burns with a
green flame, as  does paper  dipped in  a  solution of
boracic acid.
  Neither oxygen gas, nor the simple combustibles,
nor the common metals, produce any change upon
boracic acid, as far  as   is  at present known.  If
mixed with  finely powdered charcoal, it is neverthe-
less capable of vitrification; and with soot it melts into
a black bitumen-like mass, which however is  soluble
in water, and cannot easily be burned to ashes, but sub-
limes  in part  With the assistance of a distilling heat
it dissolves in oils, especially mineral oils; and with
these  it yields fluid and solid products, which impart
a green colour to spirit of  wine.  When rubbed with
phosphorus it does  not  prevent its inflammation, but
an earthy yellow matter is left behind.   It is hardly-
capable of oxiding or dissolving any of the metals ex-
cept iron  and zinc, and perhaps copper;  but  it com-
bines  with most of the metallic oxides, as  it does with
the alkalies, and probably with all  the earths,  though
the greater  part of  its combinations have hitherto
been  little examined.  It is of great use in analyzing
stones that contain a fixed  alkali.
  Crystallized boracic acid is a compound of 57 parts
of acid and 43 of water.  The honour of discovering
the radical of boracic acid, is divided between Sir H.
Davy  and  Gay Lussac  and  Thenard.  The first,  on
applying his powerful voltaic battery to it, obtained a
chocolate-coloured body in small quantity; but the two
latter chemists, by  acting on  it with  potassium  in
equal quantities, at a low red-heat, formed boron and
sub-borate of potass.  For a  small experiment, a glass
tube will serve, but on a greater scale a copper tube is
to be preferred.   The potassium and boracic acid, per-
fectly dry, should he intimately mixed before exposing
them  to heat  On withdrawing the tube from the fire,
allowing it  to cool, and  removing the  cork which
loosely closed its mouth, we then pour successive por-
tions of water into  it, till  we detach or  dissolve the
whole matter.  The water ought to be heated  each
time.   The whole collected liquids are allowed to set-
tle ; when, after washing the precipitate till the liquid
ceases to affect syrup of violets, we dry the boron in a
capsule, and then put it into  a phial out of contact of
air.  Boron is solid,  tasteless, inodorous, and  of a
greenish-brown colour.  Its specific gravity is some-
what  greater than water. The prime  equivalent of
boracic acid has been inferred from the  borate of am-
monia, to be about 2.7 or 2.8; oxygen being 1.0; and
it  probably consists of 2.0 of oxygen -f- 0.8 of boron.
But by Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard,  the  proportions
would be 2 of boron to 1 of oxygen.
  The boracic acid has a more powerful attraction for
lime than for any other of the bases, though it does not
readily form borate of lime by adding a solution of it
to lime water, or decomposing by lime water the solu-
ble alkaline borates.  In either case an insipid white
powder, nearly insoluble, which is the borate of lime,
is, however, precipitated.  The borate  of barytes is
likewise an insoluble, tasteless,  white powder.
  Bergman has observed,  that magnesia, thrown  by
little and little into a solution  of boracic acid, dissolved
slowly, and the liquor on evaporation afforded granu-
lated  crystals, without any  regular form: that these
crystals were fusible in the fire without being decom-
posed ; but that alkohol was  sufficient to separate the
boracic acid  from  the magnesia.  If, however, some
of the soluble magnesian salts be decomposed by alka-
line borates in a state of solution, an insipid and inso-
luble borate of magnesia is thrown down.  It is pro-
bable, therefore, that Bergman's salt was  a borate of
magnesia  dissolved in  an  excess of boracic acid;
which acid being taken up  by the  alkohol, the true
borate of magnesia was precipitated in  a  white pow-
der, and mistaken by him for magnesia.
  One of the best known combinations of this acid is
      144
                      BOR

 the native magntsio-calcareous  borate of Kalkbeig,
 near Lunenburg; the wurfelstein of the Germans,
 cubic quartz of various mineralogists, and boracite ot
 Kirwan.
   The borate of potassa is but little known, though it
 is said to be capable of supplying the place of that of
 soda in the  arts; but more direct experiments are
 required to establish this effect.  Like that, it is capa-
 ble of existing in two states, neutral and with excess
 of base, but it is not so crystallizable, and assumes the
 form of parallelobipeds.
   With soda the boracic  acid forms two different salts.
 One, in which the alkali  is more than triple the quan-
 tity necessary to saturate the acid, is of considerable
 use in the arts, and has long been known by the name
 of borax; under which  its history and an account of
 its properties will be given.  The .other is a  neutral
 salt, not changing the syrup of violets  green like the
 borate with excess of base; differing  from it in  taste
 and solubility; crystallizing neither so readily, nor in
 the same manner;  not efflorescent  like it; but, like it,
 fusible  into a glass, and capable of being employed
 for the  same purposes.  This salt  may be formed by
 saturating the superabundant soda in borax with some
 other acid, and then separating the two salts; but it is
 obviously  more eligible to saturate the  excess of soda
 with an additional portion of the boracic acid itself.
  Borate of ammonia forms in small rhomboid al crys-
 tals, easily decomposed by fire;  or in scales, of a pun-
 gent urinous  taste, which lose  the crystalline form,
 and grow brown on exposure to the air.
  It is very difficult to combine the boracic acid with
 alumina, at least in the direct way.
  The  boracic acid  unites  with silex  by fusion, and
 forms with it a solid and  permanent vitreous com-
 pound.  This borate  of silex, however, is neither sa-
 pid, nor soluble,  nor  perceptibly alterable in the air;
 and cannot be formed without the assistance of a vio-
 lent heat.  In the same manner, triple compounds may
 be formed with  silex and borates already  saturated
 with other bases.
  The boracic acid has  been found in a disengaged
state in several lakes of hot mineral waters near Monte
Rotondo, Berchiaio, and  Caslellonuovo, in  Tuscany,
 in the proportion of nearly nine grains in a hundred of
water, by Hoeffer.  Mascagni also found it adhering
 to schistus, on the borders of lakes, of an obscure
 white, yellow, or greenish colour,  and  crystallized in
 the form of needles.   He has likewise found it in
combination with ammonia.
  BORACITE.  Borate of magnesia.  A crystallized
 mineral found in  gypsum in the Kalberg, in Bruns-
 wick, and at  Segeberg, in Holland.  It  is translucent,
 and of a shining greasy lustre, yellowish, grayish, or
of  a  greenish-white  colour.  Vauquelin's Analysis
gives 33.4 boracic acid, and 16.6 magnesia.
  BORAGE.  See Borago.
  BORA'GO.  (Formerly written Cor ago; from cor,
the heart, and ago, to affect; because it was supposed
to comfort  the heart and spirits.)   Borage.  1.  The
name of a genus of plants in  the Linnsean system.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the officinal borage.
See Borago officinalis.
  Borago officinalis.   The systematic name for the
borage of  the shops.  Corrago; Buglossum verum;
Buglossum latifolium; Borago  hortensis. The leaves
and  flowers of  this plant, Borage—foliis omnibus
alternis, calycibus patentibus of Linnaeus, are esteemed
in some countries as refrigerant and cordial.  A syrup
is  prepared from the leaves in France, and  used in
pleurisies  and inflammatory fevers.  Their principal
use in this island is in that grateful summer beverage,
known by the name of cool tankard.
  BORAS.  See Borate.
  Boras sodje.  Borate of soda.  See Borax.
  BO'RATE.  Boras.  A salt formed of boracic acid
with an earth'-, alkaline, or metallic base; as  borate
9f soda, &.c.
  BO'RAX.  (Borak, Arabian.)  Boras  soda; Sub-
boras soda.  The obsolete synonyms are, Chrysocolla;
Capistrum  auri;  Ancinar; Borax-trion ; Accstis
anucar; Antincar;  Tincal; Amphitane; Baurach ;
Nitrum factitivm; Santerna, and Nitrum nativum.
" It does not appear that borax was  known  to the
ancients; their chrysocolla being a very different  sub-
stance, composed of the rust of copper, triturated with 
BOT
BOT
 urine.  The word borax occurs for the first  time in
 tho works of Geber.
   Borax is found in the East, and likewise in South
 America.
   The purification of borax by the Venetians  and the
 Hollanders, was, for a long time, kept secret.  Chaptal
 finds, after trying all the processes in  the large way,
 that the simplest method consists in boiling the borax
 strongly, and for a long time, with water.  This solu-
 tion being filtered, affords  by evaporation crystals,
 which  are somewhat foul, but may be purified by re-
 peating the operation.
   Purified borax is white, transparent, rather greasy
 In its fracture, affecting the form of six-sided  prisms,
 terminating in three-sided or six-sided pyramids. Its
 taste is styptic; it converts syrup of violets to a green;
 and when exposed to heat, it swells up, boils, loses its
 water  of crystallization, and becomes  converted  into
 a porous, white, opaque mass, commonly called Cal-
 cined Borax.  A stronger heat brings it into  a state
 of quiet fusion; but the glassy substance thus afforded,
 which  is transparent, and of a greenish yellow colour,
 is soluble in water, and effloresces in the air.  It requires
 about eighteen times its weight of water to dissolve it
 at the temperature of sixty degrees of Fahrenheit; but
 water  at the boiling heat dissolves three  times this
 quantity.  Its component parts, according to Kirwan,
 are, boracic acid 34, soda 17, water 47.
   Borax is rarely used internally  in modem practice;
 and, according to Murray, it does not appear to  possess
 any activity, although it is supposed  by some to be, in
 doses of half a drachm or two scruples, diuretic  and
 cmmenagogue.  It is occasionally given in cardialgia
 as an  antacid.  Its solution is in common use as  a
 cooling gargle,  and to detach mucus,  &c.  from the
 moutb in putrid fever; and mixed with an equal quan-
 tity of sugar, it is used in the foriri of powder to remove
 the aphthous crust from the tongue in children.  The
 salts formed  by the union of the acid  of borax with
 different bases are called borates.
   BORBORY'GMUS.  (From  BopSopvfa, to make a
 noise.)   The rumbling noise occasioned by flatus in
 the intestines.  It frequently precedes hysterical affec-
 tions.  Dr. Good gives this name to that variety of his
 Limotis flatus, which is known by frequent rumbling
 of the bowels.
   BORDEU,  Theophilus de, a French physician,
 born in 1722.  He graduated at Montpelier, and was
 soon after appointed inspector of the mineral  waters
 at Bareges, and professor of anatomy.  Subsequently,
 he went  to Paris, and was  admitted  to the faculty
 there in 1754.  He died of apoplexy in his 55th year.
 His most esteemed work is on the cellular membrane ;
 his distinctions of the pulse appear too nice for prac-
 tical utility.
  BORELLI, John Alphonsus, was born at Castel-
 nuovo,  in 1608.  He first taught  the mathematics i.i
 Sicily, then as professor at Pisa ; and being soon after
 admitted  to the celebrated academy del Cimento, he
 formed  the design of explaining the functions of ani-
 mal bodies, on mathematical principles.  For this pur-
 pose he applied himself diligently to dissection.  His
 grand work, " De  Motu Animalium," was  published
 after his death, which happened in 1679, at the expense
 of Christina, queen of Sweden.  The imposing appear-
 ance of his opinions gained  them many converts at
 first, but they have been found very defective on ina-
 turer examination.   He  was author of many other
 publications on different subjects.
  BORON.   The  combustible basis  of boracic acid.
 See  Boracic acid.
  Boro'zail.  An Ethiopian word for an epidemic
 disease, in appearance similar to the lues venerea.
  Borra'go.  See Borago.
  Bo'rri.  (Indian.)  Borri-borri.  Boberri.   The
 Indian  name  for turmeric;  also  an  ointment used
 there, in which the roots  of turmeric are a chief in-
 gredient.
  Bota'le foramen.  A name formerly applied to
 the foramen ovale ofthe heart.
  BOTALLUS, Leonard, an eminent  physician of
Piedmont, flourished about the middle ofthe 16th cen-
tury.  He graduated at  Padua;  and  attained con-
siderable reputation, as well in surgery as in medicine;
having  the honour of attending  two of the French
kings, and the Prince of Orange;  the latter of whom
b« cured of a wourikl, in which the carotid artery had I
                                         V
 been  injured.   He  published a treatise on gun-shol
 wounds, which long remained in high estimation.  But
 that which chiefly gained him celebrity, was a work
 on bleeding, general and local, which he recommended
 to be freely practised in a great variety of diseases,
 both acute and chronic.  His opinions  were adopted
 by many,  and  carried to an extravagant length, par-
 ticularly in France; but more enlarged experience has
 tended greatly  to lessen their prevalence.
   Botanicon. (From Boravn, an herb.)  A plaster
 made of herbs, and described by Paulus .jEgineta.
   BOTANIST.  Botanieus.  One who understands
 the nature, history, and distinction of vegetables, on
 settled and certain principles, and can call every plant
 by a distinct, proper, and intelligible name.
   BOTANY.   (Bptanica.  BolaviKn;  from Bo'lavn,
 an herb or grass, which is derived from Booi, or (iooKto,
 to feed, because grass is the chief food of the animals
 which are most useful to man.)   That branch of
 natural history which relates to the vegetable kingdom,
 the second of  the three grand assemblages into which
 all terrestrial objects are divided.  It is a science  not
 confined to the description and classification of plants,
 as has often  been  represented, but it comprehends
 many other important particulars.  Its various objects
 may be conveniently arranged  under the following
 general heads:—
   1. The terminology, or description and nomenclature
 of the several  parts of a plant, which are  externally
 visible.
   If all natural objects were  simple in their form, it
 would not be easy to distinguish one  from another,
 nor would it be possible to describe them so as to give
 a clear and precise idea of them.  Hence a boundless
 variety, connected with general resemblances, is wisely
 and  benevolently made  their universal  character
 Every plant is  composed of several parts, which differ
 from each other in their  outward appearance, and
 which cannot fail to strike the most careless spectator.
 Many of them  also are themselves compound, and  are
 obviously capable of being divided into subordinate
 parts.
   2. The classification or arrangement.   A knowledge
 of the different parts of a plant must necessarily be
 gained before it is described.  But  amidst the  nume-
 rous vegetable  productions of even a single country,
 this of itself would avail but little.  To give a peculiar
 name to every individual would be a labour which no
 invention or diligence can perform; and, if performed,
 would produce a burden which no memory can sustain.
 It is necessary, therefore, to pursue resemblances and
 differences through  a number of gradations, and to
 found on them primary and subordinate  divisions,
 either ascending from  particulars to  generals,  or de-
 scending from generals to particulars.  The  former is
 the method in which  science of every kind  is slowly
 formed and extended; the latter that in which it is
 most easily taught.  The number  of stages through
 which these subdivisions should be carried is either
 not pointed out by nature, or enough of nature  is not
 known to fix them with precision.  They differ, there-
 fore, in different systems; and, unfortunately, corres-
 ponding ones have not always been called by the same
 names.
  3. The synonymes of plants, or the names by which
 they are distinguished  in the writings  of  professed
 botanists and  others, from  the earliest  times to the
 present.
  4. The sensible qualities of plants, or the different
 manner in  which they severally affect the organs  of
 sight, smell, taste, and touch.
  5. The anatomy  of plants, or description of the
 different visible parts of which their substance  is
 composed.
  6. The physiology of plants. A plant, like an ani-
 mal, is a very  compound, organized, living being, in
 which various operations, both chemical and mecha-
 nical, are continually carrying on, from its  first pro
duction to its final dissolution.  It springs from a seed
fertilized by the pollen of its parent plant. It takes in
foreign substances by Its inhaling and absorbent vessels.
 It elaborates and assimilates  to its  own substance
those parts of them that are nutritious, and throws off
the rest.  It secretes a variety of fluids by the means
of glands, and other unknown organs.  It gives that
motion to its sap on which a continuance of its life
depends. 
bOT
BOU
  7. Thepurposes to which different plants are applied,
either as articles of  food, ingredients in the composi-
tion of medicine, or materials and  instruments in the
useful and elegant arts;  the soil and situation in which
they are  generally found, and which are most favour-
able to their growth, the time of year  in which they
open their  flowers,  and  ripen their fruit, with many
othei incidental particulars, are properly within the
province of the botanist.  But as a botanist he is con-
cerned with nothing more than the simple facts.  The
first methods of cultivating such as are raised in con-
siderable quantities for the special use or amusement of
man; the theory of their nutritious or  medicinal pro-
perties ; and the manner in which they are to  be pre-
pared, so as to effect the intended  purposes; are the
province either of  the  gardener, farmer, physician,
chemist,  or the  artist.
  8. The history of botany.
  BOTANY BAY.  An English settlement in New
Holland, so called  because it afforded  the  botanist
numerous plants.  A yellow resin  goes  by the name
of Botany Bay gum, which exudes spontaneously from
the trunk of the tree called Acarois  resinifera, and
also from the wounded bark.  All the information
that has been hitherto collected respecting the history
of the yellow gum is the following:—The plant that
produces it is low and small, with long grassy leaves;
but the fructification of it shoots  out in a singular
manner  from the centre of ihe leaves, on a single
straight stem, to the height of twelve or fourteen feet.
Of this stem, which is strong and light, like some of
the reed  class, the natives usually make  their  spears.
The resin is generally dug up out of the soil under the
tree, not  collected from  it, and may, perhaps, be that
which Tasman  calls " gum lac of the  ground." Mr.
Boles, surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn, gives a somewhat
different  account; and  as this gentleman appears to
have paid  considerable  attention to the subject, his
account may certainly be relied  upon.  After describ-
ing the tree in precisely  the same manner as above,
he observes, that at the top of the  trunk of the tree,
long grassy leaves  grow in great  abundance.  The
gum is found under these leaves  in considerable quan-
tities : it  commonly  exudes in round tears, or drops,
from the size of a large pea to that of a marble, and
sometimes  much larger.  These are,  by the heat of
the sun, frequently so much softened, that they fall on
the ground, and in this soft state adhere to whatever
they fall upon: hence  the gum is frequently  found
mixed with dirt, wood, the bark  of the  tree, and vari-
ous other substances; so that one lump has been seen
composed of many small pure pieces of various sizes,
united together, which weighed nearly half a hundred-
weight.  It is produced in such  abundance, that one
man may collect thirty or forty pounds  in the space of
a few hours. The convicts have another method of
collecting it; they dig  round the tree, and break off
pieces of the roots, which always have some, and fre-
quently considerable quantities of the  gum in them.
This gum appears nearly, but not  entirely, the same
as that which exudes from the trunk of the tree;  the
former is often mixed with a strong-smelling resinous
substance of a  black nature, and is so interwoven in
the wood itself, that it  is with difficulty separated.
The latter appears a pure, unmixed, resinous substance.
  Several experiments  have been  made, principally
with the view of determining what  menstruum would
dissolve the gum the most readily, and  in the greatest
quantity, from which it appears alkohol and aether
dissolve the most.
  The aiseases in which this resin is administered are
those tfe  the primas viae, and principally such as arise
from spasm, a debility, a loss of  tone, or a diminished
action in the muscular fibres of the stomach and bow-
els, such  as loss of appetite, sickness, vomiting, flatu-
lency,  heart-burn,  pains in the  stomach, Sec. when
they were really idiopathic complaints, and  not  de-
pendent upon any disease in the stomach, or affections
of other  parts of the body communicated to  the sto-
mach.   In  debilities and  relaxations  of the bowels,
and the symptoms from  thence arising, such as purg-
ing and flatulency, it has been found of good effect. In
certain cases of diarrhoea,  however,  (and it seemed
those in which  an unusual degree of irritability pre-
vailod) it did not answer so well, unless given in small
doses, and combined with opiates, when the  patient
seemed to gain greater advantage than when, opiates
      116
 only were had recourse to.  In cases of amenorrheas.
 depending on (what most of those cases do depend
 upon) a sluggishness, a debility, and flaccidity of the
 system, this medicine, when assisted by proper exer-
 cise and diet, has, by removing the symptoms of dys-
 pepsia, and by  restoring the tone and  action of the
 muscular fibres, been  found very serviceable.  Thir
 medicine does not, in the dose of about half a drachm.
 appear to possess any  remarkably sensible operation'
 It neither vomits, purges, nor binds the belly, nor doe»
 it materially increase the secretion of urine or perspira-
 tion.   It has, indeed, sometimes  been said to purge
 and at others to occasion sweating; but they are  not
 constant effects, and, when they do occur, it generally
 depends on some accidental circumstance.  It should
 seem  to possess, in  a very extensive degree, the pro-
 perty of  allaying morbid irritability, and of restoring
 tone,  strength, and action, to the debilitated and relax-
 ed fibre.  When the  gum  itself is given, it should
 always be the pure unmixed part;  if given in the form
 of a draught, it should  be mixed in water with inuci
 lage of gum-arabic;  if made into pills, a small portion
 of Castile soap maybe employed;  it was found  thf
 lixiv.  sapon. dissolved  it entirely.  It is commonly,
 however, made into a tincture by mixing equal  parti
 of the gum  and rectified  spirit; one drachm of this
 tincture,  (containing half a drachm of the pure giun)
 made into a draught with water and  syrup, by  ihe
 assistance of fifteen grains of gum-arabic in mucilage
 forms an elegant medicine, and at the same time very
 palatable. It soon solidifies by the sun, into pieces of
 a yellow colour of various sizes.  It pulverizes easily
 without caking ;  nor does it adhere to the teeth when
 chewed.  It has a slightly sweet astringent taste.  It
 melts  at  a moderate heat.  When  kindled, it emits a
 white fragrant smoke.  It is insoluble  in water, but
 imparts to it the flavour of storax.   Out of nine parts,
six are soluble in water, and astringent to the taste;
 and two parts are woody fibre.
  Bo'tiirion.  (From BoBpiov, a little pit.)  Botrium
I.  The socket for the tooth.
  2. An ulceration of the cornea.
  Botri'tis.  (From jSorpuj, a bunch of grapes.)  Bo-
tryites.  A sort of burnt cadmia, collected in the top
ofthe furnace, and resembling a bunch of grapes.
  BOTRYOLITE.  A brittle and moderately  hard
 mineral, which occurs in mamillary concretions of a
 pearly or grayish-white colour, composed of silica, bo-
 racic acid, lime,  oxide of iron and water.  It comes
 from Norway.
  BOTRYS.  (Bo7pus, a cluster of grapes: so called
because its seeds hang down like a buuch of grapesv
The oak of Jerusalem.
  BoTRys  mexicana.    See  Chenopodium ambro
sioides.
  Botrys vulgaris.  See Chenopodium botrys.
  Bouba'lios.  See Momordica Elaterium, and Pu
 dendum muliebre.
   Bou'bon.  See Bubo.
  BOUGIE.   (French for  wax  candle.)  Candeh
cerea; Candela medicala;  Cathetercs of Swediaur
 Oerei  medicati of Le Dran;  Cereolus Chirurgorum
 A  term applied  by surgeons to a long, slender instru
 ment, that is  introduced through the urethra into th«
 bladder.  Bougies made of the elastic gum are prefeia
 ble to those made of wax.  The caustic bougie diffen
 from the ordinary one in having a thin roll of caustii
 in its  middle, which destroys the stricture, or any par*
 it comes in contact with.  Those made  of catgut are
 very seldom used, but are deserving of  the attention
 of the surgeon.  Bougies are chiefly used to overcome
 strictures in the urethra, and the introduction i f them
 requires  a good  deal of address and caution. They
 should not be kept in the urethra so long at one time
 as to excite much pain or irritation.  Before their use
 is  discontinued, they should, if practicable, be carried
 the length of the  bladder, in order to ascertain the ex-
 tent of the strictures, taking care that this be performed
 not at once,but in agradual manner, and after repeat
 ed trials, for much injury might arise from any hasty
 or violent efforts to remove the resistance that  ma;
 present itself. There are  bougies also for the oesopha-
 gus and rectum.
   BOU'LIMUS.  (From Bov, greatly, and Aijioj, hun-
 g*r ; or from BovXouat, to desire.)   A c&uine or vora-
 cious appetite.
   ^"URNONITE.  An antimonial sulphuretaf lead 
BOY
BOY
  Bovey coal.  Of a brownish-black colour and lamel-
lar  texture,  formed of wood, penetrated  with petro-
leum or bitumen, and  found in England,  France,
Italy, &c.
  Bovi'llje. (From bos, an ox, because cattle were I
supposed subject to it.)  The measles.
  Bovi'na fames.  The same as bulimia.
  Bovi'sta.  See Lycoperdon.
  [BOWEN, Pardon, M.D.  This accomplished phy-
sician and  excellent man was born in  Providence,
Rhode Island, 2id of March, in the year 1757.
  The incidents of Dr. Bowen's early life, we have been
unable to collect with sufficient accuracy to warrant us
in committing them to the pages of an authentic memoir.
  During the prevalence of the yellow fever in Provi-
dence, when dejection and dismay sat upon  many a
brow, and the sense of personal danger threatened to
absorb the sympathies of our common  nature,  and
death mocked at the expedients of human science to
avert his blow,  Dr. Bowen shrunk not from the perils
in his way.  More than once was his life endangered
by an attack of that fearful malady, but God preserved
him from thus becoming a victim to his  noble intre-
pidity in the service of humauity.
  Dr. Bowen confined his attention  to no particular
department of his profession, but aimed at excellence
in all.  For  his  skill in operative surg<_ry he was highly
respected, and during many years most of the surgical
operations, in and around Providence, were performed
by him.  In medical surgery he was thought extremely
judicious; and his uncommon science, experience, and
success in obstetrics, left him without a superior in that
difficult branch of his profession.
  Dr. Bowen contributed occasionally to  the  medical
journals  of  the day;  and in the fourth volume of
Hosack and  Francis's Medical and Philosophical Re-
gister may be found an elaborate account from his pen
ofthe yellow fever, as it prevailed in Providence in the
year 1805.   He died in October 1826, aged 69 years.
His life, iu all its stages, was a beautiful exhibition of
the virtues, and at its close, an example of Christian
holiness.—SeeThach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  BOX-TREE.  See Buxus.
  BOYLE'S FUMING LIQ.UOR.  The hydroguret-
ted sulphuret of ammonia.
  [BO YLSTON, Dr. Zabdiel, was born in Massachu-
setts in 1680, and was the eldest son of an English phy-
sician of the same  name, one of the early settlers of
that  province  under  the British government.   Dr.
Boylston is represented as a skilful  physician,  bold,
persevering, courageous and benevolent.   " In the year
1721 the small pox appeared in Boston, and pursued its
usual desolating career, carrying with it the utmost
terror and confusion.   On this alarming occasion Dr.
Cotton Mather, the learned and distinguished divine,
communicated  to Dr. Boylston  a publication in the
Transactions of the Royal Society,  announcing the
discovery of a new method of mitigating the virulence
of this fatal disease.  Dr. Boylston was  forcibly im-
pressed with the benefit of the discovery, and  accord-
ingly after deliberating on the most safe and expeditious
mode of thus artificially introducing  the  disease into
the system, he communicated to the medical gentlemen
in  Boston the  plan he proposed to  adopt, and the
source whence he derived the first hints of the ope-
ration, desiring their concurrence in the undertaking."
In this measure he was opposed by the physicians and
clergy, some of whom denounced him from the pulpit;
and the inhabitants became  enraged, and were ex-
cited to commit atrocious acts of outrage on the  per-
Eon  of Dr. Boylston, extending their rancour even to
his family.
  "Undismayed, however, by all this violence, and
unsupported by the friendship of any but Dr. Mather,
he commenced, on the 27th June 1721, while the small-
pox was in  its  most destructive progress through the
town, this untried  experiment of inoculation on his
own  son, a  child of thirteen years  of age, and  two
blacks in his family, one of thirty-six, and the other of
two years of age, and on  all with complete success.
This rekindled  the fury of the populace, and induced
the authorities of the town to summon  hirr before
them to answer for his practice. He underwent re-
peated examinations;  and although he invited all the
practitioners in Boston to visit his patients and judge
for  themselves,  he received only insults and threats in
reply  The facts we have thought worthy of notice,
as remarkable in themselves, and  as  in some degreo
characteristic of the excitable spirit of the times.  In
thus encountering obloquy and reproach, however, Dr.
Boylston but experienced the lbrtune of most of those
who have attempted to innovate on  long established
usages, or to take the lead in the career of public im-
provement.  The small-pox ceased its ravages in May
1722;  and during its prevalence Dr. Boylston con-
tinued the practice of inoculation to all who could be
induced to submit to it.   He  inoculated with his own
hand two hundred and forty-seven of  both sexes from
nine months to sixty-seven years of age in Boston and
in the neighbouring towns; thirty-nine were inocu-
lated by other physicians, after the tumult had in some
measure subsided, making in the whole two hundred
and eighty-six, of whom only six died ; and of these,
three were supposed to have taken the disease the na-
tural way, some days previous to their being inocu-
lated ; three of those who died were his oldest patients.
It appears, by the account published by the select men,
that during the same period five thousand seven hun-
dred and fifty-nine had taken the  natural small-pox,
eight hundred and forty-four of whom fell victims to
the disease, being more than one in six. In the vicinity
of Boston it had been still more malignant and fatal.
The utility of the practice was now established with-
out dispute;  and its success  encouraged its more gene-
ral practice in England, in which country it had been
tried upon but few persons, most of whom were con-
demned convicts and charity children.  The daughter
of Lady Mary W. Montague was inoculated in Lon-
don, in April 1721, being the first instance in Euiope,
and the convicts were made the subjects of the experi-
ment in August of the same year.   Dr. Boylston there-
fore is justly entitled to the honour of being the first
inoculator in America ;  and this, even before the single
instance of the experiment in Europe had come to his
knowledge.
  Dr. Boylston, during his unjust persecution, held a
correspondence with Sir Hans Sloane, of London, the
court physician; who, being apprised of his very emi-
nent services  in first  introducing inoculation  into
America, honoured  him with  an invitation to visit
London. He accordingly embarked for that city, and
on his arrival was greeted with the most cordial affec-
tion and respect  He was  elected a  member of the
Royal Society, the first American, we believe, ever
admitted to that honour.  He was moreover honoured
by being introduced to the royal family, and received
the most flattering attentions and friendship of some
of the most distinguished characters of the nation.
After his return to  his native country, Dr. Boylston
continued at the head of his  profession, and engaged in
literary  pursuits, making many ingenious and useful
communications to the Royal Society,  and correspond-
ing with his numerous friends, among whom he used
to mention with great respect and affection  the Rev.
Dr. Watts, who appears by his letters to have been a
warm advocate for inoculation.
  Dr. Boylston possessed a strong and reflecting mind
and acute discernment.  His character through life
was one of unimpeached integrity.  He was charitable
in his opinions of others, patient  under the severest
persecution, and forgiving  of his bitterest  enemies.
These qualities, added to the natural ease and suavity
of his manners, which had  been improved by inter-
course with  the world, caused his  society to be much
sought, and to his family and his friends rendered him
a most  interesting and instructive cdtnpanion.  His
health  was  often interrupted  by severe attacks of
asthma, to which he was  subject for the last forty
years of his life.  He met death with calmness and
perfect resignation in the eighty-seventh year of his
age, saying to his friends,' my work  in this world is
dene, and my hopes of  futurity are brightening.' He
was buried in the family tomb at Brooklyn, on which is
inscribed the following appropriate and just language:
1 Sacred to the memory of Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, Esq.,
physician  and F.R.S., who first introduced the prac-
tice of inoculation into America.  Through a life of
extensive  benevolence, he   was always  faithful to
his word, just  in his dealings, affable in his man-
ners; and after a long sickness, in which he was ex-
emplary for his patience and resignation to his Maker,
he quitted this  mortal life in a just expectation of a
happy immortality, March 1st, 1766'   His wife died a
few years before him."—See Thach- Mod, Biog.  A.] 
                     BRA

   Brache'rium.  (From brachiale, a bracelet.)  A
 truss or bandage for hernia; a term  used by the bar-
 barous Latin writers.
   BRACHLE'US.  Brachial; belonging  to the aim,
   BrachijBUS externus.   See   Triceps  extensor
 cubiti.
   Brackijeus internus.  See Brachialus internus.
   Brachi.eus musculus. See Brachialis internus.
   BRACHIAL.  Brachialis.  Of or belonging to the
 arm.
   Brachial artery.  Arteria brachialis. The bra-
 chial artery is the continuation of the axillary artery,
 which, as it passes behind the tendon of the pectoralis
 major, receives the  name of brachial.  It runs down
 on the inside of  the arm, over the musculus coraco-
 brachialis,  and  anconeus internus, and along  the
 inner edge  of the biceps, behind the vena  basilica,
 giving out small branches as it goes along.  Below the
 bend ofthe arm it divides into the cubitalis and radia-
 lis.  Sometimes,  though rarely, the  brachial artery is
 divided from its origin into two large branches, which
 run down on the  arm, and afterward on the fore-arm,
 where they are called cubitalis and radialis.
  Brachia'le. The word means a bracelet; but the
 ancient anatomical writers apply this term to the car-
 pus, the part on which the bracelet was worn.
  BRACHIA'LIS.  See Brachial.
  Brachialis externus.   See'  Triceps  extensor
 cubiti.
  Brachialis  internus.  Brachiaus of Winslow.
 Brar.hieus internus  of  Cowper; and Humero-cubital
 of Dumas.  A muscle of the fore-arm, situated on the
 fore-part of the os humeri.  It arises fleshy from  the
 middle of the os humeri, at each side of the insertion
 of the deltoid  muscle,  covering all  the inferior and
 fore-part of this bone, runs over the joint, and adheres
 firmly to the ligament;  is inserted, by a strong  short
 tendon, into the coronoid process of the ulna.  Its use
 is  to bend  the fore-arm, and  to  prevent the capsular
 ligament of the joint from being pinched.
  BRACHIATUS.  Brachiate.  Applied to branches,
 panicles, Sec. spread in four directions, crossing each
 othei alternately  in pairs ; a common mode of growth
 in the branches of shrubs that have opposite leaves, as
 the lilac, syringa, &c.
  Bra'chii os.  See Humeri os.
  Brachio-cubital ligament. Ligamentumbrackio-
 cubitale.  The expansion of the  lateral ligament,
 which is fixed  in the inner condyle  of the os humeri,
 runs over the  capsular, to which it closely adheres,
 and is inserted like radii on the side of the great sig-
 moid cavity of the ulna  ; it is covered on the inside by
several tendons, which adhere closely to it, and seem
to strengthen it very  considerably.
  Brachio-radial ligament.  Ligamentumbrachio-
radiale.   The expansion of the lateral ligament, which
runs over the external condyle of the os humeri, is in-
serted round the coronary ligament  from thence  all
the way down  to  the neck of  the radius, and  also in
the neighbouring parts of the ulna.   Through all this
passage it covers  the capsular ligament, and is covered
by several tendons adhering closely to both.
  BRA'CHIUM.   (Bpaxiov,  the arm.)   The  arm,
from the shoulder to the wrist.
  Brachium  movens  quartus.   See  Latissimus
 dor si.
  Brachu'na.  According to  Avicenna, a species of
furor uterinus.
  Brachychro'nius.   (From  Bpax^s,  short,  and
xpovos, time.)  A disease which continues but a short
 time.
  Brachypnoe'a.  (From Bpaxvs, short, and vsvtto, to
 breathe.) Shortness and difficulty of breathing.
  Bra'chys.   (From (ipaxvs, short.)  A  muscle of
 the scapula.
  BRACTEA.  (Bractea, a thin leaf or plate of me-
tal.)   A floral  leaf.  One of the seven fulcra or props
of plants, according to Linnaeus. A bractea is a little
 leaf-like  appendage  to  some flowers, lying under or
 Interspersed in the  flower, but generally different in
 colour from the true leaves of the plant
 ■ 1. It is green in some; as in Ocymum basilicum
 majus.
  2.  Coloured  in  others; as in Salviahorminum,Sec.
  3.  In  some  it  is  caducous, falling off before  the
 flowers.
  4.  In others in remains; as in Tibia turopaa,
      148
                      BRA

   Coma bracteata is, when the flower-stem Is termi-
 nated with a  number of very large bracteas, resem ■
 bling a bush of hair.
   BRACTEAT^E.  (From bractea, here meaning a
 corolla.)  The name of a class of Boerhaave's method
 of plants, consisting of herbaceous vegetables, which
 have petals, and the seeds ~-f which are furnished with
 a single lobe or cotyledon.
   BRACTEATUS.   (From bractea,  a floral  leaf.)
 Having a floral leaf; as pcdunculus bracteatus.
   BRACTEIFORMIS   Resembling  a  bractea  or
 floral leaf.
   Bradype'psia,   (From Ppa&vs, slow, and tstnjto, to
 concoct.)  Weak digestion.
   Bra'ggat.  A name formerly applied to a ptisan of
 hon,ey and water.
   BRAIN.  See Cerebrum
   Brain, little.   See Cerebellum.
   BRAN.  Furfur.  The husks or  shells of  wheat,
 which remain in the bolting machine.  It contains a
 portion of the farinaceous matter, and  is said to have
 a laxative quality.  Decoctions  of  bran, sweetened
 with sugar, are used by the common people, and some-
 times with success, against coughs, hoarseness, &c.
   BRA'NCA.   (Branca, the Spanish  for a foot, or
 branch.)  A term applied to some herbs, which are
 supposed to resemble a  particular foot;  as branca
 leonis, lion's foot; branca ursina, bear's foot.
   Branca leonina.  See Alchemilla.
   Branca leonis.  See Alchemilla,
   Branca ursina.  See Acanthus and  Heracleum
   Bra'nch*. (From Bpcx^i to make moist)  Brancki.
 Swelled tonsils, or glandulous tumours, of the fauces,
 which secrete saliva.
   Bra'nchus. (FromjSpcxw, to moisten.) A defluxion
 of humours from the fauces.
   BRANDY.   Spiritus  Gallicus.    A  colourless,
 slightly opaque, and milky fluid, of  a  hot and pene-
 trating taste, and a strong and agreeable smell, ob-
 tained by distilling from wine.   It consists of water,
 ardent spirit, and a small portion of oil, which renders
 it milky at first, and,  after a certain time, colours  it
 yellow. It is the fluid from which rectified or ardent
 spirit is obtained.  Its peculiar flavour depends on the
 nature of the volatile principles, or essential oil, which
 come over along with it in the  distillation, and like-
 wise, in some measure, upon the management of the
 fire, the wood of the cask in which it is kept. Sec.  It
 is said, that our rectifiers imitate the flavour of brandy,
 by adding a small proportion of nitrous asther  to the
 spirit of malt, or molasses.  The utility of brandy is
 very considerable, but, from its pleasant taste and exhi-
 larating property, it is two often taken to excess.  It
 gives energy to "the animal functions; it is a powerful
 tonic, cordial, and  antispasmodic; and its utility with
 camphire, in gangrenous affections, is very great.
  BRANKS. The name in Scotland for the mumps
 See Cynanehe parotidaa.
  BRANKURSINE.  See Acanthus.
  Brasi'lia. Brazilwood.
  Brasiliense  lignum.  See Hamatoxylum campt
 chianum.
  Brasiliensis radix.   The  ipecacuanha root  is
sometimes so called.
  Bra'sium.  (From (3paaou>, to boil.)   Malt, or ger-
 minated barley.
   Bra sma.  (From Ppaaout, to boil.)   The unripe
black pepper. Fermentation.
  Bra'smos.  The same.
  BRASS.  JEs.  A combination of copper and zinc.
  Brassade'lla.   Brassatclla.  The Ophioglossum,
or herb, adder's tongue.
  BRA'SSICA.   (Varro says,  quasi presiea; from
praseco, to cutoff;  because it is cut from the stalk for
use ; or from zupaoia, a bed in a garden where they are
 cultivated, or from  Bpaoaii), to  devour, because it  is
 eagerly eaten by cattle.)  The name of a  genus of
 plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Tetradynamia;
 Order, Siliquosa.  Crambe. Cabbage.   Colewort
   Brassica alba.  The white cabbage.
   Brassica apiana.  Jagged or crimpled colewort.
   Brassica canina.   Mercurialis sylvestris.   See
 Mercurialis annua.
   Brassica capitata.   Cabbage.  There are several
 varieties of cabbage, all of which are  generally hard
 of digestion, producing flatulencies, and  afford very lit.
 tie nourishment  These inconveniences are not ex>>e 
BRE
BRE
rienced by those whose stomaclis are strong and accus-
tomed to them.  Few vegetables run into a state of
putrefaction so quickly as cabbages;  they ought, there-
fore, always to be used immediately after cutting.  In
Holland and Germany there is a method of preserving
them, by cutting them  into pieces, and sprinkling salt
and some  aromatic herbs among them; this mass is
put into a tub, where it is pressed close, and left to fer-
ment, when it is called sour crout, or sauer kraut.
These, and all pickles of cabbage, are  considered as
wholesome and antiscorbutic, from the vinegar and
spices they contain.
   Brassica congylodes.   Turnip cabbage.
   Brassica cumana.   Red colewort.
   Brassica eruca.   Brassica erucastrum.  Eruca
sylvestris.  The systematic name for the plant which
affords  the semen eruca:.   Garden  rocket.  Roman
rocket   Rocket gentle.   Brassica—foliis lyartis,
caule hirsuto siliquis glabris, of Linnaeus.  The seeds
of this plant, and of the wild rocket, have an  acrid
taste, and are eaten by the Italians in their pickles, &c.
They are said to be good aperients and antiscorbutics,
but are esteemed by the above-mentioned people for
their supposed aphrodisiac qualities.
   Brassica erucastrum.  See Brassica eruca.
   Brassica Florida.  The cauliflower.
   Brassica gonylicodes.  The turnip cabbage.
   Brassica lacuturria.  Brassica lacutums. The
Bavoy plant
   Brassica marina.   See Convolvulus soldanella.
   Brassica napus.   The systematic  name for  the
plant from  which the semen napi is obtained.  Napus
sylvestris.   Bunias.   Wild  navew, or rape.   The
seeds yield, upon expression, a large quantity of oil
called rape oil, which is sometimes  ordered in stimu-
lating liniments.
  Brassica oleracea.   The systematic name  for
the brassica capitata .of  the shops.   See Brassica
capitata.
   Brassica rapa. The systematic name for the plant
whose root is called turnip.  Rapum.  Rapus.  Napus.
Napus dulcis.  The turnip.  Turnips are accounted a
salubrious food, demulcent, detergent, somewhat laxa-
tive and diuretic, but liable, in weak stomaclis, to pro-
duce flatulencies, and prove difficult of digestion. The
liquor pressed out of them, after boiling, is sometimes
taken medicinally in coughs  and  disorders of  the
breast.  The seeds are occasionally taken as diuretics;
they have no smell, but a mild acrid taste.
   Brassica rubra.  Red cabbage.  A very excellent
test both for acids and alkalies in which it is superior
to  litmus,  being  naturally blue, turning  green  with
alkalies, and red with acids.
   Brassica sabauda.  The Savoy plant.
   Brassica sativa.  The common garden cabbage.
   Brasside'llica ars.  A way of curing wounds,
mentioned by Paracelsus, by applying the herb Brassi-
della to them.
   Bra'thu.  Bpflf?!!.  An old name for savine.
   BRAZIL WOOD.  See Cesalpina crista.
   ["Brazil  wood is the  produce of the  Casalpina
crista, growing in Brazil, in the Isle  of France,
Japan, and other countries.   The wood is hard and
heavy;  and though pale when recent, it  acquires a
deep red colour by exposure.   Digested in water, it
affords a fine red  infusion, of a sweetish flavour; the
residue, which appears nearly black, imparts much of
its colour to alkaline liquors.  With alkohol it gives a
deep red tincture: alkalies and soap convert its red
colour  to a fine  purple; hence,  paper tinged  with
Brazil wood is  sometimes used as a test for alkalies;
acids render it yellow: alum  produces a fine crimson
lake, with infusion  of Brazil wood: muriate of  tin
forms with  it a crimson precipitate, bordering on pur-
ple : the salts of iron give a dingy purple colour.  Sul-
phuretted hydrogen destroys the colour of infusion of
Brazil wood, but it reappears on expelling the gas."—
See Webster's Man. of Chem.   A.]
  BREAD.  Panis.   "Farinaceous vegetables  are
converted into meal by trituration, or grinding  in a
mill; and when the husk  or bran has been separated
by sifting or bolting, the powder is called flour.   This
is  conposed of a small quantity of mucilaginous sac-
charine matter, soluble in  cold  water;  much starch,
which is scarcely soluble in cold water, but combines
with that fluid by heat; and an adhesive gray  sub-
stance insoluble in water, alkohol, oil, or  aether, and
 resembling on animal substance in many of its pro-
 perties.
   When flour is kneaded together with water, it forms
 a tough paste, containing these principles very little
 altered, and not  easily digested  by the stomach.  The
 action of heat produces a considerable change in the
 gluten, and probably in the starch, rendering the com-
 pound more  easy to masticate, as well as to digest.
 Hence  the first  approaches towards the making  of
 bread consisted in parching the corn, either for imme-
 diate use as  food, or previous to its trituration into
 meal;  or else in baking  the  flour into unleavened
 bread, or boiling it into masses more or less consistent.;
 of all which we have sufficient indications in the histo-
 ries of the earlier nations, as well as in the various prac-
 tices  of the moderns. It appears likewise from the
 Scriptures, that the practice of making leavened bread
 is of very considerable antiquity; but the additions of
 yest,  or the  vinous  ferment, now so generally used,
 seems to be of modern date.
   Unleavened bread in the form of small cakes, or bis-
 cuit, is made for the use of shipping iu large quanti-
 ties ;  but most of the bread used on  shore is made to
 undergo, previous to  baking, a kind of fermentation,
 which  appears to be of the same nature as the fer-
 mentation  of saccharine substances; but is checked
 and modified by so many circumstances, as to render
 it not a little  difficult to speak with certainty and pre-
 cision respecting it.
   When dough  or paste is left to undergo a sponta-
 neous decomposition  in an open vessel, the various
 parts of the mass are differently affected, according to
 the humidity, the thickness or thinness of the part,
 the vicinity or remoteness of fire, and  other circum-
 stances less easily investigated.  The saccharine part
 is disposed to become converted into alkohol, the mu-
 cilage has  a  tendency to become sour and  mouldy,
 while the gluten in all probability verges towards the
 putrid state.  An entire change in the chemical attrac-
 tions  of the several component parts must then take
 place in a progressive manner, not altogether the same
 in the internal and more humid parts as in the exter-
 nal parts, which not only become dry by simple evapo-
 ration,  but are acted  upon by the  surrounding air.
 The outside may therefore  become mouldy or putrid,
 while the inner part may be only advanced to an acid
 state.  Occasional admixture of the  mass would  of
 course not only produce some change in the rapidity of
 this alteration, but likewise render it more  uniform
 throughout the whole.  The effect of this commencing
 fermentation  is found to be, that the mass is rendered
 more  digestible and light; by which last expression it
 is understood, that it is rendered much more porous by
 the disengagement of elastic fluid, that separates  its
 parts from each other, and greatly increases  its bulk.
 The operation of baking puts  a stop to this  process,
 by evaporating great part of the  moisture which is
 requisite to favour the chemical attraction,  and pro-
 bably also by still farther changing the  nature of the
 component parts.  It is then bread.
   Bread made according to the preceding method will
 not possess the uniformity which is requisite, because
 some  parts may be mouldy, while others are not yet
 sufficiently changed from the state of  dough.   The
 same  means are used  in this case as have been found
 effectual in promoting the  uniform fermentation of
 large masses.   This consists in the use of a leaven  or
 ferment, which  is a small portion of some  matter  of
 the same kind, but in a more advanced stage of the
 fermentation.  After the leaven has  been well incor
 porated by kneading into fresh dough, it not only brings
 on the fermentation with greater speed, but causes it
 to take place  in  the whole of the mass at the same
 time;  and as soon as the dough has by this means ac-
 quired a due increase of bulk from the carbonic acid,
 which endeavours to escape, it  is judged to  be suffi-
 ciently fermented, and ready for the oven.
  The fermentation by means of leaven or sour dough
 is thought to be of the acetous  kind, because it is ge-
 nerally so managed, that the bread has a sour flavour
 and taste.  But it has been ascertained that this acidity
 proceeds from true vinegar.  Bread raised by leaven
 is usually made of a mixture of wheat and  rye, not
very accurately cleared ofthe bran.  It is distinguished
by the name of rye-bread; and the mixture  of these
two kinds of grain is called  bread-com, or meslin,  in
many parts ofthe kingdom, where it is raised on one 
WIE                                             BRE
 — u fire same  piece of ground, and passes through all
 the  processes  of reaping,  threshing, grinding, Sec. in
 this mixed state.
  Jfest or barm is used a« the ferment for the  finer
 kinds of bread.  This is the mucilaginous froth which
 rises to the surface of beer In its first stage of ferment-
 ation.  When it is  mixed with dough, it  produces a
 much more speedy and effectual fermentation  than
 that obtained by leaven, and the bread  is accordingly
 much lighter, and scarcely ever sour.   The fermenta-
tion by yest seems to be almost certainly ofthe vinous
 or spirituous kind.
  Bread is much more uniformly  miscible with water
than dough; and on this circumstance its good quali-
ties most probably do in a great measure depend.
  A very great number of processes are used by cooks,
 confectioners, and others,  to make cakes, puddings,
 and other kinds of bread, in Which different qualities
•re required.  Some cakes are rendered brittle, or as
It is called short, by an admixture of sugar or of starch.
Another kind of brittleness is given by the addition of
 butter or fat.   White of  egg, gum-water, isinglass,
and  other adhesive  substances, are used, when  it is
Intended that the effect of  fermentation shall expand
Ihe dough into an exceedingly porous mass.  Dr. Per-
cival has recommended the addition of salep, or the
nutritious powder of the ovchis root.  He  says, that
an ounce of salep, dissolved in a  quart of water, and
mixed with two pounds of flour, two ounces of yest,
and eighty grains of salt, produced a remarkably good
loaf, weighing  three pounds two ounces; while a loaf
made of an  equal quantity of tile other ingredients,
without the salep, weighed  but two pounds and twelve
ounces.   If the salep be  in too large quantity, how-
ever, its peculiar tasle will be distinguishable in the
bread.  The farina of potatoes, likewise, mixed with
wheaten flour,  makes very good bread.   The reflecting
chemist will receive considerable  information on this
subject from an attentive inspection of the receipts to
be met with in treatises of cooking and confectionary.
  Mr. Accum, in his  late Treatise on Culinary Poisons,
states, that the inferior kind of flour which the Lon-
don  bakers generally use for making loaves, requires
the addition of alum to give them the white  appear-
ance of bread made from fine flour.   ' The baker's
flour is very often made ofthe worst kinds of damaged
foreign wheat, and other  cereal  grains mixed with
them in grinding the wheat into flour.   In this capital,
no fewer than  six distinct kinds of wheaten flour are
brought  into the market.  They are called  fine flour,
seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse middlings,
and twenty-penny flour.  Common garden beans and
pease are also  frequently ground up among the Lon-
don bread flour.
  ' The smallest quantity of alum that can be employed
with effect to produce a white, light, and porous bread
from an inferior kind of flour, I have my own baker's
authority to state, is from  three to four .ounces  to a
sack of flour weighing 240 pounds.'
  'The  following account of making a sack of five
bushels of flour into bread, is taken from Dr. P. Mark-
ham's Considerations on  the Ingredients used in the
Adulteration of Flour and Bread, p. 21.
        Five bushels flour,
        Cight ounces of alum,
        Four lbs. salt,
        Half a gallon of yest, mixed with about
        Three gallons of water.
  ' Another substance employed by fraudulent bakers
Is subcarbonate of ammonia.  With  this salt they
realize the important consideration of producing light
and  porous bread from spoiled, or what is technically
called sour flour.  Tnis salt, which becomes wholly
converted into  a  gaseous  substance during the  ope-
ration of baking, causes the dough to swell up into
air-bubbles, which carry before them the stiff dough,
and thu9 it renders the dough  porous; the  salt itself,
is at the same time totally volatilized during the  ope-
 ration of baking.'—' Potatoes are  likew ise largely,
and, perhaps,  constantly used by fraudulent bakers,
as a cheap ingredient to enhance their profit'—' There
ere instances of convictions on record, of bakers  hav-
ing used gypsum, chalk, and pipe-clay, in  the manu-
facture of bread.'
  Mr. E. Davy, Prof, of Chemistry at  the Cork Insti-
tution, has  made experiments, showing  that from
•vjnty to forty grains of common carbonate of mag-
nesia, well mixed with a pound of the worst neto se-
conds flour, materially improved the quality of the
bread baked with it.
  The habitual and daily introduction of a portion of
alum into the human stomach, however small, must
be prejudicial to the exercise of its functions, and par-
ticularly in  persons of a bilious and costive habit.
And, besides, as the best sweet flour never stands  in
need of alum, the prepuce of this salt Indicates an in-
ferior and highly acescent food; which cannot fail to
aggravate dyspepsia, and which may generate a cat
culous diathesis in the urinary organs.  Every precau-
tion  of science  and  law ought, therefore,  to be em-
ployed to detect and stop such deleterious adulterations
Bread may  be  analyzed for alum  by  crumbling  it
down when  somewhat stale in distilled water, squeez-
ing the pasty mas3 through a piece of cloth, and then
passing the liquid through a  paper filter.   A limpid
infusion will thus be obtained.  It is difficult to  pro-
cure it clear  if we use new bread or hot water. A di-
lute solution of muriate of barytes dropped into the fil-
tered infusion, will indicate by a white cloud, more or
less heavy, the presence and quantity of alum.  I  find
that genuine bread gives no  precipitate by  this treat-
ment  The  earthy adulterations are easily discovered
by incinerating  the bread at a red  heat in  a shallow
earthen  vessel, and treating the residuary ashes  with
a little nitrate of ammonia.  The earths themselves
will then remain, characterized by their whiteness and
insolubility.
  The latest chemical treatise  on the art of making
bread, except the account given by Mr. Accum in his
work on the Adulterations of Food, is the article
Baking, in the Supplement to the  Encyclopedia Bri-
tunnica.
  Under Process of Baking, we have the following
statement: ' An ounce of alum is then dissolved  over
the fire in a  tin  pot, and the  solution poured into  a
large tub, called by the bakers the seasoning-tub. Four
pounds and a half of salt are likewise put into the
tub, and a pailful of hot water.' Note on  this pas-
sage.—' In London, where the  goodness of bread ii
estimated entirely by its whiteness, it is usual  with
those bakers who employ flour of an  inferior quality.
lo add as much  alum as" common  salt to the dough
Or, in other words, the quantity of salt added is dimi-
nished one-half, and the deficiency  supplied by an
equal weight of alum. This improves the look of the
bread very  much,  rendering  it much  whiter and
firmer.'"— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  BREAD-FRUIT.   The tree which affords  this,
grows in all  the Ladrone islands in the South sea, in
Otaheite, and now in the West Indies.  The bread-
fruit grows upon a tree the size of a middling oak.  The
fruit is about the size of a child's  head, and thesur
face is reticulated, not much unlike the surface of a
truffle.  It is covered with a thin skin, and has a core
about the size of a small knife.  The eatable part is
between  the skin and the core:  it  is as  white aa
snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread.
It must be toasted before it is eaten, being first divided
into three or four parts.  Its taste  is insipid, with  a
slight sweetness, nearly like that of wheaten bread
and  artichoke together.  This  fruit is the constant
food of the inhabitants all the year, it  being in season
eight months.
  Bread-nut. See Brosimvm alicastrum.
 _ BREAST.  Mamma.  The  two globular projec-
tions, composed of common  integuments, adipose sub-
stance, and  lacteal glands and vessels, and  adhering
to the anterior and  lateral regions  of the thorax or
females.  On the middle of each breast is a projecting
portion, termed  the  papilla, or  nipple, in which the
excretory ducts of the glands terminate, and  around
which is a  coloured orb, or disc, called the  areola.
The use ofthe breasts is to suckle new-born infants.
  BREAST-BONE.  See Sternum.
  BRECCIA.   An Italian term, frequently used bv
our mineralogical writers to denote  such compound
stones as are composed of agglutinated fragments of
considerable size.  When the  agglutinated  parts are
rounded, the stone is called pudding-stone.   Breccias
are denominated according to the nature or their com
ponent parts.  Thus we have calcareous breccias, or
marbles ; and aiUceous breccias, which are  still more
minutely classed, according to their varieties.
  BREGMA.  (From (Jpsxw, lo moisten; formerly so 
BRI
BRO
 celled, because,  in  infants,  and sometimes  even in
 adults, they are tender and moist)  An old name for
 the parietal bones.
   BREVIS.  Short. Applied to distinguish parts dif-
 fering only in length, and to  some parts,  the termina-
 tion of which is not far from their origin; as breoia
 vasa, the branches of the splenic vein.
   Brky'nia. (An American plant named  in honour of
 Dr. Brennius.)  A species of capparis.
   BRIAR.  See Rosa.
   Bri'cumum.  A name which the Gauls gave to the
 herb artemisia.
   BRIMSTONE. See Sulphur.
   BRISTLE.  See .Seta.
   BRISTOL HOT-WELL.   Bristoliensis aqua.  A
 pure, thermal  or warm, slightly acidulated,  mineral
 swing.situated about a mile below Bristol.  The fresh
 water is inodorous, perfectly limpid and sparkling, and
 sends forth numerous nir-bubbles when poured into a
 glass.  It.  is  very agreeable to the  palate, but without
 having any very decided taste, at least none that can
 be distinguished  by  a common observer.   Its specific
 gravity is  only 1.00077, which approaches so nnar to
 that of distilled  water, that  this circumstance alone
 would show that it contained but a very small admix-
 ture of foreign ingredieuts.  The temperature of these
 waters, taking ihe average of the most  accurate ob-
 servations, may be reckoned  at 74 dec.; and this does
 not very  sensibly  vary during winter  or summer.
 Bristol water contains both solid and gaseous matter,
 and  the distinction  between  the two requires to be
 attended to,  as it is  owing to the very small quantity
 of solid matter that il deserves the character of a very
 fine natural  spring;  and to an excess in  gaseous con-
 tents that it  seems  to be principally indebted for its
 medical properties, whatever they may be, independent
 of those of mere water, with an increase of tempera-
 ture.  From  the different investigations of chemists, it
 appears that the principal component parts of the Hot-
 Well water are,  a large proportion  of carbonic acid
 gas, or fixed air, and a certain portion of magnesia and
 lime, in various combinations, with the muriatic,
 vitriolic, and carbonic acids.   The general inference
 is, that it  is considerably pure for a natural fountain,
 as it  contains no other solid  matter  than is found in
 almost all  common spring water, and iu less quantity.
   On account of  these ingredients, especially  the car-
 bonic acid gas, the  Hot-Well water is efficacious in
 promoting salutary discharges, iu greensickness, as
 well  as in the blind (Hemorrhoids.  It may be  taken
 with  advantage in obstructions, and  weakness of the
 bowels, arising from habitual costiveness;  and, from
 the purity of its aqueous part, it lias justly been con-
 sidered as  a specific in diabetes, rendering the urinary
 organs more fitted to receive  benefit from thos^ medi-
 cines which  are  generally prescribed, and sometimes
 successful.
   But the  high reputation which this spring  has ac-
 quired, is chiefly in the cure of pulmonary consumption.
 From the  number of unsuccessful cases among  those
 who frequent this place, many have denied  any pecu-
 liar efficacy in this spring, superior to that of common
 water.  It is  not easy to determine how much may be
 owing to the  favourable situation and mild, temperate
 climate which Bristol enjoys;  but it cannot be doubted
 that the llnl-Well water, though  by no means a cure
 for consumption, alleviates some of the most harassing
 symptoms  of this formidable disease.  It is particu-
 larly efficacious in moderating the thirst, the dry, burn-
 ing heat of the hands and feet, the partial night sweats,
 and the symptoms that are peculiarly hectical; and
 thus,  in the earlier stages of phthisis, it may materially
 contribute  to a complete  re-establishment of  health;
 and even in  the  latter  periods,  mitigate  the  disease
 when the cure is doubtful, if not hopeless.
  The sensible effects of  this  water, when drunk
 warm and  fresh from the spring, arc a gentle glow of
 the stomach, succeeded sometimes by a slight and trnn:
 sient degree  of  headach and  giddiness.  By a con-
 tinued use, in most cases it is diuretic, keeps the skin
 moist and perspirable, and improves the appetite and
 health.  Its effects on the bowels are variable.  On ihe
 whole, a tendency tb  costiveness seems to  be the more
general consequence of along  course of this medicinal
spring, and therefore  the use of a mild aperient is  re- I
quisite.  These effects, however, are applicable only
to invalids; for healthy persons who taste  the water at J
 the fountain, seldom discover any thing  in it but a
 degree of warmth, which  distinguishes it from the
 common element.
   The season for the Hot-Well is generally from the
 middle of May to October:  but as the medicinal pro-
 perties of the water continue the same throughout the
 year,  the  summer inonihs  are preferred merely  on
 account of the concomitant benefits of air and exercise.
   It should  be mentioned, that another spring, nearly
 resembling  the  Hot-Well,  has  been discovered  at
 Clifton, which is situated on the summit of the same
 hill, from the bottom of which the  Hot-Well issues.
 The water of Sion-Spring, as it is called, is one or two
 degrees colder than the Hoi-Well; but in other respects
 it sufficiently resembles it to  be employed for all similar
 purposes.
   Britannica herba.   See Rumex hydrolapathum,
 and Arctium lappa.
   BRITA'NNICUS. British. Applied to plants which
 grow in this country, and to some remedies.
   BRITISH GUM.  When  starch is exposed to a tem-
 perature between 000° and 700° it swells, and exhales
 a peculiar smell; it becomes of a brown  colour, and
 in that state is employed  by calico-j renters.   It is so-
 luble in cold water, and does not form a blue compound
 with iodine.  Vauquelin found it to differ from gum in
 affording oxalic instead of mucous acid, when treated
 with nitric acid.—Brande's Manuel, in. 34.
   British Oil.   A variety of the  black species of pe-
 troleum, to which this name has been given as an
 empirical remedy.
   BROCATELLO.  A  calcareous stone  or  marble,
 composed  of fragments of four colours, white, gray,
 yellow, and red.
   BRO CCOLI.  Brassica  Italica.  As an article of
 diet, this  may  be considered as more delicious than
 cauliflower  and  cabbage.   Sound  stomachs digest
 broccoli without any inconvenience; but in dyspeptic
 stomachs,  even when  combined  with pepper, Sec. it
 always produces flatulency,  and nauseous eructations.
   Brochos.  (Bpovos, a snare.)  A bandage.
   Bro'chthus.  (From jSpsxh), to pour.)  The throat;
 also a small kind of drinking-vessel.
   Bro'ciius.  BpoKos-  One with a prominent upper-
 lip, or  one with a full mouth and prominent teeth.
   BROCKLESBY, Richard, was born in Somerset-
 shire, though of an Irish family, in 1722.  After study-
 ing at  Edinburgh, he graduated at Leyden; then set-
 tled in London, but did  not advance very rapidly in
 practice.   About 1757, he was appointed physician to
 the army in Germany, and on his  return after six
 years,  published the result of his experience, iu a work
 entitled "Economical  and  Medical Observations."
 His success now became more decided, and being pru-
 dent in his affairs, and without a family, he realized
 a considerable fortune.   He proved himself however
 sufficiently liberal by presenting 10002. lo Mr. Edmund
 Burke, who had been his school-fellow; and by offer-
 ing an annuity of 100/. to Dr. Johnson, to enable him
 to travel, which was not however accepted.  He was
 author of several other works, and died iu  1797.
   Bro'dium.  A term in pharmacy, signifying the
 same with jusculum, broth, or the liquor in which any
 tiling is boiled.   Thus, we sometimes read of brodium
 salis, or a decoction of salt.
  BRO'MA.  (From BpiooKio, to eat.)  Food of any
 kind that is masticated, and not drank.
  Broma-thkon. (From/3pti>a»cu),toeat.)  Mushrooms.
  BROMATOLOGY.   (Bromatologia;  from (ipiaua,
 food, and Xoyos, a discourse.) A discourse or treatise
 on food.
  BROME'LIA.   (So  named  in honourof  Olaus
 Bromel, a Swede, author of Lupologia, Sec. in  1087.)
 The name of a  genus of plants.  Class, Hexandria.
 Older,  Monogynia,'
  Bromelia  ananas.   The  systematic name of the
 plain which affords the pine-apple, Bromelia .—foliis
 ciliato  spiuosis, mucronatis, spica comosa of Linn.Tiis
 It is used principally as a delicacy for the table, and is
 also given with ndvantage as a refrigerant in fevers.
  Bromelia  karatas.  The systematic name of the
 plant from which we obtain the fruit called penguin,
 which is given in the Spanish West Indies to cool and
quench thirst in fevers, dysenteries, &c.  It  grows in a
cluster, there beingseveral ofthe size of one's finger to-
gether.   Each portion is clothed with husk containing a
white pulpy substance, which  is the eatable part; and if 
BRO
BRO
It be not perfectly ripe, its flavour resembles that of the
pine-apple.  The juice of the ripe fruit is very austere,
and is made use of to acidulate punch.  The inhabit-
ants of the West Indies make a wine of the penguin,
which is very intoxicating, and has a good flavour.
  BROMFIELD, William,  was  born iu London,
1712; and attained considerable reputation as a sur-
geon.  At the age of twenty-nine he began  to give
anatomical  lectures, which were very well attended.
About three yeais after, in conjunction with the Rev.
Mr. Madan, he formed the plan of the Lock Hospital;
and  so ably enforced the  advantages of  such an insti-
tution, that a sufficient fund was raised for erecting the
present building; and it has been since maintained by
voluntary contributions.   He was appointed surgeon,
and  held that office for many years: he was also sur-
geon  to St. George's  Hospital, and to Her Majesty's
household.  He wrote many works; the  most con-
siderable was entitled "Chirurgical Cases and Ob-
servations," in 1773, but reckoned not to answer the
expectations entertained  of  him.   He attained his
eightieth year.
  [BROMINE.   In 1826, M. Balard of Montpelier dis-
covered in sea-water a new substance, to which he
gave the name muride; but it has since  been changed
to bromine, a word derived from the Greek  Btwuos
(graveolentia) signifying a strong or rank odour.
  Bromine exists in sea-water in  the form of hydro-
bromic acid.  It is present,  however, in  very small
quantity;  and even the uncrystallizable residue called
bittern, left after the  muriate of soda has been sepa-
rated from sea-water by evaporation, contains but little
nf it. On  adding chlorine  to this liquid, an  orange
yellow tint appears; and on heating the solution to the
boiling point, the red vapours of bromine are expelled,
which may be condensed by a freezing  mixture.   A
better process is  to transmit a current of chlorine gas
through the bittern, and  then to agitate a  portion of
aether with the liquid.  The rether dissolves the whole
of the bromine, from which it receives a beautiful
hyacinth red tint, and on standing, rises to the surface.
When the ethereal solution  is agitated with  caustic
potassa, its colour entirely disappears, and on  evapo-
ration, cubic crystals of the hydro-broinate of potassa
are deposited.  On mixing these crystals, reduced to
powder, with pure peroxide of manganese, and  adding
sulphuric  acid diluted with its volume  of water, the
bromine  is disengaged in a  gaseous state.  A small
receiver, nearly filled  with water, is attached to  the
retort, the beak of which and the  receiver are kept
cool by a frigorific mixture.    The bromine condenses
in the beak, runs into the receiver, and falls to  the
bottom on account of its great specific gravity. It is
slightly soluble, but the water in its immediate vicinity
soon becomes saturated.  The water is decanted, and
the remainder distilled with  chloride of calcium, by
which the bromine is obtained in a liquid state.
  M.  Balard has also  detected bromine in marine
plants which grow on the shores of the Mediterranean,
and has procured it from the ashes of the sea-weeds
that furnish iodine.  He has  likewise found it in the
ashes of some  animals, especially in those of the jan-
thina violacea, one of the, testaceous molluscs.
  Bromine at common temperature is  a  liquid, the
colour of which is blackish red, when viewed in mass
and by reflected light, but appears hyacinth red when
a thin stratum is interposed between the light and the
observer.  Its odour, which somewhat resembles that
of chlorine, is very disagreeable; and its taste power-
ful.  It acts with energy on  organic matters, such as
wood or cork, ai 1 corrodes  the animal texture; but
if applied to the skin for a short time only, it commu-
nicates  a yellow stain less  intense than  that from
iodine, and  which  soon disappears. It is highly de-
structive to animals: one drop of it placed on the beak
of a bird proves fatal.— Webster's Man. of Chem. A.]
  [Bromic acid.  Bromine unites  with oxygen and
forms Bromic acid, which may be obtained in a sepa-
rate state by decomposing a dilute solution of the bro-
mate of baryta with sulphuric acid.  From the analy-
sis of the bromate of potassa, it appears to consist of
1 atom of bromine -4-5 atoms oxygen.
  The bromates are analogous to the chlorates and
iodates.   Thus the bromate  of potassa is  converted
by heat into the  bromuret of potassium, with disen-
gagement  of pure oxygen, deflagrates when thrown
on burning coals, and forms with sulphur a mixture
 which detonates by percussion.  The acid of the bra-
 mates is decomposed  by hydro-bromic and muriatic
 acids.— Webst. Man. of Chem.  A.)
   Bro'mion.  (From (fpuiuos, the oat)   The name of
 a plaster, made with oaten flour, mentioned by Paulus
 JEgineta.
   BROMUS.  (From Bptoua, food.)  The name of a
 genus of plants  in the  Limuean system.  Class, Tri-
 andria; Order,  Digynia. Brome-grass.
   Bromus sterilis.  (From BpiaoKto, to eat)  The
 wild oat
   BRO'NCHIA.  (Bronchia, oruni. neut plur.;  from
 BpoyxoSi the throat)  See Trachea.
   BKONCHIAL.    (Bronchialis;  from bronchia.)
 Appertaining to the windpipe,  or bronchia; as bron-
 chial gland, artery, &c.
   BRONCHIA'LIS.  See Bronchial.
   Bronchialks  arterije.    Bronchial  arteries —
 Branches ofthe  aorta given off in the chest.
   Bronchiales  glandulje.   Bronchial  glands. -
 Large blackish  glands,  situated  about the  bronchia
 and trachea.
   BRONCHOCE LE.  (From (ipoyxos, the windpipe,
 and icnXn,  a tumour.)   Botium;  Hernia gvtturis;
 Guttur tumidum;  Trachdophyma;  Gossnm;  F.xe-
 chebronehos; Gongrona; Hernia bronchialis ;  Tra-
 cheocele.  Derbyshire neck.  This disease is marked
 by a tumour on the fore-part of the neck, and  seated
 between the trachea and  skin.  In general, it has  been
 supposed principally to occupy the thyroid gland.  We
 are given to understand that it is a very common dis-
 order in Derbyshire;  but its occurrence is by no means
 frequent in other parts of Great Britain, or in Ireland.
 Among the inhabitants of the Alps, and other moun-
 tainous countries bordering thereon, it is a disease very
 often met with,  and is there known by the name of
 goitre.  The cause which gives rise to it, is  by no
 means certain, and the observations of different writers
 are of very little practical utility.   Dr. Saunders con-
 troverts the general idea of the bronchocele being  pro-
 duced by the use of snow water.   The swelling is at
 first without pain, or any evident fluctuation ;  when
 the disease is of long standing, and the swelling con-
 siderable, we find it in general a very difficult matter
 to effect a cure by  medicine, or any external  applica-
 tion ; and it might be  unsafe to attempt its  removal
 with a knife, on account of the enlarged state of its
 arteries, and its vicinity to  the carotids; but  in an
 early stage of the  disease, by the aid of medi'.ine, a
 cure may be effected.
  Although some relief has been obtained at times, and
 the disease probably somewhat  retarded by  external
 applications, such as blisters, discutient embrocations,
 and  saponaceous and mercurial  plasters, still a com-
 plete cure has seldom been effected without an infer-
 nal use of medicine ; and that which has always proved
 the most efficacious, is burnt sponge.  The form  under
 which this is most usually exhibited, is that  of a lo-
 zenge.  R. spongiae ustae 3 ss. mucilag.  Arab  i<im. q.
 a. fiat trochiscus.  When the tumour appears  about
 the age of puberty, and before its structure has been
 too morbidly deranged, a  pill consisting  of a  grain or
 two of  calomel,  must  be given for three successive
 nights;  and, on the fourth morning,  a  saline purge.
 Every night afterward, for three weeks, one of the
 troches should, when the  patient is in bed, be put un-
 der the tongue, suffered to dissolve gradually, and the
solution swallowed.  The disgust at first arising from
this remedy soon wears off.  The pills and the purge
 are to be repeated at the end of  three weeks, and the
troches  had recourse to as before; and this plan is to
be pursued till the tumour is entirely dispersed.  Borne
recommend the  burnt  sponge to be administered in
larger doses.  Sulphuretted potassa dissolved in water,
in the proportion of 30 grains to  a quart daily,  is a
remedy  which has been employed by Dr Richter with
success, in some cases, where calcined sponge failed.
The sode subcarbonas being the basis of burnt sponge,
is now frequently employed instead of it, and, indeed,
it is a more active medicine.
  [Bronchocele is said to have been cured by iodine;
for which see that article.  A.]
  BRO'NCHOS.   (Bpoy%or, the windpipe.)  A ca-
tarrh ; a suppression ofthe voice from a catarrh.
  BRONCHO'TOMY.  (Bronchotomia;  from Bpoy
yoj, the windpipe, and rtuvta, to cut)  Tracheotomy;
Laryngotomy.    This  is  an  operation  in  which an 
BRO
BRO
opening Is made into the larynx, or trachea, either for
the purpose of making a  passage for the air into and
out of the lungs, when any disease prevents the pa-
tient  from breathing through the mouth and nostrils,
or of extracting foreign bodies, which have accident-
ally fallen  into the trachea ; or, lastly, in order to be
able to inflate the lungs, in cases of sudden suffoca-
tion,  drowning, &c.   Its practicableness,  and little
danger, are founded on the facility with which certain
wounds of the windpipe, even ofthe most complicated
kind, have been healed, without leaving any ill effects
whatever,  and on the  nature of the parts cut, which
are not furnished with  any vessel of consequence.
  BRO'NCHUS.   (From Bptx<*, to pour.)  The an-
cients believed that the solids were conveyed into the
stomach by the oesophagus, and the fluids by the bron-
chia; whence its name.  1. The windpipe.
  2. A defluxion from the fauces.  See Catarrhus.
  BRONZE.  A mixed  metal consisting chiefly of
copper, with a small portion of  tin, and sometimes
other metals.
  BRONZITE.  A massive  metal-like mineral, fre-
quently resembling  bronze, found in large  masses in
beds of serpentine in Upper Stiria, and in Perthshire.
  BROOKLIME.   See Veronicabeccabunga.
  [BROOKS, John, M.D. LL.D.  The honourable
John Brooks was bom in Medford, Massachusetts, in
the  year 1752.  His father,  Captain Caleb Brooks,
was a respectable  independent  farmer, and the son
spent his earliest years in the usual occupations of a
farm.  He received no education preparatory to his
professional studies, but  that of the town school; at
which, however, he was able to acquire sufficient of
the learned languages to qualify him for the profession
of medicine.  At the age of fourteen, he was  placed
under the tuition of Dr. Simon Tufts, of Medford, by
a written indenture as  an apprentice for seven  years;
this being the usual custom of that day.
  Having finished his studies, he chose the neighbour-
ing town of Reading as bis residence, and commenced
his practice there.   But by this time, the storm  of the
revolutionaiy war was gathering; and, as its  distant
thunders rolled towards our shores, the hearts  of the
gallant youth of our country responded to the sound,
and prepaiatlons for the field superceded the minor
concerns of life.
  Dr. Brooks accordingly  entered  into the military
service of his  country.  As  a Captain, he first exhi-
bited his bravery in his attack upon the British at
Lexington, in the neighbourhood of Boston. He shortly
after received the commission of Major in the Conti-
nental army, as it was then  called.  In 1777, he was
promoted to the rank of Colonel, and was a very effi-
cient officer in the battles of Saratoga, which resulted
in the capture of Burgoyne.  In the battle of Mon-
mouth, in New-Jersey, he was acting Adjutant-Gene-
ral, and  on this, as on all occasions, conducted with
great coolness and bravery, through the whole of the
revolutionary war.
  After  the  war,  he  recommenced the practice of
physic, and continued for many years in high estima-
tion as a practitioner.  It is said of him, that,  " As a
  fhysician, he ranked in the first class nf practitioners.
  le  possessed in an eminent degree those qualities
which were calculated to render him the most useful
in his professional labours, and the delight of those to
whom he administered relief.  His manners were dig-
nified, courteous, and benign. He was kind, patient,
and attentive.  His kind offices were peculiarly ac-
ceptable from the felicitous manner in which he per-
formed  them.   His mind was  well  furnished with
scientific and practical knowledge.  He was accurate
in his investigations,  and clear in his discernment.
He therefore sarely failed in forming a true diagnosis.
If he were not so bold  and daring as some,  in the
administration of remedies, it was  because his judg-
ment and good sense led  him  to prefer erring  on the
side of prudence, rather than on that of rashness. He*
watched the operations  of nature, and never inter-
fered unless it was obvious he could aid and support
her.  He was truly the  ' Hierophant of Nature,' study-
ing her mysteries, and obeying her oracles."
  Dr. Brooks became so great a favourite of his coun-
trymen, that  he was finally elected Governor  of the
state of Massachusetts.  Dr. Thacher says of him :—
  " Having faithfully and ably discharged the duties
of chief magistrate fox  seven successive  years, he
expressed his determination to retire from the cares
and anxieties of public life.   How  great were the
public regrets, and  how gladly would a large majority
of his fellow-citizens have retained his valuable ser-
vices ;  but they forbore urging  him to any farther
sacrifices for the good of his country.   He retired to
private life with dignity, and with the love and  bless-
ings of a grateful people."  He died in March, 1825, in
the 73d year of his age.—See Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  BROOM.  See Spartium scoparium.
  BROSIMUM.  (From Bpwmuos,  eatable.)   The
name of a genus  of plants in the  Linnaean  system.
Class, Diacia;  Order, Monandria.
  Brosimum  alicastrum  The specific name of the
tree, which affords the bread-nut.
  BROWN, John, born in the county of Berwick, in
1735.  He made very rapid progress in his youth in the
learned  languages, and at the age of  twenty went to
Edinburgh to study theology; but before he could be
ordained, became  attached to free living and free
thinking.  About 1759, having translated the  inaugu-
ral thesis of a medical candidate into Latin, and the
performance being highly applauded, he was led to the
study of medicine.  The  professors  at  Edinburgh
allowed him to attend their lectures gratuitously; and
he maintained himself by instructing Ihe  students in
Latin, and composing or translating their dissertations.
Dr. Cullen particularly encouraged him, notwithstand-
ing his irregularities, employing him  as tutor to his
sons, and allowing him to repeat and enlarge upon his
lectures in the evening, to those pupils who chose to
attend.  In 1765 he married, and his  house was soon
filled with boarders; but his imprudence  brought on
bankruptcy within four years after.  About this period
he was an unsuccessful candidate for one of the me-
dical chairs; and attributing his failure to Dr. Cullen,
became his declared enemy.   This  probably  deter-
mined him to form his new system of medicine, after-
ward published under the title of  " Elementa  Medi-
cinal :" in which certainly much genius is displayed,
but little acquaintance with practice, or  with what
had been written before on the subject.  His chief ob-
ject seems to have been to reduce the medical  art to
the utmost simplicity: whence he arranged all dis-
eases under the two divisions of sthenic and asthenic,
and maintained  that all agents operate on the body as
stimuli; so that we had only to increase or diminish
the force of these according to circumstances.   Al the
head of his stimulant remedies, he places wine, brandy,
and opium, in  the  recommendation of which he is
very liberal; and especially betrays his partiality to
them  by asserting,  contrary to universal  experience,
that  he found them in his own person the best pre-
servatives against the gout.  He is  said to have pre-
pared himself for his lectures by a large dose of lau-
danum in whiskey; and thus roused himself to a de-
gree of enthusiasm bordering on frenzy.  After com-
pleting his work, he procured  a degree from St. An-
drew's, and commenced public teacher.  The novelty
and imposing simplicity of his doctrines procured him
at first a pretty numerous class: but being irregular in
his attendance, and his habits of intemperance in-
creasing, they fell off by degrees:  and he was at length
so embarrassed, as to be obliged to quit Edinburgh in
1786.  He then  settled in London, but met with little
success, and in  about two years  after died.  His opi-
nions at first found many supporters, as well in this as
in other countries; but they appear now nearly  fallen
into deserved oblivion.
  BROWN SPAR.  Pearl spar.  Sideroculcite.  A
white, red, or brown, or black spar; harder than the
calcareous, but yields to the knife.
  BROWNE, Sir Thomas, was born in Cheapside,
1605.  After studying and  practising for a short time
at Oxford, he spent about three years in travelling, gra-
duating at length  at Leyden.   He then came to Lon-
don, and published  his " Religio Medici;" which ex-
cited great attention as a work of genius,  though ble-
mished by a few ofthe popular superstitions then pre-
vailing.  He soon after settled at Norwich, and  got
into very good practice; and was admitted an honor-
ary member ofthe London College of physicians.  In
1646 appeared bis  most popular work  "On Vulgar
Errors," which added greatly to his fame ; though he
injudiciously ranked the Copernican system among
them; be was knighted by Charles U.; and  died at
the termination of his  77th year.  His son Edward 
BRU
BUB
was also a physician, and attained considerable emi-
nence, having had the honour of attending Charles II.
and William III., and being for three years president
of the college.
  [BRUCE,  Archibald, M.D.  A native  of New-
York, born in 1777, during the  revolutionary war.
He studied physic under Dr. Hosack, visited Europe,
and graduated at Edinburgh in the year 1800.  During
a tour of iwo years iu France, Switzerland, and Italy,
Dr. Bruce collected a iiiiiieralogical cabinet of great
value and extent.  Upon his  return to England, he
married in London,-and came out to New-York in
the summer of 1803,  to enter  upon the duties of a
practitioner of medicine.  In  1807, he was appointed
professor of Materia Medica and Mineralogy, in the
College of Physicians and Surgeons of New-York.
In 1S10, he commenced the editorship of a Journal of
American Mineralogy, after the manner of the well
known work issued by ihe School of Mines, at Paris.
It met with becoming success, and had many valuable
contributors to its pages; but owing to various causes,
was never carried  beyond the completion of the first
volume. The Mineralogical Journal contributed ma-
terially to extend the fame of Dr. Bruce, as well as his
discovery of the hydrate of magnesia, at  Hoboken.
He died in February, 1818, in the 41st year of his age.
—See Thach. Med. Biog.  A.)
   BRU CEA.  (So named  by Sir Joseph Banks, in
honour of Mr. Bruce, the traveller in  Abyssinia, who
first brought the  scuds thence into  England.) The
name  of a  genus of plajits in the Linnsan system.
Class, Diecia : Order, Tetrandria.        .
   Brucba antidysenterica.  The systematic name
 of the plant from  which it was erroneously supposed
 we obtained the Angustura bark.  See Cusparia.
   Brucea ferruoinea.  This plant was also sup-
 posed to afford ihe Angustura bark.
   BKUC1A.  Brucine.  A new vegetable alkali, lately
 extracted from  the bark of the  false Angustura, or
 Brucia antidysenterica, by Pelletier  and Caventou.
 After being treated with sulphuric aether, to get rid of
 a fatty matter, it was subjected to the action of alko-
 hol.  The  dry residuum, from the evaporated alko-
 holic solution, was treated  with  Goulard's  extract, or
 solution of acetate of lead, to throw down the colour-
 ing matter, and the excess of lead was separated by  a
 current of sulphuretted hydrogen.  The nearly colour-
 less alkaline liquid was saturated with oxalic acid, and
 evaporated  to dryness.  The saline mass being freed
 from its remaining colouring particles by  absolute
 alkohol, was then decomposed by lime or magnesia,
 when the oruri'/jwas disengaged.  It was dissolved in
 boiling alkohol,  and obtained in  crystals, by  the slow
 evaporation  of the liquid.  These crystals, when ob-
 tained  by very slow evaporation, are oblique prisms,
 the bases of  which are parallelograms.  When depo-
 sited from a saturated solution  in boiling water, by
 cooling, it  is in  bulky plates, somewhat similar to bo-
 racic acid in appearance.  It is soluble in 500 times its
 weight of boiling water, and in 850 of cold.   Its solu-
 bility is much increased by the colouring matter ofthe
 bark.
    Its taste is exceedingly bitter, acrid, and  durable in
 the mouth.  When administered in  doses of a  few
 grains, it is poisonous, acting on  animals like strych-
 nia, but much less violently.  It is not affected by the
 air.  The dry crystals fuse at a temperature a little
 above  that of boiling water, and assume the appear-
 ance of wax.  At a strong heat it is resolved into car-
 bou, hydrogen, and  oxygen;  without any  trace of
 azote.  It combines with  the acids, and forms both
 neutral and super-salts.
    Brucine.  See Brucia.
    BRUISEWORT.  See Saponaria.
    BRUMALIS.  (From Bruma, winter.)  Hyemalis.
 Belonging to winter.
    Brumalles plantje. Plants which flower in our
 winter, common about the cape.
    Brunk'lla.  See Prunella.
    BRUNNER, John Conrad, was born in Switzerland
  in 1053.  He obtained his degree in medicine at Slras-
  burg when only nineteen.  He afterward spent several
  years  in improving  himself at  different universities,
  particularly at Paris;  where he made many experi-
  ments on the pancreas, and found that it might be re-
  moved from a dog with impunity.  On  his  return  he
   was made profewoi of medicine at Hcidelburg; and
gained great reputation, so as to be consulted by most
ofthe princes of Germany.  He discovered the mucous
glands in the duodenum; and was author of several
Inconsiderable works.  He died in 1727.
  Brunner's glands.  Brunneri glandula.  Peyer's
glands.  The muciparous glands, situated between the
villous and  cellular coat of the  intestinal  canal;  so
named after Brunner, Who discovered them.
  BRUNSWICK GREEN.  An  ammoniaco-muriate
of copper.
  BRUNTKUP  FERZ.   Purple copper ore.
  Bru'nus.  An erysipelatous eruption.
  Bru'scus. See Ruscus.
  Brut'a.   An Arabian word which means Instinct,
and is also applied lo Savine.
  Bru'tia.  An epithet for the most resinous kind of
pitch, and therefore used to make the Oleum Picinum.
The Pix Brucia wils so called from Brutia, a country
in the extreme parts of Italy, where it was produced.
  Bruti no. Turpentine.
  Bru'tobon.  The name of an ointment used by the
Greeks.
  Brutua.  See Cissampelos Pareira.
  Bruxane'li.  (Indian.)  A tall tree in Malabar, the
bark of which is diuretic.
  Bry'gmus.  (From  Bpvxw, to make a  noise.)  A
peculiar kind of noise, such as is made by gnashing or
grating the teeth; or, according to some, a certain kind
of convulsion affecting the lower jaw, and striking the
teeth  together, most frequently observed in such chil
drcu as have worms.
  BRYO'NIA.  (From  (3pvu>,  to abound, from  its
abundance.) Bryony.  1. The name of a genus  of
plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Diecia; Order,
Syngencsia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the white bryony.
See Bryonia alba.
  Bryonia alba.  The systematic name of the white
bryony plant   Vilis alba sylvestris; Agrostis; An-
pelo sagria; Archcoslris; Echetrosis of Hippocrates.
Bryonia aspera; Cedrostis; Chclidonium ;  Labrusca;
Melothrum; Ophrostophijlon;  Psilothrum.  Bryonia
—foliis palmatis utrinquc calloso-scabris of Linnaeus,
This  plant is very common in woods and hedges.  The
root has a very nauseous biting taste, and disagreeable,
smell.  Bergius states the virtues of this root lo be pur-
gative, hj'dragogue, emmenagogue, and diuretic; the
fresh  root  emetic.   This  powerful  and irritating
cathartic, though now seldom prescribed by physicians,
is said to  be of great efficacy  in evacuating  serous
 humours, and has been chiefly employed in hydropical
cases.  Instances of its good effects in other chronic
diseases are also mentioned; as asthma, mania, and
 epilepsy.   In small doses, it is reported  to opeiate as a
 diuretic, and to be resolvent and deobstruent.   In
 powder, from 3j. to a drachm, it proves strongly pur-
 gative, and the juice, which issues spontaneously, in
 doses of a spoonful or more, has .similar effects, but is
 more gentle in its operation.  An extract prepared  by
 water, acts more mildly, and with greater safety, than
 the root in substance, given from half a drachm to a
 drachm.  It is said to prove  a gentle  purgative, and
 likewise to operate powerfully  by urine.  Of the ex-
 pressed juice, a spoonful acts violently both upwards
 and downwards; but cream of tartar is said to takeoff
 its virulence.   Externally,  the  fresh  root has been
 employed in cataplasms, as are solvent anddiscutient:
 also  in ischiadic and other rheumatic affections.
   Bryonia mechoachana nigricans.   A name given
 to the jalap root.
   Bryonia nigra.  See Tamus communis
   Bryonia peruviana.  Jalap.
   BRY'ONY.  See Bryonia nigra.
   Bryony, black.  See Tamus.
   Bryony, white.   See Bryonia alba.
   Bry'thion.  Bpu0iov.  A malagma; so called and
 described  by  Paulus iEgineta.
   Bry'ton.  (From Bpvw, to pour out.)  A kind of ale,
 or wine, made of barley.
   Bubasteco'rdium.  (From  bubastus and cor,  the
  heart.)  A name formerly given to artemisia, or mug-
  wort.
    BU'BO.  (From  BovSuiv, the groin; because they
  most frequently happen in that part.)  Modern  sur-
  geons mean, by this term, a swelling of the lymphatic
  glands, particularly of those of the groin and axilla.
  The disease may arise from the mere irritation of some 
BUC
BUG
local disorder, when it is called sympathetic bubo; from
•he absorption of some irritating matter, such as the
venereal poison; or from constitutional causes, as in
the pestilential bubo, and scrophulous swellings, of the
inguinal and axillary gland.
  BU'BON.  (From |3ouSuiv, the groin, or a tumour to
which that part is liable, and which it was supposed to
cure.)   The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  Bubon galbanum.  The systematic name of the
plant which affords the officinal galbanum.  Albetad;
Chalbane;  Gesor.  The plant is also  named Ferula
Africana;  Oreoselinum Africanum; Anisian frutico-
sum galbaniferum; Anisum Africanum fruticescens ;
Ayborzat.  The lovage-leaved bubon.  Bubon;—foliis
rkombcis dentatis striatis glabris, umbellis paucis, of
Lmnseus.  Galbanum  is  the gummi-resinous juice,
obtained partly by its spontaneous exudation from the
joints of the stem, but more generally, and in greater
abundance, by making an incision in the stalk, a few
inches  above  the root, from  which it immediately
issues, and soon becomes sufficiently  concrete to be
gathered.  It is imported into England from Turkey,
and the East Indies, in large, sottish, ductile,  pale-
coloured masses, which, by age, acquire a brownish-
yellow appearance; these are intermixed with distinct
whitish tears, that are the most pure part of the mass.
Galbanum has a strong unpleasant smell, and a warm,
bitterish, acrid taste.  Like the other gummy resins, it
unites with water, by trituration into  a milky liquor,
but does not perfectly dissolve, as some have reported,
in water, vinegar, or wine.  Rectified  spirit takes up
much more than either of these menstrua, but not the
whole; the tincture is of a bright golden colour. A
mixture of two parts of rectified spirit, and one of
water, dissolves all but the impurities, which are com-
monly in considerable quantity.   In distillation with
Water,  the oil separates and rises to  the surface, in
colour  yellowish, in  quantity one-twentieth of the
weight of the galbanum.  Galbanum, medicinally con-
sidered, may be said to hold  a middle rank between
assafoeiida and ammoniacum; but its fcetidness is very
inconsiderable, especially when  compared with the
former: it  is therefore accounted less antispasmodic,
nor are its expectorant qualities equal to those of the
latter: it however is esteemed more efficacious  than
either in hysterical disorders. Externally,  it is often
applied, by surgeons, lo expedite the suppuration of
 inflammatory and indolent tumours, and, by physicians,
as a warm stimulating plaster. It is an ingredient in
the pilule g alb ani composite, the emplastrum gatbani
 compos.tum of the London Pharmacopoeia, and in the
emplastrum gummosum of the Edinburgh.
   Bubon MAtEnoNicuM.   The systematic name ofthe
plant which  affords the semen petroselini Macedonici
 of the  shops.  Apium petreum; Petrapium.  Mace-
 donian parsley.   This plant is similar in quality to the
 common parsley, but weaker and less grateful.  The
 seeds enter the celebrated compounds mithridate and
 theriaca.
   Bubo'niuk.   (From BovSoiv, the groin.)  A name of
 the golden starwort; so called because it was supposed
 to he efficacious in diseases of the groin.
   BUBONOCE'LE.  (From Bov6iav, the groin, and
 tcnXn, a tumour.)  Hernia inguinalis.  Inguinal her-
 nia, or rupture  of the groin.  A species of hernia, in
 which  tbe bowels protrude, at the abdominal  ring.
 See Hernia inguinalis.
   BUCCA.  (Hebrew.)   The cheek.   The  hollow
 inner part of the cheek, that is inflated by the act of
 blowing.
   B uccacr a'to v.  (From bucca, or buccella, and xpaw,
 to mix.)   A morsel of bread sopped in wine, which
 served  in old times for a breakfast.
   BUCCAL.   (From bucca, the cheek.)   Belonging
 to the cheek
   Biccinales glandulje.  The  small glands of the
 mouth, under  the cheek  which assist in secreting
 saliva  into that cavity.
   Bu'ccka.   (From buccu, ihe cheek; as much as can
 be contained at one  time within the  cheeks.)  1. A
 mouthful; a morsel.
   2. A polypus ofthe nose.
   Buccela'ton.  (From buccella, a morsel.)  A  purg-
 ing medicine, made up in the form of a loaf; consisting
 of scammony, Sec. put into fermented flour, and then
 baked  in on oven.
  Bucce'lla.  Paracelsus calls the polypus in the nose
by this name, because he supposes it to be a portion of
flesh parting from the bucca, and insinuating itself into
the nose.
  Buccella'tto.  (From bucellatus,  cat  into  small
pieces.)  Baccellatio.    A  method  of stopping  an
haemorrhage, by applying small piecesof lint to the vein,
or artery.
  BUCCINA'TOR.  (From Bovxavov, a trumpet; so
named from its use in forcing the breath to sound the
trumpet)   Retractor anguli oris of  Albinus, and
alveolo-maxillaire of Dumas.  The trumpeter's mus-
cle.  The buccinator was long thought to be a muscle
of the lower jaw, arising from the upper alveoli, and
inserted into  the  lower alveoli, to pull the jaw up-
wards; but its origin and insertion, and the direction of
its fibr/s, are quite the reverse of this.   For this large
flat muscle, which forms in a manner the walls of the
erieek, arises chiefly from the coronoid process of the
lower jaw-bone, and partly also from  the end of the
alveoli, or socket process of the upper-jaw, close  by the
pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone: it goes forward,
with direct fibres, to be implanted into the comer of the
mouth; it is  thin and flat, covers in the mouth, and
forms  the walls of the cheek, and  is perforated  in tbe
middle of the cheek by the duct of the parotid gland.
These are its principal uses:—it flattens the cheek, and
so assists in swallowing liquids; it turns, or helps to
turn, the morsel in the mouth wh.ie chewing, and pre-
vents it from  getting without the line of the teeth ; i/>
blowing wind instruments, it *oth receives and expels
the wind;  it dilates like a  bag, so as to receive tbe
wind in the cheeks; and it contracts upon the wind, so
as to expel  the wind, and to swell the note.  In blow-
ing ihe strong wind-instruments, we cannot blow from
the lungs, for it distresses the breathing, we reserve the
air in the mouth, which we keep continually full; and
from  this  circumstance, as mentioned above, it  is
named buccinator, from blowing the trumpet.
   Bu'ccula.   (Diminutive of bucca, the cheek.)  The
fleshy part  under the chin.
   Bucephalon, red-fruited.  See Trophis Americana.
   Bu'ceras.   (From Bovs, an ox, and xtpas, a horn;
so called from the horn-like appearance of its  seed.)
Buceros.  See Trigonella Fenumgrecum.
   BUCHAN,  William, was  born  at Ancram,  in
1729.  After studying at Edinburgh, he settled in Shef-
field, and was soon appointed physician to the Found-
ling Hospital  at  Ackworth:  but that  establishment
being afterward given up, he went to practise at Edin-
burgh, where he remained several years. During that
 period he composed his celebrated work, called " Do-
 mestic Medicine," on the plan  of Tipsot's " Avis aux
 Peuples;"  which has been very extensively circulated,
 translated into other languages, and obtained the au-
 thor a gold medal, with a commendatory letter, from
 the Empress  of Russia. It has  been  objected, that
 such publications tend  to degrade and  injure the me-
 dical  profession; but  it does not appear, that those
 who are properly  qualified can  suffer permanently
 thereby. There seems more foundation for the opinion,
 that imaginary diseases will be multiplied, and patients
 sometimes fall  victims to their complaints, being
 treated by those who  do  not properly  understand
 them.  Dr. Buchan afterward practised in  London,
 and published some other works; and died in 1805
   BUCK-BEAN.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
   BUCK-THORN.  See Rhamnus eatharticus.
   BUCK-WHEAT. See Polygonum fagopyrum.
   Buck-wheat, eastern.  See Polygonum divaricatnm.
   BUCNEMIA.  (Bucnemia; from Sou, a (.'reek aug
 menl, and icvnpn, the leg)  A name in Good's Noso
 logy for a genus of  disease characterized  by a tense,
 diffuse, inflammatory swelling ofthe lower extremity!
 usually commencing at the inguinal glands, and ex-
 tending in the course of the lymphatics, it embraces
 two species; 1. Bucnemia sparganosis, the puerpeial
 tumid leg.
   2.  Bucnemia tropica, the tumid leg of hot climates.
   Buura'nion.  (From Bovs, an ox, and  Kpaviov, the
 head; so called from its supposed  resemblance to a
 calf's snout.)  The Snap-dragon  plant.  See  Antir
 rhinum.
   Bu'cton.   The hymen, according to Piraeus.
   Buoa'ntia.  Chilblains.
   BUGLE.  See Prunella.
   f Pea lb weed.  This plant  is tbe  Lytewus Vit> 
BUL
BUN
 tntca.  It has of late been popular as a remedy in
oleeding from  the lungs, taken freely in the form of
decoction.  It is not, however, introduced as a medi-
cinal plant into the American Pharmacopoeia, nor in
Bigelow's Materia Medica.   Physicians in  general
place little confidence in its efficacy.  A.]
  BUGLOSS.  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglo'ssa.  See Anchusa officinalis.
  BUGLOSSUM.  (Buglossum,i. n.; from Bovs, an
ox, and yXuioca, a tongue:  so called from the shape
and roughness  of its leaf.)  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglossum  angustifolium.  See Anchusa offici-
nalis.
  Buglossum  majus.  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglossum  sativum.  See Anchusa officinalis.
  Buglossum  sylvestre.  The stone bugloss.
  Bu oula.  (A diminutive of buglossa.) See Ajuga
pyramidalis.
  [BUHRSTONE. Millstone.  " The exterior aspect
of this mineral is somewhat peculiar.  It  occurs in
amorphous masses, partly compact, but  always con-
taining a greater or less number  of irregular cavities.
Sometimes the mass  is comparatively compact,  and
the cavities small and less frequent, but they always
exist even in specimens  of a moderate  size.  These
cavities are sometimes crossed by siliceous threads or
membranes, much resembling the interior structure of
certain bones; and are sometimes lined by siliceous
Incrustations, or crystals of quartz.
  Its fracture  is nearly even, sometimes dull,  and
sometimes smooth, like  that of flint.   Its  colour is
gray or whitish, sometimes with a tinge  of  blue,  and
sometimes  yellowish or reddish.    Near Paris, the
Buhrstone occurs in  beds, unusually horizontal,  and
seldom more than 9 or 10 feet thick.  It contains no
organic remains.  Its cavities are  often crossed  by
threads, and filled with  argillaceous marl  or sand;
but are very seldom lined by crystals of quartz.
  In Georgia, (United States,) the Buhrstone is found
■ear the boundary of South Carolina, about 40 miles
from the  sea.  It is  said  to cover  shell limestone.
Borne of its cavities are those of shells in a siliceous
itate, and  lined by siliceous incrustations, or crystals
»f quartz.  Others are traversed by minute threads,
or contain a friable substance somewhat argillaceous.
Its hardness and  cavities, when not too numerous,
render it  peculiarly  useful for making millstones.
Hence  also it  is sometimes known  by the  name of
Millstone."—See Cleav. Min.  A.]
  BULBIFERUS.  (From bulbus, and fero, to bear.)
BulU-bearing.  Having one or more  bulbs; applied to
•terns. Caulis bulbiferus.
  BULBOCASTANUM.  (From BoXSos, a bulb,  and
cufavnv,  a chesnut:  so  called from its bulbous ap-
pearance.)  See Bunium bulbocastanam.
  BULBOCA VERNO'SUS.  (So called from its ori-
gin and insertion.)  See Accelerator urine.
  Bu'lbonach. See Lunaria rediviva.
  BULBOSUS.  (From bulba, a  bulb.)   Bulbous:
applied in anatomy to soft parts which are  naturally
enlarged, as the bulbous part of the urethra.  In bota-
ny, to roots which have a bulb; as tulip, onion, lily, Sec.
  B'/lbos.e.   (jTtom  bulbus.)   The  name of a class
of Casalpmus's  systematic  method, consisting  of
heibaceous vegetables, which have a bulbous root, and
a jicricarpium, divided into three cells; also, the name
of one ofthe natural orders of plants.
  BULBULUS.  A litre bulb.
  BUL'BUS.  (BoAfSos, a bulb, or somewhat rounded
root.)   A globular, or pyriform coated body, solid, or
formed of fleshy scales or layers,  constituting  the
lower part of some plants, and giving off  radicals from
Ihe circumference of the flattened basis.   A  bulb dif-
fers from a tuber, which is  a farinaceous root, and
sends off radicles in every direction.
  Bulbs are divided into,
   1. The solid, which consists of a  solid fleshy nutri-
tious substance; as in Crocus sativus, Colchicum au-
tumnale,  Tuiipa gesneriana.
  2. The scaly, which consists  of fleshy concentrical
scales attached to a radical plate; as in Allium cepa.
   3. The ."fuamose, consisting of concave, overlapping
scales; as iu Lilium candidum, and Lilium bulbiferum.
  4. The  compounded, consisting  of several lesser
bulbs, lying close to each other: as in Allium sativum.
   The bulbs of the orchis tribe differ from tbe common
•ulbs in .lot sending off radicles from the lower part,
       158
but from between the stem and basis.  These are dis-
tinguished into,
  5. The testicular, having two bulbs of a round-ob-
long form;  as in Orchis morio, and  Orchis mascula.
  6. Palmate, a  compressed bulb,  hand-like, divided
below into finger-like lobes; as in Orchis maculata.
  Bulbus esculentus.   Such bulbous roots  as are
commonly eaten are so called.
  Bulbus vomitorius.  See Hyacinthus muscari.
  BULGE-WATER-TREE.  The  Geoffroya jamai-
censis.
  BULl'MIA.  (From Bov, a particle of excess, and
Xiuos, hunger.)   Bulimiasis ;  Boulimos;  Bulimus;
Bohsmos of Avicenna.   Fames canina;  Appetitus
caninus; Phagedena; Adephagia; Bupeina;   Oyno-
rexia.  Insatiable hunger, or canine appetite.
  Dr. Cullen places this genus of disease in the class
Locales,  and order  Dysorexia;  and  distinguishes
three species.  1. Bulimia helluonum; in which there
is no other disorder of the stomach,  than an excessive
craving of food.  2. Bulimia syncopalis;  in  which
there is a frequent desire of food, and the sense of
hunger is preceded by swooning.  3. Bulimia emetica,
also cynorexia;  in which an extraordinary appetite
for food is followed by vomiting.  The real  causes of
this disease are, perhaps, not properly  understood. In
some cases, it has been supposed to proceed from an
acid in the stomach, and in others, from a superabun-
dance of acid in the gastric juice, and from  indigested
sordes,  or worms.   Some consider it as depending
more frequently on monstrosity than disease.  An ex-
traordinary and well attested case of this disease, is
related in the third volume of the Medical  and Phy-
sical Journal, of a French prisoner, who, in one day,
consumed of raw cow's udder 4 lbs., raw beef 10 lbs.,
candles 2 lbs.; total, 16 lbs.;  besides 5 bottles of porter.
  Bulimia adephagia.   A voracious appetite.
  Bulimia canina.  A voracious appetite, with sub-
sequent vomiting.
  Bulimia cardialgica.  A voracious appetite, with
heartburn.
  Bulimia  convulsorum.   A  voracious   appetite,
which attends some convulsive diseases.
  Bulimia emetica.  A voracious  appetite, with vo-
miting.
  Bulimia esurioio.  Gluttony.
  Bulimia helluonum.  Gluttony.
  Bulimia  syncopalis.  A voracious appetite, with
fainting from hunger.
  Bulimia  verminosa.  A voracious appetite from
worms.
  BULIMIASIS.  See Bulimia.
  BULIMUS.  See Bulimia.
  BULI'THUM.  (From  Bovs, an  ox, and Xidos, a
Btone.)  A  bezoar, or stone found in the kidneys, or
gall, or urinary bladder, of an ox, or cow.
  BU'LLA. A bubble.  A clear vesicle, which arises
from burns, or scalds; or other causes.
  [This word is also  applied by Linnaeus to a genus
of univalve shells.  A.]
  BU'LLACE.   The English name of the fruit ofthe
Prunus insitia of Linnaeus, which grows wild  in our
hedges.  There  are two varieties of  bullace, the red
and the white, which arc used with  the same inten-
tion as the common damsons.
  BULLATUS.  (From bulla, a bubble, or blister.)
Blistery.  Applied to a leaf which has  its veins so
tight, that the  intermediate space  appears  blistered.
This appearance is frequent in the garden cabbage.
  Bullosa febris.  An epithet applied to  the vesi-
cular fever, because the skin is covered with little ve-
sicles, or blisters.  See Pemphigus.
  Buni'tes vinum.  (From bunium, wild  parsley.)
Wine made of bunium and must.
  BUNIUM.  (From Bovvos, a little hill; so called
from the tuberosity of its root.)  1. The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pen-
tandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The name ofthe wild parsley.
  Bunium bulbocastanum.  The  systematic  name
of a plant, the root of which is called  the pig-nut.
Agriocastanum; Nucula terrestris; Bulbocaetaneum;
Bulbocastanum majus et minus.  Earth-nut; Hawk-
nut ; Kipper-nut; and Pig-nut The  root is as large
as a nutmeg; hard, tuberous, and whitish;  which is
eaten raw, or  roasted.   It is sweetish to  tbe  taste,
nourishing, and supposed to be of use against strangnry 
BUR
BUR
and bloody urine.  The roots, which are frequently
 Sloughed up by the peasants of Burgundy, and called
 y them  arnotta; and those found in Scotland, and
called arnots, are most probably the roots of this spe-
cies of bunium.  They are roasted, and thus acquire
the flavour of chesnuts.
  Bu'nius.  A species of turnip.
  BU'PEINA.   (From Bov, a particle of magnitude,
and zstiva, hunger.)  A voracious appetite.
  BU'PHAGOS. (From Bov, a particle of excess, and
payio, to eat.)  The name of an antidote which created
a voracious appetite in Marcellus Empericus.
  BUPHTHALMUM.  (From Bovs, an ox, an oebBaX-
uoj, an eye; so called from its flowers, which are sup-
posed to resemble an eye.)   The herb, ox-eye  daisy.
See Ohrysanthemum leucanthemum.
  Buphthalmum creticum.  Pellitory of Spain.  See
 Anthemis pyrethrum.
  Buphthalmum oermanicum.  The common ox-eye
 daisy.
   Buphthalmum  majus.   Great, or ox-eye  daisy.
 See Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
   BUPHTHALMUS.  (From  Bovs, an  ox,  and
 otbdaXpos, an eye; so named from its large appear-
 ance like an ox's eye.)
   1. Houseleek.
   2. Diseased enlargement of the eye.
   BUBLEU'RUM.   (From Bov, large, and -aXsvpov, a
 rib; so named from its having large rib-like filaments
 upon its leaves.)   1. The  name of a genus of plants
 in the Liiuwean system. Class, Syngenesia;  Order,
 Polygamia superflua.
   2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe herb hare's ear.
 See Bupleurum rotundifolium.
   Bupleurum rotundifolium. The systematic name
 ofthe plant called perfoliata, in some pharmacopoeias-.
 Bupleuron ; Bupleuroides.  Round-leaved  hare's ear,
 or thorow wax. This plant was  formerly celebrated
 for curing ruptures, mixed into a  poultice  with wine
 and oatmeal.
   BU'RDOCK.  See Arctium lappa.
   BU'RGUNDY PITCH.  See Pinus abies.
   Bu'ris. According to Avicenna, a scirrhous hernia,
  or hard abscess.                     ....     ,
   BURN.  Ambustio.  A burn, or scald, is a lesion of
  the animal body, occasioned by the application of heat,
  but the latter term is applicable only where  this is con-
  veyed through  the  medium of some fluid.   The con-
  sequences are  more or  less serious according to the
  extent of the injury, or  the particular  part affected:
  sometimes even proving fatal, particularly in irritable
  constitutions.  The life of the part may be at once
  destroyed by these accidents, or mortification speedily
  follow the violent  inflammation  excited; but when
  slighter, it usually produces an effusion of serum un-
  der the cuticle, like a blister.   When the injury is ex-
  tensive, considerable fever is apt to supervene, some-
  times a comatose state;  and a remarkable difficulty  ot
  breathing often precedes death.   In  the treatment  of
  these accidents, two very different methods have been
  pursued. The more ancient plan  consists in r.ntiphlo-
  gistic means, giving cooling  purgatives, 4c. and even
  taking blood, where the irritation  is great; employing
  at the same time cold applications, and where the skin
  is destroyed, emollient dressings;  opium  was  also
  recommended  to relieve  the pain, notwithstanding
  stupor might attend.
    Mr. Cleghorn, a brewer at Edinburgh, was very suc-
  cessful in these cases by a treatment materially differ-
  ent • first bathing the part with vinegar, usually a little
  warmed, till the pain abated; then, if there were any
  destruction of the parts, applying poultices, and finely
  powdered chalk immediately on the sore, to absorb the
  discharge: in the meantime allowing the patient to live
  pretty well, and abstaining from active purgatives, &c.
  More recently, a surgeon  at Newcastle, of the name
  of Kentish, has deviated  still more from  the ancient
  practice; applying  first oil of turpentine, alkohol, &c.
  heated as  much as the  sound parte could bear, and
  eradually lessening the stimulus; in the  mean time
  Supporting the patient by a cordial diet, sether.&c.
  andgivlng opium largely to lessen the irritation. Now,
            chiefly  under  his care were  of  persons
the antiphlogistic plan, or to use cold applications,
which, while intended to keep down action, are wear-
ing out the power of the part. If any extraneous sub-
stance be forced into the burnt part, it should be ot
course removed: and sometimes where a limb is irre-
coverably injured, amputation maybe necessary.
  Bu'rnea.   Pitch.
  Burnet saxifrage.   See Pimpinella.
  Burning.   Brenning.  An ancient medical term,
denoting an infectious disease, got in the stews by con-
versing  with lewd women,  and  supposed to 6c the
same with what we now call tbe venereal disease.
  Burnt hartshorn.  See Cornu ustum.
  Burnt sponge.  See Spongia usta.
  Bu'rrhi spiritus  matricalis.  Burrhus's spirit,
for disorders of the womb.  A compound of myrrh,
olibanum, amber, and spirit of wine.
   BU'RSA.  From Bvpva, a bag.)  A bag.  1. The
scrotum.
  ?, An herb called Thlaspi bursa pasloris, from the re-
semblance of its seminal follicles to a triangular purse.
   Bursa mucosa.  A mucous bag, composed of pro-
per membranes, containing a kind  of mucous fat,
formed  by the  exhaling arteries  of the internal coat.
The bursa mucosae are of different sizes and firmness,
 and are  connected by the cellular membrane with arti
cular cavities,  tendons, ligaments, or the  periosteum.
 Their use is to secrete and contain a substance  to lu-
 bricate tendons, muscles, and bones, in order to render
 their motions easy.
the cases  ....•—v  -----
scorched very exteusively by the explosion of  ear
burctted hydrogen in mines;  and probably where the
lniurv is over a large part of the surface, or where the
constitution U weakly, it may be hazardous to pursue 1 tendon of the anconou. muscle.
        A Table of all the Bursa Mucosa.

                  In the Head.
  1. A bursa of the  superior oblique muscle of tho
eye, situated behind its trochlea in the orbit.
  2. The bursa of the digastricus, situated in the in-
ternal surface of its tendon.
  3. A bursa  of  the circumflexus, or tensor palati,
situated between the hook-like process of the sphenoid
bone and the tendon of that muscle.
  4. A bursa of the stemo-hyoideus muscle, situated
between the os hyoide3 and larynx.

             About the Shoulder-joint.
  1. The external acromial, situated under the  acro-
mion, between tne coracoid process, deltoid  muscle,
and capsular ligament.
  2.  The internal acromial, situated above the tendon
of the infra-spinatus and teres major:  it often com-
municates with the former.
  3.  The coracoid bursa, situated near the root of the
coracoid process;  it is  sometimes double and some-
times triple.
  4.  The  clavieula bursa, found where the  clavicle
touches the coracoid process.
  5.  The subclavian bursa, "between the tendon of the
subclavius muscle and the first rib.
  6.  The coraco-brachial, placed between the common
origin of this muscle and the biceps, aud the capsular
ligament.
  7.  The bursa of the pectoralis major, situated under
the head of the humerus, between the internal surface
of tbe tendon of that muscle, and another bursa placed
on the long head of the biceps.
  8. An external bursa of the teres major, under the
head  of the os humeri, between  it and the tendon of
the teres major.
  9.  An  internal bursa of  the teres  major,  found
within the muscle where  the fibres of  its  tendons
diverge.
  10.  A  bursa of the. latissimus dorst, between the
tendon of this muscle and the os humeri.
  11.  The humero-bicipital bursa, in the vagina of the
tendon of the biceps.
  There are other burse mucosae about the humerus,
 but their situation is uncertain.

               Near the Elbourjoint
   1.  The radio-bicipital is situated between the tendon
 of the biceps, brachialis, and anterior tubercle of the
 radius.                                   ,
  2.  The cubito-radial between  the tendon of the bi-
 ceps, supinator brevis, and the ligament common to
 the radius and ulna.
   3.  The anciineal bursa, between the olecranon and
157 
BUR
BUT
  4. The capitulo-radial bursa, between the tendon
 common to the extensor carpi radialis brevis, and ex-
 tensor communis digitorum,  and  round head of the
 radius.   There are occasionally other bursee ; but as
 their situation varies, they are omitted.

 About  the inferior part of the Fore-arm and Hand.

        On the inside of the Wrist and Hand.
  1. A very large bursa, for the tendon of the flexor
 pollicis  longus.
  2. Four short bursa on the  forepart of the tendons
 of the flexor sublimis.
  3. A  large bursa behind the tendon of the flexor
 pollicis  longus, between it and the forepart of the ra-
 dius, capsular ligament of the  wrist and os trapezium.
  4. A large bursa behind the tendons of the flexor
 digitorum profundus, and on the forepart of  the end of
 the  radius, and forepart of the capsular ligament of
 the wrist.  In some subjects it communicates with the
 former.
  5. An oblong bursa between the tendon of the flexor
 carpi radialis and os trapezium.
  6. A very small bursa between  the tendon of the
 flexor carpi ulnaris and os pis itorme.

      On the back part of the  Wrist and Hand.
  7. A bursa between the tendon of the abductor pol-
 licis longus and the radius.
  8. A large bursa between the two extensores carpi
 radiales.
  9. Another below it, common to the extensores carpi
 radiates.
  10. A bursa, at the insertion of the tendon of the
extensor carpi radialis.
  11. An oblong bursa, for the tendon of the extensor
pollicis longus, and which communicates with 9.
  12. A bursa, for the tendon  of the extensor pollicis
longus, between it and  the metacarpal  bone of the
thumb.
  13. A bursa between the tendons of the extensor of
the fore, middle, and ring fingers.
  14. A bursa  for the extensors of  the little finger.
  15. A bursa between  the tendon of the extensor
carpi ulnaris and ligament of the wrist.
  There are also bursse mucosa; between the musculi
 luinbricales and interossei.

               Near the Hip-joint.

           On ihe forepart of the joint.
  1. The ileo-puberal, situated between the iliacus in-
ternus, psoas magnus, and the capsular ligament of the
bead of the femur.
  2. The pectineal, between the tendon of the pecU-
 neus and the thigh-bone.
  3. A small bursa of the gluteus mediu muscle, situ-
ated between  it and the great trochanter, before the
insertion of the pyriformis.
  4. A bursa of the gluteus minimus muscle between
its tendon and the great trochanter.
  5.  The gluteo-fascial, between the gluteu maximus
and vastus externus.

       On the  posterior part of the Hip-joint.
  6.  The tubero-ischiatic bursa, situated between the
obturator internus  muscle, the posterior spine of the
ischium, and its tuberosity.
  7. The obturatory bursa, which is oblong and found
between the obturator  internu and geniini muscles,
and the  capsular ligament.
  8. A bursa of the semi-membranosu under its origin
and the  long head of the biceps femoris.
  9. The gleuteo trochanteral bursa, situated between
the tendon of the  psoas  muscle and the root of the
great trochanter.
  10. 7V>o glutco-femoral bursa, situated between the
tendon of the gluteus maximus and os femoris.
  11. A  bursa  of the quadratus femoris, situated be-
tween it and the little trochanter.
  12. Tlie iliac bursa, situated between the tendon of
the iiiacua internus and the little trochanter.

               Near the Knee-joint,
  L The supra-genual, which adheres to the tendons
 of the vastus  and cruraUs and the forepart of tbe
 thigh-bone.
      1SB
  2. The infra-genual bursa, situated under the llga
ment of the patella, and often communicating with the
ElbOVGi
  3. The anterior genual, placed between the tendon
of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus, and the
internal and lateral ligament of the knee.
  4. The posterior genual, which is sometimes double
and is situated between the tendons ofthe semi-mem
branosus, the internal head of the gastrocnemius, the
capsular-ligament,  and internal condyle.
  5. The popliteal, conspicuous between the tendon
of that muscle, the external condyle of the femur, the
semilunar cartilage, and external condyle of the tibia.
  6. The bursa of the biceps cruris, between the ex-
ternal part of the  tendon, the biceps cruris, and the
external lateral ligament of the knee.

                   In the Foot

     On the back, side, and hind part of the Foot.
  1. A bursa of the tibialis anticus, between its  ten
don, the lower part of the tibia, and capsular ligament
of the ankle.
  2. A bursa between the tendon of  the extensor  pol-
licis pedis longus, the tibia, and capsular ligament of
the  ankle.
  3. A bursa of  the extensor digitorum  communis,
between  its tendons, the  tibia,  and ligament of the
ankle.
  4. A large bursa, common to the tendons of the pe-
ronei muscles.
  5. A bursa of the peroneus  brevis, proper to its
tendon.
  6. The calcaneal bursa, between the tendo Achillis
and os calcis.

              In the Sole  of the Foot.
  1. A bursa for the tendon of the peroneus longus.
  2. A bursa common to the tendon of the flexor  pol ■
licis pedis longus, and  the tendon of the flexor digito-
rum pedis communis longus profundus.
  3. A bursa of the tibialis posticus, between its  ten-
don, the tibia, and astragalus.
  4. Five bursa for the flexor tendons, which begin a
little above the  first joint  of each toe, and extend to
the  root  of the third phalanx, or insertion of  the
tendons.
  BURSA'LIS.  From its resemblance to a bursa, or
purse.  See Obturator externus et internus.
  BURSA'LOGY.   (Bursalogia; from Bvpoa, a  bag,
and Xoyos, a discourse.)  The doctrine  of  the bursa;
mucosa*.
  BUSELI'NUM.   (From (3ov, great, and  ctXtvov,
parsley.)  A Inrge species of parsley.
  Bu'ss'n spiritus bezoardicus.   The  bezoardic
spirit of Bussius, an eminent physician at Dresden
A distillation of ivory, sal-ammoniac, amber, &c.
  BUTCHERSBROOM.   See Ruscus.
  Bu'tiga.  Small red pimples on the face.  Called
also gutta rosacea.
  Bu tino.   Turpentine.
  Bu'tomon.  See Iris pseudacorus.
  BUTTER.   (Bulyrum; from Bovs, a cow, and rv-
pos, coagulum, or cream.)   "The oily, inflammable
part of milk, which is prepared  in many countries as
an article of food.  The common mode of preserving
it is by the  addition of salt, which will keep it good a
considerable time, if in sufficient quantity.  Mr. Eaton
informs us, in his Survey of the Turkish Empire,  that
most of  the butter used at Constantinople is brought
from the  Crimea and Kirban, and that it is kept sweet
by melting  it while fresh over a very slow fire,  and
removing the scum as it rises.  He adds, that by melt-
ing  butter in the Tartarian manner, and then salting
it in ours, he kept it good and fine-tasted for two years;
and that this melting, if carefully done, injures neither
the  taste  nor  colour.  Thenard, too, recommends the
Tartarian method.   He directs the melting to be done
on a water-bath, or at a  heat not exceeding 180° F.;
and 'to be continued until all the caseous matter  has
subsided  to the  bottom, and  the butter is transparent.
It is then to be decanted,  or  strained through a cloth,
and cooled  in a mixture of pounded ice and salt, or at
least in cold spring water, otherwise it will become
lumpy by crystallizing, and likewise not  resist the ac-
tion of the  air so well.  Kept in a close vessel, and in
a cool place, it will thus remain, six  months or more 
BUX
BY2?
nearly as good as at first, particularly after the top Is
taken off.  If beaten up with one-sixth of its weight
of the cheesy matter when used,  it will in some de-
gree resemble  fresh butter in appearance.  The taste
of rartcid  butter, he adds, may be much corrected  by
melting and cooling in this manner.
  Dr. Anderson has recommended another mode  of
curing butter, which  is as follows: Take one part of
sugar, one of nitre, and two ofthe best Spanish great
sail, and rub them  together  into a  fine powder.  This
composition is to be mixed thoroughly Willi the butter,
as soon as it is completely freed from the milk, in the
proportion of  one  ounce to sixteen; and the  butter
thus prepared is to be pressed tight into the vessel pre-
pared for it, so as to leave  no vacuities.  This butter
does not taste well  till it has stood  at least a fortnight;
it then has a rich marrow flavour, that no other but-
ter ever acquires; and with proper care may be kept
for years in ibis climate, or  carried to the East Indies,
if packed so as not to melt.
  In the interior parts of Africa, Mr. Pa;dt informs us,
there is a tree much resembling  the American oak,
producing a  nut  in  appearance  somewhat  like  an
olive.  The  kernel of  this  nut, by boiling in water,
affords a kind of butter, which is whiter, firmer, and
of a richer flavour, than any he ever tasted made from
cow's milk, and will keep without salt the whole year.
The natives call it shea toulou, or tree butter.   Large
quantities of it are made every season."
  Fresh butter is nourishing and relaxing, but it rea-
dily becomes sour, and, in general, agrees with few
stomachs.  Rancid butler is one of tbe most unwhole-
some and indigestible of all foods.
  Butter of antimony.   See Murias antimonii.
  Butter of cacao.  An oily concrete white matter,
of  a tinner consistence than suet, obtained from  the
cacao nut, of which chocolate is made.  The method
ot" separating it consists in bruising the cacao and boil-
ing it in water.  The greater part of the superahun-
dantaud uncombined oil contained in the nut is by this
means liquefied, and rises to the surface, where it
swims, and is left to congeal, that it may be the more
easily taken off.   It is generally mixed with small
pieces ot the nut, from which  it may be  purified, by
keeping it iu  fusion without water in a pretty deep
vessel, until the several matters have arranged them-
selves according  to  their  specific gravities.   By this
treatment it becomes very pure and white.
   Butter of cacao is without smell, and has  a very
mild taste, when  fresh ; and in all its general proper-
ties and  habitudes it resembles fat oils, among which
it must therefore be classed.  It is used as an ingredi-
ent iu pomatums.
  BUTTER-BUR.  See Tussilago pctasites.
   BUTTER-FLOWER.  See Ranunculus.
   Butter-milk.  The  thin and  sour milk which is
separated from the cream  by churning it into butter.
   BUTTERWORT.   See  finguicula.
   [Button  snake-root.   See  Eryngium  aquati-
cum.  A.]
   Butua.  See Cissampelos pariera.
   BUTYRIC  ACID.  We owe the discovery  of this
acid to M. Chevreul.   Butter, he says, is composed of
two fat bodies, analogous to those of hog's lard, of  a
colouring principle, and a remarkably odorous one, to
which it owes the properties that distinguish  it from
the fats, properly so called.  This principle, which he
has called butyric acid, forms well characterized salts
wild barytes, strontian, lime, the oxides of copper,
lead, &c.; 100 parts of il neutralize a quantity of base
which contains about 10 of oxygen.  M. Chevreul has
not explained  his method of separating this acid from
the other constituents of butter.   See Journ. de Phar-
macie, iii  80.
   BUTY'RUM.  See Butter.
   Butyrum antimonii.  See Marias antimonii.
   BUXTON.  A village in Derbyshire in which there
are warm  mineral  springs.   Buxtonicnses aqua.
They have been  long  celebrated for their medicinal
properties.  With respect  to sensible properties,  the
Buxton water cannot be distinguished from common
spring water, when heated to the same temperature.
Its temperature, in the gentleman's bath, is invariably
82°.  The principal  peculiarity in the appearance of
this spring, is a large quantity of elastic vapour, that
 rises and forms bubbles, which pass through the water,
 and break as soon as they reach the surface.   The air
 of these bubbles was ascertained, by Dr. Pearson, tc
 consist of azotic gas, mixed with a small proportion of
 atmospheric air.   Buxton water is frequently employ-
 ed both internally and externally: one of which me-
 thods often proves beneficial when the other would be
 injurious: but, as a bath alone, its virtues may not be
 superior to  those of tepid  common water.  As  the
 temperature of 82° is several degrees below that  of
 the human body, a  slight shock of cold  is felton the
 first immersion into the bath; but this is almost  im-
 mediately succeeded by a pleasing glow over the whole
 system.  It is therefore proper for very  delicate and
 irritable habits.   The cases which derive most benefit
 from the external use nf Buxton waters, are  those in
 which a loss of action, and sometimes of sensation,
 affects particular limbs, in consequence of long-conti-
 nued  or violent  inflammation,  or  external injury.
 Hence the chronic rheumatism succeeding the acute,
 and where the inflammation has been  seated in parti-
 cular limbs, is often wonderfully relieved by this bath.
 The internal use of the water has been found to be of
 considerable service in symptoms of defective diges-
 tion and derangement  of the alimentary organs.  A
 judicious use of this simple remedy will often relieve
 tho heartburn,  flatulency,  and sickness; it  will  in-
 crease the appetite, animate the spirits, and  improve
 the health.  At first, however, it sometimes occasions
 a diarrhoea, which is rather salutary than detrimental;
 but costiveness is a more usual effect,  especially in
 sluggish habits.  It also affords great relief when taken
 internally, in painful disorders of the bladders and kid
 neys;  and lias likewise been recommended  in cases
 of gout; but when taken for these complaints, the ad-
 dition of some aromatic tincture is recommended.   In
 all cases of active inflammation, the use of these wa-
 ters should be carefully avoided, on account of their
 supposed heating properties.  A full course consists of
 two glasses, each containing one-third of a pint, before
 breakfast; which quantity should be repeated between
 breakfast and dinner.   In chronic cases, a  long resi-
 dence on the spot is requisite to insure the desired effect.
    BUXUS.  (From BJu/cagio, to  become hard.)  The
 box-tree.  1. The name of a genus of plants in  the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Monecia; Order, Triandria.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the box. See Buxus
 sempervirens.
    Buxus sempervirens.   The systematic  name of
 the buxus of the pharmacopoeias.  The leaves possess
 a very strong, nauseous, bitter taste, and aperient vir-
  tues.  They are occasionally exhibited, in foiin of de-
 coction, among the lower orders of people, in cases of
  dropsy, and asthma, and worms.  As much as will lie
  upon a shilling, of the common dwarf box, dried  and
i  powdered, may be  given at bed-time, every  night, to
  an infant.
    By'arus.  A plexus of blood vessels in the brain.
    Byng.  A Chinese name for green tea.
    Byre'thrum  (Beretta, Ital. or burette, Fr. a cap.)
  Byrethrus.  An odoriferous  cap, filled with  cephalic
 drugs, for the head.
    By'rsa.   (Bvpaa, leather.)   A leather  skin, to
 spread plasters upon.
    Bysau'chen.   (From Bvta, to hide, and avxnv, the
  neck.)  Morbid stiffness of the neck.
    B YSSOLITE.  A massive mineral of an olive green
 colour, found at  the foot of Mount Blanc  and neat
 Oisans in gneiss.
    By'ssus.  (Hebrew.) 1. A woolly kind of moss.
    2. The Pudendum muliebre.
    3. A kind of fine linen.
    [4. The fine silky threads by which the Mytilu
 and Pinna, both bivalve shells, fasten  themselves, ait»
 thereby remain attached to logs or stones in the water.
    The Pinna affords the most and finest quantity of
 this byssus; and, in the Mediterranean, it  has been
 collected and spun into silk, of which various orna-
  mental articles have been made.  A.}
    By'thos.  (Bvfloj, deep.)  An epithet used by Hip-
  pocrates for the bottom of the stomach.
    By'zen.  (From Bvto, to rush together.) In a heap;
 throngingly.  Hippocrates uses this word to express
 the hurry in which the menses flow in an excessive
 ' discbarge.
                                         139 
c
                     CAC

r^ABALI'STICA ARS.   (It is derived fr>m the
^ Hebrew word signifying to receive by tradition.)
Cabala;  Cabula;  Kabala.   Tbe  cabalistic art   A
term that hath been anciently used, in a very myste-
rious sense, among divines; and since, some enthusi-
astic philosophers and chemists transplanted it into
medicine, importing by it somewhat magical; but sjuch
unmeaning terms are now justly rejected.
  Cabalistic art.  See Cabalistica ars.
  CABALLINE.   (Caballinus;  from  EafioXAoj, a
horse.)  Of,  or belonging to, a horse; applied to the
coarsest aloes, because it is so drastic as to be  fit only
for horses.
  Caballine aloes.  See Aloe.
  CABBAGE.  See Brassica.
  Cabbage tree.  See Geoffraya jamaicensis.
  Cacago'ga.  (From kokkv, excrement, and ayta, to
expel.)  1. Cathartics.
  2.  Ointments which, being rubbed  on  the  funda-
ment, procure stools.—Paulus JEgineta,
  Caca'lia.  (Fromkokov, bad, and Aiav, exceedingly;
because it is mischievous  to the soil on which it
grows.)   Cacamum.  The herb wild  chervil, or wild
carraways.
  Ca'camum. See Cacalia.
  CA'CAO.  See Theobroma cacao.
  Cacapho'ma.   (From kokos, bad, and (pwvn,  the
voice.)  Defective articulation.
  Cacato'ria.  (From coco, to go to stool.)  An epi-
thet given by Sylvius  to a kind of intermittent fever,
attended with copious stools.
  Caccio'nde.   A  pill  recommended  by  Baglivi
against dysenteries; its basis is catechu.
  CACHE'XIA.  (From kukos, bad, andri-u, a  habit)
A bad habit of body, known by a depraved or vitiated
state of the solids and fluids.
  CACHE'XLE.   (The plural of cachexia.)  A class
of diseases  in Cullen's  Nosology, embracing three
orders; viz. Marcorcs, Intumescentia, and Impetigines.
  CACHINNA'TIO.   (From  cachinno, to  laugh
aloud.)  A  tendency to immoderate  laughter, as id
some hysteric and maniacal affections.
  Ca'chlex.  A little stone, or pebble. Galen says,
that the cochleces, heated in the fire and quenched in
whey, become astringents, and useful  in dysenteries.
  CACHOLONG.  A variety of quartz.
  Cacho're.  A name of catechu.
  CA'CHRYS.  (Kaxpvs- which  is used  in various
senses.)   1. Galen says, it sometimes means parched
barley.
  2. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  Cachrys odontalgics.  A plant, the root of which
may  be substituted for that of the pyrethrum against
toothache.
  Cachu.  See Acacia catechu.
  CACHU'NDE.   A  medicine highly celebrated
among the Chiiibse and Indians, made of several aro-
matic ingredients, perfumes, medicinal  earths, and
precious stones.  They make the whole into  a stiff
paste, and form out of it several figures, according to
their fancy, which are dried for use.  These are prin-
cipally used in the East Indies, but are  sometimes
brought over to Portugal.   In China, the principal
persons usually carry a small piece in their mouths,
which is a continued cordial, and gives their breath a
very sweet smell.  It is highly esteemed as a medicine
in nervous complaints; and it is reckoned a prolonger
of life and a provocative to  venery; the two great
intentions of most of the medicines used in the East.
  Cachy'mia.  Kaicvuia.   An imperfect metal, or an
immature metalline ore, according to Paracelsus.
  Cacoalexite'rium.  (From kukos, bad, and aXtlt-
Jnoeu, to preserve.)  An antidote to poison or  against
infectious diseases.
  CACOCHO'LIA.   (From kukos, and voXij, bile.)
A vitiated or unhealthy condition of the bile.
  CACOCH Y'LIA.   (From kukos, bad, and xuXr,, the
ehyle.)  Indigestion, or depraved chyliflcation.
  CACOCHY'MIA.  (From  kokos, bad, and  x«M«Ji
Juice, or humour.)  A diseased or depraved state of
the humours.
                      CAD

  CACOCNlS'MUS.  (From *u»s, bad, and tcvnun,
the leg.)   Having a natural defect in the tibia.
  CACOCORE'MA.  (From kukos, bad, and Koptia, to
purge, or cleanse.)   A medicine which purges off the
vitiated humoucs.
  CACODjE'MON.  (From kukos, bad, and iatuuv, a
spirit)  An evil spirit, or genius, which was supposed
to preside over the bodies of men, and afflict them
with certain disorders.  The nightmare.
  CACO'DIA.  (From kokos, bad, and a>gw, to smelL)
A defect in the sense of smelling.
  CACOE'THES.   (From kukos, ill, and nBos, a word
which, when applied to diseases, signifies a quality, or
a disposition.)  Hippocrates applied this word to ma-
lignant and difficult distempers.  Galen,  and  some
others, express by it an incurable ulcer, that is ren-
dered so through tbe acrimony of the humours flowing
to it.  Linnaeus and Vogel use  this term much in the
same sense with Galen, and describe the ulcer as su-
perficial, spreading, weeping, and  with callous edges.
  CACOPA'THIA.  (From kokos, bad, and actios,
affection.)  An ill affection of the body, or part.
  CACOPHO'NIA. (From kukos, bad, and tfxavn, the
voice.)  1.  A defect in the organs of speech.
  2. A bad pronunciation.
  Cacopra'gia.  (From kukos,  bad,  and apar'Ju, to
perform.)   Diseased viscera.
  Cacorry'thmus. (From kokos, bad, and pvQuos
order.)  A disordered pulse.
  CACO'SIS.  (From kukos, bad.) A bad disposition
of body.
  CACOSI'TIA.   (From  kokos, and ailtov, food.)
An aversion to food, or nausea.
  CACOSPHY'XIA.  (From kokos, bad, and <r<pv\tt,
puise.)  A disorder of the pulse.
  CACOSTO'MACHUS.  (From  kokos,  bad,  and
S-ouaxos, the stomach.)  A bad or disordered stomach;
applied also to food which the stomach rejects.
  CACO'STOMUS.   (From kokos, bad, and ?oua, a
mouth.)   Having a bad formed, or disordered mouth.
  CACOTHY'MIA.  (From xaxos, ill, and Svuos,  the
mind.)  Any vicious disposition  of  the mind; or a
diseased mind.
  CACOTRO'PHIA.   (From iraicoy,  ill, and toooJi/,
nutriment.)  1. A vitiated nourishment
  2. A wasting of the body, from want of nutrition.
  CA'CTUS.  (From koktos, the Greek name of a
plant  described by Theophrasta.)   The name of a
genus of plants in  the  Linnaean system.  Class, Ico-
sandria; Order,  Monogynia.   The melon-thistle, or
prickly-pear.
  Cactus opuntia.  The systematic name of  the
opuntia  of the pharmacopoeias.   The prickly leaves
of this plant abound  with a  mucilaginous  matter,
which is esteemed in its native countries an emollient,
in the form of poultice.
  CACU'BALUS.   (From kokos, evil, and  fiaXXta,
to cast out; so named because it was thought to bo
efficacious in expelling poisons.)  See  Cncubalus bac-
ciforum.
  Ca'cule.  The Arabian for cardamoms.
  CACU'MEN.  (Cacumen, minis, neut)  The top 01
point.
  CADA'VER.   (Cadaver, veris. neut., from eado, to
fall: because the body, when deprived of life, falls to
the ground.) A carcass, or body deprived of life.
  CA'DMIA.   (Hebrew.)   The lapis calaminaris.
See Zinc.
  Cadmia metallica.  A name given, by the Ger
mans, to cobalt.
  CADMIUM.  " A new metal, first discovered by M.
Stromeyer, in the autumn of 1817, in some carbonate
of zinc which he was examining in Hanover.  It has
been since found in the Derbyshire silicates of zinc.
  The following is Dr. Wollaston's process for pro-
curing cadmium.   From the solution of the salt of
zinc supposed to contain cadmium, precipitate all  the
other  metallic impurities by iron; filter and immerse a
cylinder of zinc into the clear solution. If cadmium
be present, it will be thrown down in the metallic state,
and when redissolved in muriatic acid, will exhibit itn
peculiar character on the application of the proper tett*. 
C.EC
CAF
  M. Stromeyer's process consists in dissolving the
substance which contains cadmium in sulphuric acid,
and pawing through the acidulous solution a current
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  He washes this pre-
cipii Ate, dissolves it in concentrated muriatic acid, and
expels the excess of acid by evaporation.  The residue
is then  dissolved in water, and precipitated by car-
bonate of ammonia, of which  an excess is added, to
redissolve the zinc and the copper that may have been
precipitated by the  sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  The
carbonate of cadmium being well washed, is heated,
to drive off'the carbonic acid, and the  remaining oxide
is reduced by mixing it with lamp-black, and exposing
it to a moderate red heat in a glass or earthen retort.
  The colour of cadmium is a fine white, with a slight
shade  of bluish-gray, approaching much  to that of
tin; which utetal it  resembles in lustre and suscepti-
bility of polish.  Its texture is  compact, and its frac-
ture hackly.  It crystallizes easily in octohedrous, and
presents on its surface, when cooling, the appearance
of leaves of fern.  It is flexible, and  yields readily to
the knife.  It  is harder and more tenacious than tin;
and, like it, stains paper, or the fingers.  It is ductile
and malleable, but when long hammered, it scales off
iu different places.   Its sp. grav. before hammering,
is 8.0040; and  when hammered, it is 8.6944.  It melts,
and is volatilized under a red heat.  Its vapour, which
has uo smell, may be condensed in drops like mercury,
which, on congealing, present distinct traces of crys-
tallization.
  Cadmium is as little altered by exposure to the air
as tin.  When heated in the  open air, it burns like
that metal, passing into a smoke, which falls and
forms a very fixed oxide, of a brownish-yellow colour.
Nitric acid readily dissolves it cold;  dilute sulphuric,
muriatic, and  even  acetic acids, act  feebly on it with
the disengagement  of hydrogen.   The solutions are
colourless, and are not precipitated by water.
  Cadmium forms a single oxide, in which 100  parts
of the metal  are combined with  14.352 of oxygen.
The prime equivalent of cadmium deduced from this
compound seems to be very nearly 7, and.that of the
oxide 8.  This oxide varies in its appearance accord-
ing to circumstances, frrlm a  brownish-yellow to a
dark brown, and even a blackish colour.  With  char-
coal it  is reduced with rapidity below a red heat.  It
  fives a transparent colourless glass bead with borax.
  tis insoluble inwater, but in some circumstances forms
a white hydrate, which speedily attracts carbonic acid
from the air, and gives out its water when exposed to
heat."— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  OADOGAN,  William,  graduated  at  Oxford in
1755.   Five years before, he had published a small
treatise on  the management of children, which was
very much approved.  In 1764, his " Dissertation on
the Gout and all Chronic Diseases"  appeared, which
attracted considerable attention, being written in a
popular style.   He  referred  the gout  principally to
Indolence, vexation, and intemperance; and his plan
of treatment is generally judicious.   He was a fellow
ofthe London College of Physicians, and died in 1797,
at on advanced age.
  Cadtchu.  See Acacia catechu.
   CADU'CA.  (From cado, to  fall down.)  See De-
cidua.
  Caduci.  The name of a class in Linnaeus's Metho-
dus calycina.
  CADU'CU'..  (From cado, to fall.)  1. In Botany,
The falling  iff before  the unfolding  of  the flower
or  leaf; as ue pcrianthium of Papaver, the stipula
of  Prunus avium.   This term is  expressive of the
shortest period of duration, and has different accepta-
tions, according to the different parts of the plant to
which it is applied.   A calyx is said  to be caducous,
which drops at the first opening of the petals, or even
before, as in the poppy.  Petals are caducous, which
are scarcely unfolded before they fall off, as in Thalic-
trum;  and such leaves as fall off before the end of
summer, have obtained this denomination.  See De-
ciduus and Parasiticus.
  2. The epilepsy or falling sickness  is  called morbus
caducus.                       ....     _ .  ,
  CjE'OTAS.   (From  cacus, blind.)   Blindness.
Bee Caligo and Amaurosis.
  CjE'CUM.  (From cacus, blind: so called from its
being perforated at  one end only.)  The caecum, or
blind gut  The fust portion  of the  large intestines,
placed in the right iliac region, about four fingers'
breadth in length  It is in this intestine that the ileum
terminates by a valve, called the valve of the cscum.
The appendicula caci vermiformis is also attached to
it.  See Intestines.
  CiE'LIUS, Aurelianus, is supposed to have been
born at Sicca, in Africa, and is referred by Le Clerc
to the fifteenth century,  from the harshness of his
style.   He has left a Latin translation of the writings
of Soranus,  with additional observations, partly col-
lected from  others,  partly from his  own experience.
The work is in eight books, three on acute, the rest
on  chronic disorders.  He treats of several diseases
not mentioned by any earlier  writers, and has some
observations in surgery peculiar to himself; he appears,
too, generally correct in his remarks on the opinions
of others.
  Ce'ros.  Kaipof.   Hippocrates, by this word, means
the opportunity or moment in which whatever  is to
be effected should be done.
  CjESALPI'NA.  (Named in honour of Cassalpinus,
chief physician to Pope Clement  VIU.)  The name
of a genus of plants in the Linmean system.  Class,
Decandria;  Order,  Monogynia.
  Cjesalpina crista.  The systematic name of the
tree that affords the  Brazil wood.  It is of the growth
of the Brazils in South America, and also of the Isle
of France, Japan, and elsewhere.   It is chiefly  used
as a red dye.  See Brazil wood.
  OiESALPI'NUS, Andrew, was born in Tuscany,
in 1519.  He graduated at Pisa, end  became professor
in anatomy  and medicine there; and was  afterward
made physician  to Pope  Clement VIII.  He died in
1603.    His  works  are numerous, and evince much
genius and learning.  In 1571, he  published a work,
defending the philosophy of Aristotle against the doc-
trines  of  Galen, from some  passages in which  he
appears to have approached very near to a knowledge
of the circulation of the blood; having explained the
use of the valves of the  heart, and pointed out tbe
course which these compelled the blood to  take  on
both sides during the contraction and dilatation of that
organ.  In a treatise " De Plautis," he justly compared
the seeds to the eggs of animals;  and  formed  an
arrangement of them according to the parts of fructifi-
cation.  On medical subjects  also he offered many
judicious remarks.
  C<E'SARES.  Casones.  Children who are brought
into the world as Julius Caesar is said to have been.
See Casarian operation.
  CAESARIAN OPERATION.  (So called because
Julius Caesar is  said to have  been  extracted  in this
manner.)   Hysterotomia.  Hystcrotomatocia.  The
operation  for extracting the foetus from the  uterus, by
dividing the integuments of the  abdomen and the
uterus.
  There are three cases in which this operation  may
be  necessary.—1. When the foetus is perceived to be
alive, and the mother dies, eilher in labour or in the
last two months.   2. When the  foetus is dead, but
cannot  be delivered in the usual way, from  the de-
formity of the mother, or the disproportionate size of
the child.  3.  When both the mother and the child
are living, but delivery cannot take place, from the
same causes as in  the second instance.  Both the
mother and the child, if accounts can be credited, have
often lived  after the  Caesarian operation, and the
mother even borne children afterward.  Heister gives
a relation of such success, in his Institutes of Surgery ;
and there are some others.  In England, the Caesarian
operation  has almost always failed.  Mr. James  Bar-
low, of Chorley, Lancashire, succeeded,  however, in
taking a foetus out of the uterus by this bold proceed-
ing, and the mother was perfectly restored  to health
  Cje'tchu.  See Acacia catechu.
  Caf; Cafa; Caff a.  Names given by the Arabians
to cainphire.
  CAFFEIN. The name of  a bitter principle pro-
cured from coffee by Chenevix, by adding muriate of
tin  to an infusion of unroasted coffee. From  this  he
obtained a precipitate, which he washed and decom-
posed by  sulphuretted hydrogen.   The supernatant
liquid contained this principle, which occasioned a
green precipitate in concentrated solutions of iron.
When the liquid was  evaporated to dryness, it was
yellow and transparent, like horn.   It did not attract
moisture fioin the air, but w as soluble in water and 
                       CAL

 alkohol.  The solution had a pleasant bitter taste, and
 assumed with  alkalies  a gamet-red  colour.   It  is
 almost as delicate a lest  of iron as infusion of galls is ;
 yet gclar.line occasions no precipita:e with it.
  [" Caffein is a new p.iuciple, which was discovered
 in coffee by Robiquet.  It is white, volatile, and crys-
 tallizable ;  and  is particularly  distinguished by the
 large quantity of nitrogen  which it contains,  being
 greater than that in almcst any other vegetable.  Ac-
 cording to  Dumas and  Pelletier, it  consuls of 27 14
 oxygen, 4.81 hydrogen, 46.51  carbon, and 21.54 nitro-
 gen.— Webster's Man. of Chem.  A.)
  Caga'strum.  A barbarous term used by Paracelsus,
 to express the morbific mailer which generates diseases.
  Caitc hu.  See Acacia cctixhu.
  CAIUS, John, was born at Norwich, in 1510.   After
 studying at Cambridge, and in different parts of Italy,
 and distinguishing himself by his interpretations of
 Hippocrates, Galen,  and oilier ancient  authors, he
 graduated at Bologna.  In  1544, he  returned to this
 country, and for some time read lectures in anatomy
 to the corporation of surgeons in London.  He after-
 ward practised at Shrewsbury, having  been admitted
 a fellow of the College of Physicians; and published
 a popular account of the memorable sweating sickness,
 which prevailed in 1551,subsequently reprinted, much
 improved, in Latin.  He was made physician  to Ed-
 ward VI., to  Mary, and  to Elizabeth.  On the death
 of Linacre, he was chosen President ofthe College of
 Physicians, and during the seven years lor which he
 held thai office,  performed many impoilant  services.
 He was also a signal benefactor to Gonvil Hall, where
 he  studied at Cambridge, having obtained permission
 to erect  it into a college, considerably enlarging the
 building, and assigning provision for three fellows and
 twenty scholars.  He was chosen mas er on the com-
 pletion of the improvements, and retained that office
 till  near  the period  of his death, which happened in
 1573. He published a dissertation " De Canibus  liri-
 tannicis," which Mr.  Pennant has entirely followed
 in his British Zoology and some other learned  works
 besides tho.-c already mentioned.
  Ca'jan.  Sec Phaseolus creticus.
  Ca'jeput oil.  See Melaleuca.
  Cala'ba.  See Catvphyllam inophyllum.
  Calagua'lje radix.  Calaguela radix.  The root
 so called is  knotty, and somewhat  like that of the
 polypody tribe,  it has  been  exhibited internally at
 Rome, with  success, in dropsy; and it is said to be
 efficacious in pleurisy, contusion*, abscesses, &c.  It
 was first used in America, where it  is obtained ;  and
 Italian physicians hnve  since written  concerning it,
 in terms ot' approbation.
  Calama'corus.  Indian reed.
  CALAMAGRO'STIS.  (From KaXauos, a reed, and
 aypfo$-ts, a sort of grass.)  Reed grass.   Gr amen Aran-
 dinacum.  The Arundo  calamagrostis of Linnxus;
 tbe root of which is said to be diuretic and eininena-
 gogue.
  CALAMARLE.   (From calamus, a reed.)   The
 name of an order of LinniEus's fragments of a natural
 method, which embraces the reed-planls.
  Cala'mbac An Indian name for agallochum.  See
 Lignum Aloes.
  Calame'don.  (From  xaXapos, a reed.)  A sort of
 fracture which runs along the bone, in a straight line,
 like a reed, bnt is lunaled in the extremity.
  CA' LAMINA.  See Calamine.
  Calamina prjeparata. Prepared calamine.  Burn
the calamine, and reduce it to powder;  then let it be
 brought  into tbe stata  of a very fine powder, in the
same manner that chalk is directed to be prepared.
 See Calamine.
  CA'LAMINE.  (Calamina; from calamus, a reed:
so called from its reed-like  appearance.)   Cadmia;
 Cathmia; Cadmia lapidosa arosa ; Cadmia fossilis;
 Calamina; Lapis calaminaris.  A  native carbonate
of zinc.  A  mineral, containing oxide of zinc  and
carbonic acid, united with a portion of iron, and some-
tunes other substances.  It is very heavy, moderately
 hard and brittle, of a gray, yellowish, red, or blackish
 brown; found in quarries of considerable extent, in
several parts of Europe, and particularly in this coun-
try, in Derbyshire, Gloucestershire, Nottinghamshire,
and Somersetshire; as also in Wales.  The calamine
of England is= by the be6t judges, allowed to be su-
perior in quality to that of most o'.ln.-i countries.  It sel-
                      CAL

 dom lies very deep, being chiefly found  In  clayey
 grounds near  the surface.  In sonic places it is mixed
 with lead ores.  This mineral is an article in the nia-
 teiia medica ; but,  beiore it comer- to the s-hops, it is
 usually ieasted, or calcined, to sej amtc some  aiseni-
 cal or  sulphureous  particlts which, in its, crude ?tate,
 it is supposed to contain, and in  order to render it
 more easily reducible  into a fine  powder.   In this
 state,  it is employed in  collyria, for weak eyes, for
 promoting the cicatrization of ulcers, and healing  ex»
 conations of  the skin.  It is the basis of an officinal
 cerate, called Ceratum  calamina: by the London Col-
 leue, formerly  called ceratum lapidis caliiniiiaiis, cera^
 turn epiiloticinn;  and ceiaium caibonatis zinci impuri
 by ihe Ldinburgh College.  These compositions form
 the  cerate which Turner  strongly recommends  lor
 healing ulcerations and excoriations, and which have
 boeu popularly distinguished by his name.  The col-
 lyria iu which the prepared calamine has been em-
 ployed, have consisted simply of that substance added
 to rn.Nr-wnter,  or elder-flower water.
   CA LA MINT.  See Melissa calamintha.
   C.tltiu.iHt, mountain. See Melissa grandifiora.
   CALAMINTHA.  (From koXoo, beautiful,  or ko-
 Xapos, a reed, and pivBrj, mint.)  Common  calamint
 See Melissa.
   Calamintha anglica.   See  Melissa nepcta.
   Calamintha  iiumilior.  The  ground-ivy.   See
 Glccvma hetieracca.
   Calamintha magna flore.   See Melissa grandi-
fiora.
   Calamintha Montana. See Melissa Calamintha.
   CA'LAML'S.  (From  Kalam,  an Arabian woid.)
 1. A general name denoting the stalk of any  plant.
  2.  The name of a  genus of plants in  the  Linnxan
 system.  Clai*, Hexandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  Calamus aromaticus.  See Acorus calamus.
  [Calamus.  .Sweet flag-root.   Acorus cali.mus, or
 calamus aromaticus. "The Acorus calamus is found
 in Europe, Asia, and North America.   With us it
 grows in wet meadows, commonly in beds or bunches.
 The root has  a strong aromatic odour, and a bitter
 spicy taste.  Its propcilicsylepeiid upon a volatile oil,
 and a bitter matter solublcV water.  Medicinally con-
 sidered, it is stimulant, heating and tonic; and is given
 in flatulent colic, cramp  of the stomach, Sec, in the
 dose of a scruple and upwards."—Big. Mat. Med. A.l
  Calamus aromaticus  asiaticus.  Sec Acorus ca-
 lamus.
  Calamus  odoratus.   The sweet-scented  rush.
 See Acorus calamus.
  Calamus  rotang.  The systematic name  of the
 plant from which we obtain the Dragon's blood.   Cin-
 nabarisgracorum; Draconthama;  Asegen; Asegon.
 Dragon's blocd.  The red resinous juice which  is ob-
 tained by wounding the bark of the Calamus rotang;—
 caudice dcn.iissime  aculeata, aculeis  ercctis, spudice
 credo.   The Pctrocarpus  draco and Dracana  draco
 also afford this  resin.  It  is chiefly obtained  from the
 Molucca islands, Java, and  other parts of the East
 Indies.  It is generally much adulterated, and  varied
 in goodness and purity. The best kind  is of a dark
 red colour, which, when powdered, changes to  crim-
 son : it is insoluble in water, but soluble in a great
 measure in  alkohol;  it  readily  melts  and catches
 flame, has no smell, but to the taste discovers some de-
gree of waimth and pungency.  The  ancient Greeks
 were well acquainted with the adstriugent power of
this drug; in which character it has since oeen much
employed in hamiorrhages, and in alvine fluxes.  At
 present, however, it is not used internally, being super-
seded by more  certain and effectual remedies' of this
numerous class
  Calamus scriptorius.  A furrow or kind of canal
 at the bottom of the fourth ventricle of the  brain, so
called from its  resemblance to a writing pen.
  Calamus vulgaris.  See Acorus calamus.
  CALATHIANA.   (From naXaBos,  a  twig basket;
 so called from the shape of its flowers.)  The herb
 marsh-gentian.  See Gcntiana pneumonunthe.
  Calbi'anum. The name of a plaster in Myrepsus.
  Calca'dinum.  Vitriol.
  Calca'dis.  An Arabian name for white vitriol and
 alkali.
  CALCA'NEUM.   (From  calx, the heel.)  Calcar
pterna; Os calcis.   The largest bone ofthe  tarsus,
 which forms ihe heel. It is situated posteriorly under 
CAL                                              CAL
 the astragalus, is very regular, and divided into a body
 and processes.  It has a large tuberosity or knob, pro-
 jecting behind to  form the heel.  A sinuous cavity,
 as its fore-part, which, in the  fresh subject, is filled
 with fat, and gives origin to several ligaments.  Two
 prominences, at the inner and fore-part of the bone,
 with a pit between them, for the articulation of the
 under and fore-part of tbe astragalus.  A depression,
 in the external surface of the bone  near its fore-part,
 where tbe tendon of the peronaeus longus runs. A
 large cavity, at the inner side of the bone, for lodging
 the long flexors of the toes, together with the vessels
 and nerves of the sole.  There are two prominences, at
 the under and back part of this bone, that give origin
 to the aponeurosis, and several muscles  of the sole.
 The anterior surface of the os calcis is concave, for its
 articulation with the os cuboides. and it is articulated
 to the astragalus by ligaments.
   Calcan'thum.  (From xaXKos, brass, and avBos, a
 flower;  i. e. flowers  of brass.)  Calcanthos.  Cop-
 peras; Vitriol.
   CALCAR.  (Calcar, oris. n.   From calx, the heel;
 also from calco, to  heat)   1. The heel-bone.
   2. The furnace of a laboratory.
   3. A spur. In botany, applied to a partof the ringent
 and personate corolla of plants.  It  is a tube forming
 an obtuse or acute sac, at the side of the receptacle.
 It is of rare occurrence.
   CALCARATUS.   Spurred;  applied to the corols
 and nectaries of plants;  as  Calcarata corolla, Necta-
 rium calcaratum; as in Aquilegia  and Antirrhinum
 linaria.
   CALCAREOUS.   (Calcarius;  from  calx, lime.)
 That  which partakes  somewhat of the nature and
 qualities of calx.
   Calcareous earth.  See Calx and Lime.
  'Calcareous spar.  Crystallized  carbonate of lime,
 which occurs in more than 600 different forms.  It is
 found in veins in all rocks from granite to alluvial
 strata. The rarest and most  beautiful  crystals are
 found in Derbyshire, but it exists in every part of the
 world.
   Calca'ris flos. TheJe/kspur.
   CALCARIUS.  See Calcareous.
   Calcarius lapis.  Limestone.
   Ca'lcatar.  A name of vitriol.
   Calcatri'ppa.   See Ajuga pyramidalis.
   CALCEDONY.  A mineral,  so called from Calce-
 don, in Asia Minor, where it was  found in ancient
 times.  There are several sub-species, common calce-
 dony,  heliotrope,  crysoprase, plasma, onyx,  sand, and
 sardonyx.
   Common calcedony occurs of various colours;  it is
 regarded as pure silica with a little water.  Very fine
 stalactical  specimens  have been  found in  Cornwall
 and Scotland.
   Ca'lceum equinum.   (From calceus, a shoe,  and
 equus, a horse ; so called from  the figure of its leaf.)
 The herb colt's-foot  See Tussilagofarfara.
   Calchantrum.  Pliny's name for copperas.
   Calchi'theos.  (From koXviov, purple.) Verdigris.
   CALCI'FRAGA.  (From calx, a stone, and frango,
 to break;   so  named from its supposed property of
 breaking the human calculus.)  Breakstone.  In Scri-
 bonius Largus, it means, the herb spleenwort, or sco-
 lopendrium; others mean by it the Pimpinella saxi-
fraga of Linnmus.
  CALCINA'TION.   Oxidation.  The fixed  resi-
 dues of such matters as have undergone  combustion
 are called  cinders, in common language,  and calces,
 but now more commonly oxides, by chemists;  and
 the operation, when  considered with regard to these
 residues, is termed calcination.   In this general way,
 it has likewise been applied to bodies not really.combus-
 tihle, but only deprived of some of their principles by
heat   Thus we hear  ef the calcination of chalk, to
convert it into lime by driving off its carbonic acid  and
water; of gypsum, or plaster-stone, of alum, of borax,
and  other  saline  bodies, by which they are deprived
of their water of crystallization; of bones which lose
their volatile parts by this treatment, and of various
other bodies.
  CALCINA'TUS. Calcined.
  Calcinatum  majus.  Whatever is dulcified by the
chemical art, which was not so  by nature; such as
dulcified mercury, lead, and tbe like substances, which
are very speedily consolidated.
   Calcinatum majus potirii.  Mercury dissolved In
 aqua fortis, and precipitated with salt water.  Poteriui
 used it in the cure of ulcers.
   Calcinatum minus.  Any thing which is sweet by
 nature, and speedily cures, as sugar,  manna,  tama-
 rinds, &c.
   Calcino'nia.  See Caleena.
   Calcis  aqua.  See Calcis liquor.
   Ca'lcis liquor.  Solution  of  lime,  formerly called
 aqua calcis.   Lime-water.   Take of lime, half a
 pound;  boiling distilled  water,  twelve pints.  Pour
 the water upon the lime, and stir them together; next
 cover the vessel immediately, and let it stand  for three
 hours;  then keep the solution  upon  the remaining
 lime in stopped glass bottles, and  pour off the clear
 liquor when it is wanted for use.
   Lime  is  soluble in about  450  times its weight of
 waterj or little more than one grain in one fluid ounce.
 It is given  internally, in doses of two ounces and  up-
 wards,  in  cardialgia, spasms, diarrhoea,  &c. and in
 proportionate doses  in convulsions of children, arising
 from acidity, or ulcerated intestines,  intermittent fe-
 vers, Sec   Externally it is applied  to burns  and
 ulcers.
   Calcis  murias.   Calx solita;  Sal  ammoniacus
fixus.  Muriate of lime.  Take of the  salt remaining
 after the sublimation of subcarbonate of ammonia  two
 pounds,  water a  pint; mix and  filter through paper.
 Evaporate  the salt  to  dryness;  and preserve it in a
 closely stopped vessel.  This preparation  is exhibited
 with the same views as the muriate of barytes.  It
 possesses deobstruent, diuretic, and cathartic virtues,
 and is much used by the celebrated Fourcroy against
 scrophula, and other analogous diseases.  Six, twelve,
 and twenty grains, are given to children, three times a
 day, and a drachm to adults.
   Calcis  muriatis liquor.   Take  of muriate  of
 lime two ounces, distilled water three fluid  ounces;
 dissolve  the salt  in the water, and filter it  through
 paper.
   Ca'lcis  os.  See Calcaneum.
   Calcis vivi plores.  The pellicle  on  the surface
 of lime water.
   CALCITRA'PA.   (An old  botanical term  of simi
 lar meaning to tribulus, compounded of calco, to tread
 or kick,  and rpenw, to turn, because the  caltrops  are
 continually kicked over, if they fail of  their intended
 mischief.  See Trapa.)  See  Centaurea calcitrapa.
   Calcitrapa officinalis.  See  Centaurea solsti-
 tiales.
   CALCIUM.  The metallic basis of lime.  Sir H.
 Davy, the discoverer of this metal, procured it by the
 process which he used for obtaining barium.  It was
 in such small quantities, that  little could  be said con-
 cerning its nature.  It appeared  brighter  and whiter
 than either barium  or strontium; and burned  when
 gently heated, producing dry lime.
   There  is only one known combination  of calcium
 and  oxygen, which is the important substance called
 lime. The nature of this substance is  proved by  tbe
 phenomena of the combustion of calcium; the  metal
 changing into the earth with the absorption of oxygen
gas.   When the amalgam  of calcium is thrown into
water, hydrogen gas is disengaged, and the water  be-
comes a solution of lime.   From  the quantity of  hy-
drogen evolved, compared with  the quantity  of lime
formed in experiments of this kind, M. Berzelius  en-
deavoured  to ascertain the proportion of oxygen in
lime. The nature of lime may also be proved by ana-
lysis. When potassium in vapour is sent through  the
earth ignited to whiteness, the potassium  was found
by Sir H. Davy to become potassa, while a dark gray
substance of metallic splendour, which  is calciurri
either wholly or partially deprived of oxygen, is found
imbedded in the potassa; for  it effervesces violently
and forms a solution of lime by the action of water  '
  CALCSINTER.  Stalactitical carbonate of  lime,
which is continually forming by the infiltration of car-
bonated lime water through the crevices of the  roofs
of caverns.  The irregular masses on the bottoms of
caves have  been called stalagmites.
  CALCTUFF.   An alluvial formation of carbonate
of lime, probably deposited from calcareous springs of
a  yellowish dull gray colour, containing  impressions
of vegetable niauer.
  CALCULTFRAGUS.  (From calculus, a stone,
and  frango, to break)   Stone-brebjfer, having  the 
CAL
CAL
power to break stone in the human body.  1. A syno-
nym of lithontriptic.  See Lithonlripttc.
  2.  The scolopendrium, and pimpernel.  See Calci-
fraga.                        „   ,     ..
  CALCULUS.  (Diminutive of calx, a lime-stone.
Calculus humanus ;  Bezoar microcosmicum.   Gravel;
IStone.  In  English  we  understand by gravel, small
jand-like concretions, or stones, which pass from the
Kidneys through the ureters iu a few days; and  by
stone, a  calculous concretion in the kidneys, or blad-
der,  of  too large a  size to pass, without great diffi-
culty.  Similar  concretions are found occasionally in
oilier cavities or passages.   When a disposition to
form  minute calculi or  gravel  exists, we often find
nephritic paroxysms, as they are called, (see Nephri-
tis) which consist of pain in the back, shooting down
through the pelvis to the thighs; sometimes a numb-
ness in  one leg, and a retraction of cither testicle in
men, symptoms arising from the irritation of a stone
passing  through the  ureters, as these cross the sperma-
tic cord, on the nerves passing to the lower extremities.
These pains, often violent, are terminated by the pain-
ful discharge of small stones through the urethra, and
the patient is for a time easy.  What, however,  is
meant by the stone is a more serious  and violent dis-
ease.  It is singular  that these discharges of small gra-
vel do not usually terminate in stone.  Many have ex-
perienced  them during a long life, without any more
serious  inconvenience:  while the latter is a disease
chiefly of the young, and depending on circumstances
not easily  explained.   If the stone attacks persons
more advanced  in age, it is often the consequence of
paroxysms of gout,  long  protracted, and terminating
imperfectly.
  When once a stone has acquired a moderate size,
it usually occasions the following symptoms:—fre-
quent inclination to make water, excessive pain in
voiding  it drop by drop, and sometimes a sudden stop-
page of it, if discharged iu a stream; after making wa-
ter, great torture in the  glans penis, which lasts one,
two, or three minutes; and, in most constitutions, the
violent straining makes the rectum contract and expel
its excrements;  or, if it be empty, occasions a tenes-
mus, which is sometimes accompanied with a prolap-
sus ani.   The urine  is often tinctured with bleod, from
a rupture of the vessels, and sometimes  pure blood
itself is discharged.  Sometimes the urine is very clear,
but frequently there are great quantities of slimy sedi-
ment deposited at the  bottom of  it, which is only a
preternatural separation of the mucilage of the bladder,
but has  often been  mistaken for pus.  The stone is a
disease  to which  both  sexes  and all ages are liable;
and calculi have even been found in the bladders of
very young children, nay, of infants only six months old.
  Women  seem less subject to this complaint than
men, either owing to constitutional causes,  or to the
capaciousness, shortness, and straightness of their ure-
thrae, allowing the calculi to be discharged while small,
together with the urine.
The Seat and Physical Properties of Urinary Calculi.
  Calculi  are found in different parts of the urinary
system,  in the pelvis of the kidney, in the  ureters, in
the bladder and urethra; but  as they, for the most
part, originate in the kidney, the calculi  rcnales make
the nucleus of the greatest number if urinary stones.
The calculi renalcs  differ greatly with respect to their
external qualities; for  the most part, however, they
consist  of  small,  concrete, roundish, smooth, glossy'
and crystalline bodied, of a red-yellow colour, like thai
of wood, and so hard as to admit of polishing.  On
account of their minuteness, they easily pass through
the urinary passages in form of gravel, which being
-sometimes of a rough  surface, cause several com-
plaints on their passage.  But in some instances they
are of too great a size to be able to pass aiong the ure-
ters ; in which case they increase in the kidneys, some-
times to a great size.  Calculi renales of this kind are
generally of a brown, dark red, or black colour, and
Furrounded with several strata of coagulated blood and
pus j they have also been observed of a yellow, red-
dish, and  lighter colour; and some  consisting of a
liomoseneous stony mass, but  white or gray calculi
renales are very rarely to he met with.  Among the
great number that  were examined, one or two only
%vere found of a gray or blackish colour, and of a com-
position similar to those which generally bear the name
of mulberry-like stones.
      164
  The stones in the ureters, which, on passing Into the
ureters, are  prevented  by their size  from descending
into the bladder, frequently increase very much: they,
however,  rarely occur;  their colour is white, and
they consist of phosphate of lime.
  The stones in  the bladder  are the most frequent
urinary concrements that have been principally exa-
mined;  they draw their first origin from the kidneys,
whence they descend into the bladder, where they in-
crease ;  or they immediately originate and increase in
the bladder ; or they arise from a foreign body that by
chance  has  got into the bladder, which not unfre-
quently happens, particularly iu the female sex.  Con-
cretions of this kind differ greatly in their respective
physical qualities and external  form, which, however,
is generally  spherical,  oval, or compressed on  both
sides; and sometimes,  when there are several stones
in  the bladder, they have a polyhedrous or cubical
form;  their  extremities  are  frequently pointed  or
roundish,  but they are very seldom found cylindrical,
and more  rarely with cylindrical ends.
  There is a great variety in  the size of the calculi,
and likewise in their colour, which is materially dif
I'erent, according to their respective nature and com-
position.  They occur,  1. of a yellowish  colour, up
proaching nearly to red, or brown; such stones consist
of lithic acid.  2. Gray, or more or less white; these
stones always contain phosphates of earths.  3. Dark
gray, or blackish;  stones of this colour have oxalates
of earths.  Many stones show brown or gray spots, on
a yellow or white ground, generally raised on the sur-
face,  and  consisting of oxalate of lime, which is en-
closed in  lithic acid, when the ground colour of the
stone is of a wood colour, or in phosphate of lime,
when it is white.  These spots are, iu general, only
to be observed in the middle of the stone, or at one of
its extremities.
  All that is here stated, is the result of observations
on more than 600 calculi; and  different other colours,
that are said to have been observed, either arise from
heterogeneous substances, or are merely  variations of
the above  colours.  Their surface is smooth and po-
lished in some; in others,4py smooth;  and in others
uneven, and  covered with rough or smooth corpuscles,
which are always of  a yellow colour; in some, the
surface is  partly smooth and partlyrough.  The white
ones are frequently even and smooth, half transparent,
and covered with shining crystals, that generally indi-
cate  phosphate of ammonia, with magnesia; or they
are faint,  and consist of minute grains; or rough, in
which case  they consist of phosphate of lime.   The
brown and  dark  gray  stones  arc,  from their simi-
larity to mulberries, called mulberry-stones, and being
frequently very rusged,  they  cause the most pain
of all.
  On examining the specific weight of urinary calculi
in more than 500 specimens, it  was found to be, in the
lightest, as  1213.1000, in the heaviest,  as 1070.1000.
Their smell is partly strong, like  urine  or ammonia,
partly  insipid, and terreous;  especially  the  white
ones, which are like sawed ivory, or rasped bone.
  The internal texture of calculi is but seldom guessed
from  their external  appearance, particularly when
they exceed  the size of a pigeon's egg.  On breaking
them, they generally separate into two or three strata,
more  or less thick and even, which prove that  they
are formed  by different precipitations, at different
times.  In the middle,  a nucleus is generally seen, of
the same  mass as  the rest.  When die place they am
broken at  is  finely streaked, and of a yellow or reddish
colour, the lithic  acid  predominates; but when they
are half transparent, luminous like spar, they have
ammoniacal  phosphate of magnesia in  them,  and
phosphate of lime, and then they are  brittle and  fria-
ble;  but when they are so hard as to resist the instru-
ment, of a smooth surface, and a  smell  like ivory,
they contain oxalate of lime.   It frequently happens,
that the exterior stratum consists of white phosphate
of earth,  while the nucleus is yellow lithic acid, or
oxalate of  lime, covered sometimes with a yellow
stratum of lithic acid, in which case  the nucleus ap-
pears radiant; but when  it consists of litliic acid, and
is covered with white phosphate of earth, it is rOund
ish, oval,  and somewhat crooked.  These concretions
have very seldom three strata;  namely, on the outsioe
a phosphate, towards the inside lithic acid, and quite
witliinsidc an oxalate  of lime; but still rarer these 
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substances occur in more strata, or in another order, as
before-mentioned.
  Stones of the urethra are seldom generated in the
urethra itself;  however, there are instances  of their
having been formed in the fossa navicularis, by means
of foreign bodies that have got into the urethra.  We
also very frequently observe stony concrements depo-
sited between the glans and prepuce.  All the concre-
tions  produced in the inside and outside the urethra
consist of phosphate of earths, which are easily pre-
cipitated from the urine.  There are  likewise stones
in the urethra which have come out of the bladder.
having  been produced there, or in the kidneys; and
they generally possess the  properties of stones of the
kidneys.
    The different  constituents of Urinary Calculi.
  " If we except  Scheele's original observation  con-
cerning the uric or lithic acid, all the discoveries re-
lating to urinary concretions are due to Dr. Wollaston;
discoveries so curious and important, as alone are suf-
ficient to entitle him  to the admiration and gratitude
of mankind.  They have  been  fully  verified  by the
subsequent researches of  Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and
Brande, Drs. Henry, Marcet, and Prout.  Dr. Marcet,
in his late valuable essay on the chemical history and
medical treatment of calculous disorders, arranges the
concretions into nine species.
  1. The lithic  acid calculus.
  2. The ammonia-magnesian phosphate calculus.
  3. The bone earth calculus, or phosphate nf lime.
  4. The fusible calculus, a mixture of the 2d and 3d
species.
  5. The mulberry calculus, or oxalate of lime.
  6. The  cystic calculus;  cystic oxide of Dr. Wol-
laston.
  7. The alternating  calculus, composed of alternate
layers of different species.
  8. The compound calculus, whose ingredients are so
intimately mixed, as to be  separable only by chemical
analysis.
  9. Calculus from the  prostate gland, which, by Dr.
Wollaston's researches, is proved to be  phosphate of
lime, not distinctly stratified, and tinged  by the secre-
tion of the prostate gland.
  To the above Dr. Marcet has added two new sub-
species.  The first seems to have some resemblance to
the cystic oxide, but  it possesses also  some marks of
distinction.  It forms a bright lemon yellow residuum
on evaporating its nitric acid solution, and is com-
posedot'laiuinie.  But the cystic oxide is not. laminated,
and it leaves a white residuum from the nitric acid
solution.  Though they are both soluble in acids as
well as alkalies, yet the oxide is more  so in acids than
the new calculus, which has been called by Dr. Marcet,
from its yellow residuum, xanthic oxide.  Dr. Marcet's
other new calculus was found to possess the properties
of the fibrin of the blood, of wliich it seems to be a
deposite.  He terms it fibrinous calculus.
i   Species 1.  Uric acid calculi.  Dr. Henry says, in his
instructive paper on  urinary  and other morbid  con-
cretions, read before  the Medical Society of London,
March 2, 1819, that it has never yet occurred to him to
examine calculi composed of this acid i n a state of abso-
lute purity.  They contain about 9-IOths of the pure
arid,  along with urea, and  an animal matter which is
not gelatin, but of an albuminous nature.  This must
not, however, be  regarded as a cement.  The calculus
is aggregated by the cohesive  attraction of the lithic
acid Itself.  The colour of lithic acid calculi is yellow-
ish or reddish-brown, resembling the appearance of
wood.  They have commonly a smooth, polished sur-
face, a  lamellar or radiated structure, and consist of
fine particles well compacted.  Their  specific gravity
varies from  1.3 to 1.8.  They  dissolve in alkaline
lixivia, without evolving an ammoniacal odour, and
exhale the smell  of  horn  before the blowpipe.  The
relative frequency of lithic acid calculi will  be  seen
from  the  following statement  Of 150 examined  by
Mr. Brande, 16 were composed wholly of this acid,
atid almost all contained more or less of  it.  Fourcroy
and Vauquelin found it in  the greater number of 500
which they analyzed.  All those examined by Scheele
consisted of it alone;  and 300 analyzed by Dr. Pearson,
contained it in greater or smaller proportion.   Accord-
ing to Dr. Henry's experience, it constitutes 10 urinary
concretions out of 26, exclusive of the alternating cal-
culi.  And Mr. Brande lately otat<v, that out of 08
 cases of kidney calculi, 51 were lithic acid, 6 oxalic
 and 1 cystic.
  Species 2.  Ammonia-magnesian phosphate. This
 calculus is white  like chalk, is friable between the
 fingers, is often covered  with dog-tooth crystals, and
 contains semi-crystalline  layers.   It  is insoluble  in
 alkalies, but soluble  in  nitric, muriatic,  and acetic
 acids.   According to Dr. Henry, the earthy phosphates,
 comprehending the 2d and 3d species, were to the
 whole number of concretions, in the ratio of 10 to cr>.
 Mr. Brande justly observes, in the lfith number of his
 Journal, that the  urine has at all times a tendency to
 deposite the triple phosphate upon any body over
 which it passes.  Hence drains by which urine is car-
 ried off, are often  incrusted with its regular crystals;
 and incases where extraneous bodies have got into the
 bladder, they have often in a very short time become
 considerably enlarged by deposition of the same  sub-
 stance.  When this calculus, or those incrusted with
 its  semi-crystalline particles, are strongly heated before
 the blowpipe, ammonia is evolved, and an imperfect
 fusion takes place.  When a  little of Ihe calcareous
 phosphate is present, however, the concretion  readily
 fuses.   Calculi composed  entirely of the ammonia-
 magnesian phosphate are very rare.  Mr. Brande has
 seen only two.  They were crystallized upon the sur-
 face, and their fracture was somewhat foliated.   In
 its  pure state, it is even rare as an  incrustation.  The
 powder of  the ammonia-phosphate  calculus has  a
 brilliant white colour, a faint sweetish taste, and is
 somewhat soluble in water.  Fourcroy and Vauquelin
 suppose the above deposites to result from incipient
 putrefaction of urine in the bladder. It is certain that
 the triple  phosphate  is  copiously  precipitated from
 urine in such circumstances out of the body.
  Species 3. The bone earth calculus.  Its surface, ac-
 cording to Dr. Wollaston, is  generally pale  brown,
 smooth, and when sawed through it appeal sofa lami-
 nated  texture, easily separable into concentric crusts.
 Sometimes, also, each lamina is striated in a direction
 perpendicular to the surface, as from an assemblage of
 crystalline needles. It is difficult to fuse this calculus
 by  the blowpipe, but it dissolves readily in dilute mu
 riatic acid, from which it is precipitable by ammonia.
 This species, as described by Fourcroy and Vauquelin,
 was white, without lustre, friable, staining the hands,
 paper, and cloth.  It  had much of a chalky appear-
 ance, and broke under the forceps, and was intimately
 mixed with a  gelatinous matter, which  is left in  a
 membraneous form, when the earthy salt is withdrawn
 by  dilute muriatic acid.  Dr. Henry says, that he has
 never been able to recognise a calculus of pure phos -
 phate of lime in any of the collections which he has
 examined; nor did he ever find the preceding species in
 a pure state, though a calculus in Mr. White's collec-
 tion contained more  than 90  per  cent of ammonia-
 magnesian phosphate.
  Species 4. The fusible calculus. This is a very friable
 concretion, of a white colour, resembling chalk in ap-
 pearance and texture; it often breaks into layers, and
 exhibits a glittering appearance internally, from inter-
 mixture of the crystals of triple phosphate.  Sp. grav.
 from 1.14 to 1.47.  Soluble in dilute muriatic and nitric
 acids, but not  in alkaline lixivia.  The nucleus is ge-
 nerally lithic acid.  In 4 instances only out of 187. did
 Dr. Henry find the calculus composed throughout of
 the earthy phosphates.  The analysis of fusible calcu-
lus is easily performed by distilled vinegar, which at a
 gentle  heat dissolves the ammonia-magnesian phos-
 phate, but not  the phosphate of lime; the latter may
 be  taken up by dilute muriatic acid.  The lithic acid
 present will remain, and may be recognised by its so-
 lubility in the  water of pure potassa or soda.  Or the
 lithic  acid may, in the first instance, be  removed  by
 the alkali, which expels the ammonia, and leaves the
 phosphate of magnesia and lime.
  Species 5.  The mulberry calculus.  Its surface is
 rough and tuberculated ; colour deep reddish-brown.
 Sometimes  it  is pale brown, of a  crystalline texture,
 and covered with  flat  octohedral crystals.  This cal-
 culus has commonly tne density and hardness of ivory,
 a sp. grav. from 1.4 to 1.98, and exhales the odour of
 semen when sawed.   A moderate red  heat converts it
 into carbonate of  lime. It does uot dissolve in alka-
 line lixivia,  but slowly and with  difficulty in acids.
 When the  oxalate of lime is voided directly after
 leaving the kidney,  it is of a grayish-brown cokrui. 
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composed of small  cohering spherules, sometimes
with a polished surface  resembling hempseed.  They
are easily recognised by their insolubility in  muriatic
ucid, and their swelling up and passing into pure lime
before the blowpipe.  Mulberry calculi contain always
an admixture of other substances besides oxalate of
lime.  These are, uric acid, phosphate of lime, and
animal matter in dark flocculi.  The colouring matter
of these calculi is probably effused blood.  Dr. Henry
rates the  frequency of this  species at 1 in 17 of the
whole which lie has compared; and out of 187 calculi,
he found that 17 were formed round nuclei of oxalate
of lime.
   Species 6.   The cystic-oxide  calculus.  It resem-
bles a little the triple phosphate, or more exactly mag-
Vsian limestone.  It is somewhat tough when cut, and
  is a peculiar greasy lustre.   Its usual colour is pale
brown, bordering on straw yellow; and its texture is
irregularly crystalline.  It  unites in solution  with
acids and alkalies, crystallizing with  both.  Alkohol
precipitates it with nitric acid.  It does  not become
red with nitric acid; and it has no effect upon vegetable
blues.  Neither water, alkohol, nor ether dissolves it
It is decomposed by heat into carbonate of ammonia
and oil, leaving a  minute residuum of phosphate of
lime. This concretion  is of very  rare  occurrence.
Dr. Henry states its frequency to the whole as 10 to
985.  In two which he examined, the nucleus was the
same substance with the rest of the concretion; and
in a third, the nucleus of a  uric acid  calculus was a
small spherule of cystic oxide. Hence, as Dr. Marcet
has  remarked, this oxide appears to be in reality the
production of the kidneys, and not, as its name would
import, to be generated in the bladder.   It might be
called with propriety renal oxide,  if its eminent dis-
coverer should think fit.
   Species 7. The alternating calculus.  The surface
of this calculus is usually white like chalk, and fria-
ble or semicrystalline, according as the exterior coat  is
the  calcareous or  aiiiinonia-magnesian phosphate.
They are frequently of a large size, and contain a nu-
cleus of lithic acid.  Sometimes the two phosphates
form alternate layers round  the nucleus.  The above
are the  most common alternating calculi;  next are
those of oxalate of lime with phosphates; then  oxa-
late of lime with lithic acid; and lastly, those in which
the three substances alternate. The alternating, taken
all together, occur in 10 out of 25, in Dr. Henry's list;
lithioacid with phosphates, as 10 to 48; the oxalate of
lime with phosphates, as 10 to  116; the oxalate of
lime with lithic acid, as 10 to 170;  the oxalate of lime
with litbic acid and phosphates, as 10 to 265.
   Species 8. The compound  calculus.  This  consists
of a mixture of lithic acid  with  the phosphates  in
variable  proportions, and is  consequently variable in
its appearance. Sometimes tbe alternating layers are
so thin as to  be undistinguishable by the eye, when
their nature  can  be  determined only by chemical
analysis.  This species, in Dr. Henry's list, forms 10
in 235.   About l-40th  of the calculi examined by
Fourcroy and Vauquelin were compound.
   Species 9 has been already described.
   In almost all calculi, a central nucleus  may be dis-
covered, sufficiently small to  have descended through
the ureters into the bladder.  The  disease of stone is
to be considered, tberefore, essentially and originally
as belonging to the kidneys.  Its increase  in the blad-
der may be occasioned, either by exposure to urine
that contains an excess of the same ingredient as that
composing the nucleus, in which case it will be uni-
formly constituted  throughout; or if the  morbid nu-
cleus deposite should  cease;  the concretion will  then
acquire a coating of the earthy phosphates.  It becomes,
therefore, highly important to ascertain the nature of
the most  predominate nucleus.  Out of 187 calculi
examined by Dr. Henry, 17 were formed round nuclei
of oxalate of lime; 3 round  nuclei of cystic oxide; 4
round nuclei ofthe earthy phosphates; 2 round extra-
neous substances;  and in 3 the nucleus was  replaced
by a small cavity, occasioned, probably, by the shrink-
ing of some  animal  matter, round which the ingre-
dients ofthe calculi (fusible) had been deposited.  Rau
has shown by experiment,  that pus may form the
nucleus of a  uriuary concretion.  The remaining 158
calculi of Dr. Henry's list, had central nuclei composed
chiefly of lithic acid.  It appears also, that in a very
great majority of the cases referred to by him, the dis-
      160
I position to secrete an excess of lithic acid has been the
 essential cause of the origin of stone. Hence  it be
 comes a  matter of great importance to inquire, what
 are the circumstances which contribute to its excessive
 production, and to ascertain by what plan of diet and
 medicine this morbid action of the  kidney may best
 be obviated or removed.  A calculus in Mr. White's
 collection had for its nucleus a  fragment of a bougie,
 that had slipped into the  bladder.  It belonged to the
 fusible species, consisting of,
    20 phosphate of lime,
    60 ammonia-magnesian phosphate,
    10 lithic acid,
    10 animal matter.
In some instances, though  these are comparatively
very few, a morbid secretion of the earthy phosphates
in excess, is the cause of the formation of stone.  Dr.
Henry relates the case of a gentleman,  who, during
paroxysms of gravel, preceded by severe sickness and
vomiting, voided urine as opaque as milk, which depo-
sited a great  quantity of an  impalpable powder, con-
sisting of the calcareous and triple phosphate in nearly
equal proportions.  The weight ofthe body was rapidly
reduced from 188 to 100 pounds, apparently by the ab-
straction of the earth of his bones; for there was no
emaciation of the muscles corresponding to the above
diminution.
  The first rational views on the treatment of calcu-
lous disorders, were given by Dr. Wollaston.  These
have been followed up lately by some very judicious
observations of Mr. Brande, in the 12th, 15th, and 16th
numbers of his Journal; and also by Dr. Marcet, in
his excellent treatise already  referred to. Of the many
substances contained in human urine, there are rarely
more than three which constitute gravel; viz. calca-
reous  phosphate, ammonia-magnesian phosphate, and
lithic acid. The former two form a white sediment;
the latter, a red or brown.  The urine is always an
acidulous secretion.  Since by this excess of acid, the
earthy salts, or white  matter,  are held in solution,
whatever disorder of the system, or impropriety of
food and  medicine, diminishes that acid  excess, fa-
vours the formation of the white deposite.  The in
ternal use of acids was shown by Dr. Wollaston to be
the appropriate remedy in this case.
  White gravel  is frequently symptomatic of disor-
dered  digestion, arising from excess in eating or drink-
ing ; and it is  often produced by too farinaceous a diet
It is also occasioned by the indiscreet use of magnesia,
soda water, or alkaline medicines in general.  Medical
practitioners,  as well  as their  patients,  ignorant of
chemistry, have often committed fatal mistakes, by
considering the  white gravel, passed  on the admini-
stration of alkaline medicines, as the dissolution of
the calculus itself; and have hence pushed a practice,
which has rapidly increased the size of the stone.
Magnesia, in  many cases, acts more injuriously than
alkali, in precipitating insoluble phosphate from the
urine.  The acids of  urine, which, by their excess,
hold the earths in solution, are the phosphoric, lithic,
and carbonic.  Mr. Brande has uniformly obtained the
latter  acid, by placing  urine  under an exhausted re-
ceiver ; and he has formed  carbonate of barytes, by
dropping barytes water into mine recently voided.
  The appearance of  white  sand does not seem de-
serving of much  attention, where it Is merely occa-
sional, following  indigestion brought on  by an acci-
dental excess. But if it invariably follows meals, and
if it be observed in the urine, not as a mere deposite,
but at the time the last drops are voided, it becomes a
matter of importance, as the forerunner of other and
serious forms of the disorder. , It has been sometimes
viewed as the effect of irritable bladder, where it was
in reality the cause.   Acids ore the proper remedy,
and unless some  peculiar tonic effect be sought for in
sulphuric acid, the vegetable acids ought to be prefer-
red.   Tartar, or its acid, may be prescribed with ad-
vantage, but  the  best medicine is citric acid, in daily
doses from 5 to 30 grains.  Persons returning from
warm climates, with dyspeptic and hepatic disorders,
often  void this white  gravel, for which they have re-
course to empyrical solvents, for the most  part alka
line, and are  deeply injured.  They ought to adopt an
acidulous diet, abstaining from soda water, alkalies.
malt liquor,madeira, aad port', to eat salads, with acM 
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truits; and if habit requires it, a glass of cider, cham-
pagne, or claret, but Ihe less of these fermented liquors
the better.  An effervescing draught is often very bene-
ficial, made by dissolving 30 grains of bicarbonate of
poiassa, and 20 of citric acid, in separate teacups of
water, mixing  the solution in a la.gc  tumbler, and
drinking the whole during the effervescence. This dose
may be repeated 3 or 4  times  a-day.  The carbonic
acid of the above medicine enters the  circulation, and
passing off'  by the bladder, is useful in retaining, par-
ticularly, the triple phosphate in solution, as was first
pointed out by Dr. Wollaston.  The bowels should be
kept regular by medicine and moderate exercise.  The
febrile affections of children are frequently attended
by an apparently formidable deposite of white sand in
the urine.  A dose of calomel will generally carry off
both the fever and the sand.  Air, exercise, bark, bit-
ters, mineral tonics, are in like manner  often success-
ful in  removing the urinary complaints of grown-up
persons.
   In considering the red gravel, it is necessary to dis-
tinguish between those cases in which  the sand is
actually voided, and those  in  which it is deposited,
after some hours, from  originally limpid urine.  In
the first, the sabulous appearance is an alarming indi-
cation of a tendency to form calculi;  in the second, it
is often  merely a  fleeting  symptom of indigestion.
Should it frequently recur, however, it is not to be dis-
 regarded.
   Bicarbonate of potassa or soda is the proper remedy
 for the red sand, or lithic acid deposite.  The alkali
 may often he beneficially combined with opium. Am-
 monia, or its crystallized  carbonate, may be resorted
 to with advantage, where symptoms of indigestion are
 brought on by the other  alkalies; and  particularly in
 red gravel connected with gout, in which the joints and
 kidneys are affected  by turns.  Where  potassa and
 soda have been so long employed as  to disagree with
 the stomach, to create nausea, flatulency, a sense of
 weight, pain, and oilier .symptoms of indigestion, mag-
 nesia may be prescribed with the best effects.  The
 tendency which it  has to accumulate in dangerous
 quantities in the intestines, and to form a white sedi-
 ment iu urine, calls on the practitioner to look  mi-
 nutely after its administration.  It should be occasion-
 ally alternated with other laxative medicines.  Mag-
 nesia dissolved in  carbonic acid, as Mr. Scheweppe
 used  to prepare it many years ago^y the direction of
 Mr. Brande,  is an elegant form of exhibiting  this
 remedy.                              .      ,. .
   Care must be had not to push the alkaline medicines
 too far, lest they give rise to the deposition of earthy
 phosphates in  the urine.
   Cases occur in which  the sabulous deposite consists
 of a mixture of lithic acid with the phospliates.  The
 sediment of urine in  inflammatory disorders is some-
 times of this nature; and of those persons who habitu-
 ally indulge in excess of wine; as also of those who,
 labouring under hepatic affections, secrete much albu-
  men  in their urine. Purges, tonics, and nitric  acid,
  which is the solvent of both the above sabulous mat-
  ters, are the appropriate remedies.   The best diet for
  patients labouring under the lithic deposite, is a vege-
  table.  Dr. Wollaslon's  tine observation, that the ex-
  crement of birds ted solely upon animal matter, is in a
  great measure lithic acid, and  the curious fact since
  ascertained, that the excrement ofthe boa constrictor,
  fed aLo entirely on animals, is pure lithic acid, concur
  in giving force to the above dietetic prescription.   A
  week's abstinence from animal food has been known
  to relieve a fit of lithic acid gravel, where the alkalies
  were of little avail.  But we must not carry Ihe vege-
  table system  so  far as to produce flatulency and indi-
  gestion.                 .   .
    Such  are the principal  circumstances connected
  with the disease of gravel in its incipient or sabulous
  itate.  The calculi formed in the kidneys are, as we
  have' said above, either lithic, oxalic, or cystic; and
  vory rarely indeed of  the  phosphate species.    An
  aqueous  regimen,  moderate  exercise on  horseback,
  when not accompanied with much  irritation,  cold
  bathing, and mild aperients, along with the appropriate
  ch mical  medicines,  must be  prescribed in kid.i.-y
         Tliese are particularly  requisite immediately
alter acute pain in the region of the ureter, and in-
flammatory symptoms have  led to the belief that a
nucleus has descended into the bladder.  Purges, jdiu-
retics, and diluents,  ought to be liberally enjoined.
A large quantity of mucus streaked with blood, or of
a  purulent  aspect,  and  haemorrhagy, are frequent
symptoms of the passage of the stone into ihe bladder.
  When a stone has  once  lodged in the bladder, and
increased there to such a size as no longer to be capa-
ble of passing through the  urethra,  it is generally
allowed by all who have candidly considered the sub-
ject, and who are qualified by experience to be judges.
that the  stone can  never again  be dissolved;  and
although it is possible that it may become so loosened
in its texture as to be voided piecemeal, or gradually
to crumble away, the event is  so rare as to be barely
probable.
  By examining collections of calculi we leam, that
in by far  the greater number of cases, a nucleus of
lithic acid is enveloped in  a  crust of the phosphates.
Our endeavours must therefore be directed towards
reducing the excess of lithic acid in the urine to its
natural standard ;  or, on the other hand, to lessen the
tendency  to the deposition  of the  phusphates.  The
urine must be submitted to chemical .examination, and
a suitable course  of diet and  medicines prescribed.
But the chemical remedies must be regulated  nicely,
so as to hit the happy equilibrium, in w hich no deposite
will be formed. Here is a powerful call on the physi-
cians and surgeons  to make themselves thoroughly
versant iu chemical  science; for they will otherwise
commit the most dangerous  blunders in calculous
complaints.                              .
   ' The idea of dissolving a calculus of unc acid in
the bladder, by the internal use of the caustic alkalies,'
says Mr. Brande, ' appears too absurd to merit serious
refutation.'  In respect to  the phosphates, it seems
possible,  by keeping up  an unusual  acidity in the
urine, so  far to soften  a  crust of the calculus, as to
 make it crumble down, or admit of being abraded by
the sound;  but this  is the utmost that can be looked
 for; and  the lithic nucleus will still remain.  'These
 considerations,' adds  Mr. Brande,  'independent  of
 more urgent reasons, 6how  tbe futility of attempting
 the solution of a stone  of the bladder by the injection
 of acid and alkaline  solutions.  In respect to the alka-
 lies, if sufficiently strong  to  act upon the uric crust of
 the calculus, they would certainly  injure the coats of
 tbe bladder;  they would otherwise become inactive
 by combination with the acids of  the urine, and they
 would  form a dangerous precipitate from the same
 cause.'—'It therefore appears to  me, that Fourcroy
 and others, who have  advised the plan of injection,
 have thought  little  of all these obstacles to success,
 and have regarded the bladder as a lifeless receptacle,
 into which, as into an India rubber bottle, almost any
 solvent might be injected with impunity.'—Journal
 of Science, vol. viii. p. 216.
    It does not appear that  the peculiarities of water in
 different  districts, have any influence upon  the pro-
 duction of calculous  disorders.  Dr. Wollaston's dis-
 covery ofthe analogy between urinary and gouty con-
 cretions has led to the trial in gravel of the vinum col-
 chici, the specific for gout.  By a note to Mr. Brande's
 dissertation we learn, that benefit has  been  derived
 from it in a case of  red gravel.
    Dr. Henry confirms the above precepts in the follow-
  in" decided language.  'Thes« cases, and others of
  the same kind, which I think it unnecessary to men-
  tion, tend to discourage all attempts to dissolve a stone
  supposed to consist of uric acid, after it has attained
  considerable size in the bladder; all that can be effected
  under such circumstances  by alkaline medicines  ap-
  pears, as Mr.  Brande has remarked, to  be the preci-
  pitating  upon it  a  coating of the earthy phosphates
  from  the urine,  a  sort of  concretion which, as  has
  been observed by various practical writers, increases
  much more rapidly than that consisting of uric acid
  oiily.  The  same  unfavourable  inference may  be
  drawn also from the  dissections  of those persons in
  whom a stone was  supposed to be dissolved by alka-
  line medicines;  for  in  these instances it has been
  found either encysted, or placed  out of the  reach  of
  the sound by an enlargement ofthe prostate gland.
    The urinary calculus of a dog, examined by Dr.
  Pearson, wa» found to consist principally of tbe phos-
  phates of lime and  ammonia, with animal matter.
  Several taken from horses, were of a similar composi
        One of a rabbit consisted  chiefly of carbonate
of liine and animal matter, with perhaps a uttie phos 
CAL
CAL
phoric acid.  A quantity of sabulous matter, neither
crystallized nor concrete, is sometimes found in the
bladder of the horse: in one instance there were nearly
45 pounds.  These appear to consist of carbonate of
lime and animal matter.  A  calculus of a cat  gave
Fourcroy  three parts  of carbonate, and one of the
phosphate of lime.  That of a pig, according to  Ber-
thollet, was phosphate of lime.
  The renal calculus in man appears to be of the same
nature as the urinary.   In that of the horse, Fourcroy
found 3 parts of carbonate, and one of phosphate of
lime.   Dr. Pearson, in one instance, carbonate of lime,
and animal matter;  in two others, phosphates of lime
and ammonia, with animal matter.
  Arthritic calculi, or those formed in  the joints of
gouty persons, were once supposed to be carbonate of
lime, whence they were called chalkstones; afterward
it was supposed that they were phosphate of lime  : but
Dr, Wollaston has shown that they are lithate of soda.
The calculi found sometimes  in the pineal, prostate,
salivary, and bronchial glands, in the pancreas, in tbe
corpora cavernosa penis, and between the muscles, as
well as the  tartar, as it is called, that incrusts the
teeth, appear to be phosphate of lime.   Dr. Crompton,
however, examined a calculus taken from the lungs
of a deceased soldier, which consisted of lime 45, car-
bonic acid 37, albumen and water 18.   It was  very
bard, irregularly spheroidal, and measured about 6J
Inches in circumference.
  It has been observed, that  the lithic acid, which
constitutes the chief part of most human urinary cal-
culi, and abounds in the arthritic, has  been found in
no phytivorous animal;  and hence has been deduced
a practical inference, that abstinence from animal food
would prevent their formation.  But we are inclined
to think this conclusion too  hasty.  The cat is carni-
vorous; but it  appeared above, that the calculus of
that animal Is equally destitute of lithic acid.  If, there-
fore, we would form any deduction with  respect to
regimen, we  must look  for something used by man,
exclusively of all other animals; and this is obviously
found in fermented  liquors, but apparently in nothing
else:  and this practical inference is sanctioned by the
most respectable medical authorities.
  The following valuable  criteria of the different
kinds of urinary calculi, have been given by M. Ber-
aelius in his treatise on the use ofthe blowpipe:
  11.  We may recognise calculi formed of uric  acid,
from their being carbonized and smoking with an ani-
mal odour, when heated by themselves on charcoal or
platinum-foil.  They dwindle away at the blowpipe
flame.  Towards the end, they burn with an increase
of light;  and leave a  small quantity of very while
alkaline ashes.
  ' To distinguish these concretions from other s-ub-
ctaures, which comport themselves in the above man-
ner, we mu6t try a portion of the calculus by the humid
way.  Thus a tenth of a grain of this  calculus being
put on a thin plate of glass  or platinum, along with a
drop of nitric acid, we must heal it at the flame ofthe
lamp.  The  uric  acid dissolves with  effervescence.
The matter,  when dried with  precaution to prevent it
from  charring, is obtained in a fine red colour.  If the
calculus contains but  little uric acid,  the substance
sometimes blackens by this process.   We must then
take a new portion ofthe concretion, and after having
dissolved it in nitric acid, remove it from the heat:
the solution, when nearly dry, is to be allowed to cool
und become dry.   We  then expose it, sticking to its
support, to  tbe warm  vapour  of caustic ammonia.
 (From waterof ammonia heated in a tea-spoon.)  This
ammoniacal vapour developes a beautiful red colour in
 it.  We may also moisten the dried matter with a little
weak water of ammonia.
   ' If the concretions are a mixture of uric acid and
 earthy phosphate, they carbonize and consume like
tbe above, hut their residuum is more bulky ; it  is not
 alkaline,  nor soluble in water.  They exhibit with
 nitric acid and ammonia, the fine red colour of uric
 acid.  Their ashes contain phosphate  of lime,  or of
 lime and magnesia.
   '2.  The calculi of urate of soda are hardly met with
 except in the concretions round the articulations of
 gouty patients. When  heated alone upon charcoal,
 they blacken, exhaling an empyreumatic animal odour;
 thf-y are with difficulty reduced into ashes, which are
 strongly alkaline, aud are capable of vitrifving silica.
When there are earthy salts (phosphates)  in  thow
concretions, they afford a whitish or opaque gray glasn.
  ' 3.  The calculi of urate of ammonia comport them-
selves at the blowpipe like those of uric acid.   A drop
of caustic potassa makes them exliale, at a moderate
heat,  much  ammonia.  We must not confound this
odour with the slight ammontnco-lixivial smell, which
potassa disengages from  the greater part  of animal
substances.  Urate of soda is  likewise found  in these
calculi.
  ' 4.  Calculi of phosphate of lime. They  blacken,
with the exhalation of an empyreumatic animal odour,
without melting of themselves  at the  blowpipe, but
whiten into an  evident calcareous phosphate.  With
soda they swell up without vitrifying.   Dissolved in
boracic acid, and fused along  with a little iron, they
yield a bead of phosphuret of iron.
  '5.  Calculi  of ammoniaco-magncsian  phosphate,
heated alone on a plate of platinum, exhale the empy
reumatic animal odour, at the same time blackening,
swelling up, and becoming finally grayish  white.  A
kind of grayish-white enamel is in this manner ob-
tained.  With borax they melt into a glass, which is
transparent, or which becomes of a milky-white on
cooling  Soda  in small quantity causes them to fuse
into a frothy white  slag; a larger quantity  of  soda
makes them infusible.  They yield, with iron and bo-
racic acid, a bead of  phosphuret of iron ; with nitrate
of cobalt, a glass of a deep red or  brown.  If salts of
lime exist in these concretions, the mixture  of them
is less fusible.
  ' 6.  Calculi of oxalate of lime, exposed to the blow-
pipe,  exhale at first  the urinous smell; they become
first of a dull colour at the flame, and afterward  their
colour brightens.   What remains after a moderate
ignition, effervesces with nitric  acid.  After  a smart
jet of the flame, there remains quicklime on the char-
coal, which reacts like an alkali on the colour of lit-
mus, wild  mallow flower, or cabbage, and slakes with
water.  But this does not happen when the residuum
consists of calcareous phosphate.
  ' 7.  The siliceous calculus, heated alone, leaves sub-
coriaceous or infusible ashes.  Treated with a  little
soda,  these dissolve  with effervescence, but slowly,
leaving a bead of glass of a gray colour, or  of  little
transparency.
  18.  Lastly, the cystic oxyde calculi afford nearly the
same  results as  uric acid at the blowpipe.  Thev rea-
dily take fire, burning with a bluish green flame, with-
out melting, with the disengagement of a lively and
very peculiar acid  odour, which has some affinity to
that of cyanogen.  Their ashes, which are not aika-
line, redissolve  by a  jet of the flame, into a  grayish-
white mass.  They do not yield a red colour in their
treatment with  nitric acid, like the uric acid concre-
tions.' "
  The Causes of the Generation of Urinary Calculi.
  To  inquire into  the causes by which urinary con-
cretions are produced, is both interesting and useful,
however attended with the greatest difficulties.  The
writings of medical authors are full of conjectures and
hypotheses with regard to this subject, on which no-
thing could be ascertained before we had acquired an
accurate knowledge of the nature of urinary concre-
tions.  It is owing to this circumstance that  the most
enlightened physicians acquiesced in ascribing the im-
mediate cause of them to a superabundance  of terrc-
ous matter in the urine ; and Boerhaave, as well as,
particularly, Van Swieten, imagined that the urine
of all  men contained calculous  matter in the natural
state, and that, for the generation of stonet, a nucleus
was only required, to attract it.  That this may be the
case,  in some instances, is proved by frequent experi-
ence ; but stones produced by foreign bodies, that have
accidentally got  into the  urethra  or bladder, are
always white, and composed of phosphates of earths,
and seldom or never covered with lithic acid, a sub-
stance which is observed to form the stones that most
frequently occur;  but even in these the nucleus con-
sists of a substance formed in the body itself,  as a par-
ticle  descended from the kidneys, Sec. which must,
therefore, have necessarily originated in a peculiar in-
ternal cause.  A superabundance of uric acid iu stony
patients, and  its more copious  generation than in a
sound state, though it seems to be one of the  principal
and most certain causes, is by no means satisfactory,
as  it only explains the precipitation of stony matter 
CAL
CAL
from the urine, but not why it unites in strata.  A
coagulating  substance  is  required  for separating,
attracting, and, as it were, agglutinating the condensi-
ble particles that are precipitated.  This substance is
undoubtedly the animal matter which we have con-
stantly found in all calculous masses, and which seems
to constitute the basis of stones, like the membraneous
gelatina that of bones.  It is known that the urine of
calculous  patients is generally  muddy, ductile, in
threads, slimy, and as if mixed with albumen, which
quality it obtains at the moment when the ammonia
is disengaged, or on the addition of potassa that sepa-
rates it from the acid in which it was dissolved;  and
in all cases of superabundance of lithic acid the urine
contains a great quantity of that animal matter, which
promotes  the precipitation of it,  and attracts,  and
unites the particles thus separated.  Hence it appears,
that every thing capable of increasing the quantity of
that pituitous gluten in the  urine,  may be considered
as the remote cause of the formation of calculi.  And
the old ideas  on  pituitous temperaments, or  supera-
bundant pituita, &.c. which  were thought to dispose
people to a calculus, seem to be connected with  the
late  discoveries on  the nature of  urinary stones.
Though the animal matter appears to be different in
different calculi, yet it  is certain, that every calculous
substance contains an animal gluten, from which its
concrete and solid state arises; whence we may fairly
state the superabundance of that substance as the chief
and  principal cause ofthe formation of calculi.
   There are, however, other causes which seem to
have a particular influence on the nature of urinary
stones, and  the strata in which they are formed;  but
it is extremely difficult to penetrate  and to explain
them.  We are, for instance, entirely ignorant of  the
manner in which urinary stones are formed from  the
oxalate of lime;  though, from their occurring more
frequently in children than in adults, we might be en-
titled to ascribe them to a disposition to acor, a cause
considered by Boerhaave as the general source of a
great number of diseases incident to the infantile age.
This opinion seems to be proved  by the ideas of Bon-
homme, physician at Avignon, on the oxalic or saccha-
ric acid, as the cause of mollities ossium in the rickets;
by this acid being discovered in a species of saliva by
Brugnatelli; and, lastly, by an observation of Turgais,
who found this acid in the  urine of a child diseased
with worms.  We but rarely observe saccharic acid
in the human body, which  appears to be mostly  ad-
ventitious, and by which the  animal matter is rendered
coagulable,  and deposited, or precipitated, with  the
oxalate of lime;  or  the oxalic acid  decomposes  the
phosphate  of lime, and forms an insoluble combina-
tion, incapableof being any longer kept dissolved in the
urine.  It is, however, extremely difficult to determine
how far the constitution of the body is connected with
that particular disposition in the  urine, of precipi-
tating sometimes phosphate of lime mixed with oxalate
of lime, sometimes phosphate of ammoniacal magne-
sia,  either by itself or mixed with lithic acid,  &c. Sec.
Who can explain the reason why, of 600 stones, there
were only two in which siliceous earth could be traced ?
Still more difficult is it to explain the causes wiiy  the
above substances precipitate either  at once or in differ-
ent  strata;  but it may suffice to  have shown how
many observations and experiments are required, and
what accurate attention and perseverance are neces-
sary, in order to throw light on so difficult a  subject
   The means to be employed in calculous complaints
must vary  according to circumstances.  Permanent
relief can be obtained only by the removal of the mor-
bid concretion: and where this is of too large a size to
be passed by the natural outlet, the operation of litho-
tomy becomes necessary.   Various remedies indeed
have been proposed as capable of  dissolving  urinary
calculi; and some of them are certainly useful in pal-
liating the  symptoms, and  perhaps  preventing  the
formation of fresh calculous matter:  but experience
has  not sanctioned their efficacy as actual lithontrip-
tics; and by delaying the operation, we not only incur
the risk of organic disease being produced, but the con-
cretion may also become friable externally, so as to be
with more difficulty removed. Sometimes, however,
the advanced age of the patient, the complication with
organic disease, or the exhausted state of the system,
may render an operation inexpedient; or he may not
be willing to submit to it; we shall then find some ad-
vantage from the use of chemical remedies, according
to the morbid quality of the urine; that is generally
from alkaline or earthy preparations, where a red de-
posite appears, and from acids where there is a white
sediment.  Tonic medicines may also  be useful, and
some of the mild astringents, especially uva ursi, and
occasional narcotics,  where  violent  pain  attends:
sometimes an  inflammatory tendency may  require
fomentations, the local abstraction of blood, and other
antiphlogistic measures. The most likely plan of effect-
ing a solution of the calculus must certainly be that
proposed by  Fourcroy,  namely,  injecting  suitable
liquids into the bladder.   The most common calculi,
containing uric acid, are readily soluble in a solution
of potassa, or  soda, weak enough to be held in  the
mouth, or even swallowed  without inconvenience;
those which consist of phosphoric acid  neutralized by
lime, or other base, the next in frequency, dissolve in
nitric or muriatic acid of no greater strength ; the most
rare variety, made up mostly of oxalate of lime, may
be dissolved, but very slowly, in nitric acid, or solu-
tions of the fixed alkaline carbonates, weak enough
not to irritate the bladder.  However, it is not easy to
ascertain which of these solvents is proper in a parti-
cular case, for most calculi are not uniform through-
out, owing probably to the urine having varied during
their formation, so that the examination of this secre-
tion will not certainly indicate the injection required.
The plan recommended, therefore, is, the  bladder
having been evacuated, and washed out with tepid
water, to inject first the  alkaline solution, heated to
the temperature ofthe body, and direct  it to be retain-
ed for half an hour, or longer, if the person can bear
it; then, to the liquor voided and filtered, add a little
muriatic acid, which will cause e white precipitate, if
there be any uric acid dissolved; and so long as this
happens, the same injection should be used, otherwise
diluted muriatic acid is to be thrown in, and ammonia
added to it when discharged; whereby phosphate of
lime, if there  be any, is precipitated: and when nei-
ther of these succeeds, diluted nitric acid is to be tried;
in each case varying the injection from time to time,
as that previously used loses its efficacy. However;
there appears one source  of error in this method;
namely, that the urine secreted, while the liquid is
retained, may give rise to a precipitate, though none
of the calculus may have been dissolved; it would
therefore be proper to examine the urine previously, as
well as occasionally during the use of injections, and,
if necessary, correct its quality by the  exhibition of
proper internal medicines.  See Lithontriplics and
Lithotomy.
  Calculus biliaris.  See Gall-stone.
  CALDA'RIUM.   (From caleo, to make hot)   A
vessel in the baths of the  ancients, to hold hot water.
  CALEFA'CIENT.   (Calefaciens;  from  calidus,
warm, and facio, to  make.)  A  medicine, or  other
substance, which excites a degree of warmth in  the
parts to which  it is applied: as piper, spiritus vini,
Sec.  They belotit, to the class of stimulants.
  CALE'NDULA.   (Quad singulis  calendis, i. e.
mensibusyflorescat;  so called because it flowers every
month.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia
necessaria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the single marigold.
See Calendula officinalis.
  Calendula  alpina.  The mountain arnica.  See
Arnica montana.
  Calendula arvensis.   The wild marigold.  See
Caltha palustris.
  Calendula  officinalis.   The  garden marigold
Calendula sativa; Chrysanthemum;  Sponsa soils;
Caltha vulgaris.  The flowers  and leaves  of this
plant, Calendula:—seminibus  cymbiformibus,  muri
cutis,  incurvatis omnibus, of Linnaeus, have been ex-
hibited medicinally:  the former, as aperients in ute-
rine obstructions and icteric disorders, and as  diapho-
retics in exanthematous  fevers; the latter, as gentle
aperients, and to promote the secretions in general.
  Calendula  palustris.   Common single marsh-
marigold.  See  Caltha palustris.
  CALENTURE.  A febrile delirium, said to be pe-
culiar to sailors, wherein  they imagine the sea to be
green  fields, and will throw themselves into  it if not
restrained.  Bonetus, Dr.  Oliver, and Dr. Stubbs, give
an account of it.
                                        lW 
»
                     CAL

  CaM'twit.   The Indian  name of a  tree which
grows in Malabar, the bark of which made into an
ointment with butter, cures convulsions from wounds,
and heals ulcers.  The juke of the bark cures  the
aphtha:, and, taken inwardly, the dysentery.—Ray.
  ~Calf's snout.   See Antirrhinum.
  Ca'li.  (Arabian.)  The same as kali
  Calicha'pa.  The white-thorn.
  CA'LIDUS.   In medical language, it is commonly
used for animal heat, or the vis vita? •  thus, calidum
animals innatum.
  Calidje  plantje.  (From color, heat)  Plants
that are natives of warm climates.
  Calik'ta.  (From koXux,  a nest,  which it some-
what  resembles.)   CaUiette.  A  fungus  growing on
the juniper-tree.
  CALI'GO.  (Caligo, ginis. fo?m.)  A disease of the
eye, known by diminished or destroyed sight; and by
the interposition of  -a  dark body between  tbe object
and the retina.  U is arranged by Cullen in the class
Ijoeales, and order dysasthesia.  The  species of ca-
ligo are distinguished according  to  the  situation of
the interposed body: thus caligo lentis, caligo coma,
caligo  papilla,  caligo humorum, and  caligo palpe-
brarum.
  Caliha'cha.   The  cassia-lignea, or cassia-tree of
Malabar.
  Cali'mia.  The lapis calaminaris.
  CA'LIX.  (Calix, ids. m.; from KaXvnlu, to cover.)
See Calyx.
  Call*'um.  (From  xaXXvvu, to adorn.)  Gallaon.
The gills of a cock, which Galen  says, is food not to
be praised or condemned.
  CaLlu'na.  A kind of saltpetre.
  Ca'lli.  Nodes in the gout.—Galen.
  Ca'llia.   (From koXos, beautiful.)  A  name of the
chamomile.
  Callible'phara.   (From koXos, good,  and fiXctpa-
oov, the eyelid.)  Medicines, or compositions, appro-
priated to the eyelids.
  CALLICO'CCA.  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.   Class, Penlandria, Order,
Monogynia.
  Callicocca ipecacuanha.  The plant from which
ipecacuan root is obtained was long unknown; it was
said by some writers to  be the Psychotria emetica ■
Class, Penlandria; Order, Monogynia; by others, the
Viola ipecacuanha, a syngeuesious plant  of the order
Monogynia.  It is now ascertained to be  neither, but
a small plant called Callicocca ipecacuanha.  There
are three sorts  of ipecacuan to be met  with in  our
snois. viz. the ash-coloured or gray, the  brown, and
the white.
  The ash-coloured is brought from Peru, and is a small
wrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great variety
of figures, brought over in short pieces, full of wrinkles,
and deep circular  fissures, down to a  small  white
woody fibre that runs in the middle of each  piece:
the cortical part is  compact, brittle, looks smooth and
resinous upon breaking:  it has very little smell; the
taste is bitterish and subacrid, covering the tongue, as
it were, with a kind of mucilage.
   The brown is small, somewhat more wrinkled than
the foregoing; of a brown or blackish colour without,
and white within; this is brought from Brazil.
   The white sort is woody, and has no wrinkles, nor
any perceptible hittei net's in taste.  The first, the ash-
.coloured or gray ipecacuan, is that  usually preferred
for medicinal use.  The brown has been sometimes
observed, even in  a  small dose,  to produce violent
effects. The white, though taken in a large one, has
scarcely any effect at all.   Experience has proved that
this medicine is the safest emetic  with which we are
acquainted, having this peculiar advantage, that, if it
does not operate by vomit, it readily passes off'  by (he
other emunctories.  Ipecacuan was first introduced as
an infallible remedy against dysenteries, and other in-
 veterate fluxes, as diarrhoea, nienorrhagia, leucorrhoea,
 &c. and also in disorders proceeding from obstructions
of long standing; nor has it lost much of its reputation
by time: its utility in these cases is thought  to de-
pend upon its restoring perspiration.  It has also been
successfully employed in spasmodic asthma, catarrhal
and consumptive cases.   Nevertheless, its chief use is
 s^ a vomit, and in small doses, joined with opium, as a
diaphoretic.  The officinal preparations are the pulvit
ipecacuanha compositus, and the vinum ipecacuanha.
       170
                      CAL

I   Calli'cri as.  (From koXos, good, and xptas, meat,
| so named from its delicacy as food.)  Sweet bread.
j See Pancreas.
I   Calli'oonum.  (From koXos, beautiful, and yovn,
 a knot, or joint; so named from its being handsomely
 jointed, like a cane.)  The polygonum, or knot-grass.
   Callioma'rchus.  The Gaullic name, in Marcellus
 Empiricus, of colt's-foot
   Ca'llion.  A kind of night-shade
   Calliphy'llum.  From xaXXos, beauty, and q>vX-
 Xov, a leaf.)   See Adianthum.
   Callistru'thia.   (From A-aXof, good, and ;-pvt?o;, a
 sparrow; because it was said to latten sparrows.)  A
 fig mentioned by Pliny, of a good taste.
   CALLITRI'CHE.    (From koXXos,  beauty, and
 5pi£, hair; so named because it has the appearance of
 long,  beautiful hair; or, according to  Littleton, be
 cause it nourishes the hair, and makes it  beautiful.)
 1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
 tem.  Class,  Monandria; Order, Digynia.   Water
 starwort   Water chickweed.
   2. The herb maidenhair.   See Adianthum.
   CALLO'NE.   (From  koXoc, fair.)   Hippocrates
 used this word, to signify that decency and gravity
 of character and deportment which ii is necessary that
 all medical men should be possessed of.
   CALLO SITAS.   Callosity, or preternatural hard-
 ness.
   CALLOSITY.   Callositas.  Hardness.
   CALLOSUS.  Hard.   Applied in surgery to parts
 which are morbidly hard;  and, in botany, to seeds
 which are hard; as those of the Citrus medica.
   CA'LLOUS.  Callosus.   Hardened or  indurated,
 as the callous edges of ulcers.
   CALLUS. (Callus,  t.m.;  and Callum, i. n.)  1.
 The bony matter deposited between the divided ends
 of broken bones, about  the  fourteenth  day after the
 fracture.  It  is in reality nothing more than the new
 ossific substance formed  by a process of nature, very
 similar to the growth of  any other part of the body.
   2. A preternatural hardness, or induration, of any
 fleshy part.
   3. This term is applied in Good's Nosology to that
 species of ecphyma, which is characterized by callous
 extuberaut thickening of the cuticle; insensible to the
 touch.
   Caloca'tanus.  (From koXos, beautiful, and mla-
 vov, a cup ; so called from the beauty of its flower and
 shape)  The wild poppy.  See Papaver rhaas.
   CALO'MELAS.   (From xaXos, good, and ptXas,
 black; from  its virtues  and colour.)  1. The prepa-
 ration  called .jEthiops mineral,  or hydrargyria cum
 sulphure, was formerly so named.
   2. The chloride of mercury.  See Hydrargyri sub-
 murias.
   CALO'RIC.   (Caloricum; from  color, heat.)
 Heat; Igneous fluid.
   Heat and cold are  perceptions of which we acquire
 the ideas from the senses; they indicate only a certain
 state in which we find ourselves, independent  of any
 exterior object. But  as these sensations are for the
 most part produced by bodies around us, we consider
 them as causes, and judging by appearances, we apply
 the terms hot, or cold, lo the substances themselves -
 calling those  bodies hot, which produce in us the sen-
 sation of heat, and those cold, which communicate the
 contrary sensation.
   This ambiguity, though of little consequence in the
 common affairs of human life, has led unavoidably to
 confusion and perplexity in philosophical discussions.
 It was to prevent this,  that the Iramers of the new
 nomenclature adopted the word caloric, which denotes
 that which produces the sensation of heat
                  Theories of Heat.
    Two opinions have long divided  the philosophical
 world concerning the nature of heat
    1. The one is; that  the  cause which produces the
 sensation of heat, is a real, or distinct substance, uni-
 versally pervading nature, penetrating the  particles or
 pores of all  bodies, with more or less facility, and in
 different quantities.
    This substance, if applied to our system in a greater
 proportion than it already contains, warms it, as  we
  call it, or produces the sensation of heat; and hence it
  has been called caloric or calorific.
    2. The other theory  concerning heat is;  that  the
  cause which produces that sensation it not a separate 
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or self-existing substance;  but that it is merely like
gravity, a property of matter; and that it consists in a
specific or peculiar motion, or vibration ofthe particles
of bodies.
  The arguments in favour of the first theory have
been  principally deduced  from  the  evolution and
absorption of  heat  during  chemical  combinations;
those of the latter are chiefly founded on the produc-
tion of heat by friction  For it has been observed, that
whatever is capable  of producing motion in the par-
ticles of any mass  of matter, excites  heat.  Count
Rumford  and Professor Davy have paid uncommon
attention to this fact, and'proved, that heat continues
to be  evolved from a  body subjected to friction, so long
as it  is applied, and  the texture or form of the  body
not altered.
  All the effects of heat, according to this theory, de-
pend  therefore entirely upon the  vibratory motion of
the particles of bodies.  According as  this is more or
less intense, a higher or lower temperature is produced;
and as it predominates over, is nearly equal or inferior
to the attraction of cohesion, bodies exist in the gase-
ous, fluid, or solid state.
  Different bodies are susceptible of it in different de-
grees, and  receive and communicate it with different
celerity.   From the  generation, communication, and
attraction of this repulsive motion, under these laws,
all the phenomena ascribed to heat are explicable.
  Each of these  theories hes been supported by the
most  able philosophers, and given occasion to the most
Important  disputes in which chemists have been en-
gaged:  which has contributed in a  very  particular
manner to the advancement of the science.   The ob-
scurity of the subject,  however,  is  such,  that  both
parties  have  been able  to advance  most plausible
arguments.
  Setting aside all inquiries concerning the merits of
these different doctrines, we shall confine ourselves to
the general effects which  heat produces on different
bodies.  For  the phenomena which heat presents, and
their  relation to each other,  may be investigated with
sufficient  precision, though the materiality, or imma-
teriality of it, may remain unknown to us.
                 Nature of Heat.
  Those who consider heat as matter, assert that caloric
exists in two states, namely, i n combination,or at liberty.
  In  the first state it  is not sensible to our organs, nor
indicated by the thermometer; it forms  a constituent
part  of the body; but it may be brought back to the
state  of sensible heat  In this state it affects  animals
with  the  sensation  of  heat   It therefore has  been
called sensible or  free heat, or fire; and is synonymous
with  uncombined caloric, thermometrical caloric, ca-
loric of temperature,  interposedcaloric, Sec. expressions
now pretty generally superseded.
  From the  diversity of opinions among chemists re-
specting the nature  of caloric, several  other expres-
sions have been introduced,  which  it  is  proper  to
notice.  For  instance, by  specific heat is understood,
the relatitive quantities of caloric  contained  iu equal
weights of different  bodies at the same temperature.
Latent heat is the expression used to denote that quan-
tity of caloric which a body absorbs  when changing
its form.  It is, however, more properly called caloric
of fluidity.   The disposition, or property, by which
different bodies contain certain quantities of caloric,
at any temperature, is termed their capacity for heat.
By the expression of absolute heat, is  understood the
whole quantity of caloric which any body contains.
,      Methods of exciting and collecting Heat.
  Of  the  different methods  of exciting  heat, the fol-
lowing are the most usual:
  I.   Percussion  or Collision.  This  method  of  pro-
ducing heat is the simplest, and therefore it is gene-
rally made use of in the common  purposes of life for
Obtaining  fire.
  When a piece  of  hardened steel is struck with a
flint, some particles  of the  metal  are scraped away
from  the mass, and  so violent is  the  beat which fol-
lows  the stroke, that it  melts and vitrifies them.  If
the fragments of steel are caught upon paper, and
viewed with a microscope, most of them will be found
perfect spherules, and very highly polished.   Their
sphericity demonstrates that they have been in a fluid
state,  and the polish  upon their surface, shows them
to be vitrified.
  No  beat, however  has been observed  to follow the
percussion of liquids, nor of the softer kind of bodies
which yield to a slight impulse.
  2. Friction.  Heat may likewise be excited by mere
friction.  This practice is still  retained in some parts
of the world. The natives of New Holland are said
to produce fire in this manner,  with great facility, and
spread it in a wonderful  manner.  For that  purpose,
they take  two pieces of dry  wood; one is a stick,
about eight or nine  inches long, and tbe other piece is
flat; the stick they bring to an obtuse point at one end,
and pressing it upon the other piece, they turn it very
nimbly, by holding it between both hands, as we do a
chocolate-mill, often shifting their hands up, and then
moving down upon it, in order to increase the pressure
as much as possible.  By this  method they get fire in
a  few  minutes, and  from the smallest spark they
increase it with great speed and dexterity.
  If the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied
to each other, without the interposition of some unc-
tuous matter to  keep them from  immediate contact,
they will become so hot when the carriage runs swiftly
along, as to set the wood on fire; and the fore-wheels,
being smallest, and making most revolutions in a given
time, will be most iu danger.
  The same will happen to mill-work, or to any other
machinery.
  It is  no uncommon practice in this  country, for
blacksmiths to use a plate of iron  as an extemporane-
ous substitute for a tinder-box; for it may be ham
mered on an anvil till it becomes red-hot, and will fire
a brimstone match.  A strong man who strikes quick,
and keeps turning the iron so  that both  sides may be
equally exposed to the force of the hammer, will per
form this in less time than would be expected.
  If, in the coldest season, one  dense iron plate be laid
on another, and pressed together by a weight, and then
rubbed  upon each other  by reciprocal motions, they
will gradually grow so hot as, in a short  time, to emit
sparks, and at last become ignited.
  It is not necessary that the substances should be very
hard; a cord rubbed backwards and forwards swiftly
against a post or a tree will take fire.
  Count Rumford and Professor Pictet  have made
some very ingenious  and valuable experiments con
cerning the heat evolved by friction.
  3. Chemical Action.  To this belongs the heat pro-
duced  by combustion.  There  are, besides this, many
chemical  processes wherein  rapid chemical action
takes place, accompanied with a de vclopement of heat,
or fire, and flame.
  4. Solar heat.  It is well known that the solar rays,
when collected by a mirror, or lens, into a focus, pro-
duce the most astonishing effects.
  Dr. Herschel has discovered that there  are rays
emitted from the sun, which have not the power of
illuminating  or producing vision: and that  these are
the rays which produce the heat of the solar iigbt.
  Consequently, heat  is emitted from the sun in  rays,
but these rays are not the same with the rays ol  light.
  5. The Electric Spark, and Galvanism.  The effects
of electricity are two well known in this  point of
view to need any description.
  Galvanism has of late become a powerful instrument
for the purpose of exciting heat.  Not only easily in-
flammable substances, such as phosphorus,  sulphur,
&c. have been fired, but likewise,  gold, silver, copper,
tin, and the  rest of the metals, have  been  burnt by
means of galvanism.
              General Effects of Heat.
  The first and most obvious effect which heat pro-
duces on bodies, is its expansive property.   Experience
has taught us that, at  all times, when bodies become
hot,  they increase in bulk.  The bodies experience a
dilatation which is greater in proportion  to the accu-
mulation of coloric, or in other words, to the intensity
of the heat.  This is a general  law, which holds good
as long as the bodies have suffered no change either in
their combination or in the quantity of their chemical
principles.
  This power, which heat possesses, consists, there •
fore, in a constant tendency to  separate the particles
of bodies.  Hence philosophers consider  heat as the
repulsive power which acts upon all bodies whatever.
and which  is in  constant opposition to the power of
attraction.
  The phenomena which result from these mutual ac-
tions, seem, as it were, tbe secret springs of nature* 
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 Heat, however, does not expand all bodies equally,
 and we are still ignorant of the laws which it follows.
   1. Expansion of Fluid Bodies.   Take U gloss globe,
 with a long slender neck (called a bold heat); fill it up
 to the neck with water, ardent spirit, or any other fluid
 which may be coloured with red or black ink, in or-
 der to be more visible, and then immerse the globe of
 the instrument in a vessel of hot  water;  the included
 fluid will instantly begin to mount into the neck.  If
 it be taken out of the water and brought near tbe fire,
 it will ascend more and more, in  proportion as it be-
 comes heated; but, upon removing  it from the source
 of heat, it will sink  again: a clear  proof that  caloric
 dilates it, so as to make it occupy more space when
 hot than when cold.  These experiments may, there-
 fore, serve as a demonstration that heat expands fluid
 bodies.
   2. Expansion of Aeriform Bodies.  Take a bladder
 partly filled with air, the neck of which is closely tied,
 so as to prevent the enclosed air from escaping, and
 let it be held  near a  fire.  The  air will soon begin to
 occupy more space, and the  bladder will become gra-
 dually distended; on continuing the expansion of the
 air, by increasing the heat, the bladder will burst with
 a loud report
   3. Expansion of Solid Bodies.  If we take a bar of
 iron, six inches long, and put it into a fire till it becomes
 red-liot;  and then  measure it in this state accurately,
 it will be found l-20th of an inch longer than  it was
 before; that is, about 120th part of the whole.  That
 the metal is  proportionally expanded in breadth, will
 be seen by  trying to pass it through an aperture which
 is fitted exactly when cold, but which will not admit it
 when red-hot.  The bar is, therefore,  increased in
 length and diameter.
   To discover the minutest changes of expansion by
 heat, and the relative proportions thereof, instruments
 have  been contrived, called Pyrometers, the  sensi-
 bility of which is so delicate as  to show an expansion
 of l-100,000th of an  inch.
   It is owing to this expansion of metals, that the mo-
 tion of time-pieces  is  rendered erroneous;  but  the
 ingenuity of artists  has discovered methods of ob-
 viating this  inaccuracy, by  employing  tbe greater
 expansion  of one  metal, to counteract the expansion
 of another; this is effected in what is called the grid-
 iron pendulum.  Upon the same principle, a particular
 construction of watches has been contrived.
   The expansion of metals is likewise one of the prin-
 cipal reasons that clocks and  watches vary  in winter
 and summer, when worn in the pocket, or exposed to
 the open air,  or when carried  into a hotter or a colder
 climate.  For the number of the vibrations of the
 pendulum is  always in  the sub-duplicate ratio of its
 length, and as the length is changed by heat and cold,
rthe  times  of vibration will  be also changed.  The
.quantity of alteration, when considered  in  a single
 vibration, is  exceedingly  small, but when  they  are
.-often repeated, it will be very sensible.  An alteration
 of one-thousandth part in the time of a  single vibra-
 tion of a pendulum which beats seconds, will make a
.change of eighty-six whole vibrations in twenty-four
 hours.
   As diffeoent metals expand differently with the same
 .degree of  heat; those  musical instruments,  whose
 jparts are  to maintain  a constant true proportion,
 should never.be strung with different metals. It is on
 this account that harpsichords, &c. are out of tunc by
 a change of temperature.
   Bodies which are brittle, or which want flexibility,
 crack or break,.if suddenly heated.  This likewise de-
 pends upon the expansive force of heat, stretching the
 surface to  which it is applied, while the other parts,
 not being equally .heated, do not expand in the same
 ratio, and are therefore torn asunder or break.  Hence
 thin vessels stand  heat  better than thick ones.  Tbe
 same holds, when they are suddenly cooled.
               Measurement of Heat.
   Upon the  expansive  property of heat, which  we
 have considered before, is founded, its artificial mea-
 surement  Various  means have been employed to as-
 sist the imperleetioncCour sensations in judging of the
 different degrees of  Beat; for our  feelings, unaided,
 afford but very inaccurate information concerning tliis
 matter; they indicate the presence of heat, only when
 the bodies presented  to them are hotter than tbe actual
 temperature  of our orgaud <ff feeling.  When thtot
       172
bodies are precisely of the same temperature with our
body, which we make the standard of comparison, we
then are not sensible of the presence of heat in them.
When their temperature is less than that of our bo-
dies, their contact gives us what is called  the sensa-
tion of cold.
  The effects of heat upon material bodies in general,
which are easily visible to us, afford more precise and
determinate indications of the intensity, than can  be
derived from our feelings alone.  The ingenuity of the
philosopher and artist has therefore furnished us with
instruments of measuring the relative heat or tempera-
ture of bodies.  These instruments are called Thermo-
meters and  Pyrometers.   By these,  all degrees are
measurable, from the slightest to that of the most in-
tense heat.  See Thermometer and Pyrometer.
       Exceptions to the Expansion  by Heat.
  Philosophers have noticed a few exceptions to the
law of heat expanding bodies.  For instance; water,
when  cooled down within about 7°  of the freezing
point, instead of contracting on the farther deprivation
of heat, actually expands.
  Another seeming exception is manifested in alumine,
or clay; others occur in the case of cast-iron, and a
few other metals.   Alumine contractson being heated,
and cast-iron, bismuth,  Sec. when fully fused, are more
dense  than when solid; for, as soon as they become
so, they decrease in density, they expand in the act of
cooling, and hence the sharpness of figures  upon iron
which  has been cast in moulds, compared to that of
many other metals.
  Some philosophers have persuaded themselves that
these exceptions are only apparent, but not really true.
They say, when water freezes, it assumes a crystalline
form, the  crystals cross each  other and cause nume-
rous vacuities, and thus the ice occupies more space
The same is the case with fused iron,  bismuth, and
antimony.   The  contraction of clay is  considered
owing  to the loss of water, of which it loses a part  at
every increased degree  of temperature hitherto tried ;
there is, therefore, a loss of matter; and a reduction
of volume must follow: but others  assert, that this
only happens to a certain extent
  Mr. Tilloch has  published a  brief examination of
the received doctrines respecting heat and  caloric, in
which  these truths are more fully considered, together
with many other interesting facts relative  to the re-
ceived  notions of heat
            Equal Distribution of Heat.
  If a number of bodies of different temperatures are
placed  in  contact with each other, they will all at a
certain time acquire a temperature, which is interme-
diate ;  the caloric ofthe hottest body will diffuse itself
among those which are heated in a less degree, till
they have all acquired a certain mean  temperature.
Thus, if a bar of iron, which has been made red-hot,
be kept in the open air, it  does  not retain the  heat
which  it had received,  but  becomes gradually colder
and colder, till it arrives at the temperature of the bo
dies in its neighbourhood.   On  the other hand, if we
cool down the iron bar by keeping it for some time co-
vered with snow, and then carry it into a warm room,
it does not retain its low temperature,  but becomes
gradually hotter, till it acquires the temperature ofthe
room.  It is therefore obvious, that in the one instance
the temperature is lowered,  and in  the other  it  is
raised.
  These changes of temperature occupy a longer or a
shorter time, according to the nature of the  body, but
they always  take place at last.  This  law itself is, in
deed, familiar to every one: when we wish to heat a
body, we carry it towards the fire: when we wish to
cool it, we surround it by cold bodies.
               Propagation of Heat.
  We have seen, that when bodies of higher tempera-
ture than others are brought into contact with  each
other, the heat is propagated from the first  to the se-
cond, or the colder body deprives the warmer of its
excess  of heat. We shall now see that some bodies
do so much more quickly than others.   Through some
bodies  caloric  passes  with undiminished velocity,
through others its passage is prodigiously retarded.
  This disposition of bodies, of admitting, under equal
circumstances,  the refrigeration of  a  heated  body
within a shorter or a longer time, is called  the power
of conducting heat;  and a  body is said to be a better
or worse conductor of heat, as it allows the refrigera- 
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tton to go on quicker or slower.  Those bodies, there-
fore, which  possess the property of lotting heat pass
with facility, are called good conductors, those through
which it passes with difficulty are called bad conduct-
ors, and those through which it is supposed not to pass
at all, are called non-conductors ; thus we say, in com-
mon language, some bodies are warm, or capable of
preserving warmth, and from this arises the great dif-
ference in the sensation excited by different bodies,
when  applied at the same temperature to  our organs
of feeling.   Hence, if we immerse  our hand  in mer-
cury, we feel a greater sensation of cold than when we
immerse it in water, and a piece of metal  appears to
be much colder than  a piece of wood, though their
temperatures, when examined by means of the thermo-
meter, are precisely the same.
   It is probable that all solids conduct heat in some
degree, though  they differ very much in their conduct-
ing power.  Metals  are the  best conductors of heat;
but the conducting powers of these substances are by
no means equal.  Stones seem to be the next best con-
ductors. Glass conducts heat very slowly; wood and
charcoal still slower;  and  feathers, silk, wool, and
hair, are still worse conductors than any of the sub-
Stances yet mentioned.
   The best conductors of electricity and galvanism are
also the best conductors of heat.
   Experiment.—Take  a number of straight wires, of
equal diameters and lengths, but of different metals ;
for instance, gold, silver, copper, iron, Sec.; cover
each of them with a thin coat of wax, or tallow, and
plunge their extremities into  water, kept boiling, or
into melted  lead.  The melting of the coat of wax will
show that caloric is more quickly transmitted through
some metals than others.
   It is on this account also, that the end of a glass rod
may be kept red-hot for a long time, or even melted,
without any inconvenience to the  hand which  holds
the other extremity; though  a  similar metallic rod,
heated in the same manner, would very soon become
too hoi to be held.
Liquid and  Aeriform Bodies convey Heat by an actual
     Change in the  Situation of their Particles.
   Count Rumford was  the first who proved that fluids
in general, and aiSriform bodies, convey heal on a dif-
ferent principle from that observed in the solids.  This
opinion is  pretty generally admitted, though various
ingenious experiments have been  made, by different
philosophers, to prove  the contrary.  In water, for in-
stance, the count has proved that caloric is propagated
principally in consequence of the motion which is oc-
casioned in  the particles of that fluid.
   All  fluids are considered  by him, strictly speaking,
in a similar respect as  non-conductors of caloric.
They  can receive it, indeed,  from other substances,
and can give it to other substances, but no particle can
either receive it from or give it to another particle of
the same kind.  Before a fluid, therefore, can be heat-
ed or cooled, every particle must go individually to the
substance from which it receives or to which it gives
out caloric.  Heat being,  therefore,  only propagated
in fluids, in consequence  of the internal  motion of
their particles, which transport the heat; the more
rapid these  motions are, the more rapid is the commu-
nication of  heat.  The cause of these motions is  the
change in the specific gravity of the fluid,  occasioned
by the change of temperature, and the rapidity is in
proportion to'the change of the specific gravity of  the
liquid by any given  change of temperature.  The fol-
lowing experiment may serve to  illustrate this theory:
   Take a thin glass tube, eight or ten inches long, and
about  an inch in diameter.  Pour into the bottom
part, for about  the depth of one inch, a little water co-
louied with Brazil-wood, or litmus, and then fill up
the tube with common water, extremely gently, so as
to keep the two strata quite distinct from each other.
Having done this, heat  the bottom part of the tube over
a lamp"; the coloured infusion will then ascend, and
gradually tinge the whole fluid; on the contrary, if the
heat be applied above,  the water in the upper part of
the tube may be made to boil, but the colouring matter
will remain  at the bottom undisturbed.  The heat can-
Sot act dowuwards to make it ascend.
   By thus being able to make the upper part of a fluid
soil without heating the bottom part, water may be
kept boiling for a considerable  time in a  glass tube
over ice, without melting it
  Other experiments, illustrating the snme principle,
may be found in count Rumford's  excellent essays,
especially in Essay the 7th; 1797.
  To this indefatigable philosopher we aro wholly in-
debted  for the above foots:  he was the first who taught
us that air  and water  were  nearly non-conductor"
The results of his experiments, which are contained ic
the above essay, are highly  interesting;  they also
Bhow that the conducting power of fluids is impaired
by the  admixture of fibrous and glutinous matter.
  Count  Rumford proved  that ice melted more than
80 times  slower, when  boiling hot water stood on its
surface, than when the ice was placed to swim on the
surface of the hot water. Other experiments showed
that water, only eight degrees of Fahrenheit above the
freezing point, or at the temperature of forty degrees,
melts as  much ice, in any given time, as an equal vo-
lume of that fluid at any higher temperature, provided
the water stands on the surface of the ice.  Water, at
the temperature of 41°, is found to melt more ice,
when standing on its surface, than boiling water.  Il
appears, however, that liquids are not, as he supposes,
complete non-conductors of caloric; because, if heat
be applied at top, it is capable of making its way
downwards, through water, for example, though very
imperfectly and slowly.
  It becomes farther evident, from the  Count's inge-
nious  experiments, that of the different substances
used in  clothing, hares' fur and eider-down are the
warmest; next to these, beavers' fur, raw silk, sheep's
wool, cotton wool, and lastly, lint, or the scrapings of
fine linen.  In fur, the air  interposed among its parti-
cles is  so engaged as  not  to be driven away by the
heat communicated thereto by the animal body; not
berug easily  displaced, it becomes a  barrier to defend
the animal body from the external cold. Hence it is
obvious that those skins are warmest which  have the
finest,  longest, and thickest fur;  and that  the furs of
the beaver,  otter, and other like quadrupeds, which
live much in the water, and the feathers of water-fowl,
are capable of confining the heat of those animals in
winter, notwithstanding the  coldness of the  water
which  they frequent.  Bears,  and various other ani-
mals, inhabitants of cold climates, which do not often
take the water, have their  fur much thicker on their
backs than on their bellies.
  The  snow which covers the surface of the earth in
winter, in high latitudes,  is doubtless designed as a
garment to defend it against the piercing winds from
the polar regions, which prevail during the cold season.
  Without dwelling farther upon the philosophy of
this  truth, we  must briefly remark  that the happy
application of this law, satisfactorily elucidates some
ofthe most interesting facts ofthe economy of nature.
   Theory of Caloric of Fluidity, or Latent Heat.
  There  are  some bodies which, when submitted to
the action of caloric, dilate to such a degree, and the
power  of aggregation subsisting among their particles
is so much destroyed and removed to such a distance
by the interposition of  caloric, that they slide over
each other in every direction,  and therefore appear in
a  fluid state.  This phenomenon is  called fusion.
Bodies thus  rendered  fluid by means of caloric, are
said to be fused, or melted; and those that are subject
to it, are called fusible.
  The  greater number of solid bodies may, by the
application of heat, be  converted into fluids.  Thus
metals  may be fused ; sulphur, resin, phosphorus, may
be melted; ice may be converted into water, &c.
  Those  bodies which cannot be rendered fluid by any
degree  of heat hitherto known, are called infusible.
  If the effects of heat, under certain circumstances,
be carried still farther  than  is necessary to render
bodies  fluid,  vaporization  begins;  the  bodies then
become converted into the vaporous or gaseous state.
Vaporization, however, does  not always require a
previous  fusion.  Some bodies are capable of being
converted into the vaporous state, without previously
becoming fluid, and others cannot be volatilized  at
any temperature hitherto known: the latter are termed
fixed.
  Fluidity is, therefore, by  no  means essential to any
species of matter, but always depends on the presence
of a quantity of caloric.  Solidity is the natural state
of all bodies, and there can be no doubt that  every
fluid is capable of being rendered solid by a due reduc-
tion of temperature; and every solid may be fused by 
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 the agency of caloric, if the latter does not decompose
 them at a temperature inferior to that  which would
 be necessary for their fusion.
                 Caloric of Fluidity.
   Dr. Black was the first who proved that, whenever
 caloric combines with a solid body, the body becomes
 heated only, until it is rendered fluid : and that, while
 it is acquiring the fluid state, its temperature remains
 stationary, though caloric is  continued to be added to
 it  The same is the case when fluids are  converted
 into the aeriform or vaporous state.
   From these facts, the laws of latent heat  have been
 inferred.   The theory may be illustrated by means of
 the fol'owing experiments:
   If a  lump of ice, at a low temperature, suppose at
 22°, be brought into a warm room, it will become gra-
 dually less cold, as may be discovered  by  means of
 the thermometer.  After  a very short  time,  it will
 reach  the  temperature of  32°  (the freezing  point);
 but there it stops.  The ice then begins to  melt;  but
 the process goes on very slowly.   During the whole
 of that time its temperature continues at 32° ;  and as
 it is constantly surrounded  by warm air, we have
 reason  to  believe that  caloric is constantly entering
 into it; yet it does not become hotter till it is changed
 mto water. Ice, therefore, is converted into water by
 a quantity of caloric uniting with it.
   It has been found by calculation, that ice in melting
 absorbs 140° of caloric,  the temperature  of  the water
 produced still remaining at 32°.
   This fact may be proved in a direct manner.
   Take one pound of ice, at 32°, reduced to a coarse
 powder; put it into a wooden bowl, and pour over it
 one pound of water, heated to 172°; all the ice will
 become melted, and the temperature of the  whole
 fluid, if examined by a thermometer, will be 32°; 140°
 of caloric  are therefore lost, and it is this quantity
 which was requisite to convert the ice into water.
 This  experiment succeeds better,  if,  instead of ice,
 fresh-fallen snow be employed.
  This caloric has been called latent caloric, because
 its  presence is not measurable by  the thermometer:
 also more properly caloric of fluidity.
  Dr. Black has also ascertained by experiment, that
 the fluidity of melted wax, tallow, spermaceti, metals,
 &c. is owing to the same cause; and Landriani proved,
 that this is the case with sulphur, alum, nitrate  of
 potassa, &c.
  We consider it therefore as  a general  law, that
 whenever a solid is  converted into a fluid, it  combines
 with caloric, and that is the cause of fluidity.
 Conversion of Solids and Fluids into the Aeriform or
                  Gaseous State.
  We have seen before, that, in order to render solids
 fluid, a certain quantity of caloric is necessary, which
 combines with the body, and therefore cannot be mea-
 sured by the thermometer;  we shall now endeavour
 to prove that the same holds good in  respect to the
 conversion  of solids or fluids into  the  vaporous  or
 gaseous Btate.
  Take a small quantity of carbonate of ammonia,
 introduce it into a retort, the neck of which is directed
 under a cylinder filled with mercury, and inverted  in
 a basin  of  the same fluid.  On  applying heat to the
 body of the retort, the carbonate of ammonia will  be
 volatilized, it will expel the mercury out ofthe cylinder,
 and become an invisible gas, and would remain so, if
 its temperature was not lowered.
  The same is the case with benzoic acid, camphire,
 and various other substances.
  All fluids may, by the application of heat, be con-
 verted into an aeriform elastic state.
  When we consider water in a boiling state, we find
 that this fluid, when examined by the thermometer, is
 not hotter  after boiling several hours, than when it
 began to boil, though to maintain it boiling a brisk fire
 must necessarily  be kept  up.  What  then, we may
ask, becomes of the wasted caloric 1  It is not percep-
tible in the  water, nor is it manifested  by the steam;
 for the steam, if not compressed, upon examination, is
found notK be hotter than boiling water.  The caloric
Jb therefore absorbed by the steam, and  although what
Js so absorbed, is absolutely necessary for the conver-
sion of  water into the form  of steam ;  it  does not
increase its temperature, and  is  therefore not appre-
ciable by the thermometer.
  The conclusion is farther strengthened by the heat
 given out by steam on its being condensed by cold.
 This is particularly manifested in the condensation of
 this fluid in the  process of  distilling, where,  upon
 examining the refrigeratory, it will be found that a
 much greater quantity of caloric is communicated to
 it, than  could possibly have been transmitted by the
 caloric which was sensibly acting before the conden-
 sation.  This may be easily ascertained by observing
 the quantity of caloric communicated to the water in
 the refrigeratory of a still, by any given quantity of
 liquid that passes over.
   1. The boiling point, or the temperature at which
 the conversion of fluids into gases takes place, is dif-
 ferent in different fluids, but constant in each, provided
 the pressure of the atmosphere be the same.
   Put any quantity of sulphuric aether into a Florence
 flask, suspend a thermometer in it, and hold the flask
 over an Argand's  lamp, the aether will  immediately
 begin to boil, and the thermometer will indicate  98°
 if the a:ther has been highly rectified.
   If highly rectified ardent spirit is heated in a similar
 manner, the thermometer will rise to 176°, and there
 remain stationary.
   If water is substituted, it will rise to 212°.
   If strong nitrous acid of commerce be made use of.
 it will be found  to boil at 248°; sulphuric acid  and
 linseed-oil at 600° ; mercury at 656°, Sec
   2. The boiling point of fluids is raised by pressure.
   Mr. Watt heated water under a strong pressure to
 400°.  Yet still, when the pressure was removed, only
 part of the water was converted into vapour, and the
 temperature of this vapour, as well as that of the re-
 maining fluid, was  no more than 2120.  There was,
 therefore, 188° of caloric suddenly lost.  This caloric
 was carried off by the steam.  Now  as only about
 one-fifth of the water was  converted into steam, that
 steam must contain not only its own 1880, but also the
 188° lost by each of the other four parts;  that is to
 say, it must contain 188°x5, or about 940°.  Steam,
 therefore,  is water combined with at least 940° of
 caloric, the presence of which is not indicated by the
 thermometer.
  3. When  pressure is removed from the surface of
 bodies, their conversion into the gaseous state is greatly
 facilitated, or their boiling point is lowered.
  In proof of this the following experiments may serve:
  Let a small bottle be filled with highly rectified sul-
 phuric aether, and a piece of wetted bladder be tied
 over its orifice around its neck.  Transfer it under the
 receiver of an air-pump, and take  away the super-
 incumbent pressure of the air in the receiver.   When
 the exhaustion is complete, pierce the bladder by
 means of a pointed sliding wire, passing through a
 collar of leather which covers  the  upper opening of
 the receiver.  Having  done this, the a-ther will  in-
 stantly begin to boil, and become converted into  an
 invisible gaseous fluid.
  Take a small retort or Florence flask, fill it one half
 or less with water, and make  it boil over a  lamp;
 when kept briskly boiling for about five minutes, cork
 the mouth of the retort as expeditiously as possible,
 and remove it from the lamp.
  The water, on being removed from the source of
 heat, will keep boiling for a few minutes, and when
 the ebullition begins to slacken, it may be renewed by
dipping the  retort into cold water, or pouring cold
 water upon it.
  The water, during boiling, becomes converted into
 vapour; this vapour expels  the  air of the vessel, and
occupies its place;  on diminishing the  heat, it con-
denses ; when the retort is stopped, a partial vacuum
is formed;  the  pressure becomes diminished, and a
less degree of heat is sufficient to cause an ebullition.
  For the same reason, water may be  made to boil
under the exhausted receiver at 94° Fahr., or even at
a lower degree; alkohol at 56°;  and tether at —20°.
  On the conversion of fluids into gases is founded the
following experiment, by which water is frozen  by
means of sulphuric aether.
  Take a thin glass tube four or five inches long and
about two or three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and
a two-ounce  bottle furnished with a capillary tube
fitted to its neck.  In order to make ice, pour a littln
water into  the  tube, taking care not to wet the out-
side, nor to leave it moist   Having done this, let a
stream of sulphuric aether fall through the capillary
tube upon that part of it containing  the water, which 
CAL
CAL
by this means will be converted into ice in a few mi-
nute*, and this it will do even  near a fire, or in the
midst of summer.
  If the  glass tube, containing  the water, be exposed
to the brisk thorough air, or free draught of an open
window, a large quantity of water may be frozen in a
shorter time ; and if a thin spire of wire be introduced
previous to the congelation of the water, the ice will
adhere to  it, and may thus  be drawn out conve-
niently.
   A  person  might be easily frozen to death during
very warm weather, by merely pouring upon his body
for some- time  sulphuric aether, and keeping him ex-
posed to a thorough draught of air.
              Artificial Refrigeration.
   The cooling or refrigeration of rooms in the summer
season by sprinkling them with water, is on  the prin-
ciple of evaporation.
   The method  of making ice artificially in the  East
Indies depends on the same principle.  The ice-makers
at Benares dig pits in large open plains, the bottom of
which they strew with sugar-canes  or dried stems of
maize or Indian-corn.  Upon  this bed they place a
number of unglazed pans, made of so porous an earth
that the  water penetrates through  their whole  sub-
stance.  These pans are filled toward evening in the
winter season with water that  has  boiled,  and left  in
that situation  till morning, when more or  le3s ice i«
found in them, according to the  temperature and other
qualities of the air; there  being more formed in dry
and warm weather, than in  that  which  is cloudy,
though it may be colder to the human body.
   Every thing  in this process is calculated to produce
cold by evaporation; the beds on which the pans are
placed, suffer the air  to have a free passage to  their
bottoms;  and the pans constantly oozing out water to
their external  surface, are  cooled by the evaporation
of it.
   In  Spain, they use  a kind of earthen jars, called
buxaros, which are only half-baked,  the earth of which
is so porous, that the outside  is kept  moist by the
water which niters through it, and though placed  in
the sun, the water in the jar becomes as cold as ice.
   It is a common practice in China to cool wine  or
other liquors  by  wrapping the  bottle  in a wet cloth,
and hanging it up iu the sun.  The water iu the cloth
becomes converted into vapour, and thus cold is pro-
duced.
   The blacks in  Senegambia have  a similar method
of cooling water by filling tanned leather bags with it,
which they hang  up in the sun ; the  water oozes, more
or less through the leather so as to keep the outer sur-
face wet, which  by its  quick and  continued  evapo-
ration cools the water remarkably.
   The winds on  the borders of the Persian gulf are
often so scorching, that travellers are suddenly suffo-
cated unless they cover their heads with a wet cloth ;
if this be too wet, they immediately  feel an intolerable
cold, which would prove fatal if the moisture was not
speedily dissipated by  tbe heat.
             Condensation of  Vapour.
   If a cold vessel is brought into a warm room, parti-
cularly where  many people are assembled, the outside
of it will soon  become covered with a sort of dew.
   Before  some changes of weather, the stone  pave-
ments, the walls  of a house, the balustrades of stair-
ca.-eg, and other solid objects, feel clammy and damp.
   in frosty nights, when the air abroad is colder  than
the air within, the dampness of this air, for the same
reason, settles  on the glass panes of the windows, and
is there frozen  into curious and beautiful figures.
   Thus fogs  and dews take  place,  and in the higher
regions clouds are formed from the condensed vapour.
The still greater condensation produces mists and rain.
      Capacity of Bodies for containing Heat.
   The property which different bodies possess, of con-
taining at the  same temperature, and in equal quan-
tities, either of mass  or bulk,  unequal quantities of
Beat, is called their capacity for heat  The capacities
»( bodies for heat are  therefore considered  as great or
small in proportion as their temperatures are either
raised bv the addition, or diminished  by the depriva-
tion, of equal quantities of heat, in a less or greater
degree.
   In  homogeneous bodies, the quantities of caloric
which thev contain are in  the ratio of their tempera-
ture and  mass; when, therefore,  equal quantities of
water, of oil, or of mercury, of unequal temperatures,
are mingled together, the temperature of the whole
will be the arithmetical mean between the tempera-
tures of the two  quantities that had  been mixed to-
gether.  It is a self-evident truth  that  this should be
the case, for the particles of different  portions of the
same substance being alike, their effect's must be equal.
For instance ■
  Mix a pound of water at 172° with a pound at 32°,
half the excess of heat in hot water will quit it to go
over into the colder portion ; thus the hot water will
be cooled 70°, and the cold will receive 70° of tem-
perature ;  therefore 172—70, or 32 -f- 70 = 102,  will
give the heat of the mixture. To attain  the arithme-
tical mean very exactly, several precautions, however,
are necessary.
  When heterogeneous bodies of different tempera-
tures are mixed together, the temperature produced is
never the arithmetical mean of the two original tem-
peratures.
  In order  to  ascertain the comparative quantities of
heat of different  bodies, equal weights  of them are
mingled together; the experiments for  this purpose
being in general  more easily executed than those by
which they are compared from equal bulks.
  Thus, if one pound of mercury heated to 410° Fahr.,
be added to one pound of water of 44°, the tempera-
ture of the blended fluids will not be changed to 77°*,
is it would be if the surplus of beat were divided
among those fluids in the proportion of their quantities.
It will be found, on examination, to be only 47°.
  On the contrary, if the pound of mercury be heated
to 44°, and  the water to 110°, then, on stirring them
together, the common temperature will be 107°.
  Hence, if the quicksilver loses by this distribution
63° of caloric, an equal weight of water gains only 3°
from this loss of 63° of heat. And, on the contrary, if
the water loses 3°, the mercury gains 63°.
  When, instead of comparing the quantities of caloric
which equal weights of different bodies  contain, we
compare the quantities contained in equal volumes, we
still find that an obvious difference takes place.  Thus
it is found by experiment, that the quantity of caloric
necessary to raise the  temperature  of a given volume
of water any number of degrees, is, to that necessary
to raise  an equal volume of mercury, the same number
of degrees as 2 to  1.   This is, therefore, the proportion
between the comparative quantities of caloric which
these two bodies contain, estimated by their volumes;
and similar differences exist with respect to every other
kind of matter.
  From the  nature  of the experiments by which Ihe
quantities of caloric which bodies contain are  ascer-
tained, it is evident  that we discover merely the com-
parative, not  the absolute quantities.   Hence water
has been chosen as a standard, to which other bodies
may be  referred;  its capacity is stated as the arbitrary
term of 1000, and with  this the capacities  of other
bodies are compared.
  It need not be  told  that pains  have been taken to
estimate on these experiments that portion of  heal
which diffuses itself  into the air, or into the vessel
where the  mercury and water are blended together.
As  however such valuations cannot  be made  with
complete accuracy, the numbers stated above are only
an approximation to truth.
              Radiation  of Caluric.
  Caloric is thrown off or radiates from heated bodies
in right lines,  and moves  through space with incon
ceivable velocity.  It is retarded in its passage  by at
mospheric air, by colourless fluids, glass, and other
transparent bodies.
  If a glass mirror be placed before a fire, the mirror
transmits the rays of light,  but not the rays of heat.
  If a plate of glass, talc, or a  glass vessel filled with
water, be suddenly interposed between the fire and the
eye, the rays of light  pass through it, but the rays of
caloric are considerably retarded in its passage, for no
heat is perceived until the interposed substance  is sa-
turated  with heat, or has  reached  its maximum. It
then ceases to  intercept the rays of caloric, and allows
them to pass as freely as the rays of light
  It has been  lately shown by Dr. Herschel, that the
rays of caloric are refrangible, but less so than the rays
of li»ht; and the same philosopher has also proved by
experiment, that it is not only the rays of caloric emit-
ted by the  sun,  which are refrangible, but likewise, 
CAL
CAL
the rays emitted by common fires, by candles, by heat-
ed iron, and even by hot water.
  Whether the rays of caloric are differently refracted,
in diffident mediums,  has not yet been ascertained.
VVe jre certain, however, that they are refracted by
alt  transparent bodies which  have been employed as
burning glasses.
  The rays of caloric are also reflected by polished
surfaces in the same manner as the rays of light.
  This was long  ago noticed  by Lambert,  Sau3sure,
Scheele, Pictet, and lately by Dr. Herschel.
  Professor Pictet placed two concave metallic mirrors
opposite to each other, at the distance of about twelve
feet.  When a hot body, an iron bullet for instance,
was placed in  the focus of the one, and a  mercurial
thermometer in that of the other, a substance radiated
from the bullet;  it passed with incalculable velocity
through the air, it was reflected from the mirrors, it be-
came concentrated, and influenced the thermometer
placed in the focus, according to the degree of its con-
centration.
  An iron ball two inches in diameter, heated so that
it was not luminous in the dark, raised the thermome-
ter not less than ten and a  half degrees of Reaumur's
scale, in six minutes.
  A lighted candle occasioned a rise in the thermome-
ter nearly the same.
  A Florence  flask containing two ounces and three
drachms of boiling  water,  raised Fahrenheit's  ther-
nioineter three degrees.  He blackened the bulb of his
thermometer, and"found that it was more speedily in-
fluenccd'by the radiation than before, and that it rose
to a greater height.
  M. Pictet discovered  another very singular  fact;
namely, the apparent radiation of cold.  When, in-
stead of a heated  body, a Florence flask full of ice or
snow is placed in the focus of one of  the mirrors, the
thermometer placed in the focus of the other imme-
diately  descends,  and ascends again whenever the
cold body is removed.
  This  phenomenon may be explained on the suppo-
sition, that  from  every body  at  every temperature
caloric radiates, but in  less quantity as the tempera-
ture is low;  so that in the above experiment, the ther-
mometer gives out more caloric by radiation, than it
receives from  the body iu the opposite focus, and
therefore its temperature is lowered.  Or, as Pictet has
supposed, when a number of bodies near to each other
have the same temperature, there is no radiation of
caloric,  because in all of them  it exists in a state of
equal tension;  but as soon as a body at an inferior
tompcrature is introduced, the balance of tension is
broken,  and caloric begins to radiate from all of them,
till the temperature of that body is raised to an equality
with theirs.  In the above experiment,  therefore, the
placing  the  snow or ice  in the focus of the  mirror
causes the radiation of caloric from the thermometer,
and  hence the diminution  of temperature which it
suffers.
  These experiments have been since  repeated by Dr.
Young and Professor Davy, at the theatre of the Royal
Institution.  These gentlemen inflamed phosphorus
by reflected  caloric; and proved that the  heat  thus
excited, was very sensible to the organs of feeling.
  It is  therefore evident, that  caloric is thrown off
from bodies in  rays,  which are invisible, or incapable
of exciting vision, but which arc capable of exciting
heat
      176
   These invisible rays of caloric are  propagated in
 right lines, with extreme velocity; and are capable of
 the laws of reflection and refraction.
   The heating agency however is different in the dif
 fercnt coloured rays of the prismatic spectrum.  Ac-
 cording to Dr. Herschel's experiments, it follows in-
 versely the order of the refrangibility of the rays of
 light.    The least refrangible, possessing it  in the
 greatest degree.
   Sir Henry Englefleld  has lately made a series of ex-
 periments  on the same  subject, from which we learn,
 that a thermometer having its ball blackened, rose
 when placed in  the blue ray of the prismatic spectrum
 in 3' from 55° to 56°; in  the green, in 3' from 54° to 58°;
 in the yellow, in 3' from 5(i° to 62°  ; in the full red,  in
 2 1-2' from 5rP to "r2° ; in the confines of the red, in
 2 1-2' from 58° to 73 1-2°; and quite out of the visible
 light, in 2 1-2' from 61° to 79°.
   Between each of the observations,4the thermometer
 was placed in the shade so long as to sink it below the
 heat to which  it  had risen in the preceding observa-
 tion ; of course, its rise above that  point could only be
 the effect of the ray to which it was exposed.   It was
 continued  in the focus long after it had ceased to rise ;
 therefore the heats given are the greatest effects of the
 several rays on  the thermometer in each observation.
 A thermometer  placed  constantly in the shade near
 the apparatus, was found scarcely  to vary during the
 experiments.
   Sir Henry made  other experiments with thermome-
 ters with naked balls,  and with others whose balls
 were painted white, for which we refer the reader to
 the  interesting  paper of the Baronet, from which tho
 above experiments are transcribed.

 Production of Artificial Cold, by means  of Frigorific
                     Mixtures.
  A number of experiments have been lately made by
 different philosophers, especially by Pepys, Walker,
 and  Lovvitz, iu order to  produce artificial cold.   And
 as these methods  are often employed in chemistry,
 with a view to expose bodies to the influence  of very
 low  temperatures,  we shall  enumerate in a  tabular
 form the different substances which may be made use
 of for  that purpose, and the degrees of cold which
 they are capable of producing.
  To produce the  effects stated  in the table, the salts
 must be reduced to powder, and  contain their full
quantity of water  of crystallization.  The vessel in
 which  the  freezing mixture is made, should  be very
thin, and just large enough to hold it, and the mate-
 rials should be mixed together as expeditiously as pos-
sible, taking care to stir the mixture at the same lime
 with a rod of glass or wood.
  In order to obtain the full effect, the materials ought
 to be first cooled to  the temperature  marked in the
 table, by introducing them into some of the other fri-
 gorific mixtures, and then mingling  them together hi a
 similar mixture.  If, for  instance, we wish to produce
 —46°, the  snow and diluted nitric  acid ought to be
 cooled  down  to 0°, by putting  the  vessel which con-
 tains each of them into  the  fifth freezing mixture in
 the above table, before they are  mingled  together.  If
 a more  intense cold be required, the materials to pro-
duce it are to be brought to the proper temperature by
being previously placed in the second freezing mixture
  This  process is to be continued till the required de-
gree of cold has been procured. 
CAL
CAL
A TABLE OF  FREEZING MIXTURES.
Mixtures.	Thermometer sinks
	From 50° to 10O.
	
	
	
	From 50° to 4°.
	
	
	
	
	From 50° to —3°.
	From 50° to 0°.
	
	
	From 32° to 0°.
	
	From 0° to —5°.
	
	
	From —5° to —18°.
	
Muriate of ammonia and nitrate of po-	
	
	From —18° to —25°.
	
	
	
	From 0° to —46°.
	
	From 32° —50°.
	
	
	From 32° to—51°.
	
	From —10° to —56°
	
	From 20° to—60°.
	From 0° to —66°.
	
	From—40° to—73°.
	
	From —68° to —91°.
	From 50° to 4°.
	
—W*t—t—e\f ammonia 1 Dart	From 50° to—7°.
r- l^aip nf soda 1	
	
	From 50° to —10°.
	
	
	
	From 50° to —14°.
	
	
	
	From 50° to—12°.
	
	
	From 50° to—21°.
	
	
	From 50° to 3°.
	
  CALORI'METER.  An instrument by which the
whole quantity of absolute heat existing in a body in
cnemical union can be ascertained.
  CALP.  An argillo-fcrruginous limestone.
  CA'LTHA.  (KaXBa, corrupted from xoAyo;, yel-
low • from whence, says Vosslus, come calthula, cat-
dula,  caledula, calendula.)  The  marigold.  1. The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Polyanaria+  Order, Polygynia.
  0. The pharmacoposial name of the herb wild mari-
gold, so called from iu colour.
  Caltha arvensis.   Calendula arvensis; Caltha
vulgaris.  The wild marigold is sometimes preferred
to the garden marigold.  Its juice is given, from one
to four ounces,  in jaundice and cachexia;  and the
leaves are commended as a salad for children afflicted
with scrofulous humours.
  Caltha palustris.   Populago.   Common single
marsh marigold.  It is said to be caustic and deleteri-
ous :  but this may be questioned.  The young buds ot
this plant make, when properly pickled, very good sub-
stitutes for capers.
                                      177 
CAL
CAM
  Caltha vulgaris.  See Caltha arvensis.
  Ca'lthula.  The caltha is so called.
  CALTROPS.  See Trapa nutans.
  CALU'MBA.  The name now adopted by the Lon-
don college of physicians  for the root of the Cocculus
palmatus  of De Candolles, iu his Systema nature.
It was formerly  called Colombo; Colombo; and C'o-
lamba.  This root is imported from Colomba, in Cey-
lon, in circular, brown knobs, wrinkled on their outer
surface, yellowish within, and  consisting of cortical,
woody, and medullary laminae.  Its smell is aromatic;
its taste pungent, and very bitter. From Dr. Percival's
experiments  on the root, it appears that rectified spirit
of wine extracts its virtues in the greatest perfection.
The watery  infusion is more perishable than that of
other  bitters. An ounce of the powdered root, half an
ounce of orange-peel, two  ounces of brandy, and four
teen ounces of water, macerated twelve h urs without
heat, and then filtered through  paper, aiford a suffi-
ciently strong and tolerably pleasant infusion.  The
extract made first by spirit and then with water, and
reduced by evaporation to a pillular consistence, is
found to be  equal, if not  superior  in efficacy,  to the
powder.  As an antiseptic, Calumba root is inferior to
the bark; but, as a corrector of  putrid bile, it is much
superior to the bark; whence also it is probable, that
it would be of service in the West-India yellow fever.
It also restrains alimentary fermentation, without im-
pairing digestion; in which property it resembles mus-
tard.  It does not appear to have the least heating
quality, and therefore  may be  used in phthisis pul-
monalls, and in hectic cases, to strengthen digestion.
It occasions no disturbance, and agrees very well with
a milk diet,  as it abates flatulence, and is indisposed
to acidity. The London,  Edinburgh, and Dublin col-
leges, direct a tincture of Calumba root.   The dose of
the powdered root is as far as half a drachm, which,
in urgent cases, may be repeated every third or fourth
hour.
  [Calumbo.  See American Columbo. A.]
  CA'LVA.   (From calvus, bald.)   The scalp or up-
per part of the cranium or top of the head; so  called
because it often grows bald first.
  CALVARIA.   (From  calvus, bald.)   The  upper
part  or the  cranium which becomes soon bald.  It
comprehends all  above the orbits, temples, ears, and
occipital eminence.
  CALVI'TIES.  (From  calvus, bald.)   Calvitium.
Baldness;  want or loss of hair, particularly upon the
sinciput.
  This name is applied by  Dr. Good to a species of his
trichosis athrix, or baldness.
  CALX.  (Calx, cis. fcem; from kalah, to burn.  Ara-
bian.)  1. Chalk.  Limestone.
  2. Lime.  Calx viva.  The London College directs
it to be prepared thus:—Take of limestone one pound:
break it into small pieces,  and heat it in a crucible, in
a strong fire, for an hour, or until the carbonic acid is
entirely driven off, so that on the  addition of  acetic
acid, no bubbles of gas shall be extricated.  Lime may
be made by the same process from oyster-shells  previ-
ously  washed in boiling water,  and cleared from ex-
traneous matters.  See Lime.
  Calx antimonii.  See Antimonii oxydum.
  Calx com kali pcro.   See Potassa cum calce.
  Calx hydraroyri alba.  See Hydrargyrum pra-
cipitatum album.
  Calx metallic.  A metal which has undergone
the process of calcination,  or combustion, or any other
equivalent operation.
  Calx viva.  See Calx.
  Calycantuims.  (From calyx, the flower-cup, and
av&os, the flower.) The  name of an order in Lin-
nsus's fragments of a  natural method, consisting of
plants, which, among  other characteristics, have the
corolla and stamina inserted into tbe calyx.
  CALYCIFLOR^E.  (From calyx, and flos, a flower.)
The name of an order in Linnxus's fragments of a
natural method, consisting of plants which  have the
stamina inserted into the Calyx.
  CALYCINUS.  (From calyx, the flower-cup.)  Ca-
lycinalis.  Belonging to the calyx of a flower; applied
to the nectary, nectarium  calycinum, it being a pro-
duction ofthe calyx; as in Tropaolum majus, the gar-
den nasturtium.
  CALYCULATUS. (From calyculus, a small calyx .1
Calyculate.  Applied to uperiantluum when there arc
      178
 less ones, like scales, about its base; as In Dianthus
 caryophyllus.  Semina calyculata are those which are
 enclosed in a hard bone-like calyx, as  those of tbe
 Coix lachryma, or Job's tears.
  CALVOULUS.   (Diminutive  of  calyx.)  A little
 calyx.  A botanical term for
  I. The membranaceous margin surrounding the apex
 of a seed.
  The varieties are,
  1. Calyculus integer, the margin perfect not incised;
 as in  Tanacetum vulgare, and Dipsacus  laciniatus.
  2. Calyculus palyaceus, with chaffy scales; as in
 Helianthus annuus,
  3. Calyculus aristatus, having two or three awns al
 the top;  as in Tagetes patula, and Bidens tripartita.
  4. Calyculus rostratus, the style of the germ remain,
 ing; as in Sinapis, and Scandix cerefolium.
  5. Calyculus cornutas,homed,the  rostrum bent; as
 in Nigella damascena.
  6. Calyculus cristatus, a dentate, or incised mem-
 brane on the top of the seed; as in Hedysarum crista
galli.
  II. A little calyx exterior to another proper one.
  Caly'pter.  (From KaXvnru), to hide.)  A carneous
excrescence covering the hiemorrhoidal vein.
  CALYPTRA.   (From KaXonrw, lo cover.)  I. The
veil, or covering of mosses.  A kind  of membraneous
hood placed, on their capsule or fructification, like an
extinguisher on a candle, well seen in Bryum caspito-
sum.   Linnsus considered  it as a  calyx, but  other
botanists, especially Schreber and Smith, reckon it to
be a sort of corolla.  It is either,
  1. Acuminate, pointed; as in Minium and Bryum.
  2. Caducous, falling  off yearly;  as in Bauxbaumia.
  3. Conical; as in most mosses.
  4. Smooth; as in Hypnum.
  5. Levis, without any inequalities; as  in Splanch
num.
  6. Oblong; as in Minium.
  7. Villous; as in Polytrichum.
  8. Complete, surrounding the whole of the top of the
capsule.
  9. Dimidiate, covering only half the capsule; as in
Bryum androgynum.
  10. Dentate, toothed  in the margin; as in Eucalypta
ciliata.
  In many genera it is wanting.
  11. The name in Tournefort, and writings of former
botanists, for the proper exterior covering or  coat of
the  seed, which falls off spontaneously.
  CALYPTRATUS.  (From calyptra,  the  veil, or
covering of mosses.)  Calyptrate: having a covering
like the calyptra of mosses.
  CALYX,  (Calyx, ids. f.; <caXv{; from KaXvitrta,
to cover.)  Calix.  I. The flower-cup, or,  more cor ■
rectly,  the external  covering of the  flower,  for the
most part green, and surrounding the corolla, or gaudy
part
  There are five genera of calyces, or flower-cups.
    1.  Perianthiunu         2. Involucrum.
    3.  Amentum             4. Spatha.
    5.  Gluma.              6. Perichatium
    7.  Volva.
  II. The membrane which covers the papilla in the
pelvis ofthe human kidney.
  CA'MARA. (From Kauapa, a vault)  Camarium.
1. The fornix of the brain.
  2. The vaulted part of the auricle of the heart.
  Cama'rium.  (From xapapa, a vault)  A vault
See Camara.
  CAMARO'MA.  (From Kauapa, a vault A  Cama
rosis; Camaratio.   A fracture ol the skull, in the
shape of an arch or vault.
  Cambirea. So Paracelsus calls the venereal bubo.
  CA'MBIUM  The gelatinous substance, or matter
of organization which Du Hamel and Mirbel suppose
produces the young bark, and new wood of plants
  Cambium.  (From cambio, to exchange.)   The nu-
tritious humour which is changed into the materials
of which the body is composed.
  Cambo'dia.  See Stalagmitis.
  CAMBO'GIA.  (From the province of Cambaya, in
the East  Indies;)  Cambodja and  Cambogia; Cambo-
 dia; Cambogium; Gambogia; Gambogium. See Sta-
lagmitis.
  Cambodia gutta.  See Stalagmitis.
  CAMBOGIUM.   See Cambogia and Stalagmitis. 
CAM
CAM
     Cambro-BRItannica.  See Rubus Chamamorus.
     Cambu'ca.   Cambuta  membrata.  So  Paracelsus
  calls the venereal cancer.  By some it is described as a
  bubo, an ulcer, an abscess on the pudenda; also a boil
  in the groin.
     Ca'mbdi.  The wild American  myrtle of Piso and
  Margrave, which is said to be astringent.
     Camel's hay.   See Andropogon  Schananthus.
     CAMELEON MINERAL.  When pure potassa
  and black oxide of manganese are  fused together in a
  crucible, a compound is formed, whose solution in wa-
  ter, at first green, passes spontaneously through the
  whole series of coloured rays to the red.  From this
  latter tint, the solution may be made to retrograde in
  colour to the original green, by tbe  addition of potassa;
  or it may be rendered altogether colourless, by adding
  either sulphureous acid  or chlorine to the solution, in
  which case there may or may not be a precipitate, ac-
  cording to circumstances.
    CA'MERA.  A chamber or cavity.  The chambers
  of the eye are termed camera.
    Camera'tio.   See Camaroma.
    Ca'mks.  Camet.  Silver.
    Cami'kga.  See Canella alba.
    Ca'minus.  A furnace and its chimney.  In Rulan-
  dus it signifies a bell.
    Cami'sia fcetus.  (From the Arabic term kamisah,
  an under garment.) The shirt of the fcetus. SeeChfrion.
    Camomile.   See Chamomile.
    Camomi'lla.   Corrupted from chamamelum.
    CA'MMORUM.   (Kaupopov, quia  homines,  KaKtp
  uopco, perimat; because if eaten,  it brings men to a
  miserable end.)  A species of monkshood.  See Aco-
  nitum napellus.
    CAMPA'NA.  A bell.  In  chemistry, a receptacle
  like a bell, for making sulphuric acid; thus the oleum
  lulphuris per campanum.
    CAMPANACE-iE.  Bell-shaped flowers.  The name
  of an order of Linnaeus's natural method.
    CAMPANIFORMIS.  Campanaceus; Campanula-
  tue.  Bell-shaped; applied to the corolla and nectaries
  of plants.
    CAMPA'NULA.  (From campana, a bell; named
  from its shape.)  The name of a genus of plants in the
  Linntean  system.  Class, Penlandria; Order, Mono-
  gynia.  The Bell-flower.
    Campanula trachkleum.  Cervicaria.  The Great
  Throat-wort: by some recommended against  inflam-
  matory affections of the throat and mouth.
    CAMPAN'ULATUS.  (From Campanula,  a  little
  bell.)  Bell-shaped: applied to the corolla and nectary
  of plants, as in Campanula.   See Corolla and Necta-
  rium.
   Ca'mfe.  (From Kaixnra), to bend.)  A flexure or
  bending.   It is also used  for the ham, and a joint, or
  articulation.
   Campcachywood. See Hamatoxylon Campechianum.
   Campechense,  lignom. See Hamatoxylon Cam-
 pechianum, or Logwood.
   CAMPER, Peter, was bom at Leyden in  1722,
 where he studied under Boerhaave,  and took his de-
 gree in medicine.  He then travelled for some years,
 and was afterward appouited a professor successively
 at  Franeker, Amsterdam,  and Groningen.  He was
 subsequently occupied in  prosecuting his favourite stu-
 dies, in visiting various parts of Europe, by the differ-
 ent societies ot which he was honourably distinguish-
 ed, and in performing many public  duties in his own
 country, being at length chosen one of the council of
 state.  He died  in 1789 of a pleurisy.  He published
 some improvements in midwifery  and surgery,  but
 anatomy appears to have been  his  favourite pursuit.
 He finished two parts of a work of  considerable mag-
 nitude and importance,  in which   the healthy  and
 morbid structure of the  arm, and of the pelvis,  are
 exhibited in very accurate plates, from drawings made
 by himself: which he appears to have purposed ex-
 tending to the other parts  of the body. There are also
 Bome posthumous works  of Camper possessing great
 merit,  partly, on  subjects of natural history,  partly
 evincing the connexion between anatomy and paint-
 ing: in which latter judicious rules  are laid down for
 exhibiting the diversity of features in persons of vari-
 ous countries and ages, and  representing tho different
 emotions of the mind in the countenance; also for de-
 lineating the general forms of other animals, which he
aliovvs to be modified according to thcii economy.     |
    CAMPESTRIS.  Of or belonging to the field; ap-
  plied as a trivial name to many plants, which are comi
  mon in the fields.
    CAMPHIRE.  See Laurus camphora.
    Camphor.  See Laurus camphora.
    CAMPHORA.   (Camphura.  Arabian.  The an-
  cients meant by camphor what now is called asphal-
  tum, or Jews' pitch; Ka<povpa.)  See Laurus camphora.
    Ca'mphorje flores.   The subtle substance which
  first ascends in subliming camphor. It is nothing more
  than the camphor.
    Camphor* flores compositi.  Camphor sublimed
  with benzoin.
    CA'MPHORAS.  Acamphorate.  A salt formed by
  the union ofthe camphoric acid with a salifiable base,
  thus, camphor ate. of alumine, camphorate of ammonia,
  Sec.
    CAMPHORA'SMA.  (From camphora; so called
  from its camphor-like smell.)  Turkey balsam.  See
  Dracocephalum.
    CAMPHORA'TA.  See Camphorosma.
    Camphora'tum oleum. See Linimentum camphora.
    CAMPHORIC ACH).  Acidum camphoricum.   An
  acid with peculiar properties is obtained, by distilling
  nitric acid  eight times following from camphor; ana
  the following is the  account Bouillon Lagrange gives
  of its preparation and properties.
    One part of camphor being introduced into a glass
  retort, four parts of nitric acid ofthe strength of 36 de-
  grees are to be poured  on it, a receiver adapted to the
  retort, and  all the joints well luted. The retort is then
  to be  placed on-a  sand-heat, and gradually heated.
  During the process a considerable  quantity of nitrous
  gas, and of carbonic acid gas, is evolved; and part of
  the camphor  is volatilized, while another part seizes
  the oxygen  of the nitric acid.  When no more vapours
  are extricated, the vessels are to be separated, and the
  sublimed camphor added to the acid that remains in
  the retort.  A like quantity of nitric acid  is again to
  be poured on this, and the distillation repeated.  This
  operation must be reiterated till the camphor is com-
  pletely acidified.  Twenty ports of nitric acid at 36 are
  sufficient to acidify one of camphor.
   When the whole ofthe camphor  is acidified, it crys-
  tallizes in the remaining liquor.   The whole is then to
  be poured out upon a filter, and washed with distilled
  water, to carry off the nitric acid it may have retained.
  The most certain indication of the  acidification of the
  camphor is its crystallizing on the cooling of the liquor
  remaining in the retort.  To purify this acid it must be
 dissolved in hot distilled water, and the solution, after
  being filtered,  evaporated nearly to half, or till a slight
  pellicle forms; when tbe camphoric acid will be ob-
 tained in crystals on cooling.
   The camphoric acid has a slightly acid, bitter taste,
 and reddens infusion of litmus.
   It crystallizes; and the crystals upon the whole re-
 semble those of muriate of ammonia.  It effloresces on
 exposure to the atmosphere; is not very soluble in cold
 water; when placed on burning coals, it gives out a
 thick aromatic smoke, and is entirely dissipated; and
 with a gentle heat melts, and is sublimed. The mine-
 ral acids dissolve it entirely.  It decomposes the sul-
 phate and muriate of iron. The fixed and volatile oils
 dissolve it  It is Ukewise soluble in alkohol, and Is not
 precipitated  from it by water; a property that distin-
 guishes it from the benzoic acid.  It unites easily with
 the earths and alkalies,  and forms camphoratis.
  To prepare tbe camphorates of lime, magnesia, and
 alumina, these earths must be diffused in water,  and
 crystallized camphoric acid added.  The mixture mus:
 then be boiled, filtered while hot, and the solution con-
 centrated by evaporation.
  The camphorate of barytes is prepared by dissolvinc
 the pure earth in water, and then adding crystallized
 camphoric acid.
  Those of potassa, soda, and ammonia, should bo pre-
 pared with their carbonates dissolved in water; these
 solutions are to be saturated with crystallized campho
 ric acid, heated, filtered, evaporated, and cooled;  by
 which means the camphorates will be obtained.
  If the camphoric acid be very pure, they have  no
 smell; if it be not, they  have always a slight 6mell  of
 camphor.
  The camphorates of alumina and barytes leave a lit-
tle acidity on the tongue; the rest have a slightly bit-
terish taste.
                                   179 
CAN
CAN
   They are all decomposed by heat;  the acid being
 separated and sublimed, and the base remaining pure;
 that  of  ammonia excepted,  which is  entirely vola-
 tilized.
   If they be exposed to the blowpipe, the acid burns
 with a blue flame: that of ammonia gives first a blue
 flame; but toward the end it becomes red.
   The camphorates of lime and magnesia are little so-
 luble, the others dissolve more easily.
   The mineral acids  decompose them all.  The alka-
 lies and earths act in the order of their affinity for the
 camphoric acid ; which is, lime, potassa, soda, barytes,
 ammonia, alumina, magnesia.
   Several metallic solutions, and several neutral salts,
 decompose the camphorates;  such as the nitrate of
 barytes, most ofthe calcareous salts, Sec
   The camphorates of lime, magnesia, and  barytes,
 part with their acid to alkohol.—Lagrange's  Manuel
 d'un Cours de Chimie.
   CAMPHORO SMA.  (From camphora, and ocun,
 smell; so called from its smelling of camphire.) The
 camphor-smelling plant
   1. The name of a genus o' plants in the Linnean
 system.  Class, Tctrandna ,  Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the camphorata.
 See Camphorosma Monspeliensis.
   Camphorosma  Monspeliensis.   The systematic
 name of the plant called camphorata in the pharma-
 copoeias.   Chamapeuce—Camphorata hirsuta—Cam-
phorosma Monspeliaca.  Stinking ground-pine.  This
 plant, Camphorosma—foliis hirsutis linearibus, of hin-
 usjus,  took its name from iu smell resembling so
 Btrongly that of camphor: it has been exhibited inter-
                                                  disappearing after birth, that conveys the maternal
                                                  blood from the porta of the liver to the ascending vena
                                                  cava.
                                                    Cana'ry balm.  See Dracocephalum.
                                                    Ca ncamum Grjecorum.   See Hymenaa courbaril.
                                                    CANCELLATUS.  Having the reticulated appear-
                                                  ance of the cancclli of bones.
                                                    CANCE'LLI.  Lattice-work; applied to the reti-
                                                  cular substance in bones.
                                                    CANCE'LLUS.   (Fromcancer, a crab.)  A species
                                                  of cray-fish, called Bernard the hermit and the wrong
                                                  heir;  the  Cancer cancellus of Linnaeus; supposed to
                                                  cure rheumatism, if rubbed on the part
                                                    CA'NCER.   1. The common name of the crab-fish.
                                                  Sec Cancer Astacus.
                                                    2. The name  of a disease, from xapxtvos, a crab; so
                                                  called by the ancients, because it exhibited large blue
                                                  veins like crab's claws:  likewise called Carcinoma,
                                                  Carcinos, by the Greeks, Lupus by the Romans, be-
                                                  cause it eats away the flesh like a wolf.  Dr. Cullen
                                                  places this genus of disease in the class Locales, and
                                                  order Tumores. He  defines it  a painful scirrhous
                                                  tumour, terminating in a fatal ulcer.  Any part of the
                                                  body may be the seat of cancer, though the glands are
                                                  most subject to it.  It is distinguished according to its
                                                  stages, into occult and open; by the former is meant
                                                  its scirrhous state, which is a hard tumour that some-
                                                  times  remains in a quiet state for many years.  When
                                                  the cancerous action commences in it, it is attended
                                                  with frequent shooting pains: the skin that covers it
                                                  becomes  discoloured, and .ulceration  sooner or later
                                                  takes  place: when  the disease is denominated open
                                                  cancer. Mr. Pearson says, " When a malignant scir-
nally, in form of decoction, in dropsical and asthmatic ! rhus  or a watery excrescence hath  proceeded to a
                                                  period of  ulceration, attended with a constant sense of
                                                  ardent and occasionally shooting pains, is irregular in
                                                  its figure, and presents an unequal surface; if it dis-
complaints, and by some is esteemed in fomentations
against pain.  It is  rarely, if ever, used in modern
practice.
Ca'mpter.  (From Kapnjui, to bend.)  An inflexion  charges sordid, sanious, or foetid matter; if the  edges
                                               - of the sore be thick, indurated, and often  exquisitely
                                                painful, sometimes inverted, at other times  retorted,
                                                and exhibit a serrated  appearance; and  should  the
                                                ulcer in  its progress be frequently attended with he-
                                                morrhage, in consequence of the erosion of blood-ves-
                                                sels; there will be little hazard of mistake in calling it
                                                a cancerous ulcer."  In men, a cancer most frequently
                                                seizes the tongue, mouth, or penis; in women,  the
                                                breasts or the uterus, particularly about the cessation
                                                of  their  periodical discharges; and in children,  the
                                                eyes.  The following description of Scirrhus and Can-
                                                cer, from  the above writer, will serve to elucidate the
                                                subject.   A hard unequal tumour that is indolent, and
                                                without any discoloration in the skin, is called a scir-
                                                rhus;  but when an itching is perceived in it, which is
                                                followed by a  pricking, shooting, or lancinating  pain,
                                                and a change of colour in the skin, it is usually deno-
                                                minated a cancer. It generally is small in the begin-
                                                ning, and increases  gradually; but though the skin
                                                changes to a red or livid appearance, and  the state of
                                                the  tumour from an indolent to a painful one, it is
                                                sometimes very difficult to say when the scirrhus really
                                                becomes a cancer, the progress being quick  or slow ac-
                                                cording to concurring causes.  When the tumour is
                                                attended  with a  peculiar kind of burning, shooting
                                                pains, and the skin hath acquired the dusky purple or
                                                livid hue, it may then be deemed the malignant scir-
                                                rhus or confirmed cancer.   When thus far advanced in
                                                women's  breasts, the  tumour sometimes increases
                                                speedily to a great size, having a knotty unequal sur-
                                                face, more  glands becoming  obstructed,  the nipple
                                                sinks  in,  turgid  veins  are conspicuous,  ramifying
                                                around, and resembling  a crab's claws.   These are
                                                the characteristics of an occult cancer on the external
                                                parts;  and we may suspect the existence of one inter-
                                                nally, when such pain and heat as has been described,
                                                succeed in parts  where the patient hath before  been
                                                sensible of a weight  and pressure, attended with ob-
                                                tuse pain.  A cancerous tumour never mells down in
                                                suppuration like  an  inflammatory one; but when it
                                                is ready to break open, especially in the breast, it ge-
                                                nerally becomes prominent in some minute point, at-
                                                tended with an increase of the peculiar kind of burn-
                                              I  ins, shooting pain, felt before at intervals, in a less de-
ar incurvation,
  Ca'mpulum.  (From Kaunru, to twist about)   A
distortion ofthe evelids or other parts.
  CAMPYLO'TI^.  (From KaunvXos,  bent)   A pre-
ternatural incurvation, or recurvation of a part; also
% distortion ofthe eyelids.
  CA'MPYLUM.  See Campylotis.
  Ca'nabil.  A sort of modicinal earth.
  Cajrabi'na aquatica. See Bidens.
  Ca'nabis Indica. See Bangue and Cannabis.
  Canabis peregrina.  See Cannabis.
  Ca'nada balsam.  See Pinus balsamea.
  Canada maidenhair.  See Adianthum pedatum.
  CANADENSIS. (Brought from Canada.)  Cana-
dian.   A name of a balsam.  See Pinus balsamea.
  CANALICULATUS. Channelled;  having  a long
furrow; applied to leaves, pods, Sec   See Leaf and
Legumen.
  CANALI'CULUS.  (Diminutive of canalis, a chan-
nel.)  A little canal.  See Canalis arteriosus.
  CANA'LIS.  (From  xafos, an aperture, or  rather
from canna, a reed.)  A canal.
  1. Specifically applied to many parts of the body; as
canalis nasalis, Sec.
  2. Tbe hollow of the spine.
  3. A hollow round instrument like a reed, for tan-
Bracing and holding a broken limb.
  Canalis arteriosus. Canaliculus arteriosus; Ca-
nalis bolalii.  A blood-vessel peculiar  to the  foetus,
disappearing after birth; through which the blood pass-
es from the pulmonary artery into the aorta.
  Canalis nasalis.  A canal going from the internal
canthus of the eye downwards into the nose; it  is
situated in the superior maxillary bone, and is lined
with  the pituitary membrane continued from the
nose.
  Canalis pbtitianus. A triangular cavity, natu-
rally containing  a moisture between  the two lamins
of the hyaloid membrane of the eye, in the  anterior
part, formed by the separation of the anterior lamina
from the posterior.  It is named after its discoverer,
M. Petit.                                        '
  Canalis  semicircularis.     Semicircular  canal.
There are three in each ear placed in the posterior
«« • -«• *i__i.i___:-.u   mL.    r----.   .---.v.----.   I  '".-, ouuwiiii" pain, leu ueiore ai nuei vais, in a. ies:
?>t vl, h^. ,my s«  r   V 0pen by hVe °"fice3 IDt0 !  e^e and deeper in the body of the gland.  In the ,.r,
the vestibuluin^ See  Ear.                         ,  minent    , of  n  turnour,in this state, a corroding
  Canalis svmispetros.  The half bony canal ofthe  ichor sometimes  transudes through the skin, booS
  o ».... _..M„.^.   a-» -i     ,-      ,_  *       formtne an ulcer: at other times a considerable quan-
     ta  V"N0B!I8'  A canal Pecu,lar  w ** fetus, I  tity of a thin lymphatic fluid tinged with blood from 
CAN
CAN
eroded vessels is found on it.  Ulcers of the cancerous
nature discbarge a  thin, foetid, acrid sanies, which
corrodes  the parts,  having thick,  dark-coloured re-
torted lips; and fungous excrescences frequently rise
from these ulcers, notwithstanding the corrosiveness
of the discharge.  In this state they are often attended
with excruciating, pungent, lancinating, burning pains,
and sometimes with bleeding.
  Though a scirrhus may truly be deemed a cancer,
as soon as pain is perceived in it,  yet every painful
tumour is not a cancer; nor is it always easy lo say
whether a cancer is the disorder or not Irregular hard
lumps may be perceived in the breast; but on ex-
amining  the other breast, where no uneasiness is per-
ceived, the same kind of tumours are sometimes found,
which renders the diagnostic uncertain. Yet in every
case after the cessation of  the catamenia, hard, un-
equal tumours in the breasi are suspicious; nor, though
without pain, are they to be supposed indolent or in-
noxious.
  In the  treatment of this disease,  our chief reliance
must be  on extirpating the part affected.   Some have
attempted to dispel  the  scirrhous tumour  by leeches
and various discutient applications, to destroy il by
caustics,  or to check its progress  by narcotics; but
without material success. Certainly before the disease
is  confirmed, should any inflammatory tendency ap-
pear, antiphlogistic means may be employed with pro-
priety ; but afterward tbe operation should not be de-
layed : nay, where the nature of the tumour is doubt-
ful, it will be better to remove it, than incur the risk of
this dreadful disease.  Some  surgeons, indeed,  have
contested the utility of the  operation; and no  doubt
the disease wilt sometimes appear again; from consti-
tutional tendency, or from the whole not having been
removed: but  the balance of evidence is in favour of
the operation being successful, if performed early, and
to an adequate extent.   The plan of destroying the
part by caustic is much more tedious, painful, and un-
certain.   When the disease has arisen from some acci-
dent, not spontaneously, when the patient is otherwise
healthy, when no symptoms of malignancy in tbe can-
cer have appeared, and the adjacent glands and absor-
bents seem unaffected, we have stronger expectation of
success: but unless all the morbid parts can be removed
without the risk of dividing important nerves or arte-
ries, it should scarcely be attempted.   In operating it
Is advisable, 1. To make the  external wound suffici-
ently large, and nearly in the direction ofthe subjacent
muscular fibres.  2.  To save skin enough to cover it,
unless diseased.  3.  To  tie  every vessel which  might
endanger subsequent haemorrhage.    4. To keep the
lips of the wound in contact, not interposing any dress-
ing, &c.  5. To preserve the parts in an easy and steady
position  for some  days, before they are inspected.
6. To use only mild and coolins; applications during the
eure.  Supposing, however, the patient will not con-
Bent to an operation, or circumstances  render it inad-
missible,  the  uterus, for  example, being  affected, in-
ternal remedies may somewhat retard  its progress, or
alleviate the sufferings of the patient; those, which
have appeared most beneficial, are,  1. Arsenic, in very
small doses long continued.  2. Conium, in doses pro-
gressively increased to a considerable extent. 3. Opium.
4. Belladonna.   5.  Solanum.   6. Ferrum  ammonia-
turn.  7.  Hydrargyri oxymurias.  8. The juice of the
galium aparine.  When the part is external, topical
applications may be  useful  to  alleviate pain, cleanse
the sore,  or correct"the fcetor; especially, 1. Fresh-
bruised hemlock leaves.  2. Scraped  young  carrots.
3. The fermenting poultice.  4. Finely levigated chalk.
5. Powdered charcoal.  6. Carbonic  acid gas,  intro-
troduced  into a bladder confined round the part.  7. A
watery solution of opium.  8. Liquid  tar, or tar-
water.  But none of these means can  be relied upon
for effecting a cure.
  3. See  Carcinus.
  Cancer  astacus.  The systematic name of the
crab-fish, from which the claws are selected for medi-
cal use.  Crab's claws  and crab's eyes,  as they are
called, which are concretions found in the stomach,
are of a calcareous quality, and possess antacid virtues.
They are exhibited with their compounds in  pyrosis,
diai:brea, and infantile convulsions from acidity.
  Canc r* oancellus.   See Cancellus.
  Canckr .ammarus.  The systematic name of the
lobster
  Cancer  munditorium.  A peculiar ulceration of
the scrotum of chimney-sweepers.
  Ca'nchrys.   Parched barley.—Galen.
  Cancre'na.   Paracelsus uses  this word instead of
gangrena.
  Cancro'rum chelje.  Crab's claws.  See Carbonas
calcis, and  Cancer astacus.
  Cancrorum oculi. See Carbonas calcis, and Can-
cer astacus.
  CA'NCRUM.   (From  cancer, a spreading ulcer.)
The canker.
  Cancrum oris.  Canker of the  mouth; a fretted
ulceration ofthe gums.
  CANDE'LA.  (From candeo, to shine.)  A candle.  '
  Candela fumalis.  A candle made of odoriferous
powders and resinous matters, to purify the air and ex
cite the spirits.
  Candela regia.   See Verbascum.
  Candela'ria.  (From candela, a candle; so called
from the resemblance of its stalks to a candle.)  Mul-
lein.   See Verbascum.
  Candy carrot.  See Athamanta cretensis.
  Cane'la.  Sometimes used by the ancients for cin ■
namon, or rather cassia.
  CANE'LLA.  (Canella,  diminutive  of canna, a
reed ; so  named because the pieces of bark are rolled
up in the form of a reed.)   The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Dodecandria;
Order, Monogynia.  The canella-tree.
  Canella alba.   The pharmacopceial name of the
laurel-leaved canella.  See Winteria aromatica.
  Canella cubana.  See Canella alba.
  Canellje malabaricje cortex.   See Laurus cat
eia.
  Canelli'fera malabarica.  See Laurus cassia.
  Caneon.   (  rom kowij, because It was made of split
cane.)  A sort of tube  or instrument, mentioned by
Hippocrates, for conveying the fumes of antihysterie
drugs into the womb.
  Ca'nicje.  (From cant's, a dog, so called by the an
cients, because it was food  for dogs.)  Coarse meal
Hence panis caniceus means very coarse bread.
  CANICI'DA.  (From cams, a dog, and cado, to kill,
so called because dogs are destroyed by  eating it)
Dog's bane.  See Aconitum.
  CANICI'DIUM.   (From canis, a dog, and cado, to
kill.)  The anatomical  dissection  of living dogs; for
the purpose of illustrating the physiology of parts.
  Canina lingua.  See Cynoglossum.
  Canina malus.   The mandragora.
  Canina rabies.  See Hydrophobia.
  CANINE.  Whatever partakes of, or has any rela-
tion to, the  nature of a dog.
  Canine appetite.  See Bulimia.
  Canine madness.  See Hydrophobia.
  Canine teeth.  Derates canini;  Cynodontes ; Cut
pidati of Mr. John Hunter; because they have the two
sides of their edge sloped off to a point, and this point
is very sharp or cuspidated; columellares of Vara and
Pliny.  The four eye-teeth are so called from their re-
semblance to those ofthe dog.  Sec Teeth.
  CANI'NUS.  (From canis, a dog.)  1. a tooth is so
called, because it resembles that of a dog.  See Teeth.
  2. The name of a muscle, because it is near the ca
nine tooth.   Sec Levator angvli oris.
  3. A disease to which dogs are subject is called Ra-
bies canina. See Hydrophobia:
  Caninus  sentis.  See Rosa eanina.
  Caniru'bus.  (From cam's, and rubus, a bramble.)
See Rosa eanina.
  CA'NIS.   1. A dog.  The white dung'of this ani-
mal, called album gracum, was formerly in esteem, but
now disused.
  2. The frauiurn of the penis.
  Canus  interfecto'k.  Indian barley.  See Vera-
trum sabadilla.
  Canis posticus.  Sec Castor.
  CANNA. (Hebrew.)  1. A reed or hollow cane.
  2. The fibula, from its resemblance to a reed.
  Canna fistula.  See Cassia fistula.
  Canna indica.  See Sagittaria alexipharmica.
  Canna major. The tibia.
  Canna  minor cruris.  The fibula.
  Cannabi'na.  (From canna, a  reed, named from its
reed-like stalk.) So Tournefort named his datisca.
  CA'NNABIS.  (From xawa, a reed.  KawaSoi are
foul springs, wherein hemp, Sec. grow naturally.  Or 
CAN
CAO
  from kanaba, from kanah, to mow. Arabian.) Hemp
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnasan sys-
  tem.  Class, Diecia; Order, Pentandria.
 >  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe hemp-plant. See
  Cannabis sativa.
   Cannabis sativa.   The systematic name of the
  hemp-plant.  It has a rank smell of a narcotic kind.
  The effluvia from the fresh herb are said to affect the
 eyes and head, and that the water In which it has been
 long steeped is a sudden  ppison.  Hemp-seeds, when
 fresh, afford a  considerable quantity of oil.   Decoc-
 tions and emulsions of them have been recommended
 against coughs, ardor urina?, &c.   Their use, in gene-
 ral, depends on their emollient and demulcent quali-
 ties. The leaves of an oriental hemp, called bang or
 bangue, and by the Egyptians assis, are said to be
 Hied in eastern countries, as a narcotic and aphrodi-
 siac.  See Bangue.
   CA'NNULA.  (Diminutive of canna, a reed.)  The
 name of a surgical instrument.  See Canula.
   CA'NON.  Kavwv.   A  rule or canon,  by which
 medicines are compounded.
   Cano'nial.  Kavoviai.  Hippocrates in his book De
 Aire, &c. calls those persons thus, who have straight,
 and  not prominent  bellies.  He would intimate that
 they are disposed, as it were, by a straight rule.
   Cano Picon.   (From xavoinov,  the  flower  of the
 elder.)  1. A sort of spurge, so named from its resem-
 blance
   2.  A eollyrium, of which  the chief ingredient was
 elder flowers.
   Canopi'te.  The name of a eollyrium mentioned by
 Dels us.
   Cano'pum.  Kaviairov.  The flower or  bark of the
 elder-tree, in Paulus ASgineta.
   Canta'brica.  See Convolvulus.
   Canta'brum.  (From kanta, Hebrew.)  In Ccelius
 Aurelianus it signifies bran.
   Ca'ntacon.  Garden saffron.
   Ca'ntara.  The plant which bears the St. Ignatius's
 bean.  See Ignaria amara.
   CANTERBURY.  The name in history of a much
 celebrated town in Kent, in which  there is a mineral
 water,  Cantuariensis aqua, strongly impregnated with
 iron, sulphur, and carbonic acid gas; it is recommend-
 ed in disorders of the stomach, in gouty complaints,
 jaundice, diseases of the skin, and chlorosis.
   Ca'nthari  figulini.  Earthen cucurbits.
   CA'NTHARIS.  (Cantharis, pi. cantharides: from
 navBapos, a beetle, to which tribe it belongs.)  Musca
 Hispanica; Lytta vesicatoria; The blistering fly;
 Spanish fly.  These  flies have  a  green shining gold
 body, and are common in Spain, Italy, France, and
 Germany.  The largest come from  Italy, but the
 Spanish cantharides are generally preferred.   The
 importance of these flies, by their stimulant, corrosive,
 and epispastic qualities, in the practice of physic and
 surgery, is very considerable; indeed, so much so, as
 to induce many to consider them as the most powerful
 medicine  in the materia medica.  When applied on
 the skin, in the form of a plaster, it soon raises a blis-
 ter full  of serous matter, and thus relieves inflamma-
 tory diseases, as phrenitis, pleuritis, hepatitis,  phleg-
 mon, bubo,  myositis, arthritis, Sec.  The tincture of
 these flies is also of great utility in several cutaneous
 diseases, rheumatic affections, sciatic  pains, Sec. but
 ought to be used with much caution.  See Blister, and
 Tinctura cantharidis.  This insect is two-thirds of an
 inch in length, one-fourth in breadth, oblong, and of a
 gold shining colour, with soft elytera or wing sheaths,
 marked with  three longitudinal raised stripes, and
 covering brown membraneous wings. An insect of a
 square form, with black feet, but possessed of no vesi-
 cating property, is sometimes mixed with  the cantha-
 rides.  They have a heavy disagreeable  odour, and
 acrid taste.
  If the inspissated watery decoction of these insects
be treated with pure alkohol, a solution of a resinous
matter is obtained, which being separated by  gentle
evaporation to dryness, and  submitted for some time
to the action of sulphuric aether, forms a yellow solu-
tion.  By spontaneous evaporation, crystalline  plates
are depoeited, which may be freed from some adkering
colouring matter by alkohol.  Their appearance is I ike
spermaceti.  They are soluble in boiling alkohol, but
precipitate as It cools.  They do not dissolve in water.
      182
  According to Robiquet, who  first discovered them,
  these plates  form the true blistering principle.  They
  might be called Vesicatoria.  Besides the above pecu-
  liar body, cantharides contain, according to Robiquet,
  a green' bland oil, insoluble in water, soluble in alko-
  hol ; a black matter, soluble in  water, insoluble in al-
  kohol, without blistering properties; a  yellow viscid
  matter, mild, soluble in  water and alkohol; the crys-
  talline plates; a fatty  bland matter;  phosphates of
  lime and  magnesia; a  little acetic  acid,  and much
  lithic or uric acid.  The blistering fly taken into the
  stomach in doses of a few grains, acts as a poison, oc-
  casioning horrible satyriasis, delirium, convulsions,
  and death.  Some frightful cases are related by Orfila,
  vol. i. part second.  Oils, milk, syrups, frictions on the
  spine,  with volatile liniment  and  laudanum,  and
  draughts containing musk, opium, and  camphorated
  emulsion, are the best antidotes.
   [" Cantharides Vittatve. Potato flies.  The Can-
  tharis vittata of Olivier, called Lytta vittata by Fabri
 cius, inhabits the United States  and South America.
 It is also given by Pallas among his insects of Siberia.
 It feeds on different plants, but  chiefly on the potato
 vine, and is easily caught in the morning  and towards
 night.  It  agrees  with the Spanish  fly in its generic
 character, but is a smaller insect, having its elytra or
 wing cases black with a yellow stripe and margin, its
 head reddish yellow, and its abdomen and legs black.
 This fly is found  by. abundant experience  to possess
 all the vesicating  powers of the  European cantharis,
 and to exert the same effect, when internally admi-
 nistered, upon the bladder and urethra.  The potato
 fly might well  supersede the Spanish, were it not that
 its visits in different years vary greatly as to certainty
 and numbers.  It is probable that many insects of the
 coleopterous class  possess vesicating  powers.  Re-
 cently a fly possessing this quality was sent from the
 country to a physician in Boston.  It proved to be the
 meloe proscarabeus of  Linnaeus. The discovery of
 the epispastic  property in any native insect, is an  ob-
 ject of interest -But that such  insects, may become
 extensively useful, they must be abundant and easy of
 collection."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   Ca'nthum.  Sugar-candy.
   CA'NTHUS.  (KavBos, the tire or iron  binding of a
 cart-wheel.  Dr. Turton,  in his glossary, supposes from
 its etymology, that it originally signified  the  circular
 extremity of the eyelid.)  The angle  or corner of the
 eye, where the upper and under  eyelids meet.  That
 next the nose is termed the internal or greater canthus;
 and the other, the external or less canthus.
   Cantion.  Sugar.
   CA'NULA.  (Diminutive of canna, a leed.)  Can
 nula.  A small tube.  The term is generally applied
 to a tube adapted to a sharp instrument  with which
 it is thrust into a cavity or tumour, containing a fluid;
 the perforation being made, the  sharp instrument is
 withdrawn, and the canula left, in order that the fluid
 may pass through it.
   Canusa.   Crystal.
   CAOUTCHOU'C.  The substance so called is ob-
 tained from the vegetable kingdom, and exists also in
 the mineral.
   1. The first, known by the names  Indian  rubber,
 Elastic  gum, Cayenne resin, Cautchuc,  and Caout
 chouc, is prepared principally from the juice of the
 Siphonia elastica ;—foliis ternatis ellipticis integerri-
 mis subtis canis longe petiolatis, (Suppl. Plant) and
 also from the Jatropha elastica and Unceola elastica.
 The manner of obtaining this juice is by making in-
 cisions through the bark ofthe lower part ofthe trunk
 of the tree, from which the fluid  resin issues in great
 abundance, appearing of a milky whiteness as it flows
 into the vessel placed to  receive  it, and into which it
 is conducted by means of a tube  or leaf fixed in the
 incision, and supported with clay.  On exposure to
 the air,  this milky juice  gradually Inspissates into a
 soft, reddish, elastic,  resin.  It is formed by the In-
 dians in South America into various figures, but is
 commonly brought to Europe in that of pear-shaped
 bottles, which are said to be  formed by spreading the
juice of the Siphonia over a proper mould of clay; as
soon as one layer  is dry, another is  added, until the
 bottle be of the thickness  desired. It is then exptfJed
 to a thick dense smoke, or to a fire, until it becomes so
 dry as not to stick  to the  fingers, when, by means of 
                       CAO

certain instruments of iron, or wood, it is ornamented
on the outside with various figures.  This being done,
it remains only to pick out the mould, which is easily
effected by softening it with water.
   " The elasticity of this substance is its most remark-
able property: when warmed, as by immersion in hot
water, slips of it may be drawn out to seven or eight
times their original length, and will return to their for-
mer dimensions nearly.  Cold renders it stiff and rigid,
but warmth restores its original elasticity.  Exposed
to the fire it softens, swells up, and burns with a bright
flame.  In Cayenne it is used to give light as a candle.
Its solvents are aether, volatile oils, and petroleum.
The ether, however, requires to be washed with wa-
ter repeatedly, and in this state it  dissolves  it com-
pletely.  Pelletier recommends to boil the caoutchouc
in water for  an hour; then to  cut  it into  slender
threads; to boil  it again about an hour; and then to
put it into rectified sulphuric aether in a vessel close
stopped.   In this way he says  it will be totally dis-
solved in a few days, without heat, except the impuri-
ties, which will fall to the bottom if aether enough be
employed. Berniard says, the nitrous aether dissolves
it better than the sulphuric,   if this solution be spread
on any substance, the aether  evaporates very quickly,
and leaves a coating of caoutchouc unaltered in its pro-
perties.  Naphtha, or petroleum, rectified into a co-
lourless liquid, dissolves it, and likewise leaves it un-
changed by evaporation.  Oil of turpentine softens it,
and forms a pasty mass, that may be spread as a var-
nish, but is very long in drying.   A solution of caout-
chouc in five times its weight of oil of turpentine, and
this solution dissolved in eight times its weight of dry
Ing linseed oil  by boiling, is said to form the varnish of
air-balloons.   Alkalies act upon it so as in time to de-
stroy its elasticity.  Sulphuric acid  is decomposed by
it; sulphurous acid being evolved, and the caoutchouc
converted into charcoal.  Nitric acid a-.ts upon it with
heat; nitrous  gas  being  given  out, and oxalic acid
crystallizing from  the  residuum.   On  distillation it
gives out ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen.
   Caoutchouc may be formed  into various  articles
without undergoing the process of solution.  If it be
cut into a uniform slip of a proper thickness, and wound
spirally round a glass or metal rod, so that  the edges
shall  be in close contact, and in this state be boiled
fur some time, the edges will adhere so  as to form a
tube.  Pieces  of it may be readily joined by touching
the edges with the solution In ether; but this is not
absolutely necessary, for, if they be merely softened
by heat, and  then pressed  together, they will unite
very firmly.
   If linseed oil be  rendered very drying by digesting it
upon an oxide of lead, and afterward applied with a
small brush on any surface, and dried by the sun or
in the  smoke, it will afford a pellicle of considerable
firmness,  transparent, burning  like caoutchouc, and
wonderfully elastic.  A pound of this oil, spread upon
a stone, and exposed to the air for six or seven months,
acquired almost all the properties of caoutchouc; it
was used  to make catheters and bougies, to varnish
balloons, and for other purposes.
   Of the  mineral caoutchouc there are several varie-
ties:—!.  Of a blackish-brown, inclining  to olive, soft,
exceedingly compressible, unctuous, with a  slightly
aromatic smell.  It burns with a bright flame, leaving
a black oily residuum, which does not  become dry.
2. Black, dry, and cracked on the surface, but, when
cut into,  of a yellowish-white.  A fluid resembling
pyrolignic acid exudes from it when recently cut  It
is pellucid on the edges, and nearly of a hyacinthine
red colour.  3. Similar to the preceding, but of a some-
what firmer texture, and ligneous  appearance, from
having acquired consistency in repeated layers.  4.
Resembling  the  first variety, but of a darker colour,
and adhering to gray calcareous spar, with some grains
of galoena.  5. Of a liver-brown colour, having the
aspect  of the  vegetable caoutchouc, but passing  by
gradual transition into a brittle bitumen, of vitreous
lustre, and ayellowisfl colour. 6. Dull reddish-brown,
of a spongy or cork-like texture, containing blackish-
gray nuclei of impure caoutchouc. Many more varieties
are enumerated.
  One specimen of this caoutchouc has been found in
a petrified marine shell enclosed  in a rock, and another
enclosed in a crystallized fluor spar.
  Tbe mineral caoutchouc resists the action of solvents
                       CAP

still more than the vegetable.  The rectified ofl ef
petroleum affects it most, particularly when by parti*.
burning'it is resolved into a pitchy viscous substance.
A hundred grains  of a specimen analyzed in the dry
way by Klaproth,  afforded  carburetted hydrogen gas
38 cubic inches, carbonic acid gas 4, bituminous oil 73
grains, acidulous phlegm 1.5, charcoal  6.25, lime 2,
silex  1.5, oxide of iron .75, sulphate of lime .5, alu-
mina .25.
  CAPA1BA.  See Copaifera officinalis.
  CAPAIVA.  See Copaifera officinalis.
  Capeli'na.   (From  capeline, French, a woman's
hat, or bandage.)  A double-headed roller, put round
the head.
  Cape'lla.   A cupel or test Also a name for a goat.
  CAPER.  See Capparis.
  Caper-bush.  See Capparis.
  Ca'petus.   (Kancjos, per apharesin, pro eKantJos:,
from  cKanfia, to dig.)   Hippocrates  means by this
word a foramen, wbich is impervious, and needs the
use of a chirurgical instrument to make an opening;
as tbe anus of some new-born infants.
  Ca'phora.  (Arabian.)  Camphire.
  Ca'phura baros indorum.  A name for camphire.
  Caphurje oleum.   An aromatic oil distilled from
the root of the cinnamon-tree.
  CAPILLACEUS.   Capillory.
  CAPILLARIS.  See Capillary.
  Capillares  plantje.    Capillary, or hair-shaped
plants.
  Capillaris vermiculus.  See Crinones and Dra-
cunculus.
  CAPI'LL ARY.  (Capillaris; from capillus, a little
hair: so called from the  resemblance to hair or fine
thread.)  1.  Capillary vessels. The very small rami-
fications of the arteries, which  terminate upon the
external surface of the body, or on the surface of inter-
nal cavities, are called capillary.
  2. Capillary attraction. See Attraction.
  3. Applied to parts of plants, wbich are, or resemble.
hairs: thus, a capillary root is one which consists of
many very fine fibres, as that of Festuea  ovina, and
most  grasses.
  Capilla'tio.  (From capillus,a hair.)  A capillary
fracture ofthe cranium.
  CAPI'LLUS.   (Quasi capitis pilus, the hair  of
the head.)  The hair.   Small, cylindrical, transparent,
insensible, and elastic filaments, which arise from the
skin,  and are fastened in  it  by means of small roots.
The  human  hair  is composed of a spongy,  cellular
texture, containing a  coloured liquid,  and a  proper
covering.  Hair is divided into two kinds; long, which
arises on  the  scalp, cheek, chin, breasts of men, the
anterior parts of the arms and legs, the arm-pits, groins,
and pelvis:  and short, which is softer than the long,
and is present over the  whole body, except only the
palm  ofthe hand and sole ofthe foot.  The hair origi-
nates in the  adipose membrane from an oblong mem
braneous bulb, which has vessels peculiar to it. The
hair  is distinguished  by different  names  in certain
parts ; as, capillus, on the top of the head: crinis, on
the back  of  the  head;  circrinnus, on the temples;
cilium, on the eyelids; supercilium, on the  eyebrows;
vibrissa, in the nostrils; barba, on the chin; pappus,
on the middle of the chin; mystax, on the upper lip;
pilus, on the body.
  From numerous experiments Vauquelin infers, that
black hair is formed  of nine different substances,
namely:—
  1. An animal matter, which constitutes the greater
part.  2. A white  concrete  oil, in small quantity  3.
Another oil of a grayish-green colour, more abundant
than  the former.  4. Iron, tbe state of which in the
hair is uncei tain.  5. A few particles of oxideof man
ganese  6. Phosphate of lime. 7. Carbonate of lime,
in very small quantity.  8. Silex, in  a conspicuous
quantity.  9.  Lastly, a considerable quautity of sul-
phur.
  The same experiments show, that red hair differs
from  black only in containing a red oil instead of a
blackish-green oil; and that  white hair differs from
both these only in the oil  being nearly colourless, and
in containing  phosphate of magnesia, which is not
found in them.
  Capillus veneris.   See  Adianthum.
  Capillus  veneris  canadensis.  See Adianthunt
canaitnsa.                               ___
                                        XB3 
CAP
CAP
   Capiple'nium.  (From caput, the head, and plenus,
 full; a barbarous word: but Baglivi uses it to signify
 that continual heaviness or disorder in the head, which
 tbe Greeks call KapvBapia.)   A catarrh.
   Capistra'tio.  (From capistrum, a bridle: so called
 because the praepuce is restrained as it were  with a
 bridle.)  See Phimosis.
   CAPI'STRUM.  (From caput, the head.)
   1. A bandage for the head is so called.
   2. In Vogel's Nosology it is the same as  Trismus.
   CA'PITAL. Capitalis.  1. Belonging to the caput,
 or head.
   2. Tbe head or upper part of an alembic.
   Capita' lia.  (From caput, the head.)  Medicines
 which relieve pains of the head.
   CAPITATUS.   (From caput, the head.)  Headed.
 See Capitulum.
   CAPITE'LLUM.  The head  or  seed vessels, fre-
 quently applied to mosses, Sec.
   CAPITILU'VIUM.  (From caput, the head, and
 lavo, to wash.) A lotion for the head.
   Ca'pitis obliquus inferior ct major.  See Obli-
 quus inferior capitis.
   Capitis  par tertiuw fallopii.  See Trachelo-
 mastoideus.
   Capitis  posticus.   See  Rectus capitis  posticus
 major.
   Capitis rectus. See Rectus capitis posticus minor.
   CAPITULUM.  (Diminutive of caput, the head.)
   1. A small head.
   2. A protuberance of a bone, received into the con-
 cavity of another bone.
   3. An alembic.
   In botany, the term for a species of inflorescence,
 called a  head or tuft, formed of many flowers, in a
 globular form, upon a common peduncle.
   From the insertion ofthe flowers, it is called,
   1. Pedunculated; as iu Astragalus  syriacus, and
 Eryngium maritimum.
   2. Sessile; as in Trifolium tomentosum.
   3. Terminal; as in Monarda fistulosa.
   4. Axillary ; as in  Gomphrena sessilis.
   From the figure, it is said to be,
   1. Globose ; as in Gomphrena globosa.
   2. Subrotund; as in Trifolium pratense.
   3. Conic; as in Trifolium montanum.
   4. Dimidiate, flat on one side, round on the other;
 as in Trifolium lupinaster.
   From its  covering,
   1. Naked; as in IUecebrum polygonoides.
   3. Foliose; as in Plantago indico.
   A capitulum that is very small, and is mostly in the
 axilla, is called Glomerulus.
   CAPI'VI.  See Copaifera officinalis.
   CAPNEL-jE'UM. (From Kanvos, smoke, and eXatov,
 oil; so named from its smoky exhalations when ex-
 posed to heat)  In Galen's works it means a resin.
   Ca'pnias.  (From Kanvos, a smoke.)  1. A jasper
 of a smoky colour.
   2. A vine which bears white and part black grapes.
   Capni'ston.  (From Kanvos, smoke.) A prepara-
 tion of spice and oil, made by kindling the spices, and
 fumigating  the oil.
   Capni'tis.   (From Kanvos, smoke;  so called from
 its smoky colour.)  Tutty.
   CAPNOI'DES.   (From Kanvos, fumitory, andeiooc,
 likeness.)  Resembling fumitory.
   CA'PNOS.  (Kanvos, smoke; so called, says Blanch-
 ard, because its juice, if applied  to the eyes, produces
 the same effect and sensations as smoke.)  Capnus.
 The herb fumitory.  See Fumaria.
   CAPNUS. „ See Capnos.
   Ca'ppa.  (A capite, from the head: so called from
 its supposed resemblance.)   The  herb monkshood.
 See Aconitum.
   CA'PPARIS.   (From eaoar, Arab, or aapa  ro
 Kairnavtiv apav, from  its curing madness and melan-
 choly.)  The caper plant
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the caper plant.
 Bee Capparis spinosa.
   Capparis spinosa.  The  systematic name of the
 caper plant.  Capparis:—pendunculis solitariis uni-
fioris, stipulis spinosis, foliis annuis, consults ovalibus
 of Linnaeus.  The buds, or unexpanded flowers of this
 plant are in common use as a pickle, which is said to
      134
 possess antiscorbutic virtues.  The bark of the root
 was formerly in high esteem as a deobstruent
   CAPREOLA'RIS.   (From capreolus,  a tendril.)
 Capreolatus.  Resembling in its contortions, or other
 Appearance, the  tendrils  of a vine;  applied to the
 spermatic vessels.
   CAPREOLA'TUS.  See Capreolaris.
   CAPRE'OLUS.  (Dim.  of caprea,  a tendril.  Dr.
 Turton suggests its derivation from caper, a goat, the
 horn of which its  contortions somewhat resemble.)
 1. The helix or circle of the ear, from iu tendril-like
 contortion.
   2. A Tendril.   See Cirrus.
   Cafrico'rnus.  Lead.
   CAPRIFICATION. (Caprificatio; from caprificus,
 a wild fig.)  The  very singular husbandry, or manage-
 ment of fig-trees.
   CAPRIFTCUS.  (From caper, a goat, and ficus, a
 fig;  because they are a chief food  of goats.)   The wild
 fig-tree.  See Ficus.
   Caprimulous.  A species of bird, the goat-sucker,
 to which  belong the  night-hawk  and  the  whip-
 poor-will.
   Capri'zans.  Galen and others used this word to
 express an inequality in the pulse, when it leaps, and,
 as it were, dances in uncertain strokes and periods.
   Capse'lla.  (Diminutive of capsa, a chest, from
 its resemblance.)  A name in Marcellus Empiricus for
 viper's bugloss; the Echium Italicum, of Linnaeus.
  CA'PSICUM.   (From Kan}u>,  to bite; on account
 of its effect on the mouth.)
   I.  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the capsicum.  See
 Capsicum annuum.
  Capsicum annuum.  The systematic name of the
 plant from which we obtain Cayenne pepper.  Gui-
 nea pepper.  Piper indicum; Lada chilli; Capo  Mo-
 lago;  Solanum urens; Siliquastrum  Plinii;  Piper
 Brazilianum ; Piper  Guineense ;  Piper Calecuttcum ;
 Piper Hispanicum;  Piper Lusitanicum.  Cayenne
 pepper.  This species of pepper is obtained from the
 Capsicum; caule  herbaceo,  pedunculus solitariis of
 Linnaeus.  What is generally used under the name of
 Cayenne pepper, however, is an indiscriminate mix-
 ture of the powder of the dried pods of many species
of capsicum, but especially of the capsicum minimum,
or bird pepper, which is the hottest of all.  These pep-
 pers have been chiefly used as condiments.  They pre-
 vent flatulence from vegetable food, and give warmth
 to the stomach, possessing all the virtues of the oriental
spices, without producing those complaints of the head
 which the latter are  ap't to occasion.  An abuse of
them, however, gives  rise  to visceral obstructions,
especially of the liver.  In the practice of medicine,
 there can be little doubt that they  furnish us with one
of tbe purest and  strongest stimulants  which can be
 introduced into the stomach, and  may  be very useful
 in some paralytic and gouty cases.  Dr. Adair, who
first introduced them into practice, found them useful
in the cachexia Africana,  which he considers as a
most  frequent and  fatal  predisposition to disease
among the slaves.  Dr. Wright says, that in dropsical
and other complaints where chalybeates are indicated,
 a minute portion of powdered capsicum forms an ex-
cellent addition, and recommends its use in lethargic
affections.  This pepper has also been successfully
employed  in a species of cynanehe maligna, which
proved very fatal in the West Indies, resisting the use
of Peruvian bark, wine, and  other remedies com-
monly employed.  In tropical fevers, coma and deli-
rium are common attendants; and, in such cases, ca-
taplasms of capsicum have a speedy and happy effect.
 They redden the parts, but seldom blister unless when
kept on too long.   In ophthalmia from relaxation, the
diluted juice of capsicum  is found to  be a valuable
 remedy.  Dr. Adair gave six or eight grains for a dose,
 made into pills; or else he prepared a tincture by di-
 gesting half an ounce of the pepper in a pound  of al-
 kohol, tbe dose of which was one or  two drachms,
diluted with a sufficient quantity of water.  A tinctura
 capsici is  uow for the first time  introduced into the
 London pharmacopoeia.
  [" This article is well known for its excessively pun-
gent and biting acrimony, exceeding that of any other
 article used  with  food.  The principle on which its
 pungency depends is  soluble in both water and alka- 
CAP
CAR
 hoi, and is not dissipated by boiling.   Its solutions are
 disturned by various reagents, which, however, arc of
 no cor-sequence in practical use.  It is found to con-
 tain cinchonin, resin, mucilage, and an acrid principle
 said to be alkaline.  It is sometimes  adulterated with
 red-lead to increase its weight.
   Capsicum is a warm, powerful stimulant, promoting
 digestion, and obviating flatulence.  Its abuse, bow-
 ever, produces visceral obstructions, and an inflamma-
 tory disposition in the system.  It is never of service
 to the healthy.  In disease it is administered  to stimu-
 late the stomach when  in a torpid state, and to excite
 the nerves of the paralytic and lethargic.  In  the
 West Indies it has been employed both externally and
 internally in ulcerated sore throat  It is applied  as a
 gargle  in this disease, and in paralysis of  the tongue.
 Its chief use, however, is as a rubefacient  to the skin,
 upon wbich it acts with great power.  The dose inter-
 nally is from five to ten  grains.    The  rubefacient
 cataplasm is made of meal and vinegar heated, and its
 surface covered  with pulverized  capsicum."—Big.
 Mat. Med.  A.]
   CA'PSULA.   (Diminutive of capsa,  a  chest or
 ease.)   A capsule.  1.  A membraneous  production
 enclosing a  part of the body like a bag; as the capsu-
 lar ligaments, the capsule of the crystalline  lens, &c.
   2. In botany, a dry, woody, coriaceous, or  membra-
 neous pericarpium, or seed-vessel, generally splitting
 into several valves.
   The parts of a capsule, are,
   1. Tbe valves, or external shell, into which the cap-
 sule splits.
   2. The sutures, or the external surface in which the
 valves are joined.
   3. The dissepimenta, or partitions by which the cap-
 sule is divided into several cells.
   4. The loculamenta, or cells, the spaces between the
 partitions and valves.
   5. The columella, or central column, or  filament,
 Which  unites the  partitions, and to which the seeds
 are usually attached.
   From the number ofthe valves, a capsule is said to be,
   1. Bivalvcd; as in Magnolia, and Capraria.
   2. Three-valved; as in Canna indica.
   3. Four-valved;  as  in Datura stramonium  and
 Oenothera biennis.
   4. Five-valved; as in Illeeebrum, and Coris.
   5. Manyvatved; as in Hura crepitans.
   6. Operculate,  or circumcised, tbe operculum split-
 ting horizontally; as in Hyosciamus niger,  and Le-
 cythis ollaria.
   From the  number of cells,
   1. Unilocular, when there is no partition; as in
 Parnassia palustris, and Agrostema.
   2. Bilocular, two-celled; as Hyosciamus niger, and
 Datura stramonium.
   3. Triloeular, three-celled; as in JEsculus  hypocas-
 tanum, and  Iris germanica.
   4. Quinquelocular, five-celled ; as in Hibiscus syri-
 acus, and Azalea procumbens.
   5. Novemlocular, nine-celled; as in Punica gra-
 natum.
   6. Submultilocular, when there are many cells, and
 the partitions do not reach tbe middle of tbe capsule ;
 as in Papaver somniferum.
   From the appearance ofthe external surface, a cap-
 sule is called,
   1. Glabrous ; as in Papaver somniferum.
   2. Aculeate; as in Datura stramonium.
   3. Muricate; as in Canna indica.
   From  the  number  of tubercles on the  external
 surface,
   1. Capsula dicocca, or didyma ; as in Spigelia.
   2. C. tricocca ; as in Euphorbia lathyrus, and Cne-
 orum tricoccum.
   3. C. tetracocca; as in Paururus cernuus, »nd Evo-
 nymus europeus.
  From the number of contiguous capsules,
  1. C. simplex, if solitary.
  2. C.  duplex, two aggregated; as  in Paonia offi-
cinalis.
  3. C. triplex ; as in Veratrum album,
  4. C.  quintuplex; as in  Aquilegia vulgaris, and
Nigella.
  5. C. multiplex ; as in Sempervivum tectorum.
  From the substance, a capsule is called,
  1 Mtmbranaceous;  as in Datura  stramonium.
   2. Corticated,  the external  fungous membrane re-
 ceding from the capsule; as in Ricinus communis.
   3. Woody, very hard, yet splitting; as in Hura ere
 pitans.
   4. Baccated, when the seed is surrounded by a pulp,
 as Evonymus europeus, and Samyda.
   5. Spurious, if the calyx, capsule-like, surrounding
 the seed, splits; as in Fagus sylvatica.
   The number of seeds contained in the capsule, gives
 rise to the following distinctions.
   1. Capsula monosperma,  one-seeded; as in Gom
 phrenia, Hemiaria, and Salsola.
   2. C. disperma, two-seeded;  as  in Hebenstratia,
 and Bvffonia.
   3. C. Trisperma, three-seeded; as  in Glaux,  and
 Hudsonia.
   4. C. polysperma, many-seeded; as in Papaver som-
 niferum.
   Capsula atrabilaris.  See Renal Glands.
   Capsula renalis.  See Renal Glands.
   CA'PSULAR.  (Capsularis; from capsa, a bag./
 Surrounding a part, like a bag: applied to  a ligament
 which surrounds every moveable  articulation,  and
 contains the synovia like a bag.
   CA'PSULE.  See Capsula.
   Capsule of glisson.  Capsula Glissonii.   Vagi
 na porta ;  Vagina Glissonii.  A strong tunic, formed
 of cellular texture, which accompanies the vena portae,
 and its most minute  ramifications, throughout the
 whole liver.
   Ca'pulum.   (From Kaunrto, to bend.)  A  contor-
 tion of the eyelids, or other parts.
   Ca'pdr.  (Arabian.)  Camphire.
   CA'PUT.  (Caput, itis. neut; from capio, to take;
 because from  it, according  to Varro, the senses take
 their origin.)  1. The head, cranium, or skull.  It ii
 situated above or upon the trunk, and united to ths
 cervical vertebrae.  It is distinguished into skull  and
 face.  On  the  skull are observed vertex,  or crowa;
 sinciput, or foreparts; occiput, or hinder  part; aid
 the temples. The parts distinguished on the face are
 well known;  as  the forehead, nose, eyes, &c.  The
 arteries ofthe head are branches of the carotids; and
 the  veins empty themselves into the jugulars.   See
 Skull and Face.
   2. The upper extremity of a bone; as the head of the
 humerus or femur.
   3. The origin of a muscle; as the long head of the
 biceps.
   4. A protuberance like the head of any thing; as
 caput gallinaginis.
   5. The beginning of a part; as caput cojei.
   6. The remains of any thing after its destruction by
 fire, or other means: hence caput mortuura, or ashes.
   Caput gallinaoims.   Verumontanum.   A cuta-
 neous eminence in the urethra of men, before tbe neck
 ofthe bladder, somewhat like the head of a woodcock
 in miniature, around which the seminal ducts, and the
 ducts ofthe prostate gland, open.
   Caput mortccm.   A fanciful term, much used by
 the  old chemists, but now entirely  rejected.  It  de-
 noted the fixed residue of operations.   As  the earlier
 chemists did not examine these, they did not find any
 inconvenience in one general term  to denote them:
 but  the most slender acquaintance with modern che-
 mistry  must show, that it is utterly Impracticable to
 denote, by one general term, all  tbe various matters
 that remain fixed in certain degrees of heat  The term
 is obsolete, but spoken of fancifully.
   Caput obstipum.  The wry neck.   Mostly a spas-
 modic complaint.
   Caput purgia.  (A barbar >us word, from caput, the
 head, and purgo, to purge.)   Medicines which, by
 causing a defluxion from the nose, purge, as it were,
 the head, as some errhincs do.
   Capyri'dion.  (From Kanvpos, burnt.)   Capyrion.
 A medicated cake, much baked.
   Capyrion.  See Capyridion.                 .
   CA'RABUS.  A genus of insects ofthe beetle kind.
 Two species,  the  chrysocephahis and ferruginous,
 have been  recommended for the  toothache.  They
 must be pressed between the fingers, and then rubbed
 on the gum and tooth affected.
  Caroco'smos.  A name of the sour mare s  milk,
so much admired by the Tai tars.
  Caragua'ta.  The aloe of Brazil.
  CARA'NNA.   (Spanish.)   Caragno,   jGarann«s 
CAR
CAR
 gummi.  Bresilis.  A concrete resinous juice, thai
 exudes from a large tree, of which we have no parti-
 cular account.  It is brought from New Spain and
 America, in little  masses, rolled up in leaves of flags;
 externally and internally it is of a brownish colour,
 variegated wiA irregular white streaks.  When fresh,
 it is soft and tenacious; but becomes dry and friable
 by keeping.  Pure caranna has an agreeable aromatic
 smell, especially when heated, and a bitterish slightly
 pungent taste.  It was formerly employed as an in-
 gredient in vulnerary balsams,  strengthening, discu-
 tient, and suppurating plasters;  but its scarcity has
'caused it to be forgotten.
   CARAWAY.   See Carum.
   Ca'rbasus.  KapSaoos.  Scribonius Largus  uses
 this word for lint.
   L" Carbazotic acid. By the action of nitric acid
 upon indigo, a substance is obtained in yellow brilliant
 crystalline plates, which exhibits acid properties, and
 has been called by Dr. Liebig, carbazotic acid, a name
 derived from its composition, which is as follows:
       Carbon,  ............13.043 or 15 atoms.
       Azote.............16.167 or 3----
       Oxygen,............48.790 or 15----
 To obtain carbazotic acid, the following process has
 been given by Dr. Liebig:
   A portion of the best  indigo is to be  broken into
 small fragments, and moderately heated with eight or
 ten  times  its  weight of nitric acid, of moderate
 strength.  It will  dissolve, evolving nitrous vapours
 and swelling up in  the vessel;  after the scum has fall-
 en, the liquid is to be boiled, and nitric acid is added
 as long as any red vapours are disengaged.  When the
 liquid has become cold, a large quantity of semi-trans-
 parent yellow crystals will be formed, and if the ope-
 ration has been well conducted,  no artificial  tannin
 or resin will be obtained.   The crystals are to be
 washed with cold water, and then boiled in water
 sufficient to dissolve them. If any oily drops of tannin
 form on the surface of the  solution, they must be care-
 fully removed by touching them with filtering paper.
 Then filtering the fluid, and allowing it to cool, yellow
 brilliant crystalline plates will be obtained, which will
 not lose their lustre by washing.  To obtain the sub-
 stance perfectly pure, the crystals must be redissolved
 in boiling water, and neutralized by carbonate of po-
 tassa.  Upon cooling, a salt of potassa will crystallize,
 which should be purified by repeated crystallizations.
  When the substance is heated, it fuses, and is volati-
 lized  without decomposition; when subjected to a
 strong heat,  it inflames without explosion, its vapours
 burning with a yellow flame, and a carbonaceous resi-
 due remaining.  It is but little soluble in cold water,
 but much more so in boiling water; the solution has a
 bright yellow colour, reddens litmus, has an extremely
 bitter taste,  and acts  like a strong  acid  on metallic
 oxides, dissolving them, and forming peculiar crystal-
 lizable salts.  Ether and alkohol dissolve it readily.
  Carbazotic acid  combines with bases, and  forms
 salts called carbazotates."   (Of which the following
 have been determined:)
  Carbazotate of Potassa, crystallizes in long, yellow,
 semi-transparent,  and very brilliant needles;  it  dis-
solves in 260 parts of water at 59° Fah. Strong acids
 decompose  it.   When a little is gradually heated in a
glass  tube, it first fuses, and  then suddenly explodes,
 breaking the tube  to atoms;  traces of charcoal  are-
observed on the fragments.  The slight solubility of this'
 salt supplies an easy method of testing and separating!
 potassa in a fluid.  Even  the potassa in tincture of
litmus may be discovered  by it; on  the addition of a
 few drops of carbazotic acid dissolved in  alkohol, to
infusion of litmus,  crystals of the salt gradually sepa-
rate.  The  salt contains no  water of crystallization.
Its composition is potassa 16.21, acid 83.79,
  Carbazotate of Soda crystallizes in fine silky yellow
needles, having the general properties of the salt of
potassa, but soluble in from 20 to 24 parts of water at
59° F.
  Carbazotate of Ammonia forms very long, flattened,
brilliant, yellow crystals,  very  soluble  in water.
Heated carefully in a glass tube, it fuses, and is vola-
tilized without decomposition;  heated suddenly, it
inflames without explosion, and leaves much  carbo-
naceous residue.
  Carbazotate of Baryta,  obtained by heating carbo-
nate of baryta, and carbazotic acid with water, crys-
  tallizes in quadrangular prisms of a deep colour, and
  dissolves easily in water.  When heated it fuses, and
  is decomposed with very powerful explosion,  pro-
  ducing a vivid yellow flame: 100 parts lose at 212° F.
  125  parts of water; 100 parts of  the anhydrous salt
  contain 75.72 acid, and 24.28 baryta.
    Carbazotate of Lime obtained like the salt of baryta,
  forms flattened, quadrangular prisms, very soluble in
  water, and detonating like the salt of potassa.
    Carbazotate of Magnesia forms  very long indistinct
  needles, of a clear yellow colour, is very soluble  and
  detones violently.
    Carbazotate of  Copper, prepared by decomposing
  sulphate of copper by carbazotate of baryta: it crys-
  tallizes with difficulty, the crystals being of  a  fine
 green colour: it is deliquescent;  when heated it is
 decomposed without explosion.
   Carbazotate of  Silver.  Carbazotic acid readily dis-
 solves oxide of silver, when heated with it and water;
 and  the solution, gradually evaporated, yields starry
 groups of fine acicular crystals of the colour and lus-
 tre of gold;  the salt dissolves  readily in water;  when
 heated to a certain degree; it does not  detonate, but
 fuses like gunpowder.
   Proto-carbazotate of Mercury, obtained in  small
 yellow triangular crystals, by mixing boiling solutions
 of the  carbazotate of potassa  or  soda, and  proto-
 nitrate of  mercury.  It requires more than 1200 parts
 of water for its solution;  it consists of 53.79 acid, and
 46.21 protoxide of mercury per cent.
   Carbazotate of  Lead may  be formed by  decom-
 posing a salt of lead by carbazotate of potassa or soda;
 it is  a  yellow  powder, but slightly soluble, and  deto-
 nating by heat.
   All these salts detonate much more powerfully when
 heated in  close vessels, than when heated in the air,
 and what is remarkable, those bases yielding oxygen
 most readily are those  which  explode  with  least
 force."—From Webster, as taken from Ann. de Chim
 xxv. 72, and  Quart. Jour. N. S. iii.   A.]
   CA'RBO.  (Charbah, Hebrew, burnt or dried.) Coal.
   1. In medicine and chemistry, it is commonly un-
 derstood to mean charcoal, and receives its name from
 its mode of  preparation, which is by burning pieces
 of tight wood into a dry, black coal.
   2. A carbuncle.  See Anthrax.
   Carbo  ligna.  Charcoal.   As an external  appli-
 cation, powdered charcoal has been recommended in
 the cure of gangrene, from external causes, and  all
 descriptions of foetid ulcers.  Meat which has acquired
 a mawkish or even putrid smell, is found to be ren-
 dered perfectly sweet, by rubbing it with powdered "
 charcoal.   It is also used as tooth-powder.
   CA'RBON.  (From carbo, coal.)   Chemists  apply
 this term to the diamond, and what is commonly called
 charcoal.   The diamond is the purest form of it.
   1. When vegetable  matter, particularly the  more
solid, as wood, is exposed  to heat in close vessels the
volatile parts fly off, and leave behind a black porous
substance,  which is charcoal.   If this be suffered to
undergo combustion in contact with oxygen, or with
atmospheric air, much the greater part of it will coin-
bine with the oxygen, and  escape in the form of gas •
leaving about a two-hundredth  part, which  consists
chiefly  of  different saline and metallic  substances.
This pure inflammable part of the charcoal is what is
commonly called carbon;  and if the gas be received
into proper vessels, the carbon will  be found to have
been converted by the oxygen into an acid, called the
carbonic.   See Carbonic acid.
  From the  circumstance,  that  inflammable  sub-
stances refract light in a ratio greater than that of their
densities, Newton inferred, that the  diamond was in
flammable.   The quantity of the inflammable part of
charcoal, requisite to form a hundred parts of carbonic
acid, was calculated by Lavoisier to be twenty-eight
parts.  From a careful experiment of Mr. Tennaut,
27.6 parts of diamond, and 72.4 of oxygen, formed 100
of carbonic acid; and hence he inferred  tbe identity
of diamond and the inflammable part of charcoal.
   Well-burned charcoal is a conductor of electricity
though wood simply deprived of its moisture by baking
is a non-conductor; but it is a very bad conductor of
 caloric, a property of  considerable use on many occa-
sions, as in lining crucibles.
   It is insoluble in water, and hence the utility of
 charring tile surface of wood exposed to that liquid, In 
CAR
CAR
Older to preserve it, a circumstance not unknown to
tbe ancients.  This  preparation of timber has been
proposed as an effectual preventive of what is com-
monly called the dry rot.  It has an  attraction, how-
ever,  for a certain portion of water, wbich it retains
very  forcibly.  Heated red-hot, or nearly so, it de-
composes water;  forming with ils oxygen carbonic
acid,  or carbonic oxide, according to the quantity pre-
sent ; and with the hydrogen a gaseous carburet, call-
ed carburetted hydrogen, or heavy inflammable air.
  Charcoal is infusible by any  heat.  If exposed to a
very  high temperature in close  vessels, it loses little or
nothing of its weight, but shrinks, becomes  more com-
pact,  and acquires a deeper black colour.
  Recently prepared  charcoal  has  a remarkable pro-
perty of absorbing different  gases,  and condensing
them in its pores, without any  alteration of their pro-
perties or its own.
  Very light charcoal, such as that of cork, absorbs
scarcely any air;  while the pit-coal of Rastiberg, sp.
gr. 1.326, absorbs ten times and a half its volume. The
absorption  was always completed in  24 hours.  This
curious faculty, which is common to all porous bodies,
resembles  the  action of capillary tubes on liquids.
When a piece of charcoal, charged with one  gas, is
transferred into another, it absorbs  some of it, and
parts  with a portion  of  that first condensed.  In the
experiments of Messrs. Allen and Pepys, charcoal was
found to imbibe from the atmosphere in a day about
one-eighth of its weight in water.  For a general view
of absorption, see Gas.
  When oxygen is condensed  by charcoal, carbonic
acid is observed to form at the  end  of several months.
But the most remarkable property displayed by char-
coals  impregnated with gas, is  that with sulphuretted
hydrogen when exposed  to the air or oxygen gas. The
sulphuretted hydrogen is speedily destroyed, and water
and sulphur result, with the disengagement of consider-
able heat  Hydrogen  alone has  no such effects.   When
charcoal was exposed by Sir Humphrey Davy to intense
ignition in vacuo, and in condensed azot, by means of
Mr. Children's magnificent voltaic battery, it slowly
volatilized, and gave out a little hydrogen.  The re-
maining part was always much harder than before;
and in one  case so hard as to scratch glass, while its
lustre was increased.   This fine experiment may be re-
garded as a near  approach to  the production  of dia-
mond.
  Charcoal has a powerful affinity for oxygen; whence
its use in disoxygenaling metallic oxides, and restoring
their base to its original  metallic state, or reviving the
the metal.   Thus too  it decomposes several of the
acids, as the phosphoric  and sulphuric, from which  it
abstracts their oxygen, and leaves  the phosphorus
and sulphur free.
  Carbon  is capable  of combining with Bulphur, and
with  hydrogen.  With  iron it forms steel;  and  it
unites with copper into a carburet, as observed  by Dr.
Priestley.
  A singular and important property of charcoal is
that of destroying the smell, colour, and taste of vari-
ous substances: for the first accurate experiments on
which we are  chiefly indebted  to Mr. Lowitz,  of Pe-
tersburgh, though it had been long before recommend-
ed to correct the foetor of foul  ulcers, and as an anti-
septic.  On this account it is certainly the  best denti-
frice.  Water  that has become putrid by long keep-
ing in wooden casks, is rendered  sweet  by filtering
through charcoal  powder, or by  agitation with it;
particularly If a few drops of sulphuric acid be added.
Common  vinegar  boiled with  charcoal powder be-
comes perfectly limpid.  Saline solutions, that are
tinged yellow or brown, are rendered  colourless in the
same  way, so as to afford perfectly white crystals.
Tbe impure carbonate  of ammonia obtained  from
bones, is deprived both of its colour  and foetid smell
by  sublimation with an  equal weight  of charcoal
powder.  Malt spirit is freed from its disagreeable fla-
vour by distillation from charcoal;  but if too much be
used,  part of the spirit is decomposed. Simple  mace-
ration, for eight or ten days, in  the proportion of about
l-150th of the weight of the spirit, improves the fla-
vour  much.   It  is necessary  that the  charcoal be
well burned, brought to a red  heat before  it is used,
and used as soon as may be, or at least be carefully
excluded from  the air.   The  proper proportion too
should be ascertained by experiment on a small scale.
 The charcoal may be used repeatedly, by exposing M
 for some time to a red heat before it is again employed.
   Charcoal is used on particular occasions as fuel, on
 account of its giving a strong and steady heat without
 smoke.  It is employed  to convert iron  into steel by
 cementation.  It enters into the composition of gun-
 powder.  In  its finer states, as in ivory-black, lamp-
 black, &c. it  forms the  basis of black paints, Indian
 ink, and printers' ink.
   The purest carbon for chemical purposes is obtained
 by strongly igniting lamp-black in a covered  crucible.
 This yields, like the diamond,  unmixed carbonic acid
 by combustion in oxygen.
   Carbon unites with all the common simple combus-
 tibles, and with azot, forming a series of most impor-
 tant compounds.   With sulphur it forms  a curious
 limpid liquid, called carburet of sulphur, or sulphuret
 of carbon. With  phosphorus  it  forms a  species of
 compound, whose  properties  are imperfectly  ascer-
 tained. It unites with hydrogen in  two definite pro-
 portions, constituting subcarburetted and carburetted
 hydrogen gases.  With azot it forms prussic gas, the
 cyanogen of  Gay Lussac.   Steel and plumbago are
 two different compounds of carbon with  iron.   In
 black chalk we find this combustible intimately asso-
 ciated with silica and alumina.  The  primitive com-
 bining proportion, or prime equivalent of carbon, is
 0.75 on the oxygen scale.
   2. Carbon  mineral.  This is  of a gray blackish co-
 lour.   It is charcoal with, various proportions of earth
 and iron, without bitumen.  It has a silky lustre, and
 the  fibrous texture of wood.   It is found  in small
 quantities, stratified with brown coal, slate coal, and
 pitch coal.
   Carbon, gaseous oxide of.  Gaseous oxide of car-
 bon was first described by Dr. Priestley, who mistook
 it for a hydrocarbonate.  With the true  nature of it,
 we have  been only lately acquainted.  It  was first
 proved to be a peculiar gas,  by Mr. Cruikshank, of
 VVoolwich, who made it known to us as such, in April,
 1801, through the medium of Nicholson's Journal for
 that month.  Several additional properties of this gas
 were soon afterward noticed by Desormes, Clement,
 and others. Gaseous oxide of carbon forms an interme-
 diate substance between the pure hydrocarbonates and
 carbonic acid gas ; but not being possessed of acid pro-
 perties, Mr. Cruikshank called it, conformably to the
 rules of the chemical nomenclature, gaseous oxide of
 carbon, for it consists of oxygen and carbon rendered
 gaseous by caloric.  See Carbonic oxide.
   Carbonaceous acid. See Carbonic acid.
   CARBO'NAS.  (Carbonas, atis. m.; from carbonic
 acid being one of its constituents.) A carbonate.  A
 salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with  a sali-
 fiable  basis.  The carbonates  employed In medicine
 are:
   1. The  potassa? carbonas.
   2. The sodse carbonas.
   3. The creta praeparata, and the testae prteparate,
 which are varieties of carbonate of lime.
   When the base is imperfectly neutralized by the car-
 bonic acid, the salt is termed a subcarbonate; of which
 kind are employed medicinally,
   1. The  potassae subcarbonas.
   2. The  sodas subcarbonas, and tbe sodae subcarbonas
 exsiccata.
   3. The  ammonias subcarbonas, and  the liquor am
 moniae subcarbonatis.
   4. Tho  plumbi subcarbonas.
   5. The  ferri subcarbonas.
   6. The  magnesia; subcarbonas.
   Carbonas  ammonia.  See Ammonia subcarbonas
   Carbonas  calcis. Carbonate of lime.   Several
 varieties of this are used in medicine: the purest and
 best are the  creta  preparata, testae preparaue,  chela
 cancrorum, testae ovorum, and oculi cancrorum.
   Carbonas  ferri.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
   Carbonas  ufAQNESUE. See Magnesia subcarbonas
   Carbonas  plumbi.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
   Carbonas potassje.   See Potassa carbonas
   Carbonas  sodje.  See Soda carbonas.
   CARBONATE.   See Carbonas.
   Carbonate of barytes.  See Heavy spar.
   Carbonated hydrogen gas.  See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.
  CARBONIC ACID.  Acidum carbonicum.  Fixed
 air; Carbonaceous  acid;  Calcareous acid: AWal 
CAR
CAR
acid.  " This acid, being a compound of carbon and
oxygen, may be formed by burning charcoal;  but as it
exists in great abundance ready formed, it is not neces-
sary to have  recourse to this expedient.  All that is
necessary is to pour sulphuric acid, diluted with five
or six times its weight of water, on common chalk,
which is  a compound of carbonic acid and  lime.  An
effervescence ensues;  carbonic acid is evolved in the
state of gas, and may be received iu the usual manner.
  Carbonic acid abounds in great quantities in nature,
and appears to be produced in a variety of circum-
stances.  It composes  44-100th of the weight of  lime-
Btoue, marble, calcareous spar, and other natural spe-
cimens of calcareous earth, from which it may be ex-
tricated, either by the simple application of heat, or by
the superior affinity of some other  acid; most  acids
having a stronger action on bodies than this.  This
last process does not require heat, because fixed  air is
strongly disposed to assume the elastic state.   Water,
under the common pressure of the atmosphere, and at
a low temperature, absorbs somewhat more  than its
bulk of fixed air, and then constitutes a weak  acid. If
the pressure  be greater, the absorption is augmented.
It is to be observed, likewise, that more gas than water
will absorb should be present.  Heated water absorbs
less;  and if  water  impregnated with this  acid be
exposed  on a brisk fire, the  rapid escape of the aerial
hubbies affords an appearance as if the water were at
the point of boiling, when the heat is not greater than
the hand can bear.  Congelation separates it readily
and completely from water;  but no  degree of cold or
pressure  has yet exhibited this acid in a dense or con-
centrated state of fluidity.
  Carbonic acid gas is much denser than common air,
and for this reason occupies the lower parts of such
mines or caverns as contain materials which afford it
by decomposition. The miners call it choke-damp.
The Grotto del Cano, in the kingdom of Naples, has
been  famous  for  ages on account of the effects of a
stratum of  fixed air which covers its bottom.  It is a
cave or hole in the side of a mountain, near the lake
Aguano,  measuring  not more than  eighteen feet  from
its entrance to the inner extremity;  where if  a dog or
other animal that holds down its head be thrust, it is
immediately killed by inhaling this noxious fluid.
  Carbonic acid gas is emitted  in large quantities by
bodies in the  state of the vinous fermentation, and on
account  of its great weight, it occupies the apparently
empty space or upper  part of the vessels in which the
fermenting process is going on.  A variety of striking
experiments  may be made  in this  stratum of elastic
fluid.  Lighted  paper, or a candle dipped into it, is
immediately extinguished; and  the smoke remaining
in  tbe carbonic acid  gas  renders  its surface visible,
which may be thrown into waves by agitation like
water. If a dish of water be immersed in this gas, and
briskly agitated, it soon becomes impregnated, and ob-
tains the pungent taste of Pyrmont water.  In conse-
quence of the weight of the carbonic acid gas, it may
bo lifted out in  a  pitcher, or  bottle, which, if well
corked, may be used to convey it to great distances, or
it may be drawn out of a vessel by a cock like a liquid.
Tbe  effects produced  by pouring this invisible fluid
from one vessel  to another, have a very singular ap-
pearance:  if a candle or small animal be placed in a
deep vessel, tbe former becomes extinct, and the latter
expires in a few seconds, after the carbonic acid  gas is
poured upon  them, though the eye is incapable of dis-
tinguishing any thing that is poured. If, however, it be
poured into  a vessel  full of air, in the sunshine, its
density  being so much greater than  that  of the air,
 renders it slightly visible by the undulations and streaks
 it forms in this fluid, as it descends through it.
   Carbonic acid  reddens infusion  of litmus; but the
 redness  vanishes by exposure to tbe  air, as the acid
 flies off.   It has a peculiar  sharp taste, which may be
 perceived  over vats in which wine or beer is ferment-
 ing, as also in sparkling Champaign, and the brisker
 kinds of cider.  Light passing through it is  refracted
 by it, but does not effect any sensible alteration in it,
 though it appears, from experiment, that it favours the
 separation of its principles by other substances. It will
 not  unite with an overdose of oxygen, of which it
 contains 72  parts in  100, the other 28 being  pure car-
 bon. It not only destroys life, but the heart and muscle
 of animals killed by it lose all their irritability, so as to
 be insensible 10 the stimulus of galvanism.
       188
  Carbonic acid is dilated by heat, but not otherwise
altered by it.  It is  not acted upon by oxygen, or any
of the simple combustibles.  Charcoal absorbs it, but
gives it out again unchanged,  at ordinary tempera
tures; but when this gaseous acid is made to traverse
charcoal ignited in a tube, it is converted into carbonic
oxide. Phosphorus is insoluble in carbonic acid gas;
but,  as already observed, is capable of decomposing it
by compound affinity, when assisted by sufficient heat;
and Priestley and Cruikshank have shown that iron,
zinc, and several other metals, are capable of producing
the same effect.  If carbonic acid be mixed with sul-
phuretted, phosphuretted, or carburetted gas, it renders
them less combustible, or destroys their combustibility
entirely, but produces no other sensible change.  Such
mixtures occur in various analyses, and particularly in
the products  of the  decomposition of vegetable and
animal substances.  The inflammable air of marshes
is  frequently carburetted hydrogen intimately mixed
with carbonic acid gas, and the sulphuretted hydrogen
gas obtained from mineral waters is very often mixed
with it.
  Carbonic acid appears from various experiments of
Ingenhuosz to be of considerable utility in promoting
vegetation.  It is probably decomposed by tbe organs
of plants, its base furnishing part at least of the carbon
that is so abundant in the vegetable kingdom, and its
oxygen contributing to replenish the atmosphere with
that  necessary support of life,  which is continually
diminished by the respiration of animals and  other
causes.
  The most exact experiments on the neutral carbon-
ates  concur to prove, that the  prime equivalent of
carbonic acid is 2.75; and that it consists of one prime
of carbon=0.75+2.0 oxygen.
  Water absorbs about its volume of this acid gas, and
thereby acquires  a specific  gravity  of 1.0015.   On
freezing  it,  the gas  is as completely expelled as by
boiling.  By artificial pressure  with forcing  pumps,
water may be made to absorb two or three times its
hulk of carbonic acid.   When  there is also added a
little potassa or soda, it becomes the aerated or carbo-
nated alkaline water, a pleasant beverage, and a not
inactive remedy in several  complaints,  particularly
dyspepsia, hiccup, and disorders of the kidneys.  Al-
kohol condenses twice its volume of carbonic acid.
The  most beautiful analytical  experiment with car-
bonic acid, is the combustion of potassium in it, the
formation of potassa, and the deposition of charcoal.
  In point of affinity for the earths and alkalies, car-
bonic acid stands apparently low in the scale.  Before
its true nature was known, its compounds with  them
were not considered as salts, but as the  earths and
alkalies themselves, only distinguished by the names
of mild,or effervescent, from their qualities of effer-
vescing with acids, and wanting causticity.
  The carbonates  are characterized by  effervescing
with almost all the acids, even the acetic, when  they
evolve their gaseous acid, which,  passed into  lime
water by a tube, deprives it of its taste, and converts
it into chalk and pure water.
   The carbonate of barytes, found native in Cumber-
land, by Dr. Withering.  From  this circumstance it
has  been  termed Witherite.   It has  been likewise
called aerated heavy spar, aerated baroselenite, aerated
heavy earth or barytes, barolite, Sec
   Carbonate of strontian, found native in Scotland,
at Strontian in Argyllshire, and at Leadhills.
   Carbonate of lime exists in great abundance in na-
ture, variously mixed  with other bodies, under the
names of marble, chalk, limestone, stalactites, Sec. in
which it is of more important and extensive use than
any  other of the salts, except perhaps tbe muriate of
soda.
   The carbonate, or rather sub-carbonate of potassa,
was long known by the name of vegetable alkali.  It
was  also called fixed nitre, salt of tartar,  salt of
wormwood, Sec. according to the different modes in
which it was procured; and was supposed to retain
something of the virtues of the  substance from which
it was extracted.  This error has been sometime ex-
ploded, but the knowledge of its true nature is of more
recent date.
   As water at tbe  usual temperature of the  air dis-
solves rather more than its weight of this salt, we have
thus a ready mode of detecting its  adulterations in
general; and as it is often of consequence to know how 
CAR
CAR
much alkali a particular specimen contains, this may
be ascertained by the quantity of sulphuric acid it will
saturate.  This salt is deliquescent  It consists of 6
potassa+2.75 carbonic acid=8.75»
   The bi-carbonate of potassa crystallizes in square
prisms, the apices of which are  quadrangular  pyra-
mids.  It has a urinous but not caustic taste; changes
the syrup of violets  green:  boiling water dissolves
five-sixths  of its weight, and cold water one-fourth;
alkohol, even when  hot, will not dissolve more than
l-1200th.  Its specific gravity is 2.012.   When it is
very pure and well crystallized it effloresces on  expo-
sure to a dry  atmosphere, though it was formerly con-
sidered as deliquescent  It was thought that the com-
mon salt of tartar of the shops was a compound of this
carbonate and pure potassa;  the latter of which, being
very deliquescent, attracts the moisture of the air till
the whole is dissolved.  From its smooth feel, and the
manner in which it was prepared, the old chemists
called this solution oil of tartar per deliquium.
   The bi-carbonate of potassa melts with a  gentle
heat, loses  its water of crystallization, amounting to
9-100th, and  gives out a portion of its carbonic acid;
though no degree of heat will expel the whole of the
acid.  Thus, as the carbonate of potassa is always
prepared by incineration of vegetable substances, and
lixiviation, It must be  in the intermediate  state; or
that of a carbonate with excess of alkali: and  to ob-
tain the true  carbonate we must saturate this salt with
carbonic acid, which is best done by passing the acid
In the stale  of gas through  a solution of the salt in
twice its weight of water; or, if we want the potassa
pure, we must have recourse to lime, to separate that
portion of  acid which fire will not expel.
   The bi-carbonate, usually called super-carbonate by
the apothecaries, consists of  2 primes of carbonic acid
=5.500, 1 of potassa=6, and 1 of water=1.125, in all
12.625.
   The carbonate of  soda  has  likewise been long
known, and  distinguished from the preceding  by the
name of mineral alkali.  In commerce  it is usually
called barilla, ar soda;  in which state, however, it al-
ways contains a mixture of earthy bodies, and usually
common salt.  It may be purified by dissolving it in a
small portion of water, filtering  the solution, evapo-
rating at a low heat, and skimming off the crystals of
 muriate of soda as they form on its surface.  When
 these  cease  to form, the solution may be suffered to
cool, and the carbonate of soda will crystallize.
   It is found abundantly in  nature.  In  Egypt,  where
it is collected from the surface of the earth, particu-
larly after the desiccation of temporary lakes, it has
been known from time immemorial by the name of
nitrum, natron, or natrum.   A great deal is prepared
in Spain by incinerating the maritime plant of salsola;
and it is manufactured in this country, as well as in
Frawce, from different species of sea-weeds.   It is
likewise found in mineral  water,  and  also  in some
animal fluids.
   It crystallizes in Irregular or rhomboidal decaSdrons,
formed by two quadrangular pyramids, truncated very
near their bases.  Frequently it exhibits only rhomboi-
 dal laminae.   Its specific gravity is 1.3591.  Its taste is
 urinous, and slightly  acrid, without being caustic.  It
 changes blue vegetable colours to a green.  It is solu-
 ble in less than its weight of boiling water, and twice
its weight of cold.  It is one of the most efflorescent
salts known, falling completely to powder in no long
time.   On the application of heat it is soon rendered
fluid from the great quantity of its water of crystal-
lization ; but is dried by a  continuance of the heat,
and then melts.  It is somewhat more fusible than tbe
carbonate of potassa, promotes the fusion of earths in
a greater degree, and forms a glass of better quality.
Like that, it is very tenacious of a certain portion of
its carbonic acid.  It consists in its dry state of 4 soda,
+2.75 acid, =6.75.
   But the crystals contain  10 prime proportions of
water.  They  are composed of 22 soda, +15.3  car-
b.mit  acid, +C2.7 water in 100 parts, or of 1 prime of
soda =4.1  of carbonic acid =2.75, and  10 of  water
=11.25, iu whole 18.
   The bi-carbonate of soda  may be prepared  by sa-
turating the solution  of the preceding salt with car-
 bonic  acid gas, and then evaporating with a very gen-
tle heat to dryness,  when a white irregular  saline
 mass is obtained.  The salt  is  not crystallizable.   Its
constituents are  4 soda, +5.50  carb. acid,  +1.125
water, =10.625 ; or in 100 parts 37.4 soda,+52 acid.
+10.6 water.                            T     ^
  The carbonate of magnesia, in a state of imperfect
saturation with the acid, has been used  in medicine
for some time under  the  simple name of magnesia.
It is prepared by precipitation  from the  sulphate of
magnesia  by means of carbonate  of potassa.   Equal
parts of sulphate  of magnesia and carbonate of po-
tassa, each dissolved in  its  own  weight of boiling
water, are filtered and mixed together hot; the sulphate
of potassa is separated  by copious washing with wa-
ter; and the carbonate of magnesia is then  left to
drain, and afterward  spread  thin on paper, and car-
ried  to the drying stove.   When once dried it will be
iu friable white cakes, or a fine powder.
  To obtam carbonate of magnesia saturated with
acid,  a solution of sulphate of  magnesia  may be
mixed cold with a solution of carbonate of potassa;
and at the expiration of a few hours, as tbe superflu-
ous carbonic acid that held it in solution flies off, the
carbonate of magnesia will crystallize in very regular
transparent prisms of  six equal sides.   It may be
equally obtained by dissolving magnesia in water im-
pregnated with carbonic  acid, and exposing the solu-
tion to the open air.
  These crystals soon lose their transparency, and be-
come covered with a  white powder. Exposed to the
tire in a  crucible, they decrepitate slightly, lose their
water and acid, fall to powder, and  are reduced to one-
fourth of the  original weight   When  the common
carbonate  is calcined in  the grate, it  appears as if
boiling, from the extrication of carbonic acid; a small
portion ascends  like a vapour, and is deposited in a
white powder on the cold bodies with which it comes
into contact; and  in  a dark place, toward the  end of
the operation, it shines with a bluish phosphoric light.
It thus  loses half its  weight, and the magnesia is left
quite pure.
  As the magnesia nf the shops is sometimes adulte-
rated with chalk, this may be detected by the addition
of a  little sulphuric  acid diluted  with eight  or ten
times iu weight of water, as this will form with the
magnesia a very soluble salt, while the  sulphate of
lime  will remain  undissolved.  Calcined  magnesia
should dissolve in this dilute acid without any effer-
vescence.
  The crystallized carbonate dissolves in forty-eight
times its weight of cold water; the common carbonate
requires at least ten times as much, and first forms a
paste with a small quantity of the fluid.
   The carbonate of ammonia, once vulgarly known by
the name of volatile sal ammoniac, and abroad by that
of English volatile salt, because it was first prepared
in this  country, was  commonly called mild  volatile
alkali, before its true nature was known.
   When very pure it is in a  crystalline form, but sel-
dom very regular   Its crystals are so small, that it is
difficult to determine their figure.  The taste and smell
of this salt are the same with those of pure ammonia,
but much weaker.  It tu rns the colour of violets green,
and that  of tumeric brown.   It is soluble in rather
more than twice its weight of cold water, and in its
own  weight of hot water; but a boiling heat volati-
lizes it.  When pure, and thoroughly saturated, it is
not perceptibly alterable in the air; but when it has
an excess of ammonia, it softens and grows moist.  It
cannot be doubted, however, that it is soluble in air;
for if left in an open vessel, it gradually diminishes in
weight, and its  peculiar smell is diffused to a certain
distance.   Heat readily sublimes, but does not decom-
pose it
  It has been prepared by the destructive distillation
of animal substances, and some others, in  large iron
pots, with a fire increased by degrees to a strong red-
heat, the aqueous liquor  that first comes over being
removed, that the salt might not be dissolved in it
Thus we had the salt of hartshorn, salt of soot, essen-
tial salt of vipers, Sec  If the  salt were dissolved in
the water, it was  called spirit of the substance from
which it was obtained.  Thus, however, it was much
contaminated by a foetid animal oil, from which it re-
quired to  be subsequently purified, and  is much better
fabricated by mixing one part of muriate of ammonia
and two of carbonate of lime, both as dry as possible,
and subliming in an earthen retort.
  Sir H. Davy has shown that its component parts
                                         188 
CAR
CAR
tary, according to the manner of preparing it.  The
lower the temperature at which it is formed, the
greater the proportion of acid and water.  Thus, if
formed at the temperature  of 300°, it contains more
than fifty per cent, of alkali; if at 60°, not more than
twenty per cent
  There are three or four definite compoundsof carbo-
nic acid and ammonia.
  The first is  the solid sub-carbonate of the shops.  It
consists of 55 carbonic acid, 30 ammonia, and  15 wa-
ter ;  or probably of 3 primes carbonic acid, 5 ammo-
nia, and 2 water; in all 14.7 for its equivalent.
  2d, Cay Lussac  has shown  that when 100 volumes
of ammoniacal gas are mixed with 50 of  carbonic
acid, tile  two gases precipitate in a solid salt, which
must consist  by weight of 56 1-3 acid +43 2-3 alkali,
being in the ratio of a prime equivalent of each.
  3d, When the pungent sub-carbonate is exposed in
powder to the air, it becomes scentless by the evapo-
ration of a definite portion of this ammonia. It is then
a compound of about 55 or 56 carbonic acid, 21.5 am-
monia, and 22.5 water.  It may be represented  by 2
primes of acid, 1 of ammonia, and 2 of water, =9.875.
  Another compound, it has  been supposed, may be
prepared  by passing carbonic acid through a solution
of the sub-carbonate till it bo saturated. This, how-
ever, may be  supposed  to yield the same product as
the last salt.   Lussac infers  the neutral carbonate to
consist of equal volumes of the two gases, though they
will  not directly combine in these  proportions.  This
would give 18.1 to 46.5; the very proportions  in the
scentless salt.   For 46.5: 18.1: : 55: 21.42.
  It  is well known as a stimulant  usually put into
smelling-bottles, frequently with the addition of some
odoriferous oil.
  Fourcroy has found, that an ammoniaco-magnesian
carbonate is formed on some occasions.  Thus,  if car-
bonate of ammonia be decomposed by magnesia in
the moist way, leaving these two  substances in  con-
tact with each other in a bottle closely stopped, a com-
plete decomposition will not take place, but a portion
of this trisalt will be formed.  The same will take
place if a solution of carbonate of magnesia in water,
impregnated with carbonic  acid, be  precipitated by
pure ammonia; or if ammoniaco-magnesian sulphate,
nitrate, or muriate, be  precipitated by carbonate of
potassa or of soda.
  The  properties  of  this triple salt are  not  much
known, but it crystallizes differently from the carbo-
nate of either of its bases, and has its own laws of so-
lubility and decomposition.
  The carbonate of glucine is in a white, dull, clotty
powder, never dry, bat greasy, and soft to the feel. It
is not sweet, like the other salts of glucine, but insipid.
It is very light, insoluble in water, perfectly unaltera-
ble by the air, but very readily decomposed by fire.  A
saturated solution  of carbonate of ammonia takes up
a certain portion of this carbonate, and forms with it a
triple salt
  Carbonic acid does not appear to be much disposed
to  unite with argillaceous earth.   Most clays, how-
ever, afford a small quantity of this acid by heat.  The
snowy white substance,  resembling chalk, and known
by the name of lac luna,  its found to consist almost
wholly of alumina, saturated with carbonic acid.  A
saline substance, consisting of two six-sided pyramids,
joined at one common base, weighing five or six grains,
and of a taste somewhat resembling alum, was pro-
duced by leaving an ounce phial of water impregnated
with carbonic acid, and a redundancy of alumina, ex-
posed to spontaneous evaporation for some months.
  Vauquelin has found, that carbonate of zircone may
be formed by evaporating muriate of zircone,  redis-
solving it  in water, and precipitating by the  alkaline
carbonate.  He also adds, that it  very readily com-
bines, so  as to form a triple salt, with cither of tbe
three alkaline carbonates."—Ure's Chem. Diet.
  This gas is much esteemed in the cure of typhus
fevers, and of irritability and weakness of stomach,
producing vomiting.  Against the former diseases it is
given by  administering yest, bottled porter, and the
like; and for  the lauer  it  is disengaged from the car-
bonated  alkali  by lemon  juice, in a  draught given
While effervescing.
  CARBONIC OXIDE.  Gaseous oxide of carbon.
" A gaseous compound of one prime equivalent of car-
bon, and one of oxygen, consisting by weight of fl.75
     iUO
 of the former, and 1.00 ofthe latter.  Hence the prmw
 of the  compound is 1.75, the same as that of azote.
 This gas cannot be formed by the chemist by the direct
 combination of its  constituents;  for at the tempera-
 ture requisite for effecting a union, the carbon attracts
 its full dose of oxygen, and  thus generates carbonic
 acid.  It  may be procured  by exposing  charcoal to a
 long continued heat.  The last products eonsist chiefly
 of carbonic oxide.
   To obtain  it pure, however, our only plan is to ab-
 stract one proportion of oxygen from  carbonic acid,
 either in its gaseous state, or  as condensed  in the car-
 bonates.
   If we subject to a strong heat, in a gun barrel or re-
 tort, a  mixture of any dry earthy carbonate, such  as
 chalk, or carbonate of strontites, with  metallic filings
 or charcoal, the combined acid is resolved into  tile
 gaseous oxide of carbon.  The most convenient mix.-
 ture is  equal parts  of dried  chalk and iron, or zinc
 filings.
   The specific gravity of this gas is  stated by Gay
 Lussac and Thenard, from  theoretical considerations,
 to be 0.96782, though Mr. Cruikshanks's experimental
 estimate was 0.9569.
   This  gas burns with a dark blue flame.  Sir  H.
 Davy has shown, that though carbonic oxide, in its
 combustion, produces less heat than other inflamma-
 ble gases, it may be kindled  at a much lower tempera-
 ture.   It inflames in the atmosphere, when brought
 into contact with an  iron wire heated to dull redness,
 whereas carburetted hydrogen is not inflammable by a
 similar  wire, unless it is heated to whiteness, so as to
 burn with sparks. It requires, for its combustion, half
 its volume of oxygen gas, producing one volume  of
 carbonic acid.  It is  not decomposable by any  of the
 simple combustibles, except potassium and sodium.
 When  potassium is  heated in a portion of the gas,
 potassa is  formed with the  precipitation of charcoal,
 and the disengagement of heat and light.  Perhaps
 iron, at a  high temperature, would condense the oxy-
 gen and carbon hy  its strong  affinity  for these sub-
 stances. Water condenses l-50th of its bulkof thegas.
 The  above processes are those usually prescribed in
 our systematic works, for procuring the oxide of car-
 bon.   In some of them, a portion of carbonic acid is
 evolved, which may be withdrawn by  washing the
 gaseous product with weak solution of potassa,  or
 milk of lime.  We avoid the chance of this impurity
 by extricating the gas from  a  mixture of >dry carbon-
 ate of barytes and iron filings, or of oxide of  zinc, and
 previously  calcined  charcoal.  The gaseous product
 from the first mixture, is pure oxide of carbon.   Oxide
 of iron,  and pure barytes, remain in the retort.   Car-
 bonic oxide,  when respired, is fatal to animal life.
 Sir H. Davy took three inspirations of it, mixed with
 about one-fourth of common air; the effect was a tem-
 porary loss of sensation, which was succeeded by gid-
 diness, sickness, acute pains in different parts of the
 body, and  extreme debility.  Some days elapsed be-
 fore he entirely recovered.  Since then, Mr. Witter of
 Dublin was struck down in an apoplectic condition
 by breathing this gas; but he was speedily restored  by
the inhalation of oxygen.  See an  interesting accounl
of this  experiment,  by Mr. Witter, in the Phil Mae
vol. 43.                                        ^'
  When a  mixture of  it  and chlorine is exposed to
sunshine,  a curious  compound,  discovered by Dr.
John Davy, is formed, to which he gave the name of
phosgene gas.  It has been called chlorocarbonic acid,
though chlorocarbonous acid seems a more appropriate
name."—Ure's Chem. Diet.
  CARBUNCLE.   1.  The name of  a gem  highlj
 prized by the ancients, probably the atamandine, a va
 riety of  noble garnet
  2. The name of a disease.  See Anthrax.
  CARBU'NCULUS.  (Diminutive of carbo, a burn
 ing coal.)   A carbuncle.  See Anthrax.
  CARBURET.  Carburetum.   A  combination of
 charcoal with any other substance: thus carburetter
 hydrogen is hydrogen holding carbon in solution; car
 buretted iron is steel, &c.
  Carbi:ret of  sulphur.  Sulphuret  of carbon
 Alkohol of" sulphur.   " This interesting liquid was ori
 L'mally obtained by Lampadius in distilling a mixture
 ol pulverized pyrites and charcoal in an earthen re
 tort, and was considered by him  as  a  peculiar com
 pound of  sulphur and hydrogen.   But Clement and 
CAR
CAR
Deeormee first ascertained its true constitution to be
carburetted  sulphur ; and they invented a process of
great simplicity, for at once preparing it, and proving
its nature.   Thoroughly calcined charcoal is to be put
into a  porcelain tube, that traverses a furnace at a
slight angle of inclination.  To the higher end of the
tube, a retort of glass, containing sulphur, is luted;
and to  the lower end  is attached an  adopter tube,
which enters into a bottle with two tubulures, half full
of water, and surrounded with very cold water or ice.
From the other aperture of the bottle, a bent tube pro-
ceeds into the pneumatic trough.  When the porcelain
tube is brought into a state of ignition, heat is applied
to the sulphur, which  subliming  into the tube, com-
bines with the charcoal, forming the liquid carburet.
  The  carburet of sulphur dissolves  camphor.   It
does not unite with water; but very readily with alko-
hol and tether. With chloride of azot it forms a non-
detonating compound.  The waters of potassa, bary-
tes, and lime, slowly decompose it, with the evolution
of carbonic acid gas. It combines with ammonia and
lime, forming carbo-sulphurets.  The carburet, satu-
rated with ammoniacal gas, forms a yellow pulveru-
lent substance, which sublimes unaltered in close ves-
sels, but is so deliquescent that it cannot  be passed
from one vessel to another without absorbing moisture.
When heated in that state, crystals of hydrosulphuret
of ammonia form.   The compound with lime is made
by heating some quicklime in a tube, and causing the
vapour of carburet to pass through it.   The lime be-
comes incandescent at the instant of combination.
  When the carburet is left for some weeks in contact
with nitro-muriatic acid, it is converted into  a sub-
stance having very much the appearance and physical
properties of camphor;  being  soluble in alkohol and
oil, and insoluble  in water.   This substance is, ac-
cording to Berzelius, a triple  acid, composed of two
atoms of muriatic acid, one atom  of sulphurous acid,
and one atom of carbonic acid.   He calls it, muriatico-
sulphurous-carbonic acid.
  When potassium is heated in the vapour of the car-
buret, it burns with a reddish flame, and a black film
appears on the surface.  On admitting water, a green-
ish solution of sulphuret of potassa is  obtained, con-
taining a mixture of charcoal.  From its vapour pass-
ing through ignited muriate of silver,  without occa-
sioning any reduction of  the metal, it is demonstrated
that this carburet is destitute of hydrogen.
  When the compound of potassa, water, and carbu-
ret of sulphur, is added  to metallic solutions, precipi-
tates of a peculiar kind, called carbo-sulphurets, are
obtained.
  Carburet of sulphur was found by Dr. Brewster to
exceed all fluid bodies  in refractive power, and even
the solids, flint-glass, topaz, and tourmaline.  In dis-
persive power it iixceeds every fluid substance except
oil  of  cassia, hold-ng an intermediate place between
phosphorus and balsam of Tolu."—Ure.
  Carburetted hydrogen gas.   Carbonated hydro-
gen gas;  Heavy inflammable  air; Hydro-carbonate.
Olefiant gas.  Hydroguret of carbon.   " Of this com-
pound gas we have two species, differing in the  pro-
portions of the constituents.  The first, consisting of
1 prime equivalent of each, is  carburetted  hydrogen;
the second, of 1 prime of carbon, and 2 of hydrogen, is
subcarburetted hydrogen.
  1. Carburetted hydrogen, the percarburetted of  the
French chemists, is, according to Mr. Brande, the only
definite compound of these two elements.  To prepare
it, we mix, in a glass retort, 1 part of alkohol and 4 of
sulphuric acid, and  expose tbe  retort to a  moderate
heat.  The gas is usually received over water; though
De Saussure states, that this liquid absorbs more than
l-7th of its volume of the gas.  It is destructive of ani-
mal life.  Its  specific gravity  is  0.978, according to
Saussure.  100 cubic inches weigh 28.80 gr.  It pos-
sesses all the mechanical properties of air.  It is invi-
sible, and  void of taste and smell, when it has been
washed from a little asthereous vapour.  The effect of
heat on this gas is curious.  When  passed through a
porcelain tube, heated to a  cherry-red, it  lets fall a
portion of charcoal, and nearly doubles its volume.  At
a higher temperature it deposites more  charcoal, and
augments in bulk;  till finally, at the greatest heat to
which we can expose it, it lets fall almost the whole of
its carbon, and assumes a volume 3£ times greater than
it had at first   Theee remarkable results, observed
with  great care, have induced the illustrious Berthol-
let to conclude, with much plausibility, that hydrogen
and carbon combine in many successive proportions.
The transmission of a series of electric sparks through
this gas, produces a similar effect with that of simple
heat.
   Carburetted hydrogen bums with a splendid white
flame.  When mixed with three times its bulk of oxy-
gen, and kindled by a taper or the electric spark, it ex-
plodes with great violence.
   When this gas is mixed with  its own bulk of chlo-
rine,  the gaseous mixture is condensed over water into
a peculiar oily -looking compound. Hence this carbu-
retted hydrogen  was called by its discoverers, the  as
sociated Dutch chemists, olefiant gas.  Robiquet and
Colin formed this liquid in considerable quantities, by
making two currents of its constituent gases meet in a
glass  globe.  The olefiant gas should be in rather larger
quantity than the chlorine, otherwise  the liquid  be-
comes of a green colour, and acquires acid properties.
When it  is washed with water, and distilled off dry
muriate of lime,  it may be regarded as pure.  It is then
a limpid colourless essence of a pleasant flavour, and
a sharp, sweet, and not disagreeable taste.  At 45° its
specific gravity  is 2.2201.  Dr.  Thompson  calls this
fluid  chloric ather, and it may with  propriety, Mr.
Brande thinks, be termed hydro  chloride of carbon.
   Olefiant gas is elegantly analyzed by heating sulphur
in it over mercury.  One cubic inch of it, with 2 grains
of sulphur, yields 2 cubic inches  of sulphuretted hy-
drogen, and charcoal is deposited.  Now we know that
the latter gas contains just itsown volume of hydrogen,
  2.  Subcarburetted hydrogen.  This gas is supposed
to be procured in a state of definite composition, from
the mud or stagnant pools or ditches.  Wc have only
to fill a wide-mouthed goblet with water, and invert-
ing it in the ditch-water, stir the bottom with a stick.
Gas rises into the goblet.
  The fire-damp of mines is a similar  gas to that of
ditches.  There  is iu both cases an admixture of car-
bonic acid, which lime or potassa-water will remove.
A proportion of air is also present,  the quantity of
which can be ascertained by analysis.   By igniting
acetate of potassa in a gun-barrel, an analogous species
of gas is obtained.
  Subcarburetted hydrogen is destitute of colour, taste,
and smell.   It burns with a yellow flame, like that  of
a candle.
  As  the gas of ditches and the  choke-damp of mines
is evidently derived from the action of water on de-
caying vegetable or carbonaceous matter, we can un-
derstand that a similar product will be obtained by
passing water over ignited  charcoal, or by heating
moistened charcoal or vegetable matter in retorts.  The
gases are here, however,  a  somewhat complex mix-
ture,  as well as  what we obtain  by igniting pit coal
and wood in iron retorts.  The combustion of subcar-
buretted hydrogen with common air takes place only
when they are mixed in certain  proportions.  If from
6 to 12 parts of air be mixed with one of carburetted
hydrogen, we have  explosive mixtures.  Proportions
beyond these limits will not explode.  In like manner,
from  1 to 2A of oxygen must be mixed with one of the
combustible gas, otherwise we have no explosion. Sit
H. Davy says, that this gas  has a disagreeable empy-
reumatic smell,  and that water absorbs l-30tli of its
volume  of it."—Ure.
  CA'RCARUS. (From Kapxatpia, to resound.)  Car-
caros.  A fever  in which the patient has a continual
horror and trembling, with an unceasing sounding in
bis ears.
  Ca'rcax.   (From Kapa. a head.) A species of pop-
py, with a very large head.
  Ca'rckr.   A  remedy, according to Paracelsus, for
restraining the motions of body, the extravagant and
libidinous conversation in some disorders; as in Chorea
Sancti Vili, &c.
  Carche'sius.   (Kapxioios-  The openings at the
top of a ship's mast through which  the rope passes.) A
name of some bandages noticed  by  Galen,  and de-
scribed by Oribasius.
  CARCLNO'MA.   (Carcinoma, atis.n.  From/cap-
kivos,  a cancer.)  See Cancer.
  CARCINUS.  (Kupxivos, a cancer.)   Carcinos  See
Cancer.
  Cardama'ntica.  (From KapSauov, the nasturtium ;
A species of sciatica cresses. 
CAR
CAR
See Amomum granum

 See Illicium  Stella-
   Cardamile'ch.  A medicine of no note, mentioned
 By Galen.
   CARDAMINE.  (Cardamine es. f.; from KapSta,
 the heart; because it aits as a cordial and strengthener,
 or from its having the taste of cardamom, that is, nas-
 turtium, or cress.) Cuckoo-flower.  1. The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Te-
 tradynamia; Order, Siliquosa.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the cuckoo-flower.
 Bee Cardamine pratensis.
   Cardamine pratensis.  The systematic name  of
 the common ladies' smock, or cuckoo-flower, called
 cardamine in the pharmacopoeias.   Cardamantica;
 Nasturtium;  aquaticum;  Culifios; Iberis Sophia;
 Cardamine:—foliis pinnatis, foliolis, radicalibus sub-
 rotundis, caulinis lanceolatis of Linnaeus.  The flower
 has a place in the materia medica, upon the authority
 of Sir George Baker, who has published five cases, two
 of Chorea Sancti Viti, one of spasmodic asthma, one of
 hemiplegia, and a case of spasmodic affections of the
 lower limbs, wherein the flores cardamines were sup-
 posed to have been successfully used. A variety of
 virtues  have been  given to this plant, but it does not
 deserve the attention of practitioners.
   CARDAMO'MUM.  (From Kapdauov and  apwuov:
 because it partakes of the nature, and is like both the
 cardamuin and amomum.)   The cardamom.   See
 Amomum, Eleltaria, and Illicium.
   Cardamomum majus. See Amomum granum para-
 disi.
   Cardamomum medium.   The seeds correspond, in
 every respect, with tbe less, except  in being twice as
 long, but no thicker than the Cardamomum minus.
   Cardamomum  minus.   See  Elettaria cardamo-
 mum.
   Cardamomum piperatum.
 paradisi.
   Cardamomum siberiense
 turn.
   CA'RDAMUM.  (From KapSta, the heart; because
 it comforts and strengthens the heart.)  The carda-
 mum.   See Amomum, Eleltaria, and Illicium.
   CA'RDIA. (From Ktap, the heart.)  1. This  term
 was applied by the Greeks to the heart
   2. The superior  opening ofthe stomach.
   CARDI'AC.  (Cardiacus; from KapSta, the heart.)
 A cordial.  See Cordial.
   Cardiaca confectio.  See Confectio aromatica.
   Cardiaca herba. So named from the supposed re-
 lief it gives in faintings and  disorders ofthe stomach.
 The pharmacopceial name of the plant called Mother-
 wort See Leonurus cardiaca.
   Cardiaca passio. The cardiac passion.  Ancient
 writers frequently mention a disorder under this name,
 which consists of  that oppression and distress which
 often accompanies fainting.
  Cardiacus morbus.   A name by which  the an-
 cients called the typus fever.
  CARDIA'LGLV  (From KapSta, the  cardia,  and
 aXyos, pain.)  Pain at the stomach.  The heartburn.
 Dr. Cullen ranks it as a symptom of dyspepsia. Heart-
 burn is  an uneasy sensation in the stomach, with
 anxiety, a heat more or less violent, and sometimes at-
 tended with oppression, faintness, an inclination to
 vomit, or  a plentiful discharge of clear  lymph, like
 saliva.   This pain may arise from various and differ-
 ent causes; such as flatus; from sharp humours, either
 acid, bilious, or rancid; from worms gnawing and vel-
 licating the coats of the stomach; from acrid and pun-
gent food, such as  spices, aromatics, &c.; as also from
 rheumatic and gouty humours, or  surfeits; from too
 free a use of tea, or watery fluids relaxing the stomach,
 tec; from the natural mucus being abraded, particu-
 larly in the upper orifice of the stomach.
  Cardialgia sputatoria.  See Pyrosis.
  Cardime'lech.   (From icapSia, the heart, and me-
 leck, Heb. a governor.)  A fictitious term in Dolaeus's
 Encyclopedia, by wbich he would express a particular
 active principle  in the heart, appointed to what we
 call the vital functions.
  Cardimo'na.  Pain at the stomach.
  Cardinal flowers. See Lobelia.
  Cardiname'ntum.  (From cardo, a hinge.)  An ar-
ticulation like a binge.
  CARDIO'GML'S.  (From zcopo'iuo'c'ii), to have a pain
tn the stomach.)  L A diaf-essiiig pain at die praxor-
dia or stomach.
     Ib2
   2. An aneurism in or near the heart, which occa-
  sions pain in the praecordia.
   3. A  variety of the Exangia aneurisma of Good's
  nosological arrangement.
   CARDIO'NCHUS.  (From KapSta, the heart, and
  oyKos, a tumour.)  An aneurism in the heart, or in the
  aorta near the heart.
   Cardiotro'tus.    (From  KapSta, the heart,  and
  nrpoioKiii, to wound.)  One who hath a wound in his
  heart.
   CARDITIS.  (From KapSta, the heart.)   Empres-
  ma carditis of Good. Inflammation of the heart  It
  is a genus of disease arranged  by Cullen in  the class
  Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia.  It is known by py-
  rexia, pain in the region of the heart, great anxiety, diffi-
  culty of breathing, cough, irregular pulse, palpitation,
  and fainting, and the other symptoms of inflammation.
   The treatment of carditis  is, in a great measure,
 similar to that of pneumonia.  It is necessary to take
 blood freely, as well generally as locally, and apply  a
 blister near the part.  Purging may be  carried to  a
 greater extent than in pneumonia; and the use of di-
 gitalis is more important, to lessen the irritability of
 the heart.  It is equally desirable to promote diapho-
 resis, but expectoration is not so much  to be looked
 for, unless indeed, as very often happens, the inflam-
 mation should  have  extended, in some degree, to the
 lungs.
   Cardite.  See organic relics.
   CA'RDO.   A hinge.  1. The  articulation called
 Ginglymus.
   2. The second vertebra of the neck.
   Cardo'nium.  Wine medicated with herbs.—Para-
 celsus.
   Cardopa'tium. The low carline thistle.  Most pro-
 bably the Carlina acaulis of Linnaeus, said to be dia-
 phoretic.         ,,
   CA'RDUUS.  (A carere, quasi aptus carenda lana,
 being fit to tease wool; or from Kttpu, to abrade; so
 named from  its roughness, which  abrades  and  tears
 whatever it meets with.)  The thistle or teasel.  The
 name of a genus of  plants in the  Linnaean  system.
 Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   Carduus acanthus.  The bear's breech.
   Carduus altilis.  The artichoke.
   Carduus arvensis.  The way-thistle.  See Serra-
 tula arvensis.
   Carduus benedictus.  See Centaurea.
   Carduus hjemorriioidalis.  The common creep-
 ing way-thistle.  Serratula arvensis of Linnaeus.
   Carduus lacteus.  See Carduus marianus
   Carduus mari/e.   See Carduus marianus.
  Carduus marianus.  The systematic name of the
officinal  Carduus marie.   Common milk-thistle, or
 Lady's thistle.  Carduus : foliis amplexicaulibus, has ■
tato-pinnatifidis, spinosis; calycibus aphyllis; spinis
caliculalis, duplicato-spinosis, of Linnaeus.  The seeds
of this plant, and the herb, have been employed medi-
cinally.  The former contain a bitter oil, and  are re-
commended as relaxants.  The juice of the latter is
said to be salutary in dropsies, in  the dose of  four
ounces; and,  according to Miller, to be erncacioua
against pungent pains. The leaves when young sur
pass, when boiled, the finest cabbage, and  in that state
--- dit—
are diuretic
  Carduus sativus.
The artichoke.
   Carduus solstitialis.  The Calcitrapa officinalis
 of Linnaeus.
   Carduus tomentoscs.  The woolly thistle.  See
  Onopordium acanthium.
   CAREBA'RIA.  (From icapn, the head, and 0apos,
 weight)  A painful and uneasy heaviness of the head.
   CARE'NUM.  (From Kapn, the head.)  Galen uses
 this word for the head.
   Carenum vinum.  Strong wine.
   Careum.  (From Carta,  the country whence they
 were brought)  The caraway.
   CA'REX.   (Carex, ids, fcem. from careo, not quia
 viribus careat, but because, from its roughness, it is fit
 ad carendum, to card, tease, or pull.)  Sedge.   The
 name of a genus of plants in  the Linnsan system
 Class, Monacia; Order, Triandria.
   Carex arbm aria.  The systematic name of the ofB •
 cinal sarsaparilla germanica, which grows plentifully
 on the sea coast.  The root has been found serviceable
 in some mucal affections of the trachea, in rheumatic
I pains, and gouty affections.  These rooty, and those of 
CAR                                           CAR
the carex hirta, are mixed with the true sarsaparilla,
which they much resemble.
  CA'RICA.   (From  Carta,  the  place where they
were cultivated.)  The fig.  See Ficus carica.
  Carica pataya.  Papaw-tree.  This is a native of
both Indies, and  the Guinea coast of Africa.   When
the roundish fruit are nenrly ripe, the inhabitants of
India boil and eat them with their meat, as we do tur-
nips.  They have somewhat the flavour of a pompion.
Previous to boiling, they soak them for some time in
salt and water, to extract the corrosive juice, unless
the meat they are to be boiled with should be very salt
and old, and then this juice being in them, will make
them as tender as a chicken. But they mostly pickle the
long fruit, and thus they make no bad succedaneum for
mango.  The buds of the female flowers are gathered,
and made into a sweetmeat; and the inhabitants are
such good husbands of the  produce of this tree,  that
they boil the shells of the ripe fruit into a repast and
the insides are eaten with sugar in the manner of me-
lons.  Every part of the papaw-tree, except the ripe
fruit, affords a milky juice, which  is used, in the Isle
of France, as an  effectual remedy for the tape-worm.
In Europe, however, whither it has been sent in the
concrete state, it  has not answered, perhaps from some
change it had undergone, or not having been given in
a sufficient  dose.
  A very remarkable  circumstance regarding the pa-
paw-tree, is the extraction from its juice of a matter
exactly resembling  the flesh or fibre of animals, and
fence called vegetable fibrin.
  Caricum.  (From Caricus, its inventor.)  Carycum.
An ointment for cleansing  ulcers,  composed of helle-
bore, lead, and cantharides.
  CA'RIES.   (From  carah, Chald.)  Gangrena Ca-
ries of Good.   Rottenness, mortification of the bones
  [Cooper derives caries from  Keipio, to abrade.  "It
is a disease of the bones, supposed to be very analo-
gous to ulceration of the soft parts; and this compa-
rison is one of great antiquity, having been made by
Galen.  However,  by the generality of. the ancients,
Caries was not discriminated from necrosis.
  " It was from the surgeons of the eighteenth century
that more  correct opinions  were derived  respecting
caries.  Until this period, writers haddone little more
than mentioning the complaint, and the methods of
treating  it.  Some new light, was thrown upon the
subject by J.  L.  Petit, in his remarks upon exostosis
and caries.   But, as he only spoke of the disorder as
one ofthe terminations of exostosis, he has not entered
far into the consideration of it.   The best observations
on caries were first made by Dr. A. Monro,  primus.
This memoir contains tbe earliest correct ideas of dry
caries, or necrosis, which is rightly compared to mor-
tification of the soft  parts, and named gangrenous
caries.                        ....
   "The  bones, like other parts of the body, are com-
posed of arteries, veins, absorbent vessels, nerves, and
a cellular texture; they are endued with vitality ; they
are nourished, they grow, waste,  are repaired, and
undergo various  mutations, according to the age of the
individual, and they are subject to diseases analogous
to those of the soft parts.  To the phosphate of lime,
which is more or less distributed in their texture, they
owe all their solidity; and, perhaps, it is to the same
earthy substance that  the difference in their vital pro-
perties, and in their diseases, from those ofthe rest of
the body, is lo be referred.   In fact, this particular or-
ganization, and inferior vitality ofthe bones, are gene-
rally supposed to account for the small number, pecu-
liar character, and general slow progress of their dis-
eases."— Cooper's Surg. Diet.  A.]
   Cari'ma.  The cassada bread.
   CARI'NA.  The keel of a  ship.  1. A name for-
merly applied to the nack bone.
   2. In botany,  the keel,  or that part  of the petals
which compose a papilionaceous flower, consisting of
two, united or separate, which embrace the  internal
or genital organs.  See Corolla.
   CARINATUS.  Keel-shaped ; applied to leaves and
petals when the back is longitudinally prominent like
the keel of a boat;  as in the leaf of the Allium cart-
natum, and t*\e  petals of tbe Allium ampellprasum
Carum earn-
   CARINTHINE.  A subspecies of mineral atigite
found in Carinlhia.
   CARIOUS. When a part of a bene  is deprived of
 its vitality, it  is said  to be carious, dead,  or rottem
 hence carious tooth, &c.
   Ca'rium terra.  Lime.
   Carivilla'ndi.  Sarsaparilla root.
   CARLI'NA.  (From Carolus, Charles the Great, or
 Charlemagne; because it was believed that an angel
 showed it lo him, and that, by the use of it, his army
 was preserved from the plague.) Carline thistle.  The
 name of a genus of plants in the Linn.-nan  system.
 Class, Syngenesia;  Order, Polygamia equalis.  The
 officinal name of two kinds of plants.
   Carlina acaulis.   The systematic name of the
 chameleon album.  Carlina;  Cardopatium.  Carline
 thistle.  Star  thistle.  Carlina—caule unifioro, fiore
 breviore, of Linnaeus.   The root of this plant is bitter,
 and said to  possess diaphoretic  and  anthelmintic
 virtues.  It is also extolled by foreign physicians in
 the cure of acute,  malignant, and chronic disorders,
 particularly gravel and jaundice.
   Carlina oummifera. Carduus pinea; Ixine.  Pine
 thistle.  This  plant is the Atractylis gummifera of
 Linnaeus.  The  root, when wounded, yields a milky,
 viscous juice,  which concretes into tenaceons masses,
 at first whitish,  resembling wax, when much handled
 growing black;  it is said to be chewed with the same
 views as masticb.
   Carline thistle.  See Carlina acaulis.
   Ca'rlo sancto radix.  St. Charles's root, so called
 by the Spaniards, on account of its great virtues.   It is
 found in  Mechoachan, a  province in America. Its
 bark hath an aromatic flavour, with a biuer acrid
 taste.  The root itself consists of slender fibres.  The
 bark is sudorific, and strengthens the gums and sto-
 mach.
   CA'RMEN.   (Carmen,  inis.  neut.  A verse; be-
 cause charms usually consisted of a verse.)  A charm;
 an amulet.
   Carmes. (The  Carmelite friars, Fr.)  Carmelite
 water; so named from its inventors;  composed of
 baum, lemon-peel, &c.
   Carmina'ntia.  See Carminative.
   CARMI'NATIVE.   (Carminativus ; from  carmen.
 a verse, or charm ; because practitioners,  in ancient
 times, ascribed their operation to a charm or enchant-
 ment.)   That which allays  pain and dispels flatu-
 lencies of the prims viae.   The principal carminatives
 are the semina cardamomi, anisi et carui; olea essen-
 tialia carui, anisi et  juniperi; confectio aromatica:
 pulvis aromaticus;  tinctura cardamomi; tinctura Cin-
 namomi  composita;  zingiber;  stimulants;   tonics;
 bitters; and astringents.
   CARMINE.  A red  pigment  prepared from cochi-
 neal.
   CARMINIUM. The name given by the French
 chemists  to the colouring matter of'cochineal.   See
I Coccus cacti.
   Carnaba'dium.  Caraway-seed.
   CA'RNEA COLUMNA. A flesbypillaror column.
| The name of some fleshy fasciculi in the ventricles of
 the heart.  See  Heart.
   CARNELIAN.  A subspecies of calcedony.
   CARNICULA.  (Diminutive of caro, earnis,flesh.)
 A small fleshy  substance; applied to the substance
 which surrounds the gums.
   CARNIFO'RMIS.   (From  caro, flesh, and forma,
 likeness.)  Having the appearance of flesh.  It is com-
 monly applied to an abscess, where the flesh surround-
 ing the orifice is hardened, and of a firm consistence.
   CARNOSUS. Fleshy;  applied to loaves, pods, &c.
 of a thick pulpy substance; as in the  leaves of all
 those plants called succulent, especially cedum eras-
 sula, Sec.
   CA'RO.  (Caro, earnis. fcem.)  1. Flesh. The red
 part or belly of a muscle.
   2. The pulp of fruit.
   Carou na.   See Carlina.
   CAROMEL.  The smell exhaled from sugar at the
 calcining heat
   CaRo'pi. The Amomum verum.
   Caro'ra.   A chemical vessel that  resembles  a
 urinal.
   Caro'sis.   See Cams.
   CARO'TA.   See Daucus,
   CAROTID.   (From Kaposi, to  cause to  sleep; be-
 cause,  If tied witli a  ligature, tbe animal becomes
 comatose, and has the appearance of betog asleep)
i An arterv of the netk   See Carotid artery.
                                        193 
CAR
CAR
   Carotid artery.  Arteria carotidca.   The caro-
 tids are two considerable arteries that proceed, one on
 each side ofthe cervical vertebrae, to the head, to sup-
 ply it with  blood.  The right carotid does not arise
 immediately from the arch of the aorta, but is given
 off from the arteria innominata.  The left arises from
 the arch of the  aorta.   Each carotid is divided  into
 external and internal, or that portion without and that
 within the cranium.   The external gives off eight
 branches, to the neck and  face, viz. anteriorly, the su-
 perior thyroideal, the sublingual, the inferior maxil-
 lary, the external maxillary ; posteriorly, the  internal
 maxillary, the occipital, the external auditory,  and the
 temporal.  The  internal carotid or cerebral artery,
 gives off four branches within the cavity ofthe crani-
 um ;  the anterior  cerebral, the posterior, the  cential
 artery ofthe optic nerve, and the internal orbital.
   Caro'um. The caraway-seed.
   CA'KPASUS.  (So named zzapa ro xapov noinoat:
 because it makes the person who eats it appear as if
 he was asleep.)  An herb, the juice of which was for-
 merly called opocarpason, opocarpathon, or opocalpa-
 son;  according to Galen, it resembles myrrh; but is
 esteemed highly  poisonous.
   Carpa'thicum balsamum.  See Pinus Cembra.
   Carpentaria.  (From  carpentarius, a  carpenter;
 and so named from its virtues  in  healing cuts  and
 wounds made by a tool.)  A vulnerary herb; not pro-
 perly known what it is, but believed to be the common
 milfoil or yarrow, the Achillea millifolium of Linnaeus.
   CARPHA'LEUS.   (From  Kapipu), to exsiccate.)
 Hippocrates uses this word to mean dry, opposed to
 moist.
   CARPHOLO'GIA.   (From  Kapifios,  the nap  of
 clothes, and Xtyu>,  to pluck.)   Carpologia.  A deliri-
 ous picking of the bed-clothes,  a symptom of great
 danger in diseases.  See Floccilatio.
   CA'RPHUS.  (From Kaptbn, a straw.)  1. In Hip-
 pocrates it signifies a mote, or any small substance.
   2. A pustule of the smallest kind.
   3. The herb fenugreek.
   CA'RPIA.  (From carpo, to pluck, as lint is made
 from linen cloth.)  Lint.
   Carpi'smus.   The wrist.
   CARPOBA'LSAMUM.   (From  xapnos, fruit, and
 BaXc/auov, balsam.)  See Amyris gileadensis.
   CARPI >LO'GIA.  See Carphologia.
   CARPOTICA.  (Carpolicus ; from Kapmoais, frui-
 tio, from Kapnots, fructus.)   The  name of an order of
 diseases in  the class Genetica of Good's  Nosology;
 diseases afflicting the impregnation.   It embraces four
 genera. 1.  Paracyesis, morbid pregnancy.  2. Paro
 dyniu, morbid labour.  3. Eccyesis, extra uterine  fce-
 tation.  4. Pseudocyesis, spurious pregnancy.
   CA'RPUS.  (Kapiros, the wrist.)  The wrist, or
 carpus. It is situated between the forearm and hand.
 See Bone.
   CARROT.  See Daucus carota.
   Carrot, candy.  See Athamanta Cretcnsis.
   Cai-rotpoultice.  See Cataplasma  dauci.
   CARTHAMUS.  (From KaBatpui, to purge.)  1. The
 name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaean system.
 Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia equalis.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the saffron flower.
 See Carthamus tinctorius.
   Carthamus tinctorius.   The  systematic name
 of the saffron flower, or bastard saffron, called also
 Cnicus; Crocus saracenicus ; Carthamum officinarum;
 Carduus sativus.  Carthamus—foliis ovatis, intcgris,
 serralo-aculeatis of Linnaeus.  The seeds, freed from
 their shells, have been celebrated as a gentle cathartic,
 111 the dose  of one or two drachms. They are also
 supposed to be diuretic and expectorant; particularly
 useful in humoral asthma, and  similar complaints.
 The carthamus lanatus is considered in France as a
 febrifuge and sudorific.  The dried  flowers are fre-
 quently mixed with saffron, to adulterate it   The
 plant is cultivated in many places on account of its
 flowers, which are used as a dye.
  " In some of the deep reddish, yellow, or orange-
coloured flowers, the yellow matter seems to be of the
same kind with that of the pure yellow flowers; but
tlie red to be of  a  different kind from the pure red
ones.   Watery menstrua take up only the yellow, and
leave the red, which may afterward be  extracted by
alkohol, or by a weak solution  of alkali.  Such par-
ticularly arc the safliou-coloured flowers of carthamus.
 These, after the yellow matter has been extracted b*
 water, are said to give a tincture to Icy; from which',
 on standing at rest for some  time, a deep red fecula
 subsides called safflower, and from  the countriif
 whence it is commonly brought to us, Spanish red ani
 China lake.  This pigment impregnates alkohol with
 a beautiful red tincture ; but communicates no colour
 to water.
   Rouge is prepared from carthamus.  For this pur-
 pose the red colour is extracted by a solution of the
 subcarbonate of soda, and  precipitated by lemon  juice
 previously depurated by standing.   This precipitate is
 dried on earthen  plates, mixed with  talc, or French
 chalk, reduced to a powder by means of the leaves of
 shave-grass, triturated wilh it  till they are both very
 fine, and then sifted.  The fineness of the powder and
 proportion of the precipitate constitute the difference
 between the finer and cheaper rouge.   It is likewise
 spread very thin on saucers, and sold iu this state for
 dying.
   Carthamus is used for dying silk of a poppy, cherry,
 rose, or bright  orange-red.   After  the  yellow matter
 is extracted as above, and the cakes opened, it is put.
 into  a deal trough, and  sprinkled  at different times
 with pearl ashes, or rather soda, well powdered and
 sifted, in the proportion of six pounds to a hundred,
 mixing the alkali well as it is put in. The alkali
 should be saturated with carbonic acid.   The cartha-
 mus  is then put on a cloth in a trough  with a grated
 bottom, placed on a larger trough, and cold water poured
 on, till the large trough is filled.   And this is repeated,
 with the addition  of a little more  alkali toward the
 end, till the carthamus is exhausted and become yellow.
 Lemon juice is then poured into  the  bath, till  it  is-
 turned of a fine cherry colour, and after  it is  well
 stirred, the silk  is immersed in it.  The silk is wrung,.
 drained, and passed through fresh baths, washing and'
 drying after  every operation, till  it is of a  proper
 colour; when it is briglitened in not water, and lemon
 juice. For a  poppy or fire colour a  slight annotto
 f round is first given; but the silk should not be alumcd.
 'or a pale carnation a little soap should be put into
 the bath.  All these baths must be used as soon as
 they are made; and cold, because  heat destroys tht
 colour of the red fecula:."
  CARTHEUSER, John Frederick, a professor of
 medicine at Francfort, on the Oder,  acquired consider-
 able reputation about the middle of the last century,
 by several luminous works  on botany and pharmacy;
 especially his " Rudiiucnta Materia; Medicic Rationa-
 lis," and " De Geuericis quibusdam Piantarum Prin-
 cipiis."  He had two sons, Frederick  Augustus and
 William, also of the medical profession, and authors
 of some less important works.
  Cartuusia'nus.  (From the  monks  of that order,
 who  first invented it.)  A  name of the precipitated
 sulphur of antimony.
  CARTILAGE.  See Cartilago.
  CARTILAGINEUS.  Cartilaginous.   1.  Applied,
 in anatomy, to parts which naturally, or from disease,
 have a cartilaginous consistence.
  2. In botany,  to leaves which have a hard or horny
 leaf-edge, as in several species of saxifrage.   See Leaf.
  CARTILA'GO.    (Cartilago, inis. firm.   Quasi
 carnilago ; from caro, earnis, flesh.)  A white elastic,
 glistening substance, growing to bones, and commonly
 called gristle.   Cartilages are divided, by anatomists,
 into obduccnt, which cover the moveable articulations
 of bones; inter-articular, which are situated between
 the articulations, and uniting cartilages, which unite
 one bone with another.  Their use  is to facilitate the
 motions of bones, or to connect them together.
  The chemical analysis of cartilage affords one-third
 the weight of the bones, when the calcareous salts are
removed by digestion in dilute muriatic acid.  It re-
sembles coagulated albumen.  Nitric acid converts it
into gelatin. With alkalies it forms an animal soap.
Cartilage is the  primitive paste, into which  ihe calca-
reous salts are deposited in the young animal.  In the
disease rickets, the earthy ma'ter  is withdrawn by
morbid absorption, and the bones return into the state
nearly of flexible cartilage.  Hence arise the diswr
tions characteristic of this disease.
  Cartilaoo annularis.   See Cartilago cricoidea.
  Cartilaoo ARKT.r.noidea.  See Larynx.
  Cartilaoo cricoidea.   The cricoid cartilage  be
longs to the larynx, and is situated between the thyroid 
CAR
CAS
 and arytenoid cartilages  and the trachea;  it consti-
 tutes, as it were, the basis of the many annular carti-
 lages of the Irachea.
   Cartilaoo ensiformis.  Cartilagoxiphoidea.  En-
 siform  cartilage.  A cartilage shaped somewhat like
 a sword or  dagger, attached to the lowermost part of
 the sternum, just at the pit of the stomach.
   Cartilaoo scutiformis.  See Thyroid cartilage.
   Cartilago thyroidea.  See Thyroid cartilage.
   Cartilaoo xiphoidea.  See Cartilago ensiformis.
   CA'RUI.   (Caruia. Arabian.)  The caraway.  See
 Oorum.
   CA'RUM. (Kapos; so named  from Caria,  a  pro-
 vince of Asia.)  The Caraway.  1. The name of a
 genus of plants  in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pen-
 landria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the caraway plant.
 See Carum carui.
   Carum carui.  The systematic name for the plant,
 the seeds of which are  called caraways.  It is  also
 called  Carvi; Cuminum pratense;  Carus; Caruon.
 The seeds are well known to have a pleasant spicy
 smell, and a warm aromatic taste;  and, on this ac-
 count, are used for various economical purposes. They
 are esteemed to be carminative, cordial, and stomachic,
 and recommended in dyspepsia, flatulencies, and other
 symptoms attending hysterical and  hypochondriacal
 disorders.  An essential  oil and distilled water are
 directed to be  prepared  from thein by  the London
 College.
   CA'RUNCLE.  (Caruncula; diminutive of caro,
 flesh.)   Ecphynia caruncula of Good.  A little fleshy
 excrescence; as  the caruncula; myrtiformes, carun-
 cula; lachrymales, &c.
   CARUNCULA.  See Caruncle.
   Caruncula lachrymalis.  A long conoidal gland,
 red externally,  situated  in the internal  canthus of
 each eye, before the union of the  eyelids.  It appears
 to be formed of numerous  sebaceous glands, from
 which many small hairs grow. The hardened smegma
 observable in this part of the eye in the morning, is
 separated by this caruncle.
   Carunculje mamillares.   The extremities of the
 tubes in the  nipple.
   Carunculje myrtiformes.  When the hymen has
 been lacerated by attrition, there remain  in  its place
 two, three, or four caruncles, which have received the
 name of myrliform.
   Carunculje papill.vres. The protuberances within
 the pelvis of the kidney, formed by the papillous sub-
 stance ofthe kidney.
   Ca'ruon.   See Carum.
   CA'RUS.   (Kapos;  from Kapa, the head,  as being
 the part affected.)  Caros; Carosis.  1.  Insensibility
 and sleepiness, ns  in  apoplexy, attended with quiet
 respiration.
   2. A lethargy, or a profound sleep,  without fever.
   3. Dr. Good gives this name to a genus  in his Noso-
 logy, embracing those  diseases characterized by mus-
 cular immobility; mental or corporeal torpitude, or
 both. It has six species; Cirus asphyxia; ccstasis;
 catatepsia; lethargus; apoplexia; paralysis.
   4. The caraway seed.
   Ca'rva.  The cassia lignea.
   Cary'don. See  Caryedon.
   Carye'don.  (From irapua, a nut.)  Carydon.  A
 eort of  fracture, where the bone is broken into small
 pieces, like the shell of a cracked nut.
   Caryocosti'num.  An electuary;  so named from
 two of its ingredients, the clove and costus.
   CARYOPHYLLATA.   (From <rapuo0uXXov,  the
 caryophyllus;  so named,  because it smells like the
 caryophyllus, or clove July  flower.)  See Geum ur-
 banum.
  Caryophylloi'des cortex. See Laurus culilawan.
  CARYOPHY'LLCM.   (Kapuo^oXXov; fromicapuov,
 a nut, and tbvXXov, a leaf; so named because it  was
 supposed to be tbe leaf of the Indian nut.)  The clove.
 See Eugenia caryophyllata.
  Cartophtllum aromaticum.  See Eugcniacaryo-
phyllata.
  Caryophillum rubrum.  The clove  pink.   See
 Dianthus caryophyllus.
  CARYOPHY'LLUS.  The clove-tree.  The name
of a ecnus of plants in the Liniuean system.  Class, I
Poluandria ; Ordvr, Monogynia.  See Eugenia caro-
 ikillata.                                        j
  Caryophyllus  aromaticus americanus.   Sea
Myrtus pimento.
  Caryophyllus hortensis.  See Dianthus caryo-
phyllus.
  Caryophyllus vulgaris.   See Geum urbanum.
  Caryo'ti3.  (From Kapvov, a nut.) Caryota, Galen
gives this name to a superior sort of date, of the shape
of a nut.
  CASCARI'LLA.  (Diminutive of cascara,  the
bark, or shell.  Spanish.)  A  name given originally
to small specimens of cinchona; but now applied to
another bark.  See Croton cascarilla.
  Cas'chu.  See Acacia catechu.
  Cashew-nut.  See Anacardium occidentals
  Cashow.  See Acacia catechu.
  CASEIC ACID.  Acidum  caseicum.  The name
given by Proust to an acid formed in cheeses, to which
he ascribes their flavour.
  Ca'sia. See Cassia.
  Casmina'ris.  See Cassumuniar.
  Ca'ssa. (Arabian.)  The breast.
  CASSA'DA. See Jatropha manihot.
  Ca'ssamum.  The fruit ofthe balsam of Gilead-tree,
or Amyrus opobalsamum.
  Ca'ssava.  See Jatropha manihot.
  CASSEBOHM, Frederic, a professor of anatomy
at Halle iu Saxony, published, in 1730, a treatise on the
difference between the Fcetus and Adult, in which lie
notices the descent of the testicle from the abdomen .
and, four years after, a very minute and exact descrip
tion of the ear.  He likewise explained, in subsequent
publications, the manner of dissecting the muscles and
the viscera;  hut an early death prevented his com-
pleting his design of elucidating the anatomy of the
whole body in the same way.
  CASSERIUS, Julius, was born of humble parents
at Placentia, in 1545.  He became servant to Fabri-
cius at  Padua, who, observing his  talent, first taught
him anatomy, then made him his assistant, and finally
coadjutor in the professorship in 1609.  He  pursued
the study with uncommon zeal, expending almost all
his profits in procuring subjects, and in having draw-
ings and prints made of the parts, which he discovered,
or traced more accurately than his predecessors.   He
employed comparative anatomy, not as a substitute
for, but only as a  clue to that  of the human subject.
He published an account of the organs of voice and
hearing, which he afterward  extended to the other
senses, explaining also the uses of these parts. Some
years after his death, in 1616, the  rest of his plates,
amounting to  78, with the explanations, were pub-
lished with the works of Spigelius.
  CA'SSIA.  (From the Arabic katsia, which is from
katsa,  to tear off; so called from the act of stripping
the bark from  the tree.)  The name of  a genus of
plants in the Linnaean  system.   Class, Decandria;
Order,  Monogynia.
  Cassia bark.  See Laurus cassia.
  Cassia  caryophyllata.   The clove bark tree
See Myrtus caryophyllata.
  Cassia fistula.  Cassia nigra; Cassiafistularis ;
Alexandrina;  Chaiarxambar; Canna; Cassia solu-
liva; Tlai Xicm.  The purging cassia.  This tree,
Cassia—foliis quinquejugis ovatis acuminatis gla-
Oris, petiolis eglandulatis of Linnaeus, is a native of
both Indies.   The  pods of the East India cassia  are
of a less diameter, smoother,  and afford a  blacker,
sweeter, and more grateful pulp, than those which are
brought from the West Indies.  Those pods which are
the heaviest, and in which the seeds do not rattle on
being shaken, are commonly the best, and contain the
most pulp, which is the part  medicinally employed,
and  to  be obtained in the manner described in  the
pharmacopoeias.  The best pulp is of a bright shining
black colour, and of a sweet taste, with a slight degree
of acidity. It has been long used as a  laxative medi-
cine, and being gentle in its operation, and seldom dis-
turbing the bowels, is well adapted to children, and to
delicate or pregnant women.   Adults, however, find
it of little effect, unless taken in a very large dose, as
an ounce or more; and, therefore, to them this pulp is
rarely given,  but usually conjoined with some of the
brisker purgatives.  The officinal  preparation of this
drug is the confectio cassia;; it is also an ingredient in
the confectio sennas.
  Cassia fistulap.13.   See Cassia fiitula.
  Cas.-ia LATitiOF.uM.  See Osyris.
                                       105 
CAS
CAT
  Cassia lionea.  See Laurus cassia.
  Cassia monspeliknsium.  See Osyris.
  Cassia nigra.  See Cassia fistula.
  Cassia poktica.  Poet's rosemary;  a plant which
grows in the south of Europe, aud is said to be astrin-
gent.  See Osyris.
  Cassia, purging.  See Cassia fistula.
  Cassia senna.  The systematic name of the plant
which  affords senna.   Senna alexandrina;  Senna
italica.  Senna, or Egyptian cassia.  Cassia—foliis
sejugis subovatis, petiolis  eglandutatis of Linnaeus.
Titeleaves  of senna, which an; imported here from
Alexandria, for medicinal use, have rather a disagree-
able smell,  and a subacrid, bitterish, nauseous taste.
They are in common use as a purgative.  The formula;
given of the senna by the colleges, are in infusion, a
compound powder, a tincture, and an electuary.  See
Infusum senna, Sec.
  Cassia solutiva.  See Cassia fistula.
  Cassia Marylandica.  See American senna.
  Cassije aramentum.  The pulp of cassia.
  Cassije flores.  What are called  cassia  flowers
In the  shops,  are the flowers of the true cinnamon-
tree, Laurus cinnamomum of Linnams.   They possess
aromatic and adstringent virtues, and may be success-
fully employed in decoctions, &c. in all cases where
cinnamon is  recommended.  See Laurus cinnamo-
mum.
  C ass i.c pulp a. See Cassia fistula
  Cassius's Precipitate.  The purple powder, which
forms on a plate of tin immersed in a solution of gold.
It is used to paint in enamel.
  Ca'ssob.  An obsolete term for kali.
  Cassoleta.  Warm fumigations described by Mar-
cellus.
  Cassonada.  Sugar.
  CASSUMMU'NL^R.  (Of  uncertain derivation;
perhaps Indian.)  Casamunar; Casmina; Risagon;
Bengale Indorum. The root, occasionally exhibited
under one of these names, is brought from the East
Indies.  It  comes over in irregular  slices of various
forms,  some  cut transversely, others  longitudinally.
The cortical  part is marked with circles of a dusky
brown colour:  the internal part is paler, and une-
qually yellow.  It possesses moderately warm, bitter,
and aromatic qualities, and a smell like ginger.  It is
recommended in hysterical, epilectic, and paralytic
affections.
  CASTA'NEA.  (Kas-avov; from Castana,  a city in
Thessaly, whence they were brought.)  See Fagus
castanea.
  Castanea  equina. The horse-chesnut. SeeJEscu-
lus hippocastanum.
  CASTELLANUS, Pkter, or Du  Chatel, was
born at Grammont, in Flanders, in 1585.  His rapid
improvement in the Greek language procured him the
professorship, at Lovain, in 1609; but he did not gra-
duate in medicine till nine years after.   At the same
period, he published the lives of eminent physicians
in  Latin, written in a concise but very entertaining
manner, with useful references to the original  authori-
ties.  He died in 1632.
  CASTELLUS, Bartholomew, an  Italian physi-
cian, who practised at Messina about the end of the
16th century.   He was author of two works, both for
a long time extremely popular, a Synopsis of Medi-
cine,  and  " Lexicon Medicum  Grfeco-Latinum," in
which gceat  learning and  judgment are conspicuous.
  Castjoe.  See Acacia catechu.
  CASTLE-LEOD.  The name of a place in Ross-
shire, in Scotland, where there is a sulphureous spring,
celebrated  for the cure of cutaneous diseases  and foul
ulcers.
   CASTOR.    (Castor:  from  Ka?wp, the   beaver,
quasi  yastap; from ya$rip, the belly,  because of tbe
largeness of its belly;  or u castrando, because he was
said to castrate himself in order to escape the hunters.)
  1. The name of a genus of animals.
  2. The English name of  the Castorevm ofthe phar-
macopoeias, a peculiar concrete substance obtained
from the Castor fiber of Linnaeus.   See Castor fiber.
   Castor  fiber.  The systematic name of  the bea-
ver, an amphibious quadruped inhabiting some parts
of Prussia, Russia, Germany, &c.; but the  greatest
number of these animals is met with in Canada.' The
name  of castoreum, or castor, is given to two bags,
situated in the  inguinal regions of the beaver, which
       19C                                 '
contain  a  very odorous substance, soft, and almost
fluid when recently cut from the animal, but wbich
dries, and  assumes a  resinous consistence in  proces;
of time.  The best comes from Russia.   It is ol a gray-
ish yellow, or light brown colour.  It consists of a muci-
lage, a bitter extract, a resiu, an essential oil, in which
the peculiar smell appears to reside, and a flaky crys-
talline matter, much resembling the adipocire  of hi i-
ary calculi. Castor has an acrid, bitter, and nauseous
taste; its smell is strong and aromatic, yet at the same
time foetid.  It is used medicinally, as a powerful an-
tispasmodic in hysterica and hypochondriacal affec-
tions, and  in convulsions, in doses  of from 10 to 30
grains.   It has also  been successfully administered
in epilepsy and tetanus.   It is occasionally adulterated
with dried blood, guin-amnioniacum,  or galbanum,
mixed with a little of  the powder of castor, and some
quantity of the fat ofthe beaver.
  Castor oil.  See Ricinus.
  Castor, Russian.  See Castor fiber.
  CASTOREUM.  See Castor fiber.
  Castori'um.  See Castoreum.
  CASTRATION.  (Castratio, onis. f.; from castro
to emasculate,  quia castrando vis libidinis extingui-
tur.)  1. A chirurgical operation, by which a  testicle
is removed from the body.
  2.  Botanists  apply this term to the removal of the
anthera  of a flower, and lo a plant naturally wanting
this organ.
  CASTRE'NSIS. (From r.astra, a camp.)   Belong-
ing to a camp: applied  to those diseases with which
soldiers, encamped in  marshy places, are afflicted.
  CATA'BASIS.   (From KanaSaivoo,   to  descend)
An operation downwards.
  CATABI'BASIS.   (From /caragioagw, to cause to
descend.)   An expulsion of  the humours downwards
  CATABLACEU'SIS.  (From  KiiraSXaKCvw, to be
useless.)  Hippocrates uses this word to signify care:
lessiiess  and negligence  in the attendance on and ad-
ministration to the sick.
  Catable'ma.  (From  Kara6aXXu>, to throw  round.)
The outermost fillet, which secures the rest of the
bandases.
  CATaBRONCHESIS.  (From xa7a, and Bpoyxos,
the  throat; or Ka^aSpoyx^, to  swallow.) The act
of swallowing.
  CATACAU'MA.   (From iuflaKaiu>, to burn.)  A
bum or scald.
  CATACAU'SIS. (From/ta7aicaia), to burn.)  1. The
act of combustion, or  burning.
  2.  The name of a  genus of diseases in Dr. Good's
Nosology:  general combustibility of the body. It has
only one species, Catacausis ebriosa.
  CATACECLI'MENUS.  (From KalaKXtvouai, to
lie down.) Keeping the bed, from the violence of p.
disease.
  CATACECRA'MENUS.   (From  Kafacpawopt.
to reduce  to small particles.)   Broken into small
pieces:  applied to fractures.
  Catacera'stica.   (From Karaxtpawvpt,  to mix
together.)   Medicines which obtund the acrimony of
humours, by mixing with them and reducing them.
  CATACLIDE'SIS.  (From (ca7axXi<5an>, to indulge
in delicacies.)   A gluttonous indulgence in sloth and
delicacies, to the generation of diseases.
  CATACHRI'SMA.  An ointment.
  CATACHRI'STON.   (From <ca7axai<o, to  anoint.)
An ointment.
  CATA'CLASIS. (From Ka'JaKXata, to break, or dis-
tort.)  Distorted eyelids.
  CA'TACLEIS.  (From *a7a, beneath, and kXus,
the clavicle.)   Catacleis.  The subclavicle, or  first rib,
which is placed immediately under the clavicle.
  CATACLI'NES.  (From KalaKXivto, to lie down.)
One who, by disease, is fixed to his bed.
  CATA'CLISIS. (From Ka^axXtvia, to lie down.) A
lying down.  Also incurvation.
  CATACLY'SMA.  (From *a7a*Xi>gci>, to wash.) A
clyster.
  CATACLY'SMUS.   (From *a7a<cXv5<o, lo wash.)
 1. An embrocation.
  2. A dashing of water upon any part.
  Catacre'mnos. (From <ca7a, and Kpnpvos, a preci-
 pice.)   Hippocrates means, by this word, a swoln and
 inflamed throat, from the exuberance ofthe parts.
  OATACRU'SIS.  (From *a7a«povw, to drive back.)
 A revulsion of humours. 
CAT
CAT
   Catadoule'sis.   (From  KajaSovXooi, to enslave.)
 The subduing of passions, as in a phrensy, or fever.
   CATiEGlZESIS.  (From Ka7aivi?u., to repel.)  A
 revulsiun or rushing back of humours, or wind in the
 intestines.
   CAT-jEONE'SIS.  (From Kajatovtoi, to irrigate.)
 Irrigation  by a plentiful affusion of liquor on  some
 part of the body.
   OATA'GMA. (From Kala, and ayta, to break.)  A
 fracture.  Galen says a solution of the bone is called
 catagma, and elcos  is a solution of the  continuity of
 the flesh: that when it happens to a cartilage, it has
 no name, though Hippocrates calls it catagma.
   Cataoma'tica.  (From KaTjaypa, a fracture.)   Ca-
 taguiatics.  Remedies which promote the formation of
 callus.
   Cataoo'oe.  (From Kalayopat, to abide.) The seat
 or region of a disease or part
   Catagyio'sis.  (From Kafayvtoto, to  debilitate.)
 An imbecility  and enervation of the strength  and
 limbs.
   CATALE'PSIS.   (From tcalaXapSavia, to seize, to
 hold.)  Catoche; Catochus; Congelatio; Detentio;
 Encatalepsis; by Hippocrates, Aphonia; by Antigenes,
 Anaudia;  by Caslius Aurelianus, Apprehensio,  Op-
 pressio; Comprehcnsio;  Cams catalepsia of Good;
 Apoplexia cataleptica of Cullen. Catalepsy. A sudden
 suppression of motion and sensation, the body remain-
 ing in the same posture that it was in when seized.
   Dr. Cullen says, he has never seen the  catalepsy ex-
 cept when counterfeited; and is of opinion, that many
 of those cases related by other authors, have also been
 counterfeited.  It is  said to  come on suddenly, being
 only preceded by some languor of body and mind, and
 to return by paroxysms.  The patients are said to be
 for some minutes, sometimes (though rarely) for some
 hours, deprived of  their senses,  and all power of
 voluntary motion; but constantly retaining the  posi-
 tion in which they were first seized, whether lying or
 Sitting; and if the limbs be put into any other posture
 during the fit, they will keep the posture in which they
 are  placed.   When they recover from the paroxysm,
 they remember nothing of what passed during the lime
 of it, but are like persons awakened out of a sleep.
   Catalo'tica.  (From tutJaXoau, to grind down.)
 Medicines to soften and make smooth the rough edges
 and crust of cicatrices.
   CATA'LYSIS.  (KaraXvo-ij:  from KaraXvoi, to dis-
 solve or destroy.)  It signifies a palsy, or such a reso-
 lution as happens before the death of the patient; also
 that dissolution which constitutes death.
   CATAMARA'SMUS. (From icajapapaivw, to grow
 thin.)   1. An emaciation of the body.
   2. The resolution of tumours.
 ?  CATAMASSE'SIS.  (From Kalapaaoouat, to man-
 ducate.)  The grinding ofthe teeth, and biting ofthe
 tongue; common in epilepsy.
   CATAME'NIA.   (Catamenia,  orum, neut. pleur.;
 from Ka^o, according to, and pnv, the month.) Menses.
 The monthly discharge from  the uterus of females, be-
 tween the ages of 14 and 45. Many have questioned
 whether this discharge arose  from a mere  rupture of
 vessels, or whether it. was owing to a secretory action.
 There can be little doubt of the truth of  the latter.
 The secretory organ  is composed  of the  arterial ves-
 sels situated in the fundus of the uterus.  The dissec-
 tion of women, who have died during the  time of their
 menstruating, proves this.   Sometimes, though  very
 rarely, women,  during  pregnancy, menstruate; and
 when this happens, the discharge takes place from the
 arterial vessels of the vagina. During pregnancy and
 lactation, when the person is in good health, the cata-
 menia, for the most part, cease to flow. The quantity
 a female menstruates at each lime is very various ; de-
 pending on  climate, and a variety of other circum-
 stances.  It Is commonly in England from five lo six
 ounces; it rarely exceeds eight.  Its duration  is from
 three to four, and sometimes, though rarely, five days
 With respect to the nature of the discharge, it differs
 very much from pure blood ; it never coagulates; but
 h sometimes grumoqs, and membranes like ihe decidua
 are formed in difficult menstruations:  in some women
 it always smells rank and peculiar; in others it is ino-
dbrous.  The use of this monthly secretion is said lo
be to render tiie uterus fit for the conception and nutri-
 tion ofthe fretus; therefore girls rarely conceive before
the catamenia appear, and women rarely aftor their
 entire cessation; but very easily soon after menstrua-
 tion.
   Catana'Nce.  Succory.
   Cata.ni'fhthis.   (From  KofJavtrr'Jto,  to  wash.
 Washed, or scoured.  Used by Hippocrates of a diar-
 rhoea washed and cleansed by boiled milk.
   Catantle'ma. (From KalavlXaia, to pour upon.) A
 lotion by infusion of water, or medicated fluids.
   Catantle'sis.  A medicated fluid.
   CATAPASMA.  (Erom icaraira<T<T<j,  to  sprinkle.,
 Catapastum; Conspersio ; Epipaston; Pasma; Sym-
 pasma; Aspersio; Aspergo.  The ancient Greek phy-
 sicians  meant by this, any dry medicine reduced to
 powder, to be sprinkled on the body.  Their various
 forms and uses may be seen in Paul of Egina, lib. vii.
 cap. xiii.
   CATAPAU'SIS.  (From Kalanavta, to rest, or cease.)
 That rest or cessation from pain which proceeds from
 the resolution of uneasy tumours.
   CATAPE'LTES.  (From ica7a, against, and atXrn,
 a shield.)  1. This word  means a sling, a granado, or
 battery.
   2. It  was  formerly  used to signify  the medicine
 which heals the wounds and bruises made by such an
 instrument.
   C AT A'PHORA.  (From Karatbepu), to make sleepy.)
 A preternatural propensity to sleep ;  a mild apoplexy;
 a species of  Dr. Good's Cams Lethargus;  remissive
 lethargy.
   Cataphra'cta.   (From Kalacbpaoau), to fortify.)  A
 bandage on the thorax.
   CATAPLA'SMA. (Cataplasma, matis. neut.; from
 Ka'JanXaotria, to spread like  a plaster.)  A poultice.
 The following are among the most useful:—
   Cataplasma acetosje. Sorrel poultice. The leaves
 arc to be beaten in a mortar into a pulp.  A good appli-
 cation to scorbutic ulcers.
   Cataplasma aeratum.  See Cataplasma fermenti.
   Cataplasma  aluminis.    This application  was
 formerly used to inflammation of the eyes, which was
 kept up from weakness of the vessels; it is now seldom
 used, a solution of alum being mostly substituted.
   Cataplasma conii.  Hemlock  poultice.  R-Conii
 foliorum exsiccatorum 3 j.  Aquas fontanas, Ibij.  To
 be boiled till only a pint remains, when as much lin-
 seed-meal as necessary is  to be added.  This is an ex-
 cellent application to  many cancerous and scrofulous
 ulcers, and other malignant ones; frequently producing
 great diminution ofthe pain of such diseases, and im-
 proving their appearance.  Justamond  preferred the
 fresh herb bruised.
   Cataplasma cumini.  Take of cumin seeds, one
 pound; bay-berries, the leaves of water germander
 dried, Virginia snake-root, of each three oimces; cloves,
 one ounce; with honey equal to thrice the weight of the
 powder formed: of these make a cataplasm. It was for-
 merly called Theriaca Londinensis. This is a warm and
 stimulating poultice, and was formerly much used as
 an irritating  antiseptic  application  to gangrenous
 ulcers, and the like.  It is now seldom ordered.
   Cataplasma dauci.  Carrot poultice.  R. Radicis
 dauci rccenlis, Ibj.  Bruise it in a mortar into a pulp.
 Some, perhaps, with reason, recommend the carrots to
 be first  boiled.   The carrot poultice is employed as
 an application to ulcerated cancers, scrofulous sores
 of an irritable kind, and various inveterate malignant
 ulcers.
   Cataplasma fermenti.   Yest cataplasm. Take
 of flour a pound ; yest half a pint.   Mix and expose
 to a gentle heat, until the mixture begins to rise. This
 is a  celebrated  application in cases of sloughing and
 mortification.
   Cataplasma fuci.  This is prepared by bruising a
 quantity  of the marine plant, commonly called sea
 tang, which is afterward to be applied  by way of a
 poultice.  Its chief use is in cases of scrofula, white
 swellings, and  glandular tumours more especially.
 When this vegetable cannot be obtained  in its recent
state, a  common poultice of sea-water  and oatmeal
has been subtituted by the late Mr. Hunter, and other
surgeons of eminence.
  Cataplasma  lini.  Linseed poultice.  R. Farina)
lini, Ibss. Aquae fcrventis, Ibjss.   The powder is to be
gradually sprinkled  into  the water,  while  they are
quickly blended together with a spoon.  This is the
best and most convenient of all emollient poultices for
common cases,  and has,  in a great measure, super- 
CAT
CAT
seded the bread and  milk one, so much in use for-
merly.
  Cataplasma. plumbi acetatis. R. Liquons plumbi
acetatis,  3j.   Aqua;  distill, lbj.  Mica; panis, q. s.
Misce.  Practitioners,  who place much confidence in
the virtues of lead, often use this poultice in cases of
inflammation.
  Cataplasma sinapkos.  See  Cataplasma sinapis.
  Cataplasma sinapis.   Mustard cataplasm.   Take
of mustard-seed,  linseed,  of each powdered half a
pound;  boiling vinegar,  as  much  as is  sufficient
Mix until it acquires the consistence of a cataplasm.
  CATAPLE'XIS.    (From koto, and rsynotria,  lo
Etrike.)  Any sudden stupefaction, or deprivation of
sensation, in any of the members, or organs.
  Catapo'sis.  (From <caTa7rivu), to  swallow down.)
According to Aretaius, it signifies the instruments of
deglutition.
  Catapo'tium.  (Karanonov; from  Karamvta,  to
swallow down.1   A pill.
  CATAPSY'XIS.  (From uVvxu, to refrigerate.)   A
coldness, or dullness, without shivering, either univer-
sal, or of some particular part.
  CATAPTO'SIS.  (From Karamnru), to fall down.)
A falling down.  1. Such as happens in apoplexy.
  2. The falling down of a limb from palsy.
  CATAPU'TIA.  (From m'JanvBio, to have an  ill
savour; or from the Italian, cacapuzza, which has the
same  meaning; so named  from its foetid smell.)
Spurge.
  Cataputia major.  See Ricinus.
  CaAputia minor.  See Euphorbia Lathyris.
  CA'TARACTA.  (From Karapaooia, to confound or
disturb: because the sense of vision is confounded, if
not destroyed.)  A cataract;  a disease of the eye.
Paropsis cataracta of Good.  The  Caligo lentis of
Cullen.  Hippocrates calls it yXavKiopa.  Galen, uiro-
ytifia.  The Arabians, gutta opaca.  Celsus, suffusio.
It is a species of blindness, arising almost always from
an opacity of the crystalline lens, or  its capsule, pre-
venting  the rays  of light passing to the optic nerve.
It commonly begins with a dimness of sight; and this
generally continues  a  considerable time before any
opacity can be observed  in the lens.   As the  disease
advances, the opacity becomes sensible, and the patient
imagines there are particles of dust, or motes, upon the
eve, or in the air, which are called musca volitantcs.
This opacity gradually increases till the person cither
becomes entirely blind, or can merely distinguish light
from darkness.   The disease commonly  comes  on
rapidly, though sometimes its progress is slow and
gradual.  From a transparent state, it changes to a
perfectly white, or light gray colour.  In some very
rare instances, a black cataract is found.   The con-
sistence also varies, being at one time hard, at another
entirely dissolved.  When  the opaque lens is either
more indurated than in the natural state, or retains a
tolerable degree of firmness, the case is termed a firm
or hard cataract  When  the substance of the lens
peenis to be converted  into  a whitish  or other kind of
fluid, lodged in the capsule, the case is denominated a
milky or fluid cataract.  When the substance is of a
middling consistence, neither hard nor fluid, but about
as consistent  as a thick  jelly, or curds, the case  is
named a soft or caseous cataract. When the anterior
or posterior layer of the crystalline capsule becomes
ppaque, after the lens itself has been removed from this
little membraneous sac,  by a previous operation, the
affection is named a secondary membraneous cataract.
There are many other  distinctions  made by authors.
Cataract is seldom  attended with pain; sometimes,
however, every exposure to light creates uneasiness,
owing probably to the  inflammation  at the bottom of
the eye.  The  real cause of cataract is not yet well
understood.  Numbers of authors consider it as pro-
ceeding from a preternatural contraction of the vessels
of the lens, arising   from  some external  violence,
though more commonly from some internal and occult
cause.   The cataracta is  distinguished  from gutta
serena, by the pupils in the latter being never affected
with light, and from no opacity being observed in the
leiis.  It is distinguished from hypopyon, staphyloma,
or any other disease in the forepart of the eye, by the
evident marks which these affections produce, as well
as by the  pain attending  their  beginning.  But it is
difficult to determine when the opacity is in the lens,
or in its capsule.  If the retina (which is an expansion
      108
 of the optic nerve in the inside of the eye) be not dta-
 eased, vision may, in most cases, be restored, by either
 depressing the  diseased lens, which is termed couch-
 ing, or extracting it.
   CATARRHEU'MA.   (From Kalappm, to flow
 from.)  A defluxion of humours  from the  air-pas-

   CATARRHE'XIS.    (From Ka^appnywo), to burst
 out.) A  violent and copious eruption or effusion ;
 joined with k-oiXms, it  is a  copious evacuation from
 the belly, and sometimes alone it is of the same signi-
 fication.  Voeel applies it to a discharge of pure blood
 from the intestines, such as takes place in dysentery.
   CATARRHCECUS.  (From Kajapptu>, to flow from.)
 A disease proceeding from a discharge of phlegm.
   CATA'RRHOPA.  (From Kajapptta, to flow down.)
 Tubercles  tending downward; or, as Galen  stales,
 those that have their apex on a depending part have
 received this appellation.
   CATA'RRHOPOS.  (Karapponos vov&os-) A remis-
 sion of  the  disease, or its  decline,  opposed  to the
 paroxysm.
   CATA RRHUS.  (From Kalapptui,  to flow down.)
 Coryza.  A catarrh.  An increased secretion of mu-
 cus  from the membranes of the  nose, fauces, and
 bronchia, with  fever,  and  attended with  sneezing,
 cough, thirst, lassitude, and want of appetite.   It is a
 genus of disease in the class Pyrexia, and order Pro-
fluvia of Cullen.  There are two species of catarrh
 viz. catarrhus d frigore, which is very common, and
 is called a cold in the head; and catarrhus a contagio,
 the influenza, or epidemic catarrh, which sometimes
 seizes a  whole  city.  Catarrh is also symptomatic of
 several other diseases.  Hence we have the catarrhus
 rubeolosus;  tussis variolosa, verminosa, calculosa,
phthisica, hysterica, d dentitione, gravidarum, metalli
 colarum, Sec
   Catarrh is seldom fatal, except  in  scrofulous habits,
 by laying the foundation of phthisis;  or where it is
 aggravated by improper treatment,  or  repeated expo-
 sure to cold, into some degree of peripneumony; when
 there is hazard of the patient, particularly if advanced
in life, being suffocated by the copious effusion of vis-
cid matter into the air-passages.   The epidemic is
generally, but not  invariably, more severe  than the
common form of the disease.  The latter is usually
left to subside spontaneously, which will commonly
happen  in a few days, by observing the antiphlogistic
regimen.  If  there should be fixed  pain of the chest,
with any hardness  of the pulse, a little blood may bo
taken from the arm, or topically, followed by a blister:
the bowels must be kept  regular, and diaphoretics ex-
hibited,  with demulcents and mild opiates to quiet
the cough.  When the disease hangs about the  patient
in a chronic form, gentle tonics and expectorants are
required, us myrrh, squill, &c. In the epidemic catarrh
more active evacuations are  often required, the lungs
being more seriously affected; but though these should
be promptly employed, they must not  be carried too
far, the  disease being apt to assume the typhoid cha-
racter in its progress; and as the chief danger appears
to be of suffocation happening from the cause above-
mentioned, it is especially important to promote ex-
pectoration, first by antimoniuls, afterward  by  squill,
the inhalation of steam, &c. not neglecting to support
the strength of the patient as the disease advances.
  Catarrhus a frigore.   The common defluxion
from the head from cold.
  Catarrhus a contaoio.   The influenza.
  Catarrhus bellinsulanus.  Mumps.   See Cy-
nanehe parotidaa.
  Catarrhus suffocativus.  The croup.   See Cy-
nanehe trachealis.
  Catarrhus vesicje.   A  discharge of mucus from
the bladder.
  Catarrti'smus.  (From  Ka7ap7i£&>, to make per-
fect According to Galen, it is a translation of a bone
from a preternatural to its natural situation.
  CATASA'RCA. (From *a7a and oap\, flesh.) See
Anasarca.
  CATASBE'STIS.   (From *a7a  and oUcwvut,  to
extinguish.)   The resolution of tumours without sup-
puration.
  CATASCHA'SMUS.   (From «a7a<rxo}w, to sea
 rlfy.) Scarification.
   CATASEI'SIS.  (From «a7a, and atiiw, to thak«.|
A concufeiinii. 
CAT
CAT
  CATASPA'SMA.  (From Ka'JaanaWtto draw back-
wards.)  A revulsion or retraction of humours, or parts.
  CATASTA'GMOS.  (From ica7a, and j-agai, to dis-
til.1  The name which the Greeks, in the time  of
Ceisus, had for distillation.
  CATASTA'LTICUS.   (From KaraoreXXta, to re-
strain.or contract.)  Styptic, astringent, repressing.
  CATA'STASIS.   Karaoratns-  The  constitution,
state, or condition of any thing.
  Cata'tasis.   (From Kajarttvia, to extend.)   In
Hippocrates it means  the  extension  of a  fractured
limb, or a discolated one, in order to replace it.   Also
the actual replacing it in a proper situation.
  CAT AXIS.   (From Ka]ayia, to break.)   A  frac-
ture. Also a division of parts by an instrument.
  Cate.  See Acacia catechu.
  CATECHO'MENUS.  (From Kaltxw, to resist.)
Resisting and  making ineffectual the remedies which
have been applied or given.
  CA'TECHU.  (It is said, that, in the Japanese lan-
guage, kate signifies a tree, and chu, juice.)   See Aca-
sia Catechu.
  CATEIA'DION.   (From koto, and tta, a blade of
grass.)  An instrument mentioned by Aretasus, having
at the end a blade of grass, or  made like a blade of
grass, which was thrust into the nostrils to provoke a
haemorrhage when the head ached.
  CATE'LI.US.  (Dim. of catuius, a whelp.)   1. A
voung whelp.
  2. Also a chemical instrument called a cupel, which
was formerly in the shape of a dog's head.
  CATHiE'RESIS.  (From KaBaipia, to take away.)
1. The subtraction or  taking away any part or  thing
from the body.
  2. Sometimes it means an evacuation, and Hippo-
crates uses il for such.
  3. A consumption of  the  body, as happens without
manifest evacuation.
  Catiijere'tica.   (From KaBaipia, to take away.)
Medicines which consume or remove superfluous flesh.
  CATHA'RMA.  (From KaBaipia, to remove.)   The
excrements, or humours, purged off from the body.
  Catha'rmus.  (From KaBaipia,  to remove.)   1. A
purgation ofthe excrements, or humours.
  2  A cure by incantation, or the royal touch.
  Catha'rsia.  (From KaBaipia,  to purge.)   Medi-
cines which have a purging property.
  CATHARSIS.   (From  KaBaipia,  to take away.)
Purgation of the excrements, or humours, cither me-
dically or naturally.
  CATHA'RTIC.   (Catharticus ; from KaBaipia, to
purge.)  That which, taken internally, increases the
number of alvine evacuations.  These medicines have
received many appellations: purgantia; catocathar-
tica; catoretica; catoteretica;  dejectoria;  alviduca.
The dilli-rent articles referred to this class are divided
into five orders.
  1. Stimulating cathartics, as jalap, aloes, bitter ap-
ple, and croton oil, which  are well calculated to dis-
charge accumulations of serum, and are mostly select-
ed for indolent and phlegmatic habits, and those who
are hard to purge.
  2. Refrigerating cathartics, as sulphate  of soda,
supertartrate of potassa, &c. These are better adapt-
ed for plethoric habits, and those with an inflamma-
tory diathesis.
  3. Adstringent cathartics, as rhubarb and damask
roses, which are mostly given lo those whose bowels
are weak and irritable,  and subject to diarrhoea.
  4. Emollient cathartics, as manna, malva, castor oil,
and  olive oil, which may be given in preference to
other cathartics, to infants and the very aged.
  5. Narcotic cathartics, as tobacco, hyoscyamus, and
digitalis.  This order is never given  but to the very
strong and indolent, and to maniacal patients, as their
operation is very powerful.
  Murray, in his Materia Medica, considers the differ-
ent cathartics under the two divisions of laxatives and
purgatives; the former  being mild  in their operation,
and merely evacuating  the contents of the intestines;
the latter being more powerful, and even extending
their stimulant operation to the neighbouring  parts.
The following he  enumerates  among the  principal
laxatives:—manna, Cassia fistula, Tamarindus indica,
RIcinus  communis.  Sulphur, Magnesia.  Under the
head of purgatives, he  names Cassia senna, Rheum
naunatum, Convolvulus jalapa, Helleborus niijcr.Brvo-
nia alba, Cucumis colocynthis, Momordica elaterium,
Rhamnus catharticus,  Aloe perfoliata, Convolvulus
scammonia, Gambjgia, Submurias bydrargyri,  Sul
phas magnesia,' Sulphas  sodae, Sulphas potassa;, Su-
pertartias potassa;, Tartras potassae, Tartras  potassae
et sodas, Phosphas sodas,  Murias sodas, Terebinthirra
veneta, Nicotiana tabacum.
  Cathartic Glaubers salt.  See Soda sulphas.
  Cathartic Salt. See Sulphas magnesia, and  Sul-
phas soda.
  CATHARTINE.   A substance of a reddish colour,
a peculiar smell, and a bitter nauseous taste, soluble
in water and alkohol, but insoluble in asther ; obtained
by Lassaigne and Fenuelle from the leaves of senna.
  CATHEDRA.    (From  KaBegouai,  to  sit.)   The
anus, or rather, the whole of the buttocks, as being the
part on which we sit.
  Cathere'tica.  (From KaBaipia, to remove.)  Cor
rosives.   Applications  which, by corrosion, remove
superfluous flesh.
  CATHETER.  (Catheter, leris. m. KaBernp ; from
KaBivui, to thrust into.)   A long and hollow tube, that
is introduced  by surgeons into the urinary bladder, to
remove  the urine, when the person  is unable to  pass
it.  Catheters are either made of silver or ofthe elas-
tic gum.  That for the  male urethra is much longer
than that for the female, and so curved, if made of
silver, as to adapt itself to the urethra.
  CATHETERI'SMUS.  (From KaBtrnp, a catheter.)
The operation of introducing the catheter.
  CATHI'DRYSIS.  (From KaBiSpvia, to place to-
gether.)   The reduction of a fracture, or operation of
selling a broken bone.
  Ca'thma.  A name for litharge.
  Ca'thodos. (From Kara, and oSos-)  A descent of
humours.
  Catho'lceus.  (From Kara, and oXxtta, to draw
over.)   An oblong fillet, made to draw over and cover
the whole bandage of the head.
  CATHO'LICON.   (From Kara, and oXococ,  uni-
versal.)   A universal medicine: formerly applied (o a
medicine, that was supposed to purge all the humours.
  [" CATHRAL, Isaac, M. D., was a native of Phila-
delphia, and studied medicine  under the direction of
the late  Dr. John Redman, the preceptor of Rush and
Wistar.   After acquiring all the instruction in his pro-
fession,  which the opportunities of Philadelphia offer-
ed, aided by a diligent attention on his part, he visited
Europe, and attended the practice of the London  hos-
pitals, and  the lectures of the most distinguished  pro-
fessors in that  city.  During the prevalence of the
widely  destroying epidemic fevers  of  1793, '97, '98,
and '99, he remained in the city, instead  of seeking
safety by flying, and was a severe sufferer by the dis-
ease of  the first of those years.  Previously to his ill-
ness, and after his recovery, besides attending to prac-
tice, he lost no opportunity of investigating every phe-
nomenon connected  with that pestilential epidemic,
which could in any manner tend to illustrate its patho-
logy, or  the peculiarities it exhibited.  In the year
1794, he published his remarks thereon, and the moda
of treatment  he pursued.  In conjunction with Dr.
Physlck, he dissected the bodies of some  subjects of
the fever of 1793, in order to discover the morbid effects
produced by it on the system, and in particular refer-
ence to the nature of that singular and generally fatal
symptom, the dark-coloured ejection from the stomach,
in some  cases of the disease. The result of their joint
labours was published by them, with their individual
signatures,  and he afterward continued his dissections
alone, with unabating zeal, whenever  opportunity
offered,  during the subsequent epidemics and occa-
sional appearance of the disease, wbich more or less
occurred for several years, until he obtained all tile
light which he thought dissection and experiment could
throw upou its production and nature. In the year
1800, he read to the American  Philosophical Society,
of which he had been elected a member, an interesting
paper on that subject.  This paper affords ample evi-
dence of the patient and accurate^nanner in which he
investigated that hitherto inexplicable and supposed
pestilential appearance, and of his fearless  zeal in the
prosecution of medical science. It  is inserted in the
5th vol.  of  the Transactions of the  Society, and  was
also published in pamphlet form, of 32 pages.  A full
account  of it may be found in the 4th volume of the
Now-York  Medical  Repository.  He died  on the 23d
                                        190 
CAU
CAU
  February, 1810, in the 56th year of his age, by a stroke
  ofthe apoplexy.
   "Dr. Cathrall was educated in the religious princi-
  ples of the Society of Friends, and naturally possessed
  a grave turn of mind, and a serious deportment  Re-
  tired in his habits,  lie  was sby in making acquaint-
  ances,  but firm in his friendships, and a well-bred gen-
  tleman in his manners.  In the important and endear-
  ing relations of a son, husband, and father, he was
  truly estimable.  As a  member of society, he set an
  example of rigid morality and inflexible integrity, attri-
  butes which every medical man ought to be proud to
  have annexed to his character, however distinguished
  his literary acquirements maybe."—Thacher's Med.
  Biog.  A.]
   CATHY'PNIA.   (From Kara, and vnvos, sleep.) A
  profound but unhealthy  sleep.
   Ca'tias.   (From koBivui, to place in.)  An incision
  knife,  formerly used for opening an abscess in the
  uterus, and for extracting a dead fcetus.
   Cati'llus.  See Catellus.
   Ca'tinum alumen. A name  given to potassa.
   CA'TINUS.  Karavov.  A crucible.
   CAT-KIN.  See Amentum.
   CA'TMINT. (So called, because cats are very fond
 of it.)   See Nepeta.
   CATOCATHA'RTICA.   (From koto, downward,
 and KaBaipia, to purge.)  Medicines  that operate by
 stool.
   Cato'che.   (From kotcxV) to detain.)   See  Cata-
 lepsis.
   CATOCHEI'LUM.   (From  kotio, beneath,  and
 X«Xo£,  the lip.)  The lower lip.
   CA'TOCHUS.  (From nartxia,  to detain.)   A
 spasmodic disease in  which the body is rigidly held in
 an upright posture.                /
   Catomi'smus.  (From Kana,  below, and tapos, the
 shoulder.)   By this word, P. iEgineta  expresses a me-
 thod of reducing a luxated  shoulder, by raising the
 patient  over the shoulder of a strong man, that by the
 weight  ofthe body, the dislocation may be reduced.
   CATO'PSIS.  (From icaro7rrouai, to see clearly.)
 An acute and quick perception.  The acuteness of the
 faculties which accompanies the latter stages of con-
 sumption.
   Catophylluminophyllum.  Calaba.  The Indian
 mastich-tree.  A native of America, where the whole
 plant is considered as a resolvent and anodyne,
   Cato'pter.  (From Kara, and onrouai, to see; by
 metaphor, a probe.)   An instrument called a specu-
 lum ani.
  Catorchi'tes.  (From Kara, and opxis, the orchis.)
 A wine in which the  orchis root has been infused.
  Catore'tica. (From Kana, downwards, and ptta,
 to flow.)  Catoteretica; Catoterica.  Medicines which
 purse by stool.
  Catotere'tica.  See Catoretica.
  CATOTICA.  (Catoticus;  from Karta,  below;
 whence Kartortpos, and Kanararos, inferior, and infer-
 nus.) The name of an order of the class Eccritica, in
 Good's Nosology; diseases affecting internal surfaces;
 defined, pravity ofthe fluids, or emunctories that open
 into the internal surfaces of organs. It embraces hy-
 dropsis, emphysema, paruria, and lithia.
  Cats-eye.  A mineral, much valued as  a precious
 stone, brought from Ceylon.
  Catulo'tica.  (From  KarovXoia, to cicatrize.)  Me-
 dicines that cicatrize wounds.
  Catutri'pai.i.  A name of the Piper longum.
  Catclus.   See Amentum.
  CAU'CALIS.  (From  kovkiov, a cup; or from Jau-
 koXis, the daucus.)  1. The name of a family, or genus
 of plants.  Class Penlandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  Bastard parsley ; bo  named from the shape of its
 flower.
  3.  The wild carrot.
  CAUCALOI'DES.   (From caucalis, and uSoc, a
 likeness, from its likeness to the  flowerof the cauca-
 lis.)  Like unto the  caucalis. The patella is some-
 times so called.
  CAU'DA.   (From  cado, to fall; because it hangs
or falls down behind.)  A tail.
  1. The tail of animals.
  2. A  name formerly given to the os coccygis, that
being in  tailed animals the beginning of the tail.
  3. A fleshy substance, projecting from the lips of the
vagina, and resembling a  tail, according to At-tius.
     900
    4. Many herbs are called cauda, with the affixed
  name of some animal, the  tail of which the herb ia
  supposed to be like; as cauda equina, horse-tail; Cau-
  da muris, mouse-tail; and in ninny other instauices.
    Cauda equina. 1. The  spinal marrow, at its ter-
  mination about the second lumbar vertebra, gives off a
  large number of nerves, which, when unravelled, re-
  semble the horse's tail;  hence the name.  See Medulla
  spinalis.
   2.  See Hippuris vulgaris.
   Cauda seminis.  The tail, or elongated, generally
  feathery appendage to a seed, formed ot Die permanent
  style.  It  is simple, in Geranium zonale; hair}', in
  Clematis and Pulsatilla;  and geniculate in Tormea-
  tilla.
   Cauda'tio.  (From cauda, a tail.)   An elongation
  of the clitoris.
   CAUDATUS.  (From  cauda, a tail.)  Tailed:  ap-
  plied to  seeds which  have a tail-like appendage; as
  those ofthe Clematis vitalba, and Anemone sulphur ea.
   CAUDEX.   (Caudex, icis. m.)   The body of the
 root  of a plant  See Radix.
   CAUL.   1. The English  name  for the omentum
 See Omentum.
   2.  The amnion, which is sometimes torn by the
 child's head, passing from  tbe uterus, and comes away
 with it wholly separated from the placenta.
   Caulk'don.   (From kovXos, a stalk.)  A transverse
 fracture, when the bone is broken, like the stump of a

   CAU'LIFLOWER.   A  species of brassica, the
 flower of which is cut before the fructification ex-
 pands.   The  observations  which  have  been made
 concerning cabbages are applicable here.  Cauliflower
 is, however, a  far  more delicious  vegetable.  See
 Brassica capitata.
   CAULINUS;   Caulinc.  Belonging to the stem
 Leaves and peduncles are  so called, which  grow on
 or come immediately from, the stem.
   CAU'LIS.  (Caulis,  is. m. KavXoc ; from kalab, n
 Chaldean word.)  The stalk or stem  of herbaceous
 plants.  The characters of the stalk  are, that it  ia
 rarely ligneous, and lives but one or two years in the
 natural state ofthe plant.
   A plant is said to be
   Caulescent, when furnished with a stem.
  Acauline, when without a stem;  as  in  Caulina
 acaulis.
   From its duration, the stem is distinguished into,
  1. Caulus herbaceus, which perishes every year;  as
 Melissa officinalis.
  2. Caulis suffrulicosus,  which perishes half way
 down every year; as Cheiranthus incanus.
  3. Caulis fruticosus, shrubby, having many stems,
 which do not perish in the winter;  as  Melissa fruti
 cosa.
  4. Caulis arboreus;  as the  trunk of trees.
  From the substance, it is distinguished into,
  5. Caulis fistulosus, hollow internally ; as in Ane
 thum  graveolens, and Allium fistulosum.
  6. Caulis loculamentosus, hollow and divided into
cells ;  as in Angelica, Archangelica, and Pheliandrum
aquaticum.
  7. Caulis inanis, or medullosus, empty or pithy; as
in Sambucus nigra.
  8. Caulis solidus, solid;  as in Mentha and Melissa.
  9. Caulis ligneus, woody;  as Prunus spinosa.
  10.  Caulis camosus, fleshy; as in Sodura arboreum,
and Stapelia hirsuta.
  II.  Caulis pulposus, pulpy; as in Mesembryanthe-
mum  crystallinum.
  12.  Caulis fibrosus,  separable into long fibres: as
Cocos nucifera.
  13.  Caulis succosus, full  of a juice;  as in the Eu-
phorbias, and Chelidonium majus.
  From the difference ofthe surface, the caulis is said
to be
  14.  Glaber, or lavis, smooth, without any hairiness,
or roughness, or inequality; as Lepedium latifolium.
  15.  Scaber, or asper, when it has hard inequalities;
as in Galium aperine, and Lithospermum arvense.
  16.  Suberosus,  corky, as Passiflora  suberosa, and
Quercus suber.
  17.  Rimosus, cracky; as in Ulmus campestris.
  18.  Tuberculatus, with rough nobs; as in Cissus tu
berculata.
  19.  Tunicatus, the cuticle peeling off spontaneous.^ 
CAU                                             CAU
 hi large portions; as in Betula alba, and some of the
 Spireas.
   20.  Striatus, having  superficial longitudinal lines;
 as in Chrerophyllum  sylvestre, Aster sibiiicus,  and
 Daphne mezereon.
   21.  Sulcatus, furrowed, fluted, when longitudinally
 indented with long  and deep hollows; as in Celosia
 coccynea, Selinum carvifoUa, Pimpinella sanguisarba,
 Doronicum pardalianches.
   22.  Perfoliatus, perfoliate; as in Bupleurum perfo-
 liatum.
   The figure affords the following distinctions:
   23.  Caulis teres, or cylindricus, round, without an-
 gles ;  as Sinapis arvensis.
   24.  Semiteres, half-rounded, flat on one side; as Hy-
 acinthus orientalis, Allium descendens.
   25.  Caulis compressus, which implies that two sides
 of the stem  are flat, and approach  each other; as in
 Poa compressa, Lathyrus latifolius, Pancratium decli-
 natum.
   36.  Caulis anceps, two-edged; as Iris graminea, Hy-
 pericum androsemum.
   27.  Caulis angulatus, presenting several acute an-
 gles in its circumference.
   a. Triangvlatus,  three-cornered; as in Cactus tri-
 angularis.
   b. Quadrangulatus, four-cornered; as Cactus tera-
 gonus.
   c. Quinqueangulatus;  as in  Cactus pentagonus.
   d. Sexangulatus,  six-cornered; as  Cactus hexa-
 gonus.
   e. Mult angulatus, many cornered; as Cactus cereus.
   28.  Caulis  obtusangulatus,  obtuse-angled;  as in
 Scrophularia nodosa.
   29.  Caulis acutangulatus, acute-angled; as  in Scro-
 phularia aquatica.
   30. Caulis triquetrus, three-sided, when there are
 three flat sides, forming acute angles;  as Hedysarum
 triquetrum, Viola mirabilis, Carex acuta.
   31. Caulis tetraquelius, four-sided;  as In Hype-
 ricum  quadrangulare, Monarda fistulosa, Mentha offi-
 cinalis.
   32.  Caulis memhranaceus,  leaf-like; as  in Cactus
 phyilanthus.
   33. Caulis alatus, when the edges or angles expand
 into leaf-like borders; as in Onopordium acanthium,
 and Lathyrus latifolius.
   34  Caulus articulatvs, jointed; as Cactus  flagelli-
 forrnis, and Lathyrus sylvestris.
   35.  Caulis nadosus, knotty, divided at intervals by
 swellings; as in Scandix nodosa, Geranium nodosum.
   36. Caulis enodus, without knot
   From tbe directions, a stem is called
   37. Rectus, erect,  when it ascends almost perpendi-
 cularly ;  as the firs, Chenopodium scoparium,  &c.
   38.  Strictus, straight, perfectly  perpendicular;  as
 Alcea Rosea.
   39.  Obliquus, oblique; as the Solidago Mexicana.
   40.  Ascendens,  ascending, when  its  lower portion
 forms a curve, the convexity of which  is towards the
 earth, or rests upon it, and the summit rises; as exem-
 plified in many grasses, Trifolium pratense, Hedysa-
 rum onobrychis.
   41.  Descendens, or Declinatus, the reverse of  the
 former, forming an arch,  towards  the ground; as in
 Pancratium declinatum, Ficus carica.
   42.  Nutans, or cernuus, nodding, when bent towards
 the summit;  us Polygonatum multiflora.
   43.  Procumbens, or Prostatas, lying on  the earth;
 as Veronica officinalis.
   44. Decumbens, rising a little, and returning to  the
 earth;  as Thymus serphyllum.
   45. Repens, creeping and sending  radicles  into the
 ground; as Trifolium repens, Gnaphalium repens.v
   46.  Flexuosis, zigzag;  as in Celestrus  buxifolius,
 and solidago flcxicaulis.
  47. Radicans, sending fibres which take  root in  the
 earth;  as Ficus Indica.
  48. Sarmentosus,  trailing, or sending off a  runner,
 which  fixes on neighbouring bodies; as tbe  Hedera
 helix.
  49 Stoloniferus, sending off radicating stolos; as
Agrostis stotonifera, and Fragaria vesca.
  50. Scandens, climbing,  furnished with tendrils; as
Bolauum dulcamara, Courca scandens.
  51. Volubilis, twining, winding itself spirally round
 any other plant or body.
   a.  Dextrorsum, when from right to left; as Phaseo-
 lus multiflorus, and Convolvulus.
   b.  Sinistrorsum, in the opposite direction, or follow-
 ing the apparent motion of the Bun; as the Lonicera
 uericleminum, and Humulus lupulus.
   52. Laxus, bent by  the lightest wind;  as Secale
 sereale, and Juncus bufonius.
   53. Rigidus,  breaking when lightly bent; as Boer-
 haavia scandens.
   When clothed with any kind of appendage, the stem
 is designated by a term  expressive ot this; thus,
   54. Caulis foliosus, when leafy; as Melissa offici-
 nalis.
   55. Caulus  aphyllus, when without  leaves; as As-
 phodelus fistulosus.
   56. Caulus  squamosus, scaly;  as the Orobranche
 major.
   57. Caulis stipulatus, when furnished with stipulx;
 as Cystus helianthemura, and Geranium terebinthina
 ceum.
   58. Caulis imbricatus, tiled or covered with little
 leaves or scales; as Crassula imbricata, Aloe viscosa.
   59. Caulus  vaginatus, sheathed, embraced by the
 base  of a leaf as by a sheath; as Canna indica, Arundo
 donox.
   GO. Caulis bulbiferus, bulb-bearing,  when studded
 with  bulbs in tbe axilla of the leaves; as Lilium bul-
 biferum.
   61. Cau2ts nudus, naked,without leaf, scale, or other
 covering; as Cuscuta europea.
   From its mode of branching, into
   62. Caulis simplex, having few branches; as Cam
 panula  perfoliata, Verbascum thapsus.
   63. Caulis  simplicissimus, without branches; as
 Orobanche americana and major, Campanula barbata.
   64. Caulis prolifer, giving off branches only from
 the tops of the former ;  as the Dracena draco.
   65. Caulis dichotomus, forked, always divided into
 pairs; as in Horanthus  europasus  and Valeriana  lo-
 custa.
  66.  Cavil's ramosus, branched;  as Rosmarinus offi-
 cinalis.
  67.  Caulis ramossissimus, having many branches;
 as Chenopodium scoparia, Ulmus, Grossularia, Sec.
  68.  Caulispaniculatus, paniculate; as in Crambo
 tataria.
  From tbe pubescence and armature, or defences, into
  69.  Caulis spinosus,  when furnished with sharp
 spines;  as Prunus  spinosa, and Mespitus oxyacantha.
  70.  Caulis aculeatus, prickly, when  covered with
 sharp-pointed  bodies; as Rosa centifolia and elegan-
 te rea.
  71.  Caulis cetaceus, bristly, when the armature con-
 sists of  brushes of minute bristles; as Cactus flagelli-
 formis.
  72.  Caulis ramentaceus, ramentaceous; as in Erica
 ramentacea.
  73.  Caulis pilosus, hairy, the pubescence consisting
 of long hairs; as  Hieraceum  pilocella, Salvia pra.
 teusis.
  74.  Caulis muricatus, or hispidus, when  the hairs
 are stiff or bristly;  as  Borago officinalis, and Echium
 vulgare.
  75.  Caulis tomentosus, downy, soft  to the touch,
 like down; as Verbascum thapsus, and Geranium ro.
 tundifolium.
  76.  Caulis villosus, shaggy; as Stachysgermanica,
 and Veronica villosa.
  77.  Caulis lanatus, woolly, when the hairs are long
 and matted; as in Stachys lanata, and Balluta lanata.
  78.  Caulis sericus, silky, when the hairs are shining
 and silky.
  Instead of pubescence, the covering is in some in-
 stances either  a  dry powdery, or a  moist, excretion;
 and hence, the stem is denominated either
  79.  Incanus, or pruinosus, when covered with a fine
 while dust;  as the Artiplex portulacoidis.
  SO.  Farinosus, mealy; as the Primula farinosa.
  81.  Glaucus, of a sea-green colour; as Ricinus offi-
cinalis.
  82.  Viscidus, viscid, covered with a resinous exuda-
tion;  as Siline viscosa.
  83.  Glutinosus,  glutinous, when the  exudation is
adhesive and soluble  hi water;  as in Primula glu
tinosa.
  The primary division of a stem is into lateral star
or branches.  These are variously denominated 
CAU
CEL
   From their situation, into
   84. Opposite, when one branch stands on the oppo-
 site side of the stem  to another,  and  their bases are
 nearly on the same plane;  as in Mentha arvensis.
   85. Alternate, one opposite to another, alternately;
 as Althaea officinalis.
   86. Verticillated, when  more  than  two proceed
 from a centre, like the spokes of a wheel; as Pinus
 abies.
   87. Scattered, when given off from the stem in any
 indeterminate manner.
   From Uieir  direction, the branches,  or  rami, are
 termed,
   ctf. Patentee, spreading, when the angle formed by
 the branch and the upper part of the  stem is obtuse;
 as in Galium mollugo, and  Cestus italicus.
   89. Patentissimi, proceeding  at a right angle from
 the stem, or horizontally; as Aminania raniosior, and
 Asparagus officinalis.
   90. Brachiati, brachiate, spread in  four directions,
 crossing each other alternately in pairs; as Syringa
 vulgaris, and Panisteria brachiata.
   91. Defiexi, bending downward from the stem, in an
 arched or curved direction; as Pinus larix.
   92. Rcflexi, hanging almost perpendicularly from the
 stem; as Salix bahylonica.
   93. Retrofiexi, turned backward;  as in Solanum
 dulcamara.
   94. Introfiexi, bent  inward, when the  tops bend to-
 wards the stem; as Populus dilatata.
   95. Fasligiati, when tbe tops of the branches, from
 whatever part or the  stem they spring, rise nearly to
 the same  height; as Chrysanthemum corymbosum,
 and Dianthus barbatus.
   96. Vigali, weak and long; as Salix viminalis.
   97. Appressi, approximated,  when  nearly parallel
 and close to the stein; as Genista tinctoria.
   98. Fulcrate,  supported,  when  they project  nearly
 horizontally, and  give out root-like shoots from the
 under side,  which, extending  until  they reach the
 ground, take root, and serve as props to the branches;
 as in the banyan-tree, or Ficus religiosus.
   Caulis  Florida.  Cauliflower.
   Caulo'des.   (From kovXos, a stem.)  The white or
 green cabbage.
   Caulo'tom.   (From  xavXoc,  a stem; because it
 grows upon a stalk.)  A name given to the beet.
   CAU'MA.  (Kavua, heat; from xaita, to burn.) The
 heat ofthe body in a fever.
   2. The heat of the atmosphere, in a  fever.
   3. The name given by Good and Young, to  an in-
 flammatory fever.
   Cau'nga.  A name ofthe areca.
   CAU'SIS.   (From Kaiia, to burn.)  A burn; or
 rather, the act of combustion, or burning.
   CAUSO'DES.  (From xaita, to burn.)  A term ap-
 plied by Celsus  to a burning fever.
   CAUSO'MA.  (From Katia, to burn.)  An ardent or
 burning heat and inflammation.  A term used by Hip-
 pocrates.
   CAUSTIC.  See Causticum.
   Caustic alkali.  The  pure alkalies are so called.
 See Alkali.
   Caustic barley.   See Cevadilla.
   Caustic lunar.  See Argenti nitras.
   Caustic volatile alkali.  See Ammonia.
   CAU'STICUM.  (From  koiu, to burn; because  it
 always produces a burning sensation.)  A caustic.  A
 substance which has so strong a tendency to combine
 with organized substances, as to destroy  their texture.
 See Escharotic.
   Causticum americanum.  The cevadilla. See Ve-
 ratrum sabadilla.
   Causticum antimonial«. Muriate of antimony.
   Causticum arsenicale.  See Arsenical caustic.
   Causticum commune fortius. See Potassa cum
 colce.
   Causticum lunare.  See Argenti nitras.
   CAU'SUS. (From xaita, to burn.)  A highly ardent
 fever.  According to  Hippocrates, a fiery heat, insa-
 tiable thirst,  a  rough  and  black  tongue, complexion
 yellowish, and the saliva bilious,  are its pecular cha-
 racteristics.  Others also are particular  in describing
 it; but, whether ancients or modems, from what they
 relate, this fever is no other than a continued  ardent
fever in a  bilious constitution.  In it  the heat of the
 body is  intense; the breath la particularly fiery; the
      #09
extremities are cold; the pulse is frequent and smaflj
the heat is more violent internally than externally,
and the whole soon ends in recovery or death.
  CAUTERY.   (Cauterium,  from train), to  burn.)
Cauteries were divided, by the ancients, into actual
ana potential; but the term is now given only to the
red-hot iron, or actual cautery.  This was formerly the
only means of preventing hoeniorrhages from divided
arteries, till the invention of the ligature.  It was also
used in diseases, with the same view as we  employ a
blister.  Potential cautery was  the  name by which
kali  purum, or  potassa, was distinguished  in  former
dispensatories.  Surgeons of the present day  under-
stand, by this term, any caustic application.
  CA'VA.  See Cavus.
  CAVE'RNA.  (From cavus,  hollow.)  A cavern.
The  pudendum muliebre.
  CAVIARE.  Caviarium.   A food made of the hard
roes of sturgeon, formed into a soft mass, or into cakes,
and much esteemed by the Russians.
  Cavi'cula.  (Diminutive  of cavilla.)  See Cavilla.
  Cavilla.  (From cavus.)  The  ankle, or hollow
of the foot
  CAVITY. (Cavitas, from cauu», hollow.) 1. Any
cavity, or hollowness.
  2.  The auricle of the  heart was formerly called
cavitas innominata, the hollow without a name.
  CAVUS. Hollow.  1. The name of a vein, vena cava.
See Veins.
  2.  Applied  to the roots of plants; as that  of the
Fumaria cava.
  Cawk.  A term by which the miners distinguish the
opaque specimens of sulphate of barytes.
  Cayenne pepper.  See Capsicum.
  Cazabi.  See Jatropha.
  CEANO'THUS. (From K£av<u$oc,quia Ktti avia&tv,
because it pricks at the extreme part.)   A genus of
plants  in the Linnxan system.  Class, Penlandria t
Order, Monogynia.
  Ceanothus americanus.   Celastrus;  Cclasius
Some noted Indians depend more on this plant,  than
on the lobelia, for the cure of syphilis, and use it  in
the same manner as lobelia.
  Cea'sma. (From Ktto, to split, or divide.)  Ccasmus
A fissure, or fragment.
  Ce'ber.  (Arabian.)  Tbe Lignum aloes.  Also the
capparis.
  Ceripi'ra.  (Indian.)  A tree which grows in Bra-
zil, decoctions of the bark of which aro used in baths
and  fomentations, to  relieve pains in  the limbs, and
cutaneous diseases.
  CE'DAR.   See Pinus cedrus.
  Ce'dma.  (From KtSaia, to disperse.)  A defluxion,
or rheumatic  affection, of the parts about the hips.
  Ce'drinum liqnum.  See Pinus cedrus.
  Cedri'tes.  (From  Ktipos, the cedar-tree.)  Wine
In which the  resin which distils  from the cedar-tree
has been Rteeped.
  CE'DRIUM.  1. Cedar, or cedar-tree
  2. Common tar, in old writings.
  Cedrome'la.  The fruit of the citron-tree.
  Cedrone'lla.  Turkey baum.
  Cedro'stis.   (From wrjpoj, the cedar-tree.)   A
name ofthe white bryony, which smells like the cedar.
See Bryonia alba.
  CE'DRUS.  (From  Kedron, a valley  where this
tree grows abundantly.)  See Pinus cedrus.
  Cedrus americana.  The arbor vitas.
  Cedrus baccifera.  The savine.
  Cei'ria.   (From  Kttpta,  to abrade.)   The tape-
worm; so called from  its excoriating and  abrading
the intestines.
  CE'LANDINE.  See Chelidonium majus.
  Cela'strus.   (From KtXa, a dart, which  it repre-
sents.  See Ceanothus americanus.
  Celastus.  See Ceanothus americanus.
  CE'LE.  (From iojXi;.)  A tumour  caused  by the
protrusion of any soft part   Hence  the compound
terms hydrocele, bubonocele,  Sec
  CE'LER Y.  The English name for a variety of the
apium graveolens.
  CELESTINE.  So called from its occasional deli-
cate  blue colour.  A native sulphate of strontites. See
Heavy spar.
  Ce'lis.  (From Kaiia, to burn.)  A spot or blemish
upon the skin, particularly that which is occasioned
by a burn. 
CEN
CEN
  Ce lla turcica.   See Sella turcica.
  CE'LLULA.  (Diminutive of cello, a cell.)  A little
cell, or cavity.
  Celluls mastoidje.  See Temporal bones.
  CEXLULAR.   Cellularis.  Having little cells.
  Cellular membrane.  Membrana cellulosa : Tela
ecllulosa; Panniculus adiposus ; Membrana adiposa,
pinguedinosa  et reticularis.   Cellular tissue.  The
cellular tissue of the body, composed of lamina;  and
fibres variously joined together, which is the connecting
medium of every part of the body.  It is by means
of the  communication of the cells of this membrane,
that the butchers blow  up their veal.   The cellular
membrane is, by some anatomists, distinguished  into
the reticular and adipose membrane.  The former is
evidently dispersed throughout the whole body, except
the substance of the brain. It makes  a bed for  the
other solids of the body, covers  them all, and unites
them one to another.  The adipose membrane consists
of the  reticular substance, and a particular apparatus
for the secretion of  oil, and is mostly found imme-
diately  under  the skin of many parts, and  about  the
kidneys.
  CELOTO'MIA.  (From icnXn, hernia, and rtuvta, to
cut)  The operation for hernia.
  Ce'lsa.  A  term of Paracelsus,  to signify what is
called the live blood in any particular part
  CE'LSUS, Aurelius  Cornelius.  It is commonly
supposed, that this  esteemed  ancient  author was a
Roman of  the Cornelian family, horn towards the end
of the  reign of Augustus, and still living in Ihe time of
Caligula.  But these points are not established upon
certain testimony, and it is even disputed whether he
practised medicine;  though his  perfect acquaintance
with  the doctrines of his  predecessors, his  accurate
descriptions of diseases, and his judicious rules of
treatment, appear to  leave little room for doubt on that
head.   At  any rate, his  eight books, " De Medicina,"
have gained him deserved celebrity in modern times,
containing a  large fund of valuable information; de-
tailed  in remarkably elegant and  concise  language.
In surgery particularly he has been greatly admired,
for the  methods of  practice laid down, and for de-
scribing several operations as they are still performed.
There have been numerous editions of his work, and
translations of it into the several modern languages.
  CEMENT.  Chemists call by this name  whatever
they employ  to  unite or cement things together; as
lutes, glues, Holders of every kind.
  CEMENTATION.   A  chemical process, which
consists in surrounding  a body in the solid  state with
the powder of some other bodies, and exposing the
whole for  a  lime  in a  closed vessel, to a  degree of
heat not sufficient to fuse  the contents.  Thus iron is
converted  into steel by cementation with  charcoal;
green  bottle glass  is converted into porcelain by ce-
mentation with sand, Sec.
  Cemb'nterium.  A crucible.
  Ce'nchramis.  (From KtyxpoSi millet)  A grain or
seed of the fig.
  Ce'nchrius.  A species of herpes that  resembles
Ktyxpos, or millet.
  CENEANGEI'A.  (From kcvos, empty, and ayyos,
a vessel.)  A deficiency of blood, or other fluids in the
vessels; so that they have not their proper quantity.
  Ceni'odam.   Ceniplam; Cenigotam;  Cenipolam.
An instrument anciently used for opening the head in
epilepsies.
  Ceniote'mium.  A purging remedy, formerly of use
in the venereal disease, supposed to be mercurial.
  CENO'SIS.  (From  kcvos, empty.)   Evacuation.
It imports a general evacuation.  Catharsis was ap-
plied to the evacuation of a particular humour, which
offends with respect to quality.
  CENOTICA.   (Cenoticus; from Ktvia^ts, evacuatio,
exinanitio, emptiness.)  The name of an order in the
class Genetica of Good's Nosology: diseases affecting
the fluids, and embracing paramenia, leucorrhea,
blenorrhaa, spermorrhea, and galeclea.
  CENTAU'REA.  (So called from Chiron, the cen-
taur, who  is said to have employed one of  its species
to cure himself  of a wound accidentally received, by
letting  one of the arrows of Hercules fall upon his
foot)   The name of a genus of plants in the Linnrean
system, of the Order, Polygamia frustanea; Class,
Syngenesia.
  Ckxtaokka behen.   The systematic  name of the
officinal behen album;  Jacea orientalis patula; Ud-
phonticoides lutea.  The true white behen of the an-
cients.  The root possesses astringent virtues.
  Centaurea benedicta.   The systematic name of
the  blessed or holy  thistle.  Carduus benedictus;
Cnicus  sylvestris;   Centaurea  benedicta—calycibus
duplicato-spinosis  lanatis  involucratis, foliis semi-
decurrentibus denticulalo-spinosis of Limiieus.   This
exotic plant, a native of Spain, and  some  of the
Archipelago islands, obtained the  name of Benedictus,
from  its  being  supposed  to  possess extraordinary
medicinal virtues.   In loss of  appetite, where the
stomach was injured by irregularities, its good effects
have been frequently  experienced. It is a powerful
bitter tonic and adstringent  Bergius considers it as
antacid, corroborant, stomachic, sudorific, diuretic, and
eccoprotic.  Chamomile  flowers  are now generally
substituted for the Carduus benedictus, and are thought
to be of at least equal value.
  Centaurea calcitrapa.  The systematic name of
the  common  star-thistle.    Star-knapweed.    Calci-
trapa;  Carduus stellatus; Jacea ramosissima, stel-
lata, rupina.  The plant thus called in the pharmaco-
poeias, is the Centaurea—calycibus subduplicato-spino-
sis, sessilibus ; foliis pinnatifidis, linearibus dentatis;
caule piloso, of" Linnaeus, every part of which is bitter.
The juice, or extract, or  infusion, is  said  to  cure
iutermittents; and the bark of the root, and the seeds,
have been recommended in nephritic disorders, and in
suppression of urine.  It scarcely differs, in its effects,
from other bitters, and is now little used.
  Centaurea centaurium.  Rhaponticum vulgare i
Centaurium magnum; Centaurium majus.   Greater
centaury.  The root of this plant was formerly used as
an  aperient and corroborant in  alvine  fluxes.  It is
now totally discarded from the Materia Medica of this
country.
  Centaurea cvanus. The systematic name of the
blue-bottle,  or corn-flower plant.  Cyani.   Cyanus.
The flowers of this plant, Centaurea—calycibus serra-
tis : foliis linearibus, integerrimis, infimis dentatis, ot
Linnueus, were formerly in frequent use;  but their an-
tiphlogistic, antispasmodic, cordial, aperient, diuretic,
and other properties,  are now, with  great propriety,
forgotten.
  Centaurea solstitialis.  Calcitrapa officinalis;
 Carduus  stellatus  luteus; Carduus solstitialis; Ja-
cea Stellata ; Jacea lutea  capite spinoso minori ; Leu-
canthe veterum.   St. Barnaby's  thistle.  It is com-
mended as an anticteric, anticachectic, and lithontrip-
tic, but is, in reality, only a weak tonic.
  Centaurioi'des.  The eratiola.
   CENTAURIUM.  (From Ktv]avpos, a centaur: so
 called, because it was feigned  that Chiron cured. Her-
 cules's font which he had wounded with a poisonous
 arrow, with it.)  Centaury.  See  Chironia centaurium.
   Centaurium  magnum.   See Centaurea Centau-
 rium.
   Centaurium majus.  See Centaurea  Centaurium.
   Centaurium minus.  See Chironia centaurium.
   CENTAU'RY.   See Chironia.
   Centimor'bia.   (From  centum, a  hundred, and
 morbus,  a  disease:)  The  Lysimachia nummularia,
 or moneywort, was so named, from its  supposed effi-
 cacy in the cure of a multitude of disorders.
   Centino'dia.  See Centum nodia.
   CENTI PES.  (From centum, a hundred, and pes,
 a foot.)  The woodlouse, so named from the multi-
 tude of its feet.
   Centra'tio.  (From centrum, a centre.)  The con-
 centration and affinity of certain substances to each
 other.  Paracelsus expresses by it the degenerating of
 a saline  principle, and contracting  a  corrosive and
 exonerating quality.  Hence Centrum salt* is said to-
 be the principle and cause of ulcers.
   Ce'ntrium.  (From Kcvrcia, to prick.)  A plaster
 recommended by Galen against  stitches and pains in
 the side.                           .       .      ,
   CE'NTRUM.  (From Kcvrtta,  to point or prick.)  1.
 The middle point of a circle.                 .
  2.  In chemistry, it is the residence or foundation of

  3. In medicine,  It is the  point in  which its virtue
 resides
  4.  In anatomv, the middle point of some parts is so
 named, as centrum nervcum, the middle or tendmoaa
 part of tbe diaphragm 
CER
CER
    CaNTatrM nervktjm.  The centre of the diaphragm.
  See Diaphragm,
    Centrum ovale.  When the two hemispheres of
  the brain are removed on a line with a level of the
  corpus callosum, the internal medullary part presents
  a somewhat oval centre, which is called centrum ovale.
  Vieussenius supposed all the medullary fibres met at
  this place.
    Centrum tendinobum.  The tendinous  centre of
  the diaphragm.  See Diapragm.
    CENTUMNO'DIA.  (From centum, a hundred, and
  nodus, a knot; so called from its many knots or joints.)
  Centinodia.  Common knot-grass.  See Polygonum
  aviculare.
    Cehtu'nculus.  Bastard pimpernel.
    CE PA.   (From imjrroc, a wool-card, from the  like-
  ness of its roots.) The onion.  See Allium cepa.
    Cbpje'a.  A species of onion.
    CEPHAL-ffi'A.  (From KtfiaXv, the head.)  1. The
  flesh ofthe head which covers tbe skull.
    2. A headache.  Dr. Good makes this a  genus  of
  disease in bis Order, Systatica;  Class, Neurotica.  It
  has five species, Cephalaa graverus, interna, hemicra-
  nia, pulsatilis, nauscosa.
    CEPHALALGIA.   (From KtibaXn, the head, and
  aXyos, pain.)  Cephalaa.   The headache.  It is symp-
  tomatic of very many diseases, but is rarely an original
  disease itself.  Wlien mild, it is called cephalalgia;
  When  inveterate, cephalff-n.  When one side of the
  head only is affected, it takes the names of hemicrania,
  migrana, hemipagia, and megrim;  in one of the tem-
  ples only, crotaphos; and that  which is fixed  to a
  point, generally in the crown of the head,  is distin-
  guished by tbe name of clavus.
    Cepiiala'rtica.  (From KtfaXn,  the head, and ap-
  nlfa, to make pure.)   Medicines  which purge the
  head.
    CE'PHALE.  Ktd,aXn.  The head.
    CLPHALIC.  (From KCfaXn, the head.)  Pertaining
  to the head. 1.  A variety of external and  internal
  medicines are so called, as  being adapted for the cure
•  Of disorders of the head. Of tins class are the snuffs,
  which produce a discharge from the mucous membrane
  Of the nose,  Sec
    2. Nerves, arteries, veins, muscles, &c. are so called,
  Which are situated on the head.
    3. The name of a vein of the arm, which it  was sup-
  posed went  to the head.
    Cephalic vein.  (Vena cephalica; so  called be-
  cause ihe head was supposed to be relieved by opening
  it.)  The anterior or outermost vein of the arm, that
  receives the cephalic ofthe thumb.
    Cephalicus pulvis.  A powder prepared from asa-
  rum.
    CEPHALI'TIS. (From KvpaXn, the head.)   Inflam-
  mation of the head. Empresma cephalitis  of Good.
  See Phrenitis.
    CEPH ALO.  This term is joined to others  to denote
  the connexion of tbe muscle, artery, nerve, See to the
  bead.
    CEPHALONO'SUS.  (From KttbaXn, the head  and
  votos, a disease.)  Any disease of the head.  Applied
  to tbe febris hungarica, in which the head is princi-
  pally affected.
    Cephalo-pharynoeus.  (From KttbaXn, the head,
  and $apvy\, the throat)   A muscle of the pharynx.
  Bee Constrictor pharyngis  inferior.
   CEPHALOPONIA.  (From KtiiaXtj, the head, and
 Sovos,  pain.) Headache.
    Cepi'ni.   Vinegar.
   Cupula.  Large myrobalans.
   'CERA.  Wax. Bees' wax.  A solid concrete sub-
stance, collected from vegetables by bees, and extracted
  from their combs after the honey is got out, by heating
 And pressing them.
   It was long considered as a resin, from some proper-
  ties common to it witn resins.  Like them it furnishes
  an oil and an acid by distillation, and is soluble in all
 oils; but in several respects it  differs sensibly from
 lesins.   Like these, wax has not a strong aromatic
 taste and smell, but a very weak smell, and when pure,
 no taste. With the heat of boiling water, no princi-
 ples are distilled  from  it; whereas, with  that heat,
 some essential oil, or at least a  spiritus rector, is ob-
 tained  from every resin.  Farther, wax is less soluble
 iu alkohol.  If wax be distilled  with a heat greater
  than that of boiling water, it may be decomposed, but
       9H
 not so easily  as resins can.   By this distillation, a
 small quantity of water is first separated from the wax,
 and then some very volatile and very penetrating acid,
 accompanied with a small quantity of  a veiy fluid
 and very odoriferous oil.  As the distillation advances,
 the acid becomes more  and more strong, and the oil
 more and more thick, till its consistence is such that it
 becomes solid in  the receiver, and is then called butter
 of wax.  When the distillation is finished, nothing re-
 mains  but a small quantity of coal, which is almost
 incombustible.
   Wax cannot be kindled, unless it is previously heat-
 ed and reduced  into vapours; in  which respect it
 resembles fat oils.  The oil of butter of wax  may, by
 repeated distillations, be attenuated and rendered more
 and more fluid, because some portion of acid is there-
 by separated from these substances; which  effect is
 similar to what happens in the distillation of other oils
 and oily concretes: but this remarkable effect attends
 the repeated distillation of oil and butter of wax, that
 they become more and more soluble in alkohol; and
 ihat they never acquire  greater consistence hy evapo-
 ration of their more fluid parts.  Boerhaave kept but-  i
 ter of wax in a glass vessel, open, or carelessly closed,
 during twenty  years, without acquiring a more solid
 consistence.  It may be remarked, that wax, its butter,
 and its oil, differ entirely from essential oils and resins
 in all the above-mentioned  properties, and tbat  in all
 these they perfectly resemble sweet oils.  Hence Ma-
 quer concludes, that wax resembles resins only in  be-
 ing an oil rendered concrete by an acid; but that it
 differs essentially from these iu the  kind of  the oil,
 which in resins is ofthe nature of essential oils, while
 in  wax and in other analogous oily concretions (as
 butter of milk, butter of cocoa, fat of animals, sperma-
 ceti, and myrtle-wax) it is of the nature of mild unc-
 tuous oils, that are not aromatic, and not volatile, and
 are obtained from vegetables by expression. It seems
 probable, that the acidifying principle, or oxygen, and
 not an  actual acid, may be the leading cause of the
 solidity, or low  fusibility of wax.
  In the state in which it is obtained from the combs,
 it  is called  yellow wax, cera flava; and this, when
 new,  is of a lively yellow colour,  somewhat tough,
 yet easy to break: by age, it loses its fine colour, and
 becomes harder and  more brittle.  Yellow wax, after
 being reduced into thin cakes, and bleached by a long
 exposure to the sun and open air, is again  melted, and
 formed  into round cakes, called virgin wax, or white
 wax, cera alba.  The chief medicinal use of wax is
 in plasters, unguents, and other like external applica-
 tions, partly for giving  the requisite  consistence to
 other ingredients, and partly on account of its  own
 emollient quality.
  Cera alba.  See Cera.
  Cera dicardo.  The carduus pinea.
  Cera flava.   Yellow wax.   See  Cera.
  [Cera veoetabilis.   Vegetable  wax,  or natural
 wax.  Wax  seems to abound  in some plants more
 than in others, and is easily collected from ihem.  The
 bayberry (Myrica cerifera) abounds on  the sandy
 shores of the United States, and in the autumn the wax
 is scraped from the plants, and, when  melted and run
 into cakes,  forms a  beautiful  green  vegetable wax
 which is made  into wax tapers, or sometimes melted*
 with a portion of tallow, and made into candles, which
 partake of the green colour of the wax, and are called
 bayberr^candles, the vegetable ccragi ving hardness and
 consistence to the candles, and therefore more useful
 in the heat of summer.   We recollect seeing a large
 specimen of white vegetable wax in the possession of
 Dr. S. L. Mitchill, received by him from South Ame-
 rica, and exhibited to his class when he  lectured on
 Materia Medica, in the College of Physicians and Sur-
 geons of New-York.  On inquiry, since,  he informs
 us, that  he never could ascertain the botanical name
 of the plant, though it was said to be a tree.  A i
  Czksl'm.  (From Ktpas, a horn.)  So Rufus Ephe-
 sius calls the cornua or appendages of the uterus.
  Cerani'tes.  (From Ktpavvvui, to temper together)
 A  name formerly applied to a pastil, or troch, bv
 Galen.                                       '  '
* Ce'ras.  (Kepas, a horn.)  A wild sort of parsnip
is so named from its shape.
  CE'RASA.  (Ktpaoof, the cherry-tree; from Kepa-
 <3ov]n, a town in Pontus, whence Lucullus first brought
 them to Rome:  or from wjp, the heart; from the fruit 
CER
CER
having a resemblance to it in shape and colour.)   The
cherry.   See Prunus.
  Ckrasa niora.  See Prunus avium.
  CbraSa rubra.  See Prunus cerasus.
  Cerasia'tum.  (From cerasus, a cherry ; so called
because cherries ore an ingredient.)   A purging medi-
cine in Libavius.
  CE'RASIN.  The name given by Dr; John  of  Ber-
lin, to those gummy substances which swell in  cold
water, but do  not  readily dissolve  in it.  Cerasin is
soluble in boiling water, but separates in a jelly when
the water cools.  Water, acidulated with sulphuric,
nitric, or muriatic  acid, by the aid  of a gentle heat,
forms a permanent solution of cerasin.  Gum traga-
canth is the  best example of this species of vegetable
product.
  Ceiia'sius.  (From  cerasus,  a cherry.)   Crasios.
The name of two ointments in Mesue.
  Cera'sma.  (From Ktpavwpi, to mix.)  A mixture
of cold  and  warm water, when the  warm is poured
into the cold.
  CE'RASUS.   The  cherry and  cherry-tree.  See
Prunus cerasus.
  CE'RATE.  Ceratum.   A composition of wax, oil,
or lard,  with or without other ingredients.   The
obsolete synonymes are, cerelaum, ceroma, ceronium,
ccrotum,  ceratomalagma.  Cerates  take their name
from the wax which enters into their composition, and
to which they owe their consistence, which is inter-
mediate between that of plasters and that of ointments;
though no very definite rule for this consistence is, in
fact, either given or observed.
  Cera'tia.  (From  Ktpas, a horn, which its  fruit
resembles.)  See Ceratonia siliqua.
  Ceratia diphyllus.  See Courbaril
  Cera'ticum.  See Ceratonia siliqua.
  CERA'TO.   (From Ktpas, a horn.) Some  muscles
have this word as  a part  of their  names, fiom  their
Bhape.
  Cerato-gi.ossus.  (From Ktpas,ahom,andyX-aaoa,
a tongue.)   A muscle, so named from its shape and
insertion into the tongue.   See Hyoglossus.
  CeRato-hyoideus.   See Stylo-hyoideus.
  Ceratomalagma.  A cerate.
  CERATOl'DES. (From Ktpalos, the genitive of
ictpaj, horn,  and ctSos, appearance.)  See Cornea.
  CERATO'NIA.   (Ktpanavta of Galen and Paulus
.jEgineta; so called from its horn-like pod.) The name
of a genus  of  plants.   Class, Polygamia;   Order,
 Triecia.
  Ceratonia siliqua.  The systematic name of the
plant which aflbrds the sweet  pod.  Ceratium;  Ce-
ratia; Siliqua dulcis.   The pods are about four inches
in length, and as thick as one's finger, compressed and
unequal, and mostly bent;  they contain a sweet brown
pulp, which is  given  in the  form of decoction, as a
pectoral  in asthmatic complaints and coughs.
  CERA'TUM.  (Ceratum; i. in.;  from cera, wax,
because its principal ingredient is wax.)  Sec Cerate.
  Ceratum  album.  See Ceratum cetacci.
  Ceratum calaminje.   Ceratum  lapidis calamina-
ris; Ceratum epuloticum.  Calamine  cerate. Take
of prepared calamine, yellow wax, of each  half a
pound;  olive oil, a pint  Mix the oil with the melted
wax; then remove it from the fire, and,  as soon as it
begins to thicken, add the calamine, and stir it  con-
stantly until the mixture  becomes cold   A composi-
tion of this  kind was first introduced under the name
of Turner's cerate.  It is well calculated to promote
the cicatrization of ulcers.
  Ceratum cantharidis.  Ceratum Lytta.  Cerate
of  blistering fly.  Take  of  spermaceti cerate,  six
drachms; blistering flies, in very line powder, a drachm.
Having softened the cerate by heat, odd tne flies, and
mix them together.
  Ceratum cetacei.   Cratum spermatis ceti   Ce-
ratum album.  Spermaceti cerate.  Take of sperma-
ceti, half an ounce; white wax, two  ounces;  olive
oil, 4 fluid-ounces.  Add the oil to the spermaceti and
rvax, previously melted together, and stir them until
the mixture becomes cold.  This cerate is cooling and
emollient, and applied to excoriations, Sec.: it may be
used with advantage in all  ulcers, where no stimu-
lating substance  can be applied, being extremely mild
and unctuous.
  Ceratum  citrinum. See Ceratum resine.
  Ceratum  coim.   Hemlock cerate   It unguenti
conn, ftj. Spermatis ceti, 5 ij. Cers; albas, 5iij, Miace.
One ot the formula; of St. Bartholomew's  hospital,
occasionally applied to cancerous,scrofulous, phage-
denic, herpetic, and other inveterate sores.
  Ceratum epuloticum.  See Ceratum calamina.
  Ceratum lapidis  calaminaris.   See  Ceratum
calamine.
  Ceratum lithargyri acetati compositum.  See
Ceratum plumbi compositum.
  Ceratum plumbi acetatis.  Unguentum cerusse
acetate  Cerate of acetate of lead.  Take of acetate
of lead, powdered, two drachms;  while wax,  two
ounces; olive oil, half a pint.   Dissolve the wax in
seven fluid-ounces  of oil; then gradually add thereto
the acetate of lead, separately rubbed down with the
remaining  oil, and stir the mixture with a wooden
slice, until the whole has united.  This cerate is cool-
ing and desiccative.
  Ceratum plumbi compositum. Ceratum lithargyri
acetati compositum. Compound cerate of lead.  Take
of solution of acetate of lead, two fluid-ounces  and a
half; yellow wax, four ounces; olive oil, nine fluid-
ounces ; camphor, half a drachm.  Mix the wax  pre-
viously melted, with eight fluid-ounces of oil; then
remove it from the fire, and, when it begins to thicken,
add gradually the solution of acetate of lead, and con-
stantly stir  the mixture with a wooden slice until  it
gets cold.   Lastly, mix in the camphor, previously
dissolved in the remainder  of the oil.  Its virtues arc
cooling, desiccative, resolvent against chronic  rheuma-
tism, &c. fee.; and as a proper application to super-
ficial ulcers, which ore inflamed.
  Ceratum resinje.   Ceratum resine flava;  Cera
turn citrinum.  Resin cerate.   Take of yellow  resin,
yellow wax, of each a pound; olive oil, a pint.   Melt
the resin and wax together, over a slow fire; then add
the oil, and strain the cerate, while hot, through  a
linen cloth.  Digestive.
  Ceratum sabinj:.  Savine cerate.  Take  of fresh
leaves of savine, bruised, a pound; yellow wax, half
a pound ; prepared lard, two pounds.  Having melted
together the wax  and lard,  boil therein the savine
leaves, and strain through a linen cloth.  This article
is of late introduction, for the purpose of keeping up
a discharge from blistered  surfaces.  It was first de
scribed by Mr. Crowther, and has since been  received
into extensive use, because it  does not produce the
inconveniences that follow the constant application
of the common blistering cerate. A thick white layer
forms daily upon the part, which requires to be re-
moved, that the cerate may be applied immediately to
the surface from  which the discharge is to be  made.
  Ceratum saponis.  Soap cerate.  Take  of hard
soap, eight ounces: yellow wax, ten ounces; semi-
vitreous oxide of lead, powdered, a pound ; olive oil,
a  pint; vinegar,  a  gallon.  Boil the vinegar,  with the
oxide of lend, over a  slow  fire, constantly  stirring,
until the union is complete; then add the soap,  and
boil it again in a similar manner, until the moisture is
entirely evaporated; then mix iu the wax, previously
melted with the  oil.  Resolvent; against scrofulous
tumours, fee.  It is a convenient application in frac-
tures, and may be used as.an external dressing for ulcers.
  Ceratum simplex.   Ceratum.   Simple cerate.
Take of olive oil, four fluid-ounces; yellow wax, four
ounces: having melted the wax, mix the oil with it.
  Ceratum spermatis ceti.   See Ceratum cetacei.
  Ce'rberus.   (Kepfcooc; because, like the dog Cer-
berus, it has three heads, or principal ingredients, each
of which is eminently active.)  A fanciful name given
to  the compound powder of scammony.
  Cerchna'leum.   (From Ktpx<a, to make a noise.)
A wheezing, or bubbling noise, made by the  trachea,
in  breathing.
  CE'RCHNOS.  (From Ktpx<a, to wheeze.)  Cerch-
nus.  Wheezing.   Dr. Good applies it to a species of
bis genus  Rhonchus, to designate  a primary evil or
disease; rhonchus cerchnus, or wheezing.
  CERCHNO'DES.  (From Ktpxia,  to wheeze.)
Ccrchodes.  One who labours under a dense breathing,.
accompanied with a wheezing noise.
  CERCHO'DES.  See Cerchnodes.
  Ce'rcis.   (Ktptu; literally means  the  spoke of  a
wheel, and has us name from tbe noise which wheels
often make; from Kpexta, to shriek.)  The radial bone
of the fore-arm was formerly so called from its shape,
like a spoke  Also a uestle from its ehape. 
CER
CER
   CERCO'SIS.  (From wpxoj, a tail.)   1. A polypus
 ofthe uterus.
   2. An enlargement of the clitoris.
   CE'REA.  (From cera, wax.)  The cerumen au-
 riiun, or wax ofthe ear.
   CEREA'LIA.  (Solemn feasts to the goddess Ceres.)
 All sorts of corn, of which bread or any nutritious
 substance is made, come under the head of  cerealia,
 which term is applied by bromatologists as a genus.
   Cerebe'lla urina.  Paracelsus thus distinguishes
 urine which is whitish, ofthe colour of the brain, and
 from which he  pretended to judge of some of its dis-
 orders.
   CEREBE'LLUM. (Diminutive of cerebrum.)  The
 little brain. A somewhat round viscus, of the same
 use as the brain ; composed, like the brain, of a cor-
 tical and medullary substance, divided by a septum
 into a right and left lobe, and situated under the ten-
 torium, in  the inferior  occipital fossae.  In the cere-
 bellum  are to  be observed  the crura  cerebelli,  the
 fourth ventricle, the valvula magna cerebri,  and  the
protuberantia vermiformes.
   CE'REBRUM.   (Quasi cerebrum; from Kapa,  the
 bead.)  The brain. A large round  viscus,  divided
 superiorly into a right and left hemisphere, and infe-
 riorly into six  lobes, two anterior, two  middle, and
 two posterior; situated within the cranium, and sur-
 rounded by the  dura and pta mater, and tunica arach-
 noides.   It is composed of a cortical substance, which
 is external; and a medullary, which is internal.  It
 has three cavities, called ventricles; two anterior, or
 lateral,  which are divided  from each other by  the
 septum lucidum, and in each of which is the  choroid
plexus, formed of blood-vessels; the third ventricle is
a space between the lhalanii nervorum opticofutn.
The principal prominences of the brain are, the corpus
callosum, a medullary  eminence, conspicuous  upon
laying aside the  hemispheres of the brain ; the  corpora
striata, two striated protuberances, one in the anterior
part of each lateral ventricle; the thalami nervorum
opticorum, two whitish eminences behind the former,
which terminate in the optic nerves; the corpora quad-
rigemina, four  medullary projections, called  by the
ancients nates and testes ; a  little cerebrine tubercle
lying upon the  nates, called  the pineal gland; and,
lastly, the  crura  cerebri, two  medullary  columns,
   2. The name given by Dr. John to the part of com-
 mon wax which dissolves in alkohol.
   3. The name of a variety of the mineral allanite.
   Cb'rion.  (From tenptov, a honey-comb.)  An erup-
 tive disorder of the head. See Achor.
   CERITE. The siliciferous oxide of cerium.  A rare
 mineral of  a rose-red colour,  found  only in the cop-
 per mine of Bastnacs, in Sweden.  It consists of silica,
 oxide of cerium, and oxide of iron, lime, and carbonic
 acid.
   CERnjM.  The  name of the metal, the oxide of
 which exists in the mineral cerite.
   To obtain the oxide of the new metal,  the cerite is
 calcined,  pulverized, and dissolved  in nitromuriatic
 acid. The filtered solution being neutralized with pure
 potassa, is to  be precipitated  by tartrate of potassa;
 and the precipitate, well washed, and afterwards cal-
 cined, is oxide of cerium.
   Cerium is susceptible of two stages of oxidation; in
 the first it is white, and this by calcination becomes of
 a  fallow-red.
   The white oxide exposed to the blowpipe soon be-
 comes red,  but does  not melt,  or even  agglutinate.
 With a large proportion of borax it fuses into a trans-
 parent globule.
   The white oxide becomes yellowish in the open air,
 but never so red as  by calcination, because  it absorbs
 carbonic acid, which prevents its saturating itself with
 oxygen, and retains a portion of water, which  dimi-
 nishes its colour.
   Alkalies do not act on it; but caustic potassa in the
 dry way, takes part of the oxygen from the  red oxide so
 as to convert it into the white without altering its nature.
  The protoxide of cerium is composed by Hisinger of
 85.17 metal + 14.83  oxygen, and the peroxide of 79.3
 metal -f- 20.7.  The protoxide has been  supposed a
 binary compound of cerium 5.75 + oxygen 1, and the
 peroxide a compound of 5.75 X 2 of cerium + 3 oxy
 gen.  An alloy  of- this metal with iron was obtained
 by Vauquplin.
  The salts  of  cerium are white or yellow-coloured,
 have a sweet taste, yield a white precipitate with hy-
 drosulphuret of potassa,  but none with sulpheretted
 hydrogen ; a milk-white precipitate, soluble in nitric
and muriatic acids, with ferroprussiate of potassa, and
oxalate of ammonia; none with infusion of galls, and
 which proceed from the basis of the brain to the me- I a white one with arseniate of potassa.
 dulla oblongata.  The cerebral arteries are branches '
 of the carotid and vertebral arteries.  The veins ter-
 minate in  sinuses,  which  return their blood into
 the internal jugulars.  The use of the bruin  is to
 give off nine pairs of nerves, and the spinal marrow,
 from which thirty-one more pairs proceed, through
 whose means the various senses are performed, and
 muscular motion excited.  It is also considered  as the
 organ of the intellectual functions.
   Vauquelin's analysis ofthe brain is in 100 parte; 80
 water, 4.53 white fatty matter, 0.7 reddish fatty matter,
 7 albumen, 1.12 osmazome, 1.5 phosphorus, 5.15 acids,
 salts, and sulphur.
   Cerebrum  elonqatum.  The medulla oblongata,
 and medulla spinalis.
   CEREFOLIUM.   A corruption of  charophyllum.
 See Scandix cerefolium.
   Cerefolium hispanicum.  Sweet-cicely.  See Scan-
 dix odorata.
   Cerefolium sylvestrk.  See Charophyllum syl-
 vestre.
   CERELjE'UM. (From unjpof, wax, and tXaiov, oil.)
 A cerate, or liniment, composed of wax and oil.   Also
 tne oil of tar.
   CEREOLUS.  A wax bougie.
   CE'REUS MEDICATUS.  See Bougie.
  CEREVI'SIA.  (From ceres, corn, of which it is
 made.)  Any liquor made from corn, especially ale and
 strong beer.
  Cerevisije cataplasma.  Into the grounds of strong
 beer( stir as much oatmeal as will make it of a suitable
consistence. This is  sometimes employed as a stimu-
lant and an antiseptic to mortified parts.
  Cerevisije  fermentum.  See Fermentum  Cere-
visia.
  Ce'ria.    (From cereus, soft, pliant.)   The flat
worms which breed in the intestines.  See Tenia
  CERIN.  1. Subercerin.
  CERO'MA. (From Knpos, wax.)  Ceronium. Terms
 used by the ancient physicians for an unguent, or ce-
 rate, though originally applied to a particular compo-
 sition which the wrestlers used in their exercises.
  CEROPI'SSUS.   (From 10700c,  wax,  and atotra
 pitch.)  A plaster composed of pitch and wax.
  Cerotum.  Ktoiarov.   A cerate.
  [Cerulin.  " By the action of sulphuric acid on in-
 digo, two  new substances are obtained, termed, by Mr
 Cruin, Cerulin and Phenicin.  To prepare the former,
 the indigo is digested in the acid, the mixture is dis-
 solved in  a  large quantity of sulphuric acid, and the
 filtered solution is  precipitated by potassa.  The pre-
 cipitate consists  of cerulin, in combination with  the
 sulphate of potassa, and has been called Ceruleo-sul-
phate of potassa.  It requires about 120  parts of wa-
 ter for its solution, and forms a very deep  blue-colour-
 ed liquid.  In its property of forming insoluble  com
 pounds with neutral salts, cerulin is.analogous to tan.
 From its ultimate analysis, it  appears to consist of 1
 atom of indigo + 4 atoms of water."— Webster's Man.
 of Chem.  A.]
  CERU'MEN. (Cerumen; diminutive of cera, wax.)
 Wax.  See Cera.
  Cerumen aurium.  Cerea; Aurium sordes; Mar-
 morata  aurium; Cypsele; Cypselis; Fugile.  The
 waxy secretion of the ear, situated in the meatus audi-
 torius externus.
  [" Cerumen auris.  A degree of deafness is  fre-
 quently produced by the lodgment of hard dry pelletij
 of this substance in the meatus auditorius.  The best
 plan, in such cases, is to syringe the ear with warm
 water, which should  be injected with moderate force.
 In some instances, deafness seems to depend on a de-
 fective secretion of the cerumen, and a consequent dry-
ness of the meatus.  Here, a drop or two of sweet oil
may now  and then be introduced into the ear, and
A  peculiar substance | fomentations applied."—Cooper's Surg. Diet.  A.l
which precipitates on evaporation from alkohol, which t   CERU'SSA.  "(Arabian.)  Ccru**   See Plumbi sub
use been digested on cork.                           carbonas
           206 
CHA
CHA
   Cercssa acetata.  See Plumbi acetas.
   Cervi spina.  See Rhamnus catharticus.
   CERVI'CAL.  (Cervicalis; from cervix, the neck.)
 Belonging to the neck; as cervical nerves, cervical
 muscles, fee.
   Cervical artery.   Arteria cervicalis.  A branch of
 tbe subclavian.
   Cervical vertebra.  The seven uppermost of the ver-
 tebras, which form the spine.  See Vertebra.
   Cervica'ria.  (From cervic, the neck; so named
 because it was supposed to be efficacious in disorders
 and ailments of the throat and neck.)  The herb throat-
 wort
   CE'RVIX.   (Cervix,  vicis. f.;  quasi  cerebri via;
 as being the channel of the spinal marrow.)   1. The
 neck.  That part of the body which is between the
 head and shoulders.
   2.  Applied also to organs, or parts which have some
 extent, to distinguish their parts ; as the  cervix uteri,
 neck ofthe uterus; cervix vesica, neck of the bladder,
 neck of a bone, fee.
   Cespititi/e plantje.   (From cespes, a sod, or turf.)
 The name of a class of plants in Sauvages' Methodus
 Foliorum, consisting of plants which have only radical
 leaves ;  as primrose, fee.
   CESPITOSUS. (From cespes, a sod, or turf.)  A
 plant is so called which produces many stems from one
 *oot, thereby forming a close thick carpet on the sur-
 face of the earth.
   Cespitosje paludes.  Turf-bogs.
   Cestri'tes.  (From  Ktspov, betony.)   Wine  im-
 pregnated with betony.
   CE'STRUM.  (From Kt$-pa, a dart; so called from
 the shape of its flowers, which resemble a dart; or be-
 cause it was used to  extract the broken ends  of darts
 from wounds.)  See Betonica officinalis.
   CETA'CEUM.  Spermaceti.  See Physeter macro-
 cephalus.
   CE TERACH.  (Blanchard says  this word is cor-
 rupted from Pteryga,  z^rjpv'i,, q. v. as peteryga, cete-
 ryga, and celerach.)   See Asplenium cetcrach.
   CETIC  ACID.  Acidum ceticum.   The name given
 by Chevreuil to a supposed peculiar principle of sper-
 maceti, which he has lately found to be the substance
 he has called margarine, combined with a fatty matter.
   CETLNE.  The name given by Chevreuil to sper-
 maceti.  See Fat.
   CEVADIC ACID. By the action of potassa on the
 fat matter of the cevadilla, a plant that  comes from
 Senegal, called by the French petite orge, there is ob-
 tained in the same way as the delphinic acid, an acid
 which is called the cevadic.
   CEVADATE.  A  salt formed by  the combination
 of the cevadic acid, with earthy, alkaline, and metallic
 bases.
   Cevadilla.  (Dim. of ceveda, barley. Spanish.)
 See Veratrum sabatilla.
   Ceyenne pepper.  See  Capsicum.
   CEYLANITE.  The  name of  the mineral  called
 pleonaste, by Haiiy, which comes  from Ceylon, com-
 monly in round pieces, but occasionally in crystals. It
 is of an indigo blue colour, and splendent internally.
   CHABASITE.  The name of a mineral found in the
 quarry of Alteberg, near Oberstein, in crystals, the pri-
 mitive form of which is nearly a cube. It is white, or
 with a tinge of rose colour, and sometimes transparent.
   Chacari'llje cortex.  See Croton Cascarilla.
   CH^EROFO'LIUM.  See Scandix.
   CHiEROPHY'LLUM. (XatpotpvXXov; from xaipw,
 to rejoice, and ibvXXov, a leaf; so called from the abun-
 dance of its leaves.)   Chervil.  1. The name of a ge-
 nus of plants in the Linnxan system.  Class, Penlan-
 dria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of some plants.  See
 Scandix, and Charophyllum sylvestre.
  Charophyllum sylvestre. The systematic name
ofthe Cicutaria, or bastard hemlock.  Charophyllum;
caule  lavi  striato ;  geniculis tumidiusculis,  of Lin-
naeus.  It is often mistaken for the true hemlock, ft
may with great  propriety be banished  from the list of
ofncinals, us it possesses no remarkable property.
  Chje'ta. (From x"a, to be diffused.)  An obsolete
name ofthe human hair.
  CHALA'SIS.   (From xaXaw, to relax.)  Relaxa-
tion.
  Chala'stica.  (From  xaXaw, to relax.)   Medicines
which relax
   CHALAZION.  (From vaXa5a, a hailstone.)  Ota-
 laza;  Chalazium; Granado.  An indolent moveable
 tubercle on tho margin of ihe eyelid, like a hail-stone.
 A species of hordeolum. It is that well-known affec-
 tion  of the eye, called a stye, or stian. It is white,
 hard, and encysted, and diflers from thecn'tAc, another
 species, only in  being moveable.  Writers mention a
 division of Chalazion into scirrhous, cancerous, cystic,
 and earthy.
   Cha'lbane.  KaXSavti.   Galbanum.
   Chalca'nthum.  (From xaXicoc, brass, and avBos, a
 flower.)  Vitriol; or rather, vitriol calcined red.  The
 flowers of brass.
   Chalcei on.  A species of pimpinella.
   Chalcoi'deum os.  The os cuneiforme of  the tar-
 sus.  See Cuneiform bone.
   Ciialeitis.  See Colcothar.
   Chali cratum.  (From x^Xic, an old word  that sig-
 nifies pure wine, and Ktpawvui, to mix.)  Wine mixed
 with water.
   Chali'nos.  Chalinus.  That part of the  cheeks,
 which, on each side, is contiguous to the angles of the
 mouth.
   CHALK.  A  very  common species  of calcareous
 earth, or carbonate of lime, of a white colour.   See
 Creta,
   Chalk, black.  Drawing slate, found in primitive
 mountains, and  used  in crayon drawing, whence its
 name.
   Chalk, red.  A clay coloured with  oxide of iron.
   CHALK-STONE.  A name given to the concretions
 in the hands and feet of people violently afflicted with
 the gout, from their resembling chalk, though chemi-
 cally different.  Dr. Wollaston first demonstrated their
 true composition to be uric acid combined with ammo-
 nia, and thus explained  the mysterious pathological
 relation between gout and gravel.
   Gouty concretions are soft and  friable.  They are
 insoluble in cold, but slightly in  boiling water.  An
 acid being added to this solution, seizes the soda, and
 the uric acid is deposited in small crystals. These con-
 cretions dissolve readily in water of potassa.  An arti-
 ficial compound  may be made by triturating uric acid
 and soda with warm  water, which exactly resembles
 gouty conctetions in its chemical constitution.
   CHALV'BEATE.   (Chalybeatus; chalybs, from
 iron, or steel.)  Of or belonging to iron.  A term given
 to any medicine into which iron enters; as chalybeate
 mixture, pills, waters, fee.
   Chalybeate  water.  Any mineral  water which
 abounds with iron ; such as the water of Tunbridge,
 Spa, Pryinont, Cheltenham, Scarborough, andHartfel;
 and many others.
   [Chalybeate waters  are' so numerous  in the United
 States as to attract little or  no attention unless con-
 nected with some peculiarity of circumstance,  besides
 the mere solution of iron.  The Ballston and Saratoga
 waters, of New-York, although they contain iron, are
 not ranked among the chalybeates, having other and
 more powerful ingredients  in their composition.  Of
 the pure  chalybeate waters, containing nothing bat
 iron in  solution, those most resorted to for health and
 pleasure are the Stafford Springs, in Connecticut, and
 Orange  and  Schooley's Mountain  Springs in New-
 Jersey.  The Stafford Springs are at the foot of a sand-
 stone ridge, (old red sand-stone formation of Werner.)
 Orange  Springs are in the same sand-stone formation,
 in the beautiful town of Orange, in New-Jersey, about
 20 miles from New-York.  There is an excellent house
 of entertainment at the springs, and there is a salubri-
 ous and well-cultivated country surrounding it.  Ad-
jacent to the springs is a considerable elevation, from
 which an extensive prospect is obtained.  The  city
and bay of New-York are plainly visible, with other
and more distant prospects.  The water of the springs
is  strongly impregnated, is not very palatable,  and Is
only drunk by invalids, whose physicians recommend
them.
  Schooley's Mountain Spring is about 60 miles from
New-York, and about the same distance from Phila-
delphia, and is resorted to in summer by the inhabit-
ants of both cities, and other places.  litis on the side
of a mountain nearly 1500 feet above tide water.  The
water runs in a constant stream from the crack of a
rock by the side of the road leading down a ravine of
the mountain, which from its elevation is cool and sa-
lubrious.  On the top of tho mountain is an extensive
                                       207 
CHA
CHA
 filaln, crossed by good roads.  There are several pub-
 ic houses in the neighbourhood of the spring.  Tbe
water is a simple chalybeate, without being aerated.
The iron  is deposited in an ochrc-ous sediment as the
water passes over the rock.  The mountain appears
to be a vast deposite of iron ore, much of which  is
magnetic, affecting the surveyor's compass.  Loose
specimens of magnet are occasionally picked up on the
mountain.  A.]
  Chalybis auBieo frjeparata.  See Ferri subcar-
bonas.
  CHA'LYBS.  (From Chalybes, a people in Pontus,
who dug iron out of  the earth.)   Acies.  Steel.  The
best, hardest, finest, and  the closest-grained forged
iron.  As a medicine, steel differs not from iron.  See
Iron.
  Chalybs tartarizatus.  See Ferrum tartariza-
tWR.
  Cham jeba'lanus.  (From xaA""i on we ground,
and BaXavos,a nut)  Wood pea; Earth nut.
  CHAMjEBU'XUS. (From %apat, on the ground,
and zswlos, the boxTtree.)  The dwarf box-tree.
  CHAMiECE'DRUS.   (From xauai, on the ground,
and Keipos, the cedar-tree.)   Chamacedrys.   A species
of dwarf abrotanum.
  CHAMcECI'SSUS. (From x«f""> on tne ground,
and kiooos,  ivy.)  Ground-ivy.
  CHAMiECLE'MA.  (From xcmat, on the ground,
and KXnua, ivy.)  The ground-ivy.
  Ciiamjkcrista.  The Cassia chamecrista of Lin-
meus, a decoction of which drank liberally is said to
be serviceable against the poison of the night-shade.
  CHAMjE'DRYS.  (From x«M<"> on the ground,
and Spvs, the oak; so called lrom  its leaves resem-
bling those of the oak.)   See Teucrium chamedrys
  Chamjedrvs FRUTascEKS.  A name for teucrium.
  Chamjedrys incana  maRitima.   See  Teucrium
marum.
  Chamjedrys palustris.  See  Teucrium scordium.
  Chamjedrys spuria.  See Veronica officinalis.
  Chamjedrvs sylvestris. Wild germander.  The
Veronica chamedrys.
  Chamjele'a.  (From xaf">:> on the  ground, and
eXaia, the olive-tree.)  See Daphne alpina.
  CHAMjELiEA'GNUS.    (From x"/"") on  the
ground, and cXatayvos, the wild olive.)  See Myrica
gale.
  CHAM^E'LEON.   (From xafal> on tne ground,
and Xttov, a lion, i. e. dwarf lion.)  1. The chauneleon,
an animal supposed to be able to change  his colour at
pleasure.
  2. The name of many thistles, so named from the
variety and uncertainty of their colours.
  Chamjeleon album.  See Carlina acaulis.
  Chamjkleon verum.  See Cnicus.
  CHAMcELEU'CE.  (From  \auai, on the ground,
and Xtvicn,Lhe herb  colt's-foot)  See Tussilago far-
faro,
  Chamjeli'num.  (From  %auai, on the ground, and
Xtvov, flax.)  Purging flax.  SeeZ.inumcatAarf.icim.
  CHAM^EME'LUM.   (From xajiac, on the ground,
and unXov,  an apple;  because  it grows  upon the
ground, and has the smell of an apple.)   See Anthemis
nobilis.
  Chamamelum canariense.  The Chrysanthemum
frutescens of Linnams.
  CllAMJEMELUM CHRYSANTHEMUM.  The Bupthal-
 mum germanicrum of Linnaeus.
  Chamjemelum fcetidum. The Anthemis cotula  of
 Linnasus.
  Chamjemelum nobile.  See Anthemis nobilis.
  Chamjemelum vulgare. See Matricaria chamo-
 milla.
  CHAMiE'MORUS.  (Xauaiuopea; from-xapat, on
 the ground, and uopea, the mulberry-tree.)  See Rubus
 chamamorus.
  CHAMjEPEU'CE.   (From x«M<"i on the ground,
 and ntvKn, the pine-tree.)  See Camphorosma Mons-
pcliensis.
  CHAM^'PITYS.   (Chamapitys,  yos. f.;  from
 Xauac, the ground, and aims, the pine-tree.) See Teu-
 crium chamapitys.
  Chamjepitys moschata.  The French ground pine.
 See Teucrium iva.
  CHAMjB'PLION. See Erysimum alliaria.
  Chamjera'phanus.  (From  \auiu, on the ground,
 and padiavoc, the radish.)   1. The upper  part of the
      90S
root of apium, according to P. ^Egineta  The smal.
age, or parsley.
  2. The dwarf radish.
  Chamje'riphbs.  The Chamarop9humilis,OTtV/tsrt
palm.  The fruit called wild dates, are adstringent
  Chamcrododi'ndron. (From xapai, on the ground,
and poSoStvSpov, the rose laurel.)  The Azaleapontica
of Linnaeus.
  Chamjerubus.  (From xafal' on tne ground, and
rubus, the bramble.)  See Rubus chamamorus.
  Chamjespa'rtium.  (From xaaah on tne ground,
and onapnov, Spanish broom.)  See Genista tinctoria.
  CHAMBER.   Camara.   The space between  the
capsule of the crystalline lens and the  corner of the
eye, is divided by the iris into two spaces, called cham-
bers; the space before the iris is termed the anterior
chamber; and that behind it, the posterior.   They are
filled with an aqueous fluid.
  CHAMBERLEN, Hugh, a native of London, about
the middle of the 17th century.  He succeeded  his
father as a practitioner in midwifery, and had also two
brothers in the same profession. They invented among
them an instrument, the obstetric forceps, wbich greatly
facilitated delivery in many cases, and often saved the
child: but to  him alone, as most distinguished, the
merit has been usually ascribed.  In 1683, be publish-
ed n translation  of Mauriceau's Observations,  wbich
was much sought after.  The instrument  procured
him great celebrity in this, as well as  other countries;
and, with successive improvements by Smellie, fee.
still continues to be esteemed one of the most valuable
adjuvants in the obstetric art.  The period of his death
is not ascertained.
  [Chamitk.  See organic relics.  A.]
  CHAMOMILE. See Anthemis nobilis.
  Chamomile, stinking.   See Anthemis cotula.
  CHAMOMI'LLA.  From  x^uai,  on the ground,
and unXov, an apple.)  See Anthemis nobilis.
  Chamomilla  nostras.  See  Matricaria Chamo-
milla,
  Chamomilla  romana.  See Anthemis.
  CHAMPIGNION.  See Agaricus pratensis.
  CHANCRE.   (French.  From  Kapxivos, cancer.)
A sore which arises from the direct application of the
venereal poison  to any part of the body.  Of course it
mostly occurs on the genitals.   Such venereal sores as
break out from a general contamination ofthe system,
in consequence  of absorption, never have the term
chancre applied to them.
  Channelled leaf.  See Leaf.
  Chaoma'ntia signa.    So Paracelsus calls those
prognostics that are taken  from  observations of the
air; and the skill of doing this, he calls Chaomancia.
  Chao'sda.  Paracelsus uses this word as an epithet
for the plague.
  CH.APMAN, Edmund, was born about the  end of
the 17th  century; and, after becoming properly in-
structed as a surgeon and accoucheur, settled in Lon-
don, and soon distinguished himself by his success in
difficult labours.  His plan consisted chiefly in turning
the child, and delivering by the feet when any part but
the head presented;  also in often availing himself of
the forceps of Chamberlen, much improved by him-
self, and of which he had the merit of first  giving an
account to the public in his treatise on Midwifery, in
1732.  He also  ably defended the cause of the nien-
midwives against tbe attack of Douglas, in a small
work, in 1737.
   Cha'rabe.   An Arabian name for amber.
   Cha'radka.  (From x<fa"a^i to  excavate.)  The
bowels, or sink of the body.
   Charamais.  The purging hazel-nut.
   Charantia.  See Momordica elaterium.
   CHARCOAL.  When vegetable substances are ex-
posed to a strong heat in the apparatus fordistillation,
the fixed residue is called charcoal.  For general pur-
poses, wood is converted into charcoal by building it
up in a pyramidal form, covering the pile with clay or
earth, and leaving a few air  holes, which are closed
as soon as the moss is well lighted; and by this means
the combustion is carried on in an imperfect manner.
   In  charring wood it has been conjectured, that a
portion of it is sometimes converted into a pyrophorus,,
and that the explosions that happen in powder-mills
are sometimes owing to this.
   Charcoal is  made on ihe great scale,  by igniting
wood in iron  cylinders.  When tht resulting charcoa* 
CHA
CHE
hi to be used in the manufacture of gunpowder, it is
essential that the  last portion of vinegar and tor be
suffered to escape, and that the reabsorption of the
crude vapours be prevented, by cutting oft' the commu-
nication between ihe interior of the cylinders and the
apparatus for condensing the pyrolignous acid, when-
ever the  fire is withdrawn from the furnace.   If this
precaution be not observed, the gunpowder made with
the charcoal would be of inferior quality.
  In tbe third volume of Tilloch's magazine, we have
some valuable facts on charcoal, by Mr. Mushet.  He
justly observes, that the produce of charcoal in  the
small way, differs from that on the large scale, in
which the quantity of char depends more upon  the
hardness and compactness ofthe texture of wood, and
the skill of the workman  in managing the pyramid
of fagots, than oil the absolute quantity of carbon it
contains.
  Clement and Desormes say, that wood contains one-
half its weight of charcoal.  Proust says, that good pit-
coals afford 70,75, or 80 per cent, of charcoal or coke;
from which only two or three parts in the hundred of
ashes remain after combustion.— Tilloch's Mag. vol.
viii.
  Charcoal is black, sonorous, and brittle, and in gene-
ral  retains the figure of the vegetable it was obtained
from.  If, however, the vegetable consist for the most
part of water or other fluids, these in their extrication
will destroy the connexion of ihe more fixed parts. In
this case the quantity of charcoal is much less than in
the former.  The charcoal of oily or bituminous sub-
stances is of a light pulverulent  form, and rises in
soot.   Tliis charcoal of oils is called lamp-black.  A
very fine kind is obtained from  burning alkohol.  See
Carbon.
  Cha'rdone.  The artichoke.
  Charistolo'chia.  (From xaP'fi J°yi a,,d Xoxia,
the lochia; so named from its supposed usefulness to
women in childbirth.)  The plant mogwort  See Ar-
temisia vulgaris.
  CHARLTON, Walter,  was born  in  Somerset-
shire, 1619.   Alter graduating  at Oxford, where he
distinguished himself by his learning, he was appoint-
ed  physician to Charles I., and  admitted a fellow of
the Royal College of Physicians, in London.  He had
afterward the honour of attending  Charles  It., and
was one of the first members of the Royal Society.
He was author of several publications, on medical and
other subjects; the former of which contained little
original matter, but had the merit of  spreading the
knowledge of the many  improvements made  about
that period, particularly in anatomy and physiblogy;
the principal of them are his " Exercitationes Patholo-
gical," and his " Natural  History of Nutrition, Life,
and Voluntary Motion."  In 1689, he was chosen pre-
sident of  the College, and  held that office  two years
He afterward retired to Jersey, and died in 1707.
  Cha'rme.  (From x<"P<*i to rejoice.)   Charmis.  A
cordial mentioned by Galen.
  Cha'rpie.  The French. For scraped linen, or lint.
  CHA'RTA.  (Chaldean.)  1.  Paper.
  3. The amnios,  or  interior fecial  membrane, was
called tbe charta virginca, from its likeness to a piece
of fine paper.
  Cha'iitreux, poudre de.  (So called because it
was said to have been invented by some friars of the
Carthusian order.)  A name ofthe kermes mineral, or
hydrosulphuret or antimony.
  Cha'sme.  (From xatvia, to gape.)   Chasmus.  Os-
citation, orgaping.
  CHASTE TREE.  See Agnus castus.
  Cha'te. The Cucumus agyptia.
  [" CHAUNCEY, Charles, M.D. second President
of Harvard College, was born in England in 1569.  He
had his grammar education at Westminster, and was
at the school when the gunpowder plot was to have
token effect, and must have perished if the parliament-
house had been blown up.   At tbe university of Cam-
bridge be commenced Bachelor of Divinity, and took
the degree of M.D.  Being intimately acquainted with
Archbishop Usher, one of the  finest  scholars in Eu-
rope, be had more than common advantages to expand
his mind, and make improvements hi  literature. A
more learned man than Mr. Chauncey was not to be
found  among the  fathers of New-England.  He had
been chosen  Hebr«w  professor  at Cambridge, by ttia
heads of both hou^e,  and  exchanged this brauch of
                                         O
instruction to oblige Dr. Williams, Vice-Chancellor of
the university.  He was well skilled in many oriental
languages, but especially the Hebrew, which he knew
by very close study, and by conversing with a Jew,
who resided  in  the same house.  He was also an
accurate Greek scholar, and was made professor of
this "language when he left  the other professorship.
This uncommon scholar became a preacher, and was
settled at Ware.  He displeased  irchbishop Laud, by
opposing the book of sports, and reflecting upon the
discipline of the church, which caused him to emigrate
to Plymouth, in Massachusetts, in 1638.
  President Chauncey is said to have been an eminent
physician,- but we are not informed to what extent he
devoted himself to the  practice.  He left six sons, all
of whom were educated at Harvard college, and were
preachers.  Some of them were learned divines.  Dr.
Mather says they were all eminent physicians, as their
father was before them."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.}
  Chay.  See Oldenlandia umbellata.
  Chaya.  See Oldenlandia umbellata.
  CHEEK-BONE.   See. Jugale os.
  CHEESE.  Caseus.   The coagulum of milk. When
prepared from rich  milk, and well made,  it is  very
nutritious in small quantities;  but  mostly indigestible
when hard and ill prepared, especially to weak sto-
machs.   If any vegetable or mineral acid  he  mixed
with milk, the cheese separates, and,  if assisted by
heat, coagulates into a mass.  The quantity of cheese
is less when  a mineral  acid is used.   Neutral  salts,
and likewise all earthy and metallic salts, separate the
cheese  from  the whey.  Sugar and gum-arabic pro-
duce the same  effect.   Caustic  alkalies will dissolve
the curd by the assistance of a boiling heat, and acids
occasion a precipitation again.  Vegetable acids have
very little solvent power upon curd.   This  accounts
for a greater quantity of curd being obtained when a
vegetable acid is used.  But what answers best is ren-
net, which is made by macerating in water a piece of
the last stomach of a calf, salted and dried for this
purpose.
  Scheele observed, that cheese has a considerable ana-
logy to albumen, which it resembles in being coagula-
ble by fire and acids, soluble in ammonia, and afford-
ing the same products by distillation or treatment with
nitric acid.  There  are, however, certain differences'
between them.  Rouelle observed, likewise, a striking
analogy between cheese and the gluten of wheat, and
that found in  the fecula; of green vegetables.   By
kneading  the gluten of wheat with a little salt and a
small portion of a solution of starch, he gave it the
taste, smell, and unctuosity of cheese;  so that after it
had been kept a certain time, it was not to be distin-
guished from the celebrated Rochefort cheese, of which
it had all the pungency.  This caseous substance from
gluten, as well as the cheese of milk, appears to con-
tain acetate of ammonia, after it has been  kept  long
enough to have undergone the requisite fermentation,
as may be proved by examining it with sulphuric acid,
and with potassa.  The pungency of strong cheese,
too, is destroyed by alkohol.
  In the 11th volume of Tilloch's Magazine, there is an
excellent account of the mode  of making Cheshire
cheese,  token from the  Agricultural Report of the
county.  " If the milk," says the reporter, " be set
together very warm, the curd will be firm; in this case,
the usual mode is to take a common  case-knife, and
make incisions across it, fo the full depth of the knife's
blade, at the distance of about one inch; and again
crossways in the same manner, the incisions intersect-
ing each  other at right angles.  The whey rising
through these incisions  is of a fine pale-green colour.
The cheese-maker and  two assistants then proceed to
break the curd: this is performed by their repeatedly
putting  their hands down into  the tub; the cheese-
maker,  with the skimming-dish in one hand, breaking
every part of it as they catch it,  raising the curd from
the bottom, and still breaking it.   This part ofthe bu-
siness is continued till  the whole is broken uniformly
small; it generally takes up about forty minutes, and
the curd is then left covered over with a cloth for about
half an  hour, to subside.  If the milk has been set cool
together, the curd will be much more tender, the whey
will not be so green, but rather of a milky appearance.
  CHEILOCA'CE.  (From x«Xoc, a lip, and kokov,
an  evil.)  A  swelling of the lips, cr canker in the
mouth.
                                        2oy 
CHE
CHE
  Chkimk'lton.  (From xcluai winter.) A chilblain.
See Pernio.
  CHEIRA'NTHUS.   (From xup. a hand, and ovBos,
a flower;  so named from the likeness of its blossoms
to the fingers of the hand.)  The name of a genus ot
plants in the Liimtp.au system.  Class, Tetradynamia;
Order, Siliquosa.  The wall-flower.
  Chbiranthus cheiri.  The systematic name  of
the  wall-flower.   Leucoium  luteum:  Viola lutea.
Common  yellow wall-flower.   The flowers of this
plant, Cheiranthus ; foliis lanceolatis, acutis, glabris ;
ramis angulatis; caule fruticoso, of Linna;us,  are
recommended  as possessing  nervine and deobstiuent
virtues.  They have  a moderately strong, pleasant
smell, and a  nauseous, bitter,  somewhat pungent
taste.
  [Cheiranthodendron.  A trnegrowing in Mexico,
so called from the appearance of the flower represent-
ing the human hand and fingers.  (From xt<P, a hand,
avBos, a flower, and Ssvipov, a tree.)  It is a large tree,
bearing a flower resembling a human hand. The part
producing this resemblance  is  the pistillum, which
rises above the calyx,  and is divided  into live parts,
analogous to the thumb and lingers.  The resemblance
is very striking, but the digits are sharp and pointed,
more like claws.  We have seen preserved specimens
of the flowers in very good order.  A.].
  CHEIRA'PSIA.  (From x"Pitlle band, and airro-
aai,  to touch.) The act of  scratching; particularly
the scratching  one hand with another, as in the itch.
  CHEl'RL   (Cheiri,  Arabian.)   See Cheiranthus
Cheiri.
  CHEIRIA'TER.   (From vtip, the hand, and ia7po$,
a physician.)  A surgeon whose ollice it is  to remove
maladies by operations of the hand.
  CHE1R1SMA.   (From x«P'^ona(, to labour with
the hand.)  Handling.   Also a manual operation.
  CHEIRI'XiS.   (From xwlouat,  to labour with
the hand.)   The art of surgery.
  CHEIRONO'MIA.  (From x«ipovo//£u),  to exercise
with the hands.)  An  exercise mentioned  by Hippo-
crates, which  consisted of  gesticulations with the
hands, like our dumb-bells.
  CHE'LA.   (X17X17,  forceps;  from x«">, l0 take.)
1.  A forked probe, for drawing a polypus out of the
nose.
  2.  A fissure in the feet, or other places.
  3.  The claw of crabs, which lays hold like forceps.
  Chelje  cancrorim.  See Cancer.
  Cheli'don.  The bend of the arm.
  CHELIDONIUM.  (From xtXidW, the swallow.
It is so named  from an opinion, that it was pointed out
as useful for the eyes by swallows, who are said to
open the eyes of their young by it; or  because it blos-
soms about the time when swallows appear.)   Celan-
dine.  A genus of plants iu  the  Linn&an system.
Class, Polyandria; Order, Monogynia.  There is only
one species used in medicine, and that rarely.
  Chelidonium majus.  Papaver corniculatum, lu-
teum;  Curcum.   Tetterwort,  and great celandine.
The  herb and root of this plaut, Chelidonium—pedun-
culis umbcllatus, of Linnaeus,  have a faint, unplea-
sant  smell, and a bitter, acrid, durable taste, which is 1
stronger in the roots than the leaves.   They are ape- !
rient and diuretic, and  recommended in icterus, when
not accompanied with  inflammatory symptoms. The
chelidonium should be administered with caution, as it
is liable to irritate the  stomach and bowels.  Of the
dried root,from 3ss to 3j  is a  dose;  of the fresh
root, infused in water,  or wine, the dose may be about
3 ss.  The decoction of the fresh root is used in dropsy,
cachexy, and cutaneous complaints.  The fresh juice
is  ui-ed to destroy warts, and films in  the eyes; but,
fur the latter purpose, it is diluted with milk.
  Chelidonium minus.  The pill-wort See Ranun-
culus ficarin.
  CHELO'XE. XeXiavv-  1. The tortoise.
  2. An instrument for extending a limb, and so called
because, in its  slow motions, it represents a tortoise.
Tiiis instrument is mentioned in Oribasius.
  Chelo'nion.  (From xtXiavn, the tortoise; so called
from its resemblance  to the shell of a tortoise.)   A
hump or gibbosity in the back.
  CHELTENHAM.  The name of a village, now be-
come a larL',; and populous town, in Gloucestershire.
It  is celebrated for  its  purging waters, the reputation
of which is daily incr^aiin^,  as  it poi?s.\-.-' ■< both a sa-
      310
line and chalybeate principle.  When first drawn, it l»
clear and colourless, but somewhat brisk; has a sa-
line, bitterish, chalybeate taste.  It does  not keep, nor
bear transporting to any distance ;  the chalybeate part
being lost by ptecipitation of the iron, and in the <•;n 11
air it even  lurns foetid.  The salts, however, remain.
Its heat, in summer, was from 50° to 55° or .")!i°. when
the medium heat of the atmosphere was nearly 15°
higher.   On evaporation, it is found to contain a cal-
careous  earth,  mixed with ochre and a purging salt.
A general survey of the component parts of this wa-
ter, according to a variety of analyses, shows that it is
decidedly saline, and contains much more salt than
most mineral waters.   By far the greater part  of the
salts are of a purgative kind,  and therefore an  action
011 the bowels is a constant effect, notwithstanding the
considerable quantity of selenite and earthy tin bonales,
which may be supposed to have a contrary tendency.
Cheltenham water isr besides, one of the strongest cha-
lybeatcs we are acquainted with.  The iron is sus-
pended entirely by the carbonic acid, of which gas the
water contains about an eighth of its bulk; but, from
the abundance of earthy carbonates, and oxide of iron,
not much of  it is uncombined.  It has,  besides, a
slight impregnation of sulphur, but so little as to be
scarcely  appreciable, except  by  very delicate tests.
The sensible effects produced  by this water, arc gene-
rally, on first  taking ii, a degree of dtowsiness, and
sometimes headache, but which soon go off spontane-
ously, even previous to the operation on the bowels.
A moderate dose acts powerfully, and speedily, as a
cathartic, without occasioning griping, or leaving that
faintness and languor which often follow the action of
the rougher cathartics. It is  principally on this ac-
count, but partly too from the salutary operation of
the chalybeate, and perhaps the carbonic acid, that the
Cheltenham water may be, in  most cases, persevered
in, for a considerable length of time, uninterruptedly,
without producing any inconvenience to the body; and
during its use, the appetite will be  improved, the di-
gestive organs strengthened, and the whole constitu-
tion invigorated.  A dose of this water,  too small lo
operate  directly on  the bowels, will generally  deter-
mine pretty powerfully to  the kidneys.  As a  purge,
this water is drank from one to three pints;  in general,
from half a pint to a quart is sufficient  Half  a pint
will contain  half a drachm of neutral purging salts,
four grains of earthy carbonates, and selenite, about
one-third of a grain of oxide of iron; together with an
ounce in bulk  of carbonic acid and half an ounce of
common air,  with  a  little sulphuretted  hydrogen.
Cheltenham water is used, with considerable benefit,
in a number of diseases, especially of the chronic kind,
and  particularly those called  bilious:  hence  it  has
been found of essential service In the cure of glandular
obstructions, and especially those that affect the liver,
and the other organs connected with the  functions ot'
the alimentary canal.  Persons who have injured their
biliary organs,  by a long residence in hot climates,
and who are suffering  under the symptoms, either ot
excess of bile or deficiency of bile, and an irregularily
in its secretion, receive remarkable benefit from a
course  of this water, judiciously exhibited.  Its  use
may be  here continued, even during a  considerable
degree of debility; and from the great determination
to the bowels, it may be employed with advantage to
check the incipient symptoms of dropsy, and general
anasarca, which so often proceed from an obstruction
of the liver.  In scrofulous affections, the sea has the
decided  preference; in painful affections of the skin,
called scorbutic eruptions,  which make their appear-
ance at stated intervals, producing a copious discharge
of lymph, and an abundant desquamation, in common
with other saline purgative springs, this is found to
bring relief;  but it requires to be persevered  in for a
considerable time, keeping up a constant determina-
tion to the bowels, and making use of warm bulbing.
The season  for  drinking the Cheltenham water is
during the whole ofthe summer months.
  CHE'LYS.   (XeXvs, a shell.)    Tbe breast is so
called,' as resembling, in shape and office, the shell of
some fishes.
  Chely'scion.  (From x&vuf> the breast.)  A dry^
short cough, in which the muscles of the  breast are
very sore.
  Cke'.ma.  A measure mentioned by the Greek phj>
sicianc,  supposed 10 contain two dmall spoonful*. 
CHE
CHE
  CHE^ilA.  See Chemistry.
  CHEMICAL.  Of or belonging to chemistry.
  CHEMISTRY.   (Xvuia,  and sometimes  xifia:
CJiamia, from chama, to burn, Arab, this science being
the examination of all substances by fire.)  Chemia;
Chimia;  Chymia.  The learned are not yet agreed as
to the most proper definition of chemistry.  Boerhaave
seems to have ranked it among the arts.  According to
Macquer, it is a science, the object of which is to dis-
cover the nature and properties of all bodies by their
analyses  and combinations.  Dr. Black says, it is a
science which teaches, by experiments, the effects of
heat and mixture on bodies; and Fourcroy defines it
a science which teaches the  mutual actions of all na-
tural bodies on each other.  '-Chemistry,"  says  Jac-
quin, "is that branch of natural  philosophy which
unfolds the nature of all  material bodies, determines
the number and  properties of their component parts,
and teaches us how those parts are united, and by what
means they may be separated and recombined."  Mr.
Heron defines it, "That  science which  investigates
and explains the laws of that attraction which  takes
place between the minute component particles of na-
tural  bodies."   Dr. Ure's definition is, "the  science
Which investigates  the composition or material sub-
Btances, and the permanent changes  of constitution
which their mutual actions produce."   The objects to
which the attention of chemists is directed, compre-
hend  the .whole of the substances  that compose the
globe.
  CHEMO'SIS.   (From xaivta, to gape; because it
gives the appearance of a gap, or aperture.)  Inflam-
mation of the conjunctive  membrane of the eye, in
which the white of the eye is  distended with blood,
and elevated above the margin of the transparent cor-
nea.   In  Cullen's Nosology, it is a variety of the
ophthalmia membranarum, or an inflammation ofthe
membranes of the eye.
  Chenopodio-morus.  (From chenopodium and mo-
rtis, the  mulberry; so called  because it is a sort of
chenopodium,  with leaves  like a  mulberry.)   The
herb mulberry-blight.  The Blitum capitatum of Lin-
nieus.
  CHENOPO'DIUM.   (From xfv, a goose, and izovs,
a foot; so called from its supposed resemblance to a
goose's foot)  The name of a genus of plants in the
Llniiicaii system.  Class, Penlandria ; Order, Digy-
nia.  The herb chenopody:  goose's foot.
  Chenopodium  ambrosioides.   The  systematic
name of the Mexican tea-plant  Botrys Mexicana;
Botrys ambrosioides Mexicana; Chenopodium Mexi-
canum;  Botrys Americana.   Mexico tea; Spanish
tea and Arteinisian botrys.  Chenopodium—foliis lan-
ceolatis dentatis, racemis foliatis simplicibus, of Lin-
naeus.  A decoction of this plant is recommended in
paralytic cases.  Formerly the infusion was drank in-
stead of Chinese tea.
  Chenopodium anthelminticum.   The seeds  of
this plant, Chenopodium—foliis evato-oblongis  den-
tatis, racemis aphyllisrof Linnaeus, though in  great
esteem in America, for tbe cure of worms, are seldom
exhibited in this country.  They are powdered and
made  into an electuary, with any proper syrup, or
conserve.
  [" The  Chenopodium anthelminticum,  is a native
plant, found in the middle and southern states, usually
known by the names of wormseed and Jerusalem oak.
The name wormseed is applied  in Europe to  the Ar-
temisia santonica, a very different plant.  The cheno-
podium is accounted a good vermifuge, especially in
the lumbrici of children.  The expressed juice of the
whole plant is sometimes given in the dose of a table-
spoonful to a child two or three years old.  More fre-
quently the powdered seeds arc employed, mixed with
treacle or syrup.  The seeds yield a volatile oil on dis-
tillation, which is prescribed iu doses  of six or eight
drops, in sugar or some suitable vehicle."—Big. Mat.
Med.   A.]
  Chenopodium bonus  Henricus. The systematic
name of the English mercury. Bonus Henricus; Tota
bona;  Lapathum unctaosum;  Chenopodium; Cheno-
podium—foliis  triangulari-sagittatis,  integcrrimis,
spicis  compositis aphyllis axularibus,  of Linnajus.
The plant to which these  names are given, Is a native
of this country, and common  iu waste grounds  from
June  to August  It differs  little from spinach  when
cultivated ; and ia  manv nlaces the young shoots arc i
 eaten in spring like  asparagus.  The leaves are ac-
 counted emollient, and have been made an ingredient
 in decoctions for clysters.  They are applied by the
 common people to flesh wounds and sores under the
 notion of drawing and healing.
  Chenopodium  botrys.  The  systematic  name of
 the Jerusalem oak.   Botrys vulgaris;  Botrys;  Am-
 brosia; Artemisia clienopodium; Atriplex  odorata;
 Atriplex suaveolens;  Chenopodium—foliis  oblongis
 sinuatis, racemis nudis multifidis, of Linnreus.  This
 plant was formerly administered in form of decoction
 in some diseases of  the chest; as humoral asthma,
 coughs, and catarrhs. It is now fallen into disuse.
  Chenopodium  fcutidum.   See Chenopodium  vnl-
 varia.
  Chenopodium  vulvaria.   The  systematic name
 for the stinking orach.   Atriplex fetida;  Atriplex
 olida; Vulvaria; Garosmum: Raphex; Chenopodium
 fetidum ; Blitum fatidum.  The very fuetid smell of
 this plant, Chenopodium—foliis inlegerrimn rhombeo
 ovatis, floribus eonglomeratis axillaribus, of  Linnreus,
 induced physicians to exhibit  it in hysterical diseases.
 It is now  superseded by more  active preparations.
 Messrs. Chevalier and Lasseigne have detected am-
 monia in this plant in an uncombined state, which is
 probably the vehicle of the remarkably nauseous odour
 which  it exhales, strongly resembling that  of putrid
 fish.  When the plant is bruised with water, and the
 liquor expressed  and afterward distilled, we procure
 a fluid which contains the subcarbonate of ammonia,
 and an oily matter, which gives the fluid a milky ap-
 pearance.  If the expressed juice of the chenopodium
 be evaporated  to the consistence of an extract, it is
 found to be alkaline; there seems to be acetic acid in
 it.   Its basis is said to be of an albuminous nature. It
 is stated also to  contain a small  quantity of the sub-
 stance which the French call osmazome, a little of an
 aromatic resin, and  a bitter matter, soluble both in
 alkohol and water, as well as several saline bodies.
   Che'ras.  (From  xtu, to pour out)  An obsolete
 name of struma, or scrofula.
   Cherefo'lium. See Scandix cerefolium.
   CHE'RMES.   (Arabian.)   A  small  berry, full of
 insects like worms: the juice of  which  was formerly
 made into a confection,  called  confectio alkennes,
 which has been long disused.  The worm itself was
 also so called.
   Chermes mineralis.   Hydro-sulphuret  of  anti-
 mony.
   Cherni'bium.  Chcrnibion.  In Hippocrates it sig-
 nifies a urinal.
   Chero'nia.   (From  Xttptav,  the  Centaur.)   See
 Chironia centaurium.
   CHERRY.  See Cerasa nigra, and Cerasa rubra.
   Cherry bay.  The  Lauro-cerasus.
   Cherry-laurel.  The Lauro-cerasus.
   Cherry, winter. The Alkekengi.
   CHERVI'LLUM.   See Scandix cerefolium.
   CHESELDEN, William, was born in Leicester-
 shire, 1688.  After serving his apprenticeship to a sur-
 geon at Leicester, he came to study at St. Thomas's
 hospital, lo which he afterward became surgeon.   He
 began to give lectures at the early age of 22, and about
 the same period was elected Fellow of the Royal So-
 ciety. Two years after, he published his " Anatomical
 Description of the Human Body," with some select
 cases in surgery, which passed  through several  edi-
 tions ; in one of  which  he detailed his success in the
 operation of lithotomy by the lateral method, as it is
 termed, which he found not so liable to failure as the
 high operation.   He also gave,  in the Philosophical
 Transactions, an interesting account of a grown per-
 son whom he restored to sight after  being blind  from
 infancy; and furnished some other contributions to
 the  same work.  Besides being honourably distin-
 guished by some of the French  societies, he was ap-
 pointed principal surgeon to Queen Caroline, to whom
 he dedicated his splendid work on the bones in  1733.
 He was four years alter chosen surgeon to Chelsea
 Hospital, and retired from public  practice, and lived to
 the age of 64.
   CHESNUT.   See  JEsculus and Fagus.
   Chesnut, horse. See JEsculue Hippucastanum.
   Chesnut, sweet See Fagus castanea-
   Cheu'sis.  (From  x*">i to  pour  out.)  Liquation.
 Infusion.
i   Che .a btre.   A  double-headed roll -r, applied by
                                        211 
CHI
CHI
ia middle below the chin;  then running on each side,
it is crossed on the top of  tbe head;  then passing to
the nape of the neck, is there crossed: it then passes
under the chin, where crossing, it is carried to the top
of the head, Sec. until it is all taken up.
  CHEYNE, George, was born  iu Scotland, 1670.
After graduating in medicine, be came to London, at
the age of 30, and published a Theory of Fevers, and
five years after a work on  Fluxions, which  procured
his election into the Royal Society; and this was soon
followed by his "Philosophical Principles of Natural
Religion."   Being naturally inclined to corpulency,
and indulging in free living, he became, when only ot
a middle age, perfectly unwieldy, with other marks of
an impaired constitution; against which, finding medi-
cines of little avail, he determined to abstain from all
fermented liquors, and confine himself to a milk and
vegetable diet.  This plan  speedily relieved the most
distressing symptoms, which led him after a while to
resume his luxuries; but finding his complaints  pre-
sently returning, he resorted again to  the  abstemious
plan ; by a steady perseverance in which  he retained
a tolerable abate of health to the advanced age of 72.
In 1722, in a treatise on  the gout, &c. he first incul-
cated this plan; and two years after greatly enlarged
on  tile  same  subject, in his celebrated  "Essay on
Health and Long  Life."  His " English  Malady, or
Treatise on Nervous Diseases," which lie regarded as
especially  prevalent in this country, a very  popular
work, published 1733, contains a candid and judicious
narrative of his own case.
  CHEZANAN'CE.  (From xt&«)> to go to stool, and
avayiai, necessity.)  1. Any thing that creates a  ne-
cessity to go to stool.
  2. In  P. ASgineta, it is the  name of an ointment,
with which the auus is to be rubbed fur promoting
stools.
  CHI'A.   (From Xioj, an island where they were
formerly propagated.)  1. A sweet fig of the island
of Cyprus, Chio, or Scio.
  3. An earth from the island  of Chio, formerly used
in fevers.
  3. A species of turpentine.   See Pistacia lerebin-
thus,
  Chi'acus.   (From Xios, the island of Scio.)   An
epithet of a eollyrium, the  chief ingredient of which
was wine of Chios.
  Chi'adus.  In Paracelsus it signifies the same as
furunculus.
  Chian turpentine. See Pistacia terebinthus.
  Chia'smus.   (From x'"^) to form like the letter
X, chi.)  Tbe name of a bandage, the shape of which
is like the Greek letter X, cAi.
  CHIASTOLITE. The name of a mineral found in
Britany and Spain, somewhat like steatite.
  Chia'stos.   The name  of  a crucial bandage in
Oribosius; so called from its resembling the letter X,
chi.                                            ^
  Chia'strb.  The name of a bandage for the tempo-
ral artery.  It is a double-headed roller, the middle of
which is applied to the side of the head, opposite to
that in which the artery is opened, and, when brought
round to the part affected, it is crossed upon the com-
press that is laid upon the wound, and then, the con-
tinuation is over  the coronal suture, and under  the
chin; then crossing on the compress, the course is, as
at the first, round  the bead, Sec. till the whole roller is
taken up.
  Chi'bou.  A spurious species of gum-elemi, spoken
of by the faculty of Paris, but not known in England.
  Chichi'na.    Contracted from China China;.  See
Cinchona.
  CHICKEN.  The young of the gallinaceous order
of birds, especially of the  domestic fowl.  Bee Pha-
sianus gallus.
  CHICKEN POX. See Varicella.
  CHICKWEED.  See Alsine media.
  CHICOYNEAU, Francis, was born at Montpelier
in 1072, the second son of a professor there, who  be-
coming blind, he was appointed to discharge his  du-
ties, after taking his degrees in medicine.   Having ac-
quitted  himself very creditably, he was deputed with
other physicians to Marseilles in 1720, lo devise mea-
sures for arresting the  progress of the  plague, wbich
in the end almost  depopulated that city. The zeal
which he evinced on that occasion was rewarded by
a pension; and on the death of his lather-in law, M.
      219
| Chirac, in 1731, he was appointed to succeed him ns
 first physician to the king;  and received also other
 honours previously to his death in 175-'.  He published
 in 1721, in conjunction with the other physicians, an
 account of the. plague at Marseilles, in which the opi-
 nion is advanced, that the disease was not contagious:
 and having received orders from the king to collect all
 the observations that had  been made concerning  that
 disease, he drew up  an enlarged  treatise with much
 candour, and  containing  a  number of useful facts,
 which was made public in  1744.
   [Chigoe, or gigger.  A  small insect so called in the
 West India islands, infesting the feet of those who go
 barefoot, and particularly  the  negroes.   It is a very
 minute insect, and, when magnified, has very much the
 appearance of a flea.  It  penetrates the  6kin of the
 feet without producing pain, and there forms its nidus.
 As it increases in growth in  its new situation, it  pro-
 duces little swellings and intolerabje itching.  The fe-
 male  negroes  carefully extract them with a needle.
 When they are not extracted, the parent deposited its
 eggs, and as these hatch, the irritation causes increased
 swellings and ulceration, which sometimes cause the
 loss of limbs, and even death  to the sufferers.  Poul-
 tices  of  Indian meal are the only applications to
 heal the ulcerations and abscesses caused by the chi-
 goes.   A.J
   CHILBl-AIN.  See Pernio.
   [" CHILDS, Timothy, M.D., was born at Decrfield,
 Massachusetts, February, 1748.  He was entered as a
 member  of Harvard  College in 17G4, but was under
 the necessity of taking a dismission at the  close of his
 junior year, by the failure of the funds on which he
 had relied to carry him through the regular course of
 that seminary.  From Cambridge he returned to Deer-
 field, where he studied  physic and surgery with Dr.
 Williams;  and  from whence,  in 1771, at the age of
 twenty-three, he removed to practise in Pittsfield.
   An ardent and decided friend of civil liberty, he took
 a deep interest in those great political questions which
 at that period were agitated between Great Britain and
 her American colonies.  No young man, perhaps, was
 more  zealously opposed to  the arbitrary encroachment
 of tbe British iiarliament than Dr. Childs, and as a
 proof of the confidence reposed in him  by the fathers
 of the town, it  need only be  mentioned that in  17V4,
 when the crisis of open hostility was approaching, he
 was appointed chairman of a committee to draw  a'pe-
 tition to  his Majesty's Justices of Common Pleas in
 the county of Berkslwe, remonstrating against certain
 acts of parliament which bod just been promulgated,
 and praying them to stay all proceedings till those un-
 just and oppressive acts should be repealed.
   In the same year, (1774,) Dr. Childs took a cotimis-
 sion in a company of minute-men, which, in compli-
 ance with a recommendation from the convention of
 the New-England states, was organized in that town.
 When the news of  the battle of Lexington in 1775
 was received, lie marched with his company to Bos-
 ton, where he was soon  after appointed a surgeon of
 Colonel Patterson's regiment   From Boston he  went
 with the army to New-York, and from thence accom-
 panied the expedition to  Montreal.  In 1777 he left
 the army, and  resumed his  practice in the  town of
 Pittsfield, and continued in it till less than  a week be-
 fore his death, at the  advanced age of seventy-three.
   In 1792, Dr. Childs was elected a  representative to
 the General Court, and for several years received the
 same pledge of public confidence.  He also held a seat
 in the senate for a number of years, by the suffrages
 of the county in which he  lived and died.   But it was
 in his profession he  was  most highly honoured  and
 extensively useful.  He  was early elected a member
 of the Massachusetts Medical Society,  and held the
 office of counsellor of that society to the  lime of his
 death.  In the year 1811, the University of Cambridge
 coufcrred on  him tlie degree of Doctor of Medicine.
 When the district society, composed ofthe fellows of
 the state society, was  established  in the county in
 which he lived, he was appointed censor,  and elected
 to the office of president
   As  a practitioner, Dr. Childs stood high in public es-
 timation, both at home and abroad.  For  more  than
 thirty years he was the  only physician of note in tlie
 town; and this single fact  strongly testifies to the un-
 common estimation  in which he was held  by those
 who were most competent to judge of his  professional 
CHI
CHL
skill and success.  He died on the 25th Feb. 1821, as
he lived, honoured, respected, and lamented."—Th.
Med. Biog.  A]
  Chi'li, halsamum de.  Salmon speaks, but with-
out any proof, of its being brought from Chili. The Bar-
badoes tar, in which are mixed a  few drops of the oil
of aniseed, is usually sold for it.
  Chiliody'namon.  (From  x(^"">  a  thousand, and
ouvauis, virtue.)   In Dioacorides, this name  is given
on account of its many virtues.  An  epithet of the
herb Polemonium.  Most probably the wood sage, Teu-
crium scorodonia of Linna-us.
  Chiliophyllon.  (From vfXtot, a  thousand, and
d/uAAoi/, a leaf, because of the great number  of leaf-
lets.)   A name of the milfoil.  See Achillea  millefo-
lium.
  Chi'lon.  XetXiav-  An inflamed and swelled lip.
  Ciulpela'oua.  A variety of capsicum.
  Chimk'thlon.  A chilblain.
  ('iii'mia.  See Chemistry.
  Chimia'ter.   (From xvuta> chemistry, and larpoj,
a physician.)  A physician who makes the science of
chemistry subservient  to the purposes of medicine.
  Chimo'lea laxa.  Paracelsus means, by this word,
the sublimed powdei which is  separated from the
flowers of saline ores.                .
  CHI'NA.  (So named from  the country of China,
from whence it was brought.)  See Smilax China.
  China chinje.   A name given to  the Peruvian
bark.
  China occidentalis.  China spuria nodosa;  Smi-
laxpseudo-China; Smilax Indica spinosa ; American
or West-Indian China.  This  root is chiefly brought
from Jamaica, in large round pieces full of knots.  In
scrofulous disorders, it has been preferred to  the ori-
ental kind.  In other cases it is of similar but inferior
virtue.
 . China suppostta.  See  Scnesiopscudochina.
  Chinchi'na.  See Cinchona.
  Chinchi'na Caribjea.  See, Cinchona Caribea.
  Chinchina de Santa Fe\  There are several spe-
cies of bark  sent  from  Santa Fe; but neither  their
particular natures, nor the trees  which afford them,
■re yet accurately determined.
  Chinchina Jamaicensis.  See Cinchona Caribaa.
  Chinchina rubra.  See Cinchona oblongifolia.
  Chinchina de St. Lucia.  St Lucia bark. See
Cinchona fioribunda,
  CHINCOUGH.  See Pertussis.
  CHINE'NSIS.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Chinese Smilax.   See Smilax China.
  Chio turpentine.  See  Pistacia terebinthus.
  Chi'oli.  In Paracelsus it is synonymous with fu-
runculus.
  CHIRA'GRA.  (From x«Pi the hand, and  aypa, a
seizure.)  The gout in the joints of the  hand. See
Arthritis.
  CHIRO'NES.   (From xup, the hand)  Small pas-
tilles  on tlie hands and feet, enclosed in wbich is a
troublesome worm.
  CHIRO'NIA.   (From Chiron, the  Centaur, who
discovered its use.)  1. The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnrjeau  system.   Class,  Penlandria; Order,
Monogynia.
 , 2. ("From x«P>  the hand.)   An  affection of the
hand, where it is troubled with chirones.
  Chironia Centaurium.  The systematic name of
the officinal centaury.  Centaurium minus vulgare;
Centaurium parvum;  Centaurium minus;  Libadium;
Chironia—corollis quinquefidis infundibuliformibus,
caule dichotomo, pistillo simplici, of Linmeus.  This
plant is justly esteemed to be the  most  efficacious bit-
ter of all the medicinal plants indigenous to ibis coun-
try.  It has been  recommended, by Cullen, as a sub-
stitute for gentian, and by several is thought to be a
more useful medicine. The tops of the centaury plant
are directed for use by the colleges of London and Edin-
burgh, and are most commonly given in infusion; but
they may also be taken  in powder, or prepared into
an extract.
  (Chironia anqitlarib. See American centaury. A.]
  Ciiiro'nium.   (From Xtiptav, the Centaur,  who is
paid to have been the first who healed them.)   A ma-
lignant  ulcer, callous on  its edges, and  difficult  to
cure.
  CHIROTHE'CA.  (From x«P> the hand, and nBn-
ui, to  put)  A glove of  the  scarfskin,  with tlie nails,
which is brought off from the dead subject, after tlie
cuticle is loosened by putrefaction, from the parts un-
der it.
  CHIR'URGIA.  (From Xup, the hand, and tpyov,
a work;  because surgical operations are performed by
the hand.)  Chirurgery, or surgery.
  Chi'ton.  Xitov. A coat, or membrane.
  [Chitonite.  Sec Organic relics.  A.]
  Chi'um.  (From Xios, the island where it was pro-
duced.)   An epithet of a wine made at Scio.
  Chlia'sma.  (From x^'aw, to make warm.) A
warm fomentation.
  CHLORA'SiMA.   (From  x^wP<tfi  green.)   See
Chlorosis.
  CHLORATE.   A compound of chloric acid with a
salifiable basis.
  CHLORIC ACID.  Acidum chloricum. " It was
first eliminated from salts containing it by Gay Lus-
sac, and described by hiin in his admirable memoir on
iodine, published in the 01st volume of tlie Annates de
Chimie.   When a current of chlorine is passed forsome
time through a solution of barytic earth in warm wa-
ter, a substance called hyperoxymuriate of barytes by
its first  discoverer, Chenevix, is  formed,  as  well as
some common  muriate.  The latter  is separated, by
boiling phosphate of silver in the  compound solution.:
The former  may then be obtained by evaporation, in
fine rhomboidal prisms.  Into a dilute solution of this
salt, Gay Lussac poured weak sulphuric acid.  Though -
he added only a few drops of acid, not  nearly enough
to saturate  the barytes, the liquid  became  sensibly
acid, and not a bubble of oxygen  escaped.  By conti-
nuing to add sulphuric acid with caution,: he succeeded
in obtaining an acid liquid entirely free from sulphuris
acid and barytes, and  not precipitating nitrate of sil-
ver.  It was chloric acid dissolved in water.  Its cha
racters are the following.
  This  acid has no sensible Bmell.   Its solution in
water is perfectly colourless.  Its taste  is very acid
and it reddens litmus without destroying  the colour
It produces no alteration on solution of indigo in sul
phuric acid.  Light does not decompose it  It  may
be concentrated by a gentle  heat, without undergoing
decomposition, or without evaporating.  It was kept u
long time exposed to the air without  sensible  diminu-
tion of its quantity.  When concentrated, it has some-
thing of  an oily consistency.  When  exposed  to heat,
it is partly decomposed into oxygen and chlorine, and
partly volatilized without alteration.  Muriatic  acid
decomposes  it in tlie same way, at the common tem-
perature. Sulphurous acid, and  sulphuretted hydro-
gen, have the same property; but  nitric acid produces
no change upon it. Combined with ammonia, it forms
a fulminating salt, formerly described  by M. Chenevix.
It does not precipitate any metallic solution.  It readily
dissolves zinc, disengaging  hydrogen;  but  it  acta
slowly on mercury.  It cannot  be  obtained in the
gaseous state.  It is composed of 1 volume chlorine +
2.5 oxygen, or, by weight, of  100 chlorine, 111.70 oxy-
gen, if we consider the specific gravity of chlorine to
be 2.4866.
  To the preceding account of the properties of chloric
acid,  M. Vauquelin  has added  the following.   Its
taste is  not only acid, but astringent,  and its odour,
when concentrated, is somewhat pungent. It differs
from chlorine, in  not precipitating gelatine.  When
paper stained with litmus is left for some time in con-
tact with it, the colour is destroyed.  Mixed with mu-
riatic acid, water is formed,  and  both acids are  con-
verted into chlorine.  Sulphurous acid is  converted
into sulphuric, by taking oxygen from the chloric acid,
which is consequently converted into chlorine.
  Chloric acid combines with the bases, and forms the
chlorates, a set of salts formerly known by the name
of  the  hyperoxT/genated muriates.   They may be
formed either directly by saturating the  alkali or earth
with the chloric acid, or by the old process of trans-
mitting chlorine through the solutions of the bases, in
Woolfe's bottles.   In this case the water is  decom-
posed. Its oxygen unites to one portion ofthe chlorine,
forming   chloric acid,  while  its hydrogen uniles to
another  portion of chlorine, forming muriatic acid,
and hence, chlorates and muriates must be contempo-
raneously generated, and must be afterward separated
by crystallization, or peculiar methods.
  The chlorate of potassa or hyperoxymuriate, has been
long known, and may be procured by receiving  chio* 
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 line, as it is formed, into a solution of potassa.  When
 the solution is saturated, it may be evaporated  gently,
 and the first crystals produced will be the salt desired,
 this crystallizing before the simple muriate, which is
 produced at the same time with it.  Its crystals are in
 shining hexaedral lamina?, or rhomboidal plates.  It is
 soluble in 17  parts of cold  water; and,  but  very
 sparingly, in alkohol.  Its  taste is cooling, and rather
 unpleasant.   Its specific gravity is 2.0.  16 parts of
 water, at 60°, dissolve one  of it, and 2A  of  boiling
 water.  The purest oxygen is extracted from this salt,
 by exposing it to a gentle red heat.  One hundred grains
 yield about 115 cubic inches of gas.   It consists of 9.5
 chloric acid+6 potassa=15.5, which is the prime equi-
 valent ofthe salt.
   The effects of this salt on inflammable bodies are
 very powerful.  Rub  two grains into powder in, a
 mortar, add a grain of sulphur, mix them well by gentle
 trituration, then collect the powder into a heap, and
 press upon it suddenly  and  forcibly with the pestle, a
 loud detonation will ensue.  If the  mixture be wrapped
 in strong paper, and struck  with a hammer, the report
 will be still louder.   Five grains of the salt, mixed in
 the  same manner with two and  a half of charcoal,
 will be inflamed by strong trituration, especially if a
 grain or two of sulphur  be added, but without much
 noise.  If a little sugar be mixed with half its weight
 of the chlorate, and a little strong sulphuric acid poured
 on it, a sudden and vehement inflammation will ensue;
 but  this experiment requires caution, as well  as the
 following. To one grain of tbe powdered  salt in a
 mortar, add half a  grain of phosphorus; it will deto-
 nate, with a loud report, on  the  gentlest trituration.
 In this experiment the  hand should be defended by a
 glove, and great care should be taken that none  of the
 phosphorus get into the eyes.   Phosphorus may be in-
 flamed by it under water, putting into a wine-glass one
 part of phosphorus and two  of the  chlorate, nearly
 filling the gloss  with  water,  and then pouring  in,
 through a glass tube reaching to the  bottom, three or
 four parts of sulphuric  acid. This experiment,  too, is
 very hazardous to the eyes.  If olive or linseed oil be
 taken instead of phosphorus, it may be inflamed by
 similar means on the surface of the water.  This  salt
 should not be kept mixed with sulphur, or perhaps any
 inflammable  substance, as  in  this state it  has been
 known to detonate spontaneously.  As it is the common
 effect of mixtures of this salt with inflammable sub-
 stances of every kind, to take fire  on being  projected
 into the stronger acids,  Chenevix tried the experiment
 with it mixed with diamond powder in various propor-
 tions, but without success.
   Chlorate of soda may be prepared in the same man-
 ner as the preceding, by substituting soda for potassa ;
 but it is not easy to obtain it separate, as it  is nearly
 as soluble as the muriate of soda, requiring only 3 parts
 of cold  water.   Vauquelin formed  it, by saturating
 chloric acid with soda; 500  parts of the dry carbonate
 yielding 1180 parts of crystallized chlorate.  It consists
 of 4 soda, 9.5 acid=13.5, which is its prime equivalent.
 It crystallizes in square  plates, produces a sensation of
 cold in the mouth, and  a saline taste; is slightly deli-
 quescent,  and in its other properties resembles the
 chlorate of potassa.
   Barytes appears to be the next base in  order of
 affinity for this acid.  The best method of forming it
 is to pour hot water on  a large quantity of this  earth,
 and  to pass a current of chlorine  through the  liquid
 kept warm, so that a fresh portion of barytes may be
 taken up as the former is saturated.  This salt is solu-
 ble in about four parts of cold water, and less of warm,
 and  crystallizes like the simple muriate.   It may be
 obtained,  however,  by  the  agency of double  affinity;
 for phosphate of silver  boiled in the solution will de-
 compose the simple muriate, and the muriate  of silver
and phosphate of barytes being insoluble, will both fall
 down and leave the chlorate in solution alone.   The
 phosphate of silver employed in this process  must be
 perfectly pure, and not the least contaminated with
 copper.
   The chlorate of strontites may be obtained in (he
 same manner.  It is deliquescent, melts immediately
 In the mouth, and produces cold ;  is  more soluble in
 alkohol  than the  simple muriate,  and crystallizes in
 needles.
  The chlorate of time, obtained in a similar way, is
 extremely deliquescent, liquefies at a low heat, is very
      814
 soluble in alkohol, produces much cold in solution, and
 has a sharp bitter taste.
   Chlorate of ammonia is formed  by double affinity,
 the carbonate of ammonia  decomposing  the enrlliy
 Baits of this genus, giving up its carbonic acid to iheir
 base, and combining with their acid into chlorate of
 ammonia, Which may be obtained by evaporation.  H
 is very soluble both in water and alkohol, and  decom-
 posed by a moderate heat.
   The chlorate of magnesia  much resembles that of
 lime.
   To obtain chlorate of alumina, Chenevix put some
 alumina, precipitated from  the  muriate, and well
 washed, but still moist, into a Woolfe's apparatus, and
 treated it as the other earths.   The alumina shortly
 disappeared;  and on pouring sulphuric acid into the
 liquor, a strong smell of chloric acid was perceivable;
 but on attempting to obtain the salt pure by means of
 phosphate of silver, the whole was decomposed, and
 nothing but chlorate of silver was found in ihe solu-
 tion."
   CHLORIC OXIDE. Deutoxide of chlorine.  When
 sulphuric acid is poured  upon hyper-oxymuriate of
 potassa in a wine-glass, very  little effervescence takes
 place, but the acid gradually acquires an orange colour,
 and a dense yellow vapour, of a peculiar and not dis-
 agreeable smell, floats  on the surface. These pheno-
 mena led Sir H. Davy to believe, that the substanee
 extricated from the salt is held in solution by the acid.
 After various unsuccessful attempts to obtain this sub-
 stance in a separate state, he at last succeeded by the
 following method: About 60 grains  of the salt are tri-
 turated with a little sulphuric acid, just sufficient to
 convert them into a  very solid paste.   This is  put
 into a retort, which is heated by means of hot water.
 The water must  never be allowed  to become boiling
 hot, for fear of explosion.   The heat  drives off tlie new
 gas, which may be received over mercury.   This new
 gas has a much more intense  colour  than euchlorine
 It does not act on mercury. Water absorbs more of
 it than euchlorine. Its taste is astringent.  It destroys
 vegetable blues without reddening them. When phos-
 phorus is introduced into it, an explosion takes place.
 When heat is applied, the gas explodes with more vio-
 lence, and  producing  more  light  than euchlorine.
 When thus exploded, two measures of it are converted
 into nearly three measures, which consist of a mixture
 of one measure chlorine, and two measures oxygen.
 Hence, it is composed of one atom chlorine and four
 atoms oxygen.
  Deutoxide of chlorine has a peculiar aromatic odour,
 unmixed with any smell of chlorine.  A little chlorine
 is always absorbed by the mercury during the  explo-
 sion of the gas.  Hence the small deficiency of the re-
sulting measure is accounted for.  At common tem-
 peratures none of the  simple  combustibles which  Sir
 H. Davy tried,decomposed the gas, except phosphorus.
 The taste of the aqueous solution is extremely astrin-
 gent and corroding, leaving for a long while a very
 disagreeable sensation.  The action  of liquid nitric
 acid on the chlorate of potassa affords the same gas,
and a much larger quantity of this acid may be safely
employed than of the sulphuric.  But as the gas must
be procured by solution of the salt, it is always mixed
with about one-fifth of oxygen."
  CHLORIDE.  A compound of chlorine with  dif-
ferent bodies.
  Chloride of azot. See Nitroeren.
  CHLO'RINE.  (So  called from x*«poc, creen, be-
cause it is of a green  colour.)  Oxygenated muriatic
acid.  " The introduction of this term, marks an era
In chemical science.  It originated from tho masterly
 researches of Sir II. Davy on the oxymuriatic acid gas
of the French school; a substance which, after resim-
 ing the most powerful means of decomposition which
 his sagacity could invent, or  his ingenuity apply, he
declared to be, according to the true logic of chemistry,
 an elementary body, and not a compound of muriatic
 acid and oxygen, as was previously imagined, and as
 its name  seemed to denote.  He accordingly assigned
 lo it the term  chlorine, descriptive of its  colour; a
 name now generally uspd. The chloridic theory of
 combustion, though more limited in its applications
 to the chemical phenomena of nature, than the anti-
 phlogistic of Lavoisier, may justly be  regarded as of
 equal importance to the advancement of the science It-
 self   When we now s-irvey the Transactions of the 
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 Royal Society for 1808, 1809,1810, and 1811, we fee!
 overwhelmed with astonishment at the unparalleled
 skill, labour, and sagacity, by which the grcal English
 chemist, in so  short a space, prodigiously multiplied
 the objects and resources of the science, while he pro-
 mulgated a new code of laws, flowing from views of I
 elementary action, equally profound, original, and sub-
 lime.  The importance of the revolution produced by
 his researches on chlorine, will justify us in presenting i
 a detailed account of the steps by which it has been |
 effected.  How entirely  the glory of" this  grjat  work |
 belongs to Sir H. Davy, notwithstandingsomc invidious
 attempts in this country to tear the well-earned laurel
 from his brow, and transfer it to the French chemists,
 we may readil/ judge by the following decisive facts.
   The seconc'part of the Phil. Trans, for 1809, con-
 tains researches on oxymuriatic acid, its natu«e and
 eombinations, by Sir H. Davy, from which the follow-
 ing interesting extracts are taken.
   ' In the Bakcrian lecture for 1808,' says he, '-I have
 given an account of the action of potassium  upon
 muriatic acid gac, by which more than one-third of its
 volume of hydrogen is produced; and I have stated,
 that muriatic acid can in no instance be procured from
 exymuriatic acid, or from dry muriates, unless water
 or its elements  be present.
 «  ' In the second volume of the Mimoires  D'Arcueil,
 Gay Lussac  and Thenard have detailed an extensive
 series of tacts, upon muriatic acid, and oxymuriatic
 acid.  Some of their experiments are similar to those
 I  have detailed in the paper just referred to; others are
 peculiarly their own, and of a  very curious kind;
 (heir general conclusion is, that muriatic acid gas con-
 tains about one quarter  of its weight of water; and
 that oxymuriatic acid is not decomposable by any sub-
 stances but hydrogen, or such as can form triple com-
 binations with it
   ' One of the most singular facts that I have observed
 on this subject, and which I have before referred to,
 is, that charcoal, even when  ignited to whiteness in
 exymuriatic  or muriatic acid  gases, by the voltaic
 battery, effects no change in them, if it  has been pre-
 viously freed from hydrogen, by intense  ignition in
 vacuo.
   'This experiment, which I have several times re-
 peated, led me to doubt of the existence of oxygen in
 that substance, which has been supposed to contain it,
 above all others, in a loose a-nd active state; and to
 make a more rigorous investigation, than had hitherto
 been attempted for its detection.'
   He then proceeds to interrogate nature, with every
 artifice of experiment and reasoning, till he finally ex-
 torts a confession of the true constitution of this mys-
 terious  muriatic essence.  The above paper, and his
 Bakerian lecture, read  before the Royal  Society in
 Nov. and Dec. 1810, and published in the first part of
 their Transactions for 1811, present the whole body of
 evidence for  tbe undecompounded nature of oxymu-
 riatic acid gas, thenceforward styled chlorine; and
 •hey will be studied in every enlightened age and coun-
 try, as a jusl and splendid pattern of inductive  Baco-
 nian  logic  These views were slowly and reluctantly
 admitted by the chemical philosophers of Europe.
   In  1812, Sir  H. Davy published his Elements of
 Chemical Philosophy, containing a systematic account
-of his new doctrines concerning the combination of
 simple bodies.  Chlorine is thera  placed in the same
 rank with oxygen, and finally removed from the class
 of acids.  In 1813, Thenard published the first volume
of his Traiti de Chimio EUmentaire  Thiorique et
Pratique.  This distinguished  chemist, ihe fellow-
labourer of Gay Lussac in those able researches on the
alkalies and oxymuriatic acid, which form the distin-
 guished rivalry of the French school, to the  brilliant
 career of Sir H. Davy, states, at p. 584, of the above
 rolume, the composition of oxymuriatic acid as fol-
lows:
   'Composition. The oxygenated muriatic gas contains
tbe half of its volume of oxygen gas, not including that
which we may suppose in muriatic acid.  Il thence fol-
lows, that it is formed of 1.9183 of muriatic acid, and
0.5517 of oxygen ; for the specific gravity of oxygenated
muriatic gas is 2.47, and that of oxygen gas 1.1034.'—
1 Chenevix first determined the proportion of its con-
stituent principles.  Gay Lussac and Thenard deter-
mined it more exactly, and showed that we could not
decompose toe oxygenated muriatic gas, but by putting
I it in contact with a body capable of uniting with the
 two elements of this gas, or with muriatic acid.  They
 announced at the same time that they could explain all
| the phenomena which it presents, by considering it as
 a simple or as a compound body.  However, this  last
 opinion appeared more  probable to them. Davy, on
 the contrary, embraced the rirsl, admitted it exclusively,
 and  sought to  fortify it by experiments which  are
 peculiar to him.'  P. 5S~>.
   In the second volume of Thenard's work, published
 in 1814, he explains the mutual action of chlorine  and
 ammonia  gases, solely on the oxygenous theory.  ' On
 peut  demontrer par ce dernier  procede, que le  gas
 inuriatique oxigene, doit con ten ir  la  moitie de  son
 volume d'origene, uni A I'acide murialique.' P. 147.—
 In the 4th volume, which appeared in 1816, we find
 the following passages: ' Oxygenated muriatic gas.—
 Oxygenated  muriatic gas, in  combining with  the
 metals, gives rise to the neutral muriates.  Now, 107.6
 of oxide of silver, contain 7.6 of oxygen,.and-absoib
 26.4 of muriatic acid, to pass to the state of neutral
 muriate.  Of consequence, 348 of this last acid sup-
 posed dry, and 100 of oxygen, form  this gas. But ihe
 sp. gr. of oxygen is  1.1034, and that  of oxygenated
 muriatic gas .is  2.47; hence, this contains the half of
 its volume of oxygen.'  P. 52.
   The force of Sir H.Davy's demonstrations, pressing
 for six years on the public mind of  the French philo
 sopbers, now begins to transpire in a note lo tbe above
 passage.—'We reason here,' says Thenard, 'obviously
 on the hypothesis, which consists in regarding oxygen-
 ated muriatic gas as a compound body.' This pressure
 of public  opinion becomes conspicuous at the end  of
 the volume. Among the additions, we have the follow
 ing decisive evidence of the lingering attachment to
 the old theory of Lavoisier and Berthollet—' A pretty
 considerable  number of persons who have subscribed
 for this work, desiring a detailed explanation of tlie
 phenomena which oxygenated muriatic gas presents,
 on the supposition thai this gas is a simple body, we
 are now going to explain these phenomena, on  this
 supposition, by considering them attentively.   The
 oxygenated muriatic gas will take the name of chlorine;
 its  combinations with  phosphorus,  sulphur,  azot,
 metals, will be  called chlorures; the muriatic  acid,
 which results from equal parts in volume of hydrogen
 and  oxygenated muriatic gases, will be  hydrochloric
 acid;  the  superoxygenated  muriatic acid, will  be
 chlorous  acid;  and  tlie hyperoxygenated muriatic,
 chloric acid; the first, comparable  to the hydriodic
 acid, and the last to the iodic acid.'  In fact, therefore,
 we evidently see, that so  far from the chloridic theory
 originating in France, as has  been more than insi-
 nuated, it  was only the  researches  on iodine, so  ad-
 mirably conducted by Gay Lussac, that, by their auxi-
 liary  attack  on the oxygen  hypothesis, eventually
 opened the minds of its adherents to the evidence long
 ago advanced by Sir H.Davy. It will be  peculiarly
 instructive, to give a general outline of that evidence,
 which has been mutilated in some  systematic works
 on chemistry, or frittered away into  fragments.
   Sir H. Davy subjected oxymuriatic gas to  the action
 of many simple combustibles, as well as metals, and
 from the compounds formed, endeavoured to eliminate
 oxygen, by the most energetic powers of affinity and
 voltaic electricity, but without success, as the follow-
 ing abstract will show.
   If oxymuriatic acid gas be introduced into a vessel
 exhausted  of air, containing tin, and the tin be gently
 heated, and the gas in sufficient quantity, the tin and
 the gas disappear, and a limpid fluid,  precisely  the
 same as Libavius's liquor, is formed : If this substance
 is a combination of muriatic  acid  and oxide of tin,
 oxide of tin ought to be separated from it by means.of
 ammonia.  He admitted ammoniacal gas over mercury
 to a  small quantity of the liquor of Libavius; it was
 absorbed with great heat, and  no gas was generated ;
 a  solid result was obtained, which was of a "dull white
 colour; some of it was heated, to ascertain if it con-
 tained  oxide of tin; but  the  whole volatilized, pro-
 ducing dense pungent fumes.
   Another  experiment of the same kind, made with
 great care, and in which the ammonia was used in
 great excess, proved that the liquor of Libavius cannot
 be decompounded by ammonia; but lhat it forms a
 new combination with this substance.
   Ho made a considerable quantity of the solid  com, 
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 pound of oxymuriatic acid and phosphorus by com-
 bustion, and saturated it with ammonia, by heating it
 in a proper receiver filled with ammoniacal gas, on
 which it  acted  with great energy, producing much
 heat; and they formed a white opaque powder.  Sup-
 posing that  this substance was composed of the dry
 muriates aud phosphates of ammonia ; as muriate of
 ammonia is very volatile, and  as ammonia  is driven
 off from phosphoric acid by a heat below redness, he
 conceived that,  by igniting the product obtained, he
 should  procure  phosphoric acid; he therefore  intro-
 duced some of the powder into a tube of green gloss,
 and heated it to reduess, out ofthe contact of air, by u
 spirit lamp; but found, to his  great surprise, that  it
 was nut at all volatile, nor decomposable at tills degree
 of heat, and that it gave off no gaseous matter.
   The circumstance, that a substance composed prin-
 cipally of oxymuriatic acid, and ammonia, should re-
 sist decomposition or change at so high a temperature,
 induced him to pay particular attention to the proper-
 ties of this new body.
   It has been said, and taken  for granted  by many
 chemists, Uiat when oxymuriatic acid and ammonia act
 upon each other, waier  is formed: he several  times
 made the experiment, and was convinced that this is
 uot ihe case.
   He mixed together  sulphurated hydrogen in a high
 degree of purity, and oxymuriatic acid gas, both dried,
 in equal volumes.  In this instance the condensation
 was not l-40th.;  sulphur, which seemed to contain a
 liltle oxymuriatic acid, was formed on the sides of the
 vessel;  no vapour was deposited, and the residual gas
 contained about 19-20ths of muriatic acid gas, and the
 remainder was inflammable.
   When oxymuriatic acid is acted upon by nearly an
 equal volume of hydrogen, a combination takes place
 between them, and muriatic acid gas results.  When
 muriatic acid gas is acted on by mercury, or any other
 metal, the oxymuriatic acid is attracted from the hy-
 drogen by the  stronger affinity of the  metal, and an
 oxy muriate, exactly similar to that formed by combus-
 tion, is produced.
   The action of water upon those compounds which
 have been usually considered as muriates, or as dry
 muriates, bft which are properly combinations of oxy-
 muriatic acid with inflammable bases, may be easily
 explained, according to these  views of the subject
 When water is added in  certain quantities  to  Liba-
 v-ius's liquor, a  solid crystallized mass is obtained,
 from which oxide of tin and muriate of ammonia can
 be procured by ammonia.  In this  case, oxygen may
 be conceived to be supplied to the tin, and hydrogen to
 the oxymuriatic acid.
   The compound formed by burning phosphorus in
 oxymuriatic acid, is in a similar relation to water.  If
 thai substance be added to it, it is resolved into two
 powerful acids;  oxygen, it maybe supposed, is fur-
 nished to the phosphorus to form phosphoric acid, hy-
 drogen to the oxymuriatic acid to form common muri-
 atic acid gas.
   He caused strong explosions from an electrical jar to
 pass through oxymuriatic gas, by means of points of
 platina, for several  hours in succession; but it seemed
 not to undergo the slightest change.
   He electrized the oxymuriates of phosphorus and
 sulphur for some hours, by the power  of the voltaic
 apparatus of 1000 double plates. No gas separated,
 but a minute quantity of hydrogen, which he was in-
 clined to attribute to the presence of moisture iu the
 apparatus  employed; for he once obtained  hydrogen
 from  Libavius's  liquor by a similar operation.  But
 he ascertained that this was owing to the decomposi-
 tion of water adhering to the mercury:  and  in some
 late experiments made with 2000 double plates, in
 which the discharge was from platina wires, and in
 which the mercury used for confining the liquor was
carefully boiled, there was no production of  any per-
manent elastic matter.
  Few substances, perhaps, have less claim to be con-
sidered as acid, than oxymuriatic acid.  As yet we
have no right to say that it has  been decompounded;
and as its  tendency of combination is with  pure  in-
flammable matters, it may possibly belong to the same
class of bodies as oxygen.
  May it not in fact be a peculiar acidifying and dis-
solving principle, forming compounds with combustible
bodies, analogous to acids containing oxygen or oxides,
I in their properties and  powers of combination-; but
 differing from them, in being for tlie most part decom-
 posable by water 1  On  this idea, muriatic acid may
 be considered  as  having hydrogen for its basis,  and
 oxymuriatic acid for its acidifying principle;  and the
 phosphoric sublimate as having  pliospnorus for its
 basis, and oxymuriatic acid  for its acidifying matter;
 and Libavius's liquor, and the compounds of arsenic
 with oxymuriatic acid, may be regarded as analogous
 bodies.  The combinations  ctf oxymuriatic acid with
 lead, silver, mercury, potassium,  and sodium, iu  this
 view, would be considered us a class of bodies related
 more to oxides than acids, in their powers of attraction,
 —Bak. Lee. 1809.
   On the Combinations of the Common Metals with
           Oxygen and Oxymuriatic Gas.
   Sir H. used in all cases small retorts of green  glass,
 containing from three to six cubical inches, furnished
 with stop-cocks.  The metallic substances were  intro-
 duced, the retort exhausted and filled with the gas to
 be acted  upon, heat was applied by means of a  spirit
 lamp,  and after cooling,  tlie  results were examined,
 and the residual gas analyzed.
   All  the metals  that he tried,  except  silver,  lead,
 nickel, cobalt, and gold, when  heated, burnt in  the
 oxymuriatic  gas, and the volatile metals with flame
 Arsenic, antimony, tellurium, and zinc, with a white
 flame, mercury with a red flame.  Tin became ignited
 to whiteness, and iron and copper to redness; tungsten
 and manganese to dull redness; platina was scarcely
 acted upon at the heat of fusion of the glass.
   The product from mercury was corrosive sublimate.
 That from zinc was similar in colour to that  from
 antimony, but was much less volatile.
   Silver and lead produced born-silver and horn-lead;
 and bismuth, butter of bismuth.
  In acting upon metallic oxides by oxymuriatic gas, he
 found  that those of lead, silver, tin, copper, antimony,
 bismuth, and tellurium, were decomposed in a heat
 below redness,  but the oxides of the volatile metals
 more readily than those of the fixed ones.  The oxides
of cobalt and nickel were scarcely acted upon  at a
dull red heat.  The red oxide of iron was not affected
at a strong red heat, while the black oxide was readily
decomposed at a much lower temperature; arsenical
acid underwent no change at the greatest heat that
could be given it in the glass retort, while the white
oxide readily decomposed.
   In cases where oxygen was given off, it was found
exactly the same in quantity  as that which had  been
 absorbed by the metal.  Thus, two grains of red oxide
of mercury absorbed 9-10ths of a cubical inch of oxy-
muriatic gas,  and afforded 0.45 of oxygen.  Two grains
of dark olive oxide from  calomel  decomposed by po-
tassa, absorbed  about 94-100ths of oxymuriatic gas-,
and afforded  24-100ths of oxygen, and corrosive  sub
limate was produced in both cases.
   In the decomposition of the white oxide of  zinc,
oxygen was expelled exactly equal to half the volume
of the oxymuriatic acid absorbed.   In tbe case of the
decomposition of the black  oxide of iron, and the
white oxide of arsenic, the changes that occurred  were
of a very beautiful kind; no oxygen was given off in
either case, but butter of arsenic  and  arsenical  acid
formed in one instance, and the ferruginous sublimate
and red oxide of iron in the other.
  General  Conclusions and Observations, illustrated
                 by Experiments.
  Oxymuriatic gas combines with inflammable bodies,
to form simple binary compounds;  and in these cases,
when it acts upon oxides, it either produces the expul-
sion of their  oxygen, or causes  it to enter Into  new
combinations.
  If it  be said that the oxygen arises from the decom-
position of the  oxymuriatic  gas,  and  not from the
oxides, it may be asked, why it is always the quantity
contained  in  the oxide 1  and why in some cases,  as
those of the peroxides of potassium and  sodium,  U.
bears no relation to the quantity of gas %
  If there existed any acid matter in oxymuriatic  gas,
combined with oxygen, it  ought to be exhibited in the
fluid compound of one proportion of phosphorus,  and
two of oxymuriatic gas; for this, on such an assump-
tion, should consist of muriatic acid (on tlie old hypo-
thesis, free from  water) and phosphorous acid ; but this
substance has no effect on litmus paper, and does not
aa under  common  circumstances, on  fixed  alkaline 
CHL
CHL
 eases, sach as dry lime or magnesia.  Oxrmuriatic
 gns, tike oxygen, must be combined in large quantity
 with peculiar inflammable matter, lo form acid matter.
 In  its union with hydrogen, it instantly reddens the
 driest litmus paper, though a gaseous body.   Contrary
 to acids, it expels oxygen  from protoxides, and com-
 bines with peroxides.
   When potassium is burnt in oxymuriatic gas, a dry
 compound is obtained.  If potassium combined  with
 oxygen  is  employed, the whole of the oxygen is ex-
 pelled, and the same compound formed.  It is contrary
 to sound logic to say, that this exact quantity of oxygen
 is given  off from a body not known to be compound,
 when we are certain of its existence in another; and
 all the cases arc parallel.
   Scheele explained the bleaching powers of the  oxy-
 muriatic gas, by supposing that  it destroyed colours by
 combining  with phlogiston.  Berthollet considered it
 as acting by supplying oxygen.  He made an experi-
 ment, which seems to prove that the pure gas is in-
 capable of altering vegetable colours, and that its opera-
 tion in bleaching depends entirely upoii its property of
 decomposing water, and liberating its oxygen.
   He filled  a glass globe, containing dry powdered mu-
 riate of  lime, with oxymuriatic gas.  He introduced
 some dry paper tinged with litmus tbat had been just
 heated, into another globe containing dry muriate of
 lime - after some time this globe was exhausted, and
 then connected with the globe containing the oxyniu-
 "iaiic gas, and by an appropriate set of stop-cocks, tlie
 paper was exposed to the action of the gas. No change
 of colour took place, and  after two days there was
 scarcely  a  perceptible alteration.
   Some similar paper dried, introduced into gas that
 had not been exposed to muriate of time, was instantly
 rendered white.
  It is generally stated in chemical books, that oxymu-
 riatic gas is  capable of being condensed  and crystal-
 lized at a low temperature.  He found by several ex-
 periments that this is not the case.  The solution of
 oxymuriatic gas in water  freezes more  readily than
 pure water, but the pure gas dried by muriate of  lime
 undergoes no change whatever,  al a temperature of 40
 below uo of Fahrenheit.  The mistake seems to have
 arisen from tlie exposure of the gas to cold in bottles
 containing  moisture.
   He attempted to decompose boracic and phosphoric
 acids by oxymuriatic gas, but wilbout  success; from
 which it seems probable, that the attractions of bora-
 cium and phosphorus for oxygen are stronger than for
 oxymuriatic  gas.  And from the experiments already
 detailed, iron and arsenic  are  analogous in  this re-
 spect, and probably some other metals.
  Potassium,  sodium, calcium,  strontium,  barium,
 cine, mercury, tin, lead, and probably silver, antimony,
 and gold, seem to have a stronger attraction for  oxy-
 muriatic gas than for oxygen.
  ' To call  a body which is  not known to contain oxy-
 gen, and wbich cannot contain muriatic acid, oxymu-
 riatic acid,  is contrary to  the principles of that nomen-
 clature in which it is adopted ;  and an alteration of it
 seems necessary to assist the progress of discussion,
 and to diffuse just ideas on the subject.  If tlie great dis-
 coverer of this substance  had signified it by any simple
 name, it would have been proper to have recurred to
 it; but dephlogisticated marine acid is a term which
 can hardly be adopted in  the present advanced era of
 the science.
   ' After consulting someof the most eminent chemical
 philosophers in this country, it has been judged most
 proper to suggest a name founded upon one of  its ob-
 vious and characteristic properties—its  colour, and to
 call it chlorine or chloric gas.
  ' Should  it hereafter be discovered to be compound,
 and even to  contain oxygen, this name can imply no
error, and cannot necessarily ,equire a change.
  'Most of the salts which  have been called muriates,
 are not known to contain  any muriatic  acid,  or any
oxygen.  Thus Libavius's  liquor, though converted
 into a muriate by water, contains only tin  and oxymu-
 riatic gas,  and horn-silver  seems incapable of being
converted into a true muriate.'—Bak. Lee 1811.
  We shall now exhibit a summary view of the  pre-
paration  and properties of chlorine.
  Mix in a mortar 3 parts  of common salt and 1 of
black oxide of manganese. Introduce them into a glass
retort, and  add 2 parts of  sulphuric acid.  Gas will
 issue, which must be collected in tlie water-pneumatic
 trough.  A gentle heat will favour Its extrication.  In
 practice, tbe above pasty-consistenced mixture  is apt
 to boil over into the neck.  A mixture of liquid mu
 riatic acid and manganese is therefore  more  conve-
 nient for the production of  chlorine. A very slight
 heat is adequate to its expulsion from the retort.  In-
 stead of manganese, red oxide of mercury, or puce-
 coloured oxide of lead, may be employed.
   This gas,  as  we have  already remarked, is of a
 greenish yellow-colour, easily recognised by daylight,
 but scarcely distinguishable  by that  of candles.  Its
 odour and taste are disagreeable, strong, and so cha-
 racteristic, that it is impossible to mistake it for any
 other gas.  When  we breathe it, even  much diluted
 with air, it occasions a sense of strangulation, constric-
 tion of the thorax,  and a copious discharge  from the
 nostrils.   If respired in larger quantity, its excites vio-
 lent  coughing, with spitting of  blood, and  would
 speedily destroy the individual, amid  violent distress.
 lis specific gravity is 2.4733.  This is better inferred
 from the specific gravities of hydrogen  and  muriatic
 acid  gases, than from the direct weight of  chlorine,
 from the impossibility of confining it over mercury.
 On   volume of hydrogen, added  to one of  chlorine,
 form two of  the ccid gas.  Hence, If  from twice the
 specific gravity of  muriatic gas=2.5427, we subtract
 that of hydrogen=0.0694, the difference 2.4733  is tbe
 sp. gr. of chlorine.  100 cubic inches at mean pressure
 and temperature weigh 75J grains.  See  Gas.
   In its perfectly dry state, it has no effect on dry vege-
 table colours. With the aid of  a  Utile moisture, it
 bleaches them into a yellowish-white.  Scheele first
 remarked this bleaching property; Berthollet applied
 it to  the art of bleaching in France; and from him
 Mr. Watt introduced its use into Great Britain.
   If a lighted wax taper be immersed rapidly into this
 gas, it consumes very fast, with a dull reddish flame,
 and much smoke.   The taper will not burn at the sur-
 face of the gas.  Hence, if slowly introduced, it is apt
 to be extinguished.  The alkaline metals, as well  as
 copper, tin, arsenic, zinc, antimony, in fine lamina) or
 filings, spontaneously  burn  in   chlorine.   Metallic
 chlorides result  Phosphorus also takes fire at ordi-
 nary temperatures, and is converted into a chloride.
 Sulphur may be melted in the gas without taking fire.
 It forms a liquid chloride, of a reddish  colour.  When
 dry, it is not  altered by any change of  temperature.
 Enclosed in a phial with a little moisture, it concretes
 into crystalline needles, at 40° Fahr.
   According to Thenard. water condenses, at the tem-
 perature of 68° F. and at 29.92 barom. 11-2 limes its
 volume of chlorine, and  forms aqueous  chlorine, for-
 merly called liquid  oxymuriatic acid.  This combina-
 tion is best made in  the second bottle of a Woolfe's ap-
 paratus, tlie first being charged with a little water, to.
 intercept tlie muriatic acid gas, while tbe third bottle-
 may contain potassa-water or milk of lime, to con-
 dense the superfluous gas.  Thenard says, that a kilo-
 gramme of salt is sufficient for saturating  from 10 to-
 12 litres  of water.   These measures correspond to,
 2 1-3 lbs. avoirdupois, and to  from 21 to 25 pints Eng-
 lish.  There  is an  ingenious apparatus for  making
 aqueous chlorine, described in Berthollefs Elements
 of Dying, vol. i.; which, however, the happy substi-
 tution of slacked lime for water, by Mr. Charles Ten-
 nant, of Glasgow, has superseded,  for the purposes of
 manufacture.  It congeals  by cold at 40° Fahr. and
 affords crystallized plates, of a deep yellow, contain-
 ing a less proportion of water than  the liquid combina-
 tion.  Hence when chlorine  is passed into water at
 temperatures under 40°, the liquid finally becomes a
 concrete  mass, wbich at a gentle heat liquefies with
 effervescence, from the escape of the excess of chlorine.
 When steam and chlorine are passed together through
 a red-hot porcelain  tube, they are converted into mu-
 riatic acid  and oxygen.   A like result is obtained by
 exposing aqueous chlorine to the solar rays; with this
 difference, that a little chloric  acid is formed.   Hence
 aqueous chlorine should  be  kept in  a dark place.
 Aqueous chlorine attacks almost all the  metals at an
ordinary temperature, forming muriates or chlorides,
and heat is evolved. It has the smell, taste, and co
lour of chlorine; and acts,  like it, on vegetable and
animal colours. Its taste  is somewhat  astringent, bw
not i n the least degree acidulous.
  When we put in a perfectly dark place, aMhe  oral 
CHL
CHL
nary temperature, a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen
it experiences no kind of alteration, even in  the space
of a great many days.  But if, at the same low tem-
perature, we expose the mixture to the diffuse light of
day, by degrees the two gases enter into chemical com-
bination, and  form muriatic acid  gas.  There is no
change in the volume of  the mixture, but  the change
of Its nature may be proved, by its rapid absorbability
by water, its not exploding by the  lighted taper, and
the disappearance  of the chlorine  hue.   To produce
the complete discoloration, we must expose the mix-
ture finally for a few minutes to the sunbeam. If ex-
posed at first to this intensity of light, it explodes with
great violence, and instantly forms  muriatic acid gas.
The same explosive  combination  is produced by the
electric spark and the lighted taper.  Thenard says, a
heat of 392° jg sufficient to cause the explosion.  The
proper proportion  is  an equal volume of each gas.
Chlorine and nitrogen combine into a remarkable de-
tonating  compound, by  exposing the former gas to a
solution of an ammoniacal salt.   Chlorine is the most
powerful  agent for destroying contagious miasmata.
The disinfecting phials of Morveau evolve  this gas."
— Ure.
  CHLORITE.  A minerat usually  friable  or very
easy to pulvei ize, composed of  a multitude of little
spangles, or shining  small grains,  falling to powder
under the pressure  of the fingers  There are four sub-
species.
  1. Chlorite earth.  In  green, glimmering, and some-
what pearly scales, with a shining green streak.
  2. Common chlorite.  A massive mineral of a black-
ish-green colour, a shining lustre, and a foliated frac-
ture passing into earthy.
  3. Chlorite slate.  A massive, blackish-green mine-
ral with a resinous lustre, and curve slaty or scaly-
foliated fracture.
  4. Foliated chlorite. Colour between mountain and
blackish-green.
  CHLORIODATE.  A compound of the chloriodic
acid with a salifiable basis.
  CHLORIODE ACID.  Acidum chloriodicum.  See
Chloriodic acid.
  CHLORIODIC  ACID.  Acidum chloriodicum.
Chloriode acid.  Sir  H.  Davy formed it, by admitting
Chlorine  in excess to known quantities of iodine, in
vessels exhausted  of  air, and repeatedly  heating the
sublimate. Operating in this way, he found that iodine
absorbs less than one-third of its weight of chlorine.
  Chloriodic acid is a very volatile substance, formed
by the sublimation of iodine in a great excess of chlo-
rine, is of a bright yellow colour;  when  fused it be-
comes of a deep orange, and when  rendered elastic, it
forms  a deep orange-coloured gas. It is capable of
combining with much  iodine when they are heated
together; its colour becomes, in consequence, deeper,
and the chloriodic  acid and the iodine rise together in
the elastic state.  The solution of the chloriodic acid
in water, likewise dissolves large quantities of iodine,
so that it is possible to obtain a fluid containing very
different proportions of iodine and chlorine.
  When two bodies so similar in their characters, and
in the compounds they form, as iodine and chlorine, act
upon substances at the same time, it is difficult, Sir H.
observes, to form a judgment of the different parts that
they play in the new chemical arrangement produced.
It appears most probable, that the acid  property of
the chloriodic compound depends upon the combination
of the two bodies; and  its  action upon  solutions of
the alkalies and the  earths may be easily explained,
when it is considered that chlorine has a  greater ten-
dency  than iodine to form double compounds with the
metals, and that iodine  has a greater tendency than
chlorine  to form triple  compounds with  oxygen and
the metals.
  A triple compound of this  kind  with sodium may
exist in sea water, and  would be separated with the
first crystals  that are  formed  by its evaporation.
Hence, it may exist  in common salt. Sir H. Davy
ascertained, by feeding birds with bread soaked with
water, holding some  of it  in solution, that it is not
poisonous like iodine iteelf.— Ure's <-h. Diet.
  CHLORO-CARBONOUS ACID.  "Theterm
chloro-carbonic which has been given to this compound
is incorrect, leading to the belief of its being a com-
pound of chlorine  and acidified charcoal, instead of
being a  compound of chlorine  and the protoxide of
       SIB
charcoal.   Chlorine has no immediate action on car-
bonic oxide, when they are exposed to each other in
common daylight over  mercury: not even when the
electric  spark is passed through them.  Experiments
made by Dr. John Davy, in the presence of his brother
Sir H. Davy, prove that they combine rapidly when
exposed to the direct solar beams, and one volume of
each is condensed  into one volume of the compound.
The resulting gas possesses very curious properties,
approaching to those of an acid. From the peculiar
potency of the sunbeam  in effecting  this combination,
Dr. Davy  called it phosgene gas.   The constituent
gases, dried over muriate  of lime, ought to  be intro-
duced from  separate reservoirs  into  an exhau.sted
globe, perfectly dry, and  exposed for  fifteen minutes to
bright sunshine, or  for twelve  hours  to daylight. The
colour of the  chlorine disappears, and on opening the
stop-cock  belonging to  the globe under mercury re-
cently boiled, an absorption of one-half the gaseous
volume  is  indicated.  The  resulting gas possesses pro-
perties perfectly distinct from those belonging to either
carbonic oxide or chlorine.
  It does  not fume in the atmosphere.  Its odour is
different from that of chlorine, something  like that
which might be imagined  to result from the smell of
chlorine combined  with that  of ammonia.   It is in
fact more  intolerable and suffocating than chlorine it-
self, and affects the eyes  in a  peculiar manner, pro-
ducing a rapid flow of tears, and occasioning painful
sensations.
  It reddens  dry litmus paper; and condenses foul
volumes of ammonia  into a white salt, while heat is
evolved.  This ammoniacal compound  is neutral, has
no odour,  but a pungent  saline taste; is deliquescent,
decomposable by the liquid mineral acids, dissolves
without effervescing in  vinegar, and sublimes unal-
tered  in muriatic,  carbonic,  and  sulphurous  acid
gases.  Sulphuric acid resolves Itself  into caroor.tcand
muriatic acids, in the proportion of two in volume of
the latter, and one of the former.   Tin, zinc, anti
mony, and arsenic, heated  in chloro-carbonous acid,
abstract the chlorine, and   leave the carbonic oxide
expanded  to  its original volume.  There is neither
ignition nor explosion takes place, though the action
of the metals is rapid. Potassium acting on the com-
pound gas produces  a solid chloride and  charcoal.
White oxide of zinc,  with chloro-carbonous acid,
gives a metallic chloride, and carbonic acid.  Neither
sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen,  nor hydrogen, though
aided by heat, produce any change  on  the acid gas.
But oxygen and hydrogen together, in due propor-
tions, explode in it; or  mere  exposure to water con-
verts it into muriatic and carbonic acid gases.
  From its completely neutralizing  ammonia, which
carbonic acid does not;  from  its separating carbonic
acid from  the subcarbonate of this alkali, while itself
is not separable by the acid gases or acetic acid, and
its reddening vegetable blues, there can be no hesita-
tion in pronouncing the chloro-carbonous compound to
be  an acid.   Its  saturating powers indeed surpass
every other  substance.  None  condenses so large a
proportion of ammonia.
  One measure of alkohol condenses twelve of chloro-
carbonous gas without decomposing  it; and acquires
the peculiar odour and power of affecting the eyes.
  To prepare the gas in  a pure state, a good air-pump
is  required, perfectly tight  stop-cocks, dry gases, and
dry vessels.  Iu specific gravity may be inferred from
the specific gravities of its constituents, of which it is
the sum.   Hence 2.4733  + 0.9722 =  3.4455, is  the
specific  gravity of chloro-carbonous gas;  and  100
cubic inches weigh  105.15 grains.   It appears that
when hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and chlorine, mixed iu
equal volumes, are exposed  to light,  muriatic and
chloro-carbonous acids  are formed, in equal propor-
tions, indicating an equality of affinity.
  The paper in the Phil. Trans, for 1812, from which
the preceding facts are taken, does honour to the school
of Sir H. Davy.  Gay Lussac and Thenard, as well as
Dr. Murray, made controversial investigations on the
subject  at  the same time, but without success.  The-
nard  has, however, recognised its distinct existence
and properties, by the name of carbo-muriatic acid, in
the 2d volume of his System, published in 1814, where
he considers it as a compound of muriatic and carbonic
acids, resulting from the  mutual actions of the oxygem-
attd muriatic acid  and carbonic oxide."— Ore, 
CHL
CHL
   CHLOROCYANIC ACID.   Acidum chloro-cyani-
 tum.  Chloroprussic acid.  " When hydrocyanic acid
 to mixed with chlorine, it acquires new properties.  Its
 ndour is much increased.  It no longer forms prussian
 Dlue. with solutions of iron, but a green precipitate,
 which  becomes  blue by the addition of sulphurous
 acid.  Hydrocyanic acid, thus altered, had acquired
 the name of oxyprussic, because it was supposed to
 have acquired  oxygen.  Gay Lussac subjected it to a
 minute examination, and found that it was a com-
 pound of equal volumes of chlorine and cyanogen,
 whence he proposed to distinguish it by the name of
 chlorocyanic acid.  To prepare this  compound, he
 passed a current of chlorine into solution of hydrocya-
 nic acid, till it destroyed the colour of sulphate of in-
 digo;  and by agitating the liquid with mercury, he
 deprived it ofthe excess of chlorine.   By distillation,
 afterward, in a moderate heat, an elastic  fluid  is dis-
 engaged,  which  possesses  the  properties formerly
 assigned to oxyprussic acid.  This,  however, is not
 pure chlorocyanic acid, but a mixture of it with car-
 bonic acid, in proportions which vary so much as to
 make it difficult to determine them.
   When hydrocyanic acid is  supersaturated with chlo-
 rine, and the excess of this last is removed by mercury,
 the liquid contains chlorocyanic and muriatic acids.
 Having put mercury into a glass jar until it was 3-4ths
 full, he filled it completely with that acid liquid, and
 inverted the jar in a vessel of mercury.   On exhaust-
 ing the receiver of an air-pump, containing this vessel,
 the mercury  sunk in  the jar, in consequence of the
 elastic fluid disengaged.  By degrees, the liquid itself
 was entirely  expelled, and swam on the mercury on
 the outside.  On  admitting  the air, the liquid could
 not enter  the tube, but only the mercury, and the
 whole elastic fluid condensed, except a small bubble.
 Hence it was concluded, that chlorocyanic acid was
 not  a  permanent gas, and that, in order to  remain
 gaseous under the pressure of the air, it must be mix-
 ed with another gaseous substance.
  The mixture of chlorocyanic and carbonic acids has
 the following properties.  It is  colourless.  Its smell
 is very strong.  A very small quantity of it irritates
 the pituitory membrane, and occasions  tears.  It red-
 dens litmus, is not inflammable, and does not detonate
 when  mixed with twice its bulk of oxygen or hydro-
 gen.  Its density,  determined by calculation, is 2.111.
 Its aqueous solution  does not precipitate nitrate of
 silver  nor barytes water. The alkalies absorb it ra-
 pidly, but  an  excess of them is necessary to destroy its
 odour.  If we then add an acid, a strong effervescence
 of carbonic acid is produced, and the odour of chloro-
 cyanic acid is no longer perceived.  If we add an ex-
 cess of lime  to the acid solution, ammonia is disen-
 gaged  in  abundance.'  To  obtain the green  preci-
 pitate from solution of iron, we must begin by mixing
 chlorocyanic acid with that solution.   We then add a
 little potassa, and at last a little acid.   If we add the
 alkali before  the iron, we obtain no green precipitate.
  Chlorocyanic acid exhibits with potassium almost
 the same phenomena as cyanogen.  The inflammation
 is equally slow, and the  gas diminishes  as much in
 volume."—Ure.
   CHLOROPHANE.   A violet fluor spar, found in
 Siberia.
   CHLOROPHILE.  The name lately given by Pel-
 ietier and Caventou to the green matter of the leaves
 of plants.   They obtain it by pressing, and then wash-
 ing in water, tbe substance of many leaves, and after-
 ward treating it with alkohol.   A matter was dis-
 solved, which, when  separated by evaporation, and
 purified by washing in hot water, appeared as a deep-
 green resinous substance.  It dissolves entirely in alko-
 hol, Ether, oils, or alkalies; it is not altered by expo-
 sure to air; it is softened by heat, but does not melt;
 it bums with flame,  and leaves a bulky coal. Hot
 water slightly dissolves it.  Acetic acid is the only acid
 that dissolves it in great quantity.  If an earthy or me-
 tallic salt be mixed with the alkoholic solution, and
 then alkali or  alkaline subcarbonate  be added, the
oxide or earth  is thrown down in combination with
 much of the green substance, forming a lake.  These
 lakes appear moderately permanent when exposed to
the air.  It is supposed to be a  peculiar proximate
 principle.
  CHLOROPRUSSIC ACID.  See Chlorocyanic acid.
  CHLOROSIS.   (From x^Wi fireen, pale; from
 xXotfj or x^o»), herba virens ■ and hence xXtapaapa and
 xXiapiaois, viror, pallor; so called from the yellow-
 greenish look those have who aie  affected with it.)
 Febris alba;  Febris amatoria; Icterus albus; Chlo-
 rasma.   The green-sickness.   A genus of disease in
 the class Cachexia, and order Impetigines of Cullen.
 It is a disease which afiecu young females who labout
 under a retention or suppression of the menses.  Hea-
 viness, listlessness to motion, fatigue on the least exer-
 cise, palpitations ofthe heart, pains in tlie back, loins,
 and hips, flatulency, and acidities in the stomach and
 bowels, a preternatural appetite for chalk, lime, and
 various other absorbents, together with many dyspep-
 tic symptoms, usually attend  on this disease.  As it
 advances in its progress, the  face becomes pale, or
 assumes a yellowish hue; the  whole body is flaccid,
 and likewise pale; the feet are affected with redema-
 tous swellings; the breathing is much hurried  by any
 considerable exertion of tbe body; the pulse is quick,
 but small;  and the person  is apt to  be affected with
 many of the symptoms of hysteria.  To procure a flow
 of the menses, proves in some cases a very difficult
 matter; and where the disease has been of long stand-
 ing, various morbid affections of the viscera are often
 brought on, which at length prove fatal.  Dissections-
 of those who have  died of chlorosis,  have usually
 shown the ovaria to be  in a  scirrhous, or dropsical
 state.  Iu some cases, the liver, spleen, and mesenteric
 glands, have likewise been found in a diseased slate.
   The cure is to be attempted by increasing the tone
 of the system, and exciting the action of the uterine
 vessels.   The first may be effected by a generous nu-
 tritive diet, with the moderate  use of wine; by gentle
 and daily  exercise,  particularly on  horseback;  by
 agreeable company, to amuse and quiet the mind; and
 by tonic medicines, especially the preparations of iron,
joined with myrrh, Sec.  Bathing will Ukewise  help
 much to  strengthen them, if the temperature of the
 bath be made gradually lower, as the patient bears  it;
 and sometimes drinking  the mineral chalybeate wa-
 ters may assist.  The bowels must be kept  regular, and
 occasionally a gentle emetic will  prepare for the tonic
 plan.  The other object of stimulating the uterine ves-
 sels may be attained by the exercises of walking and
 dancing; by frequent friction of the lower extremities;
 by the pediluvium, hip-bath, &c.; by electric shocks,
 passed through  the  region of the uterus; by active
 purgatives, especially those formula containing aloes,
 which acts particularly on the rectum.  These means
 may be  resorted to with more  probability of success,
 when there appear efforts of the system to produce the
 discharge, the general health having been previously
 improved.  Various remedies have been dignified with
 the title of emmenagogues,  though mostly little to be
 depended on, as madder, Sec.  In obstinate cases, the
 tinctura lytta;, or savine, may be tried, but with proper'
 caution, as the most likely to avail.
   CHLOROUS  ACID.  Acidum chlorosum.   See
 Chlorous oxide.
   CHLOROUS OXIDE.  Euchorine.  Protoxide of
chlorine.  " To prepare it, put chlorate of potassa into
a  small  retort, and pour  in twice as much muriatic
acid as will cover it, diluted with an equal volume of
water.  By the application of a gentle heat, the gas is
evolved.  It must be collected over mercury.
   Its tint is much more lively, and more yellow than
chlorine, and hence its discoverer named it euchlorine*
Its smell is peculiar, and approaches  to that of burnt
sugar. It is not  respirable.   It is soluble in water, to
which it gives a lemon colour.  Water absorbs 6 or
 10 times its volume of this gas.  Its specific gravity is
to that of common air nearly as 2.40 to 1; for 100 cubic
inches weigh, according to Sir H. Davy, between 74
 and 75 grains.   If the compound gas result from 4 vo-
 lumes of chlorine  -f- 2 of oxygen, weighing 12.1154,
 which undergo a condensation of one-sixth, then  the
specific  gravity comes out 2.423, in accordance with
Sir H. Davy's experiments.   He  found that 50 mea-
sures detonated in a glass tube over pure mercury, lost
their  brilliant colour, and  became  60 measures,  of
which 40 were chlorine and 20 oxygen.
  This gas must be collected and examined with much
prudence, and in very small quantities.  A gentle heat,
even  that of the hand, will cause its explosion, with
such force as to burst thin glass.  From this facility ot
decomposition, it is not easy to ascertain tlie action of
combustible bodies upi n it.   None of the metals that 
CHO
CHO
 born in chlorine act upon this gas at common temper-
 atures ; but when the oxygen  is separated, they then
 inflame in tbe clorine.  This may be readily exhibited,
 by first introducing into the protoxide a little Dutch
 foil, which will not be even tarnished; but on apply-
 ing a heated  glass tube  to the gas in the neck of the
 bottle, decomposition  instantly lakes place, and the
 foil burns with brilliancy.  When  already in chemi-
 cal union, therefore, chlorine has a stronger attraction
 for oxygen  than for metals; but when insulated, its
 affinity for  the latter is predominant Protoxide of
 chlorine has  no action  on meicury,  but  chlorine is
 rapidly condensed by this metal into calomel.  Thus,
 Ihe two gases may be completely separated.  When
 phosphorus is introduced  into the protoxide, it instantly
 burns, as it would do in a mixture of two volumes of
 chlorine and one of oxygen; and a chloride and  acid
 of phosphorus result.   Lighted  taper and burning
 sulphur likewise' instantly decompose it.   When the
 protoxide, freed from water, is made to act on dry ve-
 getable colours, it gradually destroys  them, but first
 gives to the  blues a tint of red ; from wbich, from its
 absorbability by water, and the strongly acrid taste of
 the solution approaching to sour, it may be considered
 a* approximating to an acid in its nature."—Ure.
   Chlorure of iodine.  The chloriodic acid.
   CHNUS.  (From xwww, to grind, or rasp.) 1. Chaff;
 Bran.
   2. Fine wool, or lint, which is, as it were, rasped
 from lint.
   Cko'aita.   (Xonva, a funnel*; from x«<>i to  pour
 out.)  1. A  funnel.
   2. The infundibulum ofthe kidney and brain.
   Cho'arus.  A furnace made like a funnel, for melt-
 tat; metals.
   CHO'COLATE.   (Dr. Alston says this  word is
 compounded of two Indian words,  choco, sound, and
 <M«, vPater; because of the noise made in its prepara-
 tion.!  An article of diet prepared from the cacao-nut;
 highly nourishing, particularly when boiled with milk
 and eggs.  It is frequently recommended as a restora-
 tive in eases  of emaciation and consumption.  See
 Theobroma cacao.
   Chocolate tree.  See Theobroma cacao.
   Chcs'nicis.   (From xoivikis, the nave of a wheel.)
 The trepan; so called by Galen and P. ^Egineta.
   Cwe'rades.  (From x°'P°5i a swine.)   The same
 as scrofula.
   Chosradole'throk.  (From voipos, a swine,  and
 dXtBpos, destruction; so named from its being danger-
 ous if eaten by hogs.)  Hogbane.  A name in Aeuus
 for the Xanthium, or louse-bur.
   CHOPRAS.   (From  x°'P°S> a swine;  so called
 because hogs are diseased with it.)  See Scrofula.
   Choke damp.  The name given by miners to a nox-
 ious air, which is now known to be carbonic acid gas,
 found iu mines, wells, and mineral springs.  See Car-
 bonic acid.
   Cho'lades.  (From xoXn, the bile.)  Sothesmallei
 intestines are called, because they contain bile.
   CHOL^BUS. (XoXatos, bilious.)  Biliary.
   Chola'oo.   See Cholas.
   CHOLAGO'GA.   (From voAn, bile, and ayta, to
i evacuate.)   Cholegon.  By cholagogues, the ancients
 meant only  such purging medicines as expelled the
 internal faces, which resembled the cystic bile in their
 yellow colour, and other properties.
   Cholas.   (From xoAn, the  bile.)  Cholago.  All
 the cavity of the right hypochondrium, and  part of the
 neighbourhood, is so  called because it contains the
 liver which is the strainer ofthe gall.
   CHO'LE.  XoAij.  Tlie bile.      '
   CHOLE'DOCHUS.  (Fromx,Xn, bile, and Sexouat,
 to receive; receiving or retaining  the gall.) The re-
 ceptacle of bile.
   Choledochus ductus.  Ductus  communis chole-
 dochus.  The  common biliary  duct, which conveys
 both  cystic and hepatic bile into the intestinum duo-
 denum.
   Chole'gonv  See Cholagpga.
   CHOLERA.  (Celsus derives it from xoAn, and hua,
 literally a now of bile, and Trallian, from XoXas, and
 pea, intestinal  fli c.)  Diarrhea cholerica; Fcllifiua
 passio.  A genus of disease arranged by Cullen in the
 class Neurosis, and order Spasmi.  It is  a purging
 and vomiting  of bile, with anxiety, painful gripings,
 spasms of the  abdominal muscles, and those of the;
      9»
 calves  of the legs.  There  are  two species of this
 genus:—1.  Cholera spontanea, which happens, in hot
 seasons,  without any  manifest  cause.   2.  Cholera
 accidentally, which occurs after the use of food that
 digests slowly, and irritates.  In warm  climates it is
 met with at all seasons of the year, and  its occurrence
 is very frequent; but in England, and other  cold cli-
 mates,  it is apt to be most prevalent in  the middle of
 summer, particularly in the month of August; and
 the violence of the disease has usually been observed
 to be greater  in proportion to  the intenseness of the
 heat.  It usually comes on  with soreness, pain, disten-
 sion, and flatulency  in the  stomach and  intestines,
 succeeded quickly by a severe and frequent vomiting,
 and purging of bilious matter, heat, thirst, a hurried
 respiration, and frequent  but weak and fluttering
 pulse.   When the disease  is not violent, these symp-
 toms, after  continuing  for a day or two, cease gra-
 dually,  leaving  the patient in  a debilitated  and ex-
 hausted state; but where  the disease proceeds with
 much violence, there arises great depression of strength,
 with cold clammy sweats, considerable anxiety, a hur-
 ried and short respiration, and hiccups, with a sinking,
 and irregularity of the pulse, which quickly terminate
 in death; an event that  not unfrequently happens
 within the space of twenty-four hours.
  The appearances generally observed on dissection
 are,  a  quantity  of bilious matter in the prima; via;,
 the ducts of tho liver relaxed and distended; and seve-
 ral of the viscera have been found displaced, probably
 by the  violent vomiting.  In  the early period of the
 disease, when the strength is not much exhausted, the
 object is to lessen the irritation, and facilitate  the dis-
 charge of the bile, by tepid demulcent liquids, fre-
 quently exhibited.  It will likewise be useful to  procure
 a determination  to the surface by fomentations to the
 abdomen, the pediluvium,  or even  the warm bath.
 But where the symptoms are urgent, and the  patient
 appears  rapidly sinking from the continued vomiting,
 violent  pain, Sec it  is necessary to give opium freely,
 but in a small bulk; from one to three grains,  or even
 more, in a table  spoonful of linseed infusion,  or with
 an effervescing saline draught; which must be repeated
 at short intervals, every hour perhaps, till relief be ob-
 tained.   Sometimes, where the stomach could not be
 got to retain the opium, it has answered in the form
 of clyster; or a liniment containing it may be rubbed
 into the  abdomen; or a  blister, applied  over the
 stomach, may lessen  the irritability of  that  organ.
 Afterward the bile may be allowed  to evacuate itself
 downwards; or  mild  aperients, or clysters, given, if
 necessary, to promote its discharge.  When the urgent
 symptoms are relieved, the  strength must be restored
 by gentle tonics, as the aromatic bitters, calumba, and
 the like, with a light nutritious diet: strong toast and
 water is the best drink, or a little burnt brandy  may be
 added if  there is much langour.  Exposure  to cold
 must be carefully avoided,  particularly  keeping the
 abdomen  and the feet warm; and great attention is
 necessary to regulate the bowels, and procure a regular
 discharge of bile, lest a relapse should happen.  It will
 also be  proper to examine  the state of the abdomen,
 whether pressure give pain at  any part, because in-
 flammation  in the prima; vire is very liable  to super-
 vene, often in an insidious manner; should that be the
 case, leeches,  blistering the part, and other suitable
 means, must be promptly resorted to.
  CHOLERICA.   (From x&tpa, the cholera.)  Me-
 dicines which  relieve the cholera.
  CHOLESTERIC ACID.   " When the fat matter of
 the human biliary calculi is treated with nitric acid,
 which Chevreuil proposed to call cholcsterine, there is
 formed a peculiar acid, which is called the cholesteric.
 To obtain it, the cbolesterine is heated with its weight
of concentrated nitric  acid,  by which it is speedily at-
 tacked and dissolved. There is disengaged, at the same
 time, much oxide of azot; and the liquor, on cooling,
 and especially on the addition of water, lets fall a yel
 low matter,  which is  the cholesteric acid impure, or
 impregnated with nitric acid.  It may be purified by
 repeated washings in  boiling water.  Howevor, after
 having washed it, it is better to effect its fusion in the
 midst of hot water; to add to it a smoll quantity of
carbonate of lead; to let the whole boil for some hours,
decanting and renewing tbe water from time to time;
then to put the remaining dried moss in contact with
alkohol. and to evaporate the alkohoiic solution.  The 
CHO
CHO
 residuum now obta'.ned is the purest possible choleste-
 ric acid.
    This acid has an orange-yellow colour when it is in
 mans; but it appears in white needles, when dissolved
 in alkohol, and left to spontaneous evaporation.  Its
 taste  is very feeble, and slightly styptic; its taste re-
 sembles that of butter; and itfl specific gravity is inter-
 mediate  between that of alkohol and Water.  It fuses
 at 58° C. and is not decomposed till the tempesature be
 raised much above  that of boiling water.  It then
 affords oil, water, carbonic acid, and  carburetted hy-
 drogen, but no trace of ammonia. It is very soluble in
 alkohol, sulphuric and acetic aether, in the volatile oils
 of lavender, rosemary, turpentine, bergamot, &c.  It
 is, on tlie other hand, insoluble in the fixed oilsof olives,
 sweet almonds, and castor oil.  It is equally so in the
 vegetable acids, and almost entirely insoluble in water,
 which takes up merely enough to make it redden lit-
 mus.   Both  in the cold, and with heat, nitric acid dis-
 solves without altering it. Concentrated sulphuric acid
 acting on it for a considerable time, only carbonizes it.
   It appears that  the cholesteric acid  is capable of
 uniting with the greater part of the  salifiable bases.
 All the resulting salts are coloured, some yellow, others
 orange, and others red.  The cholesterates of potassa,
 soda,  ammonia, and  probably  of morphia,  are very
 soluble and deliquescent; almost all the others are in-
 soluble, or nearly  so.   There is none  of them which
 cannot be decomposed by all the mineral acids, except
 the carbonic, and  by the greater part of the vegetable
 acids;  so that on pouring one of these acids  into a
 solution of the cholesterate, the cholesteric acid is in-
 stantly separated in flocks.   The soluble cholesterates
 form precipitates in all the metallic solutions, whose
 base  has the  property  of forming  an insoluble or
 slightly soluble salt with cholesteric acid.
   Pelletier and  Caventou  found the  cholesterate of
 barytes  to consist of  100 of acid, and 56.259 base;
 whence the prime  equivalent of the former appears to
 be about 17.35.   Vet they observed, on the other hand,
 that on treating the cholesterate of lead with sulphuric
 acid,  they obtained as much sulphate of lead as of
 cholesterate.  From this experiment, the equivalent of
 the dry acid would seem to be 5; hence we may ima-
 gine, that when the cholesteric acid unites to the oxide
 of lead, and  in general to all the oxides which have a
 slight affinity for oxygen, there takes place something
 similar to what happens in the reaction of oxide of
 lead and oxalic acid."—Journ. de Phar. iii. 292.
   CHOLESTER1XE.  The name given by Chevreuil
 to  the  pearly substance of human biliary calculi.  It
 consists of 72 carbon, 6.66 oxygen, and 21.33 hydrogen,
 by Berard.
   CHOLICE'LE.  (From  xoAn, bile, and  xv^V, a
 tumour.)  A swelling formed by the bile accumulated
 in the gall-bladder.
   CUOLOLITHUS.  (From xoXn, bile, and XtBos, a
 stone, gall-stone.)  A  name of a genus of disease in
 the Class, Celiaca;  Order,  Splanchnica, of Good's
 Nosology, characterized by pain about the region of
 the liver, catenating with pain at the pit ofthe stomach;
 the pulse unchanged;  sickness; dyspepsy; inactivity;
 bilious concretion in the gall bladder, or bile ducts.  It
 has two species, Chololithus quiescens, the quiescent
 gall-stone, and C. means, the passing of gall-stones.
  CHOLOLITHICUS.  Of or belonging lo gall-stone.
  Ciiolo'ma.  (From xuAoc, lame, or maimed.)  1.
 A halting, or lameness in the leg.
  2. Galen says that,  in Hippocrates, it signifies any
 d'stortion of  a limb.
  C H ONDRO.  Some muscles have this word forming
 a part of their name, because they are connected with
 a particular cartilage.
  Ciiondkoglo'ssus.   (From \pvSpov, a cartilage, and
yXiaaan, the tongue.)   A muscle so named from its in-
sertion, which is in the basis or cartilaginous part of
the tongue.  See Hyoglossus.
  CHONDRO'LOGYT  (Chondrologia; from xovSpos,  |
a cartilage, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  A  discourse on
cartilages.
  Ciionduopharynojeus.   (From xpvSpos,  a  carti-
lage, and q>apvyl,  the upper part of the fauces.)  A
 muscle so named because it rises in the  cartilaginous
part of the tongue,  and is inserted in the pharynx.
  CHO'NDllOS.  XovSpos-  1.  A cartilage.
 2. A  food of the  ancients, the same at ftlica.
  3. Any grumuus concretion.
I   CHONDROSYNDE'SMUS.  (From XM-fc»fe» car-
 tilage, and evv&tia, to tie together.)  A cartilaginouf
 ligament.
   Oho'ndrus.  A cartilage.
   Ciio'ne.   Xiavn-  The infundibulum.
   Cho'ra.   Xiapa.  A region.  Gelen, in his book D«
 Usu Partiuin, expresses  by it particularly tlie cavities
 of the eyes;  but, in others of his writings, he iulimates
 by it any void space.
   CIIO'RDA.   (From xoP^V> which properly signifies
 an intestine, or gut, of which a chord may be made.)
 1. A cord, or assemblage of fibres.
   2. A tendon.
   3. A painful  tension  of tbe penis in the venerea
 disease.
   4. Sometimes the intestines are called chords.
   Chorda magna.  A name of the tendo Achillis
   Chorda tympani.  A branch  of the seventh pair
 of nerves.   The portio  dura of  the seventh pair of
 nerves, having entered the tympanum, sends a small
 branch to  the stapes, and another more considerable
 one, which  runs across the  tympanum from behind
 forwards, passes between the long leg of the incus and
 the handle of the malleus, then goes out  at the same
 place where  the tendon of the anterior muscle of tbe
 malleus enters.  It is called chorda tympani, because
 it crosses tlie tympanum  as a cord crosses tlie bottom
 of a drum.  Dr. Monro thinks, tiiat the chorda tympani
 is formed by the second branch of the fifth pair, as
 well as by the portio dura of the seventh.
   Chorda tunmnea.  The  tendinous and cord-like
 substances which connect the carnee columna of the
 ventricles of the heart to the auricular valves.
   Chorda Willisu.  The small fibres which cross the
 sinuses of the dura mater.  They are so termed, be-
 cause Willis  first described them.
   Chorda'fsus. (From x»P&7> a cord, and an'Jui, to
 knit)   A sort of painful colic, where the  intestines
 appear to be twisted into knots.
   CHORDEE'.   (Chorde.  French.)   A spasmodic
 contraction of the penis, that sometimes  attends go-
 norrhoea, and is often followed by a hemorrhage.
  CHO'REA.  (XopEia;  from %opo$, a chorus,' which
of old accompanied dancing.  It is called St. Vitus's
dance, because some  devotees of St. Vitus exercised
themselves so long in dancing, that their intellects were
disordered, and could only be restored by dancing again
at the anniversary of St. Vitus.)   Chorea  Sancti Vitif
 Synclonus chorea of Good.  St. Vitus's dance.   Con-
 vulsive motions of the limbs, as  if the person were
dancing.  It is a genus of disease, arranged by Cullen
in the class Neuroses ; and order Spasmi.  These con-
 vulsive motions, most generally, are confined to one
side, and affect principally  the arm and leg.  When
 any motion is attempted to be made, various fibres of
other muscles act which ought not; and thus a con-
 trary effect is produced from what the patient intended.
 It is chiefly incident to young persons of both  sexes,
and makes its attack between the age often and fifteen,
occurring but seldom after that of puberty.
  By some practitioners it has been considered rather
as a paralytic affection than as a convulsive disorder,
and has been thought to arise from a relaxation of the
muscles, which,  being unable to  perform  their func-
tions in moving the  limbs, shake them irregularly by
jerks.  Chorea  Sancti Viti is occasioned by various
irritations, as teething, worms, offensive smells, poi-
sons, &c.  It  arises likewise in consequence of violent
affections of the mind, as horror, fear, and anger. In
many cases it is produced by general weakness; and,
in a few, it takes piace from sympathy, at seeing tlie
disease in others.
  The fits are sometimes preceded by a coldness of the
feet and limbs, or  a  kind of tingling sensation, that
ascends like cold air up the spine, and there is a flatu-
lent pain in  the left hypochondrium, with obstinate
costiveness.   At other times, the accession  begins with'
yawning, stretching, anxiety about the  heart, palpita-
tions, nausea, difficulty of swallowing, noise in  the
ears, giddiness, and pains in the head and teeth; and
then come on the convulsive motions.
  These discover themselves at first by a kind of lame-
ness, or instability of one of the legs, which the person
draws after him in an odd and  ridiculous manner; nor
can he hold the arm of the same side still for a mo-
ment: for if he lays it on his breast, or auy other part
of bis body, it is torced ouickly from thence by an in- 
CHR
CHR
 Voluntary motion.  If he is desirous of drinking, lie
 Uses many singular gesticulations before he can carry
 the cup to his head, and it is forced  in various direc-
 tions, till  at length be gets it to his mouth ;  when he
 pours the liquor down his throat in  great haste, as if
 he meant to  afford amusement to  the by-standers.
 Sometimes various attempts at running and leaping
 take place;  and at others, the head  and trunk of the
 body are affected with convulsive motions.  In many
 Instances, the mind is affected with some degree of
 fatuity, and often shows the same causeless  emotions
 (such as weeping and laughing) which occur in hyste-
 ria.  When this disease arises in children, it usually
 ceases about the age of puberty; and in adults, is often
 carried off by a change from the former" mode  of living.
 Unless it  (lasses into  some other disease, such as epi-
 lepsy, it is hardly attended with danger.
  The leading indications in the treatment of this com-
 plaint are, 1.  To obviate the several exciting causes;
 2. To correct any faulty state  of the constitution,
 which may appear to give a predisposition; 3. To use
 those means  which experience has shown best calcu-
 lated to allay irregular muscular action.  Among the
 sources of irritation, the most common is the state of
 the bowels; and the steady, but moderate, use of active
 cathartics has often a great effect upon the disease, im-
 proving the appetite and strength at the same time.
 Senna, scammony, jalap,  &c. may  be exhibited ac-
 cording to circumstances, often  in conjunction with
 calomel, particularly where the liver is torpid.  The
 general  debility usually attending indicates  the em-
 ployment  of tonics, as the cinchona, chalybeatcs, or
 sulphate of sine, which is particularly useful;  and
 with these, cold bathing, not too  long continued, may
 be advantageously conjoined; also requiring the pa-
 tient to use muscular exertion, as much as  they can
 readily, will assist materially in the cure.   Sometimes
 in violent cases, and in irritable constitutions, the oc-
 casional exhibition of opium, or other sedative, may
 be required, taking care, however, that the bowels are
 not  confined  thereby.   Occasionally too,  where the
 above means  are not successful, the more powerful
 antispasmodics may be tried, as asther, camphor, musk,
 &c.  Electricity also has been by some recommended.
  CHO'RION. (From x01?"*, t0 escape; because it
 always  escajies from the  uterus  with the  fcetus.)
 Shaggy chorion.  The external membrane of the fcetus
 in utero.
  CHO'ROID. (Choroidea; from x°Pl0Vitne chorion,
 and  tiSos, resemblance.)  Resembling the  chorion,  a
 membrane of  the foetal ovum.
  Choroid membrane   Membrana  ehoroides.  The
 second tunic of the eye, lying immediately under the
 sclerotica, to  which it is connected by vessels.  The
 true knowledge of this  membrane is necessary to a
 perfect idea of the iris  and uvea.  The tunica cho-
 roidea commences at the optic nerve, and passes for-
 wards, with the sclerotic coat, to the beginning of the
 cornea transparens, where it adheres very firmly to
 the sclerotic membrane, by means of a cellular mem-
 brane, in the form of a white fringe, called the ciliary
 circle.  It then recedes from the sclerotica and cornea
 and  ciliary circle,  directly downwards and inwards,
 forming a round disk, which .is variously coloured;
 hence, blue, black eyes, &c.  This coloured portion,
 reflected inwards, is termed the iris,  and its posterior
 surface  is termed uvea.   The choroid membrane is
 highly vascular, and its  external vessels are  disposed
 like  stars, and termed vasa vorticosa.  The internal
 surface of this membrane is covered with a black pig-
 ment, called the pigment of the choroid membrane.
  Choroid plexus.   Plexus choroideus.  A plexus
 of blood-vessels, situated in the lateral ventricles of the
 brain.
  Choroid tunic. See Choroid membrane.
  Chri'sis.   (From xp">>)t0 anoint) An inunction,
or anointing of any part.
  Christmas rose.  See Helleborus niger.
  Chris'tum.  (From xpiu, to anoint)  Anutguent,
or ointment of any kind.
  CHRO'MAS.  A chromate, or salt, formed by the
union of chromic acid with salifiable bases;  as chro-
 mate of lead, &c.
  [" Chromate of iron, is found in large quantities, at
 the bare hills, near Baltimore, (Maryland.) massive and
 granular, in veins and masses disseminated through  a I
 st-rpentine rock.  Perhaps in no part of the world has
      233
 so much been discovered at one place:  it furnishes the
 means of preparing the beautiful paint called the chro-
 mic yellow, with  which carriages  and furniture are
 now painted in the United States.   Chromate of" iron,
 in octaedral crystals, very small and magnetic, is found
 at the same place, and  has nowhere else been  disco-
 vered, as far as we can learn from the writings of
 mineralogists.  The crystals  are  found  in  the ra-
 vines, and on the sand of the  rivulets  of the bare-
 hills,  mixed with  granular chromate'of iron.  The
 green oxide of chrome  is also found there, colouring
 the talc, as well as the ruby or violet coloured ore."—
 Bruce's Min. Jour.  A.]
  Chromati'smus.  (From  xp','/*a7'?<',,  to  colour.)
 The morbid discoloration of any of the secretions, as
 of the urine, or blood.
  CHROMIC ACID.   Acidum chromicum.   " This
 acid was extracted from the red lead  ore of  Siberia,
 by treating this  ore with carbonate of potassa, and
 separating the alkali  by means  of a more powerful
 acid.  In this state it is a red or orange-coloured pow-
 der, of a peculiar rough metallic taste,  which is more
 sensible in it than in any other metallic acid.   If this
 powder be exposed to  the  action of light and heat, it
 loses its acidity, and is converted into green oxide of
 chrome, giving out pure oxygen gas.  The chromic
 acid is  the first  that has been found to deoxygenate
 itself easily by the action of heat, and  afford oxygen
 gas by this simple operation.  It appears that several
 of its properties  are owing to the weak adhesion of a
 part at least of its oxygen.   The green oxide of chrome
 cannot  be brought back to the state  of an acid, unless
 its oxygen be restored  by treating it with some other
 acid.
  The chromic acid is soluble in water, and crystallizes,
 by cooling and evaporation, in longish prisms o-f a ruby
 red.  Its taste is acrid and styptic.  Its specific gravity
 is not exactly known;  but  it always exceeds that of
 water.  It powerfully reddens the tincture of trrnsole.
  Its action on combustible substances is little known.
 If it be strongly heated with charcoal, it grows black,
and passes to the metallic state without melting
  Of the acids, the action of the muriatic on it ■» the
most remarkable.   If this be distilled with the chromic
acid, by a gentle heat, it is readily converted into chlo-
rine.  It likewise imparts to it by  mixture the property
of dissolving gold; in  which the chromic resembles
the nitric acid.  This is owing to the weak adhesion
of its oxygen, and  it is  the only one of the  metallic
acids that possesses this property.
  The extraction of chromic acid  from the French ore,
is performed by igniting it with its own weight of nitre
in a crucible.   The residue is lixiviated with water,
 which being  then  filtered, contains  the chromate of
 potassa.  On  pouring into this a little nitric acid and
 muriate of barytes, an instantaneous precipitate of the
 chromate of barytes takes  place.  After having pro-
 cured a certain quantity if this salt, it must be put in
 its moist  state into a capsule, and dissolved in the
smallest possible  quantity of weak nitric acid.   The
 barytes is to be then precipitated by very dilute sul-
phuric acid, taking care not to  add an excess  of it
When the liquid is found by trial to contain neither
sulphuric acid nor barytes, it must be filtered.  It now
consists of water, with nitric and  chromic acids.  The
whole is to be evaporated to dryness, conducting the
heat at the end so as not to endanger the decomposi-
tion of  the chromic acid, which will remain in tlie
capsule under the form of a reddish matter.   It must
be kept in a glass phial well corked.
  Chromic acid, heated  with a powerful acid, becomes
chromic oxide; while the latter, heated with the hy-
drate  of an alkali, becomes chromic acid.   As the
solution of the oxide is green, and  that of the  acid
yellow, these transmutations become very remarkable
to the eye.  From Berzelius's  experiments  on the
combinations of tlie chromic acid  with barytes, and
oxide of lead, its  prime equivalent  seems to be  6.5;
consisting of 3.5 chromium,  and 3.0 oxygen.
  It readily unites with alkalies, and is the only acid
 that has the property of colouring its salts, whence the
name of chromic has been given it  If two parte of
 the red  lead ore of Siberia in fine  powder be boiled
with one  of an alkali  saturated with carbonic  acid,
in forty parts of water, a carbonate of lead will be
 precipitated, and the chromate remain dissolved.  The
solutions are  of  a lemon colour, and allbrd c.i\v:tl>» 
CHR
CHY
 of a somewhat deeper hue.  Those  of chromate of
 ammonia are ill yellow laminae,  having  the metallic
 lustre of gold.
   The  chromate of barytes is very little  soluble, and
 that of lime still less.  They are  both of a pale yel-
 low, and when heated give out oxygen gas, as do the
 alkaline eliminates.
   If the chromic acid be mixed with filings of tin and
 tlie muriatic acid, it becomes at first yellowish-brown,
 and  afterward ai-sunies a bluish-green colour, which
 preserves the same shade after desiccation.   ^Ether
 alone gives it the same dark  colour.  With a solu-
 tion of nitrate of mercury, it gives a  precipitate of a
 dark cinnabar colour.  With  a solution of nitrate of
 silver, it gives a precipitate, which, the moment it is
 formed, appears of  a  beautiful carmine colour, but
 becomes  purple by exposure to the light.  This com-
 bination, exposed to the heat of the blow-pipe, melts
 before  the charcoal is inflamed, and assumes a black-
 ish and metallic appearance.   If it be then pulver-
 ized, the  powder  is  still purple;  but after the  blue
 flame of tlie lamp is brought into contact with this
 powder, it  assumes  a  green  colour,  and the silver
 appears in  globules  disseminated  through  its  sub-
 stance.
   With nitratT  rf copper it gives a chesnut-red preci-
 pitate.  With the solution of sulphate of zinc, muri-
 ate of bismuth, muriate of antimony, nitrate of nickel,
 and muriate of  platina, it produces yellowish  precipi-
 tates, when the  solutions do not contain an excess of
 acid.  With muriate of gold  it produces a greenish
 precipitate.
   When  melted with borax, or class, or acid of phos-
 phorus, it communicates to it a  beautiful emerald-
 green colour.
   If paper  be impregnated with it, and exposed  to
 the sun a few days, it acquires a green colour, which
 remains permanent in the dark.
   A slip of iron, or tin, put into its solution, imparts
 to it the same colour.
   The  aqueous  solution of tannin produces a floccu-
 lent precipilate of a brown fawn colour.
   Sulphuric acid, when cold, produces no effect on it;
 but when warm it makes it  assume a  bluish-green
 colour."— Ure's Diet.
   CHROMIUM.  (Chromium, ii. n.; from xp<aua, co-
 lour : because it is remarkable for giving colour to its
 combinations.)  The  name of  a metal which  may be
 extracted either from the native chromate of lead or
 of iron.  Tbe latter  being cheapest and most abun-
 dant, is usually employed.
   Tlie  brown chromate of iron is  not acted upon by
 nitric acid, but most readily by  nitrate of potassa,
 with the aid of a red heat.  A chromate of potassa,
 Boluble  in water, is thus formed.  The iron oxide
 thrown out of combination may be removed from the
 residual part of the ore by a short digestion in dilute
 muriatic acid.   A second fusion with £ of nitre, will
 give  rise  to a  new portion of chromate of potassa.
 Having decomposed the whole of the ore, we saturate
 the alkaline excess with nitric acid, evaporate and
 crystallize.  The pure crystals, dissolved in water, are
 to  bo added to a solution of neutral nitrate of mer-
 cury ; whence, by complex  affinity, red chromate of
 mercury precipitates.   Moderate  ignition expels the
 mercury from the chromate, and the remaining chro-
 mic  acid may  be reduced to the  metallic state, by
 being exposed iu contact of  the charcoal  from sugar,
 to a violent heat.
  Chromium thus procured, is a porous  mass of ag-
 glutinated grains.  It  is very brittle, and of a grayish-
 white, intermediate between tin and steel.  It is some-
 times obtained  in needlel'orm crystals, which cross
 each other in all directions.  Its sp. gravity is 5.9.  it
 is susceptible of a feeble magnetism.   It resists -all
 the acids  except mtromuriatic, which, at a  boiling
 heat, oxidizes  il and forms a muriate.  Thenard de-
 scribes only one  oxide  of chromium ;  but there are
 probably two, besides  the acid already described.
  1. The protoxide is green, infusible, indecomposable
by heat, reducible by voltaic  electricity, and not acted
ou  by oxygen or air.  When  healed  to dull redness
with  the half of its weight  of potassium or sodium,
it forms  a brown matter, which, cooled and exposed
to the air, burns  with  flame, and is transformed into
chromate of potassa or  soda, of a canary-yellow co-
lour  It is this oxide winch i£ obtained by calcining
 the chromate of mercury in a small earthen retort  . >
 about J of an hour.  The  beak of the retort is to  be
 surrounded with a tube of wet linen, and plunged
 into water, to facilitate the condensation of the mer-
 cury.   The oxide, newly precipitated  from acids, has
 a dark-green colour, and  is easily redissolved; but
 exposure to a dull-red heat ignites it, and renders it
 denser, insoluble, and of a light-green colour.  This
 change arises solely from  the closer aggregation of
 the particles, for the weight is not altered.
   2. The deutoxide is procured by exposing the pro-
 tonitrate to heat, till the fumes of nitrous gas cease
 to issue.  A brilliant  brown  powder,  insoluble  in
 acids, and scarcely soluble  in alkalies, remains.  Mu-
 riatic  acid digested on it  exhales chlorine, showing
 the increased proportion of oxygen in this oxide.
   3. The tritoxide  has been already described  among
 the acids.  It may be directly procured by adding nitrate
 of lead to the above nitrochromate of potassa, and di-
 gesting the beautiful orange precipilate of chromate
 of lead with moderately strong muriatic  acid,  till  its
 power of action  be exhausted.   The fluid produced
 is to be passed through a filter, and  a little oxide  of
 silver very gradually added, till the whole solution
 becomes of a deep red tint.  This liquor, by slow eva-
 poration, deposites  small ruby-red crystals, which are
 the hydrated chromic acid.  The  prime equivalent of
 chromic acid deduced from the eliminates of barytes
 and lead by Berzelius, is 6.544, if  we suppose them to
 be neutral salts.  According to this chemist, the acid
 contains double the oxygen that the green oxide does.
 But if those chromates be regarded as subsalts, then
 the acid  prime would be 13.088, consisting of 6 oxy-
 gen = 7.088 metal; while the protoxide would  consist
 of 3 oxyxen + 7.088 metal; and the deutoxide of an
 intermediate proportion.
   CHRO'NIC.  (Chronicus; from xp°v<Ki time.)  A
 term applied  to diseases which are of long continu-
 ance,  and mostly without fever.  It is used in oppo-
 sition to the term acute.  See Acute.
   CHRU'PSIA.  (From xPoa> colour, and oxpis, sight.)
 Visus coloratus.  A disease of  the eyes, in which tha
i person perceives objects of a different colour from their
 natural one.
   CHRYSA'NTHEMUM.   (From xpvoos, gold, and
 avBtuov, a flower.)   1. The name ofa genus of plants
 in the Linmean system.  Class, Syngenesia ; .Order,
 Polysomia.  Sun-flower, or marigold.
   2. Many herbs are so called, the flowers of which are
 of a bright yellow colour.
   Chrysanthemum  leucanthemum. The system-
 atic name of the great ox-eye daisy.  Maudlin-wort
 Bcllis-major; Buphthalmum majus; Leucanthemum
 vulgare; Bellidioides;  Consolida media;  Oculus bo-
 vis.   The Chrysanthemum;—foliis amplexicaulibus,
 oblongis, supei-ni serratis,  inferni dentatis, of Lin-
 nicus.   The flowers and herb were formerly esteemed
 in asthmatic  and  phthisical diseases, but have now
 deservedly fallen into disuse.
   Chry'se.  (From XP""0^ E°'d.)   The name of a
 yellow plaster.   i
   Chysble'ctrum.  (From xpwcofi g°'d, and ijA«7pov,
 amber.)  Amber of a golden yellow colour.
   Chrysi'ppea.  (From  Chrysippus,  its  discoverer.)
 An herb enumerated by Pliny.
   Chrysi'tis. (From xpucoy, gold.)  1. Litharge.
   2. The yellow foam ot lead.
   3. The herb yarrow, from the golden colour of its
 flower.
   CHRVSOBA'LANUS.   (From xP»oos, gold, and
 BaXavos,  a nut; so named because of  its  colour,
 which, before it is dried, is  yellow.)  The nutmeg.
   CHRYSOBERYL.  Cymophane of Haiiy.   A mi-
 neral of an asparagus green colour and vitreous lus-
 tre, found in the Brazil, and Ceylon.
   [Chrysoberyljs found in the United States,  and  is
 sometimes employed in jewelry.  In the township of
 Haddam, on the Connecticut river, and in  the State of
 Connecticut, it occurs in granite  in six-sided prisms
 and six-sided tables;  its colour varies from greenish
 yellow to yellowish  green.  A.]
   CHRYSOCO'LLA. (From xpvaos, gold, andKoXXiy,
 cement.)  Gold solder; Borax.
   CHYSO'COMA.   (From xP«»°f<  ?old> and "Wi
 hair; so called from its golden, hsiir-liKe aj pearaueej
 The herb niUfoii, or  yarrow.  Sue Achilhra wMtff 
CHY
CHY
  Chrysooo'jua.  (From xpvaos, gold, and  ytvopat,
to become.)  A tincture of gold.
  Chrysola'ciiaxon.  (From  xPva°!i 8°'d,  and Xa-
vavov, a pot-herb;  so named from its having a yellow
leaf.)  The herb orach ; a spccic3 of atriplex.
  CHRYSOLITE.  Peridot of Haiiy.  Topaz of the
ancients, while our topaz is their chrysolite.  The hard-
est of all gems of a pistachio-green colour.  It comes
from Egvpt and Bohemia.
  CHRYSOSPLE'NIUM.   (From xpvcos, gold, and
aenXivtov, spleenwort.)   The  name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean  system.   Class, Decandria;
Order, Digynia.  Golden saxifrage.
  CHRYSOPRASE.   A variety of calcedony.
  Chrysu'lcus.  (From xf>v<">Si  S°'di and *A/eci>, to
take away.)   The aqua regia which has the property
of dissolving gold.
  [CHURCH, Dr. Benjamin, was graduated at How-
ard College in 1754.   He established himself as a phy-
sician in the town of Boston, where he rose to very
considerable eminence in his  profession.  As a skilful
and dexterous operator in surgery, he was  inferior to
no one of his contemporaries in New-England; and
as a physician, he was in a career of distinguished re-
putation.  He possessed a  brilliant genius, a lively
poetic fancy, and was an excellent writer.  For several
years preceding  the American revolution, he was a
conspicuous character, and had great influence among
the leading whigs and patriots of the day.  When  the
war commenced in 1775, his character was  so high
that he was appointed physician-general to the army.
  But while he was performing the duties assigned him,
circumstances occurred which led to a suspicion thai
he held a treacherous correspondence with the enemy.
Certain  letters in cipher were  intercepted, which he
had written to a relation in Boston.   He was imme-
diately arrested,  imprisoned,  and  tried before a mili-
tary tribunal appointed to investigate his conduct, and
was pronounced guilty of a criminal  correspondence
with  the enemy.  It appears that the only evidence
by which he was convicted,  rested on  an  intercepted
le'tter directed to a friend in Boston.  This letter was
written in cipher,  and when it was deciphered and
examined, its contents seemed in a considerable de-
gree to justify the plea which he had made, that it was
designed as an innocent stratagem to deceive and draw
from the enemy some information for the benefit of
the public.  Dr. C. was, at the same time, a member of
the House of Representatives,  from which he would
have been expelled had he not  resigned his seat  He
was, however, arraigned before  the House, subjected
to a rigid examination, and his letter was read by him-
self by, paragraphs, and commented upon, and  explain-
ed.  His defence before the House may be considered
as a specimen of brilliant talents and great ingenuity.
" Confirmed," said he, in assured  innocence, " I stand
prepared for your keenest searchings.  The warmest
bosom here does not flame with a brighter  zeal for the
security, happiness, and liberties of  America, than
mine."  Sc high was party zeal, and such the jealousy
and prejudice of the day, that a torrent of indignation
was ever at hard to sweep from the land every guilty
or suspected character.  In the instance of Dr. C., there
were not a few among the most respectable and intel-
ligent of the community, who expressed strong doubts
of a criminal design in his conduct.  It was, however,
his hard fate to pine in prison until the following year,
when he obtained permission to depart for tlie West
Indies.  The vessel in which he  sailed was supposed
to have foundered  at sea, as no tidings respecting her
were ever obtained.  A.]
  CHUSrTE.  A yellowish-green translucent m ineral,
found by Saussure in the cavities of porphyries, iu
tlie environs of Limbourg.
  CHYAZIC ACID.  See Prussic acid.
  Chyla'ria.   (From xuAoc, chyle.)  A discharge of
a whitish mucous urine, of tlie colour and consistence
of chyle.
  CHYLE.  Chylus.  The mirk-like liquor observed
some hours  after* eating, in  the lacteal vessels of the
mesentery, and in the thoracic duct.  It  is separated
by digestion from  the chyme,  and is that fluid sub-
stance from which the blood is formed.  See Digestion.
  " The chyle  may be studied  under two  different
forms:
  1st, When it  is  mixed with chyme in the small in-
testine.
  3d, Under the liquid form, circulating in theehyhV
ferous vessels, and the thoracic duct
  No person having particularly engaged in the exa
initiation ofthe chyle during its slay in the small intes
tine, our knowledge on this point is little.  The liquid
chyle contained in tlie chyliferous vessels has been ex
amined with great care.
  In order to procure it, the best manner consists in
giving food to an animal, and, when  tho digestion is
supposed to be  in full activity, to strangle it, or to cut
the spinal marrow behind the occipital bone.  The
whole length of the breast is cut open;  the hand is
thrust in so  as  to pass a ligature wbich embraces the
aorta, the oesophagus, and the thoracic duct, the near-
est  to the neck possible;  the ribs of the left side are
then twisted or broken, and the thoracic duct is seen,
closely adhering to the oesophagus. The upper part is
detached,  and carefully wiped, to absorb the blood; it
is cut, and the chyle flows into the vessel intended to
receive it.
  The ancients were acquainted with the existence of
the chyle, but their  ideas of it were very  inexact; it
was observed anew at the beginning of the seventeenth
century;  and  being, in  certain conditions,  of an
opaque white, it was compared  to milk:  the vessels
that contain it were even named lacteal vessels, a veiy
improper  expression, since there is very little  other
similarity between chyle and  milk except the colour.
  It is only in  modern times, and by the  labours of
Dupuytren, Vauquelin, Emmert, and Marcet, that po-
sitive  notions  concerning tlie chyle  have been ac
quired.
  We shall give the observations of these learned
men, with the addition of our own.
  If tlie animal from which the chyle is extracted has
eaten animal or vegetable substances of a fatty nature,
the liquid  drawn from the thoracic duct is of a milky
white, a little heavier than distilled water, of a strong
spermatic odour, of a salt taste, slightly adhering  to
the tongue, and sensibly alkaline.
  Chyle, very soon after it has passed out of the vesse
that contained it, becomes firm, and almost solid: after
some  time, it separates into three parts; the one solid
that remains at the bottom, another liquid at tlie top,
and a third that forms a very thin layer at the surface
of tbe liquids.   The chyle, at  the same time, assumes-
a vivid rose colour.
  When the chyle proceeds from food that contains no
fat  substance, it presents the same sort of  properties,
but instead of being opaque white, it is  opaline, and
almost transparent; the layer which forms at tbe top
is less marked than in the former sort of chyle.
  Chyle never  takes the  hue of the  colouring  sub-
stances mixed in the food, as many authors have pre-
tended.
  Animals that were made to eat indigo, saffron, and
madder, furnished a chyle, the colour of which had no
relation to that of the substances.
  Of  the three  substances into which the chyle sepa-
rates when abandoned to itself, that ofthe surface, of
an opaque white colour, is a fatty body; the solid part
is formed of fibrin and a little colouring mailer; the
liquid is like the serum  of the blood.
  The proportion of these three parts is variable ac-
cording to the nature of the food.  There are species
of chyle, such as that the sugar, which contain very
little fibrin;  others, such as that of flesh, contain more.
The same thing happens with the fat matter, which is
very abundant when the food contains grease or oil,
while there is  scarcely any  seen when  the food  is
nearly deprived of fatty bodies.
  The absorption of the chyle has been attributed  to
the capillarity of the lacteal  radicles, to  the  com-
pression of the chyle by the sides of the small intes-
tine, &c.  Latterly, it has been pretended that it takes
place by virtue of the proper sensibility ofthe absorb-
ing mouths, and ofthe  insensible organic contractility
that they are supposed to possess. It first enters the
threads of the lacteal vessels, it then traverse** the me-
senteric glands, it arrives at the thoracic duct, and at
last enters the subclavian vein.
  The causes that  determine its motion are the con-
tractility  proper to the chyliferous vessels, the un-
known cause of its absorption, the pressure of the ab-
dominal muscles, particularly in the motions of respi-
ration, and, perhaps, the pulsation of tbe arteries of
the abdomen. 
CHY
CTC
  If we wish-to have a correct idea of the velocity
with which the chyle flows into the thoracic duct, we
must open this canal in a living animal, at the place
where it opens into the subclavian vein.  We find that
this  rapidity  is  not very great, and that it increases
every time that  the animal compresses the viscera of
the abdomen, by the abdominal muscles; a similar
effect is produced by compressing  the  belly with the
hand.
  However, the rapidity ofthe circulation of the chyle
appears to me  to be in proportion to the quantity
formed in the small intestine;  this last is in proportion
to the quantity of the chyme:  so that if the food is  in
great abundance, and of easy digestion, the  chyle will
flow quickly; if, on the contrary, the food is in small
quantity, or,  which is the same thing, if it is of diffi-
cult digestion, as less chyle will be formed, so its pro-
gress will be more slow.
  It would be difficult  to appreciate the quantity of
chyle that would be formed during a given digestion,
though it ought  to be considerable.  In a dog of ordi-
nary size, that bad eaten animal food at discretion, an
incision into  the thoracic duct of the neck (the dog
being alive) gave about half an ounce of liquid in five
minutes, and  the running  was not  suspended  during
the whole continuance of the formation of  the chyle,
that is, during several hours.
  It is not known whether there is any variation 'in
the rapidity ofthe motion of the chyle during the same
digestion; but, supposing it uniform, there would enter
six ounces of chyle per hour into the venous system.
We may presume that the proportion of chyle is more
considerable  in  man, whose  chyliferous organs are
more voluminous, and in whom the digestion is, in ge-
neral, more rapid than in the dog."—Magendie's Phy-
siology.
  The chyle  is mixed with the albuminous and gela-
tinous  lymph in  the thoracic duct,  which receives
them from the lymphatics.
  The uses of the chyle are, 1. To supply the  matter
from which the blood and other fluids of our body are
prepared; from  which fluids the solid parts are form-
ed.  2. By its acescent  nature, it somewhat restrains
the putrescent tendency of the blood: hence the dread-
ful putridity  of the humours from starving; and thus
milk is an excellent remedy against scurvy.   3. By iu
very copious  aqueous latex, it prevents the thickening
ofthe fluids, and thus renders them fit  for the various
secretions. 4. The  chyle secreted in  the breasts of
puerperal  women, under the name of milk, forms the
most excellent nutriment of all aliments for new-born
infants.
  CHYLIFICA'TION.  (Chylificatio; from  chylus,
and fio, to become.)  Chylifactio.  The process car-
ried on in tbe small intestines, and principally in the
duodenum,-by which the chyle is separated  from the
chyme.
  Chvli'sma. (From xwAoJi juice.)   An expressed
juice.
  CHYLOPOIE TIC.  (Chylopoieticus; from x"Aoc,
chyle,and zzoitia, to make.)  Chylopoielic.  Any thing
connected with the formation of chyle; thus chylopoi-
elic viscera, chylopoietic vessels, &.c.
  CHYLO'SIS.   i.From x»Aoc, juice.)   Chylification,
or the changing the food into chyle.
  Chylosta'oma.  (From x"Aoy, juice, and s"a$o>, to
distil.)   The  distillation or expression of any juice, or
humid part from tbe rest.
  Chv lostaoma diaphoreticum.  A name given by
Mindererus to a distillation of Venice treacle and milh-
ridate.
  CHYLUS.  (XuAoc, succus, from xv<a, juice.)  See
Chyle.
  CHYME.  (Chymus; from xWii which signifies
humour or juice.)  The ingested mass of  food  lhat
passes from the  stomach into the duodenum, and from
which the chyle is prepared in the small intestines by
the admixture of the bile, Sec  See Digestion
  CHY'MIA. Chemistry.
  CHVMIA'TER.  A chemical physician.
  CHYMIA TRIA.   (From  xvuie,  chemistry, and
laopai, to heal.)  The art of curing diseases by the ap-
plication of chemistry to the uses of medicine.
  Chymo'sis. See  Chemosis.
  Chy'klkn  radix.  A cylindrical root, of the thick-
nesj of a goose-quill, brought from China.  It has a
hiuerish taste, and imparts a yellowtingc to the saliva
The Chinese hold it in great estimation as a stomachic,
infused in wine.
  Chy'sis.  (From xtiu, to pour out.)  Fusion, or the
reduction of solid bodies into fluid by heat.
  Chy'tlon.  (From x^ia, to pour out.)  An anoint-
ing with oil and water.
  CIBA'LIS.   (From cibus, food.)  Of or belonging
to food.
  Cibalis fistula.  An obsolete term for the oeso-
phagus
  CIBA'TTO.   (From cibus,  food.)  The  taking of
food.
  Ci'bur.  An obsolete term for sulphur.
  CICATRISANT.  (Cicatrisans; from cicatrico, to
skin over.)  Such applications as dispose wounds and
ulcers  to dry up and heal, and to  be covered with a
skin.
  CICA'TRIX.  (From cicatrico,  to heal up or skin
over.)   A seam or scar upon the skin, after the healing
of a sore or ulcer.
  Cicely, sweet.  See Scandix odorata.
  CI'CER.  (A  plant so called.   The Cicerones had
their name from this pulse, as the Pisones  bod from
the  pisum or  pea, and the Lentuli from the lens or
lentil.)  1.  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin
na;an system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order, Dccandria.
The vetch.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common cicb
or ciches.
  Cicer arietinum.   The systematic  name of  the
cicer plant    Erebinthus; Cicer—foliis serratis,  of
Linnaeus.   The seeds havebeen employed medicinally,
but are now fallen into  disuse.  In some places they
are toasted, and used as coffee; and in others, ground
into a flour for bread.  The  colour of the arillus  of
the seed is sometimes white, red, or black; hence the
distinction into cicer album, rubrum, and nigrum.
  Ci'cera.  (From cicer, the  vetch.)  A small pill of
the size of a vetch.
  Cicer a tartari.  Small pills composed of turpen-
tine and cream of tartar, of the size of a vetch.
  CICHO RIUM.  (Originally, according to Pliny, an
Egyptian  name, and adopted by  the Greeks.  It is
written sometimes Kixopciov: whence Horace has
cichoree, levesque malva :  sometimes Kixop'ov orBu;
Xiaptov.  It is supposed by some to have  this name,
zzapa to Sia ruiv xupuav Ktttv, from its creeping through
the fields.   Others derive it from  Ktxtta, invenio; on
account of its  being so readily found/or so common.)
Succory.  1. The name of a  genus of plants  in  the
Linnaean system.  Class, Syngcnesia; Order, Polyga-
mia aqualis.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the wild cichory.
See Cichorium intybus.
  Cichorium  endivia.  The systematic name of the
endive.   Endivia;  Endiva; Cichorium;—floribus
solitariis, pendunculatis, foliis inlegris; crenatis, ot
Linnaeus, is an extremely wholesome salad, possessing
bitter and anodyne qualities.
  Cichorium  intybus.  The systematic name of  the
wild succory.    Cichorium;  Cichoreum;  Cichorium
sylvestre vel officinarum, Cichorium,-—floribus gemi-
nis, sessilibus  ; foliis runcinatis, of Linna;us.  It be-
longs to the same family with the  garden endive, and
by some botanists  has been supposed to be the same
plant in its uncultivated state; but the endive com
monly used  as salad is an annual, or at most a bien
nial plant, and its parent is now known to be tbe ci
chorium endivia.   Wild succory or cichory, abounds
with a milky juice, of a penetrating bitterish taste, and
of no remarkable smell, or particular flavour: the roots
are more  bitter  than the leaves or stalks, and  these
much  more so than the flowers.  By culture in gar-
dens, and by blanching, it loses its bitterness, and may
be eaten early  in the spring in salads. The  roots,  if
gathered before the stein shoots up, are also eatable,
and when dried may be made into bread.  The .roots
and leaves of this plant are slated by Lewis to be very
useful aperients, acting mildly and without irritation,
tending rather to abate than to increase heat, and which
may therefore  be given with safety in hectic and in
flainmatory cases.  Taken freely,  they keep the belly
open, or produce a gentle  diarrhoea;  and when thus
continued for some time, they have often proved salu-
tary in the beginning obstructions of the  viscera, in
jaundices, cachexie3,hypochondriacalandotherchroni-
cui  disorders.  A decoction of this herb, with others 
CIM
CIN
 of the like kind, In whey, and rendered purgative by a
 suitable addition of polychrest salt, was found a use-
 ful remedy in cases of biliary calculi, and promises ad-
 vantage in many complaints requiring wtiat have been
 termed attenuants and resolvents.  The  virtues of
 succory, like those of dandelion, reside in its milky
 juice; and we are warranted, says Dr. Woodville, in
 asserting, that the expressed juice of both these plants,
 taken in large  doses frequently repeated, Has been
 found an efficacious remedy in phthisis pulmonalis, as
 well as the various other affections above  mentioned.
 The milky juice may be extracted by boiling in water,
 or by pressure.  The wild and the garden sorts  are
 used indifferently.   If tlie root is cut into small pieces,
 dried, and roasted,  it resembles coffee, and is sometimes
 a good substitute for it
   CI'CHORY.  See Cichorium intybus.
   Oichory, wild.  See Cichorium intybus.
   Cicinde'la.  (A dim. of candela: i. e. a little can-
 dle ; so called from its light.)  The glowworm.   By
 some thought to be anodyne, lithontriptic, though pro-
 bably neither.  Not used in the present day.
   Cici'num oleum.  (From kiki,thericinus.)  Anoil,
 obtained by boiling the bruised seeds of the Jatropha
 curcas of Linnaeus.  It is somewhat similar in its pro-
 perties to castor oil.
   Ci'cla.  A name for the white beet.
   CICU'TA.   (Quasi cacuta, blind; because i\ de-
 stroys the sight of  those who use it.  Cicuia signifies
 also the internode, or space between two  joints of a
 reed; or the hollow stem of any plant which the shep-
 herds used for  making their rural pipes.   Est mihi
 disparibus septem  conjuncta cicutis fistula.  Virgil.)
 Hemlock.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.   Class, Pentandria;  Order, Dt
 gynia.
   2. The name, in most pharmacopoeias, of the com-
 mon hemlock. See Conium.
   Cicuta aquatica.  See Cicuta virosa.
   Cicuta virosa. The systematic name of the Cicuta
 aquatica; Cicutaria virosa; Sium majus alteram an-
 gustifuliuin;  Sium eruca folio;  long-leaved water
 hemlock and  cow-bane.  This plant, Cicuta—umbellis
 oppositifoliis; petiolis marginatis obtusis, of Lin-
 neus, is seldom  employed medicinally in  the present
 day.  It is  an active poison, and often eaten by mis-
 take for the wild smallage, the Apium graveolcns,  of
 Linnaeus; when it produces tremors, vertigo, a violent
 burning at the stomach, epilepsy, convulsions, spasms
 of the jaw, a flowing of  blood from the ears, tumefac-
 tion of the abdomen, and death.
   CICUTA'RIA.  (From cicuta, hemlock.) Bastard
 hemlock.  See Charophyllum sylvestre.
   Cicutaria  aquatica.  See Phellandrium aqua-
 ticum.
   Cicutaria  virosa.   See Cicuta virosa.
   CIDO'NIUM. See  Pyrus cydonia.
   CILIA.  (The plural of cilium.)   A species of pu-
 bescence of plants which consists of hairs on the mar-
 gin of a leaf or petal, giving it a fringed appearance.
   Cl'LIAR.  (Ciliaris; from cilium, the eyelid.)  Be-
 longing to the eyelid.
   Ciliar ligament.  Ligamenlum ciliare. The cir-
 cular portion that divides the chroid membrane from
 the iris, and which adheres to the sclerotic membrane.
 It appears like a white  circular ring.   See Choroid
 membrane.
   Ciliare lioamentum   See Choroid membrane.
  Ciliaris  musculus.  That part  of the musculus
 orbicularis  palpebrarum  which lies nearest the cilia,
considered by Riolan as a distinct muscle.
  CILLATUS.  Bordered,  fringed:  applied to leaves,
corolla, petals, Sec.: hence folium ciliatum, anthodium
ciliatum, and  petala ciliata.  See Leaf, Corolla, An-
 thodium, Petalum.
  CI'LIUM.  (From cilleo, to move about.)   The eye-
lid or eyelasb. See also  Cilia.
  Ciliary i-rocesses.  The white folds at the mar-
gin of the uvea in the eye, covered with a black mat-
ter, which proceed  from the uvea to the  crystalline
lens, upon which they lie.
  Ci'llo.   (From  cilium, the eyelid.)  One who  is
affected with a spasm or trembling of the eyelids.
  CILLO'SIS.  (From cilium, the eyelid.)   A spas-
iiiHlit trembling ofthe eyelids.
  COnder ita/td.  See Leaf.
  C1MF.X.   (From Ktipai, to Inhabit; so called be-
     22S
\ cause they infest houses.)  The name of a genus of
, insects in the Linnaean  system.   The wall-louse or
 bug.
   Cimex domksticus.   Six  or seven are  given in-
 wardly to cure the ague,  just before the fits come on,
 and have the same effect with every  tiling nauseous
 and disgusting.
   [Cimicifuga.  Black snake root.  This is the root
 of Actaa racemosa of Wildenow, an American plant.
 According to tlie late  Dr. Barton, a  decoction of it
 forms a  useful astringent gargle in sore throats, and
 also cures psora.   We are told that the Indians made
 great use of it in rheumatism;  also as an agent adpar-
 tum accelerandum.  Dr. Tully acquaints me, that he
 has found it diaphoretic, diuretic, and moderately tonic,
 forming a useful auxiliary in the treatment of acute
 and chronic rheumatism, and  of  dropsy;  likewise
 operating very beneficially in hysteria,  it is usually
 given in tlie form of decoction.—Big. Mat. Med. A.]
   Cimo'lia alba.  (From KtuiaXos, Cimolua, an island
 in the Cretan sea, where it is procured.)  See Cimolite.
   Cimolia purpuresckjss.  Fullers-eortli.
   CIMOLITE.   Cimolian  earth.  The Cimolia of
 Pliny.   An earth of a grayish  white  colour, which
 consists of silex, alumina, oxide of iron, and water.
   Ci'na  cinje.  See Cinchona.
   Ci'nje semen.  See Artemisia santonica.
   Ci'NARA.  (From xtveia, to move;  quasimovet ad
venerem vel urinam.)  Artichoke.  1. The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean  system.  Class, Syn-
genesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   2. The pharmacopceial  name for the common arti-
choke.  See Cinara scolymus.
   Cinara scolymus.  The systematic name of the
artichoke, called  in the pharmacopoeias Alcocalum;
Agriocinara; Articocalus ; Arlischocas" levis ; Costus
nigra; Carduus sativus non spinosus; Cinara hor-
tensis; Scolymus sativus ; Carduus domesticus capite
majore;  Carduus altilis.   The Cinara—foliis sub-
spinosis pinnatis indivisique, calycinis squamis ovatis,
of Linnaeus.  A native of the  southern parts of Eu-
rope, but cultivated  here for culinary purposes.  The
leaves are bitter, and afford, by expression, a considera-
ble quantity of juice, which, when strained, and mixed
with an equal quantity of white wine, lias been given
successfully in dropsies, in the dose of 3 or  4 table-
spoonfuls ni^ht and morning, but it  is very uncertain
in the operation.
   CINCHO'NA.  (Geoffroy states that  the use of this
bark was first learned from the following  circum-
stance:—Some cinchona trees being thrown by the
winds  into a pool of water, lay there  till  ihe water
became so bitter, that every body refused to  drink it.
However, one  of the neighbouring inhabitants being
seized with n violent paroxysm of fever, and finding
no other water to  quench his thirst,  was forced to
drink of this, by which he was perfectly cured.  He
afterward related the circumstance to others, and pre
vailed upon some of his friends, who were ill of fevers,
to make use of the same remedy, with whom it proved
equally successful.  The use of this excellent remedy,
however, was very little  known till about the year
1638, when a signal cure having been performed by il
on the Spanish viceroy's lady, the Countess del Cin-
chon, at Lima, it came into general use, and  hence it
was distinguished by the appellation of cortex cinchona,
and pulvis comitisse, or the Countess's powder.  On
the recovery of the  Countess, she distributed a large
quantity of the bark to the Jesuits, in whose hands
it acquired still greater reputation, and by them it was
first introduced into Europe, and thence called cortex,
or pulvis jesuiticus, pulvis patrum; and also Cardi-
nal del Lugo's powder, because that charitable prelate
bought a  large quantity of it at great expense for the
use of the religious poor at Rome.)  1.  The name of
a genus of plants in the Linnaean system. Class, Pen
tandria; Order, Monogynia.   Cinchona, or Peruvian
bark-tree.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name  of several kinds of
barks; calledalso Cortex.   Cortex china; China; Chin-
china;  Kino kina, Kinkina; Quina  quina, Quinqui-
na; the trees affording which, grow wild in the hilly
parts of Peiu;  the bark is stripped from  the branches,
trunk, and root, and dried.  Three kinds of it are now
in use.
  1. Cortex cinchona cordifolia.—The  plant which
affords this species is the Cinchona cordifolia, of Zea; 
CIN
CIN
the Cinchona officinalis, of Linnaeus;  the Cinchona
macrocarpa,  of Wildenow.  Heart-leaved cinchona.
The bark ot this tree is called yellow bark, because it
approaches more to that colour than either of the others
dues.   It is iu flat pieces, not convoluted like the pale,
nor dark-coloured like tlie red ;  externally smooth, in-
ternally of a lignt cinnamon colour, friable and fibrous,
lias no peculiar odour different from the others, but a
taste incomparably more bitter, with some degree of
astringency.
  2. Cortex cinchona lancifolia.—This species is ob-
tained from  tbe Cinchona lancifolia of Zea.  Lance-
leaved cinchona.  This  is  the  quilled bark, which
comes  in  small quilled  twigs, breaking  close and
smooth,  friable  between the teeth,  covered with a
rough coat of a brownish colour, inlet ..ally  smooth,
and of a light brown;  its taste is hirer, and slightly
astringent; flavour slightly aromatic, »vith some degree
of mustiness.
  3. Cortex cinchona oblongifolia.—This kind is pro-
cured  from  Cinchona oblongifolia of Zea.  Oblong-
leaved cinchona.   This is tlie red bark: it  is  in large
thick  pieces,  externally covered with a brown rugged
coat, internally more smooth and compact,  but fibrous,
of a dark red colour;  taste and smell similar to that
of the cinchona lancifolia cortex, but the taste rather
stronger.
  From  the  general analysis of bark,  it  appears to
consist, besides the woody matter which composes the
greater part  of  it, of gum, resin, gallic acid, of very
fcinall  portions of tannin  and essential oil, and  of
several salts having principally lime for  their basis.
Seguin also supposed the existence of gelatin  in it, but
without sufficient proof.   Cold  water infused on pale
bark for some hours, acquires a bitter taste, with some
share of its odour; when assisted by a moderate heat,
the water takes up more of the active matter; by de-
coction, a fluid, deep coloured, of a bitter styptic taste,
ia obtained, which, when cold, deposites a precipitate
of resinous matter and gallic acid.  By long decoction,
the virtues of the bark are nearly destroyed, owing to
the oxygenation of its active matter.   Magnesia en-
ables water lo dissolve a larger portion of the princi-
ples of bark, as does lime, though in an inferior degree.
Alkohol is  the  most powerful solvent of its active
matter.  Brandy and other spirits and wines, afford
also strong solutions, in proportion to the quantity of
alkohol they contain.   A saturated solution of ammo-
nia is also a  powerful  solvent;  vinegar is less so even
than  water.   By distillation, water is slightly impreg-
nated with the flavour of bark;  it is doubtful whether
any essential oil can be obtained.             ,
   The action of menstrua on the red  bark is nearly
the  same,  the solutions  only being considerably
stronger, or  containing a larger quantity  of resinous
matter, and of the astringent principle.
  The analysis of the  yellow bark shows that  its
active principles are more concentrated  ihan  in either
of the others, affording to  water, alkohol, Sec  tinc-
tures, much stronger  both in bitterness and astrin-
gency, especially in the former principle.
   Vauquelin made infusions of all the varieties of cin-
chona he could procure, using the same quantities  of
the barks and water, and leaving the powders infused
for the same time.  He observed, 1.  That certain in-
fusions were precipitated  abundantly by infusion  of
galls, by solution of glue and tartar emetic.  2. That
some were  precipitated  by glue, but not by  the two
other reagents;  and, 3. That others were, on the con-
trary, by nulgalls, and tartar emetic, without being af-
fected by glue.  4. And that there were some which
yielded no  precipitate by nutgalls, tannin, or emetic
tartar.  The cinchonas that furnished the first infusion
were of excellent quality; those that afforded  the
fourth were  not febrifuge;  while those that gave the
second and third were febrifuge, but in a smaller degree
than  the first. Besides mucilage, kinate of lime, and
woody fibre, he obtained in his analyses  a  resinous
substance, which appears not to be identic in all the
species of bark.   It  is  very  bitter, very  soluble  in
alkohol, in acids,and alkalies; scarcely soluble in cold
water, but more soluble in hot  It is this body which
gives to infusions of cinchona the property of yielding
precipitates by emetic tartar, galls, gelatin; and in it
die febrifuge virtue seems to reside.  It is this sub-
stance in part which falls down on cooling decoctions
of cinchona, and from concentrated infusions. A table
of precipitations by glue, tannin, and tartar emetic,
from infusions of different  barks, has been given by
Vauquelin.
  Pclletier and Caventou analyzed the Cinchona con-
daminaa, gray bark, and found it composed of, 1. cin-
chonina, united to kinic acid ; 2. green fatty mailer;
3.  red colouring matter, slightly soluble; 4. tannin;
5. yellow colouring matter;  6. kiniteof lime; 7. gum;
8. starch ; 9. lignine.
  The red bark has been considered as superior to the
pale, the yellow is represented, apparently with jus-
tice, as being more active than either of the others.
  The effects of Peruvian bark are those of a power-
ful and  permanent tonic, so slow in its operation, thai
its stimulating properly is scarcely perceptible by any
alteration in the state of the pulse, or of the tempera-
ture of the body.   In a large dose, it occasions nausea
and headache; in some habits it operates as a laxative:
in others  it occasions costiveness. It is one of those
medicines, the efficacy of which, in removing disease,
is much greater than could  be expected, d priori, from
its effects on the system in a healthy state.
  Intermittent fever is the disease,  for the cure of
which hark was introduced into practice, and there ia
still no  remedy which  equals it  in power.  The dis-
putes respecting the mode of administering it are now
settled.   It is given as early as possible, after clearing
the stomach and bowels, in tbe dose of from one scru-
ple to a drachm every second or third hour, during the
interval of the paroxysm; and it  may even be given
during the hot fit, but it is then more apt to excite
nausea.
   In  remittent fever it is given with equal freedom,
even  though the remission of the fever may be  ob-
scure.
   In some forms of continued  fever which are con-
nected with debility, as in typhus, cynanehe maligna,
confluent small-pox, &c. it  is regarded as one of the
most valuable remedies.  It may be prejudicial, how-
ever,  iu those diseases where the brain or its mem-
branes are inflamed, or where there is much irritation,
marked by subsultus tendinum,  and convulsive mo-
tions ofthe extremities; and in pure typhus it appears
to be less useful in the beginning of the disease than in
tbe convalescent stage.
  Even in fevers of an opposite type, where there are
marks of Inflammatory action, particularly in  acute
rheumatism, bark  has been found useful after blood-
letting.  In erysipelas, in grangrene, in extensive sup-
puration, and venereal ulceration, the freeuse of bark
is of the greatest advantage.
  In the various  forms  of passive  haemorrhagy,  in
many other diseases of  chronic  debility,  dyspepsia,
hypochondriasis,  paralysis, rickets, scrofula,  dropsy,
and in  a variety  of spasmodic  affections, epilepsy,
chorea, and hysteria, it is administered as a powerful
and permanent tonic, either alone, or combined with
oilier remedies suited to the particular case.
  The officinal preparations of bark are an infusion,
decoction, an extract, a resinous extract, a simple tinc-
ture, an ammoniated and a compound tincture.  The
usual dose is half a drachm of the powder.  The only
inconvenience of a larger dose is its silting uneasy on
the stomach.  It may therefore, if necessary, be fre-
quently repeated, and in urgent cases may be taken to
the extent of an ounce, or even two ounces, in twenty-
four hours.
  The powder is more effectual than any of the pre-
parations ; it is given in wine, in any spirituous liquor;
or, if it excite nausea, combined with an  aromatic.
The cold infusion is the least powerful, but most grate-
ful ; tbe decoction contains much more of the active
matter of the  bark, and is  the preparation generally
used when the powder is  rejected; its dose is from
two to  four ounces.  The spirituous tincture, though
containing still more of the bark, cannot be extensively
used on account of the menstruum, but is principally
employed, occasionally, and in small  doses of two  or
three drachms, as a stomachic.  The extract is a pre-
paration of considerable  power, when properly pre-
pared, and is adapted to those cases where tlie remedy
requires to be continued for some time.  It  is then
given in the form of pill, in doses of from five to  fif-
teen grains.
  Bark  is likewise sometimes given  In the form of
enema; one scruple of the extract, or two drachms of
the powder, being diffused in four ounces of starch 
CIN
CIN
mucilage.  Tbe decoction is also  sometimes applied
as a fomentation to ulcers.
  Cinchona caribjea.  The systematic name of the
Caribaean bark-tree.  It grows in Jamaica, where it is
called tlie  sea-side  beech.  According lo Dr. Wright,
the bark of this tree is not less efficacious than that of
the cinchona of Peru, for  which it will prove a useful
substitute; but by  the experiments of Dr. Skeete, it
appears to have less astringent power.
  Cinchona condamincea.   See  Cinchona and Cin-
chonina.
  Cinchona cordifolia.   See Cinchona.
  Cinchona flava-  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona floribunda.  The systematic name of
the plant which affords the Saint Luc  bark.  Cin-
chona—floribus paniculatis  glabris, capsulis  tur-
binatis lavibus, foliis  ellipticis acuminatis glabris,
of Linnaeus.  It  has an adstringent,  bitter taste,
somewhat like gentian.  Ii  is recommended  in  in-
tennittenu,  putrid  dysentery, and  dyspepsia;  it
Should always be  joined with some aromatic.  Dr.
Withering considers this bark as greatly inferior  to
that of the other species of this genus,  in its recent
state it is considerably emetic and cathartic, properties
which in some degree it retains on being dried; so that
the stomach does not bear this bark in large doses, and
in small ones its effects  are not such as to give it any
peculiar recommendation.
  Cinchona lancifolia.   See Cincliona,
  Cinchona oblongifolia.  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona officinalis. The name of the officinal
Peruvian bark. See Cinchona.
  Cinchona rubra.  See Cinchona.
  Cinchona Sancta Fe'. Several species of cinchona
have  been lately discovered at Sancta Fe, yielding
barks both of the pale and red kind;  and which, from
their sensible qualities, are likely upon trial to become
equally useful  with those  produced in the kingdom of
Peru.
  Cinchonia.   Sec Gnchonina.
  CINCHONINA.   Cinchonia;  Quinia; Quinina.
Cinchonine or Quinine is the salifiable base, or vege-
table alkali, discovered in the Cinchona condamincea,
by Pellelier and Caventou.   The person, however,
who first  recognised its existence, though  he did not
ascertain its alkaline nature, or study its combinations
with acids, was Gornis of Lisbon.
  The following process  for extracting cinchonlna is
that of Henry, the younger, which the above chemists
approve.  A kilogramme of bark  reduced  <nto a fine
powder, is to be acted on twice with  heat,  by a dilute
sulphuric acid, consisting of 50 or 60 grammes, diluted
with 8 kilogrammes of water for each time.   The fil-
tered decoctions are very bitter, have a reddish colour,
which assumes on cooling a  yellowish tint.  To dis-
colour (blanch) these liquors, and saturate  the acid,
either pulverized quicklime or magnesia may be em-
ployed. The  liquors, entirely deprived of colour, are
to be passed through a cloth, and the precipilate which
forms is to be washed with a small quantity of water,
to separate the excess of  lime (if this earth  has been
used).  The deposite on  the cloth, well drained and
almost completely deprived of moisture  for twelve
hours, after having been put  three successive times to
digest in alkohol of 36° (0.837), will furnish, by dis-
tilling ofthe liquid alkohol, a brown viscid matter, be-
coming brittle on cooling. It is to be acted on with
water  sharpened with sulphuric  acid, and the refri-
gerated liquor will  afford about  thirty grammes of
white crystals, entirely soluble in alkohol, scarcely so-
luble in cold water, but more  in boiling water, particu-
larly if this be slightly acidulated.  They consist of
pure sulphate  of cinchonina.  They ought to be bril-
liant, crystallized in parallelopipeds, very hard, and of
a glassy-white.  It should bum without leaving any
residuum.  Other processes have been given, of which
a full account will be found in the 12th volume of the
Journal of Science,  p.  325.  From a solution of the
above salt, the cinchonina may be easily obtained  by
the addition of any alkali.  The cinchonina falls down,
and may  be afterward dissolved in alkohol,  and crys-
tallized by evaporation.   Its  form  is a  rhomboidal
prism, of 108° and  72°,  terminated by a bevehnent.
It has but little taste, requiring 7000 parts of  water for
its solution; but when dissolved in alkohol, or an acid,
 it has the outer tasle of bark.  When heated it does
not fuse before decomposition. It consists of oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon, the  latter being predominant
It dissolves in only very small quantities in the oils,
and in sulphuric ether.
  The sulphate is composed of cinchonina...... 100
  Sulphuric acid .............................  13
whence the prime equivalent would appear  to be
385.  The muriate is more soluble.   It consists of
  Cinchonina.................................100
  Muriatic acid................................ 7.9
The  nitrate is  uncrystallizable.   Gallic, oxalic, and
tartaric  acids, form  neutral  salts  with  cinchonina,
which are soluble only with excess of acid. Hence in-
fusion of nut-galls gives, with  a decoction of good
cinchona, an abundant precipitate of gallate of cin-
chonina.
  Robiquet gives as the composition of a subsulphate
of cinchonina ofthe first crystallization,
  Sulphuric acid............................. 11-3
  Cinchonina................................79.0
The  alkaline base found in  yellow barks  is  called
Quinina.  It is extracted in  exactly the same way.
Red  bark contains a mixture of these two alkalies
The  febrifuge virtue  of the sulphates is considered to
be very  great
  Cinci'nnus.   The hair on the temples.
  CLNCLE'SIS.  (From KtyKXt^ia,  to move.)  Cin-
clismus.   An involuntary  nictitation  or  winking
Vogel.
  CINERARIUM   (From cinis, ashes.)  The ash
hole of a chemical instrument
  CI'NERES.   (Plural of cinis, ashes.)   Ashes.
  Cinkrks clavellata.  See Potassa impura.
  Cinerks Russia.  See Potassa impura.
  CINEIU'TIOUS.  (Cineritius; from cinis, ashes.)
Of the colour of ashes.  A  name applied to the corti-
cal substance of the brain, from its resemblance lo an
ash-colour.
  C1NER1TIUM.   (From  cinis, ashes.)  A cupe" or
test;  so named from  its being commonly made of the
ashes of vegetables or bones.
  Cine'rulam.  A name for spodium.
  CINETICA.   (YLivrfltKo;, having the power of mo-
tion.) The name of an order in the class Neuroses of
Good's Nosology.   Diseases affecting the muscles, and
embracing Entasia, Clonus, and Synclonus.
  Cine'tus.  The diaphragm.
  Cinoula'ria.  (From cingulum, a girdle; because
it grows in thai shape.) The lycopodium.
  Cl'NGULUM.  (From cingo, to bind.)  A girdle or
belt about the loins.
  Cingulum mkrcuriale.  A mercurial girdle, called
also cingulum  sopientie, and  singulum stultitia.  It
was  an  invention of  Rulandus's - different directions
are given for making it, but the following is one of the
neatest:—" Take three drachms of quicksilver: shake
it with twoounces of lemon-juice until the globules dis-
appear ; then separate the juice, and mix with the ex-
tinguished quicksilver,  half the white of an egg; gum-
dragon,  finely  powdered,  a scruple; and spread the
whole on a belt of flannel."
  Cingulum Sancti Johanmis.  A name of the arte-
misia.
  Cinifica'tum.  A name for calcinatum.
  CINIS.  (Cinis, eris. m.,  in  the plural cineres.)
The  ash which remains after burning any thing.
  CI'NNABAR.  (Cinnabaris, ris. f.  Pliny says the
Indians call by this name a mixture of the Mood of the
dragon and elephant, and also many substances which
resemble it in  colour, particularly the minium ,  but it
now denotes Ihe red sulphuret of mercury.)
  1.  An ore of  mercury, consisting of that mineral
united to sulphur.  A native sulphuret of mercury
See Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
  2.  An artificial compound of mercury and sulphur,
called factitious cinnabar, red sulphuret of mercury,
and vermilion.  See Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
  Cinnabaris factitia.   Factitious cinnabar.  See
Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
  Cinnabaris gii.hcorum. The sanguis draconis and
cinnabar.                           *
   Cinnabaris  nativa. Native  cinnabar.  See Hy.
drargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
   CINNAMO'MUM.  (From  Ai'namon, Arabian.)
Cinnamon.  See Laurus annamomum.
   CINNAMON. 1. The name of a tree.  See Laurus
cinnainomum.
   2.  The name of a stone, which  is a  rare mineral 
CIR
C1R
found in the sand of rivers in Ceylon, of a blood and
hyacinth red, passing into orange yellow.
  CINliUEFOIL.  See Potentilla reptans.
  Ci'on.  (Kiiav, a column; from kiio, to go.)
  1.  The uvula was formerly so named from its pyra-
midal shape.
  2.  An enlargement of tbe uvula.
  Cio'nis.   (From Kiiav,  the uvula.)  An enlargement
and painful swelling ofthe uvula.
  CIPOLIN.  A marble  from Rome and Autun.
  CIRCiE'A.    (From   Circe,  the  enchantress: so
named from the opinion that it was used by Circe in
her enchanted preparations.) 1. The name of a genus
of plants in the Linns:aii system. Class, Diandria;
Order, Monogynia.  Enchanter's nightshade.
  2.  The name in some pharmacopoeias for the Circea
lutetiana, which is now fallen wholly into disuse.
  CIRCOCE'LE.   (KipooiaiXn;  from  Kipoos, varix,
or a dilatation of a vein, and Kt/Xri, a tumour.)   Vari-
cocele.  A morbid or varicose distention and enlarge-
ment of the spermatic veins; it is frequently mistaken
for a descent of a small portion  of omentum.  The
uneasiness which it occasions is a kind of pain in the
back, generally relieved by suspension ofthe scrotum;
and whether considered on account of the pain, or on
account of the wasting of the testicle, which now and
then follows, it may truly be called a disease.  It  has
been resembled to  a  collection of earth-worms.  It
is most frequently confined  to that part of the sper-
matic  process, which is below  the opening in the
abdominal tendon; and  the vessels generally become
rather larger as they approach the testes.  There is
one sure method of distinguishing between a circocele
and  omental hernia;  place the  patient  in  a hori-
zontal  posture, and empty  the swelling by pressure
upon the scrotum; then put the fingers firmly upon the
upper part of the abdominal1 ring, and  desire the pa-
tient to rise; if it is a hernia, the tumour cannot re-
appear, as long  as the pressure is continued at the
ring; but if a circocele,  the swelling returns with in-
creased size, on account ofthe return of blood into the
abdomen being prevented by the pressure.
  Ci'rcos.  (From  k'.jkoc, a  circle.)   A ring.  It is
sometimes  used for  tlie sphincter muscle which is
round like a ring.
  CIRCULATION.   (Grculatio;  from  circulo, to
compass about)  Circulatio sanguinis)  Circulation
of the blood. A vital  action performed by ihe heart in
the following manner: the blood is returned by the de-
scending and ascending venae cava into the right auri-
cle ofthe heart, which, when distended, contracts, and
Bends its blood into the right ventricle;  from the right
ventricle it is propelled through the pulmonary artery
to circulate through,  and  undergo  a change in  the
lungs, boing prevented from returning into  the right
auricle by the closing of ihe valves, which are situated
there for that purpose. Having undergone this change
in the lungs, it is brought  to the left auricle of the heart
by the  four pulmonary veins, and from  thence it is
evacuated into  the left ventricle.  The left ventricle,
when  distended, contracts, and  throws the  blood
through the aorta to every part of the body, to be re-
turned by the veins into the two venae cava;.  It is pre-
vented  from passing  back from the left ventricle into
the auricle  by  a valvular apparatus; and  the pul-
monary artery and aorta  at their origin are also fur-
nished  with  similar organs, to prevent its returning
into the ventricles.  This is a brief outline of the cir-
culation,^ parlicularsofwhich we shall now describe,
  "The best informed physiologists avow that the cir-
culation of the venous blood is still very little under-
stood.   We shall describe here only its most apparent
phenomena, leaving the most delicate questions until
we treat of the relation of tlie flowing of the blood in
tne veins, with  that  in  the arteries.   We will  then
speak of the cause that  deteruiines the entrance of
blond into the venous radicles.
  To have a general, but just idea ofthe course ofthe
blood in the veins, we must consider that the sum of
the small veins forms a  cavity much larger than that
of the larger but less numerous veins, into which they
pass; tbat  these bear the same relation to the trunks
in which they terminate:  consequently, the blood
which flows in the veins from branches towards  the
trunks, passes always from a larger to a smaller cavity;
now, the following principle of hydro-dynamics may
here be perfectly applied:
   When a liquid flows in a tube which it fills com
pletely, the quantity of this liquid which traverses the
different sections of the lube in a given time ought lo
be every where the same: consequently, when the tube
increases, the velocity diminishes; when the tube di-
minishes, the velocity increases in rapidity.
  Experience confirms this principle, and its just ap-
plication to the current of venous blood.  If a very
small vein is cut, the blood flows from it very slowly;
it  flows quicker from a larger vein, and it  flows with
considerable rapidity from an open venous trunk.
  Generally there are several veins to transport the
blood that has traversed an organ towards the larger
trunks.   On account  of their anastomoses, the corn-
pressure or  ligature of one or several of these veins
does not prevent or diminish the quantity of blood that
returns to the heart; it merely acquires a greater rapi-
dity in the veins which remain free.
  This happens when a ligature is placed on the arm
for the purpose of bleeding.  In the ordinary state, the
blood, which is carried to the fore-arm and the hand,
returns to the heart by four deep veins, and at least as
many superficial ones; but as soon as the ligature is
tightened, the blood passes no longer by Ihe subcuta-
neous veins, and it traverses with difficulty those wbich
are deeper seated.  If one of the veins is then opened
at the bend of the arm, it passes out in form of a con-
tinued jet, which continues as long as the ligature re-
mains firm, and stops as soon as it is removed.
  Except in particular cases, the veins ore not much
distended by tbe blood; however,  those in which it
moves with the greatest rapidity are  much more so:
the small veins are scarcely distended at all.  For a
reason very easy to be understood, all the circum-
stances  that accelerate the rapidity of the  blood in a
vein, produce also an  augmentation in the distention
of the vessel.
  The introduction of  blood into  the veins  taking
place in a continued manner, every cause  which
arrests its course produces distention of the vein, and
the stagnation of a greater or less quantity of blood in
its cavity, below the obstacle.
  The sides of the veins  seem to have but a small
influence upon the motion of the  blood;  they easily
give way when the quantity augments, and return to
their  usual  form when it  diminishes; but their con-
traction is limited; it is not sufficiently strong to expel
the blood completely from the vein, and therefore those
of dead bodies always contain some.
  A great number of veins, such as those of the bones,
ofthe sinuses ofthe duramater, of the testicles, ofthe
liver, &c, the sides of which adhere to an inflexible
canal, can have evidently no influence upon the mo-
tion of the blood that flows in their cavity.
   However, it is to the elasticity of the sides  of the
veins, and not to  a contraction similar to  that of the
muscles that we must attribute the faculty which they
possess  nf diminishing the size when the  column of
blood diminishes:  this diminution is also much more
marked in those that have the thickest sides, such as
the superficial veins.
   If the veins have themselves very little influence
upon the motion of the blood, many other necessary,
causes exert a very evident effect  Every continued
or alternate pressure upon a vein, when strong enough
to flatten il, may prevent the passage of the blood; if
it  is not so strong, it will oppose the dilatation of the
vein by the blood, and consequently favour its motion.
The constant pressure which the skin of tlie members
exert upon  the veins that are below it, renders the
flow of the blood more easy and rapid in these vessels.
We cannot  doubt this, for all the circumstances tbat
diminish the contractility of the tissue of the skin, are
sooner or later followed by a considerable dilatation of
the veins, and in  certain cases  by varix; we know
also that mechanical compression, exerted by a proper
bandage, reduces the veins again to their ordinary di-
mensions, and also regulates the motion of the blood
within them.
  In the abdomen, the veins are subject to the alternate
pressure of the diaphragm, and  of  the  abdominal
muscles, and this cause is equally  favourable to the
flow of  the venous blood in this part.
  The veins of the brain support also a considerable
pressure, which must produce the same result
  Whenever the  blood runs in the direction of its
weight it flows with greater facility; the contrary takes 
cm
cm
place When  it flows  against  the direction  of Its
gravity.
  We must not neglect to notice the relations of these
accessory causes  with the disposition of the veins.
Where they  are very marked,  the veins present no
valves, and their sides are very thin, as is seen in the
abdomen, the chest, the  cavity of  the skull, &c.;
where these  have  less influence,  the veins present
valves, and have thicker sides;  lastly, where they are
verv weak, as in the subcutaneous veins, the valves
are numerous, and the sides have a considerable thick-
ness.
  We must take care, however, not to confound among
the circumstances favourable  to the  motion of the
blood in the veins, causes which act in another manner.
  For example, it is generally  known that  the con-
traction of tlie muscles of the fore-arm and the hand
during bleeding, accelerate the motion of tbe blood
which passes through the opening  ofthe vein; phy-
siologists say  that the contraction of the muscles com-
presses the deep veins, and expels the blood from them,
which then passes into the superficial veins.  Were it
thus,  the  acceleration  would be only  instantaneous,
or at least of short duration, while it generally con-
tinues as long as the contraction. We shall see, farther
on, how this phenomenon ought to be explained.
  When the feet are plunged some time in hot water,
the subcutaneous veins swell, which is generally attri-
buted to the rarefaction of the blood; though the  true
cause is the augmentation of the quantity of blood in
tbe feet, but particularly at the skin, an augmentation
which ought naturally to accelerate the motion of the
blood in  the  veins, since they are in a given  time tra-
versed by a greater quantity of blood.
  After what has preceded, we can  easily suppose that
the venous blood must be frequently stopped or hindered
in its course,  either by the veins suffering too strong a
pressure  in the different positions  of the body, or by
other bodies pressing upon it, &c.: hence the necessity
of the numerous anastomoses tbat exist not only in the
small veins, but among the large, and even among the
largest trunks.  By these frequent communications,
one or several of the veins being compressed in such a
way, that they cannot permit the passage of the blood,
this fluid  turns and arrives at  the  heart by other di-
rections:—one of  the uses of the azygos vein appears
to be to establish an easy communication between the
superior and  inferior vena cava. Its principal utility,
however, seems to consist in its being the common ter-
mination of most of the intercostal veins.
  There  is no obscurity in the action of tbe valves of
the veins; they are real valves, which prevent the re-
turn  of the  blood towards the venous radicles, and
which do this so much better in proportion as  they are
large, that is to say, more suitably disposed to  stop
entirely the cavity of the vein.
  The friction of tbe blood against the sides  of the
veins; its adhesion to these same sides, and the want
of fluidity, must modify the motion ofthe blood in the
veins, and tend to retard it; but in the present state of
physiology and hydrodynamics, it is impossible to as-
sign  the  precise  effect of  each of these particular
causes.
  We ought  to perceive, by what has been said upon
the motion of the venous blood, that it must undergo
great modifications, according to an infinity of circum-
stances.
  At any rate, the venous blood of every part of the
body arrives  at the right auricle of the heart by the
trunks that we have already named;  viz. two very
large, the vena; cava?, and  one  very  small, the coro-
nary vein.
  The blood probably flows in each  of these veins with
different  rapidity: what is certain, is, that the three
columns  of liquid  make in effort to pass  into the
auricle, and that the effort must be considerable.  If it
is contracted, this effort has no  effect: but, as soon as
it dilates, the  blood enters its cavity, fills it completely,
and even  distends the sides a  little; it would  imme-
diately enter  The ventricle, if it did not contract itself
at this instant.  The blood then confines itself to filling
up exactly the cavity of the auricle; but this very soon
contracts, compresses  the blood, which escapes  into
the place where there is least compression.   Now it
has only two  issues: 1st, by the vena cava;  2dly, by
the opening which conducts into the ventricle. The
columns of blood which arc coming to the auricle pre-
      238
sent a certain resistance to its passage into the cava or'
coronary veins.  On the contrary, it finds every facility
to enter the ventricle, since the latter dilates itself with
force, tends to  produce a vacuum, and consequently
draws on the blood instead of repulsing it.
   However, all the blood that passes out of the auricle
does not enter the ventricle; it has been long observed
that,  at  each  contraction of the auricle, a  certain
quantity of blood flows back into the superior and in-
ferior venas cava;;  the undulation produced by this
cause is sometimes felt as  far as the external iliac
veins, and into the jugulars;  It has a sensible influence,
as we will see, upon the flowing of the blood in several
organs, and particularly in the brain.
   The quantity of blood  which  flows back  in this
manner, varies according  to the facility  with which
this liquid enters the ventricle.  If at the instant of its
dilatation,  the  ventricle still contains much blood,
which has not passed into the pulmonary artery, it can
only receive a  small quantity of that of the auricle,
and then the reflux will be of greater extent.
   This  happens when  the flowing of the blood in the
pulmonary artery is retarded, either by obstacles in the
lungs, or by the want of sufficient force  in the ven-
tricle.  This reflux, of which we speak, is the cause
of the beating which is seen in the  veins of certain
sick  persons, and-wbich bears the name  of venous
pulse.   Nothing similar can take place in ihe coronary
vein, for its opening is furnished with a valve, which
shuts on the  instant of the contraction  of  the au-
ricle.
   The instant  in which the auricle ceases to contract,
the ventricle enters into contraction, the blood it con-
tains is strongly pressed, and tends to escape in every
direction: it would  return so much  more easily into
the auricle, that, as we have already frequently said,
it  dilates just at this instant; but the tricuspid valve
which shuts the auriculo-ventricular opening prevents
this reflux.   Being raised by the liquid introduced be-
low it, and  which tends to pass into the auricle, it gives
way until it has become  perpendicular to the axis of
the ventricle; its three divisions then shut almost com-
pletely the opening, and as the tendons of the columne ..
carnee do not permit them  to go  farther, the valve
resists the effort ofthe blood, and thus prevents it from
passing into the auricle.
   It is not the same with the blood, which, during tlie
dilatation of the ventricle, corresponded to the auricu-
lar surface of the valve; it is evident that in the mo-
tion ofthe ventricle it is carried forward into the auri-
cle, where it mixes with that wbich comes from the
vena cava and coronary veins.
  Not being able to overcome the resistance of the tri-
cuspid valve, the blood of the  ventricle has no other
issue than the  pulmonary artery, into which it enters
by raising the three sigmoid valves that supported the
column of blood contained in the artery during the di-
latation of the ventricle.
  Suppose the artery full of blood, and left to itself, the
liquid will  be pressed in the whole extent of  the ves-
sel, by the sides which  tend  to contract upon the ca-
vity; the blood, being thus pressed, will endeavour to
escape in every direction;  now it has only two ways
to pass, by the cardiac orifice, and by the numerous
small vessels that terminate the artery in the tissue 01
the lungs.
  The orifice ofthe pulmonary artery in the heart be-
ing very large, the  blood would easily pass into the
ventricle, if there were not  a particular apparatus at
this orifice,  intended to prevent  this; the three sigmoid
valves.   Being pressed against the sides of the artery,
at the instant that the ventricle sends a wave of blood
that  way, these folds become perpendicular to its axis;
as soon as the blood tends to flow back into the ventri-
cle, they place themselves so as to shut up the cavity
of this vessel completely.
   On account of the bag-like  form of the sigmoid
valves, they are swelled by fue blood that  enters  into
their cavity, and their margin tends to assume a circu-
lar figure.  Now, three circular portions, placed upon
each other, necessarily leave a space between them.
   When tbe valves, therefore, of the pulmonary artery
are lowered by the  blood, there ought to remain an
opening by which this  liquid may flow back into the
ventricle.
   If each valve were alone, it would undoubtedly take
a  semicircular  form; but there are three of inenu 
cm
cm
being piessed by the blood, they lie all close together:
and, as they cannot extend as far as their fibres permit
them, they press  upon each other, on account of the
small space  in which they are contained, and which
does  not permit their extending themselves.   The
valves then assume the figure of three triangles, whose
summit is in  the centre of the artery, and tlie sides are
in juxta position, so as completely to intercept the ca-
vity of the  artery.  Perhaps  the knots, or buttons,
which are upon the summit of some of the triangles,
are intended to shut moie perfectly the centre of the
artery.
  Finding no passage into the ventricle, the blood will
pass into the radicles  of the  pulmonary veins,  with
which the small arteries that terminate the pulmonary
artery form a continuation, and this passage will con-
tinue as long as the sides of the artery press the con-
tained blood with sufficient force; and, except in the
trunk and the principal branches, this effect continues
until the whole of the blood is expelled.
  We might  suppose the smallness of the vessels that
terminate tbe pulmonary artery an obstacle to the flow-
ing of the blood: that  might be, if they were not nu-
merous, or if the capacity of the whole were less, or
even equal to tbat of the trunk ; but as they are innu-
merable, and their capacity is much greater than that
of the trunk, there is no difficulty in the motion.  It is
true that the distention or subsidence of the lungs ren-
ders this passage more  or less easy.
  In order that this flowing may take place with faci-
lity, the  force of contraction of the different divisions
of the artery ought to be every where in relation lo
their size; if, on the contrary, that of the small  were
greater than  that of the large, as soon as the first had
expelled the  blood  by which  they  were  filled, they
would  not  be sufficiently distended  by  the blood
coming from tlie  second, and the flowing of the blood
would be retarded:  now, what takes place is quite the
contrary of lliis supposition.  If the pulmonary artery
of a living animal  were tied immediately above the
heart, almost all  the blood contained in the artery at
the instant ofthe ligature, would pass quickly into the
pulmonary veins, and arrive at the heart.
  This is what happens when the blood contained in
the pulmonary artery is exposed to the single action of
this vessel;  but in  the common state,  at  each  con-
traction  of the right ventricle,  a  certain quantity  of
blood is thrown with force into the artery; the valves
are immediately raised; the artery, and almost all  its
divisions, are so much more distended, in proportion
as  the heart Is more  forcibly contracted,  and as the
quantity of blood injected  into the  artery is greater.
The ventricle dilates immediately after its contraction,
and at this instant the sides ofthe artery contract  also;
the sigmoid valves  descend and  shut the  pulmonary
artery'i until  they are raised by a new contraction of
the ventricle.
  Such is tlie second cause ofthe motion of the blood
in the artery  that goes towards the lungs: we see it is
Intermittent; let us endeavour to appreciate its effects:
for which purpose,  let  us consider the most apparent
phenomena of the flow of the blood in the pulmonary
unery.
  It has been  just  observed, that in the instant the
ventricle injects the blood  Into the artery, the trunk,
and all the divisions of a certain size, undergo an evi-
dent dilatation.  This phenomenon is called the pulsa-
tion of the artery.  The pulsation is very sensible near
the heart; it becomes  feeble in proportion to its dis-
tance from it;  when the artery, by being divided, has
become very small,  it ceases.
  Another phenomenon, which  is  only  the  conse-
quence of the preceding, is observed when the artery
Is opened.
  If it be near the  heart, and in a place where the
beating is sensible, the blood  spouts out by jerks; if
the opening be made far from the heart, and in a small
division, the  jet is continued  and uniform; lastly, if
one of the very small vessels that terminate the artery
be opened, the  blood flows, but without forming any
jet: it flows uniformly  in a sheet
  We see at first, in these phenomena, a new applica-
tion of the principle of hydro-dynamics,  as already
mentioned, with regard to the influence of the size of
the tube upon the liquid that  flows in it: the greater
the tube is, the rapidity is the less.  This capacity of
lue vessel increasing according as it advances towards
 the lungs, the quickness of the blood necessarily di-
 minishes.
  With regard to the pulsation of the artery, and the
jet of blood that escapes from it when it is open, we see
 plainly that these two effects depend on the contraction
 ofthe right ventricle, and the introduction of a certain
 quantity of blood into the artery, which takes place by
 this  means while  flowing  through the  small vessels
 that terminate the artery,  and that give commence-
 ment to the  pulmonary veins;   the  venous  blood
 changes its nature  by ihe effect of the contact of the
 air;  it acquires tbe qualities of arterial blood: it is this
 change in the  properties of the blood which essentially
 constitutes respiration.
  At the instant in which  the venous blood traverses
 the small vessels of the pulmonary lobules, it assumes
 a scarlet colour; its odour becomes stronger, and its
 taste more distinct, its temperature rises about a de-
gree ; a part of its serum disappears in the form of va-
 pour in the tissue  of the lobules,  and mixes with the
air.  Its tendency to coagulate augments considerably
which is expressed by saying that its  plasticity be
comes stronger, its specific  gravity diminishes, as well
as its capacity for caloric.  The venous blood, having
acquired these characters, now becomes arterial blood,
 and enters the radicles  of the pulmonary veins, which
 have their origin, like the veins properly so culled, in
the tissue of the lungs; that is, they form at first an
infinite number of radicles, which appear to be the con-
 tinuation of the pulmonary artery.  These radicles
 unite to form thicker roots, which become still thicker.
 Lastly, they all terminate in four vessels, which open,
 after a  short passage, into the left auricle.  The pul-
 monary veins  are different from  the other veins, in
 their not  anastomosing after they have acquired a
 certain thickness;  a similar disposition has  been  seen
 in the divisions of tlie artery which is  distributed to
 the lungs.
  The pulmonary  veins have  no valves,  and their
structure is similar to  that of the other veins; their
middle membrane  is, however, a little thicker, and it
appears to possess  more elasticity.  The blood passes
into the radicles of the pulmonary veins, and very soon
reaches the trunk of these Veins: in this passage it
presents a gradually accelerated motion, in proportion
as it passes  from  the small veins into the larger:
finally, it does  not  at all flow by jerks, and it appears
nearly equally rapid in the four pulmonary veins.
From the pulmonary veins the left auricle receives
the blood.
  The mechanism  by which the  blood  traverses the
left auricle  and ventricle is the same as that by which
the venous blood traverses the right cavities.
  When the left auricle dilates, the blood of the four
 pulmonary veins enters and fills it; when it contracts,
part  of the blood passes into ihe ventricle, and  part
flows back into Ihe pulmonary veins; when the ven-
 tricle dilates, it receives the blood which comes from
the auricle, and a small quantity of that ofthe aorta;
when it contracts, the  mitral valve is raised, it shuts
 the auriculo-ventricular opening,  snd  the blood, not
 being able to return into the auricle, it enters into the
aorta by raising the three sigmoid valves, which were
shut during the dilatation ot the ventricle.
  It is necessary to remark, however, that the fleshy
columns having no existence in the auricle, their influ-
ence cannot exist as in the right, and the arterial ven
tricle being much  thicker  than the venous, it com
presses  the blood with  a much greater force than the
right, which was indispensable on account of the dis-
tance lo which it has to send this liquid.
  Course of the blood in the aorta, and its divisions,—
Notwithstanding the differences which exist between
this and ihe pulmonary artery, the phenomena of tbo
motion of the  blood are nearly the same in both: thus
a ligature  being applied upon this vessel, near the
heart, in a living  animal,  it contracts  in its whole
length, and, except a small quantity that remains in the
principal arteries, the blood passes immediately into
the veins.
  Some authors doubt the fact of the contraction of
the arteries; the following experiment maybe made
to convince them: uncover the carotid artery of a
living animal  the length of several inches; take the
transverse dimension of the  vessel with compasses, tie
it at two different  points at the same time, and  you
may then have any length whatever of artery full of 
CIR
cm
 blood; make a small opening in the sides of this por-
 tion ofthe artery, you will immediately see almost tlie
 whole ofthe blood pass out, and  it will even spout to
 a certain distance.   Then measure the breadth with
 the compasses, and there will be no doubt ofthe artery
 being much contracted, if tlie rapid expulsion of the
 blood has  not already convinced you.  This experi-
 ment also proves that the  force  with which the artery
 contracts is sufficient  to expel the blood that it con-
 tains.
  Passage of the blood of the arteries into the veins.—
 When, in the  dead body, au injection  is thrown into
 an artery, it immediately returns by the corresponding
 vein: the same thing takes place, and  with still more
 facility, if  the injection is thrown into  the artery of a
 living animal.  In cold-blooded animals, the blood can
 be seen, by tbe aid of a microscope, passing from  the
 arteries into the veins.  The communication between
 these vessels is then direct, and very easy; it is natural
 to suppose that the heart, after having forced the blood
 to the last  arterial twigs,  continues to make it move
 into tbe venous  radicles,  and  even into the veins.
 Harvey, and a great  number of celebrated anatomists,
 thought so. Lately,  Bichat has been strongly against
 this doctrine: he has limited the influence of the blood;
 he pretends that it ceases entirely in the place where
 the arterial is changed into venous blood, that is, iu
 the numerous small vessels that  terminate tile arte-
 ries and commence the veins.  In this place, according
 to him, the action of tlie  small vessels alone is the
 cause ofthe motion ofthe blood.
  Remarks on the Movements of the Heart.—A. The
 right auricle and ventricle, and the left auricle and
 ventricle, the action  of which we have studied sepa-
 rately, in reality  form only one organ, which is the
 heart
  The auricles contract and dilate together; the same
 thing takes place with the ventricles,  whose move-
 ments are simultaneous.
  When  the contraction of the heart is spoken  of,
 that ofthe  ventricle is understood.  Their contraction
 is called systole, their dilatation diastole.
  B. Every time that  the ventricles  contract,  the
 whole of the heart is rapidly carried forward, and the
 point of this organ strikes the left lateral side of the
 chest, opposite tbe internal of the sixth and seventh
 true ribs.
  C. Tbe number of the pulsations of the heart  is
 considerable; it is generally greater in  proportion as
 the person  is younger.
    At birth it is from 130 to 140 in a minute.
    At one year......120 to 130.
    At two years.....100 to 110.
    At three years---  90 to 100.
    At seven years....  85 to 90.
    At fourteen years  80 to 65.
    At adult age.....  75 to 80.
    At first old age....  65 to 75.
    At confirmed old age 60 to 65.
  But these numbers vary according to an infinity of
circumstances, sex, temperament, individual disposi-
 tion, Sec
  The  affections of the mind have a great influence
 upon the rapidity of the contractions of  the heart;
every one knows that even a slight emotion immedi-
ately modifies the contractions, and generally  accele-
rates them. In this respect great changes take place
also by diseases.
  D. Many researches have been  made  to determine
with what  force the  ventricles contract  In order to
appreciate  that of the left ventricle, an experiment
has been  made, which consists  in crossing the legs,
and placing upon one knee the  ham of the other leg,
with a w eight of 55 pounds appended to the extremity
of the foot This considerable weight, though placed
 at the extremity of  such a long  lever, is raised at
 each contraction  of  the ventricle, on account of tbe
 tendency to straighten tlie accidental curvature of the
 popliteal  artery, when the legs are crossed in this
manner.
  This experiment shows that the force of contraction
ofthe heart is very great; but it cannot give the exact
 value of it  Mechanical  physiologists have  made
 great efforts to express it in numbers.  Borelli compares
 the force which keeps up the circulation to that which
 would  he necessary  to raise 100,000 pounds;  Hales
 Believes it to be 51 pounds 5 ounces; and Keil reduces
      MB
 it to from 15 to 8 ounces.  Where shall we find tbe
 truth in these contradictions 1
   It seems impossible lo  know exactly the force de-
 veloped by the heart in its contraction; it  very pro-
 bably varies according  to numerous causes, such as
 age, ihe volume of the  organ, the size of the indivi-
 dual,  the  particular  disposition,  the quantity of
 blood, the state of the nervous system, the action of
 the organs, the state of health or of sickness, Sec.
   All that has been said of the force of the  heart re
 lates only to its contraction, its dilatation having been
 considered as a passive state, a sort of repose of the
 fibres; however, when the ventricles dilate, it is with
 a very great force, for example, capable of raising a
 weight of twenty pounds, as may be observed in ani-
 mals recently dead.   When the heart of a living ani
 mal is taken hold of by the hand, however small it may
 be, it is impossible by any effort to prevent the dilata-
 tion of the ventricles. The dilatation of the heart, thon.
 cannot be considered as a state of inaction or repose.
   E. The heart moves from the first days of existence
 of the embryo to the instant of death by decrepitude.
   Why does it move 1 This question has  been  ask1
 ed  by ancient,and modern  philosophers and physi-
 ologists.  The wherefore of phenomena is  not easy
 to be  given in  physiology;  almost always what is
 taken for such is only in other terms the expression
 of the phenomena;  but  it is remarkable how easily
 we  deceive ourselves in  this  respect; one of  tile
 strongest proofs of it is afforded by the different expla-
 nations of the motion of  the heart.
   The ancients said that there was a pulsific  virtue in
 the heart a concentrated fire, that gave motion to this
 organ.  Descartes imagined that an explosion as sud-
 den  as that of gunpowder took place  in the heart
 The motion of the heart was afterward attributed to
 the animal spirits, to the nervous fluid, to the soul,
 to the process of the nervous system, to the arcliea:
 Haller considers it as an effect of irritability.  Lately,
 Legallois has  endeavoured to prove, by experiments,
 that tbe principle or cause of the motion of the heart
 has its seat iu the spinal marrow.
   Remarks upon the circular Motion of the Blood, or
 the Circulation.—We now know all the links of the
 circular  chain that  tbe  sanguiferous system repre-
 sents ;  we  know how the blood is carried from the
 lungs toward all the  other parts of the body, and how
 it  returns from these  parts to the heart. Let us ex-
 amine these phenomena in a general manner, in order
 to show the most important.
  A. The quantity of blood contained in the system is
 very considerable.  It has  been  estimated by several
 authors at from 24 to 30 pounds.  This value cannot
 be at all exact, for the quantity of blood varies accord-
 ing to numerous causes.
  The relation ofthe mass ofthe arterial with that of
 the venous  blood, is somewhat  belter known.  This
 last, contained in vessels  larger than that ofthe  arte-
 ries, is necessarily in greater quantity, though we can-
 not say exactly how much greater its mass is than that
 of the arterial blood.
  B. The circulatory path of the blood being continu
 ous, and the  capacity of the canal variable, the rapidity
 of this fluid  must be variable also;  for the same quan-
 tity must pass through all the points in a given time:
 observation  confirms this.   The rapidity is  great in
 the trunk, and the principal divisions of the pulmonary
 arterv and aorta: it diminishes much in the secondary
 divisions; it diminishes still more at the instant ofthe
 passage from the  arteries into the veins; it continues
 to augment in proportion  as the blood passes from the
 roots of the  veins into larger roots, and lastly into the
 large veins; but the rapidity is  never so great in the
 vena; cava;  as in the aorta.  In the trunks  and  the
 principal arterial divisions, the  course of the  blood
 is not only continued under the influence of the con-
 traction of the arteries, but, besides, it flows  in jerks
 by the effect of the contraction of the ventricles.  This
jerking manifests itself in the arteries  by a simple di
 lataiion in those that are  straight, and by a dilatation
 and tendency to straighten in those which are tlexuous.
  The pulse is formed by the first of these phenomena,
 to which  the second is  sometimes joined.   It is not
 easy to study, in man or in the animals, except where
 the arteries are laid close upon a bone, because they
 do not then retire from  under tlie finger when  it is
 placed upon them, as happens to arteriee in soft parte 
cm
em
  In general, the pulse makes known the principal
modification ofthe contraction ofthe left ventricle, its
quickness, its intensity, its weakness, its regularity, its
irregularity.  The quantity of the blood is also known
by the pulse.   If it is great, the artery is round, thick,
and  resisting.  If the blood  is in small quantity, tile
artery is small and  easily flattened.  Certain disposi-
tions in the arteries have an influence also upon the
pulse,  and  may render it different in the principal
arteries.
  V,. The beating of the arteries  is necessarily felt in
the organs which are next them, and  so  much more
in proportion as the arteries are more voluminous, and
as the organs give  way with  less facility.  The jerk
which they uadergo is generally considered as favour-
able to their action, though no positive proof of it
exists.
  In this respect none of the organs ought to be more
affected than the brain.  The four cerebral  arteries
unite in circles at the base of the skull, and raise the
brain at each contraction ofthe ventricle, as it is easy
to be convinced of by laying bare the brain of an ani-
mal, or by observing this organ in wounds  of the
head.  Probably, the numerous angular bendiugs of
the internal carotid  arteries, and of the vertebrals be-
fore their entrance into the skull, are useful for mode-
rating  this  shaking; these bendings must also neces-
sarily retard ihe course of the blood in these vessels.
  When the arteries penetrate in a voluminous state
into ihe parenchyma  of the organs, as the liver, the
kidneys, fee, the organ must also  receive a jerk at
each contraction ofthe heart.  The organs into which
the vessels enter, after being divided and subdivided,
can suffer nothing similar.
  D. From tlie lungs to the left auricle the blood is of
the same nature;  however, it sometimes happens that
it is not the same in the four  pulmonary veins.  For
instance, if the lungs are so changed that the air can-
not penetrate  into the lobules, the blood which tra-
verses them will not be changed from venous to arterial
blood ; it will arrive at the heart without having un-
dergone this change; but in its passage  through the
left cavities it will  be intimately mixed with that of
the lungs opposite.  The blood is necessarily homoge-
neous from the left ventricle to the last divisions ofthe
aorta; bul, being arrived at these small divisions, its
elements separate;  at least  there exists a great num-
ber of parts, such as the serous membranes, the cellu-
lar tissue, the  tendons, the  aponeuroses, the  fibrous
membranes, Sec,  into which the red part of tbe blood
is never seen to penetrate, and the capillaries of which
contain only serum.
  This separation of the elements of the  blood takes
place only in a state of health; when the parts that I
have mentioned  become diseased,  it often happens
that their small vessels contain blood, possessed of all
its characteristic properties.
  There have been endeavours to explain this particu-
lar analysis of the blood by the small vessels.   Boer-
haave, who admitted several sorts of globules of dif-
ferent sizes in tlie blood, said, that globules of a certain
largeness could only pa*s into vessels of an appropri-
ate size: we have seen that globules, such as they were
admitted by Boerhaave. do not exist.
   Bichut believed that there existed in the small ves-
sels  a particular  sensibility, by which they admitted
only the part of the blood suitable to them.  We have
already frequently  contested ideas of this kind; nei-
ther can they be admitted here; for the most irritating
liquids, introduced into the arteries., pass immediately
into the veins, without any opposition to their passage
by the capillaries.
   E.   The elements of the blood separate in traversing
the small vessels; sometimes the scrum escapes, and
spreads upon the surface of the membrane: sometimes
the fatty matter is deposited in cells; here the mucus,
there the fibrine;  elsewhere are the foreign substances,
wbich were accidentally mixed with the arterial blood.
In losing these different elements, tbe blood assumes
the qualities of venous blood.  At the same time that
the arterial blood supplies these losses, the small veins
absorb the substances with which they ate iu contact.
In the intestinal  canal, for example, they absorb the
drinks; on  the other hand, the lymphatic  trunks pour
the lymph and the chyle into the venous system; it is
certain, then, that the venous blood enhhot be homo-
geneous, and tbat iu composition must be variable in
the different veins; but, having reached the heart, kf
the motions of the right auricle and ventricle, and the
disposition of the fleshy columns, the elements all mix
together, and when they are completely mixed, they
pass into the pulmonary artery.
  F. A general law of the economy is, that no organ
continues to  act  without receiving  arterial  blood;
from this results, that all tlie other functions are de-
pendent on the circulation; but tbe circulation, in its
turn, cannot  continue  without  the  respiration by
which  the arterial blood is formed, and without the
action ofthe nervous system, which has a great influ-
ence upon the rapidity ofthe flowing of the  blood, and
upon its distribution in the organs.  Indeed, under the
action ofthe nervous system, the motions ofthe heart,
and consequently the general quickness of  the course
ofthe blood, are quickened or retarded.  Thus, when
the organs act voluntarily or involuntarily, we learn
from observation, that they receive a greater quantity
of blood without the motion of the general circulation
being accelerated on  that account; and if their action
predominates,  the arteries which are  directed  there,
increase  considerably.  If, on the contrary, the action
diminishes, or ceases entirely,  the  arteries  become
smaller, and permit only a small quantity to reach the
organ.  These phenomena are manifest in the mus-
cles: the circulation becomes more rapid in them
when they contract; if they are often  contracted, the
volume of their arteries increases;  if they are para-
lyzed, the arteries become very small, and the pulse is
scarcely felt.
  The circulation, then, may  be influenced  by the,
nervous system iu three ways:  1st, By modifying the
motions of the heart; 2dly, By modifying the capilla-
ries of the organs, so as to accelerate the flowing of the
blood in them; 3dly,  By  producing the same effects in
the lungs, that is, by rendering the course of the blood
more or less easy through this organ.
  The acceleration of the motions of the heart be-
comes sensible to us by the manner in which the point
of the organ strikes the walls of the chest.  The diffi-
culty of  the capillary circulation  is discovered by a
feeling of numbness and  a particular prickling; and
when the pulmonary circulation is difficult, we are in-
formed of it by an oppression or sense of suffocation,
more or less strong.
  Probably tbe distribution of the filaments of the
great sympathetic on the sides of the arteries, has
some important use; but this use is entirely unknown;
we have received no light on  the point by any ex-
periment."—Magendie's Elements of Physiology.
  Circula'tor.  (From circulo, to  compass about.)
A wandering  practiser  in medicine.  A quack; a
mountebank.
  Circulato'rium.  (From circulo, to move round.)
A chemical digesting vessel in  which the fluid per-
forms a circulatory motion.
  CIRCULUS.  (Dim. of circus, a circle.)  1.  A cir-
cle or ring.
  2. Any part of the body which is round or annular,
as circulus oculi.
  3. A round  chemical  instrument sometimes  called
abbreviatorium by the old chemists.
  Circulus arteriosus iridis.  The artery which
runs round the iris and forms a circle, is so termed.
  Circulus quadruplex.  A bandage.
  Circumcaula'lis.  A name of the adnata of the
eye.
  CIRCUMCI'SION. (Circumcisio, from circumctdo,
lo cut about.)  The cutting off the prepuce from the
glans penis; an ancient custom, still  practised among
the Jews, and rendered  necessary by the heat of the
climate in which it was first practised, to prevent col-
lections and a  vitiated state ofthe sebaceous secretion
from the odoriferous glands ofthe parr.
  CIRCUMFLE'XUS.   (CircumJUxus, sc. musculus.)
A muscle of the palate.   Tensor palati of Innes.  Cir-
cumflexus palati mollis of Albinus.  Spheno-salpingo-
staphilinus, sen  staphilmus externus of Winslow.
Musculus tuba nova of Valsalva.  Palulo-salpingeus
of Douglas.  Pterigo-staphylinus of Cowper, and Pe-
trosalpingo staphilin of Dumas.  It arises from tbe
spinous process ofthe sphenoid bone, behind the fora-
men ovale, which transmits the third branch  of tlie
fifth pair of nerves, and from the Eustachian tube, not
far from its osseous part; it then runs down along the
pterygoideus internus, passes over the Iwokof tbe 
CIS
C1T
Internal plate of the pterygoid process by a round ten-
don, which soon spreads into a broad membrane.  It
is inserted  into the velum pendulum palati, and  the
semilunar edge of the os palati, and extends as far as
the  suture  which joins the two  bones.   Generally
some of its posterior fibres join with the constrictor
pharyngis superior,  and palato-pharyngieus.  Its  use
is to stretch the velum, to draw it downwards, and to
the  side towards the hook.  It hath little effect upon
 he  tube, being chiefly connected to  its osseous part.
  CIRCUMGYRA'TIO.   (From circumgyro, to turn
round.)   Circumgyration, or the turning a limb round
in its socket.
  Circumli'tio.  (From  circumlino, to anoint all
over.)   A medicine  used as a general unction or lini-
ment to  the part.
  CIRCUMOSSA'LIS.   (From circum, about, and os,
a bone.)  Surrounding a bone as the periosteum does;
or surrounded by a bone.
  CIRCU.ViSCISUS.  Circumcised.    Applied  to a
membranous capsule, separating into two parts by a
complete circular fissure.
  CI RCUS.  (Kipitof; from carAa, a Chaldean word,
to surround.)  1. A circle or ring.
  2.  A circular bandage.
  Cirne'sis.  (From xipvaia, to mix.)  A  union of
separate things.
  CIRRUS.  (From Kcpac, a horn, because  it has  the
appearance of a horn )   Cirrhus.  A clasper or ten-
dril. One of the  fulcra or props of plants.  A long,
cylindrical, slender,  spiral  body, issuing from various
parts of plants.
  From  their origin, Cirri are distinguished into,
  1.  Foliar, when they are a continuation ofthe mid-
rib of a simple leaf; as iu Fumaria  claviculata, Mi-
mosa scandens, and Gloriosa superba.
  2.  Petiolar, when  terminating the common petiole
of a compound leaf; as in Pisum sativum.  This is
Borne times  distinguished  by  the  number of leaflets
Which grow under it: hence cirri diphylli, tetraphylli,
and polyphylli.
  3.  Peduncular, when they proceed  from the pedun-
cle ;  as in Vitis vinifera.
  4.  Axillary, which arise from  the stem or branches
in the axillae of the leaves;  as in Passiflora incarnata.
  5.  Subazillary, when they originate below the leaf.
  6.  Lateral, when at the side of it; as in Bryonia.
  From  the division  of its apex, a Cirrus is,
  1.  Simple, consisting of one undivided piece; as in
Momordica  balsaminea, Passiflora quadrangular is,
and Bryonia dioica.
  2.  Compound, consisting of a stalk variously branch-
ed or divided.
  3.  Bifid, when it has two divisions; as in Vitis vi-
nifera, Lathyrus palustris, Ervum tetraspcrmum, Sec.
  4.  Trifid,  when there are three;  as in  Bignonia
unguis, and Lathyrus hirsutus.
  5.  Multifid, or1  branched, when the divisions  are
more numerous; as in Lathyrus latifolius, and Cobea
scandens.
  From  its convolution into,
  1.  Convolute, when all  the gyrations are regular in
tbe same direction ; as in Hrdera quinquefolia.
  2.  Rcvolute, winding itself irregularly, sometimes on
one side, sometimes on the other; as in Passiflora in-
carnata.
  CIRROSUS.  Having a cirrus or tendril.  Applied
to a leaf tipped  with  a. tendril; as  iu Gloriosa and
Hagcllaria, two Indian plants.
  Ci'rsium arvense.   (From Ktptros, a vein, or swell-
ing of a  vein, which  this herb was  supposed to heal.)
The common way thistle, or Serratula  arvensis of
LiniKtus.
  Cirsuub'lb.  See Circocele.
  CIRSOI'DES.   (From  Kipoos, a varix, and tiSos,
likeness.)  Resembling a varix: in epithet applied by
Rufus Ephcsius to  tbe upper part of the brain.
  Cl'RSOS.  (Kipo-oc;  from  Kipaoia, to dilate.)   A
preternatural distention of any part of a vein.  See
Varix.
  Ci'ssa.  (From  kiooo,  a gluttonous bird.)  A  de-
praved  appetite,  proceeding  from previous gluttony
aim voracity.
  CISSAMPELOS.  (From kiocos, ivy, and auntXos,
the vine.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Diecia;  Order, Monadelphia.
The wild vine with leaves like ivy
     834
  Cissampelos pareira.  The systematic name of
the Pareira  brava;  Pareyra; Ambutua; Butua ;
 Otero butua.  The root of this plant. Cissampelos—
foliis peltatis  cordatis emarginatis, of Linnaeus; a
native of South America and  the West Indies, has no
remarkable smell, but to the taste it manifests a nota
ble sweetness of ihe liquorice kind, together with a
considerable  bitterness, and a slight roughness covered
by the sweet matter.   The facts adduced on the utility
of the radix pareira brava in nephritic and calculous
complaints, are principally by foreigners,  and  no re-
markable instances of its efficacy are recorded by Eng-
lish practitioners.
  Cissa'rus.   See Cistus Creticus.
  Cissi'num.   (From kiocos,  ivy.)   The name of a
plaster mentioned by /Egineta.
  CI'STA.  (From Kttpat, to lie.) A cyst.
  CISTE'RNA.  (From  cista,  a cyst.)  The  fourth
ventricle of the brain is so called from its cavity; aiao
the lacteal vessels in the breasts of women.
  Ci'sthorus.   See Cistus Creticus.
  C1STIC.  See Cystic.
  Cistic oxide.  See Calculus.
  CI'STUS.  (Kiolos, the derivation of which  is un-
certain;  perhaps from kis, Heb.)   The  name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Poly-
andria ;  Order, Monogynia.  The Cistus.
  Cistus creticus.   The systematic  name of tho
plant from which the ladanum of the shops is obtained,
called also  Cistus ladanifera, Cisthorus;  Cissarus;
Dorycinium.   Cistus—arborescens exlipulatus, foliis
spatulato-ovatis petiolatis  enerviis scabris calycinis
lanceolatis, of Linnaeus.   The resinous juice  called
ladanum exudes upon the leaves of this plant in Can-
dia, where the inhabitants collect it by lightly rubbing
the leaves with leather, and afterward scraping  It off,
and forming  it into irregular masses for exportation.
Three sorts of ladanum have been described by au-
thors, but only two are to be  mel with  in  the shops.
The best, which is very rare, is in dark-coloured masses,
of the consistence of  a soft plaster, and growing still
softer on being handled; theolher is in long rolls, coil-
ed up, much harder than the preceding, and not so dark.
The first has  commonly a small, and the Inst a large
admixture of  fine sand, without which they cannot be
collected pure, independently of designed abuses: the
dust blown on the plant by winds, from the loose sands
among which it grows, being retained by the tenacious
juice.    The soft kind  has an agreeable  smell, and
a lightly pungent bitterish taste: the  hard is  much
weaker.  Ladanum was  formerly much employed in-
ternally as  a  pectoral and adstringent in catarrhal af-
fections, dysenteries,  and several other diseases; at
present, however, it is wholly confined to externa] use,
and is an ingredient in the stomachic plaster, emplas-
trum ladani.
  Cistus iiumilis.   A name most probably of the
Lichen caninus of Linnaeus.
  Cistus ladanifera.   See Cistus creticus
  Cistus ledon.  See Ledum palustre.
  CITE'SIUS  (Citois), Francis,  of  Poitiers, in
France, who, after graduating at Montpelier in 1590,
and practising a few years in his native city, went to
Paris, and acquired great celebrity, being niade physi-
cian to Cardinal Richelieu.   He published a treatise
on the Colica Pictonum, which was much esteemed,
noticing its termination in paralysis of the extremities.
He also gave  an account of a  girl who had fasted for
three years; in which case he appears to  have been
imposed upon.  In another publication he advocates
repeated bleeding, as well  as purging, in  small-pox,
and other fevers of an inflammatory type.  He died ia
1652, at the advanced age of 80.
  Ci'tharus.  (From KiBaoa, a harp.)  The breast Is
sometimes so named from us shape.
  CITRA'GO.  (From citrus, a citron; so called from
its citron-like smell.)   Citraria.  Baum.   See Me
lissa.
  CI'TRAS.   (Citras, atis.  fcem.: from citrus,  the
lemon.)  A citrate.   A salt formed by tbe union  ofthe
citric acid, or acid of lemons, with the salifiable bases;
as citrate of ammonia, citrate of potassa.
  CITRATE.  See Citron.
  Ci'trea.   See Citrus medica.
  CI'TREUM.  (From citrus.)  The citron-tree.  See
Citrus medica.
  CITRIC ACDD.  AcidumcUrictm.  "The juice of 
CIT
CIT
lemons, or limes, hay all the characters of an acid of
considerable strength; but on account of the mucila-
ginous matter  with which it is mixed, it is very soon
altered  by  spontaneous  decomposition.    Various
methods have been contrived  to prevent this effect
from taking place, in order that this wholesome and
agreeable acid might be preserved for use in long voy-
ages, or other  domestic occasions.  The  juice may be
kept in bottles under a thin stratum of oil, which in-
deed  prevents, or greatly retards, its total decomposi-
tion; though the original fresh  taste soon gives place
to one which  is much less grateful.  In the East In-
dies it is evaporated to the consistence of a thick ex-
tract.  If this  operation be carefully performed by a
very gentle heat, it is found to be very effectual. When
the juice is thus heated, the mucilage thickens, and
separates in the form of flocks, part of which subside,
and part rise to  the surface: these must  be taken out.
The vapours which arise are not acid.  If the evapo-
ration he not carried so far as to deprive the liquid of
ils  fluidity, it  may be  long preserved in well closed
bottles; in which,  after some weeks standing, a far-
ther portion of mucilage is separated, without any per-
ceptible change in  the acid.
  Of all the methods of preserving lemon-juice, that
of concentrating it by frost appears to be the best,
though in the warmer climates it cannot  conveniently
tie practised.  Lemon-juice, exposed to  the  air in a
temperature between 50° and 60°, deposites in a few
hours a white semi-transparent mucilaginous matter,
which leaves the fluid, after decantation and filtration,
much less alterable than before.  This mucilage is not
of a gummy nature, but resembles the gluten of wheat
in its properties: it is not soluble in water when dried.
More mucilage is separated from lemon-juice by stand-
ing in closed vessels.   If this depurated lemon-juice
be exposed to a degree of cold of about seven or eight
degrees below  the freezing point, the aqueous part will
freeze, and the ice may be taken away as it forms;
and if the process be continued until the ice begins to
exhibit signs of acidity, the remaining  acid  will be
found to be reduced to about one-eighth of its original
quantity, at the same time that its acidity will be eight
times as intense, as is proved  by its requiring eight
times the quantity of alkali to saturate  an equal por-
tion of it   This concentrated  acid may be kept for
use, or, if preferred, it may be made into a dry lemon-
ade, by adding six times its weight of fine loaf sugar
in powder.
  The above processes may be used when the acid of
lemons is wanted for domestic purposes,  because they
leave it in possession of the oils, or other principles,
on wbich its flavour peculiarly depends; but in chemi-
cal researches, where the  acid  itself is required to be
had in the utmost purity, a more elaborate  process
must be used.   Boiling lemon-juice  is to be saturated
with  powdered chalk, the weight  of which is to be
noted, and the  powder must be stirred up from the bot-
tom, or  the vessel shaken from time to time.  The
neutral saline  compound is scarcely more soluble in
water than selenite; it therefore falls to the bottom,
while the mucilage remains suspended  in the watery
fluid, which must be decanted off; the remaining pre-
cipitate must then be washed with warm water until
it comes off clear.   To the powder thus edulcorated,
a quantity of sulphuric acid, equal the chalk in weight,
and diluted with ten parts of water, must be added,
and the mixture boiled a few minutes.  The sulphuric
acid combines with tbe earth, and  forms sulphate of
lime, which remains behind when the cold liquor is
filtered, while  the disengaged acid of lemons remains
dissolved in the fluid.  This last must be evaporated
to the consistence of a thin syrup,  which yields the
pure citric acid in  little needle-like  crystals.  It is ne-
cessary that the sulphuric  acid should be rather in ex-
cess, because the presence of a small quantity of lime
will prevent the crystallization.   This excess is allow-
ed for above.
  Its taste is extremely sharp, so as to appear caustic.
It is among the vegetable  acids the one which  most
powerfully  resists decomposition by fire.
  In a dry and warm air it seems to effloresce; but it
absorbs moisture when the air is damp, and ut length
loses ils crystalline form.  A hundred parts of this acid
are soluble  in seventy-five of water at 60°.  Though
it is less alterable than most other solutions- of vegeta-
ble acids, kwill undergo decomposition when long kept
  It is not altered by any combustible substance , Char-
 coal alone appears to be capable of whitening it. The
 most powerful acids decompose it less easily than they
 do other vegetable acids; the sulphuric evidently con
 verts it into acetic acid.  The nitric acid likewise, if
 employed in large quantity, and heated on it a long
 time, converts tbe greater part of it into acetic acid,
 and a small portion into oxalic.
  The citrate of lime  has been mentioned already, in
 treating of the mode of purifying the acid.
   The citrate of potassa is very soluble  and deli-
 quescent.
  The citrate of soda has a dull saline taste; dissolves
 in less than twice its weight of water, crystallizes in
 six-sided prisms with flat summits; effloresces slightly,
 but  does not fall to powder; boils up, swells, and is
 reduced to a coal on the fire.  Lime water decomposes
 it, but does not render the solution turbid, notwithstand-
 ing the little solubility of citrate of lime.
  Citrate of ammonia  is very soluble;  does not crys
 tallize unless its solution be greatly concentrated; and
 forms elongated  prisms.
  Citrate of magnesia does not crystallize.  When its
 solution had been boiled down, and it had stood some
 days, on being slightly shaken it fixed in one white
 opaque mass, which remained soft, separating from
 the sides of the vessel,  contracting its dimensions, and
 rising in the middle like a kind of mushroom.
  All the citrates are decomposed by the powerful
 acids, which do not form a precipitate with them, as
 with the oxalates and  tartrates.  The oxalic and tar-
 taric acids decompose them, and form  crystallized or
 insoluble precipitates  in their solutions.   All afford
 traces of acetic acid, or a product of the same nature,
 on being exposed to distillation: this character exists
 particularly in the metallic citrates.   Placed on burn
 ing coals they melt, swell up, emit an empyreumatic
 smell of acetic  acid, and leave a light coal.   All of
 them, if dissolved in water, and left to stand for a time,
 undergo decomposition, deposite a  flocculent mucus
 which grows black, and leaves  their bases  combined
 with carbonic acid, one of the products of the decom-
 position.   Before  they are completely decomposed,
 they appear to pass to the state of acetates.
  The affinities of ihe citric acid are arranged by Vau-
 quelin in the following order: barytes, lime, potassa,
 soda, strontian, magnesia, ammonia, alumina. Those
 for zircone, glucine, and  the  metallic  oxides, are not
 ascertained.
  The citric acid is found in  many fruits united with
 the malic acid.
  Citric acid being more costly than tartaric, may be
 occasionally adulterated with it.  This fraud is  dis
 covered, by adding slowly to the acid dissolved in wa
 ter a solution of subcarbonate of potassa, which will
 give a white pulverulent precipitate of tartar, if the
 citric he contaminated  with the tartaric acid.  When
 one part of citric acid is dissolved in 19 of water,  the
 solution may be  used as a  substitute for  lemon-juice.
 If before solution the crystals be triturated with a little
 sugar and a few drops of the oil of lemons, the  re-
 semblance to the native juice will be complete.  It Is
 an antidote against sea scurvy; but the admixture of
 mucilage and other vegetable matter in the recent fruit
 ofthe lemon, has been supposed to render  it preferable
 to the pure acid of the chemist."— Ure's Chem. Diet
  Citrina'tio.  Complete digestion.
  CITRI'NULA.  (A  diminutive of citrus.)  A small
 citron or lemon.                       i
  CITRON.  See Citms medica.
  Citrul, Sicilian.   See Cucurbita citrullus.
  CITRU'LLUS.   See Cucurbita citrullus.
  CITRUS. 1. The name of a genus  of plants  in
 the Linnaean system.   Class, Polyadelphia; Order,
 Icosandria.
  2. The name of the lemon.  See Citrus medico.
  Citrus aurantium.  The systematic  name of  the
 orange tree and  fruit.   Aurantium; Aurantium His-
 palense; Aurantium Chinense; Malus aurantia ma-
jor ; Malus aurantia ; Aurantium  vulgare; Malus
 aurantia vulgaris, Mala aurea;  Chrysomelia;  Ne-
 rantia; Martianum pomum; Poma aurantia.  The
 China and Seville orange are both only varieties of the
 same species: Citrus.—petiolis alatis, foliis acumina
 tis, of  Linnsus.  The latter is specified  in our phar-
 macopoeias ;  and the flowers, leaves, yellow rind, and
 juice, are made  use of for different medica! purposes. 
CIT
CLA
   Tbe flowers, flores naph*., are highly odoriferous,
 and are used as a perfume; they arc bitter to the taste;
 they give their taste and smell both to  water and to
 spirit, but raosi  perfectly to rectified spirit of wine.
 The water which is distilled from these flowers, is
 called aqua florum napha.  In distillation, they yield
 a small quantity of essential oil, which is called oleum
 vel essentia neroli: they are brought from Italy and
 France.  Orange flowers were, at one time, said to be
 a  useful remedy in convulsive  diseases; but expe-
 rience  has not confirmed  the virtues  attributed to
 them.
  The uaves have a bitterish taste, and  yield, by dis-
 tillation, an essential oil;  indeed, by rubbing them
 between the fingers and the thumb, thoy manifest con-
 siderable fragrance.  They  have  been applied for the
 same purposes as tlie flowers, but without success.
  The  yellow rind of the fruit, freed from the white
 fungous  part, has a grateful aromatic flavour, and a
 warm, bitterish  taste.   Infused in boiling water, it
 gives out nearly all its smell and taste: cold water
 extracts the  bitter, but very little of the flavour.  In
 distillation, a light, fragrant, essential oil rises, without
 the bitter.  Its qualities are those of an aromatic and
 bitter.  It has been employed to restore the lone of the
 stomach, and is a very common addition to combina-
 tions of  bitters,  used  in  dyspepsia.  It  has likewise
 been given in intermittents, in  doses of a drachm,
 twice or thrice a day.  It is also much celebrated as a
 powerful remedy, in menorrhagia, and  immoderate
 uterine evacuations.
  The juice of Seville oranges is a grateful acid, which,
 by allaying heat, quenching thirst, promoting various
 excretions, and diminishing the action of the sangui-
 ferous system, proves extremely useful in both ardent
 and putrid fevers;  though the China orange juice, as
 impregnated with a larger proportion of sugar, becomes
 more agreeable, and may betaken in larger quantities.
 The Seville orange juice is  particularly serviceable as
 an antiscorbutic, and alone will prevent or cure scurvy
 in the most apparently desperate circumstances.  In
 dyspepsia, from putrid bile in the stomach, both lemon
 and orange juice are highly  useful.
  Citrus medica.   The  systematic name of  the
 lemon-tree.  Linton; Limoniamala; Malus medica;
 Malus limonia acida; Citrea malus;  Citrus.   The
 tree which affords the lemon is  the Citrus :—petiolis
 linearibus, of Linnaeus:  a native of the upper part of
 Asia, but cultivated in Spain, Portugal,  and France.
 The juice, which is much more acid than that of tbe
 orange,  possesses similar virtues.  It is  always pre-
 ferred  where  a  strong  vegetable  acid  is required.
 Saturated with the fixed vegetable alkali, it forms the
 citrate of potassa, which is in frequent extemporane-
 ous use iu febrile diseases, and by promoting the secre-
 tions, especially that of the  skin,  proves of considera-
 ble service in abating the  violence of  fever.  This,
 medicine is also  often employed  to restrain vomiting.
 As an antiscorbutic, lemon juice has been often taken
 on  board ships destined  for long voyages; but even
 when well depurated of its mucilaginous parts, it is
found to spoil by  long  keeping.   To preserve  it in
purity for a considerable length of time, it is necessary
.that it should be brought  to a  highly  concentrated
 state, and for this purpose it has been recommended
 to expose the juice to a degree of cold sufficient to con-
 geal the  aqueous and mucilaginous  parts.  After a
 crust of ice is formed, the juice is poured into another
 vessel;  and, by  repeating this process several times,
 tbe remaining juice, it is said, has been  concentrated
 lo eight times its original strength, and kept without
 suffering any material  change  for several years.
 Whytt found  the juice of lemon to  allay hysterical
 palpitations of the heart, after various other medicines
 bad been experienced ineffectual; and this juice, or
 tbat of oranges, taken to the quantity of four or six
 ounces in a day, has sometimes been found a remedy
 in the jaundice.  The exterior  rind of the lemon is a
 very grateful aromatic bitter, not so hot as orange peel,
 and yielding in distillation a less quantity of oil,
 which is extremely light, almost colourless, and  gene-
 rally brought from the southern parts of Europe, under
 the name of Essence of Lemons.  The lemon-peel,
 though less warm, is similar in its qualities to tbat of
 the orange, and is employed with the same intentions.
 The pharmacopoeias direct a syrup of the juice, syru-
pus Umonit, and the peel euters into some vinous and
      2»
[ aqueous bitter infusions; it is also ordered to be can
I died; and the essential oil is an ingredient in some
I formulae.
'   The citron-tree is also considered as belonging to the
 same species, tlie Citrus medica of Linnaeus.  Its fruit
 is called Cedromela, which is larger and less succulent
 than the lemon; but in all other respects  the citron
 and lemon trees agree.  The citron juice, when sweet-
 ened with sugar, is  called by  the Italians Agra di
 cedro.  The  Citrus mella rosa of Lamarck, is  ano-
 ther variety ofthe Citrus medica of LIihubus.  It was
 produced, at first, casually, by an Italian's grafting ■
 citron on a stock of abergaraot pear-tree; whence tbe
 fruit produced by this union participate I both of the
 citron-tree and the pear-tree.  The essence prepared
 from this fruit is called essence  of berg;t,note and es
 sentia de cedra.
   CI'TTA.  A voracious appetite.
   Citto'sis.  See Chlorosis.
   CIVET-CAT.  See Zibethum.
   CIVETTA.   (From sebet,  Arabian)   Zibethum
 Civet;  an unctuous  odoriferous drug  used  by per
 fumers, collected between the anus atid the organs of
 generation of a fierce carnivorous quadruped met with
 in China and the East and West  Indies, called a civet-
 cat, the Viverra Zibethum of Linnaeus, but  bearing a
 greater resemblance to a fox or marten than  a cat.
   Several of these  animals have  been  brought into
 Holland, and afford a considerable branch of com-
 merce, particularly at Amsterdam.   The  civet  is
 squeezed out in  summer  every  other day, in winter
 twice a-week : the quantity procured at once is from
 two scruples to a drachm or more.  The juice thus
 collected is much purer and finer than that which the
 animal sheds against shrubs or stones  in its native
 climates.
  Good civet is of  a clear yellowish  or brownish co-
 lour, not fluid nor hard, but about the consistence of
 butter or honey, and uniform throughout; of a very
strong smell;  quite offensive  when  undiluted; but
agreeable when only a small portion of civet is mixed
with a large one of other substances.
  Civet unites with oils, but not Willi  alkohol.  Its
nature is therefore not resinous.
  CLAP.  See Gonorrhea.
  CLA'RET. (Claretum; from clareo, to be clear.):
A French wine, that may be given with great advan-
tage, as atonic and antiseptic, where  red  port wine
disagrees with the patient; and  in typhoid fevers of
ohildren, and delicate females, it is far preferable, as a
common drink.
  CLARE'TUM.   1. The wine called claret.  See
 Claret.
  2. A wine impregnated with spices and sugar, called
by some  Vinum Hippocraticum,
  3. A Claretum pingatorium, composed of a vinous
 infusion of glass  of antimony with cinnamon water
 and sugar, is  mentioned by Schrceder.
  CLARIFICA TIO.   The depuration of any thing,
or process of  freeing a fluid from heterogeneous mat-
 ter, or feculencies.
  ["CLARK, John.  The  name of John  Clark has
 been, for a longer succession of years than  any other
 in our country, distinguished in  (he ranks of  medical
 practitioners.  Of the earliest physician nf that name.
 who probably came from England in 1631 or 1632, and
 after living a few years in Boston, removed to Rhode
 Island, where he died  April 20th, 1676,  filling a  long
 course of service in administering to the religious as
 well as natural wants of his neighbours."   He was
 succeeded by several  individuals of the same name,
 who were all conspicuous members :f the medical pro-
 fession.— Thach.  Med. Biog.  A.]
   CLASS.  (Classis; from KaXeu, congrego, a class
 being nothing more than a multitude assembled apart.)
 The name of a primary division of bodies in natural
 history.
   CLARY.  See Salvia.
   CLA'SIS.   (From jcAau, to break.)  Clasma.   A
 fracture.
   CLAU'STRUM.   (From claitdo, to  shut.)  Clei-
 thrum gutluris.  Any aperture which has a power of
 contracting itself, or closing its orifice by any means;
 as the passage of the throat.
   Claustrum virginitatis.  The hymen.
   CLAUSU'RA.  (From  claudo,  to shut.)  An irn-
 perforation of any canal or cavity in the body.  Thm 
CLA                                            CLA
  tlausura uteri is a preternatural imperforation of the
  uterus; clausura tubarum Fallopiarnm, a morbid im-
  perforation of  the  Fallopian  tubes,  mentioned by
  Ruysch as one cause of inlecundi'y.
    Clava rugosa.  See Acorus calamus.
    CLAVARLA.  (From  clava, a club.)  The  name
  of a genus  of plants, Class,  Cryptogamia;  Order,
  Fungi.  Club-shaped fungus.
    Clavaria  lorolloides.  The  systematic  name
  of the  Fungus corolloides of old writers; called also
  crotelus. It was once used as  a strengthencr and
  astringent.
    CLAVA'TIO.  (From  clava, a club.)  A sort of
  articulation without motion, where the parts are, as it
  "ere, driven in with a hammer, like the teeth in the
  Stv.kets.  See Gomphosis.
    JLAVATUS.  Clubbed.  Applied  to  parts of
  plants, as the stigma ofthe Genipi.
    Clavellatos.  (From clavus, a wedge.   Thename
  cinercs clavellati originated from the  little wedges or
  billets,  into which the wood was cut  to burn for po-
  tassa.)   See Potassa impura.
    CLA'VICLE.   (Clavicula, diminutive of clavis;
  so called from its resemblance to an ancient key.)  Col-
  lar-bone. The clavicle is placed  at the root of the
  neck, and at the upper part of the breast.   It extends
  across, from the tip ofthe shoulder to the upper part of
  the sternum; it is a round bone, a little flattened to-
  wards  the end, which joins the scapula; it is curved
  like an Italic S, having one curve turned out towards
  the  breast: it is  useful  as an arch,  supporting  the
  shoulders, preventing them from falling forwards upon
  the breast, and making the hands strong antagonists to
  each other;  which, without this steadying, they could
  not have been.
    1. The thoracic end, that next tbe sternum, or what
  may be called the  inner head of the clavicle, is round
  and flat, or button-like; and it is received into a suita-
  ble hollow on  the  upper piece of the sternum.  It is
  not only, like other joints, surrounded  by a capsule or
  purse;  it is further provided with a small moveable
  cartilage, which, like a friction  wheel   in machinery,
  saves the parts and facilitates the motions, and moves
  continually as the clavicle moves.
   2. But the outward end of the clavicle is flattened,
  as it approaches the scapula, and the edge of that flat-
  ness is turned to the edge of the flattened acromion, so
  that they touch  but  in one single point.   This outer
  end of the clavicle, and the corresponding point of the
  acromion, are flattened and covered with a crust of
  cartilage; but the motion here is very slight and quite
  insensible; they are tied firmly by strong ligaments;
 and we may consider this as almost a fixed point, for
 there is  little motion of the scapula upon the clavicle;
 but there is much motion of the clavicle  upon the
 breast, for the clavicle serves as a shaft, or axis, firmly
 tied to the scapula, upon which the scapula moves and
 turns, being  connected with the trunk only by this
 single point, viz. the  articulation of the clavicle with
 the breast-bone.
   CLAVICULA.  See Clavicle.
   CLAVI'CULUS.  See Clavicle.
   CLA'VIS.  (From claudo, to shut.)   The clavicle.
   CLA'VUS.   (A nail.)  1.  A  corn  called clavus,
 from its resemblance to the head of a nail; Ecphyma
 davits of Good.  A roundish, horny, cutaneous extu-
 herance, with a central nucleus,  sensible at its base;
 found chiefly on the toes, from the pressure of tight
 shoes.
  2. A painful  and often an intermitting affection of
 the head, and mostly a severe pulsating pain in the
 forehead, wbich may be covered  by  one's thumb,
 giving a sensation like as if a nail were driven into the
 part.   When  connected with hysterics, it is called
 Clavus hystericus.
  3. An  artificial palate.
  4. Diseased  uterus.
  Clavus  hystericus. See Clavus.
  Clavus  oculorum.  A staphyloma,  or tumour on
the eyelids.
  CLAY.  Argilla.   Argillaceous earth,  of which
there are many Kinds, and being opaque and noncrys-
tallized bodies, of dull fracture, afford no good princi-
ple for determining their species; yet as they are ex-
tensively distributed in  nature, and are used in many
arts, they deserve particular attention.   The argilla-
ceous minerals are all  sufficiently soft to be scratched
  by iron;  they have a  dull or even earthy fracture;
  they exhale,  when  breathed on,  a peculiar  smeu
  called argillaceous.  The clays form  with water a
  plastic paste, possessing considerable tenacity which
  hardens with heat, so as  to strike fire  with steel
  Maries and chalks  also soften in water, but theit
  paste is not tenaceous,  nor does it acquire a siliceous
  hardness  in the fire.  The affinity  of the clays  for
  moisture is manifested by their sticking to the tongue
  and by the intense heat necessary to make them per'
  fectly dry.  The odour ascribed to clavs breathed
  upon, is due to the oxide of iron mixed  with  them
  Absolutely pure clays emit no smell.
    1. Porcelain earth, the kaolin ofthe Chinese.—This
  mineral is  friable, meagre to the  touch,  and,  when
  pure, forms with difficulty a paste with water.
    2. Potter's clay, or plastic clay.—The clays of this
  vAriety are compact, smooth, and almost unctuous to
  the  touch, and may be polished by the finger when
  they are dry.  They  have a great affinity to  water,
  form a tenacious  paste, and adhere strongly to  the
  tongue.
    3. Loam —This is an impure potter's clay, mixed
  with mica and Iron ochre.
    4.  Variegated clay.—la striped  or  spotted  with
  white, red, or  yellow colours.
    5. Slate clay.—Colour, gray or grayish-yellow.
    6.  Claystone.—Colour,  gray,  of  various  shades,
  sometimes red, and spotted, or striped.
    7. Adhesive slate.—Colour, light-greenish gray.
    8. Polishing slate  of Werner.—Colour,  cieam-yel
  low, in alternate stripes.
    9. Common day may be  considered to be the  same
  as loam.
    Clay, pure.  See Alumina.
    Clay-slate.  Argillaceous slate.   Arglllite of Kir
  wan.  A mineral which  is  extensively distributed,
  forming a part of both primitive and transition moun-
  tains of slate, is found in many countries.
    ["CLAYTON, Dr. John, an eminent botanist and
  physician, of Virginia, was bom in England iu  1685,
  and came to Virginia in 1705, and  resided near Wil-
  liamsburg.   He was elected a member of several of iho
  first  literary societies of Europe, and  corresponded
  with many ofthe most learned naturalists of that pe-
  riod.  As  a practical botanist, he was, probablv, not
  inferior to any one of the age. He passed  a long life
  in exploring and describing the plants of his country,
  and is supposed to have  enlarged the botanical cata-
  logue as much as any man who ever lived.   He is the
  author of '< Flora Virginica," a work  published by
  Gronovlus  at  Leyden,  Svo.  in 1739,1743,  and  1762.
  He published in the philosophical transactions several
  communications, treating of tlie culture of  the differ-
 ent species of  tobacco, and  an ample account of the
  medicinal plants which  he had discovered in Virginia.
  He also left behind him two volumes of manuscript
 neatly prepared for the press, and a Hortus Siccus with
 marginal notes and references for the engraver who
 should prepare the plates for his proposed work.  He
 died December 15th, 1773, in the 88th year of his age.
 During the  year*preceding his decease, such was the
 vigour of his constitution, even at this advanced pe-
 riod, and such was his zeal in  botanical researches,
 that he made a botanical tour through Orange County:
 and it is believed that he had visited  most of the set
 tied parts of Virginia.   His character stands very high
 as a man of integrity, and as a good citizen."— ThacL
 Med. Bihg.  A.l
  ["CLAYTON, Dr.  Joshua, was Governor  ofthe
 State of Delaware, and a member of the United States
 Senate; he died in 1799. He was highly respectable
 in  the medical profession,  in which he practised for
 many years.
  In 1792, he addressed a friend as follows:  "During
 the late war, the Peruvian bark was very scarce  and
 dear.   I was at that  time engaged  in  considerable
 practice, and was under the necessity of seeking a sub-
 stitute for the Peruvian bark.  I  conceived that the
 poplar, Liriodendron tulipitera, had  more  aromatic
 and bitter than the Peruvian, and  less  astringency.
 To correct  and amend those qualities, I added  to it
 nearly an equal quantity of  the bark of the root of
dogwood, cornus florida, and half the quantity of the
 inside bark of the white-oak trLfl.  This remedy  I prei"
scribed for several years, in every case in which  I.
conceived tbe Peruvian bark necessary or proggfr with" 
CLE
CLI
 a. least equal if not superior success. I used it in every
 species of intermittent, gangrenes, mortifications, and
 in short, every case of debility."—Thach. Mcd.Biog.A.]
  CLEAVAGE.  This term is applied to the mecha-
 nical division of crystals, by showing the direction in
 which their lamina can separate, enables us to deter-
 mine the mutual inclination of these lamina: Wer-
 ner called  it  durchgang, but he attended only to the
 number of directions in which this mechanical  divi-
 sion of the plates, or cleavage, could be effected.  In
 the interior of many minerals, the direction  of the
 cleavage may be frequently seen, without using any
 mechanical violence.
  CLEAVERS.  See Galium aparine.
  CLEGHORN, George, was born near Edinburgh,
 in 1716, and, after studying  in that city, went at the
 age of twenty to  Minorca, as a regimental surgeon.
 During the thirteen years that he spent there, he sedu-
 lously studied the natural  productions of the  island.
 In 1750, coming to London, he published his "Treatise
 or. the Diseases of Minorca," which displays great ob-
 servation and ability.   He then went to Dublin, and
 gave lectures on anatomy with such success, that he
 was soon after appointed public professor;  and, in 1774,
 an honorary member of  the College of Physicians
 there.  He died in 1789.
  Clei'dion.   Clidion.  The epithet of a pastil, de-
 scribed by Galen and Paulus ^Egineta ; and it  is the
 same also of an epithem described by Afitius.
  Cleido'ma.  (From xXtiSoia, to close.)  A pastil, or
 troch.  Also the clavicle.
  OLE1DOMAST01DEUS.  (From kXus, the clavi-
 cle, and uafotiSns, the mastoid.process.)  See Sterno-
 tlcido-m astoideus.
  CLEISA'GRA.  (From xXtts, the clavicle, and aypa,
 a prey.)  The gout in tlie articulation of the clavicles.
  Clsi'thron.  (From xXtiiia, to shut.)  See Claus-
 trum.
  CLE'MATIS.  (From KXnpa, a tendril; so named
 from its climbing up trees, or any thing it can  fasten
 upou with its tendrils.)  Tbe nameof a genus of plants
 in the  Linnaean system.  Cass, Polyandria; Order,
 Polygynia.
  Clematis recta.  TiiC systematic name of the
 upright virgin's-bower.   Flammula Jovis.  Clematis
—foliis pinnatis, foliolis ovato lanceolatis integerri-
 mis, caule credo, floribus pentapetalis tetrapelalisque
 of Linnaeus. More praises  have been bestowed upon
 the virtue which the leaves of this  plant are said to
 possess, when exhibited internally, as antivenereal,
 by foreign physicians, than its trials in this country can
justify.  The powdered leaves are sometimes applied
 externally to ulcers, as an escharotic.
  Clematis vitalba.  The  systematic name of the
 traveller's-joy.  Vitalba;  Atragene;  Viorna;  Cle-
 matis arthragene of Theophrastus.  This plant is com-
 mon in our hedges, and is the Clematis—foliis pinna-
 tins, foliolis cordatis scandentibus, of Linnaeus.   Its
 leaves, when fresh, produce a warmth on the tongue,
 and if the chewing is continued, blisters  arise.  The
 same effect follows their being rubbed on the skin.
 The plant  bas been administered internally to cure
 lues venerea, scrofula, and  rheumatism.  In France,
 the young sprouts are eaten, when boiled, as hoptops
 are in this country.
  Clemati'tis.  The same as clematis.
  Cleo'his collyrium.  The name of a eollyrium
 described by Celsus.
  Cleonis gluten.  An astringent formula of myrrh,
 frankincense, and white of egg mixed together.
  Ci,e'psydra.  (From KXtnna, to conceal, and vStap,
 water.)  Properly, an instrument to measure time by
 tbe dt ipping of water through a hole, from one vessel
 to another; but it is used to express a chemical vessel,
 perforated in the same manner.  It is also an instru-
 ment mentioned by Paracelsus, contrived to convey
 euffuinigainns to the uterus in hysterical cases.
  CLEYER, Andrew, was born at Cassel, in the be-
 S'nningofthe 17th century.  After studying medicine,
  s went as physician to Batavia, where he resided
 many years.  He transmitted  several interesting com-
 munications to the Imperial Academy, of which he
 had been chosen a member, particularly "An Account
 of Hydatids found  in a Human Stomach," and "Of
 the Custom of the Indians of taking Opium;"  also
 descriptions and drawings of the plants indigenous in
 Java, especially the moxa, ginseng, and lea-plant  He
 likewise  published, in  1680, a curious specimen ol
 Chinese medicine.
   Cli'banus.  (Quasi  KaXiSavos; from  KaXvnJtt, to
 conceal.)   A portable furnace, or still, in which the
 materials to be wrought on are shut up.
   CLIFTON,  Francis,  after studying at Oxford,
 came to London,  and was admitted Fellow ofthe Col-
 lege of Physicians, as well as of the Royal Society.
 about  the year 1730. Two years after, he published
 on "The State of Physic, ancient and modern, with a
 Plan for improving it;"  in which  a  law is proposed,
 to compel practitioners to send to a public institution
 descriptions of the several cases which  come under
 their care.  He was also author of " A plain and sure
 Way of practising Physic ;" and translated some parts
 of Hippocrates  into English, with notes.
  Clima'cter. (From KXiuafyo, to proceed gradually.)
 The progression of the life ot man.  It is usually di-
 vided into periods of seven years.
  Climacteric.  See Septenary.
  CLIMATE.  The prevailing constitution of the at-
 mosphere, relative to heat, wind, and moisture, pecu-
 liar to any region.  This depends chiefly  on the lati-
 tude of the place, its elevation above the  level of the
 sea, and its insular or continental position.  Springs
 which issue  from a considerable  depth, and  caves
 about  50  feet under the  surface,  preserve a uniform
 temperature through all the vicissitudes of the season.
 This is the mean  temperature of that country.
  It appears very  probable, that the climates of Euro-
 pean countries were more severe in ancient times than
 they are at present.  Caesar says, that the vine could
 not be  cultivated in Gaul, on  account of its winter-
 cold.  The rein-deer, now found only  in  the zone of
 Lapland,  was  then an  inhabitant of the Pyrenees.
 The Tiber was  frequently frozen over,  and the ground
 about Rome covered with snow for several weeks to-
 gether, which almost never happens in our times.
 The  Rhine and  the Danube, in the reign of Augustus,
 were generally frozen over for several months of win-
 ter. The barbarians, who overran the Roman empire a
few centuries afterward, transported their armies and
 wagons across the ice of  these rivers.  The improve-
ment that  is continually taking place in the climate of
 America, proves,  that the power of man extends to
 phenomena, which, from  the magnitude  and variety
of their causes, seemed entirely beyond  his control.
 At Guiana, in South America, within five degrees of
 the line, the inhabitants living amid immense forests, a
century ago, were obliged to alleviate  the  severity of
the cold by evening fires.  Even the duration of the
 rainy season has been shortened by the clearing ofthe
country, and the warmth  is so increased, that a fire
 now  would be  deemed an annoyance.  It  thunders
continually in the woods, rarely hi  the cultivated
parts.
  Drainage of  the ground, and removal  of forests,
 however, cannot  be reckoned among  the sources of
the increased warmth of the Italian winters.  Chemi-
 cal  writers have  omitted to notice an astronomical
 cause of the progressive amelioration of the climates
of the  northern hemisphere.  In consequence of the
apogee portion of the terrestrial orbit being contained
between our vernal and autumnal equinox, our sum-
mer half of the year, or  the interval  which elapses
 between the sun's crossing the  equator in spring, and
in autumn, is about seven days longer than our winter
 half  year.   Hence also, one reason for  the relative
coldness of the  southern hemisphere.
  [While Dr. Priestley was engaged, during the month
of July, 1801, in making experiments with  a double
convex lens upon some metallic substances at Northum-
berland, in Pennsylvania, he wrote thus to Dr. MitchiU:
" If I have a few days more sunshine, I  shall finish
 what I am about,  and write the next post.  Happily
 we are neverlong without sunshine, whereas in Eng-
 land  I  have often waited months; and the days  in
 which I could use a burning lens have not, I am con-
 fident exceeded one fortnight in some whole  years,
and  I  have often watched every gleam the  year
through.   I think  tbe climate of this country greatly
preferable to that of England."—Med. Repos.  A.]
  CLI'MAX.   (From KAiuagoi, to proceed.)  A name
of some antidotes, which, in regular  proportion, in-
creased or diminished the ingredients of which it was
composed, e. g. jj. Chamadryos jjjj.  Centaurii ^j|
Hyperici Jj. 
CLO
CNI
  Climbing birthwort.  See Aristolodiia clematitis.
  Climbing stem.  See Caulis.
  CLl'NICAL.  (Clinicus; from kXivti, abed.)   Any
tiling concerning a bed: thus clinical lectures, notes,
a clinical physician, &.c.; which mean lectures given
at the bedside, observations taken from patients when
in bed, a physician who visits his patients in their

  CLINKSTONE.  A stone of an imperfectly slaty
nature, which rings like metal, when struck with a
hammer.
  CLI'NOID.  (Clinoideus; from kXivv, a bed, and
uSos, resemblance.)   Resembling a  bed.  The  four
processes surrounding the sella turcica ofthe sphenoid
bone are so called, of which two are anterior, and two
posterior.
  Clinomastoide'us.  A corruption of cleidomastoi-
deus.  See Sterno cleido-mastoideus.
  CLINOMETER.  An instrument for measuring the
dip of mineral strata.
  Cli'ssus.  A chemical term denoting mineral com-
pound spirits; but antimony is considered as the basis
clyssi.  See Clyssus.
  Clito'ridis musculus.  See Erector  clitoridis.
  CLI'TORIS.  (From xXtiia, to enclose, or hide; be-
cause it is hid by the labia pudendorum.)  Columella.
A small glandiform body, like a penis in miniature,
and, like it, covered with a prepuce, or fore-skin.  It
is situated above the nymphae, and before the opening
of the urinary passage of women.  Anatomy has dis-
covered, tbat the clitoris is  composed, like the penis,
of a cavernous substance, and of a glans, which has
no perforation, hut is like that ofthe penis, exquisitely
sensible.  The  clitoris is the principal  seat of plea-
sure: during  coition it is distended with blood, and
after the venereal-orgasm it becomes flaccid and falls.
Instances have occurred where the clitoris was so en-
larged as to enable the female to have venereal com-
merce with others;  and. in Paris, this fact was  made
a public  exhibition of to the faculty.  Womeu thus
formed appear to partake, in their general form, less
of the female character, and are termed hermaphro-
dites.  The clitoris in children is larger, in proportion,
than in full-grown womeu: it often projects beyond
the external labia at birth.
  CLITORl SMUS.   (From KXti"]opts;  the clitoris.)
An enlargement of the clitoris.
  CLO'NIC.   (From/cXov£(j,tomovetoandfro.) See
Convulsion.
  Clono'des.  (From xXovtca, to agitate.)   A strong
unequal pulse.
  -CLONUS.   (From xXovtia, to agitate.) The name
of a genus  of disease  in the Class, Neuroses; Order,
Lenetica, of Good's Nosology.  Clonic  spasm, com
prising nix species: Clonus singultus, sternutatio, pal-
pitatio, nictitatio, subsultus, and pandiculatio.
 , ["CLOSSEY, Samuel, M.D. was an Irish physi-
cian, of very  respectable attainments, who established
himself in  medical practice in New-York. He bad,
previously  to his arrival in America, attained a high
degree of eminence in the medical profession, both as
a practitioner, and an author of an interesting volume
on  morbid  anatomy ; this was entitled " Observations
on  some of the Diseases of the Human  Body, chiefly
taken from the Dissections of Morbid Bodies;" it was
published  in  London in  1763.   He was for a short
time chosen to the anatomical chair, and the profes-
sorship of Natural Philosophy in King's College, notv
Columbia College.  Upon the organization ofthe first
medical school in New-York, in 1768, Dr. Clossey was
chosen the  professor of Anatomy, and directed his la-
bours with  great assiduity to the establishment of that
institution.    Political difficulties in ihe American go-
vernment, caused him to leturn to his own country,
where he died a short time after his arrival."—2'AacA.
Med. Biog.  A ]
  CLOVE.  See Eugenia caryophyllata.
  Clove-bark.  See Myrtus caryophyllata.
  Clovc-gilliflower.  See Dianthus caryophyllus.
  Clove-pink.  See Dianthus caryophyllus.
  Clevev-leaf. See Leaf.
  CLOWES, William, an eminent English surgeon
of the  16th century,  received  his education under
George Keble, whose skill h« strongly commends.  Af-
ter  serving  for name time professionally in the navy,
he settled in Loudon, and was made surgeon to Christ's
and St. Bartholomew's hospitals, and appears to have
had considerable practice.  In 1536, he was sent to the
Low Countries, to the assistance of the army under
the Earl of Leicester; and on his return was appointed
surgeon to the Queen.  His works are in the  English
language, but evince much learning, as well as skill in
his proiession.  The first which he published was on
tlie lues venerea, in 1585; in which be notices the in-
creasing frequency of that disease, and states that in
five years he had cured above a thousand patients la-
bouring under it at St. Bartholomew's hospital.  But
his most celebrated publication  appeared three years
after, on the method of treating wounds  of  various
kinds, the result of extensive experience,  sanctioned
by references to the most approved  writers.  He ap-
pears to have possessed an enlarged understanding,
and was very severe on all quacks and impostors; and
he may justly be reckoned among the restorers and im-
provers of surgery in modern times.
  CLUNE'SIA.  (From  dunes, the buttocks.)  An
inflammation of the buttocks.
  CLU'PEA.  The name of a genus of fishes, in the
Linna-an system.
  Clupea alosa.   The Linnrean name for the shad
or chad, the flesh of which is by some commended as
a restorative.
  [Clupea is the generic name  for the herring tribe,
to which the shad belongs, and which is the best and
largest of them all.   It is one of the most excellent
eatable fish that frequents the waters of the United
States.  It is a  migratory fish appearing on our coast
in March and  April, and disappearing by June.   It
comes from the Gulf of  Mexico, and in its course
northwardly, ascends our fresh water rivers to deposite
its spawn. Il is taken in immense numbers in the
Delaware, the Hudson, and the Connecticut rivers, in
April and  May.  After depositing  its spawn in the
upper and small branches of these fresh streams, tbe
shad returns to the ocean, so altered in shape and size
as hardly to be known for Ihe same fish; and  hence it
is called maugre shad, not fit to eal, and not  suffered
to be sold in the New-York markets.  A.]
  Clupea kncrasicolus.  The anchovy, a little fish
found in great abundance about the island of Gorgona,
near Leghorn.  It is prepared lor sale, by stilting and
pickling.  It is supposed the ancient Greeks and Ro-
mans prepared a kind of garmn lor the table from tbis
fish.   Its principal use is, as a sauce for seasoning.
  CLU'SIA.  (So called in memory of Charles Clu-
sius, an eminent botanist.)  The name of a genus of
plants in  the Linnaean system.  Class, Polygamia;
Order, Monecia.  Balsam-tree.
  CLl'dTER.  See Racemus.
  CLU'TIA.    (Named after Cluyt, and  sometimes
spelled cluytia.)  The name of a genus of planis in the
Linna-an system.  Class, Diecia; Order,  Gynandria.
  Clutia elutheria. The systematic name of the
tree which is by some supposed to afford the cascarilla
bark.
  Cluy'tia.  See Clutia.
  CLY'DON.   KXvSiav.   A fluctuation and flatulency
in the stomach.
  CLYPEA'LIS.  (Fromclypeus, a shield.)   Formed

  CLY'SMUS.   (From  <cXug<o, to wash.)   Clysma.
A glyster.
  Ci.y'ssus.  Clissus.  A term anciently used by the
chemists for medicines made by the reunion of differ-
ent principles, as oil, salt, and spirit, by long digestion;
but it is not now practised, and the term is almost lost.
  Clyssus antimonii.  Clyssus mineralis. A weak
acid of sulphur.
  Cly'ster.  (Clysterium.  From jcXugu, to cleanse.)
A glyster.   See  Enema.
  Che'mia.  (From Kvqun, the tibia.)  Any part con-
nected with the tibia.
  Cnemodactylje'us.  (From icvnun, the tibia,  and
Sok]vXos, a finger, or toe.)  A muscle, the origin of
which is in the tibia, and insertion  in the toes.   See
Extensor longus digitorum pedis.
  CNE'SIS.  (From Kvaia, to scratch.) Cnismos. A
painful itching.
  Cnicilje'on.  (From kvikos, cnicus, and tXaiov, oil.)
Oil made of the seeds of cnicus.  Its virtues  are the
same with those of the ricinus, but in on inferior de-
gree.
  CNICUS.  (From xvaia, to scratch.)   The plant
used by Hippocrates by this name, is supposed to be 
COB
COC
the carthamus;  but modern botanists exclude it from
the species of this plant.
  Cnicus cernuus.  The  systematic name of  the
nodding cnicus, the tender stalks of wbich are, when
boiled and peeled, eaten by the Siberians as a food.
  Cnicus lanatus.  Chamelim verum.  The distaff
thistle.  Formerly used  as a depuration, but now for-
gotten.
  Cnicus oleraceus.  Round-leaved meadow thistle.
The  leaves of this plant are  boiled in the  northern
parts of Europe, and eaten as we do cabbage.
  Cnicus sylvestris.   See Centaurea benedicta.
  Cnidia grana.   See  Daphne mezereum.
  Cnidii cocci.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Cnidii grana.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Cmno'sis.  (From KviSn, the nettle.)
  1. An itching  sensation,  such as is perceived from
the nettle.
  2. A dry ophthalmy.
  Cnipo'tes.  An  itching.
  Cni'smos.  Sec Cnesis.
  Cny'ma.  (From xvata, to scrape, or grate.)   In Hip-
pocrates it signifies a rasure, puncture, or vellication:
also the sauie as cnesis.
  CoadunatjE.   (From caadunare, to  join or gather
together.)  The name of an order of plants, in Lin-
uaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method.
  COA'GULABLE.  Possessing the  property of co-
agulation.  See Albumen.
  Coagulable lymph.  See Albumen.
  COAGULA'NT.  (Coagulans; from coagulo, to in-
crassate, or curdle.) Having the power of coagulating
the blood or juices flowing from it
  COAGULA'TION.  (Coagulatio;  from  con, and
ago, to drive together.)   The separation of the coagu-
lable particles, contained in any fluid, from  ihe more
thin  and not coagulable particles:  thus, when milk
curdles, the coagulable  particles form the curd; and
when acids are  thrown into any fluid  containing co-
agulable particles, they form what is called a coagulum
  COA'GULUM.  A term applied frequently lo blood
and  other fluids, when they assume a jelly-like con-
sistency.
  Coaoulum aluminis.  This is made by beating the
white of eggs with a little alum, until it forms a co-
agulum. It is recommended as an efficacious applica-
tion  to  relaxations of  the conjunctive membrane of
the eye.
  COAK.  Charred coal.
  [" The substance called coke is light, spongy, and
of a shining steel-gray colour.   It burns less easily
than coal, but produces  a great heat, and does not cake
nor smoke.   The  preparation of coke may be con-
ducted  in the same manner as that of charcoal from
wood.  By this process, from  700 to 1100 lbs. of coke
 are obtained from one ton of coal;  but the volatile
 products, consisting of bitumen, or coal-tar, and am-
 monia, are lost.  For collecting these, a plan has been
 contrived by Lord Dundonald, and successfully exe-
 cuted.  The coke is  prepared in ovens, or stoves,
 almost close; and  from 120 tons of cool are collected
 about 3£ tons of tar, and  a quantity of ammoniacal
 salt."—Cleav. Min.
   In tlie modern process of making  gas for burning
 from bituminous coal, the profit arises principally from
 preserving thecoak and ammoniacal liquor, while most
 of the tar is decomposed and converted into gas.  A.]
   COAL.  A combustible mineral, of which there are
 many species.
   Coalte'rnje febres.   (From con, and  altemus,
 alternate.)   Fevers  mentioned by Bellini, which he
 describes as two fevers affecting the same patient, and
 tbe paroxysm of one approaching as that of the other
 subsides.
   COARCTA'TIO.    (From  coarcto, to straighten.)
 The  contraction  or  diminution of any thing.   For-
 merly applied to the pulse: it meant a lessening in
 number.
   COARCTATUS.  Crowded. A panicle is so called,
 which is dense or crowded; as in Phleum paniculatum,
 the  inflorescence of which looks, at first sight, like a
 cylindrical spike;  but when bent to either side, sepa-
 rates into branched lobes, constituting a real  panicle.
   Coarticula'tio.  (From con, and  articulatio, an
 articulation.)   That sort of  articulation which has
 manifest motion.
   COBALT.  A brittiej»omewhatsoft, but dimculUy
       2*9-
fusible metal, of a reddish-gray colour, of little lustre,
and a sp. gr. of 8.6.   Its melting point is paid to be 1300
Wedgewood.  ft is generally associated in its ores with
nickel, arsenic, iron, and copper; and the cobalt of
commerce usually contains a proportion of these me-
tals.   To  separate  them, calcine with four  parts of
nitre, and wash away, with  hot water, the soluble ar-
seniate of potassa.  Dissolve the residuum in dilute
nitric acid, and immerse a plate of iron  in the  solu-
tion, to precipilate the copper.  Filter the liquid and
evaporate to dryness.  Digest the mass with water of
ammonia, which will dissolve only the oxides of nickel
and cobalt  Having expelled the  excess of alkali by
a gentle heat  from the clear ammoniacal solution,
add cautiously water  of potassa, which will precipi-
tate the oxide of nickel.  Filter immediately, and boil
the liquid,  which will throw down  the pure oxide of
cobalt  It is reduced to the  metallic state by ignition
in contact  with lamp-black  and oil.  Laugier treats
the above ammoniacal solution with oxalic acid. He
then redissolves the precipitated oxalates of nickel and
cobalt in concentrated water of ammonia, and expuses
tlie solution to the air.  As the ammonia exhales, oxa-
late  of nickel, mixed with aljimoiiia, is deposited.
The nickel is entirely separated from the liquid by re-
peated crystallizations. There remains a combination
of oxalate of cobalt and ammonia, which is easily re-
duced by charcoal  to  the metallic state.  The small
quantity of cobalt remaining in the precipitated salt of
nickel, is separated by digestion in water of ammonia.
  Cobalt is susceptible of  magnetism, but in a lower
degree than steel and nickel.
  Oxygen   combines with cobalt in two  proportions;
forming the dark-blue protoxide, and the black deutox-
ide.   The  first dissolves  in acids without efferves-
cence. It is procured by igniting gently in a retort ihe
oxide precipitated by potassa from the nitric solution.
Prout says, the first oxide consists of 100 metal +19.8
oxygen; and Rothoff makes the  composition of the
deutoxide  100 + 36.77. If we call the first 18.5, and
the second  37;  then the  prime equivalent of cobalt
will be 5.4; and the two oxides will consist of
„,„,„„  < Cobalt, 5.4
Protox.  J oxygen, 1.0
na„t„r  5 Cobalt, 5.4
Deutox. |oxygeA,2.0
100
 18.5
100
 37
84.38
15.62
100.00
100
  The precipitated oxide of cobalt, washed and gently
heated in contact with air, passes into tlie stale  of
black peroxide.
  When cobalt is heated in chlorine, it takes fire, and
forms the chloride.  The iodide, phosphuret, ana sul-
phuret of this metal, have not been much examined.
  The salts of cobalt are interesting from the remark-
able changes of colour which they can exhibit.
  Their solution is red in the neutral state, but green
with a slight excess  of acid ; the alkalies occasion a
blue-coloured precipitate from  the salts of pure co-
balt, but reddish-brown when arsenic acid is present;
sulphuretted hydrogen produces no precipitate, but hy-
drosulphurets throw down a  black powder, soluble in
excess of the precipitant; tincture of galls gives a
yellowish-white precipitate;  oxalic acid throws down
the red oxalate.  Zinc does not precipitate this metal.
  COBALUS. The demon of mines, which obstruct
ed and destroyed the miners.
  COP.HAM.  The  name of a  town in Surrey, in the
neighbourhood of which  is a weak  Ealine  purging
water.
  Co'bra de capello.   (From cobra, the head, or
covering, Spanish.  See Crotalus horridus.
  Cocao, butter of.  See Butter of Cocao.
  Cocao-nut. See Cocos nucifera.
  Cocca cnidia.  See Daphne  mezereum.
  Cocca'rium.    (From  kokkov, a berry.)  A  very
small pill.
  COCCINE'LLA.   (Diminutive of coccus, a  berry j
from its resemblance to a berry.)  See Coccus cacti.
  Cocco-balsasium. The fruit of the Amyris gild
densis.
  CoOOOBirt'nu.  See Daphne  mezereum 
COC
COC
  COCCOLITE.   A mineral of a green colour, of va-
 rious shafts, found with granular limestone, garnet, and
 magnetic iron-stone, in Norway, Sweden, and Spain.
  CO'CCOS.  See Daphne, mezereum.
  CO'CCULUS.   (Diminutive oI'kokkos, a berry.)   1.
 A little berry.
  2. The name given  by De  Candolle, in his Systema
 Nature, to a new genus of plants.
  3. Cocculus indicus.  See Menispermum cocculus.
  4. Cocculus palmatus.   Tbe systematic  name of
 the plant, which affords the calumba root of the phar-
 macopoeias.  See Calumba.
  Co'ccui.us  indi  aromaticus.   Jamaica pepper.
 See Myrtus pimento.
  CO'OCUM.  A species of capsule, but separated
 from it by Gaertner, who  defines it to be a dry seed-ves-
 sel, more or less aggregate, not solitary, the sides of
 which are elastic, projecting the seeds with great force;
 as in the Euphorbia.
  Coccum baphicum.  A name for chermes.
  COCCUS.  The name, in entomology, for a tribe of
 insects.
  Coccus cacti.  The systematic name of the cochi-
 neal animal, or insect.   Coccinella; Coccinilla ;  Ficus
 Indie grana;  Scarabaolus hemispharicus ; Cochineli-
 fera cochinilla;  Coccus  Americanus; Cochinella;
 Coccus indicus tinctorius.   Cochineal.  That which
 is used is the female insect found on, and collected  in
 South  America from, the Opuntia, or Indian fig-tree.
 It possesses stimulating qualities, and is ordered by the
 College in the tinctura cardamomi composita, and tinc-
 tura cinchona composita; but, most probably, merely
 on account of the beautiful  red colour which it im-
 parts to them.
  [The cochineal is not now used  in this country as a
 medicine.  It  is principally employed in producing a
 beautiful scarlet  colour, in  dying  calico,  colouring
 morocco leather, &c.  A.]
  C'OCCYGE' US.  (Coccygeus; from kokkv\ : because
 it is inserted into the coccyx.)  A muscle of the os coc-
 cygis, situated within the pelvis.   Ischio-cocigien of
 Dumas.  It arises tendinous  and fleshy, from the spi-
 nous process of the ischium, and covers the inside of
 the sacro-ischiatic ligament;  from  this narrow begin-
 ning it gradually increases to form a thin fleshy belly,
 interspersed with tendinous fibres.   It is inserted into
 the extremity of the os sacrum, and nearly the whole
 length  of the os coccygis laterally.  Its use is to support
 and move the os coccygis forwards, and to tie it more
 firmly  to the sacrum.
  COCCYGIS OS.  (From  kokkv\, the cuckoo, the
 bill  of which  bird it is said to represent)   Cauda.
 Ossis sacri acumen.  Coccyx.  This bone is a small
 appendage to the point ofthe sacrum, terminating this
 inverted  column with an  acute point, and found  in
 very different conditions in the several stages of life.
 In the child, it is merely cartilage,  and we can find no
 point of bone: during youth, it is ossifying into dis-
 tinct bones, which continue moveable upon each other
 till manhood:  then tbe separate bones gradually unite
 with each other, so as to form one conical bone, with
 bulgings and marks of the pieces of which it was ori-
 ginally composed; but still the last bone continues to
 move upon the joint of the sacrum, till, in advanced
 years,  it is at last firmly united; later in women  than
 in men,  with whom it is often fixed  at twenty or
 twenty-five.  It is not, like the os sacrum, flat, but  of
 a roundish  form, convex  without, and concave in-
 wards; forming with the sacrum the lowest part of the
 pelvis behind.   It has no holes  like the sacrum; has
 no communication with the spinal canal, and transmits
 no nerves; but points forwards to  support the lower
 parts ofthe rectum ; thus it contracts the lower open-
 ing of the pelvis, so as to support effectually the rec-
 tum, bladder, and womb; and yet continues so move-
 able in  women, as to recede in time of labour, allowing
 the head ofthe child to pass.
  CO'CCYX.  (KoKKvh the  cuckoo.)   See  Coccygis
os.   Also the part in which the os coccygis is placed.
  CO'CHENILIN.  Carminium.  The name  of the
colouring principle of cochineal.
  Co'chia.  (From Koxaia, to turn or make round.)
An ancient name of some officinal pills. The pill of
cocbia of the shops, in the present day, is the compound
colocynth pill.
  Co chineal.  See Coccus cacti.
  CO'CHLEA.  (From  toxaXfl, to turn rounds   A
cavity of the internal ear, resembling the shell of a
snail, in which are tlie modiolus, or nucleus, extending
from its basis to the apex, the scala tympani, scala ves-
tibuli, and spiral lamina.  See Ear.
  Cochlea terrestris.  See Limax.
  COCHLEA'RE.  (Crom  cochlea, a cockle, the shell
of which its  bowl represents.)  A spoon.  Cochleare
amplum or magnum is a table-spoon, calculated to hold
half a fluid ounce; cochleare medium is a dessert or
pap spoon, supposed to hold two  tea-spoonfuls; and
cochleare minimum, a tea-spoon, which holds  about
one fluid drachm.
  COCHLEA'RIA.  (From cochleare,  a spoon;  so
called  from its resemblance.)  The name of a  genus
of plants in the Linntean system.  Class, Tetradyna-
mia; Order, Siliculosa.
  Cochlearia armoracia.  The systematic name of
the horse-radish;  Raphanus rusticanus ; Armoracia ;
Raphanus  marinus; Raphanus sylvestris; Cochlea-
ria—foliis radicalibus lanceolatis crenatis caulinis in-
cisis, of  Linnaeus.  The root  of this plant has long
been received into the materia medica, and is also well
known at our tables.  " It affects  the organs both  of
taste and smell with a quick penetrating pungency;
nevertheless it contains in certain vessels a sweet juice,
which sometimes exudes in little drops  upon ihe sur-
face.  Its pungent matter is of a very volatile kind,
being totally  dissipated in drying, and  carried  off in
evaporation, or distillation by water;  as the pungency
exhales, the sweet matter of the  root becomes more
sensible,  though this also is,  in a great measure, dissi-
pated or destroyed.  It impregnates both water and
spirit,  by infusion, or by distillation, very richly with
its active matters.  In distillation with water, it yieldsi
a small  quantity of essential  oil, exceedingly pene-
trating and pungent."
  Dr. Cullen  has mentioned every thing necessary to
be known respecting the medicinal virtues of horse-
radish, we shall therefore transcribe all  that  the  inge-
nious professor has written on this subject " The root
of this plant only is employed; and it affords one  of
the most acrid substances of this order (Siliculosa),
and therefore  proves a  powerful  stimulant, whether
externally  or  internally  employed.   Externally, it
readily inflames the skin,  and proves  a rubefacient
that may be  employed with advantage in palsy and
rheumatism; and if its application be long continued,
it produces blisters.  Taken internally, it may be  so
managed as to relieve hoarseness, by acting on the
fauces.  Received into the stomach, it stimulates this,
and promotes digestion; and therefore is properly em-
ployed as a condiment with our animal food.  If it be
infused in water, and a portion of this infusion be taken
with a large draught of warm water, it readily proves
emetic, and may either be employed by  itself to excite
vomiting, or to assist the operation of other emetics.
Infused in water, and taken into the stomach, it proves
stimulant to the nervous system, and is thereby useful
in palsy,  and, if employed in large quantity, it proves
heating to the whole body; and thereby it proves often
useful in chronic rheumatism, whether arising from
scurvy or other causes.  Beigius has given us a parti-
cular method of exhibiting this root, which is, by cut-
ting it down, without bruising, into small pieces; and
these, if swallowed without chewing, may  be  taken
down in large quantities, to that of a table-spoonful.
And the author alleges, that, in this way, taken in the
morning  for a month together, this root has been ex-
tremely useful in arthritic cases;  wbich, however, I
suppose to have been of the rheumatic kind.  It would
seem, in this manner employed, analogous to the use
of unbruised mustard-seed; it gives out in the stomach
its subtile volatile parts, that stimulate considerably
without inflaming.  The matter of horse-radish, like
the same matter of the other siliquose plants carried
into the blood-vessels, passes readily into the kidneys,
and proves a powerful diuretic, and is therefore useful
in dropsy; and we need not say, that, in this manner,
by promoting both urine and perspiration, it has been
long known as one ofthe most powerful antiscorbutics."
  Cochlearia hortensis.    Lemon  scurvy-grass
See Cochlearia officinalis.
  Cochlearia officinalis.   The systematic name
of the lemon  scurvy-grass.   Cochlearia  hortensis;
Cochlearia—foliis radicalibus cordato subrolundis;
caulinis oblongis subsinuatis, of Linnaeus.   This in-
digenous plant is cultivated in gardens for its medicinal 
COC
CCEL
 qualities.  Its expressed juice has been long considered
 as the most effectual of the scorbutic plants.
   COCHLEATUS.   Spiral, like  the  winding of a
 shell.  Applied in botany to leaves, leguminous seeds,
 &c.;  as legumen cochleatum, seen in Mcdicago poly-
 morpha, and the seeds of the Salsola.
   Cocho'ne.  (From Koxaia, to  turn round.)  Galen
 explains this to be the juncture  of the ischium, near
 the seat or breech;  whence, says he, all the adjacent
 parts  about  the scat are called by the same name.
 Hesychius says, that  cochone is  the part of the spine
 which is adjacent to the os sacrum.
   ['•COCHRAN, John, M.D.  This gentleman was
 born in 1730, in Chester county, state of Pennsylvania.
 About tne time he finished his medical studies, the war
 of 1755 commenced in America, between England and
 France.   The army then presented to the mind of Dr.
 Cochran a scene of usefulness and farther improve-
 ment. As there were not any great hospitals at that
 time  in the provinces, he readily perceived  that the
 army would  be an  excellent school for his improve-
 ment, especially in surgery, as well as in tbe medical
 treatment of many  diseases.  He soon obtained the
 appointment of Surgeon's Mate  in the Hospital De-
 partment;  and having continued with the northern
 army  during the whole of that war, enjoying the
 friendship and advice of Dr. Munro, and other eminent
 surgeons and physicians, he quitted the service with
 the character of an  able and experienced practitioner.
   When (twenty years after) the war became serious
 between Great Britain  anu the United States, Dr.
 Cochran was too zealous a whig, and  too much at-
 tached to the interests of his native country, to remain
 an idle spectator. Towards the last of the year 1776,
 he offered his services as a volunteer in the hospital
 department  General Washington  afterward recom-
 mended him to Congress.   He was accordingly ap-
 pointed, in April, 1777, Physician and Surgeon  Gene-
 ral in the middle department.  In the month of Octo-
 ber, 1781, Congress was  pleased to give him the ap-
 pointment of Director General of the hospitals of the
 United Stales; an  appointment that  was ihe more
 honourable because it was not solicited by him.  A
 short time after the peace, Dr. Cochran  removed with
 his family to New-York,  where he attended to ihe
 duties of his profession until the adoption of the new
 Constitution, when his friend President Washington,
 retaining, to use his own words, " a cheerful recollec-
 tion of his past services," nominated him to the office
 of Commissioner of Loans for the State of New-York.
 This office he held until a paralytic stroke disabled him
 in some measure from the discharge of its duties; upon
 which he gave in his resignation, and retired  to Pala-
 tine, in the county of Montgomery, where he termi-
 nated a long and useful life, on the 6th of April, 1807,
 in the 77th year of his age."—TAacA. Med. Biog. A.]
   COCK.  The male of the domestic fowl.  See Pha-
 sianus gallus.
   COCKBURN, William, was bom in the latter part
 of the 17th century.  After being some years physician
 to the navy, he settled in London; and soon distin-
 guished himself so much,  that he was admitted into
 tlie College, as well  as the Royal Society, and  made
 physician to King William.   He published a  " Trea-
 tise on Sea Diseases," which was often reprinted, and
 translated into French and German.  He referred the
 scurvy principally to the diet of seamen, and consider-
 ed fresh  provisions  as the chief remedy for  it. He
 wrote  also on Alvine  Fluxes, on Gonorrhoea, (which
 he contends may exist independent of syphilis,) and
 on the Human OBconomy; which  latter publication
 was much noticed at the time, but is since superseded
 by more accurate treatises.
  CO'COS.   (So called from the Portuguese coco, or
 coquen, the three holes at the end of the cocoa-nut
 shell, giving it the resemblance of a monkey's head.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Monecia; Order, Hexandria.
  Coi.os  butyracea. The systematic name of V-i
 plant  which  affords  the palm oil;  Cocos—inermis,
 frondibus, pevnatis ; foliolis simplicibus, of Linnaeus.
The oleum palma is produced chiefly by bruising and
dissolving the kernels of the fruit in water, without
the aid of heat, by  which the oil is separated, and
rises to the surface, and on being washed two or three
times, is rendered fit for use.  When brought into this
country, it is of the  consistence of an  ointmeut, and
 of an orange-yellow colour, with little taste, and of a
 strong, though not disagreeable smell.  Its use is con-
 fined to external applications in pains, tumours, and
 sprains; but it appears to possess very little, if any,
 advantage over other bland oils.
   Cocos nucifeua.   The systematic  name of the
 plant, the fruit of which is the cocoa-nut.  Within the
 nut is found a kernel, as pleasant as an almond, and
 also a large quantity of liquor resembling milk, which
 the Indians  greedily drink before the fruit is ripe, it
 being then pleasant, but when the nut is matured, the
 liquor becomes sour. Some full-grown nuts will con-
 tain a pint or more of this milk, the frequent drinking
 of which seems to have no bad effects upon the In-
 dians ;  yet Europeans should be cautious of making
 too free with it al first, for when Lionel  Wafer was al
 a small island in the South Sea, where the tree grew
 in plenty, some of his men were  so delighted with  it,
 that at parting they resolved to drink their fill, which
 they did; but their appetites had like lo have cost them
 their lives, for though they were not drunk, yet  they
 were so chilled  and benumbed, that they could not
 stand, and were obliged  lo be carried aboard by those
 who had more prudence than themselves, and it was
 many days before they recovered.  The shells of these
 nuts being hard, and capable of receiving a polish,
 they are often cut transversely, when, being mounted
 on stands, and having their edges silvered, or gilt,  or
 otherwise ornamented, they serve the purpose of drink-
 ing-cups. The leaves of the tree are used for thatch-
 ing, for brooms, baskets, and other utensils; and of
 the reticular web, growing at their base, the Indian
 women make cauls and aprons.
   CO'CTION.  (Coctio; from coquo, to boil.)  Con-
 coction.  1.  The digestion of the food iu the stomach.
 See Digestion.
   2. A boiling or decoction.  See Decoction.
   3. It was formerly used in a medical sense, signify-
 ing that alteration, whatever it  be, or however occa-
 sioned, which is  made  iu  the crude matter of a dis-
 temper, whereby it is  either fitted for  a discharge, oi
 rendered harmless to the body.  This is often brought
 about by nature;  that is, by the  vis vitae, or the dispo
 sition or natural  tendency of the matter itself, or else
 by proper remedies, which may so alter its bulk, figure
 cohesion, or give it a particular determination, so as
 to prevent any farther ill effects, or  drive it quite out
 of the body.  And that time of a disease wherein this
 action is performing, is called its stale of coction.  It
 is now fallen into disuse.
   Cocu'stu.   The name for courbaril.
   Coda'oa pala.  See Nerium antidysentericum.
   Codegella. A name given by the Italians to the
 carbuncle.  See Anthrax.
   Codoce'le.  (From KiaSia, a  bulb, and KnXn, a tu-
 mour.)   A bubo.
   COiCA'LIS.  (From cecum, the blind gut, through
 which it runs.)  A vein, being a branch from the con-
 cave side of the vena mesaraica.
   Cce'la. (From koiXos, hollow.)  Applied to depres-
 sion, or hollow parts on the surface of the body, as tbe
 hollow pits above, and sometimes below the eyes:  the
 hollow parts at the bottom of the feet.
   COS'LIA.    (From  koiXos, hollow.)   A cavity in
 any part of the body; as the belly, the womb, &c.
  CGE'LIAC. (Celiacus, belonging to tile belly; from
KotXta, the belly.)  Appertaining lo the belly.
  Cceliac artery.  Arteria celiaca.  The first branch
given off from the aorta in the cavity of the abdomen.
It  sends  branches to  the diaphragm, stomach, liver,
 pylorus, duodenum, omentum, and spleen.
  Ccj liac passion. (From icoiXia, the belly.) Ca-'t'ca
chylosa; Calico lactea.   There are very great differ-
ences among  physicians concerning the nature of this
disease.   Sauvages says  it is a chronic flux, in which
the aliment  is discharged half digested.   Dr. Cullen
considers it as a species of diarrhoea, and  mentions it
in his third and fourth species,  under the terms mu-
cosa,  chylosa, lactea; making  the  puruletila only
symptomatic.  See Diarrhea.   It  is attended with
great pains in the stomach, resembling tlie pricking of
pin*; rumbling and  flatus in the intestines; white
stools, because deprived of bile;  while the patient be-
comes weak and lean.
  CCELIACA.   (Celiacus; from KoXaia, alvus ven-
ter.)  Dr. Good selects this name for the first class of
diseases  In his Nosology; disease*  of the digestive 
cor                                            coi
function.   It contains two orders, Enterica  and
Splanchnica.
  Coelo'ma.  (From koiXos, hollow.)  An ulcer in the
tunica cornea of the eye.
  Cojlosto'mia.  See Coilostomia.
  CCENOLO'GIA.  (From koivos,common, andXiyos,
discourse.)  A consultation, or common consideration
of a disease, by two or more  physicians.
  Cceno'tes.  (From  koivos, common.)  The physi-
cians of the methodic sect asserted that all diseases
arose from relaxation, stricture, or a mixture of both.
These were called canotes, viz. what diseases have in
common.
  Ccsru'leus lapis.  The sulphate of copper.   See
 Cupri sulphas.
  COS'TE.   (From xttuat,  to lie  down.)  A  bed, or
couch, for a sick person.
  CO'FFEA.  (From kofuah, a mixing together, He-
brew ; so  called  from the pleasant potation which is
made from its berry: others assert that the true name
is Cajfe, from Cujfa a province in South America,
where the tree grows spontaneously iu great abun-
dance.)   The name of a  genus of planis in the  Lin-
naean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
The coffee-tree.
  Coffea arabica. The plant which  affords coffee.
Jasminum Arabicam; Choava.   Coffee is  the  seed
of the Coffea—floribus quinquefidis, dispermis, of Lin-
naeus.
  The coffee-tree is cultivated in  Arabia, Persia, the
East Indies, the Isle of Bourbon, and several parts of
America.  Good Turkey coffee is by far the most salu-
tary of all liquors drunk at  meal-time.  It possesses
 nervine and adstringent  qualities, and  may be drunk
with advantage at all times, except when there is bile in
the stomach.  It  is said to be a good  antidote against
an over dose of opium, and to relieve obstinate  spas-
modic nsthmas.   For the latter purpose, the coffee
ought to be of the best Mocco, newly burnt, and made
very strong, immediately after grinding it  Sir  John
Pringle commonly ordered one ounce for a dose; which
is to be repeated fresh, after the interval of a quarter
or half an hour; and which he directed to be taken
 without milk or sugar.
  Besides the peculiar bitter principle, which is de-
 scribed under the name Caffein, coffee contains several
 other vegetable products.   According to Cadet, 64
 parts of raw coffee consists of 8 gum, 1 resin,  1 ex-
 tractive and bitter principle, 3.5  gallic acid, 0.14  albu-
 men, 43.5 fibrous insoluble matter, and 6.86 loss.  Her-
 man found in 1920 grains of
             Levant  Coffee,      Mart. Coffee,
     Resin...........   74...........   68
     Extractive.......  320...........  310
     Gum............  130...........  144
     Fibrous matter... 1335  ...........  1386
     Loss............   61  ...........   12

                     1920             1920
  The nature of the volatile fragment principle deve-
 loped in coffee by roasting, has not been ascertained.
 The  Dutch in Surinam  improve the flavour of their
 coffee by suspending  bags of it, for two years, in a
 dry atmosphere.  They never use new coffee.
  If coffee  be drunk warm within an hour after din-
 ner, it is of singular use to those who have headache,
 from weakness in the  stomach, contracted by seden-
tary habits, close attention, or accidental drukemiess.
It is of service when the  digestion  is weak ; and per-
rons afflicted with the sick headache are much bene-
fited by its use, iu some instances, though this effect is
by  no means uniform.   Coffee is often imitated by
roasting rye with a  few almonds.
  f" COFFIN, Nathaniel, M.D.,son of Dr. N. Coffin,
one of the  most eminent physicians in the  state of
Maine.  The first ancestor of his family who came to
this country was Tristram Coffin, who emigrated from
England in 1642.
  Dr. Nathaniel  Coffin was  born in Portland, on the
3d of May, 1744, in which place he always lived, and
where he closed  his long and useful life.  The country
at the time of his  birth, for may miles round Casco
bay, including the site of Portland, was called Fal-
mouth ; afterward, the part most thickly settled, lying
on the harbour, was incorporated into a separate  town
by the name of Portland.
  He completed his preparatory  medical education
under his father;  but the limited means of scientific
improvement then existing in this thinly peopled sec-
tion of the country, induced the son, with the advice
of his father, to embark for England at the age of
eighteen.  He there prosecuted his studies at Guy's and
St Thomas's hospitals,  under  the distinguished Hun
ter, Akenside, M'Kenzie, and others; and  returned to
commence the practice of his  profession at the early
age of twenty-one.
  Possessing  a constitution naturally healthy and vi-
gorous, and a mind resolute and intelligent, there was
no peril  which he  was not prepared to encounter, and
no adversity which he could not endure; and he has
well  deserved the distinction  awarded  him by  the
public, for his constant and unremitted exertions during
a period of more than sixty years.
  Dr. Coffin  was surrounded, in the early part of his
career, by suffering friends and patients;  but his  life
was  closed amid  the blessings of  freedom and inde-
pendence.  In the peaceful evening of his days, all
the enjoyments of prosperity  and  affection clustered
around  his dwelling; but it should not  be forgotten
thai  the respectability  and happiness he had  expe
rienced, were the  well  earned  reward of the virtues
the talents, and the faithfulness of  former years.
  In his manners, he was a polished specimen of the
state of American society existing before the Revolu-
tion ;  he was one of the most  graceful gentlemen of
the old school, and his  deportment was marked by a
uniform and captivating urbanity.  He died on the 18th
of October,   1826, aged 82 years."— Thacher's Med.
Biog.  A.l
  C'OGAN,  William,  wa3  born  in Somersetshire,
about the middle of the 16th  century.  He studied,
and took the degree of bachelor in medicine, at Ox-
ford ; soon after which he was appointed master of the
school at  Manchester, where he also practised in his
profession till his  death iu 1607. He published  a cu-
rious book,  abounding  in classical  quotations, entitled
" The Haven of  Health," in which he strongly re-
commends temperance and exercise.  There is added
an account  of the sweating sickness; and of a re-
markable disorder, which prevailed at Oxford in July
and August,  1575, before he left it,  by which he states,
that in thirty-seven days " there died 510 persons, all
men, and no women."
  COHE'SION.  (Cohesio;  from  con, and hereo,ta
stick  together.)   Vis cohasionis;  Vis  adhasionis;
 Vis altractionis.  That power by which the particles
of bodies are held  together.  See Attraction.
  Cohoba'tion.  (A term invented  by Paracelsus.)
Cohobatio;   Cohobium; Cohoph.    The ancient che-
mists use this term to signify the distillation of a fluid
poured afresh upon  a substance of the same kind as
that upon which  it was before distilled,  and repeat-
ing this operation several times lo make it more  effi-
cacious.
  Co'hol.   (Cohol, Hebrew.)  Castellus says  this
word is used in  Avicenna, to express dry collyria for
the eyes, in fine powder.
  Coi'lima.  (From xotXta, the bowels.)  A sudden
swelling of the belly from wind.
  COILOSTOMIA.  (From koiXos, hollow, and 7opa,
the mouth.)   Calostomia.  A defect of speaking, from
the palate, or through the nose, the voice being so ob-
scured as to sound as if it proceeded from a cavern.
  COINDICA'NTIA.  (From con, and indico, to indi-
cate.)   Signs,  or symptoms, are  called  coindicant,
when, besides the usual incidental appearances, there
occur others, as age, habit, season, Sec.
  Coi'ra.  A name for catechu.
  COITER, Volcher,  was bornatGroningen in 1534.
After studying at the different universities in Italy, he
attended as physician to the French  army during  one
campaign, that he might have more opportunity lor in-
vestigating human anatomy.  He then settled at Nu-
remberg,  where he continued till his death in 1576.
He made considerable improvements in anatomy and
surgery.   He found that the brain  had a motion com-
municated to it by the arteries; and that in some ani-
mals the organ might be removed without destroying
life.   He  first described the corpora lutea in the ova-
ria;  and noticed  tbe order in which the parts of the
chick are evolved.  He described the frontal sinuses,
and the organ  of hearing, more accurately than any
preceding author.   He pointed out two muscles which
depress  tlie  eyebrows,  and two which  perform  the 
COL
COL
same office to the lips.  He observed, that injuries to
the brain are more dangerous when the dura mater
remains entire; and therefore he boldly divided that
membrane.  He was also  accustomed to  pare down
fungi arising from the brain.   He  published good
plates of the curtilages, of the foetal skeleton, and of
those of various animals, &c.
  CO'ITUS.  (From coeo, to go together.)  The con-
junction of the male and  female in  the act of pro-
creation.
  [Coke.   See Coak.  A.]
  COLA.  (From koiXov, a joint.)  The joints.
  Colato'ria lactea.  Astruc says  they were for-
merly called glands, and are situated in the third and
internal tunic of the uterus, and that they are vesiculo-
vascular bodies.
  COL ATO' RIUM.  (From colo, to strain.)  A strainer
of any kind.
  COLATU'RA.  (From  colo, to strain.)  A filtered
or strained liquor.
  COLBATCH, John, was born in the latter part  of
the 17th century.   He practised in London, first as a
surgeon and apothecary, afterward as a physician, and
had considerable repute. He published several works:
the first was " A New Light of Chirurgery," con-
demning the use of tents, and the injection of acrid
substances into wounds;  then a treatise, in which
most diseases are  ascribed to alkalescency, and acids
strongly recommended; this, in a subsequent publica-
tion, he applied particularly  to  the gout; lastly,  lie
highly extolled the inisletoe, as a remedy for epilepsy
and other nervous diseases.
  COLCHESTER. The name of a seaport on the
coast of Essex, near which is a mineral water, aqua
Cofoestrensis,  which is of the bitter  purging kind,
s?iv "ir to  that of Epsom, but not so strong.
  ( 1 • LCHICUM.   (From Colchis, a city of Armenia,
HV< Willis plant is supposed to have been common.)
I. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Hexandria; Order, Trigynia.  Meadow-
saffron.
  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe meadow-saffron.
See Colchicum autumnale.
  Colchicum autumnale. The systematic name  of
the common meadow-saffron.   Colchicum—foliis pla-
nis  lanceolatis erectis,  of Linnaeus.   A native  of
England.   The sensible qualities of the fresh root are
very various, according to the place of growth and
season of  the year.  In autumn it is almost inert; but
in the beginning of summer, highly acrid: hence some
have found it to be a corrosive poison, while others
have eaten it in considerable quantity, without expe-
riencing any effect.  When it is possessed of acrimony,
this is of the same nature with that of garlic, and
some other plants,  and is entirely destroyed by drying.
The German physicians have  celebrated its virtues as
a diuretic, in hydrothorax and other dropsies;  and, in
France, it continues to be a  favourite remedy; but it
is,  nevertheless, in this country, unsuccessful, or  at
best a very uncertain remedy.  The expressed juice is
used, in Alsace, to destroy vermin  in  the heads  of
children.  The officinal preparations of colchicum are,
syrupiis,colchici autumnalis, Edin. Pharm.   The oxy-
mel colchici of the former London pharmacopoeia is
now omitted, and the acetum colchici  ordered in  its
room; as the honey may easily be added  extempora-
neously, if it be thought requisite.  The active ingre-
dient of this plant has lately been ascertained lo be an
alkali, possessing peculiar properties.   See Veratria.
   ["Colchicum  is in large doses a deleterious, acrid
narcotic;  in small ones, a cathartic and diuretic ; pos-
sessing, likewise,  peculiar properties  of a sedative
kind.  It appears to have been known to the ancients
as a poison, and during the last century it has been
occasionally employed as a medicine in dropsy, asthma,
 and some other chronic diseases.  Recently it  has  ex-
cited much notice, especially in Gre»t Britain, as  a
 remedy in gout, and a sedative in various painful and
inflammatory affections.  The interest excited  by  a
secret French specific, the Eau Medicinale, wbich was
 found to relieve the paroxysms of gout, led to various
 imitations and substitutes for that preparation.  Among
 these, a various tincture of colchicum was found very
 nearly to resemble the foreign compound, both in its
 sensible qualities and medicinal effects.  Accordingly,
 the Wine of Colchicum became a prevailing medicine
 for gout, and was used with various  success in  that
      344
disease by different practitioners.  The use of colchi-
cum was soon extended to chronic rheumatism, and
other painful affections, and at length it was applied,
by Mr. Haden and others, to the cure of acute inflam-
matory diseases, and the treatment of cases in which
blood-letting  is commonly employed.  Sufficient evi-
dence has been published to establish the fact, that this
medicine, when possessed of its full activity, may be
so managed, as to diminish morbid force and frequency
of the pulse, to allay pain and other phenomena  of
inflammation, and in certain cases to fulfil the object
of depletion by the lancet.  The Messrs. Haden inform
us,  that in pure inflammations, if it be given every
four hours until ii produce  an abundant purgative
effect, the pulse will become nearly natural, from being
either quick and hard, or 6low and  full;  that in many
cases, its  use may be substituted for blood-letting, at
least when inflammation does not exist to an alarming
degree in  a vital part; and that the patient is left in a
state favourable to  more rapid  recovery, when  fever
and inflammation have been removed  by colchicum,
than when the same end has been effected  by other
means.   In chronic rheumatism, it is said rarely lo
fail, if persevered in for a time sufficiently long; in
habitual discharges of blood from plethora, it has been
substituted for  frequent venesections; and after acci-
dents, it is said to  have the  power of averting tlie
severe consequences which usually follow such cases.
  In Boston, considerable attention has been bestowed
upon the effects of colchicum in different diseases.  The
article employed has been the  bulb, imported in a live
state, packed  in sand, and dried  immediately after  its
at rival.   The  sprouting of  the flower-bud,  during
transportation,  did  not appear to lessen its activity.
Administered in powder, this medicine has been found,
in a variety of instances, to relieve the symptoms of .
pulmonary and of peritoneal inflammation, in a man-
ner not easily to be accounted for, except by the reduc-
tion of the inflammation.  Its most frequent operation,
I believe, when fairly tried, has been to allay pain, re-
duce the  pulse, and diminish symptomatic fever;  to
move the bowels, generally within twenty-four hours,
and to excite  nausea and great disgust, if the dose be
large.  It has, nevertheless, sometimes failed to pro-
duce these effects.  In rheumatic complaints, its sue- '
cess has been equivocal, but, on the whole, rather
favourable to its reputation than otherwise.
  Colchicum has, of late, been most frequently adminis-
tered in  powder.   Five grains may be  given,  three
times a day, to an adult, where the stomach is not
particularly delicate.  This quantity I have found  to
remain on the stomach, and to move the bowels, com-
monly on the second day.  In  important  cases, the
dose may be increased to eight or nine grains, if nausea
does not  prevent.   In chronic cases, the dose of five
or six grains may be given, according to Mr. Haydcn,
once a-day, in the morning, and continued for weeks
together.  This writer combined with it small quanti-
ties of sulphate and carbonate of potass, and gave it in
a state of effervescence, with an acid.
  It is prudent to begin the  use of a new parcel, or
specimen, with smaller doses than  those above speci-
fied, and  gradually to increase them, since the root  is
at some times more active than at others. The varia-
ble activity ofthe medicine is, indeed, a  great impedi-
ment to its usefulness, and nothing can be more dis-
cordant than the statements of writers on this subject.
Professor Murray has cited various instances in which
this root has produced distressing, and even  fatal
effects; while, on the other  hand, an  author by tbe
name of  Kratochville asserts, ihat  himself and others
have eaten drachms of the  root, both  in spring and
fall, with impunity ; and Orfila tells us, that he had
 repeatedly given several bulbs to dogs, in the month of
June, without causing  them any  inconvenience."—
 Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [Colchici  semina.  The seeds of  Colchicum.—
 These have been proposed, by Dr. Williams, as a sub-
 stitute for the bulb, possessing all the medicinal advan-
 tages ofthe plant, attended with greater mildness and
 uniformity of operation.  Several  practitioners have
 agreed in their accounts ofthe efficacy of these seeds,
 particularly  in chronic rheumatism.   Dr. Williams
 uses a icine, made by infusing two ounces of the seeds
 in  a  pint of sherry.  From one to three drachms  are
 given,  once  or twice a-day,  in aromatic water.  H«
 also employs a tincture, made with the 6ame propor- 
COL
COL
tions.  In this country, colchicum seeds have been
used  with some  benefit in rheumatic complaints.
They apparently possess the advantage of being less
liable than the root to alter by age.  I have found Iwo
or three grains of the powder to produce vomiting and
purging in a mild degree, and ten grains to bring on
powerful vomiting and purging, with vertigo and im-
paired vision during  twenty-four hours."—Big. Mat.
Med.  A.j
  Colchicum illyriccm.   The plant  supposed  to
afford the  root called hermodactyl.  See Hermodac-
tylus.
  Colchicum zeylanicum.  See Zedoaria.
  COLCOTHAR.  Chalcitis; Colcothar vitrioli.  The
brown-red oxide of iron, which remains after the dis-
tillation ofthe acid from sulphate of iron.
  Colcothar vitrioli.  See  Colcothar.
  COLD.  1. A privation of heat.  It is nothing posi-
tive, but somewhat of the negative kind.  The human
body contains  within itself, as long as it is living, a
principle of warmth: if any other body, being in con-
tact with it, abstracts the heat  with unusual rapidity,
it is said to be cold ; but if it carriea off the heat more
slowly than usual, or even communicates  heat to our
body, it is said to be hot.
  2. A cold is a popular name also for a catarrh. See
Catarrhus.
  Cold Affusion.  See Affusion.
  ["COLDUN, Cadwallader, Esq.   This truly
worthy and eminent  character, who united in himself
the several qualities  we are accustomed to admire in
the physician, naturalist, and philosopher, was the son
of tlie Rev. Alexander Colden,  of Dunse, in Scotland,
and was  born on the 17th day of February, 1688.
After he had laid the foundation of a liberal education,
under the immediate inspection of his father, he went
to the University of Edinburgh, where,  in 1705,  he
completed  his course of collegiate studies.  He now
devoted his attention to medicine and  mathematical
science, until the year 1708, when,  being allured  by
the fame of William Penn's colony,  he came over to
this country about two years after.  He practised phy-
sic, with no small share of reputation, till 1715, when
he  returned to England. While in London, lie was
introduced to that eminent  philosopher, Dr. Edmund
Halley, who formed so favourable  an opinion of  a
paper on  Animal Secretion, written by Dr. Colden  in
early life, that he read it before the Royal Society, the
notice of which learned body it greatly attracted.  At
this time he formed an acquaintance with some ofthe
most distinguished literary  and  scientific characters,
with  whom he ever after maintained a regular corres-
pondence.  From London he went to Scotland, and
married a young lady of a respectable Scotch family,
by the name of Chrystie, with whom  he returned to
America in 1716.
  In 1718, he settled in the  city of New-York; but
soon after relinquished  the practice of physic, and be-
came a public character; lie held, in succession, the
office of Surveyor General ofthe Province, Master  in
Chancery, Member of the Council, and Lieutenant Go-
vernor. Previous to his acceptance of this last sta-
tion, he obtained a patent for a tract of land, designated
by the name of Coldenham, near  Newburgh, to which
place he retired with  bis family, about the year 1755,
and spent a great part of his life.   Here he appears to
have been occupied, without interruption, in the pur-
suit of knowledge, particularly  in botanical and ma-
thematical studies, al the same time that he continued
his correspondence with learned  men in Europe and
America.
  In 1761, he was appointed Lieutenant Governor of
New-York, which commission  he held until the time
of his decease \he administration of the government
repeatedly falling on him, by the death  or absence of
several  governors in chief.  His political character
was rendered very conspicuous by the firmness of his
conduct, during the  violent  commotions  which pre-
ceded the Revolution.  His administration is also me-
morable for several charters of  incorporation, for use-
ful and  benevolent purposes. After the return of Go-
vernor Tryon, in 1775, he was relieved from the cares
of government.  He  then retired to a seat on  Long
Island, where a recollection of  his former studies, and
a few select friends,  ever welcomed by a social and
hospitable disposition, cheered  him in his last days.
He died iu the 89th year of his  age, on the memorable
28th of September, 1776, a few hours before the city of
New-York was in flames, retaining his senses to the
last, and expiring without a groan.
  Dr, Colden began, at an early period of his life, to
pay great attention to the vegetable productions of
America, in which delightful study his daughter after-
ward became distinguished.  In honour of Dr. Col-
den, Linnaeus named a plant, of the tetandrous class,
Coldenia.   This  plant, Miss Colden had  first de-
scribed.  He was attentive to the physical constitution
of the  country, and left a long course of diurnal ob-
servations on the thermometer, barometer, and winds.
He also wrote a history of the prevalent diseases of
the climate, and, if he was not the first to recommend
the cooling regimen in  the cure of fevers, he was cer-
tainly one of its earliest and warmest advocates;  and
opposed, with great earnestness, the prevailing mode
of treatment in the small-pox.
  In the years 1741 and '42, a fever, which occasioned
great mortality, prevailed in the city of New-York,
and created  much alarm.   He communicated  his
thoughts to the public,  on the most probable method of
curing the  calamity, in a small treatise, in which he
enlarged on the pernicious effects of marshy exhala-
tions, moist air, damp cellars, filthy stores, and dirty
streets; showed how much these nuisances prevailed,
in many parts of the city, and pointed out the remedies.
The corporation ofthe city presented him their thanks,
and established a plan for draining and clearing out
the city, which was attended with the most salutary
effects.   He published a treatise "On the Cure of
Cancer."   Another essay of his,  " On the Virtues of
the Great  Water Dock,"  introduced him to an ac-
quaintance with  Linnaeus.   In  1753,  he  published
some observations on an epidemical sore throat, which
appeared in Massachusetts,  in 1735,  and had spread
over a great part of North America.  These observa-
tions are to be found in Cary's American Museum.
  When he became acquainted with Linnaeus's sys-
tem of botany, he applied himself with new delight to
that study.   His descriptions, of between three and four
hundred American plants, were printed in tbe Acta
Upsaliensia.  He  published the "History of the  Five
Indian Nations,"  in 2 vols.  12mo.   But the subject
which drew Dr. Colden, at one period of his life, from
every other pursuit, was what he first published, under
the title of "The Cause of Gravitation," which being
much enlarged, was republished by Dodsley, in 1751,
in 1 vol. 4to., entitled, " The Principles of Action in
Matter, &.c."
  Though his principal attention, after the year  1760,
was necessarily directed from philosophical to political
matters,  he maintaind, with great  punctuality, his
literary correspondence, particularly with Linnaeus of
Upsal, Gronovius of  Leyden, Drs.  Porterfield,   and
Whytte of  Edinburgh,  Dr. Fothergill, and Mr. Collin-
son, F.R.S. of London.   There  were also several
communications on mathematical  and astronomical
subjects, between  him and the Earl of Macclesfield.
With most of the eminent men of our own country he
held an almost uninterrupted epistolary correspond-
ence.   Among them we  may mention the names of
Dr. Garden,  Mr. J. Bartram, Dr. Douglass, Dr. John
Bard, Dr. Samuel Bard, James  Alexander, Esq., and
Dr. Franklin.  With Dr. Franklin,  in particular, he
was a constant and intimate correspondent, and  they
regularly communicated to each other their philoso-
phical  and physical discoveries, especially on electri-
city.   In their letters are to be observed the first
dawnings of many of those discoveries which Dr.
Franklin has communicated to the world, and which
so much astonished and  benefitted  mankind.   In a
letter to one of his friends, Dr. Franklin gives an ac-
count of the organization of the American Philosophi-
cal Society, in which he mentions that Dr. Colden first
suggested the idea and plan of that institution.
  The numerous manuscript papers left by Dr. Colden
at the time of his  death, which for many years were
supposed to have  been lost, have been lately found,
and are now in possession of his grandson, Cadwal-
lader D. Colden, Esq.  They are chiefly on historical
and philosophical  subjects, and many of them are of
tlie greatest value.  Among these are Observations on
Smith's History of New-York, in a series of letters to
iiis  son, Alexander Colden:  An  Introduction to the
Study of Philosophy:  a correct copy of his Account
of the Fever which prevailed in New-York  in the 
COL
COL
 years 1741-2.  This production may be found in  Ho-
 sack and Francis's Register, vol. i.  An  Inquiry  into
 the Principles of Vital Motion:  A Translation of the
 Letters of Cicero, with an Introduction by C. Colden:
 Planta  Coldenhamia in  provincia Noveboracensi
 spontanea crescentes, quas ad methodum  Linnai Sex-
 ualem, anno 1742, observavit Cadwallader Colden: A
 corrected and augmented copy of his Principles of Ac-
 tion in Matter:  A  Treatise on  Electricity, ate.   Be-
 sides these, there is a great mass of correspondence on
 medical,  philosophical, and  literary subjects, with
 many eminent physicians and philosophers in Europe
 and America.  These letters carry his correspondence
 back to the year 1710, and bring it down, almost unin-
 terruptedly, till the time of his death.  There are, too,
 a great variety of papers on public affairs, which must
 be considered as documents of primary importance, as
 they necessarily contain numerous facts which throw
 light on the history of this State.   Dr. Colden was un-
 questionably a man of various and extensive learning,
 of superior talents, of the most indefatigable industry,
 and, indeed, in many respects, his character will  not
 suffer by  a  comparison with  that of our illustrious
 countryman,  Benjamin  Franklin.— Thacher's Med.
 Biography.   A.]
  COLE,  William, studied at Oxford, and took  his
 degree there  in  1666.  After practising some  time iu
 Bristol,  he came to London, and distinguished himself
 by several publications on  physiology and medicine,
 which,  howeyer, are too theoretical.  The principal
 are on animal secretion, on apoplexy, on the cause of
 fever, on  insensible  perspiration. Sec  He published
 also a case of epilepsy, cured,  in his opinion,  by  the
 misletoe.
  Co'les.   (From  kovXos, a stalk.)  Colis.  The
 penis.
  COLEWORT.  See Brassica.
  CO'LICA.   (From koiXov,  colon, the name  of one
 of the intestines.)   The colic.  The appellation of
 colic is commonly given to all  pains  in the abdomen,
 almost indiscriminately; but, from the different causes
 and circumstances of this disorder, it is differently  de-
 nominated.  When the pain  is accompanied with a
 vomiting of bile,  or  with obstinate costiveness, il is
 called a bilious colic; if flatus causes the pain, that is,
 if attended with temporary distention, relieved  by the
 discharge  of wind, it takes the  name of flatulent or
 windy colic; when accompanied with heat and  in-
 flammation, it taket the name of inflammatory colic,
 or enteritis.   When this disease  arises to a  violent
 height, and is attended with obstinate costiveness, and
 an evacuation of faeces by tlie mouth, it is called pas-
 sio iliaca, or iliac passion.
  Dr. Cullen  places this genus of disease  in the class
 neuroses, and order sposmi; and defines il pain of the
 abdomen, particularly around the umbilicus, attended
 with vomiting and costiveness. He enumerates seven
 species.
  1. Colico spasmodica, with retraction of the navel,
 and spasm ofthe muscles of the belly.
  2. Colica pidonum.  This is called from the place
 where it is endemial, the Poictou, the Surinam,  the
 Devonshire colic; from its victims, the plumbers' and
 the painters'  colic;  from  its symptoms, the dry belly-
 ache, the  nervous and spasmodic colic.  It has been
 attributed to  the  poison of  lead, and this  is undoubt-
 edly the cause, when it occurs to  glaziers, painters,
 and  those employed in lead works; but, though this is
 one, it is by no means the only cause.   In Devonshire,
 it certainly more often arises from  the early cider.
 made of harsh, unripe  fruit, and in the West  Indies
 from new rum.   The characteristics of this disease
 are, obstinate costiveness, with a vomiting of an acrid
 or porraceous bile, pains about the region ofthe navel,
shooting from thence to each side with excessive vio-
 lence, strong convulsive spasms in the intestines, and a
 tendency to a paralysis of the extremities.  It is occa-
sioned by a  long-continued costiveness; by an accu-
mulation of acrid bile; by cold, applied either to the
extremities or to the belly itself;  by a free use of un-
ripe fruits, and by great  irregularity in the mode of
living.  From its occurring frequently in Devonshire,
 and other  cider countries, it has been supposed to arise
from an impregnation of lead received into the sto-
mach ; but this seems to be a mistake, as it is a very
prevalent disease in the West Indies  likewise, where
no cider is made, and where there is only a very small
 quantity of lead in the mills employed to extract the
 juice from the sugar-canes.  One or other ofthe causes
 just enumerated, may justly be said always to give rise
 to this species of colic.
   The disease comes on gradually, with a pain at the
 pit of the stomach, extending downwards to the intes-
 tines, accompanied with eructations, slight sickness at
 the stomach, thirst, anxiety, obstinate costiveness, and
 a quick contracted pulse.  After a short time, the pains
 increase considerably in violence; the whole region of
 the belly is highly painful to the touch ; the muscles of
 the abdomen are contracted into hard  irregular knots
 or lumps; the intestines themselves exhibit symptoms
 of violent spasm, insomuch that a glyster can hardly
 be injected,  from  the  powerful contraction  of the
 sphincter ani; and there is constant restlessness, with
 a frequent vomiting of an acrid or porraceous matter,
 but more particularly after taking either food or medi-
 cine.
   Upon  a farther increase of the symptoms, or their
 not being quickly alleviated, the spasms become more
 frequent, as well as violent; the costiveness proves in-
 vincible, and an inflammation ofthe intestines ensues,
 which soon destroys the patient by gangrene.   In an
 advanced stage of the disease, it is no uncommon oc-
 currence for  dysuria to take place, in a very high de-
 gree.
   The dry bellyache is always attended with some
 degree of danger; but which is ever in proportion to
 the violence of the symptoms, and the duration of the
 disease.  Even when it does not prove fatal, it is too
 apt to terminate in  palsy, and lo leave  behind it con-
 tractions of the  hands and feet, with an inability in
 their muscles lo perform their office; and in this mise-
 rable state of existence, ihe patient lingers out many
 wretched years.
   Dissections of this disease usually show the  same
 morbid appearances as in common colic, only in a
 much higher degree; namely,  irregular contractions
 and distentions of the intestines, often with marks of
 inflammation.
  [Miners, and manufacturers of white-lend, red-lead,
 plumbers, pewterers, shot-casters, are all subject to the
same forms of  disease which  attack painters.   In
 making white-lead,  in the old way, the most danger-
ous time  is when the pots are uncovered, and during
that operation, few  or  none of  those engaged  in  the
 corroding house escape without a severe turn  of the
 painters'  cholic.  In making red-lead, the persons who
 attend the furnace and stir the metal, never escape the
operation with  impunity, being attacked with  weak-
 ness, loss of  appetite, nervous  trembling, or cholic.
 White and red-lead are the most extensively used, and
 produce the most mischief, but tbe other preparations
of lead exert a similar injurious effect upon the human
constitution.
  Dr. James Mann, hospital-surgeon in the U. S. army
during the late war, has related the ill  effects arising
 from the use of the acetate of lead as an astringent.
 When the dysentery prevailed  in the northern  army
on the frontiers of New-York and Canada, ii  was
 found thata few grains of acetate of lead was effectual
 in restraining the evacuations.  In some cases, where
 it  was necessary to  continue the  remedy, the disease
 was allayed; but the patients afterward died with tor-
 por or paralysis  of the intestines, or  other fatal ope-
 ration of the lead as a poison.  A.]
  3.  Colica stercorea, which happens  from obstinate
 and long  continued costiveness.
  4.  Colica accidentalis, called also cholera sicca, from
acrid undigested matters.
  5.  Colica meconialis, iu infants, from a retention of
 meconium.
  6.  Colica callosa, with a sensation of a stricture in
some part of the colon, and frequently of previous
 flatulence, gradually passing off; the habit costive, or
 fieces liquid, and in small quantity.
  7.  Colica calculosa, from calculi formed in the  in
tcstines, attended with a fixed hardness  in some part
of the abdomen.  It is distinguished by the previous
discharge of calculi.
  8.  Colica fiutulentia may be added to these species.
 It is distinguished by a sudden fulness, with pain and
constipation, relieved by a discharge of wind from the
mouth, or anus.
  The colic is distinguished from inflammation of the
 intestines by the pain being wringing, and nut of a 
COL                                            COL
burning kind; by the spasmodic contraction of the
abdominal muscles;  by tbe absence or trifling degree
of fever;  by the state of the pulse, and by the dimi-
nution of pain  upon pressure, which increases  it in
enteritis.
  The flatulent and  inflammatory colic are  thus dis-
tinguished from each other:—In the flatulent colic, the
pain comes on by fits, flies from one part of the bowels
lo another, and is much abated by a discharge of wind,
either upwards or downwards; but in the inflamma-
tory colic the pain remains equable, and fixed and set-
tled in one spot; the vomitings are severe, and fre-
quently bilious; the  belly is obstinately  bound, and
the pulse quick and feverish.
  The colic should be distinguished from  a  fit of the
gravel; stones passing through the ureters; rheumatic
pains iu the muscles  of the belly ; a beginning dysen-
tery ; the blind piles;  and from a stone passing through
the gall-duct.  Gravel in  the kidneys produces often
colic pains, not easily distinguishable; but when stones
pass through the ureters, the testicle on  that side is
often retracted, the leg is  benumbed, a pain shoots
down the inside of the thigh; symptoms  occasioned
by the stone passing through the ureter over the  sper-
matic chord, or the  sacro-sciatic nerve.  Rheumatic
pains in tlie muscles of Ihe  belly rarely affect so accu-
rately the umbilical region,  Cut dart in various direc-
tions, to the chest, or lo the pelvis, and are attended
with soreness, not confined to the abdomen. A be-
ginning dysentery differs little  from colic.   The pain
from the blind piles is confined to the rectum: and that
from a stone  in the gall-duct, is felt in the pit of the
stomach,  occasionally shooting through tlie  body to
the back.
  The treatment of this disease must vary according
to its form: but the leading indications are, 1. To ob-
viate inflammation.  2. To relax the spasm, and  re-
lieve the pain attending.   3. To remove  local irrita-
tion, especially by evacuating the alvine contents.  4.
By various prophylactic measures to guard against a
relapse.
  1. The chief danger arising  from inflammation su-
pervening, il may be  prudent to anticipate  this, where
the habit and strength will  allow, by taking  away an
adequate  quantity of blood from the  arm,  or more
generally  by leeches to  tbe abdomen, but especially
where any sign of inflammation appears, Ibis plan be-
comes necessary, followed by a hot bath,  or fomenta-
tions, a blister to the abdomen, Sec. as detailed under
enteritis.
  2. The  means already noticed may serve to relax
spasm also, though not requisite in slight cases, besides
the various antispasmodic remedies, as aether, assatbe-
tida, &c, likewise aromatics, or spirituous  liquors, will
often by their stimulus on the stomach afford relief in
flatulent colic, though their use is sometimes hurtful;
but by far the most powerful remedy is opium in ade-
quate quantity, which is best regulated in severe  at-
tacks,  by  giving divided doses al short intervals  till
ease is obtained.
  3. Local irritation may  sometimes be  relieved  by
chemical remedies, as antacids, particularly magnesia.
Sec.; but for the most part  ihe evacuation of the in-
testines should be attempted, when the pain is relieved.
To prepare for this, calomel may be given  in conjunc-
tion with  the opium, and when the patient  has  been
some lime at ease, this may be  followed up by castor
oil, sulphate of magnesia, or other mild laxative, re-
peated till the desired effect be produced; or where
these do not presently operate, some more active ca-
thartics, as the compound extract of colocynth, jalap,
ice. should be tried.   If the stomach be irritable, the
effervescing saline draught may enable  it to retain
them; and clysters will often assist the articles taken
by the mouth, particularly where there are indurated
fatces.  Iu very obstinate cases, an injection of tobacco
smoke has often succeeded in procuring evacuations:
also putting the feet  tor some lime in cold water, or
pouring this on the abdomen and lower extremities.
Sometimes it has been necessary to remove faecal ac-
cumulations mechanically per anum.
  4. The great liability of mis complaint to return
renders  it necessary  for some time alter carefully to
regulate tlie diet, to attend  to the stale of  the bowels,
as well  as of the liver, to avoid  the several causes,
especially cold, maintaining the functions  of the skin
by suitable clothing, exercise, etc.  In the colica picto-
num, stimulant aperients, as the peruvian balsam,
mustard, Sec. steadily persisted in, will mostly effect a
complete cure; and mercury has been by some highly
extolled; by others, astringents, especially alum, though
certainly somewhat objectionable, as liable to confine
the bowels.
  Colica accidentalis.  Colic from crudities in the
bowels.
  Colica arteria sinistra.  The lower mesenteric
artery.
  Colica arteria superior.  The upper mesenteric
artery.
  Colica biliosa.  Colic from excess of bile.
  Colica calculosa.  Colic from stony matters in
the intestines.
  Colica callosa.  Colic from  hardened and obsti-
nate strictures.
  Colica damnoniorum.  Colic peculiar to Devon-
shire.  See Colica.
  Colica febricosa.  Colic with fever.
  Colica flatulenta. Colic from wind.
  Colica gravidarum.  Colic in pregnant women.
  Colica hysterica.  Hysteric colic.
  Colica lactantium. Colic  peculiar to nurses.
  Colica lapsonica.   Colic peculiar to Laplanders
  Colica meconialis.  Colic from  meconium in in-
fants.
  Colica mesenteric.!.  Colic from diseased me-
sentery.
  Colica nervosa.  The nervous colic.
  Colica pancreatica.   Colic  from  diseased pan-
creas.
  Colica phlooistica. Colic with inflammation.
  Colica pictonum.  See Colica.
  Colica pituitosa.   The spasmodic colic.
  Colica plethorica.  The inflammatory colic.
  Colica plumbariorum.   The colic of lead-workers.
  Colica pulsatilis.  The inflammatory colic.
  Colica saturnina.  The Devonshire colic.  See
Colica.
  Colica scirrhosa.  The colic from scirrhous tu-
mours.
  Colica spasmodica.  The spasmodic colic.
  Colica stercorea.   Colic from retained  faeces.
  Colica vena.  A branch of the upper mesenteric
vein.
  Colica vena recta. The vein of the colon.
  Colica verminosa.  The colic from worms.
  CO'LICE.  The colic.
  COLIFO'RMIS. (From cola, a strainer, and forma,
a likeness; so called from its  having  many perfora-
tions, like a strainer.)   Califorme os.   A name for
merly given to the ethmoid bone.
  Coli'phium.    (From  kuiXov, a  limb,  and  itfu,
strongly.) A kind of bread given to wrestlers.  It was
made of  flour and bran together, and was thought to
make men athletic.
  Co'lis. See  Coles.
  COLLA'PSUS.  (From collabor, to shrink down.)
A wasting or shrinking ofthe body, or strength.
  Coilate'nna.  A specific vulnerary.
  Collatera'les.  So Spigelius calls the erectores
penis, from their collateral order of fibres.
  Colle'tica.  (From koXXo, glue.)  Conglutinating
medicines.
  Colli'cije.  (From colligo, to collect)   The union
of the ducts, which convey the humours  of  the eyes
from the  puncta lachrymalia to  the cavity ofthe nose.
  COLLl'CULUM.   (Diminutive of collis, a hill.)
1. A small eminence.
  2. The nympha, or prominency, without the vagina
of women.
  COLLIGA'MEN.  (From colligo, to tie together.)
A ligament.
  COLLINS, Samuel, was born in the early part of
the 17th century.  After studying at Cambridge and
Oxford, he went to the Russian court as physician, and
continued there nine years.   On his return, he was
made Fellow of the College of Physicians in  London.
He afterward published a History of tlie Court of Rus-
sia, and, in 1685, a system of anatomy, treating of the
body of man, animals, and  plants,  with numerous
plates.  The comparative anatomy, to which  Dr. Ty-
son greatly contributed, was much  admired, though
now superseded by other publications.
  OOLLIQUAME'NTUM. (From colliqueo,Ui melt)
A term first made  U6e of by Dr. Harvey, in his appli 
COL
COL
eation of it to the first rudiments of an embryo, in ge-
neration.
  COLLI'aUATIVE.  (Colliquative,  from  colli-
queo, to melt)  Any excessive evacuation is so called
which melts down, as it  were, the strength  of  the
body: hence colliquative  perspiration,  colliquative
diarrhoea, Sec.
  COLLI'SIO.   (From collido, to  beat together.)  A
contusion.
  Co'llix.   (From koXov, food.)  A troch, or lozenge.
  COLLOBO'MA.  (From itoAAaio, to glue together.)
Colobroma.  1.  The growing together of the eyelids.
  2. The want of any member ofthe body.
  COLLO'DES.  (From koXXo, glue.)  Glutinous.
  CO'LLUM.  (From kioXov, a member, as being one
of the chief; or diminutive of columna, as being  the
pillar and support of the  head.)   The Neck.  See
Neck.
  COLLUTION.  Collutio.  The washing  of the
mouth, or any other part.
  COLLUTO'RIU.M.   (From colluo, to  wash.)  A
gargarism, or wash for the mouth.
  COLLU'VIES.  (From  colluo, to cleanse.)  Filth;
Excrement.  The discharge from an old ulcer.
  CO'LLYRIS.   (KoXAupjc. A little round cake; so
called from its likeness to a cake.)  A bump, or knob,
which rises after a blow.
  COLLY'R1UM.  (From kioXvio,  to check, and £ouc,
a defluxion; because it stops the defluxion.)   A me-
dicine was formerly so called which  was applied to
check any discharge.  The term is now only given to
fluid applications for the eyes, or eye-waters.
  [Collyria, the  plural of  Collyrium. " The  Colly-
ria  of the  Pharmacopoeia  are metallic lotions, pre-
pared of such strength as to be applicable to the eyes
in many cases of disease;  also occasionally to mucous
membranes of other parts, and to inflamed or exco-
riated surfaces.
  Collyrium plumbi acetatis.  Collyrium of ace-
tate of lead.   This is of use as a sedative and astrin-
gent lotion in some forms of chronic ophthalmia.  It
is also useful as a discutientin erysipelatous and other
superficial inflammations.   It is sometimes  employed
as an injection  in gonorrhoea; but when this practice
is adopted, a weaker solution is preferable.
  Collyrium plumbi  acetatis et opii.  Collyrium
of opium and acetate of lead.  This resembles tlie pre-
ceding, but agrees better with irritable cases of chro-
nic  opthalmia.
  Collyrium zinci acetatis.  Collyriumof acetate
of zinc. A double decomposition takes place during the
preparation of this article;  sulphate of lead is depo-
sited, and acetate of zinc remains  dissolved.  Il is a
valuable astringent collyrium.
  Collyrium zinci sulphatis. Collyriumof sulphate
of zinc.  This is one ofthe best astringent lotions  for
cases of ophthalmia, which  requires remedies of that
class.  I have observed it to agree particularly well
with the weak eyes of nursing women.—Big. Mat.
Med.  A.]
  Coloboma. See Colloboma.
  Colobo'mata.  In Celsus this word is expressed by
curta.  Both the words signify a deficiency in some
part of the body, particularly the ears, lips, or alae  of
the  nostrils.
  Coloca'sia.   (From koXov, food,  and  Kafa,  to
adorn; so called from  its use as a  food, and the cus-
tom of wearing its  flowers in wreaths.)  The faba
iEgyptia.  See Nymphea nelumbo.
  COLOCYNTHIS.  (From  kioXov,  the colon, and
Kivtia, to move;  because of its  great purging powers.)
Coloquinteda.  See Cucumis colocynthis.
  COLOMBO.   See Calumba.
  CO'LON.   (Colon, i. neut;  KoiAov, quasi koiXov;
from  koiXos, hollow: so called from  its capacity, or
from its generally  being found empty, and full of wind
in dissection.)  The greater portion of the large intes-
tine is so called.  It proceeds towards the liver,  by the
name of the ascending portion of the colon; and
having reached the liver, forms a transverse arch
across to the other  side.  The colon  then  descends,
forming what is termed its sigmoid flexure, into the
pelvis, where tbe gut is called rectum.   See Intestine,
  COLOPHO'NIA.  (KoAo^uvia, the city from whence
it was first brought.)  Colophony.  1. The black resin
which remains  in the retort, after distilling the com-
mon resin with a strong fire.
      243
   2. Paracelsus seems to mean by it what is now pre
 scribed by the name of terebinthina coda.
   3. The ancients, and  particularly Galen, seemed to
 understand by it a soft kind of mastich, from Chio,
 probably the same as our Chio turpentine.
   COLOPHONITE.  Resinous garnet of  Hauy and
 Jameson.  A mineral of a blackish or yellowish brown,
 or orange-red colour, and a resino-adamantine lustre,
 found  in  magnetic  ironstone, in Norway and  in
 Ceylon.
   COLOO.UINTIDA.   See Cucumis colocynthis.
   COLOR ATUS. Coloured:  applied to leaves, caly-
 ces, seeds, Sec. to express any colour besides green, as
 in Arum bicolor; or to any part thereof when of ano-
 thei colour than  green,  as in Amaranthus tricolor;
 and to a pcrianthium, when not of a  green colour, as
 that of the Gomphrena globosa:  and the seeds of Cha-
 rophyllum aurcum.
   COLOSTRUM.  (From koXov, food, or xoXXiouat,
 to agglutinate;  so called, either because it  is the first
 food of the young, or from its being at that time pecu-
 liarly glutinous.)   1.  The  first milk in the  breasts
 after delivery.
  2. An emulsion made  by the solution ot turpentine
 with the yelk of an egg.
   COLOT, Germain, a French surgeon of the 15th
 century, appears to have been the  first of the  profes-
 sion who practised lithotomy, that operation  having
 been previously in the hands of itinerant practitioners.
 He acquired great celebrity by his skill, and was much
 in favour with Lewis IX., who granted him a pension.
 Several of his descendants, in succession, enjoyed
 great reputation as lithotomists.
   COLOT, Francis, the last of them, left a treatise,
 published in 1727, describing the method of operating
 with the greater apparatus,  the invention whereof he
 ascribes to John  de Romanis, an Italian physician,
 about two centuries before.  But this has long  been
 superseded by the less apparatus, which Mr.  Sharp
 attributes to another French surgeon, Mons.  Foubert.
   Colotoi'des.  (From KiaXtarns, a lizard,  and cirioc,
 likeness.)   Variegated like the skin of a lizard.   Hip-
 pocrates applied it to the excrements.
   Coloured leaf.  See Leaf.
   COLPOCE'LE.   (From  KoXnos, the vagina, and
 KnXn, a tumour.)  A hernia forced into the vagina.
 See Hernia vaginalis.
  COLPOPTOSIS.  (From koXttoc,  the vagina, and
 ainno, to fall down.)  A bearing down of tlie vagina.
 See Hernia vaginalis.
  COLT'S-FOOT.  See Tussilago.
   CO'LUBER.   (Quod  colit umbram, becaflse  it de-
 lighteth in  the shade.)  A genus  of  animals  in the
 Linnaean arrangement,  of which  there  are  many
 species.
  Coluber berus.  The systematic name of  the vi-
 per, which possesses the power of forming a poisonous
 fluid in little bags near its teeth.  The flesh is perfectly
 innocent, and often taken by  the common  people
 against tlie king's evil, and a variety of disorders of
 the skin.  Experience evinces it  to be an inefficacious
 substance.
  Colubri'na  virginiana.  See Aristolochia ser-
pentaria.
  Colubrinum  lignum.   (Colubrinus; from coluber:
 so called from the snake-like contortions of its  roots.)
 This species of  snake-wood is brought from America.
 It is solid, ponderous, acrid, extremely bitter, and in-
 odorous ; its bark is of a ferruginous colour, covered
 with cineritious spots.
  COLU'MBA.  SeeCalumAa.  .
  COLUMBIC  ACID.   Acidum Columbicum.  " The
 experiments of  Hatchett have proved, that a peculiar
 mineral from Massachusetts, deposited in the British
 Museum, consisted of one part of oxide of iron, and
 somewhat  more than three parts of a white-coloured
 substance,  possessing the properties of an acid. Its
 basis was metallic   Hence he named this Coluni-
 bium, and the acid the Columbic.  Dr. Wollaston, by
 very exact  analytical  comparisons, proved,  that the
 acid of Hatchett was the oxide of the metal lately dis-
 covered in Sweden by Ekeberg, in  the mineral yttro-
 tantalite, and thence called tantalum.  Dr. Wollaa-
 ton's method of separating the acid from the mineral ia
 peculiarly elegant. One part of tantalite, five parts of
 carbonate  of potassa, and two parts of borax, are
 fused together in a platina crucible.  The mass, after 
COM
COM
 being softened in water, is acted on by muriatic acid.
 The iron and manganese dissolve, while the columbic
 acid remains at the bottom.  It is in the form of a
 white powder, which  is insoluble in nitric and sul-
 phuric acids, but partially in muriatic.   Il forms with
 barytes an  insoluble salt, of which the proportions,
 according to Berzelius,  are 24.4 acid, and 9.75 barytes.
 By oxidizing a portion of the revived tantalum or co-
 lumbium, Berzelius concludes the composition of the
 acid to be 100 metal, and 5.485 oxygen."
    COLUMBINE.  See Aquilegia.
    COLU MBIUM.  Hatchett describes  the ore, from
 which Ibis metal is obtained, as being of a dark brown-
 ish gray externally, and more inclining to an iron-gray
 internally; the  longitudinal fracture he  found  lamel-
 lated, and the cross fracture had a fine grain.  Its lus-
 tre was vitreous, slightly inclining, in some parts, to
 metallic;  moderately hard, and very brittle. The co-
 lour of the  streak,  or  powder, was dark chocolate-
 brown.  " If the oxide of cohunbium, described  under
 Columbic  acid,  be  mixed with charcoal, and exposed
 to a violent  heat in a charcoal crucible, the metal co-
 lumbiiun will be obtained.  It has a dark gray colour;
 and when newly abraded, the lustre nearly of iron.
 Its sp. gr., when in  agglutinated  particles, was  found
 by Dr. Wollaston to be 5.61.   These metallic giains
 scratch  glass, and are easily pulverized.  Neither ni-
 tric, muriatic, nor nitro-muriatic acid,  produces any
 change  in this metal, though digested on it for several
 days.  It has been alloyed with iron and tungsten."
    [This metal, which was said to have  been first dis-
 covered in a specimen  found in Massachusetts, it ap-
 pears (Med.  Repos. vol. viii. p. 437,) was taken from a
 spring of water in the town of New-London, in Con-
 necticut, and near the house in which Governor Win-
 throp used to live, about three miles distant from  the
 margin ofthe salt water at the head of the harbour.
    " Within a short time after the  discovery of colum-
 bium by Mr. Hackett in 1801, a metallic substance was
 also discovered  in  Sweden, by Mr. Ekeberg, differing
 from every metal then known to him; and according-
 ly he described  the  properties by wbich it might be
 distinguished from those which it most nearly resem-
 bled.  But although the Swedish metal has retained
 the name of Tantalum, given to  it by Mr. Ekeberg, a
 reasonable degree of doubt has been entertained by
 chemists, whether these two authors had not, in fact,
 described the same substances;  and it has been regret-
 ted that the  discoverers themselves, who would have
 been  most able to remove the uncertainty, had not
 had opportunities of comparing their respective mine-
 rals, or the products of their analyses."—Min. Jour.
   The doubt, however, has been removed, as Dr.  Wol-
 laston had obtained portions of both metals, and upon
 examination and analysis has  determined, that Co-
 lumbium and Tantalum are one and the same me-
 tal.  A.]
   Columbo'be.   See Calumba.
   COLUME'LLA.   (Diminutive of columna,  a co-
 lumn.)  1. A column or little pillar.
   2. The central column, or filament, which unites
 the partitions ofthe capsule of plants.  The seeds are
 usually attached to it.   See also Uvula and Clitoris.
   Columella'ris.  (From columella, a little column.)
 A  name of the dens caninus.
   COLU'MNA.   A  column,  or pillar.   Many  parts
 of the body,  which  in their shape or office resemble
 columns, are so named; as columnae carneae, &c.
   Columna carnea.  See Heart.
   Columna nasi.  The lowest and fleshy part of the
 nose, which forms a part ofthe septum.
  Columna oris.  The  uvula.
  COLUMNIFER.<E.   The  name  of an order of
 plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method,
 consisting of  plants, the  stamina and pistil of which
 have the appearance of a pillar in the centre of the
 flower.
  COLUMNULA.  A little column.  The name given
 by botanists to the filament which  passes through the
 middle of the' capsule of frondose mosses, to which
 the seeds are  connected ; also called Sphrongidium.
  Colu'rium. (Ilapa ro koXXov rov povv: because it
 prevents a defluxion.)  A tent to thrust into a sore, lo
 prevent a defluxion of humours.
  CO'MA.  (From Kia, or Ktia, to lie down.)
  In pathology, a propensity to sleep.   This word
anciently meant any total suppression of the  powers
  of sense; but  now it  means a  lethargic  drowsi-
  ness.
    In botany, I. A fasciculus of leaves on the top of
  a stem or stipe. It is said to be,
    a. Foliose, when formed of leaves; as in Brcmelia
  ananas.
    b. Frondose, when proceeding from the frond at the
  apex ofthe stipe ;  as in Palms.
    c. Bracteal,  formed of floral leaves; as in Laven-
  dula stechas.
    2. Guertner applies this term to the feathery crown
  of seeds furnished  with a capsule.
    Coma somnolentum.  Is when  the patient conli
  nues in a profound sleep; and, when awakened, im-
  mediately relapses, without being  able to keep open
  his eyes.
    Coma vioil.  A  disease where the patients are con-
  tinually inclined to sleep, but cannot
    CO'MATA.   (Comata,  the plural of coma.)   An
  order of the class Neuroses of Cullen's Nosology, em-
  bracing  diseases that are characterized by a diminu-
  tion of  the powers of voluntary motion, with sleep or
  the senses impaired.
    COMATOSE. Having a strong propensity to sleep.
    COMBINATION.  The intimate union of ihe par-
  ticles of different substances by chemical attraction,
  so as to form a  compound possessed of new and pecu-
  liar  properties.
    COMBUSTIBLE. Having the property of burning.
  See Combustion.
    COMBU'STIO.  (From comburo, to burn.) A burn,
  or scald.  See Burn.
    COMBUSTION.  (Combustio;  from comburo, to
  burn.)   Burning.  Among the  various operations of
  chemistry, none acts a more conspicuous  part than
  combustion;  and in proportion to  its utility in the
  science,  the necessity of thoroughly investigating its
  nature and mode of action, becomes more  obvious to
  the philosophical chemist.
          Lavoisier's Theory of Combustion.
    Lavoisie-'s theory of combustion is founded upon
  the absorption of oxygen by a combustible body.
    Taking this for granted, il follows that combustion
  is only the play  of affinity between oxygen, the matter
  of heat, and a combustible body.
    When an incombustible body (a brick for instance)
  is heated, il undergoes no change, except an augmen-
  tation of bulk  and temperature; and when  left to
  itself, it soon  regains its  former state.  But when a
  combustible body is heated to a certain degree, in the
  open air, it becomes on a sudden intensely hot, and at
  last emits a copious stream of caloric and light to the
  surrounding bodies.  During this emission, the  burn-
  ing body gradually wastes away. It either disappears
  entirely,  or its  physical  properties become  totally
  altered.   The principal change it suffers, is that of
  being no longer capable of combustion.  If either of
  these phenomena, namely, the emission  of heat and
  light, and the  waste of substance, be wanting, we do
 not say that a body is undergoing combustion, or that
 it is burning.  It follows, therefore, that every theory
 of combustion ought to explain Ihe following facts:
   1. Why a burning body is consumed, and its indivi-
 duality destroyed.
   2. Why, during the progress of this alteration, heat
 and light  are emitted.
   For the elucidation  of these objects, Lavoisier's
 theory has laid down the following laws:
   1. Combustion cannot take place without the pre-
 sence of oxygen, and is more rapid  in proportion to
 the quantity of this agent, in contact with the inflamed
 body.
  2. In every act of combustion, the oxygen present is
 consumed.
  3. The weight of  the products of  every body after
 combustion, corresponds with the weight of the  body
 before combustion,  plus that  of the oxygen  con-
 sumed.
  4. The  oxygen absorbed by the combustible  body
 may be recovered from the compound formed, and the
 weight regained  will be equal  to the weight which
disappeared during the combustion.
  5. In every instance of combustion, light and heat,
or fire, are liberated.
  6. In a limited quantity of air, only a certain quan-
tity ofthe combustible body can be burnt.
  7. The air, wherein a body has been burnt, is ren
                                       249 
COM
COM
Jered unfit for continuing combustion, or supporting
animal life.
  Though every case of combustion requires that light
and heat should bit evolved, yet tins process  proceeds
very differently in different circumstances; hence the
terms ignition; or glowing heat; inflammation, or ac-
cension ; and detonation, or explosion.
  Ignition lakes  place when the combustible body is
not in an aSriform state.
  Charcoal, pyrophorous,  &.c. furnish  instances of
this kind.
  It seems as if the phenomenon of glowing was pecu-
liar  to  those bodies which  require a considerable
quantity of caloric, to become converted into  the
gaseous state.
  The disengagement of caloric and light is rendered
more evident to the senses in the act of
  Inflammation, or accension.  Here the combustible
substances are more easily converted into an elastic or
aeriform state.  Flame, therefore, consists of the in-
flammable  matter iu the act of combustion in  the
gaseous state. When all circumstances are favourable
to the complete combustion ofthe products, the flame
is perfect; if litis is not  the case, part of the com
bustible body, capable  of being converted  into tlie
gaseous state, passes through Ihe luminous flame un-
burn', and exhibits the  appearance of smoke.  Soot,
therefore, always indicates an imperfect combustion.
Hence a common lamp smokes, an Argaud's lamp
yields no smoke.
  This degree of combustion is very accurately ex-
emplified in the
  Flame of candles.—When  a candle is first lighted,
which must be done by the application of actual flame,
a degree of heat is given to the wick, sufficient to de-
stroy the affinity of its constituent parts ; part of the
tallow is instantly melted, volatilized, and burnt.  As
this is destroyed by combustion, another portion melts,
rises, and supplies  its  place, and undergoes a  like
change.  In this way combustion is maintained.  The
tallow is liquefied as il comes into the vicinity of the
Same, and  is, by the capillary attraction of the wick,
drawn up  to supply the place of what is burnt; tlie
uiuni-lled tallow, by this means, forms a kind of cup.
  The congeries of capilary lubes which form  the
wick is black, because the charcoal of the cotton be-
comes  predominant, the circumambient air is  de-
fended by tbe flame from oxidising it; it therefore re-
mains, for  a considerable time, in its natural state;
but when the wick, by the continual consumption of
tallow, becomes loo long to support itself in a perpen-
dicular position, its upper extremity projects nearly out
of the cone of the flame, and there forms a support
for an accumulation of sool, which is produced by the
imperfect combustion.  A candle, in this situation,
affords scarcely one-tenth of the light it can otherwise
give, and tallow candles, on this account, require con-
tinual snuffing.
   But if the candle be  made of wax, the wick does
not long occupy its place in the middle of the flame ;
its thinness makes it bend on one side, when its length
is too great for its vertical  position; its extremity
comes then into contact with the air, and is completely
burnt, or decomposed, except so much nf il as is de-
fended  by the continual afflux of ihe  melted wax.
This small wick, therefore, performs the office of
snuffing itself.  The difficult  fusibility of wax enables
us to use a thinner wick for it  than can be  used for
tallow,  which is more fusible.  But wax being a sub-
stance which contains much more oxygen than tallow
or oil, the light it affords is not so luminous.
   Detonation is an instantaneous combustion, accom-
panied with  a loud report; it takes place in general
when the compounds resulting from the union of iwo
or more bodies, occupy much more or less space than
the substances did before their union ; a great impulse
is therefore given to the surrounding  air, or else  a
vacuum is  formed, and the air rushing in from all
sides to fill it up is the cause of the report.
   A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases detonates
very loud.   Gunpowder, fulminating gold, silver, and
mercury; oxygenated muriate of potassa; and various
oilier explosive compounds, arc capable of producing
verv loud detonations.
   With respect  to  the disengagement of light and
caloric.
   By the older  chemists, it was universally  supposed
      250
 that the light and heat emitted during combustion,
 proceeded from the inflammable body;  and this opi-
 nion would  indeed appear unquestionable, while the
 composition ofthe atmosphere was imperfectly known.
 The burning body appeared  luminous and  felt hot,
 and  no other agent was supposed to be concerned;
 the conclusion that the light  and heal  were evolved
 from the burning substance, was, therefore, unavoid-
 able.   But when the nature of the  aslmosphere was
 ascertained, and when it became evident thai part of
 the air was  absorbed during combustion, tiie lormer
 conclusion fell to the ground; for when twobodiesexert
 a mutual action on each  other, it becomes d priori
 equally probable thai the products may be derived
 from either of them;  consequently, the light and heat
 evolved might  proceed either from  the  one or the
 other.  Whether they proceed foin  the atmosphere.
 or from the combustible body, they must be separated
 at the part where the combination takes  place: thai Is,
 upon the surface of the burning body itself; and con-
 sequently it appeared luminous and h°ated, while the
 air being invisible escaped  observation.
   When the laws of heat became  known, at least
 when it  was ascertained that bodies contain at the
 same temperature, und in  equal  quantities, either of
 mass or bulk, unequal quantities of  heat, the conclu-
 sion became probable, that the caloric evolved in com-
 bustion proceeded rattier from the oxygen gas of the
 atmosphere, than  from the combustible body; since
 the former contains a much larger quantity than the
 latter.  The caloric evolved was therefore supposed
 to be derived from the condensation ofthe oxygen gas
 in the new combination into which it entered.
I   Though approaching to  the truth, this explanation
j is not strictly true.  It is not merely from ihe oxygen
 gas being condensed that  the caloric is evolved, be-
 cause, in many cases of combustion, the product still
 exists in the gaseous stale, and in others, the quantity
 of caloric evolved bears no proportion to the degreeof
 condensation.  Philosophers ascribed this to a change
 of capacity;  for, in different bodies, the difference in
 the proportion of ihe capacities before and after com-
 bustion, is by no means uniform; and hence the dif-
 ference in the quantities of caloric extricated  in
 various cases of combustion.
   This being premised, il remains to explain the origin
 of the light entitled during combustion ; for although
 we take it for granted that the caloric is evolved from
 the oxygen gas, we cannot infer that the light has the
 same origin.
   It is very probable that light is a constituent part of
 inflammable  bodies; for it is frequently evolved  in
 combinations when the oxygen is merely transferred
 from one inflammable substance to another.   In those
 cases it  must proceed from the inflammable body.
 The accension  of oils by  the affusion  of acids, the
 combustion of metals in  the  same way, furnish in
 stances ofthe kind.
   It seems, therefore, probable, that the light is de-
 rived from the inflammable substance;  and that the
 oxygen, combining with the bases of these substances,
 disengages the light.
   It may be concluded then, that light enters into the
 composition of all combustible bodies;  but as we are
 unable  to separate the light, so  as  to obtain these
 bodies pure, we treat of them as simple bodies.
    According to this theory, the  combustion of phos-
 phorous  in oxygen gas, is, therefore, the effect of a
 double affinity. The basis of the oxygen gas unites
 with  the phosphorus, to  form phosphoric acid ; and
 the light  disengaged from the phosphorus, together
 with the  heat of the oxygen  gas, produces the vivid
 flame.
    The quantity of light emitted  by different bodies  is
 supposed to depend on the quantity contained in them,
 and on the proportion in which it is united to caloric.
    Such is the theory of combustion of Lavoisier, mo-
 dified by Gren, Leonardi, and Richter.
          Thomson's  Theory of Combustion.
    Though the preceding theory of combustion is sim-
 ple and beautiful, il appears, from what we are  now
 going  to state, to  be by no  means  completely satis-
 factory.
    It has misled chemists, by confining the term com-
 bustion to the act of oxygenation, and  considering
 that all bodies, during their combustion, combine with
 oxygen, without at the same time recollecting that this 
COM
COM
latter effect may take place without any of the phe-
nomena usually attendant on combustion ; and that,
though certainly all combustion presupposes the com-
bination of oxygen with a base, yet tins combination
may be, and repeatedly is, effected where no combus-
tion can possibly take' place.  Nothing can be more
evident than'lhe difference which, in numberless in-
stances, prevails between  the act of oxygenation in
bodies  and that  of combustion, inasmuch as neither
Ihe phenomena  attending on, nor the  results arising
from them, are the same.  That  a distinction there-
fore should  be made between these processes is  ob-
vious ; and  it is on this account  that Dr. Thomson
has offered a theory,  which considers this  subject in
a  new point of view, and which bids fair to  enable
us  to estimate the phenomena of combustion much
better than has hitherto been done.
  According lo Dr. Thomson's theory, all the bodies
concerned in combustion are  either, 1. Combustibles.
—2. Supporters of combustion.—3. Incombustibles.
  I. Combustible bodies are those substances which
are said, in common language, lo burn.  During  the
combustion, they appear to emit light and heat, and, at
the same  time, gradually  waste away.   When this
change has reached its maximum, the process of com-
bustion is at an end.
  The class of combustibles is very numerous;  but
all the bodies belonging to it may be  subdivided into
three sets, namely:
   1. Simple combustibles.   2. Compound combus-
tibles.   3. Combustible oxides, &c.
               Simple Combustibles.
   1. Sulphur.             4. Hydrogen gas.
  2. Phosphorus.         5. All the meials.
  3. Diamond, or Carbon.  6. Boron.
             Compound Combustibles.
  The compound combustibles consist of compounds,
formed  by  the simple combustibles uniting together,
and are of course much more  numerous than ihe sim-
ple combustibles.  They may be arranged  under the
five following heads:
   1. Sulphurets.          3. Carburets.
   2. Pliosphurets.         4. Alloys.
   5. Sulphuretted, phosphuretted, and  carburetted
hydrogen.
   The combustible oxides are  either simple, having a
single base, or compound, having mote than one base.
All lite simple combustible oxides are by combustion
converted into acids.
   The compound  combustible oxides are  by far  the
most numerous.
   II. The  supporters of  combustion  are bodies
which are not of themselves, strictly speaking, capa-
ble ff undergoing  combustion, but which are abso-
lutely necessary  for the process;  for no  combustible
body can burn unless some one or other of them be pre-
sent.  Whenever  they arc excluded,  combustion
ceases.  All the supporters of combustion known at
present are oxygen,  chlorine, iodine, and the com-
pounds which these  form with each other, and with
azote.
   There are indeed certain substances besides these,
which possess nearly the same properties; these shall
be  afterward enumerated under  the  title of partial
supporters.
  III. The incombustible bodies are neither capable
of undergoing combustion themselves, nor of support-
ing the combustion of those bodies that are; they are
therefore not immediately connected with combustion ;
though most of them  appear to  be the results of that
process.  Azot, the alkalies, earths, &c. come under
this division.
  Some ofthe alkalies and earths possess certain pro-
perties in common with combustibles, and are capable
of exhibiting phenomena somewhat analogous to com-
bustion ; which  will  be described afterward under
the title of semi-combustion.
  In every case  of combustion, there must therefore
be  present  a combustible  body,  and  a supporter of
combustion.  During combustion, the combustible al-
ways unites with the supporter.  It is this combina
Hon which occasions the apparent waste and alteration
of the combustible.  The new compound thus formed
Is  a product of combustion.   Every product of com-
bustion is either,  1. an acid, or, 2.  an oxide,  tec  It is
true, indeed, that other bodies sometimes make their
appearance during combustion, but these will be found,
upon examination, not to be products, nor to have un-
dergone combustion.
  Thus one of ihe two characteristic  matks which
distinguish combustion, namely, the apparent waste
and alteration of the combustible body, lias been lully
explained.  For the explanation of it we are indebted
to Lavoisier, as stated belbre.
  But  though  ihe combination  of the combustible
with oxygen, or other supporter, be a constant part of
combustion, yet the facility with which combustibles
burn is not proportional lo their apparent affinity tor
oxygen.
  Phosphorus, for instance, burns more readily than
charcoal; yet charcoal is capable of abstracting oxygen
from phosphorus, and of course has a greater  affinity
for it.  Some of tne combustible oxides take fire more
readily than some of the simple combustibles; alkohol,
aether, and oils, are exceedingly combustible, whereas
all the metals require very high temperature when Ihe
supporter is air.
  This greater combustibility of combustible oxides ia
probably owing to the weaker affinity by winch their
particles are united.  Hence they are more easily se-
parated than homogeneous particles, and of course
combine more  readily with oxygen; ibose simple com-
bustibles which melt  easily, or which are in the state
of lastic fluids, are also very combustible, because ihe
cohesion between their particles is easily overcome.
  It is owing to the same inferiority in the cohesion of
heterogeneous  particles, that some of the compound
supporters  occasion  combustion in  circumstances
when the combustibles  would not be acted on  by
simple supporters.
  Thus phosphorus burns in air at the common tem-
perature ;  but  it does not burn in oxygen gas, unless
its temperature be raised. Thus also oils bum  rapidly
when mixed with nitric acid.  Nitrous gas and nitrous
oxide constitute exceptions lo this rule.
  None of the products of combustion are combus-
tible, according to the  definition of combustion here
given.   This want of combustibility is nol  owing to
their being saturated with oxygen; for several of them
are capable of combining with an additional  doseofil.
But, during tins combination, no caloric or  light is
ever emitted; and the compound formed differs essen-
tially from a product of combustion;  for by this addi
tional dose of oxygen, the product is converted into a
supporter.  Hence we see that combustion oughtnot to
be confounded with the combination of a body with
oxygen, as was done formerly.
  Combustion, indeed, cannot  lake place without the
combination of oxygen or other supporter; but  oxygen
may combine  with  bodies  in different  proportions
without the phenomena of combustion;  and the pro-
duet obtained by combustion is capable of becoming
converted into a supporter of combustion; for instance,
if lead be melted, and kept so for some time, it be-
comes  covered with a gray pellicle, or oxide of lead, a
product consisting of oxygen  and lead; but  if this
oxide is suffered to be'heatcd longer, it absorbs an ad-
ditional quantity of oxygen, and becomes converted
into a yellow powder, called yellow oxide of lead.   If
this yellow oxide  be again exposed lo heat, it absorbs
still more oxygen, and becomes converted into red oxide
of lead. . When the  supporters thus formed  by the
combination of oxygen  with products, are made to
support combustion, they do not lose all their oxygen,
but only the additional dose which constituted them
supporters.  Of course they are again reduced  to theii
original state of products of  combustion.  Hence it
follows, thai they owe their properties  as supporters,
not lo the whole of the oxygen which ihey contain, bui
to the  additional dose which  constituted them sup-
porters.  We may therefore call them partial sup-
porters; indicating by the term, that part only  of their
oxygen is capable of  supporting combustion, and not
the whole.
  All the  partial  supporters with which we  are ac-
quainted, contain a metallic basis; for metallic oxides
are the only products at present known, capable  of
combining with an additional dose of oxygen.   It is a
circumstance  highly  deserving  attention, that when
metals  are capable of combining with several doses of
oxygen, the product, or oxide formed by combustion, is
seldom or  never that  which  contains a maximum  of
oxygen.
  Thus it  is evident  that several of the products  ol
                                       251 
COM
COM
combustion are capable of combining with oxygen.
The incombustibility of products, therefore, is not ow-
ing to their want of affinity for oxygen, but to some
other cause.
  No product of combustion is capable of supporting
combustion.  This is not occasioned by any want of
affinity to combustible bodies;  for several of them are
capable of combining with  an  additional dose of their
basis.  But by this combination, they lose their pro-
perties as products, and are converted into combusti-
bles. The  process, therefore,  differs essentially from
combustion.  Thus phosphoric acid, a  product  of
combustion, is capable of  combining with an addi-
tional dose of phosphorus,  and  forming phosphorous
acid, a combustible body.   When  this  last acid  is
heated  in contact with a supporter, it undergoes com-
bustion ; but it is only the additional dose of the com-
bustible which burns, and the  whole is converted into
phosphoric acid.   Hence we  see that it  is not the
whole basis of these compounds  which is  combus-
tible, but merely the additional dose. The compounds,
therefore, formed by the union of a product and com-
bustible, may be termed partial  combustibles; indi-
cating by  the  name, that a part only of the  base  is
capable of undergoing combustion.  Since  the pro-
ducts of combustion are capable of combining with
oxygen, but never exhibit the  phenomena of  combus-
tion, except when they  are in  the  state  of  partial
combustibles, combustible bodies must contain a sub-
stance which they lose in burning, and to which they
owe their combustibility; for, after they have  lost it,
they unite  to  oxygen without exhibiting the  pheno-
mena of combustion.
  Though the  products of  combustion are not capa-
ble of supporting combustion, they not  unfrequently
pari with  their oxygen just as supporters do,  give it
out to combustibles, and convert them into products;
but during this  process, no  heat or  light is ever
evolved.   Water, for instance,  gives out  its oxygen
to iron, and converts  it  into the black oxide,  n pro-
duct.  Thus we  see that the  pxygen of products  is
capable of converting combustibles into products, just
as the oxygen of supporters; but during the-combina-
tion of the last only, are heat and light emitted. The
oxygen of supporters then contain something  which
the oxygen of products wants.
  Whenever  the whole of the oxygen is abstracted
from products, the combustibility of  their  base is  re-
stored as  completely as before  combustion;   but no
substance is capable of abstracting the whole  of the
oxygen, except a combustible, or a partial combustible.
Water, for instance, is a product of combustion, whose
base is hydrogen.  To restore the combustibility ofthe
hydrogen, we have only to mix water with iron or
zinc filings, and an acid ;  the metal is oxidized, and
the hydrogen gas is evolved  as combustible as ever.
But no substance, except a  combustible, is capable of
separating hydrogen gas from water, by  combining
with its oxygen.  Thus we see that combustibles are
capable of restoring the combustibility of the  bases of
products;  but they themselves  lose their combustibility
by the process, and are converted into products. Com-
bustibility, therefore, may be thrown at pleasure from
one body 10 another.
  From these facts it is obvious, that the products of
combustion may be formed without combustion ; but
in these cases a new combustible is  always  evolved.
The process  is merely an interchange of combusti
bility;  for the combustible is converted into a product
only by means of a product.   Both the oxygen and
the base  of the product having undergone  combus-
tion, have lost something which is essential to combus
tion.  The process is merely a double decomposition.
The product yields its oxygen to the combustible, while
at the same time the combustible gives out something
to the base of the product;  the combustibility of that
base then is restored by the loss of its oxygen, and by
the restoration of something  which  it receives from
the other combustible thus converted into a product.
  There is mdeed another method of forming the pro-
ducts of  combustion  without actual combustion in
certain cases; but the  phenomena are much more
complicated.  This method is to expose them  to the
action of some of the supporters dissolved in  water;
especially nitric acid.  Thus most of the metallic ox-
ides may be formed without combustion  by the action
of that acid on the metals.   But, in that case,  a new
      252
supporter is always evolved,namely, nitrous gas; am-
monia, a  new  combustible, is also usually formed;
and, not unfrequently, the product is converted into a
partial supporter.
  No supporter can be produced by combustion, or
by any equivalent process.  As several of the support-
ers consist of oxygen combined with a base, it follows
as a consequence,  that oxygen may combine with a
base without losing that  ingredient, wbich occasions
combustion.  The act of combination of oxygen with
a base, therefore, is by no means  the same with com-
bustion.  If we  take a view of the different support-
ers, we shall  find that all of them which  can be ob-
tained artificially, are procured  either from  othei
supporters, or by the agency of electricity.
  I. Oxygen gas may be procured  from  nitric acid.
and from  several of the  partial  supporters,  as the
black oxide of manganese, the red oxides of lead and
of mercury.  The action of heat is always necessary;
but the process is very different from combustion.
  II. Air, as far as is known at present, cannot be
formed artificially.   The  gas, indeed,  which comes
over during part of the usual distillation of nitrate of
potassa and sulphuric acid, to obtain nitric acid, re-
sembles air very closely.   But it is  obtained from a
supporter.
  III. Nitrous oxide has hitherto been only  pro-
cured from nitrous gas and nitric acid, (in nitrate of
ammonia,) both of which are supporters.
  IV. Nitrous gas can only be  procured by the de-
composition of nitric acid, a supporter.
  V. Oxymuriatic acid, or Chlorine, can be formed
by the action of muriatic acid on the black oxide of
manganese, the red oxides of lead, iron, or mercury;
all of which are partial supporters.
  VI. Nitric acid is formed spontaneously upon the
surface ofthe earth, by processes with which we are but
imperfectly acquainted; but which certainly have no
resemblance  to combustion.  Its oxygen  is probably
furnished  by the air, which is a supporter; at least, it
has been observed, that nitrogen and oxygen, at  high
temperatures, are capable of forming nitric acid.
  This formation of nitric acid by means of electri-
city, has been considered as  a combustion, but for
what reason it is not easy to say: the substance acted
upon is not a combustible with a supporter, but a sup-
porter alone.  Electricity is so far from  being equiva-
lent to combustion, that it sometimes acts in a manner
diametrically opposite; unburning, if we may use the
expression, a substance which has already undergone
combustion, and converting a product into a combus-
tible and a supporter.   Thus  it  decomposes  water,
and converts it  into oxygen and hydrogen gas; there-
fore it must  be capable of supplying the substances
which the oxygen and  combustible lose  when  they
combine by combustion,  and form a product.
  Several of the supporters and partial supporters are
capable of combining with combustibles, without  un-
dergoing decomposition, or exhibiting the  phenomena
of combustion.   In  this  manner,  the yellow oxide of
gold combines with ammonia;  the red oxide of mer-
cury with oxalic acid; and oxymuriatic acid with am-
monia.  Thus also nitrate of potassa  may be com-
bined, or at least intimately mixed, with several com
hustible bodies, as in gunpowder, fulminating powder,
&c.  In all these compounds, the oxygen  ofthe sup-
porter and the  combustible  retain the  ingredients
which render them susceptible of combustion ; hence
the compound is still combustible.   And in  conse-
quence of the intimate combination of the component
parts, the  least alteration is apt to destroy the equili-
brium which subsists between them; the consequence
is, combustion and the formation of a new compound.
Hence these compounds burn with  amazing facility
not only when heated, but when  triturated, or struck
smartly with a hammer.   They  have therefore re-
ceived the name of detonating or fulminating bodies
Thus we have fulminating gold, fulminating mercury,
fulminating powder, &c.
  Such  are the properties of the  combustibles,  the
supporters, and  the products; and such the phenome-
na which  they exhibit when made to act upon each
other.
  If we compare together the supporters and the pro-
ducts, we shall find that they resemble each other in
many respects.  Both of them contain oxygen, or other
supporter, as  an essential constituent part; both are 
COM                                           COM
capable of converting combustibles into products; and
several of both combine with combustibles and with
additional doses of oxygen.   Bui they differ from each
other in  their effects  on combustibles.   The former
only produce combustion; whereas the products con-
vert combustibles into products without combustion.
Now, as  the ultimate change produced upon combus-
tibles by  both these sets ot' bodies is the same, and as
the substance which combines with  the combustibles
is in both cases the same,  oxygen,  for instance, we
must conclude that this oxygen  in the supporters con-
tains something which the oxygen of the products
wants, something which separates during  the passage
of the oxygen from the product to the combustible,
and occasions the  combustion,  or emission of fire,
which accompanies this passage.   The  oxygen  of
supporters  then contains some  ingredient which the
oxygen of products wants.  Many circumstances con-
cur to render it  probable that this ingredient is caloric.
   The combustibles atnd  the products also resemble
each  other.  Both  of them contain the  same or a
similar base ; both frequently combine with combus-
tibles, and  likewise with oxygen; but they differ es-
sentially  in the phenomena which accompany their
combination with  oxygen.   In  the one case, fire is
emitted;  iu the other, not.   If  we recollect that  no
substance but a combustible is capable of restoring
combustibility to the base of a product, and that at its
doing so  it always loses its own combustibility; and if
we recollect farther, that the base of a product does not
exhibit the phenomena of  combustion  even when  it
combines with  oxygen, we cannot avoid  concluding,
that all combustibles contain an  ingredient which they
lose when converted into products, and that this loss
contributes lo the fire which makes its  appearance
during the conversion.  Many  circumstances contri-
bute to render it probable that this ingredient is light.
   If we  suppose  tiiat the oxygen of supporters con-
tains caloric as an essential ingredient, and that light
is a component part of all combustibles, the phenome-
na of combustion  above enumerated, numerous and
intricate as they are, admit of an easy and obvious ex-
planation.   The  component parts of the oxygen of
supporters are two;  namely, 1. a base, 2. caloric.  The
component parts of combustibles  are likewise two;
namely,  1. a base, 2.  light.   During combustion, the
base of the oxygen combines with the base of the com-
bustible, and forms tbe product; while, at the same
time, the caloric ofthe oxygen combines with the light
of the combustible, and the compound flies off in the
form of  fire. Thus combustion is a double decompo-
sition: the oxygen and combustible divide themselves
each into two portions, which combine in pairs; the
one compound is  the  product, and the other the fire,
which escapes.
   Hence the reason that the oxygen of products is
unfit for  combustion.   It wants its caloric.  Hence the
reason that combustion does not take  place when oxy-
gen combines with products, or with the base of sup-
porters.  These bodies contain no light.   The caloric
of tbe oxygen of course is not separated,  and  no  fire
appears.  And  this oxygen still retaining its caloric, is
capable of producing combustion whenever  a body is
presented which contains light, and whose  base has an
affinity for oxygen.  Hence also the reason why a com-
bustible alone can restore combustibility to the base of
a product.  In all such cases, a double decomposition
takes place.  The oxygen  of the product combines
with  the base  of the combustible, while the light
of the combustible combines with the base of the
product.
  But the application of this theory to all the different
phenomena described above, is so obvious, that it is
needless  to give any more  examples.  Let us rather
inquire, with the author, into the evidences which can
be brought forward  in its support.
  As caloric and light  are always emitted during com-
bustion,  it  follows  that they must have previously
existed in the combustible, the supporter, or in both.
  That the oxygen of the supporters  contains either
one or both of these substances, follows incontroverti-
bly from  a  fact already mentioned, namely, that the
oxygen of products will not support combustion, while
that of supporters will.  Hence the  oxygen of sup-
porters must contain something which the oxygen of
the products wants, and this something must be caloric,
or light, or both.
   That the oxygen of some of the supporters at least
 contains caloric, as an ingredient, has been proved, in
 a  atisfactory manner, by the experiments of Craw-
 ford, Lavoisier, and La Place. Thus the temperature
 of hot-blooded animals is maintained by the decompo-
 sition of air.   Now,  if the oxygen of  one supporter
 contains caloric, the same ingredient must exist in the
 oxygen of every  supporter, because all of them are
 obviously in the same state.  Hence we conclude that
 the oxygen of every supporter contains caloric as an
 essential ingredient.
   The light emitted during combustion must either
 proceed from the combustible or the supporter. That
 it proceeds from the combustible, must appear pretty
 obvious, if we recollect that the colour of the light
 emitted during combustion varies, and that this varia-
 tion usually depends, not upon the supporter, but upon
 the combustible.    Thus charcoal burns with a red
 flame, sulphur with a blue or violet, zinc with a green-
 ish white, &c.
   The formation of combustibles  in plants, obviously
 requires the presence and agency of light.  The leaves
 of plants emit oxygen gas, when  exposed to the sun's
 rays, but never in the shade, or in the dark.
   Besides  vegetation,  we  are acquainted with two
 other methods of unburning products, or of converting
 them into products and combustibles, by exposing them,
 in certain  circumstances, to the  agency of fire, or of
 electricity.  The oxides of gold, mercury,  &c. when
 healed to redness, are decomposed, oxygen gas is emit-
 ted, and the pure metal remains behind. In this case,
 the necessary  caloric and light must  be furnished by
 the fire; a circumstance which explains why  such re-
 ductions always require a red heat.  When carbonic
 acid is made to pass repeatedly over red-hot charcoal,
 it  combines with  a portion of charcoal, and  is con-
 verted into gaseous oxide of carbon.  If this gas be  a
 combustible oxide, the base of the carbonic acid and
 its oxygen  must have been supplied with light  and
 caloric from the fire;  but if it be a partial combusti-
 ble, il is merely a compound of carbonic acid  and
 charcoal: which of the two  it is, remains still to be
 ascertained.
   Electricity decomposes water, and converts it info
 oxygen gas and hydrogen gas; it  must, therefore, sup.
 ply the heat and the light which these bodies lost when
 converted into a product.
   These facts, together with the exact correspondence
 ofthe theory given above with the phenomena of com-
 bustion,  render it so probable, that Dr. Thompson baa
i ventured to propose it as an additional step towards a
I full explanation of  the theory of combustion.   Every
 additional experiment has  served, to confirm  it more
 and more.   It even throws light  upon the curious ex-
 periments  of the accension of metals  with  sulphur,
 which succeed in  vacuo,  under  mercury, in  nitrogen
 gas, &c.
   Dr. Thompson has noticed, that the same emission
 of caloric and  light, or of fire,  takes place whea melted
 sulphur is made to combine with potassa, or with lime,
 in a crucible or glass tube, and likewise when melted
 phosphorus is made to combine with lime heated to
 redness.  He supposes that, in all probability, barytes
 and strontia exhibit the same phenomenon when com-
 bined with  melted  sulphur or phosphorus; and per-
 haps some of the metals when combined with phos-
 phorus.
   The phenomena Dr. Thompson explains thus:—The
 sulphur and phosphorus are  in the melted state, and
 therefore  contain caloric as an ingredient; the alka-
 lies, earths, and metals which produce the phenomenon
 in question, contain light as an essential ingredient.
 The sulphur, or phosphorus, combines with the base of
 the metal, earth, or alkali; while at the same lime,
 the caloric, to which the sulphur or phosphorus owed
 its fluidity, combines with the light of the metal, earth,
 or alkali; and the  compound  flies off under the form
 of fire.
  Thus the process  is  exactly  the same  with combus-
 tion, excepting as far as regards  the product.  The
 melted sulphur, or  phosphorus, acts the part of the
 supporter, while the metal, earth, or alkali, occupies
 the place of the combustible.   The first furnishes calo-
 ric, the second light, while the base of each combines
 together.  Hence we see that the base of sulphurets
 and phosphurets resembles tho base of products in
 being destitute of light; the formation of these bodies 
COM
COM
 exhibiting the separation of fire like combustion, but
 the product differing from a product of combustion in
 being destitute of oxygen, Dr. Thompson distinguishes
 the process by the title of semi-combustion; indicating
 by the term, that it possesses one half of the charac-
 teristic marks of combustion, but  is destitute of the
 other half.
   The only part of this theory wbich requires proof
 is, that light is a component part of the earths and al-
 kalies.  But  as potassa and  lime are the  only bodies
 of that nature, which we are certain to be capable of
 exhibiting  the phenomena of semi-combustion,  the
 proofs must of necessity be confined to them.  That
 lime contains light as a component part, has been long
 known.   Meyer and Pelletier observed long ago, that
 when water is poured upon lime, not only heat  but
 light is emitted.  Light is emitted also  abundantly,
 when sulphuric acid is poured upon magnesia, or upon
 lime, potassa, or soda, freed  from  the water of crys-
 tallization.  In all these cases, a semi-combustion takes
 place.   The water and the acid being solidified, give
 out caloric, while the lime or potassa gives out light.
   That lime, during its burning, combines with light,
 and that light is a component part of lime, is demon-
 strated by the following experiment, for which we are
 indebted to Scheele.
   Fluor spar (fluate of lime)  has the property of phos-
 phorescing strongly when heated, but the  experiment
 does not succeed twice with the same specimen.  After
 it has  been once heated sufficiently, no  subsequent
 heat will cause it to phosphoresce.   Now phosphores-
 cence is merely tbe emission of light; light of course
 is a component part of fluor spar, and heat has the
 property of separating it   But the  phosphorescing
 quality of the  spar may be again recovered to it, or,
 which is the same thing, the light which the spar had
 lost may be restored by the following process:—
   Decompose the fluate of lime by sulphuric acid, and
 preserve the fluoric acid separate.   Boil the sulphate
 of lime thus formed, wilh a sufficient quantity of car-
 bonate of soda;  a double decomposition takes place;
 sulphate of soda remains in solution, and carbonate of
 lime precipitates.   Ignite this precipitate in a crucible,
 till it is reduced to lime, and combine it with the fluoric
 scid to which it was formerly united.  The fluor spar
 thus regeneiated, phosphoresces as at first.  Hence the
 lime, during its  ignition, must have combined with
 light.
   That  potassa contains  light, may be proved in the
 same maimer  as the existence of that body in lime.
 Now, as potassa is deprived of its carbonic acid  by
 lime, the Doctor supposes that the process must be a
 double decomposition; namely, that the  base of the
 lime combines with carbonic acid, while its light com-
 bines with the potassa.
   These remarks on semi-combustion might easily be
 much enlarged upon: for it is obvious, that whenever
 a liquid combines with a solid containing light, and
 the product is a solid body,  something analogous to
 semi-combustion must take place.
   COMEDO.  (From comedo, a glutton.)   The come-
 dones nf old writers are a sort of worm which eats
 into tbe skin and devours the flesh.
   CO'MFREY.  See Symphytum.
   Comi'sdi.  The gum-arabic.
   Comi'ste.  The epilepsy.  This name arose from
 the frequency of persons being seized with this disor-
 der, while in the assemblies called Comitia.
   Comitissa.  A  countess.  Some preparations are
 distinguished by this name; as Pulvis Comitissa  de
 Cantia, the Countess of Kent's  powder.  Also the
 Cinchona was called Pulvis Comitissa.
  Commage'num. (From Commagene, a place in Syria,
 whence it was brought.)   Syrian ointment, mentioned
 by Galen.
  COMMANDUCA'TIO. (From c/immana'uco.toeat)
 The act of  mastication, or chewing.
  Comma'nsum.  (From commando, to eat.)  A mas-
 ticatory. A medicine put into the mouth and cbewed,
 lo promote  a discharge of  phlegm, or saliva.
  Commendato'rius.  (From commendo,  to recom
 mend.)  An epithetof the traumatic balsam, tinctura
 Benioes composita, from  its singular virtues and use-
fulness.
  Co'mmi.   Gum.   When alone  it  signifies gum-
arabic.  The Koupi Xcvkov, mentioned by Hippocrates
in his De Morb. Mulieb., is gum-arabic.
     354
   COMMISSURA.   (From  committo, to join  toge-
 ther.)  A suture, juncture, or joint.  A term  applied
 in anatomy to the corners of the Hps, where they meet
 together; and also to certain parts of the brain which
 go across and join one hemisphere to the other.
   Commissura anterior cerebri. The white nerve-
 like substance which crosses the anterior part of the
 third ventricle of the brain,  immediately above the
 infundibulum, and between the anterior crura of the
 fornix ; uniting one hemisphere of the brain  with the
 other.
   Commissura magna  cerebri.  The corpus callo-
 sum of the brain is so termed by some writers.
   Commissura posterior cerebri.  A white nerve-
 like substance, which passes from one hemisphere of
 the  brain across to  the other, immediately  over the
 opening of the aqueduct of Sylvius, in the  posterior
 part ofthe third ventricle of the brain, and above the
 corpora quadrigemina.
   Communicant.   (From  communico, to  make  par-
 take.)  A term applied by  Bellini, to fevers of two
 kinds afflicting tlie same person,  wherein  as one goes
 off the other immediately succeeds.
   Compa'ges.  (From compingo,  to put together.) A
 suture, or joint.  A commissure.
   COMPARATIVE.  That which illustrates by com-
 paring wilh the human body: applied to anatomy and
 physiology.  See Anatomy.
   Compeba.   See Piper Cubeba,
   Complete Flower.  See Flos.
   Completion.  A term used  by  the ancient writers
 in various acceptations; but latterly it signifies only
 tlie same as Plethora.
   COMPLE'XUS.  (From complector, to  comprise.)
 Complexus sea biventer ceroids of Albinus.   Dorso
 trachelon occipital of Dumas.  A  muscle situated on
 the back part of the  neck, that draws the head  back-
 wards, and to one side: and when both act, they draw
 the head directly backward.  It arises  from the  trans
 verse processes of the seven superior vertebrae of the
 back, and four inferior of the  neck, by as  many  dis-
 tinct  tendinous origins; in  its ascent, it  receives a
 fleshy slip from the spinous process of the  first  verte-
 bra of the back: from these different origins it runs
 upwards, and  is every where intermixed with  tendi-
 nous fibres.  It is inserted, tendinous and fleshy, into
 the interior edge of the  protuberance in the middle of
 the os occipitis, and into a part of the curved lino that
 runs forwards from  that protuberance,  ltdiawstlie
 head backwards.
   Complexus  minor.  See Trachelo-mastoideus.
   COMPOSITUS.  Compound.  The result or effect
 of a composition of  different things; or that which
 arises from them.  It stands opposed to simple.   In
 botany, applied to leaves and flowers.  See Flos, and
 Folium.
   COMPOUND.  See Compositus.
   Compound affinity.  See Attraction.
  COMPRESSION.   (Compressio; from  comprimo,
 to press together.)  A diseased state of  the body, or of
 a part, the effect of something pressing upon it.   The
 term is generally applied to the brain.  Compression
of the brain should be distinguished from concussion
 and inflammation.    When the brain  is compressed
either by bone, extravasated blood, or any other fluid,
there is a general insensibility, the eyes are hall'open,
the pupils dilated and motionless, even  when a candle
 is brought near the eye;  the retina is insensible;  the
limbs relaxed; the breathing stertorous;  the  pulse
slow,  and, according  to Abernethy,  less subject  to
 intermission than  in cases of concussion.   Nor  is  the
 patient ever sick, when the pressure on the brain, and
Ihe general  insensibility, are  considerable;  for  the
very action of  vomiting  betrays an irritability in  the
stomach and oesophagus.
  COMPRESSOR.   (Compressor ; from comprimo, to
 press  together.)  A name applied lo  those muscles
 which press together the parts on which they act
  Compressor naris.  Rinaus vel nasalis of Doug-
 las.  Transversalis vel myrtiformis of Winslow. Di-
lator es alarum nasi of Cowper; and Maxillo  narinat
of Dumas. A  muscle of the nose, that compresses the
 alae towards the septum nasi, particularly when  we
 want to smell acutely.  It also corrugates the nose, and
 assists in expressing certain passions.  It arises, by a
 narrow  beginning, from the root of the ala nasi exter-
 nally, and spreads into a number of thin, separate 
CON
CON
fibres, which run up along the cartilage in an oblique
manner towards the back of the nose, where it joins
With its fellow, and is inserted  into the  narrow ex-
tremity of the os nasi, and nasal process of the supe-
rior maxillary bone.
  COMPRESSUS.  Compressed; flattened laterally;
applied to leaves.  See Leaf.
  COMPTONITE.  A new mineral first brought into
this country  by Lord Compton, and  found  in drusy
cavities, in ejected masses, on Mount Vesuvius.
  Compu'nctio. (From compungo, to prick.) A punc-
ture.
  CONA'RIUM.  (From  koivos: so named from  its
conical shape.)   A cone.   See Pineal gland.
  Concau'ra.  (From con, with, and  causa, a cause.)
A cause which co-operates with another iu the pro-
duction ol a disease.
  CONCAVUS.   Hollow; depressed  in  the middle.
Applied to leaves, petals,  &c. depressed in their cen-
tre, owing, as it were, to a tightness in some  part of
the circumference ; as in  Cyamus nelumbo, and the
petals  of the Galanthus nivalus.
  CONCENTRATION.  (Concentratio ; from con,
and  centrum, a  centre.)   The volatilizing of part of
the water of fluids, in order to improve their strength.
The matter to be concentrated, therefore, must be of
superior fixity to water. This operation is performed
on some acids, particularly  the  sulphuric and phos-
phoric. It is also employed In solutions of alkalies and
neutral salts.
   CONCENTRIO.  Bulbus concentricus.  A concen-
tric bulb, is one of the laminated  kind, well illustrated
in the common onion, Allium cepa.
   CONCEPTACULUM.  A former name for  what is
now called in botany receptaculum.
   CONCE'PTION.   (Conceptio;  from  concipio,  to
conceive.)   The impregnation of the ovulum  in the
female ovarium, by the subtile  prolific aura  of the
semen virile.  Iu order to  have  a fruitful  coition, it is
necessary that the semen be propelled into the uterus,
or vagina, so that its fecundating vapour shall  be con-
veyed through the Fallopian tube to the ovarium: it is
also necessary that there be a certain state of the ova-
rium of the female in order to impregnate it;  which
is, that the  ovum  shall be mature, and embtaced by
the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube, to convey that vivi-
 fying principle to the ovum.  See Generation.
   CO'NCHA.   (ConcAa,  Koyxi, a  liquid measure
among the Athenians.)  A term applied by anatomists
to several parts of the body; as the hollow of the ear,
the spongy bones of the nose, &c.
   Concha auriculje.  See Auricula.
   Concha auris.   The hollow part of the cartilage of
the outer ear.
   Concha maroaritifera.  The shell from  which
pearls are obtained.  See Margarita.
  Conch je narium.  The turbinated portion  of the
ethmoid bone, and the inferior spongy bones of the
nose, which  are covered  by the Schneiderian mem-
brane, are so termed.
   CO'NCHUS.  (From Koyv/7, a shell; so  named from
their likeness to a shell.) The cranium, and tbe cavity
of the eye.
  [CONCHOLITE. See  Organic rdics.}
   Conct'dkns.   (From  concido, to  decay.)   1.  A
decrease of bulk  in the whole  or  any part  of the
body.
  2. A diminution of a tumour.
  Concoagula'tio. (From con, and coagulo, to co-
agulate together.)  The coagulation or crystallization
of different  salts, first dissolved together in the same
fluid.
  CONCO'CTIO. (From concoquo, to digest.)  1. Con-
coction ; digestion.  This term was formerly very
generally used to express that operation of nature upon
morbid matter  which renders it fit to be separated
from the healthy fluid.
  2. The alteration which the food  undergoes in the
prima: vise.
  Concrkma'tio.   (From con, and cremo, to burn to-
gether.)  Calcination.
  CONCRETION.  (Concretio; from concreseo, to
grow together.)
  1. The condensation of any fluid  substance into
a more solid consistence.
  2. The growing together of parts which, in a natu-
ral state, are separate.
  CONCU'RSUS.  (From concurro, to meet together.)
The congeries or collection of symptoms which con-
stitute and distinguish tlie particular disease.
  CONCUSSION.   (From  concutio, to shake toge-
ther.)  Concussion of the brain.  Various  alarming
symptoms, followed sometimes by the most fatal con-
sequences, are found to  attend great violence offered
to the head;  and upon the strictest examination, both
of the living and  the dead, neither fissure, fracture,
nor extravasation of any kind can be discovered. The
same symptoms and the same events are met  with
when the head has received no injury at all ab externo,
but has only been  violently shaken; ' av, when only
the body, or general  frame, has seemed to have sus-
tained the violence.  The symptoms attending a con-
cussion, are  generally in proportion to the degree of
violence  which the  brain itself has sustained, and
which, indeed, is cognizable only by the symptoms.
If the concussion be very great, all sense and power of
motion are immediately abolished, and death follows
soon; but between ibis degree and that slight confusion
(or stunning, as it  is called,) which attends most vio-
lences done  to the head,  there aie many shades.  The
following is A bernethy's description  of the  symptoms
of concussion, which he is of opinion, may be divided
into three stages^
  The first is that state of insensibility and derange-
ment of  the bodily powers which  immediately suc-
ceeds the accident". While it lasts, the patient scarcely
feels  any injury thai may be inflicted on  him.  His
breathing is difficult, but in  general without stertor;
his pulse intermitting, and his extremities cold. But
such  a state cannot last long;  it goes off gtadually,
and is succeeded by another, which is considered us
the second stage of concussion.  In this, the pulse and
respiration become better, and, though not regularly
performed, aie sufficient to maintain  lite, and to diffuse
warmth  over the extreme parts of the  body.  The
feeling of the patient is  now so far restored, that he is
sensible of his skin being pinched; but he lies stupid
and inattentive to slight external impressions. As the
effects of concussion diminish, he becomes capable of
replying  to  questions put lo him in a  loud tone of
voice, especially when they refer to his chief suffering
at the time, as  pain in the head, &c; otherwise he
answers  incoherently, and as if his  attention was
occupied by  something  else.   As long as the stupor
remains, the inflammation of the brain seems  to be
moderate; but as tlie former abates, the latter seldom
fails to increase ; and this constitutes the third  stage,
which is the  most important of the series of effects
proceeding from a concussion.
  These several stages vary considerably in their de-
gree  and duration; but more or le>s of each will be
found to take place in eveiy instance where the brain
has been violently shaken.   Whether  they bear any
certain proportion to each other or not, is not known ;
indeed, this will depend upon such a variety of circum-
stances in the  constitution, the injury, and  lite alter
treatment, that it must be difficult to determine.
  To distinguish between an extravasation and a con-
cussion by the symptoms only, Mr. Potts says, is fre-
quently a very difficult matter; sometimes an impossi-
ble one.  The similarity of the effects, in some  cases,
and the very small space of time which may intervene
between  the going off of the one and accession of  the
other, render this a very nice exercise ot' the judgment.
The fii st stunning or deprivation of sense, whether
total or partial, may be from either, and  no man can
tell from  which; but when these first symptoms have
been  removed, or have spontaneously disappeared, if
such  patient is again oppressed  with drowsiness, or
stupidity, or  total or partial loss of sense, il then  be-
comes probable that  the first complaints were from
concussion, and that the latter are from extravasation;
and the greater the distance of time  between the two,
the greater is the probability not only that an extrava-
sation is the cause,  but that the extravasation is of
the limpid  kind,  made gradatira, and within the
brain.
  Whoever  seriously reflects on  the nature of these
two causes of evil within the cranium, and considers
them as liable to frequent combination in the  same
subject, and at the  same time considers that, in  many
instances, no degree of information can be obtained
from the only person capable of giving it, (the patient)
will immediately be sensible how very difficult a part 
CON
CON
a practitioner has to act in many of these cases, and
how very unjust it must be to  call  that ignorance
wiiich is only a just diffidence arising from the obscu-
rity of the subject, and the impossibility of attaining
materials to form a clear judgment.
  Abernethy observes, tbat in cases of simple concus-
sion, the insensibility is not  so great, as where com-
pression exists, the pupils are more contracted,  the
muscles less relaxed, little or  no stertor attends, but
the pulse is very intermitting, and in slight cases there
is often considerable sickness.
  Very  different modes of  treating these accidents
have been practised, and no doubt tbe same means
should  not be pursued indiscriminately.  Much must
depend on the state of the patient, when he received
the injury, the degree of this, the time which has
elapsed  since,  and other  circumstances.  Abernethy
considers, that in the first stage little should be done;
that the stimulants often employed  may be even inju-
rious ; but more especially so in the second stage, in-
creasing the tendency to  inflammation; and where
this has come on, that the antiphlogistic plan  must be
actively pursued.   However, a moderate abstraction
of blood, general or topical, will be commonly proper
at first, where  the habit  will allow it, as' congestion
may be  suspected, and to obviate inflammation, espe-
cially where the person was intoxicated at the time of
the accident; and the effect of this measure may influ-
ence the subsequent treatment.  If the pulse rose after
it, and the patient became more sensible, we should be
led to  pursue  the  evacuating  plan, taking  perhaps
more blood, exhibiting active cathartics, as the bowels
will be found very torpid, applying cold lotions to the
head, Sec.  These means, however,  will be especially
called  for,  when  marks  of inflammation  appear.
Sometimes brisk emetics have been  very beneficial, as
sulphate of  zinc,  &c.: they are  particularly recom-
mended, where  the person was under the influence of
anger;  or the stomach full, when  the accident hap-
pened; but they are liable to objection, where there
are marks of congestion, or  increased action in the
vessels of the  head.   If  bleeding should lower the
pulse, and render tbe patient worse,  evacuations must
not be pursued ; it may be better generally to wait the
gradual return  of  sensibility,  unless the torpor  be
alarming, like a state of syncope:  in which case, or if
it continue very long, stimulants  appear justified, as
ammonia, or others of transient operation, with a blis-
ter to the head, to restore  some degree of sensibility.
If, in the sequel, marks of irritation  appear, as spasms
or convulsions, opium joined with antimony, or in the
form of Dover's powder, will probably be useful, the
necessary evacuations being  premised, and the warm
baih.  In all cases the head should  be kept quiet; as
the patient is convalescent,  tonics, and the shower-
bath may be employed with advantage; and it will
be particularly  necessary to avoid great bodily ex-
ertion,  stimulating  liquors,  &c.   Should paralytic
symptoms remain, stimulants, general or local, may
be required.  Where  alarming symptoms follow an
injury to the head, extravasation may be suspected:
and the operation of trepanning,  skilfully performed,
will  do no harm to the patient, but may materially
relieve, even by the loss of blood attending.
  CONDENSATION.  (Condensatio; fromcondenso,
to make thick.)   A thickening of any fluid.
  CONDIME'NTUM.  (From  condio, to preserve, or
season.)  A condiment, preserve, or sweetmeat.
  Condu'ctio.  (From conduco,  to draw along.^  In
Coelius Aurelianus, it is a spasm, or  convulsion, draw-
ing the muscles  out of their proper positions.
  CONDUCTOR.  (From conduco, to lead, or guide.)
A surgical instrument, the use of which is to direct the
knife in certain operations.  It  is more commonly
called a director.
  CONDUPLICATUS.  Folded.  Applied to leaves,
when tbe margins are clapped flatly together; as in
Roseau purpurea, and  the  bases  of  sword-shaped
leaves.  See Leaf.
  CO'NDYLE.  (Condylus; from  kovSv, an  ancient
cup, shaped like a joint.)  A  round eminence of a
bone in any of the joints.
  CONDYLOMA.  (Condyloma, atis. n.; from kov
ivXos, a tubercle, or knot.)  A soft, wart-like excres-
cence, that appears about the anus and pudendum of
both sexes.   There are several  species of condylo-
mata, which have received names from their appear-
      236
 ances;  as ficus,  crysta, thymus, from their resem
 blance to a fig, Sec.
   CONE.  See Strobilus.
   Conki'on.   (From Kiavav, to turn round.)  In Hip-
 pocrates it imports hemlock.  It is said to be thus
 named, because  it produces  a vertigo  in those who
 take it inwardly.   See Conium.
   Conk'ssi  cortex.   See  Nerium  antidysenteri-
 cum.
   CONFE'CTION.  (Confectio, onis.  f.\  from con-
ficio,  to  make up.)   A confection.   In general,  it
 means any thing  made  up with sugar.   The term, in
 the new London  Pharmacopoeia, includes those arti-
 cles which were formerly called electuaries and con-
 serves, between which there do not appear to be suffi-
 cient grounds to make a distinction.
   [" Confections are soft solids, in the composition of
 which sugar forms a principal article.  The term in-
 cludes what have been called conserves, made from
 recent vegetable substances,  beaten with sugar as ti
 preservative;  and electuaries, which were formed of
 dry powders,  &c. brought  to a proper consistence
 with syrup, either to facilitate their deglutition, or to
 conceal their taste."—Big. Mat. Med.
  The Pharmacopoeia ot the United States has tbe
 following :—Confectio aromatica, Confectio aurantii
 corticis,  Confectio cassia, Confectio rosa,  Confectio
 scammonia, Confectio senna.   A.]
  Confectio amygdalarum.  Confection of almonds.
 Take of sweet almonds, an ounce; Acacia gum pow-
 dered, a drachm ;  refined sugar, half  an ounce.  The
 almonds having been previously macerated  in water
 and their external coat removed, beat  the whole to
 gether, until they are thoroughly incorporated.  It  has
 been objected to the almond mixture, which is an article
 of very general use, that it requires considerable time
 for its extemporaneous preparation, and that it spoils,
 and cannot be kept when it  is made  This will be
 obviated by the present form, which does keep for a
 sufficient length of time, and rubs down into the mix-
 ture immediately.
  Confectio  aromatica.  This preparation was for-
 merly called  Confectio cardiaca.  Confectio Ralrigh-
ana.  Take of cinnamon bark, nutmegs, of each two
ounces; cloves, an ounce; cardamom seeds, half an
ounce; saffron dried, two ounces; prepared shells, six-
teen ounces;  refined sugar powdered,  two pounds;
 water, a pint.  Reduce the dry substances, mixed to-
gether, to very fine powder; then add the water gra-
dually, and mix  the whole, until it is  incorporated.
This preparation is now much simplified by  the Lon-
don college.   It is an excellent medicine, possessing
stimulant, antispasmodic, and adstringent virtues; and
 is exhibited with these views to children and adults,
 in  a vast variety of diseases,  mixed  with other medi-
cines.   It may  be given  in doses  of 10  gr. to  a
drachm.
  Confectio  aurantiorum.   Conserva corticis exte-
rioris aurantii hispalensis.  Conserva flavedinus cor-
 ticum aurantiorum.  Take of fresh external rind of
oranges, separated by rasping, a pound;  refined sugar,
three pounds.  Bruise the rind with a wooden pestle,
in  a stone mortar; then, after  adding the sugar, bruise
it again, until  the whole is thoroughly  incorporated.
This is well calculated to form the basis of a tonic and
stomachic confection,  and  may be  given  alone in
doses  of  from two to  five drachms, twice or three
 times a day.
  Confectio   cardiaca.  See  Confectio aromatica:
  Confectio  cassije.  Electuarium cassia.   Electu-
 arium e cassia. Confection of cassia.  Take of fresh
 cassia pulp, half a pound; manna, two ounces; tama-
 rind pulp, an ounce;  syrup of roses,  half a pint.
 Bruise the manna; mell it in the syrup by a water-
 bath ; then mix in the pulps, and evaporate down to a
 proper consistence.  This is a very elegant, pleasant,
 and mild aperient for the feeble, and  for children.
 Dose from two drachms to an ounce.
  Confectio  opii.   Confectio opiata.   Philonium
 Londinense.   Philonium Romanum. Confection of
 opium.  Take of hard opium powdered, six drachms;
 long pepper, an ounce; ginger  root, two ounces;  cara-
 way-seeds, three ounces;  syrup, a pint.  Rub together
 the opium and the syrup pteviously heated;  then add
 the remaining articles reduced to powder, and mix.
 To the credit of modern pharmacy, this is the only one
 that remains of  all those complicated and confused 
CON
CON
preparations called mithridate, theriaca, etc.; it more
nearly approximates, in its composition, the philonium
than any other, and may be considered as an effectual
substitute for them in practice. This very warm and
stimulating confection is  admirably calculated to re-
lieve diarrhoea, or spasms ot' the stomach and bowels,
and is frequently ordered  in doses of from 10 grs.  lo
half  a diaclun.   About  36 grains  contain one  of
opium.
   Confectio  piperis nigri.  Confection  of black
pepper.  Take of black jivpper; elecampane, of each
a pound;  fennel seeds, three pounds; honey; refined
sugar, of each two pounds.   Rub the dry  ingredients
together, so as to reduce them to a very fine powder;
then, having added the honey, rub them again so that
the whole may incorporate.  This confection is given
internally against a relaxed condition of the extremity
ofthe rectum, producing partial prolapse, and against
tbat piley state which results  from weakness.   A
similar compound has been long celebrated  and  sold
under the name of Ward's paste.
   Confectio  ros/b  caninje.  Conserva cynosbati.
Conserva fnidus cynosbati.  Conserve of hips.  Con-
fection of dog-rose.  Take of dog-rose pulp, a pound;
refined sugar powdered, twenty ounces.   Expose the
pulp in a water bath to a  gentle heat; then add the
sugar gradually, and rub them together until they are
thoroughly incorporated.   This preparation is cooling
and adstringent; it is seldom given alone, but mostly
joined to some other  medicine, in the form of linctus,
or electuary.
   Confectio  ROSJE gallicje. Conserva rosa. Con-
serva  rosarum  rubrarum.   Conserve of red rose.
Take of the petals of the red rose, before it is expanded,
and without the claws, a pound; refined sugar, three
pounds.  Bruise the petals in a stone mortar; then,
having added the sugar, beat them again together, until
they are thoroughly incorporated. This is an excel-
lent sub-astringent composition.  Rubbed down with
water, it forms ah excellent drink, with some lemon
juice,  in  hemorrhagic complaints;   it may also  be
given with vitriolated zinc,  iu the form of an electuary.
  Confectio rut^:.  Electuariumebaccis lauri. Con-
fection of rue.  Take of rue leaves dried,  caraway
seeds, bay-berries, of each an ounce and a half; saga-
penum, half an  ounce; black pepper, two drachms;
clarified honey, sixteen ounces.  Rub  the dry articles
together, into a very fine powder; then add the honey,
and mix the whole.  Its use is confined to clysters.
   Confectio scammoneje.  Eleduarium  scammonii.
Electuarium e scammonio.  Eleduarium caryocosti-
num.   Confection of scatnmony. Take of scanimony
gum  resin  powdered, an  ounce and a half; cloves
bruised, ginger root powdered, of each, six drachms;
oil  of caraway, half a  drachm; syrup of  roses,  as
much as is sufficient. Rub the dry articles  together,
into very fine powder; next rub them  again while the
syrup is gradually added; then add the oil of caraway,
and mix the whole well together. This is  a  strong
stimulating cathartic, and calculated to remove worms
from the priniae viae, with which view it is mostly ex-
hibited.  Dose from 3ss. to 3j.
  Confectio  sennje. Electuarium  senna.   Eledu-
arium lenitivum. Confection of senna. Take of senna
leaves, eight ounces;  figs, a  pound;  tamarind pulp,
pulp of prunes, cassia pulp, of eacii half a pound ;
coriander   seeds,  four ounces;  liquorice  root, three
ounces; refined sugar, two pounds and a half.  Pow-
der the senna  leaves with the coriander  seeds, and
separate, by sifting ten ounces of the mixed powder.
Boil, the remainder with the figs and the liquorice-root,
in four pints of water, until it be reduced to half; then
press out and strain the liquor.  Evaporate the liquor,
until a pint and a half only remains of the whole;
then add the sugar, to make syrup.   Lastly, mix the
pulps gradually with the syrup, and, having added the
sifted powder, mix the whole  together.  This is  a
mild and elegant aperient,  well adapted for pregnant
women, and those whose  bowels  are easily moved.

  CONFERTUS.  Clustered, or crowded together:
applied to  leaves.  See Leaf.
  CONFERVA.  (From conferveo, to knit together.)
1. The name of a genus of  plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Alga.
  2. A kind of moss: named from its use formerly in
healing broken bones.
I   Conferva helminthocortos.  See Corallina cor-
 sicana.
   Conferva  rivalis.  This plant, Conferva; fila-
 mentis simplicissimus aqualibus longissimus, of Lin-
 naeus, has  been  recommended in cases of spasmodic
 asthma, phthisis, Sec. on account of the great quantity
 of vital air it contains.
   CONFIRMA'NTIA.  (From con, and firmo,  to
 strengthen.)   1.  Restoratives.
   2.  Medicines which lasten the teeth in their sockets.
   CONFLUENT.   Running together.   Applied  to
 eruptions.  See  Variola.
   CONFLU'XION.  Much used by Hippocrates, and
 his interpreter Galen, from a  notion that parts at a
 distance have mutual consent with  one another, and
 that  they are all perspirable by many subtle streams.
 Paracelsus, according to his way, expressed the former
 by confederation.
   CONFORMA'TIO.   (From conformo, to shape or
 fashion.)   Conformation.   The  natural  shape and
 form of any part.
   Conforta'ntia.   (From  conforto, to  strengthen.
 Cordial and strengthening medicines.
   Confortati'va.  The same.
   Confu'sio.  (From confundo, to mix together.)  A
 confusion, or disorder in the  eyes, proceeding from a
 rupture  of the  membranes, which  include the hu-
 mours, by which means they  are all confounded to-
 gether.
   Congela'ti.  (From  congelo, to freeze.) Congela-
 tici.   Persons afflicted with a  catalepsy are so called,
 by which all sensation seems to be taken away.
   CONGELA'TION.  (Congelatio; from congelo, to
 freeze.)  That change of  liquid bodies which takes
 place when they pass  to  a solid  state, by losing the
 caloric which kept them in a state of fluidity.
   Congelati'va.   (From congelo, to congeal.)  Medi-
 cines that inspissate humours, and stop fluxions and
 rheums.
   CO'NGENER.  (From con,  and genus, kind.)  Of
 the same kind;  concurring in  the same action.  It is
 usually said of the muscles.
   CONGESTION.   (From congero, to  amass.)  A
 collection of blood or other fluid;  thus we say a con-
 gestion of blood  in the vessels, when  they are over dis-
 tended, and the motion is slow.
   CONGLOBATE.  Conglobatus ;  from conglobo, to
 gather into a ball.) 1. A term applied  lo a gland,
 Glandula conglobata,\\hich is formed of a contortion
 of lymphatic vessels, connected together  by  cellular
 structure, having neither a cavity nor any excretory
 duct: such  are the mesenteric, inguinal, axillary
 glands, &.c.  See Gland.
   2. A conglobate flower, is a compound one growing
 in the form of a sphere or globe.
   CONGLOMERATE. (Conglomeratus; from con-
 glonuiro, to heap upon one.)   1. Applied  to a gland,
 Glandula conglomerata, which consists of a number
 of smaller  glomerate glands,  the excretory ducts  of
 which all unite into one common  duct: such are the
 salival, parotid glands, Sec.
   2. Conglomerate flowers, are such as arc heaped to-
 gether on a footstalk, to which they are  irregularly,
 but closely connected.  See Panicula.
   CONGLOMERITE.   A compound mineral mass,
 in  which angular fragments of rocks are imbedded.
 The Italian term brecchia, has the same meaning.  In
 pudding  stone,  tbe imbedded fragments  are round,
 bearing the marks of having been polished by attrition.
  CONGLUTIN A'NTIA.   (From conglutino, to glue
 together.) Healing medicines;  and such as unite parts
 disjoined by accident.
  CONIC US.  Conical. Applied to leaves, nectaries,
 receptacles, Sec—Nectarium contcum, in tlie  Ulricu-
 lariafoliosa, and the receptacle ofthe daisy, Anthemis
 arvensis, cotula, and Matricaria chamomilla.
  CONLFERiE.  Cone-bearing plants.  The name of
 an order in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Me-
 thod.
  CO'NIS.  Kovts-  Dust; fine powder; ashes; ank
 in the hair; scurf from  the head; and sometimes it
 signifies lime.
  CON1TE.  1.  An ash or  greenish-gray coloured mi-
 neral, which becomes brown on exposure to air.   It is
 found in Saxony  and Iceland.
  2. Dr. Maccullock has given ibis name to a pulveru-
 lent mineral, as fusible as glass into a transparent Lead,
           1            "                OCT 
CON                                            CON
which he found in the trap hills of Kilpatrick, and the
Isle of Sky.
  [3. The petrifaction of a conus.  See Organic re-
lics. A.]
  CONITJM.  (From  Kovta, dust, according to Lin-
naeus ; or from xiavaia, circamago, on account of its
inebriating and poisonous quality.)  Hemlock.
  1. Tbe name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.   Class, Penlandria;  Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the officinal hem-
lock.  See Conium maculatum.
  Coniuk maculatum.  The systematic name for the
cicuta of the  pharmacopoeias.  It is called  by some
camaran; by  others abiotos; and, according to Ero-
tian, cambeion is an old Sicilian word«for cicuta.  Ci-
cuta major fatida.  Conium—scminibus striatis, of
Linnaeus.
  Hemlock is found in every part of England,  and is
distinguished from those plants which bear  some re-
semblance to  it, by  the spotted stem.  It is generally
believed to be a very active poison.  In a very  mode-
rate dose it is apt to occasion sickness and vertigo; in a
larger quantity it produces anxiety, cardialgia, vomit-
ing, convulsions, coma, and death.  Baron Stoerk  was
the first  who brought hemlock into repute as a  medi-
cine of extraordinary efficacy: and although we have
not in this country any direct facts, like those men-
tioned by  Stoerk, proving that inveterate scirrhuses,
cancers, ulcers, and many other diseases hitherto deem-
ed irremediable,  are to be completely cured by the
cicuta; we have however the testimonies of several
eminent  physicians, showing that  some complaints
which had resisted other powerful remedies, yielded to
hemlock ; and that even  some disorders, which if not
really cancerous, were at least suspected to be of  that
tendency, were greatly benefited by this remedy.   In
chronic rheumatisms, some glandular swellings,  and in
various  fixed  and periodical pains, the cicuta is now
very generally employed; and from daily experience,
it appears in such cases to be a very efficacious remedy.
It has also been nf singular use in the hooping-cough.
Nor is  it less efficacious when applied externally; a
poultice made of oatmeal and the expressed juice, (or
a decoction of  the extract, when the other cannot be
obtained,) allays the most excruciating torturing pains
of a cancer, and thus gives rest to the distracted patient
  The proper method of administering conium inter-
nally, is to begin with a few grains of the powder or
inspissated juice, and gradually  to increase  the dose
until a giddiness affects the head, a motion is felt in the
eyes as if pressed outwards, with a slight sickness and
trembling agitation of the body.  One or more of these
symptoms are the evidence of a full dose, which should
be continued until they have ceased, and then after a
few days tbe dose may be increased; for little advan-
tage can  be  expected but by a continuance of the
greatest quantity the patient can bear.   In some con-
stitutions even small doses greatly offend, occasioning
spasms, heat and thirst; in such instances it will be of
no service.  As the powder of  the dried leaves  has
been thought to act, and may be depended upon with
more certainty than the extract, the following direction
should be observed  in the preparation:—Gather the
plant  about the  end of June, when it is in flower;
pick off the little leaves, and throw away the leaf-
stalks: dry the small selected leaves in a hot sun, or in
a tin or  pewter dish before the fire.  Preserve them in
bags made of strong brown paper, or powder them
and keep the powder in glass phials where the light is
excluded ; for  light  dissipates the beautiful green co-
lour very soon, and thus the medicine loses its appear-
ance, if not its efficacy: this mode is recommended by
Dr. Withering.  The extract should also be made of
tbe plant gathered at this period.  From 2 to 20  grains
of the powder may be taken twice or thrice a day.
  CONJUGATUS.  Conjugate or yoked: applied to
leaves, which are said to be conjugate or binate. They
consist of one pair of leaflets; as in the Mimosa.
  CONJUNCTIVA.  Membrana conjunctiva.   The
conjunctive membrane of the eye;  a thin,  transpa-
rent, delicate membrane, that lines the internal  super-
ficies of one eyelid, and is reflected  from thence over
the anterior part of the  bulb, then reflected again to
the edge  of the other eyelid.   That portion  which
covers the transparent cornea cannot, without much
difficulty, be separated from it  Inflammation of this
membrane is called ophthalmia.
      258
  CONJUNCTUS.  Conjoined.   A botanical term
 applied to a tuber which is said to be conjoined when
 in immediate contact with another, as in many of the
 Orchides.
  CONNA'TUS.  (From con, and nascor, to grow
 together.)  1. Born with a person; the same with con-
 genitus.
  2. In botany it is applied to  leaves, which are said
 to be connate when united at their base; as in Chlora
perfoliata.
  CONNEXION.  See Articulation.
  CONNIVENS.  (From conniveo, to make as if he
 did not see.)  In botany applied to petals of flowers,
 as in those of the Rumex, and to the receptacle of the
 fig, which the fruit really is, being a  fleshy connivent
 receptacle, enclosing and hiding the florets.
  Connutri'tus.   (From con, and  nutrior, to be
 nourished with.)  It is what becomes habitual to a
 person  from his  particular nourishment,  or what
 breaks  out into  a disease in process of time, which
 gradually had its foundation in the first  aliments, as
 from sucking a distempered nurse, or the like.
  Conquassa'tio.  Conquassation.   In pharmacy it
 is a species of comminution, or an operation by which
 moist concrete substances, as recent vegetables, fruits,
 the  softer  parts  of animals,  &c.  are agitated  and
 bruised, till,  partly by their proper succulence, or by
 the affusion of some liquor, they are reduced to a soft
 pulp.
  CONRI'NGIUS, Herman, was born at Norden, in
 East Friesland,  1606,  and graduated in medicine at
 Helmstat, where he  soon after became professor in
 that science, and subsequently in  physics, law,  and
 politics. He was also made physician and aulic coun-
 sellor to the Queen of Sweden, the  King of Denmark,
 and several of the German princes.   He wrote nume-
 rous works in philosophy, medicine,  and history, dis-
 playing great learning, and long highly esteemed.  In
 one  treatise he  refers the degeneracy of the modern
 Germans to their altered mode of living, the use of
 stoves, tobacco, Sec. He published also an "Introduc-
 tion to  the whole Art of Medicine, and its  several
 Parts," containing a History of Bibliotheca  Medica,
 with numerous Dissertations on particular Diseases.
 He died in 1681.
  CONSENT.  Consent of parts.   See Sympathy.
  CONSE'RVA.  (From conservo, to keep.)   A con-
 serve.   A composition of some recent vegetable and
 sugar, beat together into aTmiform mass of the con-
 sistence of honey; as conserve of hips, orange peel,
 &c.  Conserves  are called confections in the last edi-
 tion of the London Pharmacopoeia.  See Confectio.
  Conserva absinthii  maritimi.  See  Artemisia
 maritima.
  Conserva ari.  This is occasionally exhibited as a
 stimulant and diuretic.  See Arum  maculatum.
  Conserva  aurantii hispalensis.  See Confectio
 aurantiorum.
  Conserva cynosbati.   See  Confectio rosa canina.
  Conserva  lujulje.  A preparation of woodsorrel,
 possessing acid, cooling, and antiseptic qualities.  See
 Oxalis acetosella.
  Conserva  mbnthje.  This preparation of mint is
given occasionally as a stomachic, in sickness and
 weakness of the  stomach.  See Mentha viridis.
  Conserva  pruni sylvestris.  Astringent  virtues
 are ascribed to this medicine,  which is now  seldom
 used but in private formulae.
  Conserva rosje. This conserve, rubbed down with
 water, to which is added some lemon-juice, forms an
 excellent drink in hemorrhagic complaints.   See Con-
fedio rosa gallica.
  Conserva sctllje.  A preparation of squills, which
 affords  an excellent basis for an electuary,  possessing
 expectorant and diuretic qualities.
  [Conservatives.  See Organic relics.  A.]
  Consiste'ntia.  (From consisto, to abide.)  The
 state or acme of a disease. The appearance or state
 of the humours and excrements.
  CONSO'LIDA. (So  called,  quia  consolidandi et
 conglutinandi vi pollet; from its power in agglutina-
 ting and joining together things broken.)   See Sywt-
phytum.
  Consolida aurea.  See Solidago virga aureo.
  Consolida major.  See Symphytum.
  Consolida media.  See Ajuga pyramidalis
  Consolida sinor.  See Prunella. 
CON
CON
  Consolida reoalis.   See Delphinium consoltaa.
  Consolida saracenica.  See Solidago virga aurea.
  CONSOUND.  See Symphytum.
  Consound middle.   See Ajuga pyramidalis.
  CONSTANTI'NUS, Aprii anus, was born at Car-
thage, towards the middle of the  11th  century.   He
lived near forty years at  Babylon, and was celebrated
for his knowledge of the Eastern languages.   Among
the  sciences, medicine  appears  to have principally
occupied his attention;  and two of his works were
thought deserving of being printed at Bale, about 4 1-2
centuries after his death, which occurred in 1087. They
are thought however to  have been chiefly translated
from Arabian writers.
  CONSTIPATION.  (Constipatio: from constipo,
to crowd together.)   Obstipatio.  Costiveness.   A
person is said to be costive when the  alvine excre-
ments are not expelled daily, and when tlie faeces are
so hardened as not to receive their form from the im-
pression of the rectum upon them.
  CONSTITUTION. Constitute.  The general con-
dition of the body( as evinced by the peculiarities in I
the  performance ot its functions: such  are, the pecu-
liar predisposition to certain  diseases, or liability of
particular organs to disease; the varieties in digestion,
in muscular power and  motion, in sleep, in the appe-
tite, *cc. Some marked peculiarities of constitution
are observed lo be accompanied with certain external
characters, such as a particular colour and texture of
the skin, and ofthe hair, and also with a peculiarity of
form and disposition oft mind; all of which have been
observed from the  earliest time, and divided into
classes: and which received names during the preva-
lence of the humeral pathology which they still retain.
See Temperament.
  Constricti'va.  (From  constringo,  to bind  toge-
ther.)   Styptics.
  CONSTRICTOR. (From constringo, to bind  toge-
ther.)   A name given  to those muscles which  con-
tract any opening of the body.
  Constrictor alje nasi. See  Depressor labii su-
perioris alaque nasi.
  Constrictor ani.  See Sphincter ani.
  Constrictoristhmi faucium.  Glosso-staphilinus,
of Winslow, Douglas, and Cowper; and Glosso sta-
philin of Dumas.  A muscle situated at the side  of
the entry of the fauces, that draws the  velum pendu-
lum palati  towards  the root of the tongue, which it
raises at the same time, and with its fellow contracts
the passage between the two arches, by which it shuts
the opening of the fauces.
  Constrictor labiorum.  See Orbicularis oris.
  Constrictor oris.  See Orbicularis oris.
  Constrictor palpebrarum.  See Orbicularis pal-
pebrarum.
  Constrictores pharyng.ei.  The muscles of the
oesophagus.
  Constrictor pharyngis inferior.  CWco  pha-
ryngeus; Thyro-pharyngeus of Douglas and  Whi-
tlow.   Cricothyropharyngien of  Dumas.  A muscle
situated on the posterior part of the pharynx.  It
arises from the side of the thyroid cartilage, near the
attachment ofthe stemo-hyoideus and thyro-hyoideus
muscles; and from the cricoid cartilage, near the
crico-thyroideus; it is inserted into the white  line,
where it joins with its fellow, the superior fibres run-
ning  obliquely upwards, covering nearly one-half of
the middle constrictor, and terminating in a point; the
inferior fibres run more transversely, and cover the
beginning of the oesophagus.  Its use is to compress
that part of the pharynx which it covers, and to  raise
it with the larynx a little upwards.
  Constrictor pharyngis  medius.   Hyopharyn-
geus  and eephalo-pharyngeus of  Douglas  and  Win-
slow.   Chondro-pharyngeus of Douglas.  Syndesmo-
pharyngens  of Winslow.   Cephalo-pharyngeus of
Winslo'w and Douglas.   Hyo-glisso basi pharyngien
of Dumas.  A muscle situated on the posterior part of
the pharynx.  It arises from the appendix of the os
hyoldes, from  the cornu of that bone,  and  from the
ligament which connects it to the thyroid cartilage; the
fibres of the superior part running obliquely upwards,
and covering a considerable part of  the superior con-
strictor, terminate in a  point; and it is inserted into
the middle of the cuneiform process of the os occipitis,
before the  foramen magnum, and joined to ils fellow
ai  a  white  line in  the  middle part of the pharynx
Tins muscle  compresses  that part  of the pharyrn
which it covers, and draws it and the os hyoides up-
wards.
  Constrictor pharyngis superior.  Glosso-pha-
ryngeus ;  Mijlo-pharyngeus ;  Pterygo-pharyngeus of
Douglas and Winslow, and Pterigo syndesmo staphili
pharyngien of Dumas.  A muscle situated on the pos-
terior part of the pharynx.  It arises above, from the
cuneiform process of the  os occipitis, before the fora-
men magnum, from  the pterygoid process of the sphe-
noid bone, from the upper and  under jaw, near the
roots of the  last dentes  molares, and between the
jaws.  It is inserted in the middle of the pharynx   Us
use is to compress the upper part of the pharynx, and
to draw it forwards  and upwards.
  Constrictor vesicje  urinarije.  See Detrusor
urina.
  CONSTRICTO'RIUS.   A disease attended with
constriction, or spasm.
  Constringen'tia.  (From constringo,  to bind to«
gether.)  Astringent medicines.  See Astringent.
  CONSU MPTION. (F roni consumo, to waste away.)
See Phthisis.
  Contabesce'ntia.   (From contabesco, to pine  or
waste away.)  An atrophy, or nervous consumption.
   CONTAGION.  (Contagio;  from contango, to
meet or touch each other.)  This word properly im-
ports the application of any poisonous matter to the
body through the medium of touch.  It is applied to
those very subtile particles  arising from  putrid sub-
stances, or from persons labouring under  certain dis-
eases, which communicate the  disease to others;  as
the contagion of putrid fever, the effluvia of dead ani-
mal or vegetable substances, the miasm of bogs and
fens, the virus of smallpox, lues venerea, Sec. Sec.
   The principal diseases excited  by poisonous mias-
mata are, intermittent, remittent, and yellow fevers,
dysentery, and typhus. That of the last is generated in
the human  body itself, and is  sometimes called the
typhoid fomes.  The other miasmata  are produced
from moist vegetable matter, in some unknown state of
decomposition.  The contagious virus of the plague,
smallpox, measles, chincough, cynanehe maligna, and
scarlet fever, as well as of typhus and the jail fever,
operates to a much  more limited distance  through the
 intermedium of the atmosphere, than the marsh mias-
mata.  Contact of a diseased person is said to be ne-
cessary for the communication of plague; and  ap-
 proach within 2 or 3 yards of him, for that of typhus.
 The Walchercn miasmata extended their pestilential
 influence to vessels  riding at anchor, fully a quarter of
 a mile from the shore.
   The chemical nature of all these poisonous effluvia
 is little understood.   They undoubtedly consist, how-
 ever, of hydrogen, united with sulphur,  phosphorus,
 carbon, and azot, in unknown proportions, and un-
 known states of combination.  The proper neutral-
 izes or destroyers of these gasiform poisons, are nitric
 acid vapour, muriatic acid gas, and chlorine. The last
 two are the  most efficacious; but require to be  used
 in situations from which  the patients can  be removed
 at the time  of the application.   Nitric acid vapour
 may, however, be  diffused in the apartments of Uie
sick, without much inconvenience.  Bed-clothes, par-
ticularly blankets, can retain the contagious fomes, in
 an active state, for almost any length of time.  Hence,
they ought to be fumigated with peculiar  care.  The
vapour of burning sulphur or sulphurous  acid is  used
in the East, against the plague.  It is much inferior in
power to the other antiloimic reagents.
   There does not  appear to be any distinction com-
monly made between  contagious and infectious dis-
eases.
  [Thevery evident distinction has longsince been made
and employed  in this country.  Contagion is applied
to  those diseases which  are propagated from one to
another  by  contact or close  approach,  and which.
produces  a like disease;  as the venereal disease, itch,
smallpox, measles, &c.   Diseases  produced by infec-
 tion, are those contracted from a vitiated atmosphere,
as intermittent remittent, bilious, and yellow fevers.
In 1819 and  1822, we had the yellow-fever in New-
York, and the board of health  shut up that  part
of the city where the disease prevailed,  by running
fences across the streets leading to it.  This was called
the infected  district, from the local causes contami-
uaiins the atmosphere and producing the infection. 
CON
CON
 Beyond this district the city was  not  unhealthy, and
 those who were taken sick in the infected district,
 when removed to other parts not infected, recovered,
 and did not communicate the disease to others.  A.]
   Co.ntk'nsio.  (From contineo, to restrain.)   It is
 sometimes used to express a tension or stricture.
  ' Co'ntinens febris.  A continent fever, which pro-
 ceeds regularly in the '-amo tenor,  without either exa-
 cerbation or remission.  This lately, if ever, happens.
   Conti'nua febris.  (Fiom conlinuo, to persevere.;
 A continued fever.  See Febris continua.
   CONTINUED.   Cvntinuus;  from continue, to per-
 severe.)  A term  applied in pathology  to  diseases
 which  go on with  a  regular tenor of symptoms, but
 mostly  to fevers, the symptoms of which continue,
 without intermission, until the disease terminates:
 hence continual fevers  in  distinction  to intermittent
 levers.
   CONT1NUUS.  See Continued.
   CONTO RSIO.   (From contorqueo, to twist about)
 A contortion, or twisting.  In medicine this word has
 various significations, and is applied to the iliac pas-
 sion, to luxation of the vertebrae, head,  Set..
   CONTORTjE.  Twisted plants.  The name of  an
 order in Linuaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method,
 consisting of plants which have a  single petal that is
 twisted or bent toward the side, as  Nerium Vinca, Sec.
   CONTORTUS.   (From con, and torquco, to twist.)
 Twisted.  Applied to the seed-vessel of plants: as the
 legumtn contortum ofthe Mcdicago sativa
   CONTRA APERTURA.   (From contra, against,
 and ap-.rio, to open.)  A counter-opening.  An open-
 ing itiiide opposite to the one that already exists.
   CO.N  TKACTILITY.  Contractilitas.  A property
 in bodies, the effect of the  cohesive power, by which
 their particles resume their former propinquity when
 the force ceases which was applied to separate them.
 It also denotes the power which muscular fibres  pos-
 sess of shortening themselves.'
   CONTRACTION.  (From  contralto, to draw toge-
 ther.)   Contractura ;  Beribcria,   A rigid contraction
 of the joints.   It is a genus of disease in the class Lo-
 cales, and order Dyscincsie of Cullen. Tho species
 are,
  1. Contractura primaria, from a rigid contraction
 ofthe muscles, called also obstipitas; a word  that,
 with any other annexed, distinguishes the  variety of
 the  contraction.  Of  this species  he  forms four va-
 rieties.   1. Contractura  ab injlantmatione, when  it
 arises from inflammation.  2.  Contractura a spasmo,
 called also ionic spasm  and cramp, when it depends
 upon sj:asm.  3. Contractura ob  antagonistas parali-
 ticos, from the antagonist muscles  losing their action.
 4. Contractura  ab  acrimonid  irritante, which is in-
 duced by some irritating cause.
  2.  Contractura articularis, originating from a  dis-
 ease of the joint.
  CONTRAFI^SU'RA.   (From contra, against,  and
findo, lo cleave.)  Contre-coup of French writers.   A
 fracture in a part opposite to thai in which the blow
 is received ; as when the frontal  hone is broken by a
 fall on the occiput, where the bone  remains sound.
  Contraue'ntia.   (From contraho,  to contract.)
 Medicines which shorten and strengthen  the fibres.
 Astringents ate the only medicines of this nature.
  CO.NTRA-1NDICATION. (Conlra-indicatio; from
 contra, against, and indico, to show.)   A  symptom
 attending a disease, which forbids the exhibition of a
 remedy  which would otherwise be  employed ; for in-
 stance,  bark and  acids are usually given in putrid
 fevers;  but if there be difficulty of breathing, or in-
 flammauon of any viscus, they are contra-indications
 to their  use.
  Contra-luna'ris.  (From  contra,  and  luna, the
 moon.)  An epithet given by Dictericus to a woman
 who conceives during the menstrual discharge.
  Contra-semen.  See Artemisia Santonica.
  CONTRAYE'RVA.   (From  contra, against,  and
 ycrva, poison, ^pan.; i.e. an herb good against poison.)
 See UorsUnia.
  Contrayerva alba.  Cantrayerva  Germanorum.
 A name lor a species of asclcpias.
  Contrayerva nova.  Mexican  contrayerva.   See
 Psoralea pentaphylla.
  Contrayerva virginiana.  See Aristolochia  ser-
pentaria.
  Contre-coup.  See Contrafissura.
      sea
   CONTRI'TIO.  The act of grinding, or reducing to
 powder.
   CONTUSION. (Contusio; from contundo, to knock
 together.)  A bruise, or contused wound.
   CON US.  A cone.  See Strobilus.
   CON VA LESC KNCE. (Convalescentia ; from eon
 valesco, to grow well.)   The recovery of health after
 the cure of a disease.  The period of convalescence is
 that space from the departure of a disease, to  the re-
 covery of the strength lost by it.
   CONVALESCENT.  Recovering or returning to a
 state of health after the cure of a disease.
   CONVALLARIA.   (From  convallis,  a  valley;
 named from its abounding  in  valleys and marshes.)
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
 tem.  Class, Hexandria ; Order, Monogynia.
   Convallaria majalis. The systematic name of the
 lily of the valley.  J'Allium convallium;  Convallaria;
 Maianthemum.   May-lily.  The flowers of this plant,
 Convallaria—scapo nudo of Linnaeus, have a pene-
 trating bitter taste, and are given in nervous and catar-
 rhal disotders.  When dried and powdered, they prove
 strongly purgative.   Watery or spirituous extracts
 made from them,given in doses of a scruple, or drachm,
 act as gentle stimulating aperients and laxatives; and
 seem to partake of the putgativc virtue, as well as the
 bitterness of aloes.  The roots, in the  form of tincture,
 or infusion, act as a sternutatory when snufled  up the
 nose, and as a laxative or purgative when taken inter-
 nally.
  Convallaria polygonatum.  The systematic name
 of Solomon's seal.  Sigillum Salomonis ; Convallaria
 —foliis altemis  amplexicaulibus, caule ancipiti, pe-
 dunculis axillaribus subunifloris, of Linnaeus.  The
 roots are applied externally as adstringents, and are
 administered internally as corroborants.
  CONVEXUS.  Convex. A term  in very general
 use in anatomy, botany, Sec.
  Convolu'ta ossa.  See Spongiosa  ossa.
  CONVOLU'TUS.  Roiled  up or folded.   Applied
 to bones, membranes  i-r.vrs, &c.
  CONVO'LVULl'S    rrom convolve, to  roll toge-
 ther, or entwine.)
  1. A name for the iliac passion.
  2. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
 system, so called from their  twisting round others,
 (Class, Penlandria; Order, Monogynia,) which affords
 the Jala; a, mechoacanna, turbith, and scainmony.
 The whole genus consists of plants containing a milky
 juice strongly cathartic and caustic.
  Convolvulus americanus.  The jalap root.  See
 Convolvulus jalapa.
  Convolvulus batatas.  Batatas.  A native  of
 the West Indies.  Its root is firm and  of a pale brown
 on the outside, and white within.  When boiled it is
 sweet, like chesnuts, and is esteemed by some as an
 esculent.
  [This is the sweet potato, extensively cultivated and
 eaten in all  the southern  parts of the United States,
 even as far north as  New-Jersey.   It is commonly
 called the Carolina potato. See Batatas.  A.]
  Convolvulus cantabrica.  A name for  the can-
 tabrica.  Convolvulus minimus spice  foliis ; Convol
 vulus linaria folio; Convolvulus Cantabrica of Lin
 naeus.   Lavender-leaved bind-weed.   Pliny says it
 was discovered  in the time of Augustus, in the coun-
 try of the Cantabri in Spain; whence its name.  It is
 anthelmintic and actively cathartic.
  Convolvulus colubrinus.  The  pariera brava
 See Cissampelos pareira.
  Convolvulus jalapa.  The systematic name of the
jalap plant.  Jalapium mechoacanna nigra.   Convol
 vulus; caule volubli; foliis ovatis,  subcordatis, ob-
 tusis, obsolete repandis, sublus villosis ;  pedunculis
 umfloris of Linnaeus.  It is a native of South Ameri-
 ca.   In  the shops, the root is found both cut into slices
 and whole, of an  oval shape, solid, ponderous, black-
 ish on the outside, but gray within, and marked with
 several  dark veins, by the number of which, and by
 iu hardness, heaviness, and dark colour, the goodness
 of the root is to be estimated. *  It has scarcely any
 smell, and very little taste, but to tlie tongue, and to
 the throat, manifests a slight degree of pungency.
 The medicinal activity of jalap  resides principally, If
 not wholly, in the resin, which, though given  in small
 doses, occasions violent tormina.  The toot powdered
 is a  very common, efficacious, and tafe purgative, as 
CON
CON
daily experience evinces; but, according as it contains
more or less resin, its effects must of course vary.  In
large doses, or when joined with calomel, it is recom-
mended as an anthelmintic and hydragogue.  Iu the
pharmacopoeias, this root is ordered in  the form  of
tincture and extract;  and the Edinburgh College di-
rects it also in powder, with twice its weight of crys-
tals of tartar.
  Convolvulus major  albus.  See  Convolvulus
sepium.
  Convolvulus maritimus.   The brassica  mari-
tima, or sea colewort.
  Convolvulus mechoacan.   Mechoacanna; Jalapa
alba;  or Bryonia  alba Peruviana;  Rhabarbarum
album.   Mechoacan.  The root of this species of con-
volvulus is brought  from Mexico.  It possesses aperi-
ent  properties, and was long used as the common
purge of this country, but is now wholly superseded by
jalap.
  (" Convolvulus panduratus.  Wild potato.  The
affinity of this plant to jalap, iu its botanical charac-
ter, has caused a medicinal quality to be ascribed to it
which it does not possess, it is one of the weakest of
our indigenous cathartics, and requires too large a dose
to be of much use iu that character.  It is said to miti-
gate strangury and gravel, and to operate as a diuretic."
—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
  Convolvulus soamkonia.  The  systematic name
of  the  scainmony  plant.  See Scammonium;  Con-
volvulus syriacus ;  Scammonium syriacum;  Diagry-
diuin.  This plant, Convolvulus—foliis sagiltatis pos-
tice truncatis, pedunculis teretibus subtifloris of Lin-
naeus, affords the concrete giimmi-resinous juice termed
scaniuiony.  It grows plentifully about Maraash, An-
tioch, Eallib, and towards Tripoli, in Syria.  No part
of the dried plant possesses any medicinal quality, but
the root, which Dr.  Russel administered in decoction,
and found it to be a pleasant and mild cathartic.  It is
from the milky juice of the  root that we obtain the
officinal scamniony, which is procured in the follow-
ing  manner by the  peasants, who collect  it in the be-
ginning of June. Having cleared away the earth from
about  the root, they cut off  the top in an oblique di-
rection,  about  two inches below  where the  stalks
spring from it.  Under  the most depending part of
the slope, they fix a shell, or some other convenient re-
ceptacle, into which the milky juice gradually flows.
It is left there about twelve hours, which lime is suffi-
cient for draining off the whole juice; this, however,
is in small quantity, each root affording hut a very few
drachms.  This juice  from the several  roots is put
together, often into  the leg of an old boot, for want of
some more proper  vessel, where,  iu a  little time, it
grows hard, and is the genuine scainmony. The smell
of scammouy is rather  unpleasant, and the taste bit-
terish  and slightly  acrid. The different proportions
of gum and resin, of which it consists, have been vari-
ously stated; but, as proof spirit is the best menstruum
for it, these substances are  supposed to  be nearly in
equal  parts.   It is  brought from Aleppo and Smyrna
in masses, generally of a light shining gray colour, and
friable texture; of rather an unpleasant smell, and
bitterish and slightly acrid taste.  The scainmony of
Aleppo is by far the purest.  That of Smyrna is pon-
derous, black,  and  mixed with extraneous  matters.
Scainmony appears to  have been well known  to the
Greek and Aiabian  physicians, and was exhibited  in-
ternally  as a purgative, and  externally  for the itch,
tincu, fixed pains, &c.   It is seldom given alone, but
enters several compounds, which are administered as
purgatives.
  Convolvulus sepium.  Convolvulus major albus.
The juice of this plant, Convolvulus—foliis sagittatis
postice truncatis pedunculis  tetragonis, unifioris, of
Linnatus, is violently purgative, and given in dropsical
affections.  A  poultice  of   the herb,  made  with
oil,  is  recommended in white swellings of the knee
joint.
  Convolvulus soldanella.  The systematic name
of the sea convolvulus.   KpauSn SaXacroia-  Brassica
marina; Convolvulus maritimus;   Soldanella.  Sol-
danella.  This  plant, Conoolvulus—fuliis renifornii-
Ohs, pedunculis unifioris, of Linnaeus, is  a  native of
qui coasts. The leaves are said to be a drastic purge.
It is only used by the common people, the pharmaco-
poeias having now substituted more safe and valuable
remedies in its place.
   Convolvulus  syriacus.  The scammony plant.
 See Convolvulus scammonia.
   Convolvulus turpethum.  The systematic name
 of the turbith plant  Turpethum.  .The cortical  part
 of the root of a species of convolvulus, brought from
 the East Indies, in oblong pieces: it is of a brown or
 ash colour on  the outside, and whitish within.   The
 best is ponderous,  not wrinkled, easy to break, and
 discovers lo the eye a large quautity of resinous mat-
 ter.  When chewed, it at first imparts a sweetish laste,
 which is followed by a nauseous acrimony. It is consi-
 dered as a purgative liable to much irregularity of action •
   CONVULSION.  {Convulsio; from cvnvello, to pull
 together.)  Hieranosos; Distentio nervorum; Syspa,-
 cia convulsio of Good.  Clonic spasm.  A diseased
 action of muscular fibres, known  by alternate re-
 laxations,  with violent  and involuntary contractions
 ofthe muscular parts, without sleep.  Cullen arranges
 convulsion in  the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi.
 Convulsions are universal or partial, and have obtain-
 ed different  names, according to the parts affected, qr
 the symptoms; as the  risus sardonicus, when  the
 muscles of the lace are affected; St. Vitus's dance,
 when the muscles of the arm are thrown into  invo-
 luntary motions, with lameness and rotations.   The
 hysterical epilepsy, or other epilepsies, arising from
 different causes,  are  convulsive diseases of the uni
 versal kind:  the muscles of the globe of the  eye,
 throwing the eye into involuntary distortions in  defi-
 ance of the direction of  the will, are instances of par-
 tial convulsion.  The muscles  principally affected in
 all species of convulsions, are those immediately under
 the direction of the will; as those of the eyelids, eye,
 face, jaws, neck, superior and inferior extremities.
 The muscles of respiration, acting both voluntarily and
 involuntarily, are not unfrequently convulsed ; as the
 diaphragm, intercostals, &c.   The more immediate
 causes of  convulsions are, 1. Either mental affection,
 or any irritating cause exciting a greater action in the
 arterial  system of the  brain and nerves.  2. An in-
 crease of nervous energy, which seems to hold pace or
 be equipoient  with the  increased arterial energy ex-
 cited in the brain.  3. This increased energy, convey-
 ing its augmented effects, without the direction of the
 will, to any muscles destined  to  voluntary  motion,
 over-irritates them.  4.  The  muscles,  irritated by the
i increased nervous energy and arterial  influx, contract
 more forcibly  and  involuntarily by their excited vis
 iusita, conjointly with other causes, as  long as the in-
 creased  nervous energy continues.  5. This increased
 energy in the nervous system may be excited either by
 the mind, or by any acrimony  iu the  blood, or  other
 stimuli sufficiently irritating  10 increase the arterial
 action, nervous  influence, and ihe vires  insiue of
 muscles,   tj. After muscles have been  once accustom-
 ed to act involuntarily, and with increased action, the
 same causes can readily produce the  same effects on
 those organs.  7. All parts that have  muscular fibres
 may be convulsed.   8.  The  sensations in  the  mind
 most capable of producing convulsions, are timidity,
 horror, anger, great sensibility of the soul, Sec.
   Convulsio canina.  A wry mouth.
   Convulsio cerealis.  Cereal convulsion is a sin-
 gular disorder  of the spasmodic convulsive kind, not
 common to this country, but mentioned by Cartheuser
 under this title, from the peculiar tingling and formi-
 cation perceived in the arms and legs.  Motus spas
 t.iodicus of Hoffman. It is endetnial  in some.places
 in Germany; but more  a rural llian urbanical disor-
 der, said to arise from the use of spoiled corn.
   Convulsio ha.bituai.is. Saint Vitus's dance.  See
 Chorea SanctitViti.
   CONY'ZA.  (From kcvis, dust; because its powder
 is sprinkled to kill fleas in.places where tlievare trou-
 blesome.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 uaean  system.  Class Syngcnesia; Order, Polygamia
 superflua.  There is some difficulty in ascertaining the
 plants called conyzas by the older practitioners:  they
 are either of the genus conyza, inula, gnaphaliuui, eri-
 geron, or chrysocoma.
   Conyza jethiopica.  The plant so called  is most
 probably the Chrysocoma comaurea of Willdenow, a
 shrub which grows wild about the Cape of Good
 Hope, and is cultivated in our green-houses, because it
 flowers the greater part ofthe year.
   Conyza ccerulea.  The Erigeron acre of Linnaeus
 answers to the description of this plant.
                                        261 
COP
COP
   Conyza major.  Supposed to be the Inula viscosa
 of Linnaeus.
   Conyza major vulgaris.  See Inula dysenterica.
   Conyza media.  See Inula dysenterica.
   Conyza minor.  Tbe Inula  pulicaris of Linnrcus
 answers  to  the  description given of this  plant  in
 most books.  Its chief use is  to destroy fleas and
 gnats.
   Cooperto ria.  (From co-operio, to cover over.)
 The thyroid cartilage.
   Coo'strum.  The centre of tlie diaphragm.
   COPA'IBA.  (Copaiba, a. fcem.;  from copal, the
 American name for any odoriferous gum, and iba, or
 iva, a tree.)  The name given by the College of Physi-
 cians of London to the balsam  of copaiva.  See Co-
 paifera officinalis.
   COPAIFERA.  (From Copaiva, the Indian name,
 and fero, to bear.)  The name of a genus of plants in
 tbe Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria; Order, Mo-
 nogynia.
   Copaifera officinalis.  The systematic name of
 the plant from which the Copaiba balsam,  Balsamum
 Braziliense; Balsamum  copaiba;  Balsamum de co-
 paibu;  Balsamum capivi; Copaiba; Capevi; is ob-
 tained.
   Copaiba is a yellow resinous  juice, of a moderately
 agreeable smell, and a bitterish biting taste, very per-
 manent on  the  tongue.   The  tree whssh affords  it
 5rows in Brazil, New-Spain. It is obtained by making
  eep incisions near its trunk, when the balsam imme-
 diately issues, and, at the proper season, flows in such
 abundance,  that  sometimes, in  three hours, twelve
 pounds have been procured. The older trees afford
 the best balsam, and yield it two or three times in the
 same year.   Tbe balsam supplied by the  young and
 vigorous trees, wbich abound with the  most juice, is
 crude and watery, and is, therefore, accounted less
 valuable.  While flowing from the tree, this balsam
 Is a colourless fluid ; in  time, however, it  acquires  a
 yellowish tinge, and the consistence of oil; but, though
 by age it has been found thick, like honey, yet it never
 becomes solid, like other resinous fluids. By distilla-
 tion in water, the oil is separated from the resin;  and,
 in the former, the taste and smell of the balsam are
 concentrated.  If the operation is carefully performed,
 about one-half of the balsam rises into the receiver, in
 the form  of  oil.  The balsam unites with fixed and
 volatile oils, and wilh spirit of wine.  It is given in all
 diseases ofthe urinary organs, when no inflammation
 is present. In gleets, and in gonorrhoea, it was once a
 favourite  remedy, but is now disused.   In diseases of
 the kidneys it is still employed, though less  frequently
 than usual;  and in haemorrhoids it  is  occasionally
 trusted.  The dose  is from  20 to 30 drops, twice or
 three times a day, mixed with water, by means of an
 egg, or any mucilage.  The balsam of copaiva is occa-
 sionally adulterated with  turpentine, but its virtues
 are not greatly injured by the fraud.
  Copaiva.  See Copaiba.
  COPAL.  (The American name of all clear odori-
 ferous gumsA  Gum copal.  This resinous substance
 is imported from Guinea, where it is found in the sand
 on the shore.   It is a hard, shining, transparent, citron-
 coloured, odoriferous, concrete juice of  an  American
 tree, but  which has neither the solubility in water
 common to gums, nor the solubility in alkohol common
 to resins,  at  least in  any considerable degree.   By
 these properties  it resembles amber.  It may be dis-
 solved by digestion in linseed oil, rendered drying by
 quicklime, with a heat very little less than sufficient
 to boil or decompose the  oil.  This solution, diluted
 with oil of turpentine, forms a beautiful transparent
 varnish, which, when properly  applied, and slowly
 dried, is very hard, and very durable.  This varnish
 is applied to snu ff-boxes, tea-boards, and other utensils.
 It preserves and gives lustre  to paintings, and greatly
 restores the decayed colours of old pictures, by filling
 up the cracks, and rendering the surfaces capable of
 reflecting light more uniformly.
  Cope'lla.  See Cupel,
  Co'pher.  A name for camphor.
  COTHOS.  (Kiotbos, dumb.)   Deaf or dumb.  Also
a dulness in any of the senses.
  COPHO'SIS.  (From Ktoibos, deaf.)  A difficulty of
hearing.   It is often symptomatic of some  disease.
Bee Dysecea.
  COPPER.  (Cuprum, i neut quasi as  Cyprium;
     262
 so named  from tlie island of Cypius, whence it was
 formerly brought.) " A metal of a peculiar reddiah-
 brown colour: hard, sonorous,  very malleable and
 ductile; of considerable tenacity,  and of a specific
 gravity from 8.6 to 8 9.   At a degree of heat far below
 ignition, the surface of a piece of polished copper be-
 comes covered wilh  various ranges of prismatic co
 lours, the  red  of  each  order  being nearest the end
 which has been most heated; an effect which must
 doubtless be attributed to oxidation,  the stratum of
 oxide being thickest  where the heat  is greatest, and
 growing gradually thinner and thinner towards the
 colder part.   A greater degree  of heat oxidizes it
 more rapidly,  so that  it contracts  thin powdery scales
 on its surface, which may easily be rubbed off; tbe
 flame of the fuel becoming at the same time of a beau-
 tif*-' bluish-green colour.  In a heat, nearly the same
 as U necessary to melt gold or silver, it melts, and ex-
 hibits a bluish-green flame;  by a violent heat il boils
 and is volatilized partly in the metallic slate.
  Copper rusts in  the air; but the corroded part  is
 very thin, and preserves the metal beneath from fat
 tiler corrosion.
  There are two oxides of copper:
  1st, The black, procurable by heat, or by drying the
 hydratic oxide precipitated  by potassa from  the ni-
 trate.  It consists of 8 copper-f-2 oxygen. It Is a  deu-
 toxide.
  2dly, The protoxide is obtained by digesting a solu-
 tion of muriate of copper with copper turnings,  in a
 close  phial.  The  colour passes from green to dark
 brown, and  gray  crystalline grains  are  deposited!'
 The solution of these  yields, by potassa, a precipitate
 of an orange  colour,  which is the protoxide.  It con-
 sists of 8 copper -f-1 oxygen.  Protoxyde of copper has
 been  lately found  by  Mushet, in a mass of copper,
 which had been exposed to heat for  a considerable
 time,  in one ofthe  melting furnaces ofthe mint under
 his superintendence.
  Copper, in filings, or thin laminae, introduced  Into
 chlorine, unites wilh flame into the chloride, of which
 there  are  two varieties; the protochloride, a fixed
 yellow substance, and  the deulochloride, a yellowish-
 brown pulverulent  sublimate.
  1. The crystalline grains deposited from the  above
 muriatic solution, are  protochloride.  The protochlo-
 ride is conveniently made  by heating together  two
 parts of corrosive sublimate, and one of copper filings.
 An amber-coloured translucent  substance, first  dis-
 covered by Boyle, who called it  resin of copper, is ob-
 tained.  It is fusible at a heat just below redness; and
 in a close vessel, or a vessel with a narrow orifice, Is
 not decomposed or sublimed by  a strong red heat.
 But if air be admitted, it is dissipated In dense white
 fumes.  It  is  insoluble  in water.  It  effervesces In
 nitric  acid.  It dissolves silently in muriatic acid, from
 which it may be precipitated by water.  By slow cool-
 ing ofthe fused mass,  Dr. John.Davy obtained it crys-
tallized, apparently in  small plates, semi-transparent,
and of a light yellow colour.  It consists,  by the same
Ingenious chemist, of
       Chlorine, 36  or 1 prime =4.45  35.8
       Copper,  64 or 1 prime  8.00  64.2
100
12.45 100.0
  2.  Deulochloride is best made by slowly evaporating
to dryness, at a temperature  not much above 400°
Fahr. the deliquescent muriate of copper.  It ii a yel-
low powder.  By absorption of moisture from the air,
It passes from yellow to white, and then green, repro-
ducing common muriate.  Heat converts it Into proto-
chloride, with the disengagement  of chlorine. Dr.
Davy ascertained the chemical constitution of both
these compounds, by separating the copper with iron,
and the chlorine by nitrate of silver.   The deutochlo-
ride consists of
        Chlorine,  53  2 primes 8.9  52.7
        Copper,   47  1   do.   8.0  47.3
100
16.9 100.0
  The iodide of copper is formed »y dropping aqueous
hydriodate of potassa into a solution of any cupreous
salt  It is an insoluble dark brown powder.
  Phosphuret of copper  is made by projecting  phos-
phorus into red-hot copper. 
COP
COP
 _ Sulphuret of copper is formed by mixing together
eight parts of copper  filings, and two of sulphur, and
exposing the mixture to a gentle heat.
  The sulphuric acid, when concentrated and boiling,
dissolves copper.
  Nitric acid dissolves copper with great rapidity, and
disengages a large quantity of nitrous gas.  Part of
the metal falls down in the form of an oxide ; and the
filtrated or decanted solution,  which is of a much
deeper blue colour than the sulphuric solution; affords
crystals by slow evaporation. This salt is deliquescent,
very soluble in water, but most plentifully when the
fluid is heated.
  The  saline  combinations of copper were formerly
called  sales veneres, because  Venus was the mytho-
logical  name  of copper.  They have  the following
general characters:
  1. They  are mostly soluble in water, and their solu-
tions have  a green or blue  colour, or acquire one of
these colours on exposure to air.
  2. Ammonia added to  the solutions, produces a
deep blue colour.
  3. Ferroprussiate of potassa gives a reddish-brown
precipitate, wilh cupreous salts.
  4. Gallic acid gives a brown precipitate.
  5. Hydrosulphuret of polassa gives a black precipi-
late.
  6. A plate of iron  immersed in these solutions
throws down metallic copper, and very rapidly if there
be a slight excess of acid.  The  protoxide of copper
can be combined with the acids only by very particular
management  All the ordinary salts of copper have
the peroxide for a base.
  The joint agency of air and acetic acid, is neces-
sary to the production of the cupreous acetates.  By
exposing copper plates to  the vapours of vinegar, the
bluish-green verdigris is formed, which, by solution in
vinegar, constitutes acetate of copper.
  Arseniate of  copper presents us with  many sub-
species which are found native.   The arseniate may
be formed artificially by digesting arsenic acid on cop-
per, or by adding arseniate of potassa to a cupreous
saline solution.
  Carbonate of copper.  Of this compound there arc
three native varieties, the green, the blue, and the an-
hydrous.
  Chlorate of copper is a deflagrating deliquescent
green salt.
  Fluate of copper is in small blue-coloured crystals.
  Hydrtodate of copper is a grayish-white powder.
  Protomuriate of copper has already been described
in treating ofthe chlorides.
  Deutomuriate of copper, formed by dissolving the
deutoxide  in muriatic acid,  or  by healing  muriatic
acid on copper filings, yields by evaporation  crystals
of a grass-green  colour.
  The  ammonio-nitrate evaporated, yields a fulmi-
nating copper.   Crystals of nitrate,  mixed with phos-
phorus, and struck with a hammer, detonate.
  Subnitrate of copper is  the blue  precipitate, occa-
sioned by adding a little potassa to the neutral nitric
solution.
  Nitrate  of copper is formed by mixing nitrate of
lead with sulphate of copper.
  The sulphate, or blue vitriol of commerce, is a bisul-
phate.
  A mixed solution of this sulphate and sal ammoniac,
forms  an ink, whose traces are invisible in the cold,
but become yellow when heated; and vanish again
as tne paper cools.
  Protosulphite of copper is formed  by passing a cur-
rent of sulphurous acid gas  through the deutoxide
of copper diffused in water.  It is deprived of a part
of its oxygen, and combines with the acid.  The sul-
phate, simultaneously produced, dissolves in the  wa-
ter ; while  the sulphite forms small red crystals, from
which merely long ebullition in water expels the acid.
  Sulphite  of potassa and copper is made by adding
the sulphite of potassa to nitrate of copper.  A yellow
flocculent precipitate, consisting of minute crystals,
falls.
  Ammonia-sulphate of copper Is the salt formed by
adding  water of ammonia to solution of the bisulphaie.
It consists,  according to Berzelius, of 1  prime of the
cupreous, and  1  of the  ammoniacal sulphate, com-
bined together; or 20.0+7.13+14.625 of water.
  Subsulphate  of ammonia and copper is  formed by
adding alkohol  to the solution of the preeeding salt.
which precipitates the subsulphate.  Il is the cuprum
ammoniacum of the pharmacopoeia.
  Sulphate of potassa and copper is  formed by di-
gesting bisulphate of potassa on the deutoxide or car-
bonate of copper.
  The following acids, antimonic, antimonious, bo-
racic, chromic, molybdic, phosphoric,  tungstic, form
insoluble salts  with  deutoxide of copper.   The first
two are green, the  third is brown, the fourth and fifth
green, and the sixth white.  The benzoate is in green
crystals, sparingly soluble.  The oxalate is also green.
The binoxalates of polassa and  soda, with oxide of
copper, give triple  salts, iu green needle-form crystals.
There arc also aminonia-oxalates in different varieties.
Tartrate of copper forms dark bluish-green crystals
Cream-tartrate of  copper is a bluish-green powder,
commonly called Brunswick green.
  To obtain pure copper for experiments, we precipi-
tate it in the metallic state, by immersing a plate of
iron in a solution of the deutomuriate.  The pulve-
rulent copper must be washed with dilute muriatic
acid.        v
  This metal combines very readily with gold, silver,
and mercury.  It unites imperfectly with iron in the
way of fusion.  Tin combines with copper, at a tem-
perature much lower than is necessary to fuse the
copper  alone.  On this is grounded tile method of
tinning copper vessels.  For  this purpose, they are
first scraped or scoured; after which they are rubbed
with  sal-ammoniac.   They  are then  heated, and
sprinkled with powdered resin, which  defends  the
clean surface of the copper from acquiring  the slight
film of oxide that  would prevent the adhesion of the
tin to its surface.   The melted tin is then poured in,
and spread about   An extremely small  quantity ad-
heres to the copper, which may  perhaps be supposed
insufficient to prevent the noxious effects of the cop-
per as perfectly as might be wished.
  When tin is melted with copper, it composes the
compound called bronze.
  Copper unites with bismuth, and  forms  a reddish-
white alloy.  With  arsenic  it forms  a  white brittle
compound, called  tombac.  With  zinc  it forms the
compound called  brass, and distinguished by various
other names, according to the proportions of the two
ingredients.
  Copper unites readily with antimony, and affords a
compound of a beautiful violet  colour.  It does not
readily  unite  with manganese.   With tungsten  it
forms a dark brown spongy alloy, which is somewhat
ductile.
   Verdigris, and other preparations of copper, act as
virulent poisons, when introduced in very small quan-
tities  into the stomachs of animals.  A few grains are
sufficient for this effect.  Death is commonly preceded
by very decided nervous disorders, such as convulsive
movements, tetanus, general insensibility, or a palsy
of the lower extremities.   This event  happens fre-
quently so soon, that it could not be occasioned by in-
flammation or erosion of the prime vie; and indeed,
where these parts are apparently sound.  Il is proba-
ble that the poison is absorbed, and, through the circu-
lation, acts on the  brain and  nerves.  The cupreous
preparations are no doubt very acrid, and if death do
not follow their immediate impression on tbe sentient
system, they will certainly inflame the intestinal canal.
The symptoms produced by a dangerous dose of cop-
per arc exactly similar to those which are enumerated
under arsenic, only the taste of copper  is strongly felt.
The only chemical  antidote  to  cupreous  solutions,
whose operation is well  understood, is  water strongly
impregnated with  sulphuretted hydrogen.   The al-
kaline hydrosulphurets are acrid, and ought not to be
prescribed.
  But we possess, in sugar, an antidote to this poison,
of undoubted efficacy, though its mode  of  action  be
obscure.  Duval introduced into the stomach of a dog,
by means of a caoutchouc  tube, a solution  in acetic
acid,  of four  French drachms of oxide of copper.
Some minutes  afterward  he  injected into it  four
ounces of strong syrup.  He repeated this injection
every half-hour, aud employed altogether 12 ounces of
syrup.  The animal experienced some  tremblings and
convulsive movements. But  the last injection was
followed by a perfect calm.  The animal fell asleep,
and awakened free from any ailment.
                                        263 
COR
COR
  Orfila relates several cases of individuals who had
 by accident or intention swallowed poisonous doses of
 acetate of copper, and who recovered by getting large
 doses of sugar.  He uniformly  found, that a dose of
 verdigris wbich would  kill  a dog in the course of  an
 hour or  two, might be  swallowed  with  impunity,
 provided it was mixed  with a considerable quantity
 of sugar.
  As alkohol has the power of completely neutraliz-
 ing, in the aethers, tlie strongest muriatic and lt> driodic
 acids, so it would appear that sugar can neutralize tbe
 oxides of copper and lead.  The neutral saccharite of
 lead, indeed, was employed  by Berzelius in his experi-
 ments, to determine the prime equivalent of sugar.  If
 we boil for half an hour, in a flask,  an ounce nf white
 sugar, an ounce of water, and 10 grains of verdigris,
 we obtain a green liquid, which is not affected by the
 nicest tests of copper, such as ferroprussiate of potassa,
 ammonia,  and tbe hydrosulphurets.   An insoluble
 green carbonate of copper remains  at the bottom  of
 the flask."—Ure's  Chem. Diet.
  Copper, ammoniated solution of.   See Cupri  ammo-
 Kt'oti liquor.
  CO'PPERAS.  A name given to blue, green, and
 white vitriol.
  Cofraoo'oa.  (From xonpos, dung,  and ayta,  to
 bring away.)  Purgatives.  Copragogum is the name  of
 a gently-purging electuary, mentioned by Rulandus.
  COPRIE'MESIS.  (From Konpos, excrement, and
 tpaa, to vomit.)  A vomiting of faeces.
  Coprocri'tica.    (From  xonpps, excrement, and
 Kiyvia, to separate.)  Mild cathartic  medicines.
  Copropho'ria.   (From xonpos,  excrement, and
 Qopcto, to bring away.)  A purging.
  CO'PROS.   KoTpoc. The faeces, or excrements from
 the bowels.
  COPROSTA'SIA. (From icoirpoc, faeces, and «pj«i,
 to remain.)   Costiveness, or a constriction ot the
 belly.
  Copta'riom.  (Kot7>7> a small cake.)  Coptarium.
 A lozenge
  CO'PTE.  (Koir7i7, a small cake.)  1. The form of
 a medicine used by the ancients.
  2. A cataplasm generally made  of vegetable sub-
 stances, and applied externally to the stomach, and on
 many occasions given internally.
  ["Coptis tri folia.  Goldthread.  The coptis tri-
 folia, which was arranged  among  the Hellebores by
 Linnaeus, is a beautiful native, evergreen plant, of the
 northern States.  Its roots are creeping, thread-shaped,
 and of a bright yellow colour.  They have an intensely
 bitter taste, without warmth or astringency.  Alkohol
 is the best solvent of this article, forming a bright yel-
 low tincture.   Water also extracts the bitterness, but
 less perfectly.  Gold thread is a pleasant tonic, and
 promotes appetite and digestion.  It  is a popular reme-
 dy in apthous mouths and ulcers ofthe throat, though
 it does not  appear to be very powerful in these com-
 plaints.  As a tonic it may be given  in the dose of ten
 or twenty grains of the powder.  It is, however, some-
 what difficult to pulverize, owing to the tenacity of the
 fibres.  A tincture, formed by an ounce of the root  in
 a pint of diluted  alkohol, may be given in doses of a
 drachm."—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
  Co'pula.  (Quasi compula; from compello,  to re-
 strain.)  A name for a ligament
  Coque'ntia.  (From coquo, to digest.)  Medicines
 which promote concoction.
  COR.  (Cor, Us. neut.)
  L The heart See Heart.
  2. Gold.
  3. An intense fire.
  Coraci'ne.  (From Kopa\, a crow;  so named from
 its black  colour.)  A name  for a lozenge, quoted by
 Galen from Asclepiades.
  CORACO.   The first part  of the  name of some
 muscles wbich are attached to tbe coracoid process of
 tbe  blade-bone.
  CoRaco-brachialis.   Coraco-humeral of Dumas.
 Corace-brachiaus.  A muscle, so called from its origin
 and insertion.  It is situated on the humerus,  befora
the  scapula.  It arises, tendinous and fleshy, from the
forepart of tbe coracoid process of the scapula, ad-
 hering, in its descent, to the short head of the biceps;
Inserted, tendinous and fleshy, about the middle of the
internal part of the os humeri, near the origin of the
third head of the triceps,  called brachialis  externus,
      264
 where it sends down a thin tendinous expansion to the
 internal condyle of th>  <s humeri.   Its use Is to raiaa
 the arm upwards and lot wards.
   Coraco hyoideus.  See Omo hyoideus.
   CO'RACOID.  (Coracoideus; from Kopa\, a crow,
 and tiios, resemblance: shaped like the  beak  of a
 crow.)  Some processes of the bouei are so named
 which were supposed to resemble ihe beak of a crow,
   Coracoid process.   Processus  coracoides.   See
 Scapula.
   CO RAL.   See Corallium,
   CORALLINA.  (Diminutive of corallium.)  Mus
 cus maritimus;  Corallina officinalis ; Carolina alba.
 Sea coralline; Sea moss; White wormseed,  A ma-
 rine production, or fucus, resembling a small  plant
 without leaves, consisting of numerous  brittle creta-
 ceous substances,  friable betwixt  the  Angers,  and
 crackling between the teeth.   Powdered, it is admin-
 istered  to children as an  anthelmintluc, in the dose
 of half a drachm to a drachm once or twice a day.
   Corallina  corsicana.  Helmintho-corton;  Con
 ferva helminUto-cortos:  Corallina rubra;  Corallina
 melito-corton;l.emitho-corton; Mouse de Corse.  Cor-
 sican wormweed.   Fucus helmintho-corton of De la
 Tourrctte. This plant has gained greol  repute in de-
 stroying all species of intestinal worms.  Its virtues
 are extolled by many; but impartial experimentalists
 have frequently been  disappointed  of  Its efficacy.
 The Geneva Pharmacopoeia directs a syrup to be made
 of it.
   Corallina  melito-corton.  See  Corallina corsi-
 cana.
   Corallina rubra. See Corallina corsicana.
   CORALLINE.  See Corallina.
   Coralline, Corsican.  See Corallina corsicana.
   [Corallinite. See Organic relics.]
   CORA'LLIUM.   (Corallium, i.  n.; from Kopi).  a
 daughter, and aXs, the sea, because it is the production
 of the sea.) Coral.
   Corallium album. A hard, white, calcareous brit-
 tle substance;  the  nidus  of the Madrepora oculata.
 Class, Vermes; Order,  Lithophyta.   It is sometimes
 exhibited as an absorbent earth.
   Corallium  rubrv.m.  Acmo. Azur. The red coral
 is mostly employed medicinally.  It  is a  hard, brittle,
 calcareous substance, resembling the stalk of a plant,
 and is the habitation of the Isis nobilis.  Class,  Ver-
 mes ; Order, Zoophyta.   When powdered,  it is ex-
 hibited  as  an  absorbent earth to children; bul  does
 not appear to claim any preference to common chalk.
   CORALLODE'NDRON.  (From  KopaXXtov, coral,
 and StvSpov, a  tree, resembling in hardness and colour
 a  piece  of coral.)  The  coral-tree of America; anti-
 venereal.
   CORALLOI'DES.  (From KopoXAiov, coral,  and
 ctios, likeness.)   Coral-like.   See  Clavaria  coral-
 loides.
  Co'rchoron.  (From  Kopn, the pupil  of the  eye,
 and Kopeia, to purge; so called  because it  was thought
 to purge away  rheum from the eyes.)  The herb pim-
 pernel, or chickweed.
  CORCULUM.  (Corculum,  a little heart; diminu-
 tive of cor, a heart.)  An essential  part of a germi-
 nating seed, called  also the embryo, or germ.  It  lies
 between the cotyledons.  It is the point from which
the life and organization of the future plant originate.
 In some seeds  it  is much  more conspicuous than in
others.  The walnut, bean, pea, and lupine show it
in perfection.   Its internal structure, before it begins
to vegetate, is  observed to be very simple, consisting
of a uniformly medullary substance, enclosed in its
appropriate bark or skin.   Vessels are formed in it as
soon as the vital principle is excited to action, and parts
 are then developed  which seemed  not previously to
exist. There are observed in it,
  1.  The rostellum, or little  beak, which penetrates
into the  earth and becomes the root.
  2.  The plumula, which shoots above  the ground,
 and  becomes a tuft of young  leaves, with which  tbe
young stem, if  there be any, ascends.  See Cotyledon.
  CorRDA.  See Chorda.
   Corda tympani.  See Chorda tympani.
  Corda willisii.  See Dura mater.
  CORDATUS.   Heart-shaped.  Applied  to leaves,
 petals, Sec. which are ovate, hollowed out at the base,
according  to the vulgar  idea of a heart:  a form very
frequent in leaves; as in those of Arctium lappa, and 
COR
COR
  Tamus communis, and  the petals of the Sium Seli-
  num.
    A leaf is  called obcordate, when the apex of the
  heart-shaped leaf is fixed to the petiole.
    CO'RDIA.   (So called by Plumier in honour  of
  Euricius Cordius and his son Valerius, two  eminent
  German botanists.)  The name of a genus of plants.
  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Monogynia.
    Cordia myxa.  The systematic name of tbe Sebes-
  ten plant  Sebesten ; Sebestina;  Cordia—foliis ova-
  tis, supra glabris; corymbis lateralibus; calycibus
  decemslriatis of Linnaeus.  The dark  black fruit pos-
  sesses glutinous  and  aperient qualities, and is  exhi-
  bited in form of decoction in various diseases of the
  chest, hoarseness, cough, difficult respiration,  &.c.
    CORDIAL.  Cardiacus.  Medicines are generally
  so termed, which  possess warm and stimulating pro-
  perties, and that are given to raise the spirits.
    Cordink'ma.   (From xapa, the head, ifcid Stvtio, to
  move about.)  A headache attended with a vertigo.
    Cordo'lium.    (From  cor, the  heart,  and  dolor.
  pain.)  A name  formerly applied to cardialgia,  or
  heartburn.
    CORDLTS, Valerius, was born in 1515, of a Hes-
  sian family.   After studying in some  ofthe  German
  universities, he travelled through Italy, chiefly engaged
  in botanical researches. He died  at the early age of
  2B, leaving several  works;  a "History of Plants,"
  many of them never before described; " Annotations
  on Dioscorides;"  a Nuremberg Dispensatory, &c.
    CORE.  Kopv-  The pupil of the eye.
    Core'mata.  (From Kopeia, to cleanse.)   Medicines
  for cleansing the skin.
    CORIACEUS.  Leathery.  Applied to leaves and
  pods that are thick and  tough without being pulpy, or
 succulent; as in the leaves of Magnolia grandiflora,
  Aucuba, Sec. and the pods of the Lupin.
    CORIANDER.  See Coriandmm.
   CORIANDRUM.  (Coriandi-um, i. n.; from icopn,
 a pupil, and avnp, a man: because of its roundness,
 like the pupil of a man's eye; or  probably so called
 from  Kopts, cimex, a bug, because  the green  herb,
 seed and all, stinks intolerably of bugs.)  Coriander.
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean
 system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order, Dygynia.
   1. The pharmacopceial name of the officinal corian-
 der.   Sec Coriandrum sativum.
   Coriandrum sativum. The systematic name  of
  the plant called coriandrum in the pharmacopoeias.
  Cassibor; Corianon.   The  Coriandrum—fructibus
 globosis, of Linneus.   This plant  is a native of the
 South of Europe,  where, in some places, it is said  to
 grow  in such abundance as frequently to choke, the
 growth of wheat and other grain.   From being culti-
 vated  here as a medicinal plant, it has for some lime
 become naturalized to this country, where it is usually
 found in corn fields, the sides of roads, and about dung-
 hills.  Every part  of the plant, when fresh, has a very
 offensive odour, but, upon being dried, the seeds have
 a tolerably grateful smell, and their taste is moderately
 warm and slightly pungent.  They give out their vir-
 tue totally to rectified  spirit, but  only partially  to
 water.  In distillation with water, they yield a small
 quantity of a yellowish  essential oil, which smells
 strongly and pretty agreeably of the coriander.
   Dioscorides asserts, that the seeds, when taken in a
 considerable quantity, produce deleterious effects; and,
 in some parts of Spain  and Egypt, where the  fresh
 herb is eaten as a  cordial, instances of  fatuity, lethar-
 gy, etc.  are observed to occur very frequently ; but
 these qualities seem to have been unjustly ascribed to
 the coriander; and Dr. Withering informs us, that he
 has known six drachms of the seeds  taken at once,
 without any remarkable  effect.  These seeds,  and in-
 deed most of those of the umbelliferous plants, possess
 a stomachic  and carminative power.  They  are di-
 rected  in the infusum amarum, the infusum sennte
 tartarizutum, and  some other compositions  of the
 pharmacopoeias; and according to Dr. Cullen, the prin-
 cipal use of these seeds is, " that infused along  with
 Benna,  they more  powerfully correct  the odour  and
 taste of this than any  other aromatic that I have em-
 ployed, and are,  I  believe, equally  powerful in obvi-
ating tlie griping that  senna is  very  ready to pro-
duce."
  Coria'non.  See CbrJandVum.
  CO'RIS.  (From Kujxa, to cleave, or cut; so called |
  because  it was said to heal wounds.)  The herb Si
  John's wort.  See Hypericum.
   Coris cretica.  See Hypericum Sazatile.
   Coris lutka.  See Hypericum coris.
   Coris monspeliensis. Symphetumpetreum. Heat!
  pine.  This plant is intensely bitter and nauseous, but
  apparently, an active medicine,  and employed, it is
  said, with success in syphilis.
   CORK.  Suber.  The bark of the Quercus suber ot
  Linnaeus, formerly employed as an astringent, but now
  disused.  By the action of nitric acid it is acidified. See
  Suberic acid.
   Cork has been recently analyzed by Chevreuil by
  digestion, first in water and then in  alkohol.  By distil
  lation  there came over an  aromatic  principle, and a
  little acetic acid.  The watery extract contained a yel
  low and a red colouring matter, an undetermined  acid,
  gallic acid, an astringent substance, a substance con
  taining azot, a substance soluble iu water and insolu-
  ble in alkohol, gallate of iron, lime, and traces of mag-
  nesia.  20 parts of cork treated in this way,  left  17.15
  of insoluble matter.  The  undissolved residue being
  treated a sufficient number  of times with alkohol,
  yielded a variety of bodies, bat which seem  reducible
  to three ; namely, cerin, resin, and an oil.  The ligne-
  ous portion of the cork still weighed 14 parts, which
  are called suber.
   [Cork, when burnt and reduced to a black coal, may
  be pulverized and given as a medicine.  Il produces a
  light and delicate carbon, which may be given by the
  tea-spoonful, in a little syrup or milk,  to children  with
  cholera infantum or sour stomach.   It is an excellent
  corrector of acidity, and is a useful domestic remyiv
  for complaints of the bowels in children during want,
  weather.  A.]
   Cork, fossil.  See Asbestos.
   CORN.  Clavus.  A hardened portion of cuticle,
  produced by pressure: so called because a piece can be
  picked out like a corn of barley.
   Corn salad.  See Valeriana locusta.
   Cornachini pulvis.   Scainmony,  antimony,  and
  cream of tartar.
   CORNARIUS, John, was bom in Upper Saxony, in
 the year 1500.  According to Haller his real name was
 Haguenbot, or Hanbut.  He is said to have been led to
 the  study of medicine from  the delicacy of his  own
 constitution.  He graduated at Padua, after attending
 several other universities.  Besides translating  Hip-
 pocrates, and some other Greek writers into Latin, he
 was author of several works on medicine; and is  said
 to have had an extensive practice.  He died in 1558,
 leaving a son, Diomede, who succeeded him,  and
 was afterward professor of medicine  at Vienna, and
 physician to Maximilian II.
   CORNARO, Lewis, of a noble  Venetian family,
 was born in 1467.  Having impaired his constitution
 by a debauched and  voluptuous life,  and brought on at
 last a severe illness, on recovering from this, al the age
 of more than 40, he adopted a strict, abstemious regi-
 men, limiting himself to twelve ounces of solid food,
 and. fourteen of wine, daily; which quantity he rather
 diminished in the latter part of his lite.  He carefully
 avoided also the extremes of heal or cold, with all vio-
 lent exercise; and took care to live in a pure dry air.
 He thus preserved a considerable share of health and
 activity to the great age of 98.  His wife, by whom he
 had an only child, a daughter, when they were both
 advanced in years, survived him, and  attained nearly
 the same period.  When  he was 83, he published a
 short treatise in commendation of temperance, which
 has been repeatedly  translated, and  printed  in every
 country of Europe.   He then states himself to have
 been able to mount his horse, without assistance, from
 Rny rising ground.  He wrote three other discourses on
 similar  subjects at subsequent periods, the last only
 three years before his death.  The best English trans-
 lation is said to  be that of 1770.
  CO'RNEA.   The sclerotic membrane of the eye is
 so called, because it  is of a horny consistence.  See
 Sclerotic coat.
  Cornea opaca.  See Sclerotic coat.
  Cornea transparens.  Sdcrotica ceratoides. The
 transparent portion of the sclerotic membrane, through
 which the rays of light pass, is so  called, to distin-
guish it from that which is opaque.  See Sclerotio
coat.
  [uCob.nba tuhicjl. (From camu, a. horn.)  The  an 
COR
COR
 terior transparent  convex part of the eye, which, in
 texture, is tough like horn.  It has a structure peculiar
 to itself, being composed of a number of concentric
 cellular lamellae, in the cells of which  is deposited a
 particular sort of fluid.  It is covered externally by a
 continuation of the conjunctiva, which belongs to the
 class of mucous membranes; and it is lined by a mem-
 brane, the tunica humoris aquei, which seems to be-
 long to the serous class."—Cooper's Surg. Did.  A.]
   Corne'sta.  A chemical retort.
   CORNFLOWER.  See Centaurea cyanus.
   Corni'cula.  (From cornu, a horn.)   A cupping in-
 strumeut, made of horn.
   CORNICULA'RI^.  (From cornu, a horn.) Shaped
 like u born ; the coracoid process of the scapula.
   CORNIFORM1S. (From cornu, a horn, and forma
 resemblance.)  Horn-shaped: applied to the nectary
 of plants:—nectarinm corniforme, in the orchis tribe.
   CO'RNU.   A horn.  This term is used both in ana-
 tomy, surgery, and materia medica.   1. A wart.  See
 Verruca.
   2. A  corn or horny induration of the  cuticle.  See
 Corn.
   3. The hom of the stag.
   4. The cavities of the brain.
   Cornu ammonis.  Cornu arietis.  When  the  pes
 hippocampi of the  human  brain  is cut  transversely
 through, the cortical substance is so disposed  as to re-
 semble a ram's horn.  This is the  true cornu ammo-
 nis, though tbe name is often applied to the pes hippo-
 campi.
   | This name is also applied to the chambered shells
 found in a  petrified  state, and designated among the
 organic relics of another world as Ammonites.  They
 are very abundant in Yorkshire, England, and have
 been found in  some  places in this country.  A.j
   Cornu arietis.  See Cornu ammonis.
   Cornu cervi.  Hartshorn.  The horns of several
 species  of  stag, as  the  Cervus alecs, Ccrvus dama,
 Cervus elaphus, and Cervus taranda,  are used  medi-
 cinally.   Boiled, they impart to tbe water a nutritious
 Jelly, which is frequently served at table.  Hartshorn
 clly is made thus:—Boil half a pound of  the shavings
 of hartshorn, in six pints of water, to a quart;  to the
 strained liquor add one ounce of the juice  of lemon, or
 of Seville orange, four ounces of mountain wine and
 half a pound of sugar; then boil tbe whole lo a pro-
 per consistence.  The chief use of the horns is for cal-
 cination, and to afford the liquor volati.is cornu cervi
 and subcarbonate of  ammonia.
  Cornu cervi calcinatum.  See Cornu ustum.
  Cornu ustum.    Cornu cervi  calcinatum.   Burn
 pieces of hartshorn  in an open fire, till they  become
 thoroughly white; then powder, and prepare them in
 the same manner as is  directed for chalk.  Burnt
hartshorn shavings possess absorbent, antacid, and ad-
stringent properties, and  are given  in the form of
decoction, as a common drink in diarrhoeas., pyrosis, &c.
  Cornua uteri.  Pleclena.  In comparative anato-
my, the horns of the womb; the womb being in some
animals  triangular, and its angles resembling horns.
  Cornumu'sa.  A retort
  CO'RNLTS.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class,  Tetrandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the cornel-tree. See
 Cornus sanguinea.
   ["Cornus Florida.  Dogwood.   This is a small
native tree, well known for its ornamental flowers in
 most parts of the country, but more particularly in the
 middle and southern states.  The bark of  the trunk is
 rough externally, and of a brownish colour within.
 Its taste  is  a strong bitter, with some astringent and
 aromatic flavour.  It appears to contain  a bitter ex-
tractive substance, tannin, gallic acid, andasmall por-
tion of resin.  This bark has been much employed as
 a tonic in various parts of the interior country.  It is
particularly used in intermittent fevers, and is applied
to various other cases of debility, in which  tonics are
Indicated.  When fresh, it is sometimes  liable to dis-
order the stomach and bowels, which tendency it is
thought to lose by age.  It may be given in powder in
doses ot one or two  scruples.  Although  this species
has been most attended to, there are several others of
tbe same genus, which, from their bitterness, promise
quite as  much efficacy "—Big. Mat. Mi d.   A.]
  ("Cornus circinata.  Round-leaf^dogeood. This
  species of dogwood Is a native shrub, distinguished
  from others of its genus by its round leaves and beau-
  tifully spotted twigs.  The  bark  is not exceeded by
  any other in bitterness, and  unites with this rroperty
  the  chemical  and sensible evidences  of ostringency.
  It is highly valuable as a tonic and stomachic, and
  appears to be largely in use in some parts of ihe United
  States, particularly in  Connecticut, where it is  em-
  ployed as a substitute  for cinchona, and has become
  an officinal article.  It is exhibited in tlie same way as
  Cornus florida."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.)
   ["Cornus sericea.    Swamp dogwood.  This ia
  anotner of the bitter cornels, native  in the United
  States.  Its properties resemble the preceding so much,
  that it is unnecessary  to repeat them. Indeed, the
  genus Cornus in the northern hemisphere, like Cincho-
  na in the southern, appears to have the same medical
  character  pervading all its  species, differing only in
  degree."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   Cornus sanguinea.   The fruit is moderately cool-
  ing and astringent.
   Cornu'ta.  (Fromcornu; from its resemblance to
 a horn.)  A retort.
   COROLLA.  (From coronuia, a little crown.)  The
 leaves of a flower which consist of those more delicate
 and dilated, generally more coloured leaves,  which are
 always internal with resjiect to the calyx, between it
 and the internal organs of the flower, and which con-
 stitute its chief beauty.  It always consists  of one or
 more coloured leaves, which are termed petals.
   A coloured calyx is to be distinguished from  a co-
 rolla, which may be readily  done  in  the  Allyssum
 alpestre, and La mi am orvala.
   There are four general divisions of corols.
   1. Monopetalous, which consists of one petal, as in
 Nicotiana tabacum.
   2. Polypetalous, having many; as in Lillium candi-
 dum.
   3. Compound, consisting of many corolla, which are
 not calyculated, and are on a common receptacle, and
 calyx; as in Helianthus  annuus.
   4. Aggregate, consisting of many calyculated  co-
 rolla placed on a common calyx; as in Scabiosa arven-
 sis, and Echinops sparocephalus.
   A.  Corolla monopetala, formed of one petal, which,
 for the most part, forms a cavity, and is divided into,
   a. Limb us, the limb, which is the margin, or  hori-
 zontal spreading portion.
   b. Tubus, the tube, which is the cylindrical and  in-
 ferior part, and is enclosed iu the calyx.
   c.  Fauces, or the orifice of the tube.
   From the figure of a regular or uniform limb are de-
 rived the following terms: •
   1.  Corolla campanulata, bell-shaped;  as in Campa-
 nula and Atropa.
  2. C. globosa, globular; as in Hyacynthus  botryoi
 des and Erica ranientacca.
  3. C.  Tubulosa, tubular, as in  Primula and .Erica
 Massoni.
  4. C. claviculata; as in Erica tubiflora.
  5. C. cyathiformis, cup-shaped; as in Sympathum
officindle.
  6. C. infundibuliformis, funnel-shaped; as in Ni-
cotiana tabacum, and Datura stramonium,
  7. C. hypocrateriformis, salver-shaped, a  flat  limb
upon a long tube;  as in Vinca rosea.
  8. C. rotata: wheel-shaped, that is, salver-shaped,
with scarcely any tube;  as in Borago-officinalis, and
Physalis alkekengi.
  9. C. urceolata, saucer-like; as in Evolvulus  aid-
noides.
   10.  C. contorta, obliquely bent; as in Vinca minor
and Nerium oleander.
  11.  C. ligulata, the tube very short, and ending and
denly in an oblong petal; as in the corolla of the ra-
dius ofthe Helianthus annuus.
  From the figure of an unequal limb:
  1.  Corolla ringens, irregular and gaping  like the
 mouth of an animal; as in Lamium album, and Salota
sclarea.
  2.  C. personata, irregular and closed  by a kind  of
 palate;  as in Antirrhinum majus.
   In the ringent and personate corolla! are to bt no
 ticed the following parts:
   a. Tubus, the inferior part.
   b.  Rictus, the space between the two lips.
   c.  Faux, the orifice of the lube in the rectus. 
COR
COR
  d. Galea, the helmet or superior arched lip.
  e. Labellum or barba, the inferior lip.
  f.  Palatum, the palate, an eminence in the inferior
lip which shuts the rictus of a personate corolla.
  g. Calcar, the  spur which forms an obtuse or acute
bag at the side ofthe receptacle.
  3. C bilabiata, two-lipped, the tube divided into
two irregular lips opposite each other, without any
visible rictus; as in Aristolochia bilabiata.
  In the bilabiate corolla are to be noticed,
  a. The tubus.
  b. The faux.
  c. The superior lip, formed of one or two lobes.
  d. The inferior lip, mostly three-Iobed.
  e. One-lipped,  the upper or  lower wanting, as  in
Aristolochia clematitis, and Teucrium.
  Corolla infera, means that it is below the germen,
which is the most common place of the corolla; and
corolla super .1, above the germen, as in roses.
  B. Corollapolypetala, formed of many petals.
  In the petal of this division are noticed,
  a. The unguis, the claw, the thin inferior part.
  b. The lamina or border, the broader and superior
part; example, Dianthus caryophyllis.
  From the number of uniform petals, the corol  of
this division is named,
  1. DipUalous; as in Euphorbia graminea.
  2. Tripetalous : as in Tradescantia virginica,
  3. Tetrapetalous; as in Chieranthus incanus.
  4. Pentapetalous; as in Paonia offirinalis.
  5. Hexapetalous ; as in Lilium candidum.
  6. Polypetalous;  as in Rosa centifolia.
  From the figure,
  1.  Malvaceous;  pentapetalous, with  its  claws
united laterally,  so that it appears monopetalous;  as
in Malva sylvestris, and Alcia.
  2. Rosaceous, spreading like a rose, pentapetalous,
almost destitute  of claws; as in Rosa canina, and
Paonia officinalis.
  3. Liliaceous; six-petalled, sometimes three with-
out a calyx;  as in Lilium candidum.
  4. CaryophyUaceous:  five-petalled,  with  a  long
Claw, spreading border, and a monophyUous tubular
calyx; as in  Dianthus caryophyllus, and Saponaria
officinalis.
  5. Crudform;  three-petalled,  like a cross; as  in
Sinapis alba, and Lunaria alba.
  6. Manifold, many corols lying one on another;  as
in Cactus flagelliformis.
  From the figure of unequal petals :
  1. Orchideal,  five petals, three of which are bent
backward, and two are lateral and in the middle of
these:  tbe labellum is bent back on the nectary.
  2. Papilionaceous, four petals, irregular and  spread-
ing, somewhat like a butterfly; as in Lathyrus latifo-
lius, and Robinii pseudacacia.
  In a papilionaceous corolla, observe,
  a. The vexillum, the standard or large concave one
at the bark.
  b. Ala, the wings or  two side-petals, placed in the
middle.
  c. The carina, or keel, consisting  of two  petals,
united or separate, embracing the internal organs.
  3. Calcarate or  spurred, pentapetalous, one petal
formed into a spur-like tube.
  C. Compound corolla; consisting of numerous flo-
rets, not calyculate, and within a common perian-
thium.
  It affords,
  a. The discus, disk, or middle.
  b. The radius,  which  forms  the circumference.
The marginal white florets of the daisy exemplify the
rays, and the central yellow ones the disk.
  From  the difference in the florets of a compound
flower it is said to be,
  a. Tubulate, when all the florets are cylindrical.
  b. Ligulate or semiflosculose, shaped like a strap or
riband;  as in Leonlodon taraxacum.
  c.  Radiate, if the florets in the radius are ligulate,
and  those in the disk tubular.
  d. Semiradiate, the radius consisting of only a few
ligulate florets on one side; as in Bidens.  See also
Petala,
  COROLLULA   (A diminutive of corolla,  a little
wreath or crown.)  The partial  petal, or floret of a
compound flower.
  CORO'NA  A crown.  This term is used in ana-
 tomy to designate the basis of some parts; and in bo-
 tany, to  parts of plants, from their resemblance.  In
 the writings of some botanists, it is synonymous wilh
 radius.
  Corona ciliaris. The ciliar ligament.
  Corona olandis. The margin of the glans penis.
  Corona imperialis.  A name  for crown-imperial
 The Turks use it as an emetic.   The whole plant is
 poisonous.
  Corona regia.   The melilotus.
  Corona solis.  See Helianthus annuus.
  Corona veneris. Venereal blotches  on  the fore-
 head are so termed.
  CORONAL.  (Coronalis;  from corona,  a crown
 or garland.)   Belonging to a crown or garland: so
 named because the ancients wore their garlands in its
 direction.
  Coronal suture.   Sutura coronalis ; Sutura ar-
 cualis.  The suture of the head, that extends from one
 temple across  to the other, uniting the two parietal
 bones with the frontal.
  CORONA'RIUS.   See Coronary.
  Coronarije.  The name of an order of plants in
 Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting
 of such  as have beautiful flowers, thus forming a
 floral crown.
  CORONARY.   (Coronarius; from corona, a
 crown.)  This term is applied to vessels and nerves,
 which supply  the corona or basis of parts, or because
 they spread round the part like a garland or crown.
  Coronary  ligaments.   (From corona, a crown.)
 Ligaments uniting  the radius and ulna.  The term
 ligamentum coronarium is also applied to a  ligament
 of the liver.
  Coronary vessels.  Vasa coronaria. The arte-
 ries and veins of the heart and stomach.
  CORONATUS.  Little crown-like eminences on
 the surface of the petal; or in Nerium oleander.
  Coronati.  Coronations.  The name of a class of
 plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method,
 consisting of plants which have  the seed-bud placed
 under the flower-cup which serves it for a crown.
  CORO'NE.  (Koptavn, a crow:  so named from its
 supposed likeness to a crow's bill.) The acute process
 of the lower jaw-bone.
  CORONOID.  (Coronoideus; fromKopiavt;, a crow,
 and tiSos, likeness.  Processes of bones are so called,
 that have any resemblance to a crow's beak; as coro-
 noid process ofthe ulna, jaw, &c.
  CORONO'PUS.   (From Kopiavn, a carrion crow,
 and nov , a  foot; the plant being said to  resemble a
 crow's foot)  See Plantago.
  CORONUL A.  The hem or border which surrounds
 the seeds of some flowers in the form of a crown.
  CORPUS.  1. The body.   See Body.
  2. Many parts and substances are also distinguished
 by this name:  as corpus callosum, corpus luteum, Sec.
  Corpus  albicans.  Two white eminences in the
 basis of the brain, discovered by Willis, and called cor-
 pora albicantia Willisii.
  Corpus  annulare.  A synonyme of the  pons Va
 rolii.  See Pons  Varolii.
  Corpus  callosum.   Commissura magna cerebri.
 The white medullary part joining the two hemispheres
 ofthe brain, and coming into view under the falx of
 the dura mater when the hemispheres are drawn from
 each other.  On  the surface of the corpus  callosum
 two lines are conspicuous, called the raphe.
  Corpus cavernosus clitoridis.  See Clitoris.
  Corpus cavernosus penis.  See Penis.
  Corpus  fimbriatum.  The flattened terminations
 of the posterior crura of the fornix of the brain, which
 turn round into the inferior cavity of the lateral ventri
 cle, and end in the pedes hippocampi.
  Corpus olandulosum.  The prostate gland.
  Corpus lobosum. Part of the cortical part of the
 kidney.
  Corpus luteum.  A yellow spot found in  that part
 ofthe ovarium of females, from whence an ovum has
 proceeded; hence their presence determines  that the
 female has been impregnated. The number of the
 corpora lutea corresponds with the number of impreg- .
 nations.  It is,  however, asserted by a  modern writerf
 that corpora lutea have been detected in young vir-
gins, where no impregnations could  possibly have
taken place.
  Corpus muccJbum. See Rett mucosum.
                                       367 
                     COR

   Corpfs NtRVio-sroNoiosuM.  The cavernous sub-
 ■lance of the penis.
   Corpl's nervosum.  The cavernous substance of
 tlie clitoris.
   Corpus olivare.  Two external prominences of
 the medulla oblongata, shaped somewhat like an olive,
 are called corpora olivaria.
   Corpus pampiniforme.   Applied to the spermatic
 chord and thoracic duct;  also to the plexus of veins
 surrounding the spermatic artery in the cavity of the
 udbomen.
   Corpus fybamidale.  Two internal prominences
 of the medulla oblongata, which are of a pyramidal
 shape, are called corpora pyramidalia.
   Corpus quadrigrminum. See Tubereula quadri-
 gtnma.
   Corpus reticulars.  See Rete mucosum.
   Corpus sesamoideum.   A little prominence at the
 entry of the pulmonary artery.
   Corpus spongiosum  urethrje.  Substantia spon-
 giosa urethra.  Corpus spongiosum penis.   This sub-
 stance originates before the  prostate gland, surrounds
 the urethra, and forms the bulb; then proceeds to the
 end of the corpora cavernosa, and terminates in the
 glans penis, which it forms.
   Corpus striatum. So named from its appearance.
 Bee Cereomm.
   Corpus varicosum.  The spermatic chord.
   Corra'oo.  (From cor, the heart; it being supposed
 to have a good effect in comforting tbe heart)  See
 Borago officinalis.
   Co'rrc.  (From xtipia, to shave.)  The temples.
 That  part of the jaws  where the beard grows, and
 which it is usual to shave.
   CORROBORANT.  (Corroborans.)   Whatever
 gives  strength to the body;  as bark, wine,  beef, cold-
 Bath, &c.  See Tonic.
   CORROSIVE.  (Corrosivus; from corrodo, to cut
 ■way.)  See Eseharotic.
   Corrosive sublimate.  The oxymuriate of mercury.
 See Hydrargyri oxymurias.
   CORRUGA'TOR.  (From eorrugo, to  wrinkle.)
 The name of muscles, the office of which is to wrin-
 kle or corrugate tile parts they act on.
   Corrugator supercilu.  A small muscle situated
 on the forehead.  Musculus supercilii of  Winslow;
 Musculus frontalis verus, seu corrugator cotterii of
 Douglas;  and Cutaniosourcillier of Dumas.   When
 one muscle acts, il is drawn towards the  other, and
 projects over the inner canthus ofthe eye.  When both
 muscles act, they pull down the skin of the forehead,
 and make it wrinkle, particularly between the eye-
 brows.
  CORTEX.   (Cortex,  ids. m. or f.)  This term  is
 generally, though  improperly, given  to the Peruvian
 bark.   Il  applies to any rind, or bark.
  Cortex angelinje.  The bark of a tree growing in
 Grenada.   A decoction of it is recommended as a vei-
 mifuge.   It excites tormina, similar to jalap, and ope-
 rates by purging.
  Cortex anoustur*.   See Cusparia.
  Cortex antiscorbuticus.  The canella  alba. See
 Winteria aromatica.
  Cortex aromaticus.  See Winteria aromatica.
  Cortex, bela-aye.   See  Nerium antidysenteri-
cum.
  Cortex  canellje malabaricje.  See Laurus
 cassia.
   Cortex cardinalis de lugo. The Peruvian bark:
co called, because the Cardinal Lugo  had testimonials
of above  a thousand cures performed by it in the year
 1653.
  Cortex cererri.  The cortical  substance of the
 brain.  See Cerebrum.
  Cortex chinje rkotos.   See CincAona.
  Cortex chinje surinamensis.   This bark is re-
 markably bitter, and preferable to the other species in
 intermittent fevers.
  Cortex chinchinje.  Bee CincAona.
   Cortex elutherije.  See Crolon casearilla.
  Cortex geoffroyje jamaicensis. See  Geoffroya
jamaicensis.
   Cortex jamaicensis.  See Aeras sapota.
  Cortex lavola.  The bark  bearing this name  is
 supposed  to be tlie produce of the tree which affords
 the Anisum stellatum  Its virtues are similar.
  Cortex macellanicus.   See Winteria aromatica.
      268
                       COS

   Cortbx  massot.   The produce of New Gulnet,
 where il  is beaten into a pultaceous mass with water,
 and rubbed upon the abdomen to allay pain ofthe
 bowels,   it lias the smell and flavour of cinnamon.
   Cortex patrum.   See Cinchona.
   Cortex peruvianus.  See Cinchona.
   Cortex peruvianus flavus.  See CincAona.
   Cortex peruvianus ruber.  See Cinchona.
   Cortex pocoerebje.  A bark sent  from Amcricij
 said to be serviceable in diarrhoeas, and dysenteries.
   Cortex quassije.   See Quassia amara.
   Cortex winterianus.  See Winteria aromatica
   CORTICAL.   Corticalis.   1.  Belonging to  the
 bark of a plant or tree.   <
   2. Embracing or surrounding any part like the bark
 of a tree ; as the cortical substance of the brain, kid
 ney, Sec.
   CORTICO'SUS.   Like bark or rind.  Applied to
 the hard pod of the Cassia fistularis.
   Cortu sa.  See Sanicula europea.
   Co'ru canarica.  A  quince-like tree of Malabar;
 it is antidysenteric.
   CORUNDUM.  A  genus of minerals, which,  ac
 cording to Jameoon, contains three species; theocto
 hedral, rhomboitfal, and prismatic.
   CORYDALES.   (From  Kopvsx  a  helmet.)  The
 name of an order of plants in Linnaeus's Fragments
 of a Natural Method, consisting of plants which have
 flowers somewhat resembling a helmet or hood.
   CORYLUS.  (Derivation uncertain: according to
 some, from icapua, a walnut.)  1. The name of a genus
 of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Monecia;
 Order, Folyandria.
   2. The pharmacopceial  name of the hazel-tree.   Sen
 Corylus avellana.
   Corylus avellana. The hazel-nut tree.  The nuts
 of this tree are  much eaten in this country;  they are
 hard of digestion, and often pass the bowels very little
 alleted; if, however, they are  well chewed, they give
 out a nutritious oil.  An  oil is also obtained from the
 wood of this tree, Corylus  avellana stipulis ovatis,
 obtusis, of Linnaeus; which is efficacious against the
 toothache, and is said to kill f.orms.
  CORYMBIFERjE.   (From corymbus ;  a species of
 florescence, and fero,  to  bear.)  Plants which  bear
 corymbal flowers.
  CORYMBUS.  (KopvuBov, or KopvuBos, a branch
 or cluster crowning the summit of a plant; from Kopvs,
 a helmet.) A corymb.  That species of Inflorescence
 formed by many-flowers, the partial flower-stalks of
 which are gradually longer, as they stand lower on the
 common stalk, so  that all the  flowers are nearly on a
 level;  as  in the Crysanlhemum  corymbosum.  It is
 paid to he simple, when not divided into branches;  as
 in Thlaspi arvense, and Gnaphalium dentatum: antf
 compound, when it has branches; as in Gnaphalium
 stachas.
  Co'rypme.  Kopvfo.  The vertex of the head.—
 Galen.
  CORY'ZA.  (Koflvjfa; from Kapa, the head, and Itia,
 to boil.)  An increased discharge of mucus from the
 nose.   See Catarrh.  Dr. Good makes this a genus  of
disease; running at the  nose.  It has two species,
 Coryta entoniea, and atonica.
  Coscu'lia.  The grains of kcrme9.
  COSMETIC.   Cosmeticus.  A  term  applied  to
 remedies against blotches and freckles.
  Cosmos.  A regular series.  In Hippocrates it is the
order and series of critical days.
  Co'ssis.  A little tubercle in the face, like the head
of a worm.
 • Co'?V"U  A maI'Bnant ulcer  of the  nose, men-
tioned by Paracelsus.
  o°rr?JALArib- !-The riL of an animal. See Ribs.
  i. 1 he thick middle nerve-like cord of a leaf, which
 proceeds from its base to the apex.   See Leaf.
  £%T™ HBttBi-  T,'e Hypocharis radicata.
  COSTALIS.  (From costa, a rib ) Belonging to a
 rib: applied to muscles, arteries, nerves, Sec.
  Costa PULmonaria.  Very probably tbe Hypocharis
radicata, or long-rooted iiaivk-wecd,\vhlch was used
in pulmonary affections, and pains of the side.
  COSTA'TUS.  Ribbed.  Applied to  leaves, and is
synouymous with nervous: the leaf having (impla
 lines extended from the base lo the point.  See Leaf.
  Costo-hyoideus.   A muscle, so named from its
origin and Insertion.   See Omahytdew. 
GOU
CRA
  CO'STUS.  (From kasta, Arabian.) The name of
t genus of plants in the  Linnaean  system.  Class,
Monandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Costus amarus.  See Costus arabicus.
  Cosrus arabicus.   The systematic name of the
Costus indicus ; amarus ;  dulcis ; orientalis.   Sweet
and bitter costus.  The root of this tree possesses bit-
ter and  aromatic virtues, and is considered as a good
stomachic.  Formerly there were two other  species,
the bitter and sweet, distinguished for use.  At present,
the Arabic only is known, and that is seldom employed.
It is, however, said to be stomachic, diaphoretic, and
diuretic
  Costus corticosus.  The canella alba.
  Costus kortorum minor. The Achillea ageratum.
  Costus nigra.  The artichoke.
  Cotaro'nium.  A word  coined by  Paracelsus, im-
plying  a liquor into which all bodies, and even their
elements, may be dissolved.
  Co'tis.  (From kotJij, the head.)  The back part
of the head ; sometimes the hollow of the neck.
  CO'TULA.   (Cotula,  diminutive of cos, a whet-
stone, from the resemblance of its  leaves to a whet-
stone ;  or from Ko'JvXn, a hollow.)  Stinking chamo-
mile.
  ["Cotula.  Mayweed.  The anthemis cotula is an
annual  weed imported from Europe, and now very
common by road sides throughout the United States.
Its taste  is strong, disagreeable, and bitter.  In small
quantities it is ionic, stimulating,  and diaphoretic;  in
large ones emetic and sudorific.  It is commonly given
in infusion."—Big. Mat. Med,  A.]
  CO'TULE.  (KoruXn, ihe name of an old measure.)
The socket of the hipbone.  See Acetabulum.
  Cottula fcetida.   See Anthemis cotula,
  COTYLEDON.  (Cotyledon, onis. f.; from KorvXn,
a cavity.)  Seed-lobe, or cotyledon.   The colyledones
are ihe two halves of a  seed, which, when  germi-
nating,  become two pulpy leaves, culled  tbe seminal
leaves.  These leaves  are often of  a different form
from those which  are about  to appear; as  in the
Raphanus salivas; and sometimes they  are of an-
other  colour;  as in Cannabis sativa, the  seminal
leaves of  which are white.
  Almost all the cotyledons wither and fall off, as the
plant grows up.
  These bodies are spoken of in the plural, because it
it is much doubted whether any plant can be said to
have a solitary cotyledon, so  that  most plains are
dicotyledonous.  Plants without any, are called acoty-
ledones.   Those with more than two, polycolyledo-
nous.
  Between the two cotyledons ofthe germinating seed,
is seated the embryo, or  germ of the plant, called by
Linnaeus, corculum, or little heart, in allusion to the
heart of the walnut.  Mr. Knight denominates it the
germen: but that term is appropriated to a very dif-
ferent part, the rudiment of tbe fruit.  The expanding
embryo, resembling a  little feather, has, for that rea-
son, been called by Linnaeus, plumula: it soon becomes
a tull of young leaves,  with which the young stein as-
cends.   See Corculum.
  COTYLOID.  (Cotyloides; from kotvXv, the name
of an old measure, and tiSos, resemblance.)  Resem-
bling the old measure, or cotule.
  Cotyloid cavity.  The acetabulum. See  Innomi-
natum os.
  COTVLOI'DES—See Cotyloid.
  COUCHING.  A surgical operation that consists in
removing the opaque lens out of the axis of vision, by
means of a needle constructed for the purpose.
  Couch-grass.  See Triticum repens.
  COUGH.   Tussis.  A  sonorous  concussion of the;
thorax, produced by the sudden expulsion of the air
from the chest through the fauces.  See Catarrh.
  Co'um.  The meadow-saffron.
  COUNTER-OPENING.   Ctmtra-apertura.   An
opening made in any  part  of an abscess opposite to
one already in  it.  This is often done iu order to afford
a leadier egress to the collected pus.
  Coup de soleil.  The French for an erysipelas or
apoplexy,  or any affection produced  instantaneously
from a scorching sun.
  Cou'rap.  (Indian.)   The provincial name of a dis-
ease of the skin common in Java, and other parts of
tbe East Indies, accompanied  by a perpetual itchiug
and discharge of matter.
  Cou'rbaril.  The tree  which produces the gum
anitne   See Anime.
  Couro'ndi.  An evergreen tree of India, said to be
antidysenteric.
  Couroy moelli.  A shrub of India, said to be anti-
venomous.
  Cou'scous.  An African food, much used about the
river Senegal.  It is a composition  of tbe flour of
millet, with some flesh, and what is there called lalo.
  Covola'm.  See Cratava marmelos.
  COWHAGE.  See Dolichos pruriens.
  COW-ITCH.  See Dolichos pmriens.
  COWPER, William, was born about tlie middled
the 17th century, and became distinguished as a sur-
geon and anatomist in this metropolis.   His first work,
entitled " Myotomia Reformata," in 1694, far excelled
any which  preceded it on that subject in correct-
ness, though  since surpassed  by Albinus.   Three
years after, he published at Oxford  " the Anatomy nf
Human Bodies,''  with splendid plates, chiefly from
Bidloo; but forty of the  figures were from drawings
made by himself; he added also some  ingenious  and
useful anatomical and surgical observations.   Having
been accused of plagiarism  by Bidloo, he wrote an apo-
logy, called " Eucharistia;" preceded by a description
of shine glands, near the neck of tlie bladder, which
have been called by his name;  He was also author
of several communications to the Royal Society, and
some observations inserted in the anthropologia of
Drake.   He died in 1710.
  Cowper's  glands.  (Cowperi glandule;  named
from Cowper, who first described them.)  Threelarge
muciparous glands of the male, two of which aie situ-
ated before tbe  prostate gland  under  the accelerator
muscles of the urine, and the third more forward, be-
fore the bulb of  the urethra.  They excrete  a fluid,
similar to that of the prostate gland, during the vene-
real orgasm.
  Cowpe'ri glandulje.  See Cowper's glands.
  COXA.  The ischium- is sometimes so called, and
sometimes the os coccygis.
  COXE'NDIX.  (From ceza, the hip.)   The ischi-
um ; the hip-joint.
  Crablouse.  A species of pediculus which infests
the axillae and pudenda.
  [The crab-louse is not a pediculus, but belongsto the
genus of acarus.   If the parts infested by (hem be
washed with an infusion of tobacco, it will toon kill
these vermin.  A.]
  Crab-yaws.  A name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on tbe soles of tbe feet, wilh callous lipst so bard that
it is difficult to cut them.
  ["CRAIK,  James, M.D.  Dr. Craik was born in
Scotland, where he  received  bis  education for the
medical service of the British  army.   He came to the
colony, of Virginia in early life, and had the hojiour to
accompany the youthful Washington in his expedition
against the Freuch aud Indians in 1754,. and returned
in safety after the battle of the Meadows, and jurren-
der of Fort Necessity. In 1755, he attended Bradriock
in his inarch through the wilder-ness, and .on the 9th
of July, assisted in dressing the wounds of thai brave,
but unfortunate commander.    At the close of the
French  war, the subject of this article-, resumed  and
continued his professional labours till  the. commence-
ment of tbe Revolution  in 1775.  By the aid of .his
early and fast friend, General Washington, he was
transferred to tbe Medical Department ir  the Couti
nental army, and rosetothe first rank and distinction.
In 1777, he had an opportunity, which lie gladly em-
braced, to show his fidelity to  his General, and to his
adopted country, by taking an active.part  in the do-
veiopement of a nefarious conspiracy, the object of
which was the  removal  of the commander in chief.
In 1780, he was deputed  to, visit Count de Rocham-
beau, then recently arrived at Rhode-Island,  and to
make arrangements for the  establishment of Hospitals
to accommodate the French army.  Having performed
this difficult duty, he continued in the army to Iheeud
of the war, and was present at the surrender of Corn-
wallis, on the memorable 19th October, 1781.
  After the cessation of hostilities,  the  Doctor settled
as a physician in Cliasles County, in Maryland, but
soon removed to the  neighbourhood of his illustrious
friend and companion, the  farmer, of Mount Vernon,
at his particular,  repeated, and u;gent request.  In
1798, when, tike a guardian angel, the neveuo befi», 
CRA
CRI
gotten Washington again stepped forth to redress the
wrongs of his country; tbe venerable Craik was once
more appointed to  his former station in tbe medical
staff.  With the disbandment of the army, then called
into service, ceased the public professional labours of
the subject of this memoir, whose life, for nearly half
a century, has been devoted with  zeal and high repu-
tation to tbe cause of his country.
  One trying duty yet remained to be performed; it
was to witness  the closing scene, and to receive  tbe
last sigh of his  revered commander, the most distin-
guished man of his age.  Their youthful commissions
had been signed on the same day;  they had served
together in the ranks of war; their friendship was
cemented by a social intercourse of fifty years' continu-
ance, and they were greatly endeared to each other by
common toils, privations, and honours.  At length the
moment of parting arrived; it was tender, affectionate,
solemn, and impressive.  In  reference to that painful
event, the Doctor is said to have expressed himself in
this manner: "I, who was bred amid scenes of human
calamity, who had so often witnessed death in its direst
and most awful forms, believed that its terrors were
too familiar to my eye to shake my fortitude; but when
I saw tins great man die, it seemed as if the bonds of
my nature were rent asunder, and tbat the  pillar of
my country's happiness had fallen to tbe ground."
  As a physician, Dr. Craik was greatly distinguished
by his skill and success, and his  professional merits
were highly and justly appreciated.  In the various
relations of private life, his  character was truly esti-
mable, and bis memory is precious to all who had the
happiness and the honour of his  acquaintance.  He
was one, and what  a proud eulogy it is, of whom the
immortal Washington was  pleased to  write, " my
compatriot in arms, my old and intimate friend."  He
departed this life at tbe place of his residence in Fair-
fax ccunty, on the 6th February, 1814, in the 84th year
Of his age."— Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  CRA'MBE.  (Kpa/iSn,  the name given by Dioscori-
des, Galea, and others, to tbe cabbage; the derivation
is uncertain.) The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system. Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Sili-
culosa.  Cabbage.
  Cram3E maritima.  The systematic name for the
sea-cole, or  sea-kale.  A delicious vegetable  when
forced ard  blanched.  It is brought to  table  about
Christina), has a delicate flavour, and is much es-
teemed.  Like to all oleraceous plants, it  is flatulent
and watery.
  CRAMP.   (From krempen, to  contract.  Germ.)
See Spasm.
  CRANESBILL.  See Geranium.
  CranesHll, bloody.  See Geranium sanguineum.
  CRA'.VlUM.  (Kpaviov, quasi xapaviov; from Kapa,
the head.)  The skull  or superior part of the  head.
See Cajut.
  Crante'res.  (From xpatvia, to perform.)   A name
given to tbe dentes sapienliae and other inolares,  from
their offke of masticating the food.
  CRA'PULA. (KpainvXa.)  A surfeit; drunkenness.
  CRA'SIS.  (From Ktoavvvui, to mix.)   Mixture.
A term  applied to  the humours of  the body, when
there is such an admixture  of their principles as to
constitute a healthy state: hence, in dropsies, scurvy,
Sec. the craiis, or healthy mixture of the principles of
the blood, is laid to be destroyed.
  Cra'sfedox.  (KpaorcSov, the hem of a garment;
from Kptpaia, ts> hang down, and ir£cW, the ground.)  A
relaxation of the uvula, when it bangs down in a thin,
long membrane, like the hem of a garment.
  CRASSAME'NTUM.  (From crassus, thick.) See
Blood.
  CRA'SSULA.  (From crassus, thick:  so named
from the thickness of its leaves.)  See Sedum tele-
phium.
  CRATAEGUS.  (From «pa7oc,strength: so called
from tbe strength and hardness of its wood.)  The
wild service-tree, of which there are many, are all spe-
cies of the genus jPnoiiur.  The fruits are most of them
astringent
  CRATEVA.   (So called from  Cratevas, a Greek
physician, celebrated by Hippocrates for his knowledge
of plants.)   The name of a genus of plants. Class,
Polyandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  Orateva marmelos.  The fruit is astringent while
unripe; but when ripe, of a delicious taste. The bark
     273
 ofthe tree strengthens the stomach, and relieves hy-
 pochondriac languors.
   Crati'cula.  (From crates, a hurdle.)  The bars
 or grate which covers ihe ash-hole in  a chemical fur-
 nace.
   CRATON, John, called also Crafftheim, was bom
 at Breslaw in 1519.  He was intended for the church,
 but preferring the study of medicine, went to graduate
 at Padua, and then settled at Breslaw.  But alter a
 few years he was called to Vienna, and made physi-
 cian and aulic counsellor to the Emperor Ferdinand I.:
 which offices also  he  held under the two succeeding;
 emperors, and died in  1585.  His works wfrr nume-
 rous: the principal are, " A Commentary on Syphilis;"
 " A Treatise on Contagious Fever;" another on "The-
 rapeutics ;"  and seven volumes of Epistles and Con-
 sultations.
   Cream of tartar. See Potassa supertartras.
   CREMA'STER.  (From Kptpaia,  to suspend.)  A
 muscle of the  testicle, by whicn  it is suspended,  and
 drawn up and compressed, in the act of coition.  It
 arises from Poupart's ligament, passes over the sper-
 matic chord, and is lost in  the cellular  membrane of
 tlie scrotum, covering the testicles.
  Cre'mnus.  (From xpnuvos, a precipice, or shelving
 place.)  1. The lip of an ulcer.
  2.  The labium pudendi.
  CRE'MOR.   1.  Cream.   The oily  part of milk
 which  rises to the surface of that liquid, mixed with a
 little curd and serum.   When churned, butter is ob
 tained.  See Milk.
  2.  Any substance floating on the top, and skimmed
off.
  CRENATUS.   Crenate or notched,  applied to a
 leaf or petal, when tbe indentations are blunted or
 rounded, and not directed  toward either end of the
 leaf; as in Glecoma hederacea.  The two British spe-
cies of Salvia are examples of doubly crenate leaves.
The petals of the Linumusitalissimum are crenate.
  CRE'PITUS.  (From crepo, to make n noise.)   A
puff or little noise.   The word is generally employed
to express the pothognamonic symptoms of air being
collected in the cellular  membrane of the body;  for
when air is in these cavities, and the part is pressed, 8
little cracking noise, or crepitus, is heard.
  Crepitus lupi.  See Lycoperdon bovista.
  Crescent-shaped.   See Leaf.
  CRESS.  There are several kinds of cresses eaten
at the table, and used medicinally, as antiscorbutics.
  Cress, water.  See Sisymbrium nasturtium aquati-
cum.
  CRE'TA.  Chalk. An  impure carbonate of lime.
See Creta praparata.
  Creta prjeparate.   Take of chalk a pound ; add
a little water, and  rub  it to a fine powder.  Throw
this into a large vessel full of water; then shake them,
 and after a little while pour the still turbid liquor Into
 another vessel, and set it by that the powder may sub-
side; lastly, pouring off the water, dry this powder
Prepared chalk is absorbent,  and possesses  antacid
qualities: it is exhibited in  form of electuary, mixture.
or bolus, in pyrosis, cardiaigia, diarrhaea, acidities or
 tbe primae viae, rachitis, crusta lactea, Sec and is said
 by some to be an antidote against white arsenic.
  Cretaceous acid.  See Carbonic acid.
  Crete, dittany of.  See Origanum dictamnus.
  CRETINISMUS. Cretinism.  A species of Cyrto
sis in Dr. Good's Nosology: a disease affecting chiefly
the head and neck; countenance vacant and  stupid ;
mental faculties feeble, or  idiotic; sensibility obtuse)
mostly with enlargement ofthe thyroid gland.
  CRIBRIFO'RM.  (Cribriformis;  from cribrum, a
sieve, and forma, likeness; because it  is perforated
like a sieve.)  Perforated like a sieve.   See Ethmoid
bone.
  CRICHTONITE.   A  mineral named  after   Dr.
Crichton, which Jameson  thinks is a new species of
 titanium ore.   It is of a splendent velvet black colour.
  CRI'CO.   Names compounded of this word belong
 to muscles which me attached to the cricoid cartilage.
  CRICO-ARTTiENOIDEUS   LATERALIS.    Crico-latrri
 arithenoidien of Dumas. A muscle ofthe glottis, that
 opens  the> rima  by pulling the ligaments from each
 other.
  Crico-aryT/T.noideus posticus.   Crico-creti ari
 thenoidien of Dumas.   A  muscle of the glottis, that
 opens tbe  rima glottidis a  little, and by pulling back 
CRT
CRO
the arytenoid cartilage, stretches the ligament so as to
make it tense.
  Crico-pharvngeus.   See  Constrictor pharyngis
inferior.
  Crico-thyp.oideus.   Crico-thyroidien of Dumas.
The last of the second layer of muscles  between the
os hyoides and trunk, that pulls forward and depresses
the thyroid cartilage, or elevates and draws backwards
the cricoid cartilage.
  CRICOI'D.   (Cricoides; from xpixos,  a ring, and
tiSos, resemblance.)   A round ring-like  cartilage of
theTOrynx is called the cricoid. See Larynx.
  CRIMNO'DES.   (From xpipvov, bran.)  A term
applied to urine, which deposites a sediment like bran.
  Crina'tus.   (From Kpivov, the lily.)  A term given
to a  stiff umigation mentioned by P. iEgineta, composed
chiefly of the roots of lilies.
  CRI'NIS.  The hair.  See Capillus.
  Crinomy'ron.  (From Kpivov, a lily, and uuoov, oint-
ment)  An ointment composed chiefly of lilies.
  CRINONES.  (From crinis, the hair.)   Malis gor-
dii of Good.  Morbus pilaris of Horst.  Malis d cri-
nonibus of Ehnuller and Sauvages.  Collections of a
sebaceous fluid in the cutaneous follicles upon  the
face and  breast, which appear like black spots, and
when pressed out, look like small worms, or, as they
are commonly called, maggots.
  Crio'gknes.  An epithet for certain troches, men-
tioned by P. JEgmela, and which  he  commends for
cleansing ulcers.
  CRIPSO'RCHIS.  (From Kpvn]ia, to  conceal, and
opx'd a testicle.)  Having the testicle concealed, or
nol  yet descended from the  abdomen into the scro-
tum.
  CRl'SIS.   (From xpivia, to judge.)   The judgment.
The change  of symptoms in acute  diseases, from
which tlie recovery or death is  prognosticated or
judged of.
  Crispatu'ra.  (From crisps, to curl.)  A spas-
modic contraction  or curling of the membranes and
fibres.
  CRISPUS.    Curled.  Applied to a leaf, when the
border is so much  more dilated than the disk, that it
necessarily becomes curled and twisted;  as in Malva
crispa, Sec.
  CRISTA.   (Quasi cerista; from Ktpas, a horn, or
carista; from Kapa, the head, as being on the top of
the head.) Any thing which has the appearance of a
crest, or  the comb upon the head of a  cock.  1. In
anatomy it is thus applied to a process  of the ethmoid
bone, christa galli, and to a  part of the nympha;—
crista clitoridis.
  2. In surgery, to excrescences,  like  the comb of a
cock, about the anus.
  3. In botany, to several accessary parts or appen-
dages, chiefly belonging to the antherae of plants; as
the pod of the Hedysarum crista galli, Sec.
  Crista galli.  An eminence ofthe ethmoid bone,
so called from its resemblance to a cock's comb.  See
Ethmoid bone.
  CRISTATUS.  Crested.   Applied to  several parts
of plants.
  Cri'thamum. See Crithmum.
  Cri'the.   (Kpidf, barley.)   A stye  or tumour on
the  eyelid, in  the shape and of the size  of a barley-
corn.
  Crithe'rion.  (From xptvia, to judge.)  The same
as crisis.
  CRI'THMUM.  (From xptvia, to secrete; so named
from its supposed virtues in promoting a  discharge of
tlie urine and menses.)  Samphire or sea-fennel.
  Crithmum  maritimum.   The Linnaean  name of
the  samphire  or sea-fennel.  Crithmum  of the phar-
macopoeias.  It is a low perennial plant, and grows
about the sea-coast in several parts of  the island. It
has a spicy aromatic flavour, which induces the com-
mon people to use it as a pot-herb.   Pickled with vine-
gar and spice, it makes a wholesome and elegant con-
diment, which is in much esteem.
  CRITHO'DES.   (From xpiBn, barley,  and «opc, re-
semblance.)  Resembling a barley-corn.  It is applied
lo small protuberances.
  CRITICAL.  (Criticus; from crisis; from Kttvta,
to judge.)  Determining the event of a disease.  Many
physicians have been of opinion, tbat  there is some-
thing in tlie nature of fevers which generally deter-
mines them to be of a certain duration;  and, therefore,
that their terminations, whether salutary or fatal, hap-
pen at certain periods of the disease, rather than at
others.  These periods, which were carefully marked
by Hippocrates, are called critical days.  The critical
days, or those  on which we suppose the termination
of continued fevers especially to happen, are the third,
fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth,
and twentieth.
  CROCIDI'XIS.  (From KpoKiSt\ta, to gather wool.)
Floccilation.   A fatal symptom  in  some diseases,
where the  patient gathers up the bed-clothes,  and
seems to pick up  substances from them.
  Cro'cinum.  (From Kpoxos, saffron.)  A mixture of
oil, myrrh, and saffron.
  Croco'des.  (From Kpo/coj, saffron; so called from
the quantity of saffron they contain.)  A name of some
old troches.
  Crocoma'gma.  (From Kpoxos, saffron, and uayua,
the thick oil or dregs.)  A troch made of oil of saffron
and spices.
  CROCUS.  (Kpo/coc  of Theophrastus.  The story
of the young Crocus, turned into this flower, may be
seen in the fourth book of  Ovid's Metamorphoses.
Some derive this name from jtpoxn or xpoxis, a thread -.
whence the stamens of flowers are called xpoKtSts
Others, again, derive it  from  Coriscus,  a city and
mountain of Cilicia, and others from crokin, Cbald.)
Saffron.
  1.  The name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Triandria: Order, Monogynia.   Saf
fron.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the prepared  stig-
mata of the saffron plant.  See Crocus sativus.
  3.  A term given by the older chemists to several pre-
parations  of metallic substances,  from their resem-
blance : thus, Crocus mortis,  Crocus veneris.
  Crocus antimonii.  A sulphuretted oxide  of an-
timony.
  Crocus germanicus.  See Carthamus.
  Crocus indicus.   See Curcuma.
  Crocus martis.   Burnt green vitriol.
  Crocus metallorum.  A sulphuretted oxide of
antimony.
  Crocus officinalis.  See Crocus sativus.
  Crocus saracenicus.  See Carthamus.
  Crocus sativus.  The systematic name of the
saffron plant.    Oocus:—spatha  univalvi radicali,
corolla tubo longissimo,  of Linnaeus.  Saffron has a
powerful,  penetrating, diffusive  smell, and a warm,
pungent, bitterish taste.  Many virtues were formerly
attributed to this medicine, but little confidence is now
placed in it.  The Edinburgh College directs a tincture,
and that of London a syrup of this drug.
  Crocus veneris.  Copper calcined to a red powder.
  Cro'mmyon.  (Ilapa ro ras xopas pvetv, because it
makes the eyes wink.)  An onion.
  Crommyoxyre'gma.   (From  xpoppvov, an onion,
ol-uj, acid, and prjywpi, to break out)  An acid eruc-
tation accompanied with a laste resembling onions.
  CROONE, William, was  born  in  London, where
he settled as a  physician, after studying at Cambridge.
In 1659, he was chosen rhetoric professor of Gresham
College, and soon after register of the Royal Society,
which then assembled there.  In 1662, he was created
doctor in medicine by mandate of the king, and the
same year elected fellow of the Royal Society, and of
the College of Physicians.  In 1670, he was appointed
lecturer on anatomy to the  Company of Surgeons.
On his death, .in  1684, he bequeathed them 1007.; his
books  on Medicine to the College of Physicians, as
also the profits  of a house, for Lectures, to be read an
nually, on Muscular  Motion; and  donations to seven
of the  colleges at Cambridge, to  found Mathematical
Lectures.  He left severalpapers on philosophical sub-
jects, but his only publication was  a small tract, " De
Ratione Motus Musculorum."
  CROSS-STONE.   Harmotome;  Pyramidal zeolite.
A crystallized grayish-white mineral, harder than
fluor-spar, but  not  so hard as apatite, found only in
mineral veins and agate balls in the Hartz, Norway,
and Scotland.
  CROTALUS.  The name of a genus of reptiles.
  Crotalus borridus.   The rattle-snake; the stone
out of  the head of which is erroneously said to be an
antidote to the poison of venomous animals.  A name
also of the Cobra de capclla, the Coluber naja of Lin- 
CRO
CRO
   Crota'phica arteria.  Tbe tendon of the tempo-
 ral muscle.
   CKOTAPHl'TES.   (From xpcjaBos, the temple.)
 See Temporalis.
   Crota puium. (From Kpo"]tia, to pulsate; so named
 from tbe pulsation which in the  temples is eminently
 discernible.)   Crotaphos.  Crotaphus.  A pain  iu tiio
 temples.
   Cro taphos.  See Orotaphium.
   Crotaphus.  SeeCrolaphium.
   CROTCHET.  A curved instrument with a sharp
 hook to extract the fcetus.
   CRO TON.  (From Kpo7m>, to beat.)
   1. An insect called a tick, from the noise it makes by
 beating lis head against wood.
   2. A name ofthe ricinusor castor-oil  berry, from its
 likeness  to a tick.
   3. The name of a genus of plants in  the  Linnaean
 system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Monadelphta.
   Croton benzoe.   See Styrax  benzoe.
   Cro ton cascarilla.   The systematic name of the
 plain which affords the Cascarilla bark.   Cascarilla;
 Chu car ilia.; Elutheria ; Eluleria.   The bark comes
 to us iu quills, covered upon the outside with a rough,
 whitish  matter, and brownish on the inner side, ex-
 hibiting,  when broken, a smooth, close, blaukish-brown
 surlace.   It bas a light agreeable smell, and n mode-
 rately bitter taste,  accompanied  with a considerable
 aromatic warmth.   It is a very excellent tonic, adstrin-
 gent, and stomachic, and is deserving of u more gene-
 ral use than il has hitherto met with.
  Croton lacciferum.   The systematic  name of
 the plant upon  which gum-lac  is  deposited.   See
 Dacca.
  Croton tiglium. The systematic  name of the
 tree which affords the pavana wood, and tiglia seeds.
 Croton—foliis ovatis glabris acuminatis serratis, caule
 arboreo ol Linnaeus.
  1. Pavana wood.  Lignum pavana; Lignum pava-
 num ; Lignum moluccense.  The wood is of a light
 spongy texture,  while  within, but  covered with a
 gesyisli bark: and possesses a pungent, caustic taste,
 and a disagreeable smell.  It is said  to be useful as a
 purgative in hydropical complaints.
  2. Grana tiglia.   Grana tilli.  Grana tiglii.  The
 grana tiglia are seeds, of a dark gray colour, in shape
 very like the seed of the ricinus communis.  They
 abound with an oil which is far more purgative than
 coslor-oil, which has been  lately imported  from tlie
 East Indies, where it lias  been long  used, and is now
 admitted into the London pharmacopcr-ia.  One drop
 proves a drastic purge,  but it may be so  managed
 as to become  a valuable addition  to the materia me-
 dico.
  [Tbe oil of Croton is the produce of a  shrub or
 arborescent plant well known to botanists, and the oil
 when taken into the stomach acts as a powerful ca-
 thartic. The shrub belongs to the Class Monecia, and
 Order, Monaddphia, of Linnaeus's sexual system.
  Pei soon enumerates  82 species of this genus of
 plants. The specific character of the Tilgium is, that
 " The leaves are ovate, smooth, acuminated, serrated,
 and the stem arborescent"  It is  a native of the East
 Indies,China, and other Australasian islands. Ceylon,
and tlie Moluccas are particularly quoted as  affording
 this species of  Croton.  It is also well known in Am-
boyna and Batavia, and, indeed, generally through the
distant east  Several parts of the plant possess medi-
cinal virtue.
  L Radix, the root, or pulvis radicis croti. The pow-
dered root of Croton is a drastic cathartic, when exhi-
bited iu tbe small quantity of even a lew grains, on
which account it has been considered by the Asiatics
as a grand remedy for dropsy, upon tbe same  principle
by which the operation ot scammony and gamboge is
explained.
  •2.  The Wood of the Croton.  Lignum croti tiglii.
This is also efficacious, for in small doses it  acts as a
sudorific, by relaxing the pores of the skin;  while in
large ones it purges severely.
  3.  The  leaves.  Folia  croti tiglii.  Pulvis  foliorum
tiglii siccaloruia.  Tbe dried leaves when powdered
are reputed an antidote against the bite cf that formi-
dable and venomous serpent the Coora de Capello.
  4.  The  Seeds.  Semina vel grana croti tiglii.  Tliey
are the |iart of the plant most known and employed in
medicine. Tney are of  a dale at kaoi as old a* the.
     278..
 nge of Serap1on,one of the earliest physicians of Ara-
 bia who wrote on the Materia Medica, and he flour
 ished about 1000 years ago, or probably in the 8th cen-
 tury. When they were introduced into Europe long
 since, they were  known by the name  of  " Molucca
 grains or seeds, and as the grains or seeds of Tilluni
 or Tiglium.
   It  appears that they were freely administered, not
 merely for the purpose as a cathartic, but for the ac-
 complishment of mischievous and deleterious ends.  It
 is  even  stated  by the  accomplished Ruinphius, the
 Dutch physician and  botanist,  that a  dose of four
 grains had been administered for the working of de-
 struction by women  who  wished  to kill  their  hus-
 bands.  Though the seeds were freely administered at
 that age and after, the extreme violence of their opera-
 tion seems to have induced a  very unfavourable opi-
 nion of them.  This no doubt arose from  injudicious
 do3es; ns, under similar circumstances, the digitalis
 purpurea, or  purple fox-glove, had undergone a similar
 fate.  It had been frequently administered, and was
 even popular, but from the bad consequences of inju-
 dicious prescription, was condemned ns  noxious, and
 ivas neglected as unfit lor use.  So, cubebs (amomum
 cubeba) were once in use, then discontinued from a
 supposed want  of power,  and  latterly  revived and
 rendered  fashionable.  It nevertheless appears,  that
 molucca grains are still used in the East Indies as an
 effectual cathartic.
  5.  The baked Seeds.  Semina tosta vel furno cocta.
 The  baked or roasted seeds of  the  Croton  Tiglium.
 By these operations the shell or hull was  removed, the
 seed rendered capable of being powdered, and, accord-
 ing to Ainslie's Materia Medica of Hindostan, the
 acrimonious  and vehement qualities very much mo-
 derated.
  The medicinal history of this  plant seems to have
 rested a long  time.  AI length, however, as the seeds
 were replete with oil, it occurred to somebody to ex-
 press it,  and this  oil  was  known to the  celebrated
 pharmacians, Lemery and Geoffioy.  Yet  it lay dor-
 mant, until a  revival was made by Mr. E. Conwell, of
 ihe Euglish East India Company's Bervice on the Ma-
 dras Establishment.   Having prescribed the Croton
 oil for many years with advantage, he sent a parcel of
 it to London for experiment.
  6. The  Oil of Tiglium,  or oil of Croton.   Oleum,
 croti  tiglii expression.  The oil has a yellowish hue,
 but a faint smell, and an acrimonious taste.  Though
 these qualities have some variation, caused probably
 by the degree of heat, or torrefaction, employed in the
 process for obtaining it
  7. Gustus  old tiglii.   Touching ihe  tongue with
 the oil.  It is reported, that in some constitutions the
 mere application of  a particle to the tongue, is sulfi
 cient  to produce a cathartic  effect, thereby evincing an
 extraordinary power of sympathy between the organ
 of taste and  the alimentary canal.  There are, how-
 ever,  very striking analogies to  illustrate- its action.
 Tobacco, for  example, in  tbe form of a segar, applied
 to the mouth of some persons, moves the intestines to
 evacuation.   A drop of the  Prussic acid applied to the
 mouth of a rat causes instant dtath.  The poison of a
 rattlesnake, as witnessed by Dr. MUchill, infused in
 a wound, destroys  the life  of a rat, or  other small
 animal in an exceedingly short time. It is reported,
 that a man who had been in the habit of using enemas
 had beeu brought to a stool by the sight of a clyster-
 pipe.
  8. Pills of the  Oil of Tiglium.  Pillules olel tiglii.
 A single drop, or at most two,  is a sufficient dose.   A
safe method is to  take the pills, to contain each one
drop, with a crumb of bread; or, for more expeditious
practice, the prescribe! may pie pa re  them containing
twodrops.  He can thus administer with nn assurance
 that the laxative effect will be produced without the
 fear of exciting any alarming commotion,   in cases
 where there is an  aversion to taking medicines, and
where the bulk  and repetition of the doses are objec-
tionable, this  remedy therefore possesses  advantages
which highly recommend it.  The quantity of even
half a drop, or in  other words half a grain, will fre-
quently move the intestines  lo discharge; and the ef-
fect, wbich ie generally speedy, more resembles that
of the saline cathartics than the other drastics, such us
elaterium, gamboge,- and scammony.
  \>.  Tinetunt of ihaxOUvf-Tiglitni  Solutio olei 
CRU
CRY
 tiglii ir alcohol.  Chemistry has proved  that this oil
 is composed of two principal constituent parts: 1. A
 fixed oil, resembling that of the olive, destitute  of
 cathartic qualities; and,  2. An acrid purgative prin-
 ciple, in which ils virtue resides.  The proportions are
 slated by Dr. Nimmo thus,
           Fixed oil,............ 55 parts.
           Acrid principle,......45 do.

                                100
 The latter has been denominated Tiglin, in the modern
 nomenclature.   Alkohol  is  capable of decomposing
 this native oil; the tiglin being dissolved with a minute
 quantity only of the fixed oil, and the rest of it left un-
 combiued.  This discovery enables us to form a tinc-
 ture upon a well-ascertained principle.  It is accord-
 ingly proposed to form the tincture, by  adding two
 drops of the oil (as it comes to us) to a fluid drachm of
 rectified spirit.  After digesting long enough to secure
 the union between the spirit and the tiglin, the tincture
 must be filtered.  Yet, as a fluid so  volatile as the
 spirit will suffer some loss by evaporation, it is calcu-
lated that half a fluid drachm ofthe tincture is equal to
 a drop and an half of the oil. It is found that the alko-
 hol does not impair the cathartic power of the tiglin.
 This solution may therefore be exactly apportioned to
 the nature of the disorder, and the wish of the physi-
 cian, and thus  be regulated with the greatest exact-
 ness.  If taken in quantity corresponding  to the num-
 ber of drops decomposed, experience has decided that
 the same effects were produced as by the same quantity
 of undecompounded and entire oil.
   An article  so expensive as this in comparison with
 other fixed oils,  holds out  a strong temptation for
 fraud  by adulteration.  This has been practised to a
 considerable  extent by mixing it  with the cheaper
 kinds.  A method, however, has been proposed for de-
 tecting such vitiation by Dr. Nimmo, by means of alko-
 nol,  a phial, a balance, and an evaporating process, of
 which an abstract will be found in the Pliarmacologia
 of Dr.  Paris, vol. 2, p. 338. New-York edit, by Dr.
 Ives.  This writer's opinion is, on the whole matter,
 " that this oil does not appear to produce any effects
 which cannot be commanded by other drastic purga-
 tives.  Its value depends upon the facility  with which
 it may be administered.—Notes from Dr. MitchiU's
 Lectures on Mat. Med.  AJ
   Croton  tinctorium.  The systematic name of the
 lucmus plant.   Croton—-foliis rhombeis repandis, cap-
 sulis pendulis, caule herbaceo, of Linnaeus.  Bezetta
 cerulea.  This plant  yields the Succus  heliotropii;
 Lacmus seu torne; Lacca cerulea; Litmus.   It is
 much used by chemists as a test.
   Croto'ne.  (From Kpolov, the tick.)  A fungus  on
 trees produced by an insect like a tick; and by meta-
 phor applied to tumours and small fungous excres-
 cences on the periosteum.
  Crotopus.  (From xporos, pulsus.)  Painful pulsa-
 tion.
  CaoxoFHunc.  (From xporos, the pulse.)  Painful
 pulsation.
  CRX7UP. . See Synanche.
  Crousis.  (From xpovta, to beat, or pulsate.)   Pul-
 iation.
  Crou'smata.   (Eiom xpovia, to pulsate.)  Rheums
 or defliutions from the head.
  CROWFOOT. See Ranunculus.
   Crowfootrcranesbill.  See Geranium pratense.
  CUUCIAL.  (Crucialis; from crus,  the leg.)  1.
Cross-like.  Some parts of  tbe body  are so called
When they cross one another, as the crucial ligaments
of the thigh.
  8,  A name of the mugweed or crosswort.
  CRUCIA'LIS.  See Crucial.
  CRUCIBLE.   (Crucibulutn;  from crudo, to  tor-
ment:  so named, because,  in the language of old
chemists, metals are tormented in it, and tortured, to
yield up their powers and virtues.)  A chemical  ves-
sel made mostly of earth  to bear the  greatest heat.
They are of various shapes and composition.
  CRUC1FORMIS.   Cross-like.  Applied to leaves,
flow era, Sec. which have that shape.
  CRU'DITAS.   (From crudus, raw.}  It is applied
to undigested substances in the stomach, and formerly
to humours in the body unprepared for concoction.
  CRUICKSHANK, William,  was born at Edin-
burgh, in 1746.  He watt intended for.the church, and
 made  great proficiency in classical  learning; but;
 showing a partiality to medicine, he was placed with a
 surgeon at Glasgow.  In 1771, he came to London, and
 was soon after made librarian to Dr. William Hunter;
 and, on the  secession of Mr. Hewson, became assist-
 ant, and  then joint  lecturer in anatomy,  with the
 Doctor. He contributed largely to enrich tbe Museum,
 particularly by his curious injections of the lympathic
 vessels. He published, in 1786, a work on this subject,
 which is highly valued for its correctness.  In 1795, he
 communicated  to  the  Royal Society an   Account
 ofthe Regeneration of the Nerves;  and the same year
 published a pamphlet on Insensible Perspiration; and
 in 1797, an Account of Appearances in the Ovaria of
 Rabbits in different Stages of  Pregnancy.   He died
 in 1800.
   Cru'nion.  (From xpovvos, a torrent.)  A medicine
 mentioned by AStius, and named from the violence of
 its operations as a diuretic.
   CRU'OR.   (From Kpvos,frigus, it being that which
 appears like a coagulum as  the blood cools.)   The red
 part of the blood.   See Blood.
   CRU'RA.   The plural of cms.
   Crura clitoridis.  See Clitoris.
   Crura medullje oblongatje.  The roots of, the
 medulla oblongata.
   CRURjE'US.   (From crus, a leg; so named, be-
 cause it covers almost the whole foreside of the upper
 part of the leg or thigh.)  Oruralis. A muscle of the
 leg, situated on the forepart of tlie thigh.  It arises,
 fleshy,  from between the two trochanters of the os
 femoris, but nearer the lesser, firmly adhering to most
 of the forepart of the os femoris; and is inserted, ten-
 dinous, into the upper part  of the patella, behind the
 rectus; Its use is to assist the vasti and rectus muscles
 in the extension of the leg.
   CRURAL.  (Oruralis;  from crus, the leg.)  Be
 longing to the crus, leg, or lower extremity.
   Crural hernia.  See Hernia cruralis.
   CRURA'LIS.  See Crureus.
   CRUS.  1. The leg.
   2. The  root or  origin of some parts of the body,
 from their resemblance to a leg or root; as Crura ce-
 rebri, Crura cerebelli ; Crura of the diaphragm, Sec
   CRU'STA. 1. A shell.
   2. A  scab.
   3. The scum or surface of a fluid.
   Crusta lactea.  A disease  that mostly  attacks
 some part of the face of infants at the breast.  It is
 known by an eruption of broad pustules, full  of a
 glutinous  liquor, which form white scabs when they
 are ruptured.  It is cured by mineral alteratives.
   Crusta villosa. The inner coat of the stomach
 and intestines has been so called.
   Crustula.  (Dim. of crusta, a shell.)  A  discolo-
 ration of the flesh from a bruise, where the skin is en-
 tire, and covers it over like a shell.
   Crustumina'tum.  (F.rom Orustuminum,  a town
 where they grew.)   1. A kind of Catherine pear.
   2. A rob or electuary made of this pear and apples
 boiled up with honey.
   Crymo'des.  (From xpvos, cold.)   An epithet for a.
 fever, wherein the external parts are cold.
   CRYOLITE.   A while  or yellowish brown mi-
 neral, composed of alumina, soda, and fluoric acid.  It
 is curious and rare, and found hitherto only at West
 Greenland.
   CRYOPHORUS. (From kcvoc, ooM, and djcpu, to
 bear.)   The frost-bearer, ot carrier of cold;  an ele
 gant instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, to demon-
 strate the relation between evaporation  at tow tempe-
 ratures, and the production of cold.   '  -
  CRYPSO'RCHIS. (From Kpmjia, to conceal, and
 opxic, a testicle.)  A term applied to a man  whose
 testicles are hid in the belly, or have not descended into
 the scrotum.
  CRY'PTA.  (From xponrta, to hide.)  Tbe little
 rounded appearances at tlie end of  the small  arteries
 of the cortical substance of the kidneys, that appear
 as if formed bv the artery being convoluted upon it-
 self.
  CRYPTOGAMIA.  (From Kpvnru, to conceal, and
yauos, a marriage.)  The twenty-fourth and last class
of the sexual or Linniean system of plants, containing
several numerous genera, in which the parts essential
 to their  fructification have not been sufficiently ascer-
tained to admit of their being  referred to the other 
CRY                                            CRY
class.  It  is divided by Linnaeus into four orders, Fi
iicrs, Musci, Alga, and Fungi.
  Cryso'rchis.  Kpuo-opxtf.  1. A retraction or retro-
cession of one of the testicles.
  2. See Crypsorchis.
  CRYSTAL.   See Crystallus.
  CRYSTALLINE.  (Crystallinus ; from its crystal-
like appearance.)  Crystal-like.
  Crystalline lens.  A  lentiform pellucid part of
the eye, enclosed in a membranous capsule, called the
capsule of the crystaUine lens, and situated in a pecu-
liar depression in the anterior part of the vitreous hu-
mour.  Its use is to transmit and refract the rays of
light  See Eye,
  Cryrtalu'num  (From xpucaXXoc, a crystal: so
called from its transparency.)   White arsenic.
  CRYSTALLIZATION.    (Crystallizatio;   from
crystallus, a crystal.)  A property by which crystal-
lizable  bodies  tend to assume a regular form, when
placed hi circumstances favourable to that particular
disposition of  their particles.   Almost all minerals
possess this  property, but it is most eminent in caline
substances.  The circumstances which are favourable
lo the crystallization of salts, and without which it
cannot take place, are two ? 1. Their particles must be
divided and  separated by  a fluid, in order that the cor-
responding facesof those particles may meet and unite.
2. In order  that this union may take place, the fluid
which separates the iutegraut parts of the salt must be
gradually  carried off, so  that it may no longer divide
them.
  [" Crystallization, in the most limited extent of the
term, is that process by which the particles of bodies
unite in such a  manner as to produce determinate and
regular solids.  But it is equally true,  that those mine-
rals, which possess a foliated or fibrous structure, are
the products of crystallization, under circumstances
which have  rendered tbe process more or less imper-
fect, and  prevented the  appearance  of distinct and
regular forms.
  The ancients believed crystallized  quartz  (rock
crystal) to be water, congealed by exposure lo intense
cold; and accordingly applied to it the term KpvraXXos,
which signified ice.  Hence tlie etymology ot the word
crystal. Now, as a beautiful regularity of form is one
of the most striking properties of crystallized quartz,
tbe name crystal has been extended to all mineral and
other inorganic substances, wbich exhibit themselves
under tho  form  of regular geometrical solids.
  A crystal  may therefore be defined an  inorganic
body, which, by the operation of affinity, has assumed
the form of  a regular solid, terminated by a number
of plane and polished faces.   The corresponding faces
of all crystals, wbich possess the same variety of form,
and belong to the same substance, are inclined to each
other in  angles of a constant quantity.  This  con-
stancy of  angles remains, even in those cases wher«
the faces  themselves, from some accidental causes,
have changed their dimensions or number of sides.
Transparency, though many crystals possess it in a
greater or less  degree, is not  a necessary property.
But  plane surfaces,  bounded  by right lines, are so
essential to  the crystalline form, that their absence
decidedly indicates imperfection in the process of crys-
tallization.  The lustre and smoothness of the faces
may also  be  diminished by  accidental causes."—
Gear. Min.   A,]
  CRYSTALLUS.  (Crystallus, i. m.; from xpvos,
cold,and s-tXXia*.to contract: i. e.  contracted by cold
into ice.)  A crystal.  "  When fluid substances are
suffered to pass with adequate slowness to the  solid
state, the  attractive forces  frequently  arrange  their
ultimate particles, so as to form  regular polyhedral
figures or geometrical  solids, to which tbe name of
crystals has  been given.  Most of the solids which
compose the mineral crust of the earth are found in
the crystallized state.  Thus granite consists of crys-
tals  of quartz, felspar, and mica.  Even mountain
masses like clay-slate, have a regular tabulated form.
Perfect mobility among the corpuscles  is essential to
crystallization.   The chemist produces it either by ig-
neous fusion, or by solution iu a liquid.  When the
temperature  is  slowly lowered in tlie former case, or
the liquid slowly abstracted by evaporation iu the lat-
ter, ihe attractive force* resume the ascendency, and
arrange tbe particles In symmetrical forms.  Mere ap-
proximation of  the particles, however, is not alone suf-
      '-74
 ficient for crystallization.  A hot saturated saline solo-
 lion, when screened from all agitation, will contract
 by cooling into a volume much smaller than what It
 occupies in the solid state, without crystallizing. Heme
 the molecules must not only be brought within a cer
 tain limit of each other, for their concreting into crys-
 tals; but  they must also change the direction of their
 poles, from the fluid collocation to their position in the,
 solid state.
   This reversion of the poles may be effected, 1st, By
 contact of any part of the fluid with a point of a solid,
 of similar composition,  previously  formed.  2d, Vi-
 bratory motions communicated, either from the atmos-
 phere or any other moving  body, by deranging, how-
 ever slightly, the fluid polar direction, will instantly
 determine the solid polar arrangement, when the ba-
 lance had been rendered nearly even by previous re-
 moval of the interstitial  fluid.  On  this principle we
 explain the  regular figures wliich particles of dust or
 iron assume, when they are  placed on  a  vibrating
 plane, in the neighbourhood of electrized or magnetized
 bodies.  3d, Negative  or resinous voltaic electricity
 instantly determines the crystalline arrangement, while-
 positive voltaic electricity  counteracts it.  Light  also
 favours crystallization, as is exemplified with camphor/
 dissolved in spirits, which crystallizes in bright and ro-
 dissolves in gloomy  weather
   It might be imagined, that the same body would al-
 ways concrete in the same, or at least in a similar crys-
 talline form.   This  position is true, iu general, for the,
 salts crystallized in the laboratory; and on this unifor-
 mity of figure, one of the principal  criteria between
 different salts depends.   But even these forms are lia-
 ble to many modifications, from  causes  apparently
 slight; and in  nature  we find frequently the same'
 chemical substance crystallized in  forms apparently
 very dissimilar.   Thus, carbonate of lime assumes the
 form of a rhomboid, of a regular hexae'dral prism, of
 a solid terminated by 12 scalene angles, or of a dodeca-
 hedron  with pentagonal faces, &c. Bisulphuret of
 iron or martial pyrites produces sometimes cubes  andj
 sometimes regular octahedrons, at one time  dodeca-
 hedrons with pentagonal faces, at another icosahedrooe*
 with triangular faces, &c.                          ,
  While one  and the same substance lends Itself to so
 many transformations, we  meet with  very different)
 substances, which present absolutely the  same form.
 Thus fluate of lime, muriate of soda, sulphuret of iron,
 sulphuret of  lead, Sec crystallize in cubes, under cer-
 tain circumstances; and in other cases, the same mi-
 nerals, as  well as sulphate of alumina and the dia-
 mond, assume the form of a regular octohedron.
  Rome de l'lsle first referred the study of  crystalliza-
 tion to principles conformable to observation.   He ar-
 ranged together, as far as possible, crystals of the same
 nature.  Among the different forms relative to each
 species,  he chose one as the most proper, from its sim-
 plicity, to  be  regarded  as the primitive form ; and by
 supposing  it truncated in different ways, he deduced
 the other forms from it, and determined a gradation a
 scries of transitions  between this same form and that
 of polyhedrons, which seem to be still further removed
 from it.  To the descriptions and  figures which be
 gave of  the crystalline forms, he added the results of
 the mechanical measurement of their principal angles,
 and showed that these angles were constant in each
 variety.
  The illustrious Bergrnann, by endeavouring to pene-
 trate to the  mechanism of the  structure of crystals,
considered the different forms relative to one and  the
Bame substance, as produced by a superposition of,
planes, sometimes constant and sometimes variable
and decreasing around one and the same primitive
form. He applied this primary idea to a small nu tuber
of crystalline  forms, and  verified it with respect to a
 variety of calcareous spar by fractures, which enabled
 him to ascertain the position of the nucleus, or of tbe
 primitive form, and  the successive order of the lamina;
covering this nucleus.   Bergmann, however, stopped
 here, and  did not trouble himself either with deter-
mining the laws of structure, or applying calculation
to it.  It was a simple  sketch of the  most prominent
 point of view in mineralogy, but in which  wo tee  the
hand of the same master who so successfully filled up
the outlines of chemistry.
  In tbe researches which HaQy undertook, about the
same period, on the structure of crystals, he proposed
 
cue
CUL
combining the form and dimensions of integrant mole-
cules with simple and regular laws of arrangement,
and submitting these laws to calculation.  This work
produced a mathematical theory, which he reduced to
analytical formulae,  representing every possible case,
and the application of which to known forms leads to
valuations of angles,  constantly agreeing  with  ob-
servation."—Ure's Chem. Diet.
  2. An eruption over the body of white transparent
pustules.
  [."Crystallography.  Of the physical properties
of minerals, no one  is so important in  itself, and ex-
tensive in its influence and application,  as that by
which crystals or regular solids are produced.  To in
vestigate and describe these solids is the object of crys-
tallography,  and constitutes, without doubt, the most
interesting branch of mineralogical research."—Cleav.
Mineralogy.  A.l
  Cte'dones. (From kJi/Siov, a rake.)  The fibres
are no called  from their pectinated course.
  Cteis.  Krcic.  A comb or rake.  Ctenes, in the
plural  number, implies those teeth which are called
incisores, from their likeness to a rake.
  CUBE  ORE.  Hexaedral  olivenite.  Wurfelerz of
Werner.  A  mineral arseniate of iron, of  a pistachio-
green colour.
  CUBE  SPAR.   See Anhydrite.
  CUBEB.  See Piper cubeba.
  CUBE'BA.  (From  cubabah, Arab.)  See Piper
cubeba.
  Cibit.eus externus.  An extensor muscle of the
fingers. See Extensor digitorum communis.
  Cubitjeus internus.  A flexor muscle of the fin-
gers.  See Flexor sublimis, and profundus.
  CUBITAL.  (Cubitalis; from  cubitus,  the fore-
arm.)  Belonging to tlie forearm.
  Cubital artery.  Arteria cubitalis ; Arteria ul-
naris.  A branch of the brachial that proceeds in the
forearm, and gives""off the recurrent and interosseals,
and  forms  the  palmary arch,  from which arise
branches going to the fingers, called digitals.
  Cubital nerve.  Nervus cubitalis; Nervus ul-
naris.  It arises  from the brachial plexus, and pro-
ceeds along the ulna.
  Cubitalis musculus.  An extensor muscle of the
fingers. See Extensor.
  CU'BITUS.  (From cubo, to lie down;  because the
ancients used to lie down on that part at their meals.)
1. The forearm, or that part between the elbow and
wrist.
  2. The larger bone ofthe forearm is called os cubiti.
See Ulna.
  CUBOI'DES OS.   (From kvSos, a cube or die, and
ei<5oc, likeness.)  A tarsal bone of tlie foot, so called
from its resemblance.
  CUCKOW FLOWER.  See Cardamine.
  CUCU'BALUS.  The name of an herb mentioned
by Pliny.  The name of a genus or family of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria; Order Try-
gynia.
  Cucubalus bacciferus.  The systematic name of
the berry-bearing chick-weed,  which  is sometimes
used as an emollient poultice.
  Cucubalus behen.  The systematic name of the
Behen officinarum, or spatling poppy, formerly used as
a cordial and alexipharmic
  CUCULLA'RIS.   (From cucullis,  a  hood:  so
named, because it is shaped like a hood.)  See Tra-
pezius.
  CUCULLATU3.   Hooded.   Applied to a  leaf,
when the edges meet in the lower part, and expand in
the upper, forming a  sheath or hood, of which the
genus Sarcacenia are an example; to the nectary of
the aconite tribe, Sec.
  CUCU'LLUS.   1. A hood.
  2. An odoriferous cap for the head.
  CUCUMBER.   See Cucumis.
  Cucumber, bitter.  See Cucumis colocynthis.
  Cucumber, squirting. See Momordica elaterium.
  Cucumber, wild.  See Momordica elaterium.
  CU'CUMIS. (Cucumis, mis. m.; also cucumer, ris.;
quasi curvimcres, from their curvature.)  The cucum-
ber.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system. Class, Monecia;  Order, Syngenesia.
The cucumber.
  2. The phannacopo-ial name of the garden cucum
ber.  Sec Cucumis sativus.
                                      S 2
  Cucumis agrestis.  See Momordica elaterium.
  Cucumis asininus.  See Momordica elaterium.
  Cucumis colocynthis.  The systematic name for
the officinal bitter apple.   Colocynthis; Alhandula of
the Arabians.   Coloquintida.  Bitter apple;  bittei
gourd; bitter cucumber.  The fruit, which is the me •
dicinal part of this plant, Cucumis—foliis multifidis,
pomis globosis glabris, of Linnaeus, is imported from
Turkey.  Its spongy membranous medulla or pith, is
directed for use;  it has a  nauseous, acrid, and in-
tensely bitter taste; and  is a powerful irritating ca-
thartic.  In doses of ten or twelve grains, it operates
with great vehemence, frequently producing violent
gripes, bloody stools, and disordering  the whole sys-
tem.  It is recommended in various  complaints, as
worms, mania, dropsy, epilepsy, &c.;  but is seldom
resorted to, except where other more mild remedies
have been used without success, and then only in the
form of the extractum colocynthidis compositum, and
the pilule ex colocynthide cum aloe of the pharmaco-
poeias.
  Cucumis melo.  The systematic name of the me-
lon plant.   Melo.   Musk-melon.   This fruit,  when
ripe, has a delicious refrigerating taste, but must be
eaten moderately, with pepper, or some aromatic, as
all this class of fruits are obnoxious to the stomach,
producing spasms and colic.   The seeds possess muci-
laginous qualities.
  Cucumis sativus.   The systematic name of the cu-
cumber plant.  Cucumis.  Cucumis—foliorum  angu-
lis rectis; pomis oblongis scabris of Linnaeus.  It is
cooling  and aperient,  but very apt to disagree with
bilious stomachs.  It should always be eaten with pep-
per and oil.  The seeds were formerly  used  medi-
cinally.
  Cucumis sylvestris.  See Momordica elaterium.
  Cu'cupha.   A hood.  An odoriferous cap for  the
head, composed of aromatic drugs.
  CUCU'RBITA.  (A curvitate, according to  Scali-
ger, the first syllable being doubled; as in Cacula, Po-
pulus, Sec.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class,  Monecia; Order, Syngene-
sia.  The pumpion.
  2. The pharmacopceial name  ofthe common gourd.
See Cucurbita pepo.
  3. A chemical distilling vessel, shaped like a gourd.
  Cucurbita citrullus.  The systematic name of
the water-melon plant.   Citrullus; Angura; Jace
brasilientibus; Tetranguria.  Sicilian citrul, or wa-
ter-melon.  The seeds of this plant, Cucurbita—foliis
multipartitis of Linnaeus, were formerly used  medi-
cinally, but now only to reproduce the  plant  Water-
melon is cooling and  somewhat  nutritious; but so
soon begins to ferment, as to  prove highly noxious to
some stomachs, and  bring on spasms, diarrhoeas, cho-
lera, colics, &c.
  Cucurbita laoenaria.  The systematic name of
the bottle-gourd plant  See Cucurbita pepo.
  Cucurbita pepo.  The systematic  name  of  the
common pumpion or gourd.  Cucurbita.   The seeds
of this plant, Cucurbita—foliis lobatis, pomis levibus,
are used indifferently with those of the Cucurbita lage-
naria—foliis subangulatis, tomentosis, bad subtus bi-
glandulosus; pomis lignosis-  They contain a large
proportion of oil, which may be  made into emulsions;
but is superseded by that of sweet almonds.
  Cucurbitaceje.   (From cucurbita, a gourd.)  The
name of an order of Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural
Method,  consisting  of plants  which  resemble  the
gourd.
  CUCURBI'TINUS.  A species  of worm, so called
from its resemblance  to the seed of tlie gourd.  See
Tenia.
  CUCURBI'TULA.  (A diminutive  of cucurbita,  a
gourd ; so called from its shape.)  A cupping-glass.
  Cucurbitula  cruenta.   A cupping-glass, with
scarification to procure blood.
  Cucurbitula cum ferro.  A cupping-glass, with
scarification to draw out blood.
  Cucurbitula  sicca.   A cupping-glass vftthout
scarification.
  CUE'MA.   (From xvia, to carry in the  womb.)
The conception, or rather, as  Hippocrates signifies by
this word, the complete rudiments of the foetus.
  Culbi'cio.  A sort of stranguary, or rather heat of
urine.
  Culila'wan.  Soe Laurus culilawan. 
CtJL
CUP
  CULI'NARY. (Culinarius, fromeuZina/a kitchen.)
Any thing belonging to the kitchen, as salt, pot-herbs,
Sec.
  CULLEN, William, was born at Lanark, Scot-
land, in 1712, of respectable, but not wealthy parents.
After the usual school education, he was apprenticed
to a surgeon and apothecary at Glasgow,  and then,
made several voyages, as surgeon, to the West Indies.
He afterward settled  in practice  at  Hamilton, and
formed  a  connexion with  the celebrated William
Hunter; but their business being scanty, tney  agreed
to pass a winter alternately at some university.  Cul
len went first to Edinburgh, and attended the classes so
diligently, that he was soon after  able to commence
teacher.  Hunter came  the next winter to London,
and engaged as assistant in the dissecting-room of Dr.
William Douglas, who was so pleased with his assi-
duity and talent, as to offer him a share in his lectures:
but though the partnership with Cullen was thus dis-
solved,  they continued ever after a friendly corres-
pondence.   Cullen had the good fortune, while  at Ha-
milton, to assist the Duke of Argyle in some chemical
pursuits: and still more of being sent for to tbe Duke
of Hamilton, in a sudden alarming illness,  which  he
speedily relieved by his judicious treatment, and gain-
ed the entire approbation of Dr. Clarke, who  afterward
arrived.  About tbe same time he married the daugh-
ter of a neighbouring clergyman, who  bore  him seve-
ral children.  In 1746 be took the degree of doctor in
medicine, and was appointed teacher  of chemistry at
Glasgow.  His talents were peculiarly fitted for this
office;  bis systematic  genius, distinct  enunciation,
lively manner, and extensive knowledge of the subject,
rendered his lectures highly interesting.  In the mean
time his reputation as a physician increased, so that
he was consulted in most difficult cases.  In 1751, he
was chosen  professor iu medicine to  the university;
and, five years after, the chemical chair at Edinburgh
was offered him, on the death of Dr. Plummer, which
was too advantageous to be refused. He soon became
equally popular there, and his class increased, so as to
exceed that  of any other professor, except the anato-
mical.   This success was owing not only to his assi-
duity, and his being so well qualified for the  office, but
also in  a  great measure to  the kindness which  he
showed  to his pupils, and partly to  tbe new Views  on
the Theory of Medicine, which he  occasionally intro-
duced into his lectures. He appears also, about this
time, to have given Clinical Lectures at the Infirmary.
On the death of Dr. Alston,  Lecturer  on  the Materia
Medica, he  was appointed to succeed him: and six
years afterward, jointly with Dr. Gregory,  to lecture
on the Theory and Practice of Medicine, when he  re-
signed the Chemical Chair to his pupil, Dr. Black. Dr.
Gregory having died the following  year, he  continued
the Medical Lectures alone, till within a few months
of his death, which happened in February 1790, in his
seventy-seventh year; and he is said, even at the last,
to have shown no deficiency in his delivery, nor in his
memory, being accustomed to lecture from short notes.
His Lectures on the Materia Medica  being surrepti-
tiously printed, he obtained an injunction against their
being issued until he had corrected them, which was
accomplished in 1772: but they were afterward much
improved,  and appeared in 1789,  in two quarto vo-
lumes.  Fearing a similar fate to his Lectures on Me-
dicine, he published an outline of them in 1784, in four
volumes, octavo, entitled " First Lines of the Practice
of Physic"  He wrote also the " Institutions of Me-
dicine," in  one volume, octavo:  and a "Letter to
Lord Cathcart, on the Recovery of drowned Persons "
Bat his most celebrated work is his " Synopsis Noso-
logic Methodicae," successively improved in different
editions; the fourth, published in 1785, in two octavo
volumes, contains the Systems of other Nosologists till
that period, followed by bis own, which certainly, as a
practical arrangement  of rilapaJma, greatly surpasses
tnem.
  CULMUS. Culm.  Straw.  The stem of grasses,
rushes, and plants nearly allied to them.  It bears both
leaves and flowers, and its  nature is more easily un-
derstood than defined.   Its varieties are,
  1.  Culmus teres, round; as in Carex uliginosa.
  2  C tetragonus ; as in Festuca ovina.
  3.  C triangularis ; as in Eriocaulon triangulare.
  4.  C capillaris ; as in Sdrpus capillaris.
  5.  C. prostratus; as in Agrostis canina.
      27C
   6. C. repens;  as In Agrostis stolonifera.
   7. C. nudus, as in Carex montana.
   8. C enodis, without joints; as in Juncus conglo-
 meratus.
   9. C articulatus, jointed; as in Agrostis albs,
   10. C. geniculatus, bent like the Knee; as in Alo-
 pecurus gcniculatus.
   It is also either solid or hollow, rough or smooth,
 sometimes hairy or downy, scarcely woolly.
   Culmiferje.   Plants which have smooth soft
 stems.
   CULPEPER,  Nicholas, was the son of a clergy-
 man, who put him apprentice to an apothecary; alter
 serving his time, be settled  in Spitaltieldi, London,
 about the year 1642.  In the troubles prevailing at that
 period, he appears to have favoured the Puritans; but
 bis decided warfare was with the College of Physi-
 cians, whom he accuses of keeping tlie people In Igno-
 rance,  like the Popish clergy.   He therefore published
 a translation of  their Dispensary, with practical re-
 marks ; also an Herbal, pointing out, among other mat-
 ters, under what  planet the plants should be gathered;
 and a directory to midwives, showing  the  method or
 ensuring a healthy progeny, Sec  These works were
 for some time popular.  He died In 1654.
  CU'LTER.  (From colo, to cultivate.)
  1. A knife or shear.
  2. The third lobe of  the liver is so  called from its
 supposed resemblance.
  CU'LUS.  (From kovXos-)   The anus or  funda-
 ment
  Cu'mamus.  See Piper cubeba.
  CUMIN.  See Cuminum.
  CU'MINUM.  (From xvta, to,bring  forth; because
 it was  said to cure sterility.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in theLinnean
 system.  Class,  Heptandrio;  Order, Digynia.   The
 cumin  plant.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the cumin  plant
 See Cuminum cyminum.
  Cuminum jethiopicum.  A name for the ammi ve-
 rum.   See Sison ammi.
  Cuminum cyminum.   The systematic name of the
 cumin  plant.  Cuminum; Feniculum orientals.   A
 native  of Egypt and Ethiopia, but cultivated in  Sicily
 and Malta, from whence it is brought to us.  The seedi
 of cumin, which are the only part of the plant in use,
 have a bitterish taste, accompanied with an aromatic
 flavour, but not  agreeable.  They are  generally pre.
 ferred to other seeds for external use in discussing in-
 dolent  tumours,  as  the encysted scrofulous, etc. and
 give name both to a plaster and cataplasm in the phar-
 macopoeias.
  Cunea'dis sutura.  The suture by  which the cm
 sphenoides is joined to the os frontis.
  CUNEIFORMIS.  (From cuneus, a wedge, and
 forma, likeness.)  Cuneiform, wedge-like.  Applied
 to bones, leaves,  etc.  which are broad  and abrupt at
 the extremity.  See Sphenoid bone;  Tarsus, and Car-
pus; Leaf; Petalum.
  Cune'olus.   (From  cuneo, to wedge.)   A crooked
 tent to  put into a  fistula.
  ["Cunila.  Pennyroyal.  The plant called pony-
 royal, in England, is  a  species of mint, Mentha pule-
gium;  while the American plant, which bears tbe
 same common appellation, belongs to  the genus Cu-
 nila, of Linnaeus, and Hedeoma, of Persoon.  Ameri-
 can pennyroyal is a warm aromatic, possessing a pun-
 gent flavour, which is common to many ofthe labiate
 plants of other genera.   Like them, it is heating, car-
 minative, and diaphoretic.   It is in popular repute as
 an emmenagogue."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.)
  Cup  of the flower.  See Calyx.
  CUPEL.   (Kuppel,  a cup, German.)   Copella;
 Catellus cinereus; Cineritium; Patella docimastica;
 Testa probatrix, exploratriz, or docimastica. A shal-
 low earthen vessel like a cup, made of phosphate of
 lime, which suffers the baser metals to pass through It,
 when exposed to heat, and retains the pure metal.
 This process is termed cupellation.
  CUPELLATION.  Cupellatio.  Tbe purifying of
 perfect metals by means of an addition of lead, which,
 at a due heat, becomes vitrified, and  promotes the
 vitrification and calcination of such imperfect metals
as may be in the mixture, so that these last are carried
off in tbe fusible  glass tbat Is formed, and tbe perfect
metals  are left nearly pure.  The name of this opera- 
CUP                                            cus
tion is taken from the vessels made use of, which are
called cupels.
  Cu'phos.  Kovtbos-   Light  When applied to ali-
ments, it imports their being easily digested;  when to
distempers, that they are mild.
  [Cupping.   Topical  bleeding.  "This is  done by
means of a scarificator, and a glass, shaped somewhat
like a bell.  The scarificator is an instrument contain-
ing  a number  of lancets,  sometimes as many as
twenty, which are so contrived, that when the instru-
ment is applied to any part of the  surface of the body,
and a spring is  pressed, they suddenly start  out, and
make the necessary punclures.  The instrument is so
constructed, tbat the depth, to which  the lancets pe-
netrate, may be made greater or less, at tlie option of
the  practitioner.  As only small  vessels can be thus
opened, a very inconsiderable quantity  of blood would
be discharged, were not some method taken to pro-
mote the evacuation. This is commonly done with a
cupping-glass,  the air within the cavity of which is
rarefied by the flame of a little lamp, containing spirit
of wine, and furnished with a thick wick.  This plan
is preferable to that of setting on fire a piece of tow,
dipped in this fluid, and put in the cavity of the glass.
The larger the glass, if propeily exhausted, the less
pain does the patient suffer, and the more freely does
the blood flow.  When the mouth  of the glass is placed
over the scarifications, and the rarefied air  iu it be-
comes condensed as it cools, the glass is forced down
on the skin, and a considerable suction takes place."—
Cooper's Surg. Did.  A.]
  CUPRE'SSUS.  (So called, ano tov xvttv naptaovs
rovs axpeuovas, because it produces equal branches.)
Cypress.
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Monecia;  Order, Monadelphia.  The
cypress-tree.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name  of the  cypress-tree.
Bee  Cupressus sempervirens.
  Cupressus  sempervirens.  The systematic name
of the cupressus of the shops.  Cupressus—foliis im-
bricatis squamis quadrangulis,  of Linnaeus; called
also eyparissus.  Every  part of the  plant  abounds
with a bitter, aromatic, terebinthinate fluid; and is
said to be a remedy against intermittents.  Its wood is
extremely durable, and constitutes the  coses of Egyp-
tian mummies.
  Cupri ammoniati liquor.   Solution of  ammoni
ated copper.  Aqua cupri ammoniati of Pharm. Loud.
1787, and formerly called Aqua sapphirina.  Take of
ammoniated copper, a drachm; distilled water, a pint
Dissolve the ammoniated copper in  tbe water, and
filter the solution through paper.  This preparation is
employed by surgeons for cleansing foul ulcers, and dis-
posing them to heal.
  Cupri rubiqo. Verdigris.
  Cupri sulphas.   Vitriolum cupri ; Vitriolum ca-
rulcum ; Vitriolum Romanum ; Cuprum vitriolatum.
Sulphate of copper.  It possesses acrid  and styptic
qualities; is esteemed as a tonic, emetic, adstringent,
and escharotic, and is exhibited internally in the cure
of dropsies, haemorrhages, and as a speedy emetic.  Ex-
ternalry ittia applied to stop  haemorrhages,  to haemor-
rhoids, leucorrhcea, phagedenic ulcers, proud flesh, and
condylomata.
  OU'PRUM. (Quasi as  Cyprium;  so called from
the island of Cyprus, whence it was formerly brought.)
See Copper.
  Cuprum ammonlacale.   See  Cuprum ammonia-
turn.
  Cuprum ammoniatum.  Cuprum ammoniacale.  Am-
moniated copper.   Ammoniacal  sulphate of copper
Take of sulphate of copper, half an  ounce; subcar
Donate of ammonia, six drachms; rub them  together
in a glass mortar, till tbe effervescence ceases; then
dry the ammoniated copper, wrapped  up in  bibulous
paper, by a gentle heat.  In this  process the  carbonic
acid is expelled  from the ammonia,  which  forms a
triple compound with the sulphuric acid and  oxide of
copper.   This preparation  is much milder than tbe
sulphate of copper.  It is found to produce tonic and
astringent effects on the human  body.  Its principal
internal use has been in epilepsy,  and  other obstinate
spasmodic diseases,  given in doses of half  a grain,
gradually increased to five grains or more, two or three
times a day.   For iu external application, see Cupri
ammoniati liquor.
  Cuprum vitriolatum.  See Cupri sulphas.
  CUPULA.  An accidental part of a seed, being a
rough calyculus, surrounding the lower part of a gland,
as lliat of the oak, of which it is the cup.
  Cura avanacea.  A decoction of oats and succory
roots, in which  a little nitre and sugar were dis-
solved, was formerly used  in fevers,  and was  thus
named.
  Cu'rcas.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Cu'rculio. (From karkarali, Hebrew.)  The throat
and the aspera arteria.
  [Also the name of a genus of coleopterous insects,
according to Linnaeus's system. A.]
  Cu'rcum. See Cheledonium majus.
  CURCU'MA.  (From the Arabic curcum or hercum.)
Turmeric.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Monandria ;. Order, Mono-
gynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the turmeric-tree.
See Curcuma longa.
  Curcuma longa.  The  systematic name of the
turmeric plant.  Crocus Indicus ; Terra marita ;  Can-
nacorus radice croceo; Curcuma rotunda; Mayella;
Kua kaha of the Indians.  Curcuma—foliis lanceola-
tis;  nervis  lateralibus  numerossimis of Linnaeus.
The  Arabians call  every root of a saffron colour by
the name of curcum.  The root of this plant i3 im-
ported here in its dried state from  the  East Indies, in
various forms.  Externally it is of a pale yellow colour,
wrinkled, solid, ponderous, and the inner substance of
a deep saffron or gold colour: its  odour is somewhat
fragrant; to the  taste it is bitterish, slightly acrid, ex-
citing a moderate degree of warmth in the mouth, and
on being chewed, it tinges the saliva yellow.  It is an
ingredient in the composition of Curry powder, is
valuable as a dying dru  and furnishes  a chemical
test of the presence of uncombined alkalies.  It is now
very seldom used medicinally, but retains a  place in
our pharmacopoeias.
  Curcuma rotunda.   See Curcuma longa.
  CURD.  The coagulum, which separates from milk,
upon the addition of acid or other substances.
  ["Curette.   (French.)   An  instrument shaped
like  a minute spoon, or scoop, invented by Daviel, and
used in the extraction of the cataract, for taking away
any  opaque matter, which may remain behind the pu-
pil, immediately after the crystalline has  been taken
out."—Cooper's Surg. Did.  A.]
   Curled leaf.  See Leaf.
  CU'RMI.  (From xtpaia, to mix.)  Ale.   A drink
made of barley, according to Dioscorides.
  CURRANT.   See Ribes.
  Cu'rsuma.  Curtuma.  The Ranunculus ficaria of
Linnaeus.
  Cursu'ta.  (Corrupted from cassuta, kasuih,  Ara-
bian.)  The root of the  Gentiana purpurea of  Lin-
naeus.
  Curva'tor coccyois.  A muscle bending the coc-
cyx.   See Coceygeus.
  CURVATUS.  (From curvus, a curve.)  Curvate,
bent.  Applied to the form of a pepo  or gourd seed-
vessel ; as in Cucumi fiexuosus.
  CUSCU'TA.   (According to Linnaeus, a corruption
from the Greek Kaovlas,  or KaSvJas, which is  from
the Arabic Chessuth, or  Chasuth.)  Dodder.  1.  The
name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean system.
Class, Tetrandria ;  Order, Digynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of dodder of thyme.
See  Cuscuta epiViymum.
  Cuscuta epithymum.   The systematic  name  of
dodder of thyme.  Epythymum.  Cuscuta—foliis ses-
silibus,  quinquifidis, bracteis obvallaiis.  A  parasiti-
cal plant, possessing a strong disagreeable smell, and
a pungent taste, very durable in the mouth.  Recom-
mended in melancholia, as cathartics.
  Cuscuta europjea.  The systematic name of a
species of dodder of thyme.   Cuscuta—-floribus sessi-
libus, of Linnaeus.
  CUSPA'RIA.  The  name given by Messrs. Hum-
boldt and Bonpland to a genus of plants in which is
the tree we obtain the Angustura bark from.
  Cusparia febrifuga. Thi3 is  the tree  said to
yield the bark called Angustura.—Cortex cusparie,
and imported from Angustura in South America.  Its
external appearances vary considerably.  The best is
not fibrous, but hard, compact, and of a yellowish-
brown colour, and externally of a whitish hue. When 
CYC                                             CYN
 teduced into powder, it resembles tbat of Indian rhu-
 barb.  It  is very generally  employed as a febrifuge,
 tonic, and adstringent  While some deny its virtue in
 curing intermittents, by many it is preferred to the
 Peruvian bark; and it has been found useful in diar-
 rhoea, dyspepsia, and scrofula.  It was thought  to be
 the bark of the Brucea antidysenterica, or ferruginea.
 Wildenow suspected it to be the Magnolia plumieri;
 but Humboldt and Bonplaud, the celebrated travellers
 in South America, have ascertained it to belong to a
 tree not before known, and which they promise to de-
 scribe by the name of Cuspariafebrifuga.
   CUSPIDA'TUS.   (From cuspis, a point.)  1.  Four
 of the teeth are called cuspidati, from their form.  See
 Teeth.
   2. Sharp-pointed.   Applied to  leaves which are
 tipped with a spine, as in thistles.   See Leaf.
   CU'SPIS.  (From cuspa, Chaldean, a shell, or bone,
 with which spears  were  formerly pointed.)   1. The
 glans penis was so called, from its likeness to the point
 of a spear.
   2. The name of a bandage.
   Cu'stos oculi.   An instrument to fix  the eye dur-
 ing an operation.
   Cuta'mbulus.  (From cutis, the skin, and ambulo,
 to walk.)   1. A cutaneous worm.
   2. Scorbutic itching.
   CUTANEOUS.   (Cutaneus; from cutis, the skin.)
 Belonging to the skin.
   Cuta'neus musculus.  See Platysma myoides.
   CUTICLE.  Cuticula.  (A diminutive of cutis, the
 skin.)   Epidermis.   Scarf-skin.  A  thin, pellucid,
 insensible membrane, of a white colour, that covers
 and defends the true skin,  with which  it is connected
 by the hairs, exhaling  and inhaling vessels, and the
 rete mucosum.
   CUTICULA.  See Cuticle.
   CU'TIS.  (Cutis, tis. fcem.;    See Skin.
   Cutis anserina.  The rough state the skin is some-
 times thrown into from the action of cold, or other
 cause, in which it looks like the skin of the goose.
   Cutis vera.  The true  skin under the cuticle.
   CYANIA. The  trivial  name in Good's  arrange-
 ment of diseases of  a species called Exangia cyania,
 or blue skin.  Class,  Hemalica; Order, Struma.
   CYANIC ACID.   Acidum cyanicum. See Prussic
 acid.
   CYANITE.  Kyanite.  Disthene of Hafly.  A mi-
 neral of a  Berlin blue colour, found in India and Eu-
 rope.
  CYANOGEN.  (From icvavos, blue, and yivouai, to
 form.)  Production of blue.  See  Prussine.
  CY'ANUS.   {Kvavos, caerulean,  or  sky-blue; so
 called from its colour.)  Blue-bottle.  See Centauria
 cyanus.
  CY'AR.  (From xtta, to pour  out) 1. The lip of a
 vessel.
  2. The eye of a needle.
  3. The orifice of the internal ear, from its likeness
 to the eye of a needle.
  Cya'sma.  Spots on the skin of pregnant women.
  Cyathi'scus.  (From xvados, a cup.)   The hollow
 part of a probe, formed in the shape of a small spoon,
 as an ear-picker.
  Cy'bitos.  See Cubitus.
  Cf'bitum.  See Cubitus.
  Ct'bitus.  See Cubitus.
  Cyboi'des.  See Cuboides.
  CYCAS.  (Kvicas,  of Theophrastus. The name of a
 palm, said to grow in Ethiopia.)  The name of a genus
 of  plants, one of the Palma pinnatifolia,  of Lin-
 nueus; but afterward removed by him to the fdices.
  Cycas circinalis.  The  systematic  name of a
 palm-tree which affords a sago, called  also Sagus;
 Sagu:—a dry fecula, obtained from the pith of  this
 palm, in the islands of Java, Molucca, and the Philip-
 pines.  The same substance is also brought from  the
 West ladies, but it is inferior  to that brought from the
 East.   Sago becomes soft  and  transparent by boiling
 in  water, and forms a light  and agreeable liquid, much
recommended in febrile, phthisical and calculous dis-
orders, &c.   To make it palatable, ii is customary to
add to it, when boiled or softened with water, some
 lemon juice, sugar, and wine.
  Cy'ceum.  (From  icvxaui,  to mix.)   Cyceon.   A
mixture of tbe consistence  of pap.
  Cy'cima.  (From  xvxaia, to  mix.)  So called from
 the mixture of the ore with lead, by which litharge is
 made.
   CY'CLAMEN.  (From kvkXos, circular; either on
 account of the round form of the leaves, or of the
 roots.)  Cyclamen.
   1. The  name of a genus of plants in the Linnean
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of  the sow-bread. See
 Cyclamen Europaum.
   Cyclamen europjeum.  The systematic name of
 the sow-bread.   Arthanita of  the pharmacopoeias.
 The root is a drastic purge and  errhine; and by the
 common people it has been used to procure abortion.
   Cycli'scus.  (From kvkXos, a circle.)  An instru-
 ment  in the form of a half-moon, formerly used fot
 scraping the rotten bones.
   Cycli'smus.  (From kvkXos, a circle.)  A lozenge.
   Cyclopho'ria.  (From  kvkaos,  a circle, and o)»e»,
 to bear.)    Tho circulation of the  blood, or other
 fluids.
   Cyclo'pion.  (From KvxXoia, to surround, and  udr,
 the eye.)   The white of the eye.
   CY'CLOS. Oyclus.  A circle.  Hippocrates uses
 this word to signify the cheeks,  and the orbits of the
 eyes.
   Cyclus metasyncriticus.   A  long  protracted
 course of remedies, persisted in with a view of restor-
 ing the particles ofthe body to such a state as is neces-
 sary to health.
   C YDO'NIA.  (From Cydon, a town in Crete, where
 the tree grows wild.)  The quince-tree.  See Pyrus
 cydonia.
   Cydonium malum.  The quince.  See Pyrus cy-
 donia.
   CYE'MA. (From xvta, to bring forth.)  Parturition.
   Cyli'chnis.  (From  kvXi\, a cup.)  A gallipot or
 vessel  to hold medicines.
   Cylindrical Leaf.  See Leaf.
   OYLI'NDRUS.  (From KvXita, to roll round.)  A
 cylinder.  A tent for a wound, equal at the top and
 bottom.
   Cyllo'sis. (From KvXXoia, to make lame.) A tibia
 or leg bending outwards.
   Cy'lus.  (From kvXXow, to make lame.)  In Hip-
 pocrates, it is one affected with a kind or luxation,
 which bends outwards,  and is hollowecf inward. Such
 a defect in the tibia is called Cyllosis, and the person
 to whom it belongs, is called by the Latins  Varus,
 which term is opposed to Valgus.
   CYMA.  A cyme.   A  species of inflorescence of
 plants, consisting of several flower-stalks, all  spring-
 ing from one centre or point, but each stalk is variously
 subdivided; and in this last  respect a cyme diners
 essentially from an umbel, the subdivisions of the lat-
 ter being formed like its primary divisions, of several
 stalks springing from one point.   This difference is of
 great  importance  in  nature.  The  mode of inflores-
 cence agrees also with a corymbus In  general aspect;
 but in the latter the primary stalks  have no  common
 centre, though the partial ones may sometimes be um-
 bellate, which last case is precisely the reverse of a
 cyme.
   From its division into primary stalks or branches, it
 is  distinguished into,
  1.  Trifid; as in Sedum acre.
  2. Quadrifid ; as in Crassula rubens.
  3. Tripartite, having three less  cymes;  as  in
 Sambucus ebulus.
  4. Quinquipartite; as in Sambucus nigra.
  5. Sessile, or without stalk; as in Gnaphalium fru-
 tescens.
  Comus sanguinea and sericea afford examples of the
 Cyma nvda.
  Cymato'des.  Is applied by Galen and others to an
 unequal fluctuating pulse.
  Cy mba.  (From kvuSos,  hollow.)  A bost,  pinnace,
or skiff.  A bone of tne wrist is  so called,  from  its
supposed likeness to a skiff. See Naviculare os.
  CYMBLFORMIS.  (From cymba, a boat  or skiff,
and forma, likeness.)  Skiff or boat-like.  Applied to
the seeds of the Calendula officinalis.
  CY'MINUM.  See Cuminum.
  CYMOPHANE.  See Chrysobcryl.
  Cymosus.  Having the character  of a cyme. Ap-
plied to aggregate flowers.
  CYNArNCHE.   (From xvuv, a dog, and ayxta, to
suffocate, or strangle; so called from dogs being said to 
CYN
CYN
 fce subject to it.)  Sore throat.  A genus of disease In
 the class  Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia of Cullen.
 It is known by pain and redness of the throat, attend-
 ed with a difficulty qf swallowing and breathing.
   The species of this disease are:—
   1. Cynanehe trachealis; Cynanehe laryngea;  Suffo-
 catio stridula ; Angina pernictosa; Astlima infant-
 um;  Cynanehe stridula;  Morbus  strangulatorius;
 Catarrhus suffocatius ; Barbadensis ; Angina poly-
 posa sive membranacea.  The croup.  A  disease that
 mostly  attacks infants, who  are suddenly seized with
 a difficulty of breathing and a crouping noise:  it is an
 inflammation of the mucous membrane of the trachea
 that induces the secretion of a very tenacious coagu-
 lable lymph, which  lines the trachea and bronchia,
 and impedes respiration.  The croup does not appear
 to  be contagious, whatever some physicians may think
 to  the  contrary;  but  it sometimes prevails epidemi-
 cally.   It seems, however, peculiar to some families ;
 and a child  having once  been attacked, is very liable
 to its returns.  It is  likewise peculiar to young chil-
 dren, and has never been known to attack  a person
 arrived at the age of puberty.
  The  application of cold seems to  be the genera!
 cause which produces this disorder, and therefore it
 occurs more frequently in the winter and spring, than
 in the other seasons.  It has  been said, that it is most
 prevalent near the sea-coast; but it is frequently met
 with in inland situations, and particularly those which
 are marshy.
   Some days previous to an attack of the disease, the
 child appears  drowsy, inactive, and fretful; the eyes
 are somewhat suffused  and heavy;  and there is a
 cough,  which, from  the first, has a peculiar shrill
 sound;  this, in the course of  two days, becomes more
 violent  and  troublesome, and likewise  more  shrill.
 Every fit of coughing agitates the patient very much;
 the face is flushed and swelled, the  eyes are protube-
 rant, a general tremor takes place, and there  is a kind
 of convulsive endeavour to renew respiration at the
 ilose of each fit,  As the disease advances, a constant
 difficulty  of breathing prevails, accompanied some-
 times with a swelling  and inflammation in the tonsils,
 uvula, and velum pendulum palati; and the head is
 thrown back, in the agony of attempting to escape suf-
 focation.  There is not only an unusual sound pro-
 duced by the cough, (something between the yelping
 and barking of a dog,) but respiration is performed
 with a hissing noise, as if the trachea was closed up
 by some slight spongy substance.  The cough is gene-
 rally dry; but if  any thing is spit up, it  has either a
 purulent appearance, or seems to consist of films re-
 sembling portions of a membrane.  Where great nau-
 sea and frequent retchings prevail, coagulated  matter
 of the same nature is brought up. With  these symp-
 toms, there is much thirst, an  uneasy sense of heat
 over the whole body, a continual inclination to change
 from  place to place, great restlessness, and frequency
 ofthe pulse.
  In an advanced stage of the disease, respiration be-
 comes more stridulous, and  is performed with still
 greater difficulty, being repeated at longer periods, and
 with greater exertions, until at last it ceases entirely.
  The croup generally proves fatal by sufiircation, in-
 duced either by spasm  affecting tbe glottis, or by a
 quantity of matter blocking up by the trachea or bron-
 chia ; but when it terminates in health, it is by a reso-
 lution ofthe inflammation, by a ceasing ofthe spasms,
 and by a free expectoration of the matter exuding from
 the trachea, or of the crusts formed there.
  The disease has,  in a few instances, terminated
 fatally within twenty-four hours after its attack ; but
 it more  usually happens, that  where it proves fatal, it
 runs on  to the  fourth or fifth  day.  Where consider-
 able portions of the membranous films, formed on the
surface of the trachea, are thrown up, life is sometimes
protracted for a day or two longer than would  other-
 wise have happened.
  Dissections of" children who have died of the  croup,
have mostly shown a  preternatural membrane, lining
the whole internal suiface of the upper part  of the
trachea, which  may always  be easily separated from
the proper membrane.   There is likewise usually found
 a good deal of mucus, with a mixture of pus, in the
 rachea and its ramifications.
  The treatment of this disease must be conducted on
 he strictly antiphlogistic plan.   It will commonly be
 proper, where the patient  is not very young, to begin
 by taking blood from the  arm, or the jugular vein;
 several leeches should be applied along the forepart of
 the neck.  It will then be  right to give a  nauseating
 emetic, ipecacuanha with tartarized antimony, or with
 squill in divided doses; this may be followed up by ca-
 thartics, diaphoretics,  digitalis, Sec   Large  blisters
 ought to be applied, near the  affected part, and a dis-
 charge kept up  by savine  cerate, or other stimulant
 dressing.  Mercury, carried speedily to salivation, has
 in several instances arrested  the progress  of the dis-
 ease, when it appeared  proceeding to a fatal termina-
 tion. As the inflammation is declining, it is very im-
 portant that free expectoration should take  place; this
 may be promoted by nauseating medicines,  by inhaling
 steam, and by stimulating gargles ; for which the de-
 coction of senna is particularly recommended.  Where
 there is much wheezing, an occasional' emetic  may
 relieve the patient considerably, and under symptoms
 of threatening suffocation, the operation of broncho-
 tomy has sometimes saved life.—-Should fits of spas-
 modic difficulty of breathing occur in the latter pe-
 riods of the disease, opium joined with diaphoretics
 would be most likely to do good.
   2. Cynanehe tonsillaris.  The inflammatory quinsy,
 called also angina infiammatoria. In  this complaint,
 the inflammation principally occupies the tonsils;  but
 often extends through the whole mucous membrane of
 the fauces, so  as essentially to interrupt the  speech,
 respiration, and deglutition ofthe patient.
   The causes which usually  give rise to it are, expo -
 sure to  cold, either from sudden vicissitudes of wea-
 ther, from being placed in a partial  current of air,
 wearing damp linen, sitting in wet  rooms, or getting
 wet in the feet;  all of" which may give a sudden check
 to perspiration.   It principally attacks those of a full
 and plethoric  habit, and is chiefly  confined  to  cold
 climates, occurring usually in the spring and autumn ;
 whereas the ulcerated sore throat chiefly attacks those
 of a weak irritable habit,  and is most prevalent in
 warm  climates.  The  former differs from the latter
 likewise in not being contagious.  In  many people
 there seems to be a particular tendency to this dis-
 ease ; as from every considerable application of cold it
 is readily induced.
  An inflammatory sore throat discovers  itself by a
 difficulty of swallowing and breathing, accompanied by
 a redness and tumour in one or both tonsils, dryness oi*
 the ihroat, foulness of the tongue, lancinating pains jn
 the parts affected, a frequent but difficult excretion of
 mucus, and some small degree of fever.   As the dis-
 ease advances, the difficulty of swallowing and breath-
 ing becomes greater, the speech is very indistinct, the
 dryness of the throat, and thirst increases,  the tongue
 swells and is incrusted with a dark fur, and the pulse
 is full and frequent.   In some cases, a few white,
 sloughy spots are to be observed on the tonsils.  If the
 inflammation proceeds to such a height as to put a
 total stop to respiration, the face will become livid, the
 pulse will  sink,  and the patient will  quickly be  de-
 stroyed.
  The chief danger arising from this species of quin-
 sy is, the inflammation occupying both tonsils,  and
 proceeding to such a degree as to prevent a sufficient
 quantity of nourishment for the support of nature from
 being taken, or to occasion suffocation; but this seldom
 happens, and its  usual termination is either in  resolu-
 tion or suppuration.  When proper steps are adopted,
 it will in general readily go off by the former.
  Where the  disease has proved fatal  by suffocation,
little more than a highly inflamed state ofthe parts af-
fected, with some morbid phenomena in the head, have
been observed on dissection.
  This is usually a complaint not requiring very active
treatment. If, however, the  inflammation run high,
in a  tolerably strong and plethoric adult, a moderate
quantity of blood should be drawn from the arm, or
the jugular vein:  but still more frequently leeches
will be required; or scarifying the tonsils may afford
more effectual relief.  An emetic will often be very
beneficial, sometimes apparently check the progress of
the complaint: likewise cathartics must be employed.
diaphoretics, and the general  antiphlogistic regimen.
A blister to the throat, or behind tbe neck,  sometimes
has a very excellent effect: but in milder cases, the lini-
mentum  ammoniae, or other rubefacient application,
anplicd every six or eight hours, and wearing  flannel 
CYN
CP1
 round the throat, may produce a sufficient determina-
 tion from the part affected.  The use of proper gargles
 generally contributes materially to the cure.   It there
 be much tension and pain in the fauces, a solution of
 nitrate of potassa will be best; otherwise dilute acids,
 a weak solution of alum, etc.  Should the disease pro-
 ceed to suppuration, warm emollient gargles ought to
 be employed, and perhaps similar external applications
 may be of some service: but it is particularly impor-
 tant to make an early opening  into the abscess for tbe
 discbarge of the pus. When deglutition is prevented
 by the tumefaction of the tonsils, it is  recommended
 to exhibit nutritious clysters; and when suffocation is
 threatened, an emetic or inhaling aether may cause a
 rupture of the abscess, or this  may be opened; but if
 relief be not thereby obtained, bronchotoiuy will be-
 come necessary.
   3.  Cynanehe pharyngea.  This species is so called
 when the pharynx is chiefly affected. Dr. Wilson, in
 his Treatise on Febrile Diseases, includes in his defi-
 nition of cynanehe tonsillaris, that of cynanehe pha-
 ryngea. These  varieties of cynanehe diffir consider-
 ably when they are exquisitely formed.  But the one
 is seldom present in any considerable degree, without
 being attended with mure or less of the other.  Dr.
 Cullen  declares, indeed, that he never saw a case of
 true cynanehe pharyngea; that is, a case in which the
 inflammation was confined  to tlie pharynx;  it con-
 stantly spread in a greater or less degree to the tonsils
 and neighbouring parts.  Besides, the mode of treat-
 ment is, in almost every instance, the  same in both
 cases.  And if we admit the cynanehe  pharyngea to
 be a  distinct variety, we must  admit another,  the cy-
 nanehe oesophageal  for inflammation frequently at-
 tacks the oesophagus, and is sometimes even confined
 to it.
   4. Cynanehe parotidea. The mumps.  A swelling
 on the cheek and under the jaw, extending over the
 neck, from inflammation of the parotid and other sali-
 vary glands, rendering deglutition, or even respiration,
 sometimes difficult, declining the fourth day.  Epide-
 mic and contagious.
   The disease is subject to a metastasis occasionally.
 in females to the mammae, in males to the testes;  and
 in a few instances, repelled from  these parts, it  has
 affected the brain, and even proved fatal.  In general,
 however, the disease is without danger, and scarcely
 calls for medical aid.  Keeping a flannel over the part,
 and tbe antiphlogistic regimen, with mild laxatives,
 will be sufficient. Should the  mammae, or the testes,
 be affected, more active evacuations may be necessary
 to prevent  the destruction of those organs, bleeding
 general and topical, etc. but avoiding cold applications,
 lest it should be driven to the brain.  And where  this
 part is  unfortunately attacked, besides the means ex-
 plained under Phrenitis, it may be useful to endeavour
 to recall the inflammation to its former seat by warm
 fomentations, stimulant liniments,  etc.
  5. Cynanehe maligna.   The malignant, putrid, or
 Ulcerous sore  throat Called also Cynanehe gangra-
 nosa ; Angina ulcerosa; Febris epidemica cum angina
 ulcusculosa; Angina epidemica; Angina gangra-
 nosa; Angina suffocativa ;  Angina maligna.   This
 disease  is readily to be distinguished from the inflam-
 matory quincy, by the soreness and specks which ap-
 pear in the fauces, together with the great debility of
 the system, and small fluttering pulse, which are not
 to be observed in tbe former.   In the inflammatory
 sore throat there is always great difficulty of swallow-
 ing, a considerable degree of tumour, with a tendency
 in the parts affected to suppurate,  and a hard,  full
 pulse.   Moreover in the former affection the disease is
 seated principally in the mucous  membrane of  the
 mouth and throat; whereas in the latter the inflam-
 mation chiefly  occupies the glandular parts.
  The putrid sore throat often arises from a peculiar
 state of the atmosphere, and so becomes epidemical;
 making its attacks chiefly on children, and those of a
 weak relaxed habit   It is produced  likewise by con-
 tagion, as it is found to  run through a whole family,
 when it has once seized any person in it; and it proves
often fatal, particularly to those in an infantile state.
  It appears, however, that under this head two differ-
ent complaints  have been included; the one, especially
fetal to children, is an aggravated form of scarlatina;
the other, a combination of inflammation of the fauces
with typhus fever; the former is perhaps always, the
      280
 latter certainly often, contagious.  See Scarlatina and
  Typhus.
   CYNANCHICA.  (Cinanchicvs;  from Kwayxh
 the quincy.)  Medicines which relieve a quincy.
   Cynanthro'pia.  (From tcvtav, a dog, and avBommf,
 a man.)   It is used by Bellini,  De Morbis Capital, to
 express a particular kind of melancholy, when men
 fancy themselvc» changed into dogs, and imitate their
 actions.
   Cy'nara. See Cinara.
   Cynarocephalus.  (From Kivapa, the  artichoke,
 and Kt<ba\n, ahead.)  Having a  head  like the Cinara,
 or artichoke; as the thistle, globe thistle, burdock, blue
 bottle.
   Cy'nchnis.  Kvyxvts-  A vessel of any  kind  to
 hold medicines in.
   CYNOCRA'MBE.  (From «kov, a dog, and Kpautn,
 cabbage ; an herb of the cabbage tribe,  with which dags
 are said  to physic themselves.)  See  Mercurialis pa-
 reunia.
   Cyno'ctanim.  (From xviav, a dog, and  xjtivia, to
 kill.)  A species  of aconitum, said to destroy dogs.
 See Aconitum napellus.
   Cynoct'tisis.   (From xvtav,  a dog* and xvltaos,
 the cytisis: so named because it was  said to oure the
 distemper of dogs.)  The dog-rose.  See jRosa canina
   CY'NUDU'CTOS.  (From xvtav, a  dog, and Saxvia,
 to bite.)  So Dioscorides  calls a person bit by a mad
 dog.
   Cynode'smion.  (From xvtav, a dog, and  Stia, to
 bind;  so named because in dogs it is  very discernible
 and strong.)   A ligature by  which  the prepuce is
 bound to the glands.  See Franum.
   CYNODO'NTES. (KvvoSovrts:  from xvtav, a dog,
 and oSovs, a tooth.)   The canine teeth.  See Teeth.
   CYNOGLO'SSUiM.   (From xviav, a dog, and
 yXiaaoa, a  tongue;  so named from its sapposed re-
 semblance.) Hound's tongue.
   1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
 system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia,
   2. The pharmncopceial name of the  hound's tongue
 See Oynoglossum officinale.
   Cynoglossum  officinale.  The systematic name
 for bound's tongue.  Cynoglossum; Lingua canina :
 Cynoglossum—staminibus corolla  brevioribus ; foliis
 Into lanceolatis  tomentosis, sessilibus, of  Limutus.
 It possesses narcotic powers, but is seldom employed
 medicinally.   Acids arc said to  counteract  the ill
 effects of an over-dose more speedily than any thing
 else, after clearing the stomach.
   Cyno'lopuus.  (From xviav, a dog, and Xoibos, a
 protuberance: so  called because in dogs they are pecu
 liarly eminent)  The  asperities  and  prominences of
 the vertebrae.
   CYNOLY'SSA.   (From  xvtav,  a dog, and  Xvoon,
 madness.)  Canine madness.
   CYNOMO'RIUM.  The name of a  genus of plants
 in the  Linmtun  system.   Class, Monecia;   Order
 Monandria.
   Cynomorium coccineum.  The systematic name of
 the Fungus melitensis ; improperly called a  fungus
 It is a small plant which grows only on a little rock ad
 joining Malta.  A drachm of the powder is given for
 a  dose  in dysenteries and  haemorrhages, and with
 remarkable success.
  CYNORE'XIA.   (From xviav, a dog, and  optits,
 appetite.)   A voracious or canine appetite.  See Bu
 limia.
  CYNO'SBATOS.  See Cynosbatus.
  CYNO'SBATUS.   (From xviav, a dog, and Bafos,
 a thorn: eo called because dogs are said to be attracted
 by its smell.)  Tbe dog-rose.  See Rosa eanina.
  Cynospa'stum.  (From xvtav, a dog, and anata, to
 attract.)   See Ro3a canina.
  CYOPHO'RIA. (From xvos, a foetus, and tbtpto, to
 bear.)   Pregnancy.
  Cypari'ssus. See Cupressus.
  CYTERUS.  (From xvnapos, a little round vessel,
 wbich its roots are said to resemble.)  Cyperus.  The
 name of a genus  of plants in the  Linnxan system.
 Class, Triandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Cyperus esculentus.  The rush-nut  This plant
 Is  a  native of Italy, where the fruit is collected and
 eaten,  and  said to  be a  greater delicacy than  tlie
chesnut
  Cyperus longus.   The systematic and pharmaco-
pceial name ofthe English gslangale. Cyperus—cubma 
DAC                                            DAC
Irisuetro folioso, umbella foliosa supra-decomposita:
pedunculis  nudis, spicis alternis, of Linnaeus.  The
smell of the root of this plant is aromatic, and its taste
Warm, and sometimes bitter.  It is now totally fallen
into disuse.
  Cyperus rotundus.  This species, the round cype-
rus, Cyperus—culmo triquctro subnudo, umbella de-
composita ; spicis alternis linearibus, of Linnaeus, is
generally preferred to the former, being  a more grate-
fully aromatic bitter. It is chiefly used as a stomachic.
  CYPHELLA.   A peculiar sort of pit or pore on the
under side  of the frond, in that section of  lichens
called stricta.
  CYPHO'MA.  (From iroir7w, to bend.) A gibbosity,
or curvature of the spine.
  CYPHO'SIS.  An incurvation of the spine.
  CYPRESS. SeeOyprw*.
  Cypress spurge.  See Esula minor.
  Cy'prinum oleum.   Flowers of cypress, calamus,
cardamoms, etc.  boiled in  olive oil, now fallen into
disuse.
  Cy'prium.  (From Kvnpos, Cyprus, an island where
it is said formerly to have abounded.) Copper.
  CY'PRUS.  (So called from  the island of Cyprus,
where it grew abundantly.)   The  cypress-tree, or
Eastern privet.
  [CYPRGEITE.  Petrifaction of a Cyprcea or Cow-
rey.  See Organic relics. A.]
  CY'PSELIS.   (From Kv<j>cXn, a beehive.)  The
aperture of the ear, also the wax of the ear.
  Ctrcne'sis. (From Kvpxvata, to mix.)  A mixture,
or composition.
  Cyrto'ma.  (From Kvplos, curved.)   1. An unna-
tural convex tumour.
  2.  Tympanites.
  Cyrtono'sus.   (From xvplos, curved, and votros, a
disease.)  1. The rickets.
  2. Curved spine.
  CYRTOSIS.   (Oyrtosis, is. f.; from xvpros, curvus,
incurvus, gibbosus, and among the ancients particu-
larly imputed recurvation of the spine, or posterior
crookedness, as XopSams, imputed procurvation of the
head and shoulders, or anterior crookedness.)  The
name of a genus of  diseases in Good's  Nosology.
Class, Eccritioa ;  Order, Mesotica.  Contortion of the
bones; defined, head bulky, especially anteriorly; sta-
ture short  and incurvated; flesh flabby,  pale,  and
wrinkled.  It has two species, Cyrtosis rhachia, and
C. eretenismus, cretenism.
  Cy'sbarus.  (From  xvaos, the  anus.)  Tbe intes-
tinum  rectum is so called, because it reaches to the
anus.
  Cysso'tts.  (From xvaos, the anus.)  An inflamma-
tion of the anus.
  OYSTEOLI'THUS.  (Prom Kvsrts, the bladder, and
XiBos, a stone.)  A stone in the bladder,  either urinary
or gall-bladder.
  CVsthus.  KvoBos-  The anus.
  CYSTIC.  (Cystica*; from kvs-iSi a bag.)  Belong-
ing to the urinary or gall-bladder.
  Cystic duct.  See Ductus cysticus.
  Cystic oxide.  A peculiar  animal product disco-
vered by Dr. Wollaston.  See Calculus,  urinary.
  Cy'stica.  (Cysticus; from kv?is>  the bladder.)
Remedies for diseases of the bladder.
  CY'STIDES.  (Cystis, idis.f.; from  icus-cc, a bag.)
Encysted tumours.
  CYSTIPHLO'GIA.   (From icus-ic, the bladder, and
AXtya, to bum.)  An .inflammation In the bladder
See Cystitis.
  CYSTIRRHA'GIA.  (From kv?is, the bladder, and
pnywui, to burst forth.)  A discharge from the bladder.
  CYSTIS.  (Kvfic, a bag.)  1. Cyst or bladder.
  2. The urinary bladder.
  3. The membranous or cyst surrounding or contain
ing any morbid substance.
  Cystis choledocha.  See Gall-bladder
  Cystis fellea.  See Gall-bladder.
  Cystis urinaria.  See Urinary bladder.
  CYSTITIS.  (From miyjc, the bladder.) Inflam-
mation of the bladder.  A genus of disease arranged
by Cullen in the class Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia.
It is known by great pain in the region of the bladder,
attended with fever and hard  pulse, a frequent and
painful discharge of urine, or a suppression, and gene-
rally tenesmus. This is rarely a primary disease, and
when it occurs, the above character of it will readily
point it out   There also  is frequently nausea  and
vomiting, and, in  some cases, delirium.   It  most
generally arises in consequence of inflammation of tlie
adjacent parts, or from calculi  in the bladder.   The
treatment is very similar to that of Nephritis ; which
see.  When suppression of urine attends, the catheter
must be occasionally introduced.
  CYSTOCE'LE.   (From xv?ts, the  bladder,  and
xnXn, a tumour.)   A hernia formed by the prolusion
of the urinary bladder.
  C YSTOLI'THICUS.  (From xv?is, the bladder, and
XtBos, a stone.)  Having a stone  in the bladder.
  CYSTOPHLE'GICUS.   (From kv^is, the bladder,
and ibXeyia,  to burn.) An inflammation of the bladder.
  CYSTOPHLEGMA'TICUS.  (From kus-ij, the blad-
der, and QXtyua, phlegm.)   Having matter  or mucus
in the bladder.
  CYSTOPRO'CTICUS.   (From mm, the bladder,
and tspoiKJos, the anus, or rectum.)  A disease of the
bladder and rectum.
  CYSTOPTO'SIS.  (From kv^is, the bladder,  and
zstnlia, to fall.)  A protrusion of the inner membrane
of the bladder, through the urethra.
  CYSTOSPA'STICUS.  (From  jojr(c, the bladder,
and onacrpa, a spasm.)   A spasm  in the sphincter of
the bladder.
  CYSTOSPYTCUS.  (From (turij, the bladder, and
utiov, pus.)  Purulent matter in tbe bladder.
  CYSTOTHROMBOI'DES.  (From xvfis, the blad-
der, and BpouSos, a coagulation of blood.}  A concre-
tion of grumous blood in the bladder.
  CYSTOTO'MIA.  (From nifts, the bladder,  and
Ttpvia, to cut.) The operation of cutting or piercing
the bladder.
  Cy'thion.  An eye-wash.
  CY'TLNUS.  (Perhaps,  as Martyn suggests, from
kvIivoi, a name given by Theophrastus to the blos-
soms ofthe pomegranate, the calyx of which the flower
in question resembles in shape.)  The name of a genus
of plants.   Class, Gynandria; Order, Octandria of
Linnaeus.
  Cytinus  hypocistis.  Rape of Cystus.   A fleshy
pale-yellowish plant, parasitical on the roots of several
species of cystus in the south of Europe, from which
the succus hypocis'idus is obtained.
  Cytiso-oknista.  Common broom.  See Spartium
scoparium.
  Cyzemer.  A swelling of the wrists.
  Cyzicb'nus.  A plaster for wounds of the nerves.
D
    DACNE'RUS. (From Saicvia, to bite.) Biting.  Pun-
    gent.  An epithet for a sharp eye-wash, composed
of burnt copper, pepper, cadmia, myrrh,  and opium.
  Dacry'dium.  (From Saxpv, a tear.)  The inspis-
sated juice of scammony, in small drops, and there-
fore called a tear.
  DACRYGELO'SIS.  (From Saxpvia, to weep, and
ytXcua, to laugh.)  A species of insanity, in which the
patient weeps and laughs at the same time.
  Dachyo'des.  (From Saxpvia, to weep.)  Asonious,
or weeping ulcer.
  DACRYO'MA.  (From Saxpvta, to weep.)  A closing
of one or more of the puncta lachrymalia, causing an
effusion of tears.
  Dactyle'thra   (From SokJvXos, a  finger.)  A
species of  bougies shaped like a finger,  to  excite
vomiting.
  Dactyle'tus.  (From SaxlvXos, the date.)  The
hermodactyl.  See Hermodadylus.
  Da'ctylius.  (From SaK/vXos, a finger.)   A round
pastil, troche, or lozenge, shaped like a finger.
  DA'CTYLUS.  (From oa*7uXoc, a finger; so called 
DAP                                           DAP
 from the likeness of its fruit to a finger.)  1. A finger.
 See Digitus.
  2. The date.   See Phamix dadylifera.
  DiE'DIUM.  (From Sats, a torch.  A small torch or
 candle.  A bougie.
  DjEMONOMA'NIA.   (From Saiutav,  a  daemon,
 and uavia,  madness.)   That species of melancholy
 where the patient supposes himself to be possessed by
 devils.
  DAISY.   Sec Bellis perennis.
  Daisy, ox-eye. See Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
  DALE, Samuel, was born in 1659.  After practising
 as an apothecary, be  became  a  licentiate of tbe col-
 lege of physicians,  and settled at  Bocking, where he
 continued till his death in 1739. He was also chosen a
 fellow of the Royal Society.  In  1693, he published
 his " Pharmacologia," an Introduction to the Materia
 Medica, which he afterward much enlarged and im-
 proved;  the work was well received,  and  passed
 through many editions.   He also gave a good account
 of the natural productions about Harwich and Dover
 Court.
  Damask rose.  See jRosa centifolia.
  Damna'tus.    (From damno,  to condemn.)   The
 dry useless faeces, left in a vessel after tbe moisture has
 been distilled from it, is called terra damnata, or caput
 mortuum.
  DAMSON.  The fruit of a variety of the Prunus
 domestica.
  [DANA, James Freeman,  M. D., was the  oldest
 son of Luther Dana, Esq., and was born in Amherst,
 in the state of  Ntw-Hampshire, in September  1793.
 After bis graduation, he commenced the study of me-
 dicine under Dr. John Gorbam, at that tune Professor
 of Chemistry in Harvard University.  In the year
 1815, before he had completed his professional studies,
 he had become so well known as a practical chemist,
 tbat he was selected by the University to go to London,
 as an agent, for the purpose of procuring a new appa-
 ratus for the chemical department.  While in Eng-
 land, where he remained several  months, he  prose-
 cuted the study  of chemistry in the Laboratory of
 Accum, a celebrated operative chemist.
  With Dartmouth College he remained connected, in
 the capacity of Lecturer on Chemistry, until the year
 1820, wben he received the appointment of Professor
 of Chemistry and Mineralogy  in  the same institution.
 This office he held until the year 1826; and those who
 enjoyed the privilege of hearing his admirable lectures,
 will long remember with what ability and  success he
 discharged its duties.  In 1826 he was appointed one
 of ihe  Board of Visiters of the Military Academy at
 West Point; and, immediately after bis return from
 tbe discharge of this duty, he was appointed Professor
 of Chemistry in  the University of New-York.   This
 appointment, which opened a wide field  for the ex-
 ertion of bis talents, he readily accepted, and removed
 with his family to the city, in the autumn of the same
 year.  About six months after bis removal to New-
 York, be sunk under an attack  of erysipelas, at the
 early age of 33,  and when just entering upon an ex-
 tended sphere of usefulness and honour.
  His principal  publications were the following, viz.
 " Outlines of the Mineralogy and Geology of Boston
 and its Vicinity:" " Epitome of  Chemical Philoso-
 phy :"  " Report on a singular Disease of horned Cat-
 tle, in the Town of Burton, New-Hampshire."  Besides
 these publications, he contributed  several papers to the
 American Journal of  Science,  the New-England
 Journal of Medicine, and the Annals of the Lyceum of
 Natural History of New-York, some of them of very
 considerable merit, and some of which have been re-
 printed in Europe.'*— Thatch, Med. Biog.   A.]
  DANDELION. See Leontodon Taraxacum.
  DANDRIF.  See Pityriasis.
  DANEWORT. See Sambucus Ebulus.
  DAOUR1TE.  A variety of red schorl from Siberia.
  DAPHNE.   (Daphne, Satbvn; from Saw, to burn,
 and  dmvn, a noise: because of the  noise it  makes
 when burnt)  The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Octandria; <? der, Mono-
gynia,  The laurel, or bay-tree.
  Daphne alpina.   Chamalea;  Chamelaa.    This
species of dwarf olive-tree is said to be purgative in
 the dose of 3 jj, and is sometimes given  by  country
 people.  The French chemists have lately examined it
chemically.  See Daphnin.
      io-2
  2. The mezercon is also so called, because It bsj
 leaves like the olive-tree.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Daphne, fiax-leavcd.   See Daphne gnidium,
  Dapune  onidium.  The systematic name of the
 tree which affords the Garou bark.   Daphne.-—poai-
 cula tmmnali foliis lincari-lanceelotis acuminatii of
 Linnirus.   Thymclaa; Oneoron.  Spurge-flax; Flai-
 leaved Daphne.   Garou bark, which very much re-
 sembles that of our mezereum, is to be immersed in
 vinegar for about an hour before it is wanted; a small
 piece, the size of a sixpence, thus steeped, is applied
 to the arm or any other part, and renewed once a day
 in winter and twice in summer.  It produces a serous
 exudation from the skin without irritating or blistering.
 It is recommended, and  is in  frequent use in France
 and Russia, against some diseases of the eyes.
  Daphne  laureola.   The systematic name of the
 spurge-laurel.  Laureola daphnoides.  The bark of
 this plant is recommended to excite a discbarge from
 the  skin, in the same way as that of the Daphne gni-
 dium.
  Daphne mezereum.  The systematic name of the
 mezereon.  Spurge-olive; Widow-wail.  Mezereum.
 Daphne—floribus sessilibus ternis caulinis, foliis lan-
 ceolatis deciduis,  of Linnaeus.  This plant is extreme-
 ly acrid, especially when fresh, and, if retained in the
 mouth, excites great and  long-continued heat and in-
 flammation, particularly of the mouth and fauces; the
 berries,, grana cnidii  of old writers, also  have the
 same effects, and, when swallowed, prove a powerful
corrosive poison,  not only to man, but to dogs, wolves,
 and foxes.  The  bark of  the root is the part employed
 medicinally in the decoctum sarsaparilla compositum,
 intended to assist mercury in resolving nodes and other
 obstinate symptoms of syphilis.   The antisyphilltic
 virtues of mezereum, however,  have been by many
 writers very justly doubted.  " The result of my own
 experience  (says  Mr. Pearson, of the Lock  Hospital)
 by no means accords with the representation given of
this root by former writers.  From all that I have been
able to collect, in the course of many years' observa-
tion, I feel myself authorized to assert, unequivocally,
that the mezereum has not the power of curing the
venereal disease  in any one stage, or under any one
form.   If a decoction of  this root should ever reduce
a venereal node, where no mercury has been previ-
ously given, yet the  patient will by no means be ex-
empted from  the necessity of  employing mercury for
as long a space of time, and in as large a quantity, as
if no mezereum had been taken.   With respect to the
 power il is said to possess, of alleviating the pain, and
 diminishing the bulk of membraneous nodes, nothing
 peculiar and appropriate can be ascribed to  the meze-
 reum on these accounts, since we oblain  the same
 good effects from sarsaparilla, guaiacum, volatile alkali,
 blistering plasters, etc. Nevertheless, venereal nodes,
 which  have subsided under the use of any of these
 articles of the materia medica, will appear again, and
 often with additional symptoms, if a full and effica-
 cious course of mercury  be not submitted to.  It has,
 indeed, been alleged, that mezereum always alleviates
 the  pain occasioned by a  venereal node, and generally
 reduces it, where the periosteum only is affected; and
 that it seldom fails of removing those enlargements of
 the  periosteum which have not yielded during the ad-
ministration of mercury.
  That some instances of success, in cases like these,
 may have fallen  to the share of  those who  made the
 assertion, it would not become me to deny; but I have
 met with few such agreeable evidences of tbe efficacy
of this  medicine.  I have given  the mezereum in the
form of a simple  decoction, and also as aa ingredient
in compound decoctions of the woods, in many cases,
 where no mercury had been previously employed, but
 never with  advantage to  a single patient.  I  have also
 tried it, in numerous instances, after the completion of
 a course of mercury;  yet  with  the exception of two
 cases, where the thickened state of tbe periosteum wai
 removed during  the exhibition of it, I never saw the
 least benefit derived from taking this medicine  In a
 few cases of anomalous pains, which I supposed were
 derived from irregularities daring a mercurial course,
 the mezereum was of service, after  I had  tried the
 common decoction of the woods without success ; but
 even in this description of cases, I have always found
 it a very uncertain remedy.  I  have made trial of  this
 vegetable in a great number of scrofulous ca*es, where 
DAR                                            DAT
tlie membranes covering the bones were in a diseased
Btate, and I am not sure that one single patient obtain-
ed any evident and material benefit from it.
  The late Dr. Cullen, whose reports may justly claim
attention from all medical men, when treating of the
mezereum, in his Materia Medica, says, " I have fre-
quently employed  it iu  several cutaneous affections,
and sometimes with success."  It were to have been
wished, that the professor of medicine had specified
what those diseases of the skin were, in which the
mezereum was sometimes employed with success; for,
if I except  an instance or two  of lepra, in which the
decoction of this plant conferred a temporary benefit,
I have  very seldom found it possessed of medicinal
virtue, either in syphilis, or in the sequelae of that dis-
ease, in scrofula or in cutaneous affections.  Indeed
the mezereum isof so acrimonious a nature, often pro-
ducing heat and other disagreeable sensations  in the
fauces, and, on many occasions, disordering the primae
via;, that I do not often subject my patients, to the cer-
tain inconveniences which are connected with the pri-
mary effects of this medicine, as they are rarely com-
pensated by anvother important and useful qualities."
  DAPHNEL^'ON.  (From Satfrw, the laurel, and
&atov, oil.)  The oil of  bay-berries.
  DAPHNIN.  The bitter principle  of the Daphne
alpina, discovered by Vauquelin.  From the alkohoiic
infusion of this bark, the resin was separated  by its
concentration.  On diluting  the tincture  with water,
filtering and adding acetate of lead, a yellow daphnate
of lead fell, from wbich sulphuretted hydrogen  sepa-
rated the lead, and left  the  daphnin iu small trans-
parent crystals.  They are hard, of a grayish colour,
a bitter  taste when heated, evaporate in acrid acid
vapours, sparingly soluble in cold, but moderately in
boiling water.  It is stated, that its solution is not pre-
cipitated by acetate of lead ; yet acetate of lead is em-
ployed in the first process to throw it down.
  Daphni'tis.  (From Sa<t>vn,  the laurel.)  A sort of
cassia resembling the laurel.
  DAPHNOl'DES. (From SaQvn, the laurel, and tiSos,
a likeness.)   The herb  spurge  laurel.  See Daphne
laureola.
  Da'rsin.   (From darzin, Arabian.)  The grosser
sort of cinnamon.
  DA'RSIS.  (From Septa, to excoriate.)   An excoria-
tion.
  DA'RTOS.  (From Stpia, to excoriate:  so  called
from its raw and  excoriaied appearance.)  The part
so called, under  the skin of the scrotum, is jiy  some
anatomists considered as a muscle, although it appears
to be no more than a condensation of the cellular mem-
brane lining the scrotum.  It is by means of the dar-
tos that the skin of the  scrotum is corrugated and re-
laxed.
  DARWIN, Erasmus, was bom at Elton, in Not-
tinghamshire, in 1731.  After studying at Cambridge
and Edinburgh, and becoming  doctor of medicine, he
went to settle at Litchfield.  He had soon after the
good fortune to succeed  in the cure of a gentleman in
the neighbourhood, who was so ill of a  fever, as to
have been given over  by the physician previously in
attendance: this speedily procured him very extensive
practice.  He soon after  married, and by his first wife
had three sons, of whom only one survived him. At
the age of 50, he married  again, and removed to Derby,
where he continued till his death in 1802, leaving six
children by_ his second wife.  The active  life he led,
and his very temperate habits, preserved his health and
faculties in a great degree unimpaired.   He distin-
guished himself more as a poet, than by professional
improvements: though he certainly suggested some in-
genious methods of practice; but, warned by prece-
ding examples, he avoided publishing any material
poem, till his medical fame was thoroughly established.
His " Botanic Garden," and " Zoonomia," are well
known,  but they have long ceased to be popular: and
the philosophy of the latter work, which advocates
materialism, is justly censured.  He communicated to
the College  of Phvsicians an account of his successful
use of digitalis iti  dropsy, and some other diseases,
which was published in  their Transactions.  His son
Charles, who died while studying  at Edinburgh, ob-
tained a gold medal by an Essay on the distinction of
Pus and Mucus; and left another unfinished on the
Retrograde  Action  of  the  Absorbents: which   were
published after hii death  by his futhcr.
  Dasy'mna.  (From cWvc, rough.)  A scabby rough-
 ness of the eyelids.
  Da'sys.  (Aamis, rough.) 1. A dry, parched tongue,
  2. Difficult respiration.
  DATE.  See Dactylus.
  Date plum, Indian.  See Dyospyrus lotus.
  DATOLYTE.   Datholit of Werner.,  A species of
 silicious ore divided into common datolyte and botroi-
 dal datolyte.
  [This is the silicious borate of lime, called Datho-
 lit, by Werner and Brogniart. It was discovered  by
 Esmark.  " It is sometimes in prismatic crystals, with
 ten sides, having  two opposite solid angles on  each
 base truncated.  The primitive form is a right prism,
 whose  bases are rhombs, with angles of 109° 28' and
 70° 32'.  It also appears in large granular concretions,
 which frequently discover indications of a prismatic
 form; also in grains or  amorphous. The surface of
 the concretions is rough and glimmering.
  Its  hardness enables it to scratch fluate of lime, and
 Us specific gravity  is 2.98.  Its fracture is imperfectly
 conchoidal,  shining, and nearly vitreous.  Its colour
 is white,  shaded with gray or green, often very de-
 licately.
  When exposed to the flame of a candle, it assumes a
 dull white colour,  and becomes very brittle, even be-
 tween the fingers.  Before the blowpipe it swells into
 a milk-white mass, and then melu into a pale  rose-
 coloured glass.  It is composed of
       Lime.............................35.5
       Silex............................36.5
       Boracic acid......................24.0
       Water...........................  4.0
                                       ----100
                               Cleav. Min. A.]
  DATU'RA.  (Blanchard says, it is derived from the
 Indian word datiro, of which he knows not the mean-
 ing.)   The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
 system.  Class, Pentandria; Order,  Monogynia.
  Datura stramonium.  The systematic name  of
 the thorn-apple.   Stramonium; Dutray; Barryococ-
 calon;  Solanum maniacum of Dioscorides.  Stramo-
 nium spinosum of Gerard.  Solanum fatidum of  Bau
 hin.  Stramonium majus album. Common thorn-apple
 Datura—pericarpiis spinosis erectis ovatis, foliis ova-
 tis  glabris, of Linnaeus.   This plant has been long
 known as a powerful narcotic poison.  In its recent
 state it has a bitterish taste, and a smell somewhat re-
 sembling that of poppies, especially if the leaves  be
 rubbed between the fingers.  Instances of the delete-
 rious effects of the plant are numerous, more particu-
 larly of the seed.   An extract prepared from the seeds
 is recommended by Baron Stoerck in maniacal, epilep-
 tic, and convulsive affections; and is said  by some to
 succeed, while, in the hands of others, it has failed.
 In  this country, says Dr. Woodville, we  are unac-
 quainted  with  any practitioners  whose  experience
 tends to throw light  on the medical character of this
 plant   It appears to us, continues Dr. Woodville, that
 its effects as a medicine are to be referred to no other
 power  than  that  of a  narcotic.   And Dr. Cullen,
 speaking on this subject, says, "I have no doubt that
 narcotics may be  a remedy in certain cases of mania
 and epilepsy; but I have  not,  and I doubt if any other
 person has, learned to  distinguish the cases to which
 such  remedies are properly' adapted.  It is therefore
 that we find the other narcotics, as well as the stramo-
 nium, to fail in the same hands in which they had in
 other cases seemed to succeed. It is this consideration
 that has occasioned my neglecting tbe use of stramo-
 nium, and therefore prevented me from speaking more
 precisely from my  own experience on this subject."
  The extract of this plant has been the preparation
 usually employed from one to ten grains and upwards
 a day; but the powdered leaves, prepared after the
 manner of those of hemlock, would seem to be more
 certain and convenient.  Grediog found the strength ot
 the extract to vary exceedingly; that which he  obtain-
 tained from Ludwig was much more powerful  than
that which he had  of Sloerck.  Externally, the leaves
of stramonium have been applied to inflammatory tu-
mours and bums, and  it is said with success, and of
late, the dried leaves have been smoked ns a remedy
in asthma ; but it docs uot appear that they have been
more efficacious in  this way than tobacco.
  [The Stramonium is known in different parts of the
 United States, by the name of Thorn-apple, Jamettotw-, 
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msad, Stink-weed, etc.  All parts of the plant appear
to be poisonous.  Some soldiers died, during the revo-
lutionary war, by eating the young plants, for greens,
early in the spring.  I have seen children labouring
under tbe effects ofthe poison from having swallowed
tbe seeds, and from drinking a decoction  of herbs in
which  some  of the young  seed-vessels, and small
leaves, ofthe stramonium had been accidentally mixed.
  The poison of the stramonium produces, in children,
a peculiar  spasmodic delirium, attended  with dilata-
tion of the pupils of the eyes, heat ofthe skin, and a
flush of tbe face.  The  ripe or unripe seeds, or the
leaves, produce  the same effect, and the only remedy
is to discharge them from the stomach  by emetics, as
won as possible. A.]
  DAUBENTON, Lewis Mary, was  born in Bur-
gundy, 1716.  Having become doctor in medicine at
the age of 24, he went to Paris, and being very zealous
in tbe study of comparative anatomy, tbe office of
keeper of the royal cabinet of natural history was pro-
cured for him  by the celebrated Buffon.  He contri-
buted materially to enrich the splendid work  of that
eminent naturalist, by furnishing the anatomy both of
man and animals.   He was a member of several dis-
tinguished societies, among others of the  Royal Aca-
demyof Sciences at Paris, to which he made some use-
ful communications.  Having escaped the revolution-
ary horrors in France, be was chosen, in 1799, a mem-
ber of the Conservative Senate:  but he died towards
the end of the same year.
  Dauc'ites vinum.  Wild-carrot seeds, steeped in
must
  DAU'CUS.  Anov rov Savtiv, from its relieving the
colic, and  discussing flatulencies.)   The carrot.  1.
The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. Tbe pharmacopoeia! name of the  garden carrot.
See Daucus carota.
  Daucus alsaticus.  The Oreoselinum pratense,
of Linnaeus.
  Daucus annuus minor.   The Caucalis anthriscus,
of Linnaeus.
  Daucus carota.  The systematic name of the ear-
rot plant  Daucus; Daucus  sylvestris; Pastinaca
sylvestris tenuifolia officinarum ; Daucus—seminibus
kispidis,  petiolis subtus  nervosis, of Linnaeus.  The
cultivated root, scraped, and applied in the form of a
poultice, is a useful application to phagedenic ulcers,
and to cancers  and putrid aores. The seeds, which
obtain  a place  in the materia medica, have a light
aromatic smell, nnd a warm acrid taste, and are
esteemed for their diuretic qualities,  and  for  their
utility in calculous and nephritic complaints, in which
an infusion of three spoonfuls of the seeds, in a pint of
boiling water, has  been recommended; or  the seeds
may be fermented in malt liquor, which receives from
them an  agreeable flavour, resembling that of lemon-
peel.  The boiled root is said by many to be difficult of
digestion; but this is the case only when the stomach
is weak.  It contains a considerable quantity of the
saccharine principle, and is very nutritious.
  Daucus creticus.  See Athamanta cretensis.
  Daucus sativus.  A variety ofthe Daucus carota,
the seeds of which are preferred by some practitioners,
  Daucus  seprinius.  Common chervil.
  Daucus sylvestris.  Wild carrot, or bird's nest
The seeds of the wild plant are said to be more effica-
cious than those of the garden carrot; they possess de-
mulcent and aromatic qualities, and are given, in in-
fusion, or decoction, in calculous complaints.
  DAY-MARE. See Ephialtes.
  DAY-SIGHT. See Paropsis nodifuga.
  Dead nettle.  See Lamium album.
  Deadly nightshade.  See Atropa belladonna.
  DEAFNESS.  Surditas.  See Paracusis.
  Deaf-dumbness.  Speechlessness, from  deafness.
  Dearticula'tio.  (From de, and articulus, a joint)
Articulation admitting evident motion.
  Deascia'tio.  (From de, and ascio, to chip, as with
a hatchet.)  A bone splintered on its side.
  DECAGY'NIA.   (From Stxa, ten, and  yvvn, a wo-
man.)  The name of an order ofthe class Decandria,
of the sexual system of plants.  See Plants.
  Dscamy'rox. (From Stxa, ten, and 'pvpov, an oint-
ment.)  Aa aromatic ointment, mentioned  by Oriba-
sius, containing ten ingredients.
  DECA'N DRIA.  (From Stxa, ten, and avnp, a man.)
      284
The name of a class, and also of an order of plants In
the sexual system.  See Plants.
  Decide'ntia.  (From decide, to fall down.)  Any
change prolonging acute diseases.
  DECI'DUA.  (Deciduus;  from  decido, to fall off.)
Membrana decidua.  A very thin and delicate mem-
brane or tunic, which adheres to the gravid uterus, and
is said  to be a reflection of the chorion, and, on that
account, is called decidua reflexa.  The tunica decidua
comes away after delivery, in small pieces, mixed with
the lochia.
  DECI'DUTJS.  (From deciio, to fall off, or down!
to die.)  Deciduous; falling off.  Applied to trees and
shrubs, which, in most European countries, lose their
leaves  as winter approaches, and to the perianthium
of Tilia europaa, which does not  fall off until after
the flower is expanded.
  This term is expressive of the second stage of dura-
tion, and, like caducous, has a different application
according  to the particular part  to which it refers:
thus leaves are deciduous which drop off in  the au-
tumn, petals which fall off with the stamina and pis-
tils ; and calyces are deciduous which fall off after the
the expansion, and before the dropping ofthe flower.
  DECIMA'NUS.  (From  decern, ten, and mane, the
morning.)  Returning  every tenth day, applied  to
some erratic fevers.
  DECLI'VIS.  (From de, and clivis, a hill.)  De
dining, descending.  A name of an abdominal muscle,
because of ils posture.
  DECOCTUM.   (From decoquo,  to boil.)  A decoc
tion.  Any medicine made by boiling in a watery fluid.
In a chemical point of view, it is a continued ebullition
with water, to separate such parts of bodies as are
only soluble at that degree of heat.  The following are
among the most approved decoctions.
  Decoctum album.  See Mistura cornu usti.
  Dicoctum aloes compositum.  Compound de
coction of aloes.  Take of extract of liquorice, half an
ounce; subcarbonateof potassa, two scruples; extract
of spiked aloe powdered, myrrh powdered, saffron stig-
mata, of each a drachm; water, a pint.  Boil down to
twelve  fluid ounces, and strain; then add  compound
tincture of cardamoms, four fluid ounces.  This decoc-
tion, now first introduced into the London Pharmaco-
poeia, is analogous to an article in very frequent use,
invented by the late Dr. Devalingin, and sold under tbe
name of Beaume de vie.  By the proportion of tincture
wbich is added, it will keep unchanged for any length
of time.
  Decoctum alth je je.  Decoction of marsh mallows.'
Take of dried marsh-mallow roots, $ iv; raisins of
the sun, stoned, 1 ij; water Ibvij.  Boil to five pounds;
place apart the strained liquor, till the faeces have sub-
sided, then pour off the clear part.  This preparation,
directed in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, may be ex-
hibited as a common drink in nephralgia, and many
diseases ofthe urinary passages, with advantage.
  Decoctum antuemidis.  See  Decoctum chama-
meli.
  Decoctum astraoali.  Take of the root of the
astragalus escapus, $ j; distilled water, lbiij. These are
to be boiled, till only a quart of fluid remain, lie
whole  is to be taken, a little warmed, in the course] of
24 hours.  This remedy was tried very extensively ia
Germany, and said to evince very powerful effects, as
an antisyphilitic.
  Decoctum bardanje.  Take of bardana root,Jvj:
of distilled water, Ibvj.  These are to be boUeitf till
only two quarts remain.  From a pint to a quart in a
day is  given, in those cases where sarsaparilla and
other remedies, that are called alterative, are supposed
to be requisite.
  Decoctum cbamjemeli.   Chamomile  decoction,
Take of chamomile flowers,  ?j; caraway seeds. 5 as;
water,  ftv.  Boil fifteen minutes, and strain.  A very
common and excellent vehicle for tonic powders, pills,
Sec. It is also in very frequent use for fomentation,
and clysters.
  Decoctum  cincuonje.   Decoction  of cinchona,
commonly called decoction of Peruvian bark.  Take
of lance-leaved cinchona bark bruised, an ounce; wa-
ter, a pint  Boil  for ten minutes, in a vessel •lightly
covered, and strain the decoction while hot.  Accord-
ing to the option ofthe practitioner, tbe bark of either
ofthe other species of cinchona, the cordi folia, or yel-
low, or the oblongifolia, or red, may be substituted foe 
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the lancifolia, or quilled; which is here' directed.
This way of administering the bark is very general, as
all the other preparations may be mixed with it, as ne-
cessity requires.  It is a very proper fomentation for
prolapsus ofthe uterus and rectum.
  Decoctum coknu.  See Mistura cornu usti.
  Decoctum cydonije.   Mucilago seminis  cydonii
malii.  Mucilago seminum cydoniorum.  Decoction
of quince seeds.  Take of quince seeds, two drachms;
water, a pint  Boil over a gentle fire for ten minutes,
then strain.  This decoction, in the new London Phar-
macopoeia, has been removed from among the muci-
lages, as being less dense than either ofthe others, and
as being employed in larger doses, like other  mucila-
ginous decoctions.   In addition to gum, it contains
other constituent parts of the seeds, and is, therefore,
more apt to spoil than common mucilage, over which
it possesses no other advantages, than that it  is more
grateful, and sufficiently thin, without further dilution,
to form the bulk of any liquid medicine.  Its virtues
are demulcent  Joined with syrup of mulberry and a
little borax, it is useful against  aphtha; of the mouth and
fauces.
  Decoctum daphnes  mezerei.  Decoction of me-
zereon.  Take of the bark of mezereon root,  §ij;
liquorice root, bruised, 5 ss; water, Ibiij.' Boil it, with
a gentle heat, down to two pounds, and strain it.
From four to eight ounces of this decoction  may be
given four times a day, in some obstinate venereal and
rheumatic affections.    It operates chiefly  by per-
spiration.
  Decoctum dulcamarje. Decoction of woody night-
shade.  Take of woody nightshade stalks, newly ga-
thered, Jj;  distilled  water,  Ibiss.  These are to be
boiled away to a pint, and strained.  The dose is half
an ounce to two ounces, mixed with an equal quantity
of milk.  This remedy is employed in inveterate cases
of scrofula;  in cancer and phagedena; in lepra, and
other cutaneous affections; and  in  anomalous local
diseases, originating in venereal lues.
  Decoctum geoffr.jeje inekmis.  Decoctionof cab-
bage-tree plant.  Take of bark of the  cabbage-tree,
powdered, 5j; water, tbij.  Boil it, with a gentle fire,
down to one pound, and strain.  This is a powerful
anthelmintic.  It may be given in doses of one table-
spoonful to children, and four to adults.  If disagreea-
ble symptoms should arise from an over-dose, or from
drinking cold water during its action, we must imme-
diately purge with castor oil, and dilute with acidu-
lated drinks.
  Decoctum  ouaiaci   officinalis   compositum.
Decoctum lignorum.  Compound decoction of guaia-
cum, commonly called decoction of the woods.  Take
of guaiacum raspings, 5 iij;  raisins, stoned, 1 ij; sas-
safras root, liquorice, each, §j; water, Ibx.   Boil the
guaiacum and raisins  with the water, over  a gentle
fire, to the consumption of one half; adding,  towards
the end, the sassafras and liquorice.  Strain the liquor
without expression.  This decoction possesses stimu-
lant  and diaphoretic qualities, and is generally exhibit-
ed in rheumatic and cutaneous diseases, which are de-
pendent on a vitiated state of the humours.   It  may
be taken  by itself, to the quantity  of a quarter of a
pint, twice or thrice a day, or used as an assistant in a
course of mercurial or antimonial alteratives;  the pa-
tient, in either case, keeping warm, in order to promote
the operation ofthe medicine.
  Decoctum hellebori albi.  .Decoction of white
hellebore.  Take of the  root of white hellebore, pow-
dered, by weight, |j; water, two pints; rectified spi-
rits  of wine, 5 ij, by measure. Boil the water, with
the root, to one pint; and the liquor being cold and
strained, add to it the spirit.  This decoction, in the
last London Pharmacopoeia, is called decoctum vera-
tri.  It is a very efficacious application, externally, as
a wash, in tinea capitis, lepra, psora, Sec.  When the
Bkin  is very tender  and irritable, it  should be diluted
with an equal quantity of water.
  Decoctum  hordei.   Decoctum hordei   distichi.
Aqua hordeola.  Take  of pearl  barley, Jij; water,
four  pints and a half.  First wash away any adhering
extraneous substances with cold water; next, having
poured upon the barley half a pint of water, boil for a
few  minutes.  Let this  water be thrown away, and
add the remainder of the water boiling; then boil
down to two pints, and strain.  Barley-water is a nu-
tritive and softening drink, and the most proper of all
liquors in inflammatory diseases.  It is an excellent
gargle in inflammatory sore throats, mixed with a little
nitre.
  Decoctum hordei compositum.   Decoctum pec-
torale. Compound decoction of barley.  Take or de-
coction of barley, two pints; figs, sliced, 1 ij; liquorice
root, sliced and bruised, J ss; raisins, stoned, ? ij; wa
ter, a pint.  Boil down to two pints and strain. From
the pectoral and demulcent qualities of this decoction,
it  may be administered as a common drink in fevers
and other acute disorders, in catarrh, and several affec-
tions of the chest
  Decoctum hordei  cum  oummi.   Barley-water,
tbij; gum arab., j;j.  The gum is to be dissolved in the
barley decoction, while warm.  It then forms a suita-
ble diluent  in strangury, dysury, &c. for the gum,
finding a  passage into the bladder, in an unaltered
state, mixes with the urine, and prevents the action of
its neutral salts on the urinary canal.
  Decoctum lichenis.  Decoction of Iceland moss or
liverwort.  Take of liverwort,  one ounce ;  water, a
pint and a half.  Boil down to a pint, and strain. The
dose is from Jj to 51 v.
  [The Iceland moss was once  in great repnte as a
remedy in consumption, the decoction being made
with milk, but it is no longer in repute, being consider
ed  a weak mucilagious  bitter  of little  or  no efli
cacy.  A.]
  Decoctum lobelije.  Take a handful of the roots
ofthe Lobelia syphilitica; distilled water, Ibxij. These
are to be boiled in the usual way, till only four quarts
remain.   The very desirable property of curing  the
venereal disease has been attributed to this medicine,
but it is not more to be depended on than guaiacum,
or other vegetable substances, of which the same thing
has been alleged.  The effects  of this decoction  are
purgative, and the manner of taking it, as described
by Swediaur, is as follows:—The patient is to begin
with half a pint, twice a day.   The same quantity is
then to be taken, four times a day, and continued so
long as  its purgative effect is not too considerable.
When the case is otherwise, it is to be discontinued for
three or four days, and then had recourse to again till
the cure is completed.  As this is a remedy on the old
system, and not admitted into our pharmacopoeias,
little confidence ought to be placed  in it.
  Decoctum lusitanicum.  Take of sliced sarsapa
rilla, lignum sassafras,lignum santalum rubrum, offi-
cinal lignum guaiacum, of each one ounce and a half;
of the root of mezereon, coriander seed, of each half an
ounce ; distilled water, ten pounds.  These arje to be
boiled till only half the fluid remains.   The dose is a
quart or more in a day.
   Take of sliced sarsaparilla,  lignum santalum ru-
brum, lignum santalum citrinum, of each, ? iss; ofthe
root of glycirrhiza and mezereon, of each, 3 ij; of lig-
num rhodii, officinal lignum  guaiacum, and lignum
sassafras, of each, |ss;  of antimony, Jj;  distilled
water, ibv.  These ingredients are to be macerated for
twenty-four hours, and afterward  boiled, till the fluid
is reduced to half its original quantity.  From one to
four pints are given daily.
  The late Mr. Hunter notices this, and also the fol-
lowing formula, in  his Treatise  on tbe Venereal Dis-
ease.
  Take of sliced sarsaparilla, ofthe root of China, of
each  |j; walnut peels dried,  xx;  antimony, I ij,
pumice-stone, powdered, 5 j; distilled water, Ibx.  The
powdered antimony and pumice-stone are to be tied
in separate pieces of rag. and boiled, along with the
other ingredients.  This last decoction is reckoned to
be  the genuine Lisbon diet drink, the qualities of
which have been the subject of so much encomium.
  Decoctum malvjb compositum.  Decoctum pre
enemate.   Decoctum commune  pro clysters.  Com-
pound decoction of mallows.   Take of mallows dried,
an ounce; chamomile flowers dried, half an ounce:
water, a pint.  Boil for  a quarter of an hour, and
strain.  A very excellent form for an emollient clyster.
A variety of medicines may be added  to answer par-
ticular indications.
  Decoctum mezerei.  See  Decoctum daphnes me-
zerd.
  Decoctum papaveris.   Decoctum  pro foments.
Fotus  communis.   Decoction of  poppy.  Take of
white poppy capsules bruised,  $ iv ; water, four pints
Boil for a quarter of au hour, and strain.  This  pre 
DEC
DEG
paration possesses sedative and antiseptic properties,
and may be directed with advantage in sphacelus, &c.
  Decoctum pro enemate.  See  Decoctum malva
compositum.
  Decoctum pro fomento. See Decoctumpopaveris.
  Decoctumquerccs. Decoctionof oak bark.  Take~
of oak bark, 5j; water, two pint«.  Boil down to  a
pint, and strain.  This astringent decoction has lately
been added  to the Lond. Pharm., and is chiefly used
for external purposes.   It is a good remedy in prolap-
sus ani, and may be used also in some cases as an in-
jection.
  Decoctum sarsaparillje.  Decoctionof sarsapa-
rilla.  Take of sarsaparilla root, sliced, 5 iv; boiling
water, four pints. Macerate for four hours, in a ves-
sel lightly covered, near the fire;  then take out the
sarsaparilla  and bruise it.  After it  is  bruised,  put it
again into the liquor,  and macerate it in a similar
manner for two hours more; then boil it down to two
pints, and strain.
  This decoction is much extolled by some practition-
ers, in phthisis, and to restore the strength after along
course of mercury.
  Decoctum sarsaparillje  compositum.    Com-
pound decoction of sarsaparilla.  Take of decoction
of sarsaparilla boiling, four  pints;  sassafras root
sliced, guaiacum wood shavings, liquorice root bruised,
of each an ounce; mezereon root  bark, 3 iij.   Boil
for a quarter of an hour, and strain.  The alterative
property ofthe compound is very great; it is generally
given after a course of mercury, where  there have
been nodes and indolent ulcerations, and with great
benefit. The dose is from half a  pint to a pint in
twenty-four hours.
  Decoctum seneq.e.  Decoction of  senega.  Take
of senega root,  5j; water, two pints.  Boil  down to
a pint, and strain.  This is now first introduced into
the Lond. Pharm. a- being a  useful medicine, espe-
cially in affections ofthe lungs, attended with debility
and inordinate secretion.
  Decoctum ulmi.  Decoction of elm bark.   Take
of fresh elm bark bruised, four ounces;  water, four
pints.  Boil down to two pints, and strain. This may
be employed with great advantage as a collyrium in
chronic ophthalmia.  It is given  internally in  some
cutaneous eruptions.
  Decoctum veratri.  See Decoctum hellebori albi.
  [The Pharmacopoeia of the United States contains
the following decoctions.
  Decoctum aralije  nudicaulis.   Decoction  of
ealse sarsaparilla.
  Decoctum cinchonje.   Decoction  of  Peruvian
bark.
  Decoctum colombje compositum.  Compound de-
coction, of Columbo.
  Decoctum dulcamarje.  Decoctionof bitter-sweet.
  Decoctum ouaiaci.  Decoction of guaiacum.
  Decoctum hordei.  Decoction of barley.
  Decoctum hordei compositum.   Compound de-
coctionof barley.
  Decoctum lichenis.  Decoction  of Iceland  moss.
  Decoctum mezerei.  Decoction  of mezereon.
  Decoctum sarsaparillje.  Decoctionof sarsapa-
rilla.
  Decoctum  sarsaparillje  compositum.   Com-
pound decoction of sarsaparilla.
  Decoctum scillje.   Decoctionof squill.
  Decoctum seneoje. Decoctionof senecasnake root.
  Decoctum veratri.  Decoction  of  white  helle-
bore.   AJ
  DECOLLA'TIO.  (From decello,  to  behead.)   The
loss of a part of the skull.
  Decompositje. The name of a class in Sauvage's
Methodus Foliorum, consisting of such as have twice
compounded leaves;  tbat is, have  a common foot-
stalk  supporting a number of lees leaves,  each of
which is compounded; as in Fumaria, and many un-
belliferous plants.
   DECOMPOSITION. Decompositio. The separa-
tion ofthe  component parts or  principles of bodies
from each other. The decomposition of bodies forms a
very large part of chemical science.  It seems proba-
ble, from the operations we are acquainted with, that
it seldom takes place but in consequence of some com-
binations or composition having been effected.  It
would be difficult to point out an instance of the sepa-
ration of any of the principles of bodies which has
       236
  been effected, unless in  consequence  of  some new
  combination.  The only exceptions seem to consist in
  those separations which are made by heat,  and voltaic
  electricity.
   DECOMPOSITUS.  A term applied to leaves, and
'  means doubly compound.   Sir James Smith observes,
  that Linnatus, in his Philosophia Botanica, gives an
  erroneous definition of this term which does not ogres
  with his own use of it. The JEgopodium podagraria
  and Fulmaria  claviculata, afford examples of ihe de-
  composite leaves.  Supra decompositum, means thrice
  compound, or more; as in Caucalis anthriscus.  The
  decomposite flowers are such as contain within a com-
  mon calyx a number of  less or partial flower-cups,
  each of which is composed of many florets.
   DECORTICATION. (Decorticatio; from de, from,
  and cortex, bark.)  The stripping of any thing of its
  bark, husk, or shell; thus almonds, and tile like, are
  decorticated, that is, deprived of their pellicle, when
  ordered for medicinal purposes.
   [There is a natural and  artificial decortication pet ,
  formed on certain trees. The shag-bark hickory-tree
  (juglans alba)  throws off its bark  by  a natural  and.
  spontaneous decortication.  So does tbe button-wood
  (platanus  occideutalis) or plane-tree.   The cork-tree
  is deprived of its bark artificially every few years, and
  lives longer than those trees which are suffered to grow
  without molestation.  Those not decorticated become
  shaggy and hide-bound, while the others form a new
  bark and improve in appearance and vigour.  These
  facts suggested the idea of improving fruit-trees that
  had become hide-bound and shaggy, and appeared to
  be In a state of decay.  Dr. MitchiU first tried the ex-
  periment on an old apple-tree, and by removing  the
  old  bark, in  the warm season, from the body of  the
  tree, and protecting it from external injury  for a time,
  he succeeded in producing a new bark and in regene-
  rating a tree which was considered as past bearing.
  The tree became vigorous, again put forth blossoms
  and bore fruit.   Since that experiment, it has become
 common in apple orchards to improve old trees by a
 similar process.   A.]
   DECREPITATION.  (Decrepitatio ; from decrepo,
 to crackle.)  A kind of crackling noise, which takes
 place in some bodies, when heated:  it  is peculiar to
 some kinds of  salts, as muriate of soda, sulphate of
 barytes, Sec.
   DECUMBENS.  (From decumbo, to He down.)
 Drooping:  a term applied to flowers which  incline to
 one side and downwards.
   DECURRENS.  Decurrent.   A term applied by
 botanists to leaves which run down the stem or leafy
 border  or  wing; as in Onopordium acanthium, and
 many thistles, great mullein, and comfrey: arid to leaf-
 stalks ; as in Pisum ochrus.
   DECURSrVE\  Decurrently.  Applied  to leaflets
 that run down the stem; us in Eryngium campestre.  '
   DECUSSATION.  (Decussatio;  from deculio, to
 divide.) When nerves, or muscular fibres cross ope'.-
  another, they are said to decussate each other.       :<
   DECUSSATUS. Decussated.  Applied to  leaves' "
  and spines wbich are in pairs, alternately crossing each
 other;  as  in Veronica decussata, and  Genista luci
  tanica.
   DECUSSO'RIUM.    (From  deeusso, to divide.)
  An  instrument to 'depress the dura mater, after  tie
  panning.
   Defensi'va.  (From defendo, to preserve.)  Cordial
  medicines, or such as resist infection.
   DE'FERENS.  (From defero, to convey; because
  it conveys the semen to the vesiculse seminales.)   See
  Vus deferens.
   DEFLAGRATION.   (Deflagratio; From  defia-
  gro, to burn.)  A chemical term, chiefly employed to
  express the burning or setting fire to any substance; as
  nitre, sulphur, See                '
   DEFLUXION.  (Defluxio; from defluo, to run off)
  A falling down of humours from a superior to an In-
  ferior part  Many writers mean nothing  more by it
  than inflammation.
   DEFOL1ATIO.  (From de, anifolium, a leaf.) The
  fall ofthe leaf.   A term opposed to frondeecenlia, or
  tlie renovation of the leaf.
   DEGLUTITION.   (Deglutitio; from dcglvtio, to
  swallow down.)  A  natural action.   " It Is  under-
  stood to be  the passage of a substance, either mild,
  liquid, or  gaseous, from the mouth to the stomach 
DEG
DEG
Though deglutition is very simple in appearance, it is
nevertheless the most complicated of all the muscular
actions that serve for digestion.  Il is produced by tbe
contraction of a great number of muscles, and requires
the concurrence of many important organs.
  All the muscles of the tongue, those of the velum of
the palate, ofthe pharynx, ofthe larynx, and the mus-
cular layer of the  (esophagus, are employed in deglu-
tition.
  The velum is a sort of valve attached to the poste-
rior edge of the roof of the palate; its form is nearly
quadrilateral;  its free or inferior edge is pointed, and
forms the uvula.  Like the other valves of the intes-
tinal  canal, the velum  is essentially formed by a du-
plicative  of the digestive  mucous membrane; there
are many mucous follicles that enter into its composi-
tion,  particularly in the uvula.  Eight muscles move
it; it is raised by the two internal pterygoid: the ex-
ternal pterygoid hold it transversely ;  the two palato-
pharyngei, and the two constridores  isthmi faucium
carry it downwards.  These four are seen at the bot-
tom of the tbroal, where they raise the mucous mem-
brane, and form the pillars os  ofthe velum of the pa-
late, between wbich are situated the amygdala, a mass
of mucous follicles.  The opening between the  base
of the tongue below, the velum of the palate above,
and the pillars  laterally, is called the  isthmus of the
throat.  By means of its muscular apparatus, the ve-
lum of the palate may have many changes of posi-
tion.   In the most common state it is placed vertically,
one of its faces is anterior,  the other posterior; in cer-
 tain cases it becomes horizontal: it has then  a supe-
rior and inferior aspect, and its free edge corresponds
to  the  concavity  of tlie pharynx.   This last  posi-
tion is determined by the contraction of the elevating
muscles.
  'Thepharynx is a vestibule into which open the nos-
trils, the Eustachian tubes,  the mouth, the  larynx, and
the oesophagus, and which performs  very important
Auctions in the production of voice, in respiration,
hewing, and digestion.
  The pharynx extends from top to bottom, from the
basilar process of the occipital bone, to  which  it
is| Mtacaed, to  the level of the middle  part of the
neck.
  Its transverse dimensions  are determined by the os
byoides,  the larynx, and the  pterygo-maxillary  apo-
neurosis, to which  it is fixed.  The mucous membrane
which covers it interiorly is remarkable for the deve-
lopement of its veins, which form a  very apparent
plexus.  Round this membrane is the muscular layer,
the circular fibres of which form the three constrictor
muscles  of the pharynx, the longitudinal fibres of
ivhich are represented by the stylo-pharyngeus and
constridores isthmi faucium.  The  contractions of
these different muscles are not generally subject to the
will.
  The esophagus is the immediate continuation of the
pharynx, and is prolonged as far as the stomach, where
it terminates.   Its form is cylindrical;  it is united to
the surrounding parts by a slack and extending cellu-
lar tissue, which gives way to its dilatation and its
motions.  To penetrate into the abdomen the oesopha-
gus passes between the pillars of the diaphragm, with
which it is closely united.  The mucous membrane of
tbe oasopbagus  is white, thin, and smooth; it forms
longitudinal folds very proper for favouring the dilata-
tion of the canal.   Above it is confounded with  tbat
of the pharynx.
  There are found in it a great number of mucous fol-
licles, and at its surface there are perceived the orifices
of many excretive canals of the mucous glands.
  The muscular layer of the  oesophagus is thick, its
tissue is denser than that of the pharynx; the longitu-
dinal  fibres are  the most external and the least nume-
rous;  the circular are placed in the interior and are
very numerous.
  Round the pectoral and inferior portion of the oeso-
phagus, the two nerves of the eighth pair form a plexus
which embraces the canal, and sends many filaments
into it
  The contraction of the oesophagus takes place with-
out the participation of the will.
  Mechanism of Deglutition.  Deglutition is divided
into three periods.  In the first, the food passes from
the mouth to the pharynx; iu the second, it passes the
opening of tbe  glottis,  that  of tlie nasal canals, and
arrives  at the oesophagus; in the the third it posses
through this tube and enters the stomach.
   Let us suppose the most common  case,  that in
which we swallow at several times the food which is
in the mouth, and according as  mastication takes
place.
   As soon as a certain quantity of food is sufficiently
chewed, it is placed, by the effects of the motions of
mastication, in  part upon the superior face of the
tongue,  without the necessity, as  some think, of its
being collected by the point of the tongue from the dif-
ferent parts of the mouth.  Mastication  then stops;
the  tongue is raised and  applied  to the  roof of the
palate, in succession, from the point towards the  base.
The portion  of  food,  or the alimentary bolus placed
upon its superior surface, having no other way to es-
cape from the force that presses, is directed towards
the pharynx; it  soon  meets the  velum of the palate
applied to the base of the tongue and raises it; the
velum becomes  horizontal, so as to make a continua-
tion of the palate. The  tongue, continuing  to press
the  food, would carry it towards the nasal canals, if
the  velum did not prevent this by the tension that it
receives from the external peristaphyline muscles, and
particularly by the contraction  of its  pillars; it thus
becomes capable of resisting the action of the tongue,
and of contributing to the direction of the food  to-
wards the pharynx.
   The muscles which determine more particularly the
application of the tongue to the top of the palate, and
to the velum of the palate, are the proper muscles of
the organ, aided by the mylo-hyoideus.  Here the first
time of deglutition terminates.  Its motions are volun-
tary, except those of the  velum of the palate.  The
phenomena happen slowly  and in succession; they
are few and easily noticed.
   The second period is not the same; in it the pheno
mena are simultaneous, multiplied, and are produced
with such promptitude,  that  Boerhaave considered
them as a sort of convulsion.
   The space that the alimentary bolus passes  througb
in this  time is very short, for it passes only from the
middle to the inferior part of the pharynx; but it was
necessary to avoid the opening of the glottis and that
of tlie nasal canals, where its presence would  be inju-
rious.   Besides, its passage ought to be sufficiently
rapid, in order  that the communication between the
larynx and the  external air may not be  interrupted,
except for an instant.
   Let us see how nature has arrived at this important
result.  The  alimentary bole no sooner touches the
pharynx than every thing is  in motion.  First, tbe
pharynx contracts, embraces and retains tbe bole; the
velum of the palate, drawn down by its pillars, acts in
the same way.   On the other hand, and in the same
instant, the base of the tongue, the os hyoides, the
larynx,  are raised and carried  forward to  meet tbe
bole, in  order to  render its passage more rapid over tbe
opening  of the glottis.  While the os hyoides, and the
larynx are raised, they approach each  other, that is,
the superior edge of Ihe thyroid cartilage engages it-
self behind the body of the os hyoides:  the epiglottic
gland is pushed back; the epiglottis descends,  inclines
downwards and backwards, so as to cover  the en-
trance of the larynx.  The cricoid cartilage makes a
motion of rotation upon the inferior horns of the thy-
roid, whence it results tbat the entrance of tbe larynx
becomes oblique downwards and backwards.  The
bole slides along its surface, and  being always  pressed
by the contraction of the pharynx and of the velum of
the palate, it arrives at the oesophagus.
  It is not long  since the  position that the epiglottis
takes in this place was considered as the only obstacle
opposed to the entrance of the food into the larynx, at
the  instant of  deglutition;  but Dr. Magendie  has
shown,  by a series of experiments, that  this cause
ought to be considered as only accessary.  In fact, the
epiglottis may be entirely taken away from an  animal
without deglutition suffering any injury from it. What
is  the reason, then, that no  part of the food  is intro-
duced into the larynx the  instant that we swallow 1
The reason is this.  In tbe instant that the larynx is
raised and engaged behind the os hyoides, the glottis
shuts with the greatest closeness.   This motion is pro-
duced by the same muscles that press the glottis in the
production of the voice; so that if an animal has tlie
reeurreute and nerver of the larynx divided, while the 
DET                                            DEL
epiglottis is untouched, its deglutition is rendered very
difficult, because the principal cause is removed which
opposes the introduction of food into the glottis.
  Immediately after the alimentary  bole  has passed
the glottis, the larynx descends, the epiglottis is raised,
and the glottis is opened to give passage to  the air.
  After what has been said, it is easy to conceive why
tbe food reaches the oesophagus without entering any
of the openings which end in the pharynx.  The velum
of the palate, which, in contracting, embraces the pha-
rynx, protects the posterior nostrils, and the orifices of
the Eustachian tubes; the epiglottis, and particularly
the motion by which  the glottis shuts, preserves the
larynx.
  Thus, the second period of  deglutition  is accom-
plished; by the effects of which the alimentary bole
passes the pharynx, and is engaged in the superior part
erf the oesophagus.  All the phenomena-which concur
ia it take place simultaneously, and with great prompti-
tude: they are not  subject  to the will; they are  then
different in many respects from the  phenomena that
belong to the first period.
  The third  period of deglutition is that  wbich has
been studied with the least  care, probably on  account
of the situation of the oesophagus, which is difficult to
be observed except in its cervical portion.
  The phenomena which are connected with it are not
complicated.  The pharynx, by its contraction, presses
the alimentary bole into the oesophagus with sufficient
force to give a suitable dilatation to the superior part
of this organ.  Excited by the presence of the bolus.
its superior circular fibres very soon contract, and
press the food towards  the stomach, thereby producing
the distension of  those more inferior.  These contract
in their turn, and the same thing continues in succes
sion until tlie bolus arrives at the stomach.  In  the
upper two-thirds of the oesophagus, the relaxation of
the circular fibres follows immediately the  contraction
by which (they displaced the  alimentary bolus.   It is
not the same with the inferior  third; this remains some
moments contracted after the  introduction of food into
the stomach.
  AH the  extent of the mucous surface that the ali-
mentary bolus passes in the three periods of degluti-
tion is lubricated by an abundant mucoeity.  In the
way that the  bolus passes, it presses more or less the
follicles  that it meets in its passage, it empties them of
tbe fluid that they contain, and slides more easily upon
the mucous  membrane. We remark that in  those
places where the bolus passes  more rapidly, and is
pressed with greater force, tbe organs for secreting mu-
cus are  much more abundant  For example, in the
narrow space where the second period of deglutition
takes place, there are  found  the tonsils, the fungous
parjiltSse of the base of the  tongue, the follicles of the
velum of the  palate, and the uvula, those of the epi-
glottis, and the arytenoid  glands.  In this case the
saliva and the mucosity fulfil uses analogous to those
of the synovia.
  The mechanism by wbich we swallow the succeed-
ing mouthfuls of food does  not differ from  that which
we have explained.
  Nothing is more easy than the performance of deglu-
tition, and, nevertheless, all the acts of which it is
composed are beyond the influence of the  will and of
instinct  We cannot make an empty motion of deglu-
tition.  If the substance contained in tbe mouth is not
sufficiently chewed, if it has not the form, the consist-
ence,  and  the dimensions of the alimentary bolus, if
the motions of mastication which immediately pre-
cede deglutition  have  not  been made, we will fre-
quently  find it impossible  to swallow it, whatever
efforts we make.  How many people do we not find
who cannot swallow a pill, or medicinal  bolus, and
who are obliged to fall upon other methods to intro-
duce it into the oesophagus i—Magendie.
  DE'GMUS.  (From jarvu,  to bite.)  A biting pain
in the orifice of the stomach.
  DEHISCENTIA.  (From  dehisco, to gape wide.)
A spKting, or  bursting open.  Applied to capsules,
anthers, Sec. of plants.
  DETDLER,  Anthony, was son of  a  surgeon of
MontpeUer. Having graduated in medicine in  19)1, he
was six years after made professor of chemistry.  In
1732, being appointed physician to the galleys,  he went
to Marseilles, where he died  in 17+6.  He published,
among many other work* on different branches of me-
      286
 dicine, "Experiments on the Bile, and the Bodies of
 those who died of the Plague," which occurred while
 he was at  Marseilles.  He states that he tried mercu-
 rial  inunctions, but tbey had no effect on the disease.
 There are three  volumes of consultations and obser-
 vations by him deserving of perusal.  The rest of bis
 works are scarcely now referred to.
   Deino'sis.  (From  Stivoia, to exaggerate.)   An en-
 largement of the eupercilia.
   DEJE'CTIO.   A discharge of any excrementitioiM
 matter; generally applied  to the faeces: hence atjectio
 alvina.
   DEJECTO'RIA.  (From dejicio, to cast out.)
 Purging medicines.
   Delachrymati'va.  (From de, and lachryma, a
 tear.)   Medicines which  dry the  eyes, first purging
 them of tears.
   DELA'PSIO.   (From dtlabor, to  slip down.)   A
 falling down of any part, as the aims, uterus, or intes-
 tines.
   DELETERIOUS.   (Deleterius;  from  SnXtm, to
 hurt or injure.)   Of  a poisonous nature; as  opium,
 hemlock, henbane, ace.
   [Deliquesce.   To  deliquesce   is that  action by
 which certain bodies become liquid by absorbing mois-
 ture from tbe atmosphere.   Potash for instance by ex-
 posure to the air will absorb so much water as to
 change  from a solid to a fluid state.  This is common
 to many saline bodies. A.]
   DELIQUESCENCE.   Deliquation,  or  the spon-
 taneous assumption of the fluid state of certain saline
 bodies, when left exposed to the air, in consequence
 of their attracting water from it.
   DELI'UUIUM.   (Deliquium;  from delinquo, to
 leave.)  A fainting.  See Syncope.
   DELI'RIUM.   (From  deliro, to rave.)  A febrile
 symptom, consisting in the person's acting or  talking
 unreasonably. It is to be carefully distinguished from
 an alienation of the mind, without fever.
   DELIVERY.   See  Parturition.
   Deloca'tio.  (From de, from, and locus, a place.)
 A dislocation.
   DELPHIA. See Delphinia.
   DELPHINE.  See Delphinia.
   DELPHINIA.  Delphia.  Delphine.  Ancwvete-
 table alkali, recently discovered  by Lasseigne  and
 Feneulle, in Stavesacre.  See Delphinium staphyna-
 gria.
   DELPHINIC ACID  Acidum delphimcum.   The
 name of an acid, extracted from the oil of the dolphin.
 It resembles a volatile oil; has a light lemon  colour,
 and a strong aromatic odour, analogous to that of ran-
 cid butter.  Its taste is pungent, and  its vapour has a
 sweetened taste of aether,  ft is slightly soluble in wa-
 ter, and very soluble in alkohol.   The latter solution
 strongly reddens litmus.  100 parts of delphinic acid
 neutralize a  quantity of base, which contains 9 of
 oxygen, whence  its prime equivalent appears to be
 11.11.
  DELPHtNITE.  See Epidote.
  DELPHI'NIUM   (From SeXtivos,  the dolphin.)
 Larkspur;  so called from the likeness of its flower to
 the dolphin's head.  The name of a genus of plants I n
 the Linnaean system.  Class, Poly anuria; Order, Tn.
gynia.
  [ "Delphinium or  Larkspur.   The botanical al-
 liance of the larkspur of  our gardens  with  aconite
 and some other poisonous plants, would justify, a pri-
 ori, a belief, that it possesses active properties.  Tbu
 is found on experiment to be the  case.  A tinctura
 formed by infusing  an ounce of tbe bruised seeds in
 a pound of spirit has been found an antispasmodic in
 asthma, and an active diuretic in dropsy. The dose is
 from ten to twenty drops.  Larger doses are liable to
 nauseate, and would, not improbably, produce narco-
 tic symptoms."—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
  Delphinium consolida.  The systematic name of
 the Consolida regalis.   Calcatrippa.  Delphinium—
 nectariis monophyllis, caule subdiviso, of Linnaeus.
 Many virtues have been attributed to this plant.  The
 flowers are bitter, and a water distilled  from them is
 recommended in ophthalmia.  The herb has been ad
 ministered in calculous cases, obstructed menses, and
 visceral diseases.
  Delphinium staphisaoria.  The systematic name
 of stavesacre. Staphisagria; Staphis; Pedicular ia;
 Delphinium—■nectariis Ulraphsjllis petals breoiuribus, 
DEL
DEN
feliia palmaris, Mis obtusis, of Linnaeus.  The seeds,
which are the only parts directed for medicinal use,
are usually imported here from Italy; ibey are large,
rougn, of an irregular triangular figure, and of a black-
ish colour on the outside, but yellowish within; their
smell is disagreeable, and somewhat foetid; to the taste
they are very bitter, acrid, and nauseous.  It was for-
merly employed as a  masticatory,  but  is  now con-
fined  to external use, in some kinds of cutaneous erup-
tions, but more especially for destroying lice and other
insects: hence, by the vulgar, it is called louse-wort
  A new vegetable alkali has lately been discovered
in this plant by Lasseigne andFeneulle.   It  is thus
obtained:
  The seeds, deprived of their husks, and ground, are
to be  boiled in a small quantity of distilled water, and
then pressed in a cloth.  The decoction is to be filter-
ed, and boiled for a few minutes  with pure magnesia.
(t must then be-refiltered, and the residuum left on the
filter is to be well washed, and then boiled with highly
rectified alkohol, which dissolves out the alkali.  By
evaporation, a white pulverulent  substance, presenting
a lew crystalline points, is obtained.
  It may also be procured by the action of dilute sul-
•huric acid, on the bruised but unshelled seeds. The
lolution of sulphate thus formed, is precipitated by
subcarbonate of potassa.   Alkohol separates from
this precipitate the vegetable alkali in an impure state.
  Pure delphinia obtained by the first process, is crys-
talline while wet, but becomes opake ou exposure  to
air.   Its taste  is bitter and acrid.  Wben heated it
melts; and on  cooling becomes  hard and brittle like
resin.  If more higbly heated, it blackens and is de-
composed.  Water dissolves a very small  portion  of
it.  Alkohol and aether dissolve it very readily. The
alkohoiic solution renders syrup  of violets green, and
restores the blue tint of litmus reddened  by an acid.
It forms soluble neutral salts with acids.   Alkalies
precipitate the delphinia in a white gelatinous state,
like alumina.
  Sulphate of delphinia evaporates in the air, does not
crystallize, but becomes a transparent mass like gum.
It dissolves in alkohol and water, and its solution has
a bitter acrid  taste.   In the voltaic circuit it is de-
composed, giving up its alkali at the negative pole.
  Nitiate of delphinia, when evaporated  to dryness, is
a yellow crystalline mass.  If treated with excess of
nitric acid, it becomes converted  into a yellow matter,
little soluble in water, but soluble in boiling alkohol,
This solution ia bitter, is not precipitated by potassa,
ammonia, or lime-water,  and appears to  contain no
nitric acid, though itself is not alkaline.  It is not de-
stroyed by further quantities of acid, nor does it form
oxalic acid.   Strychnia and morphia take a red colour
from nitric acid, but delphinia never does.   The muri-
ate is very soluble in water.
  The acetate  of delphinia  does not crystallize, but
forms a hard transparent mass, bitter and  acrid, and
readily decomposed by cold sulphuric acid.  The oxa-
late forms small white plates, resembling in taste the
preceding/salts.
  Delphinia, calcined with oxide of copper, gave no
other gas than carbonic acid.  It  exists in tbe seeds of
the stavesacre, in  combination with malic acid, and
associated with the following principles:  1. A brown
bitter  principle, precipitable by  acetate of lead.   2.
Volatile oil.   3. Fixed oil.  4. Albumen.  5. Animal-
ized matter.   6. Mucus.  7. Saccharine mucus.   8.
Vellow bitter principle, not precipitable by acetate of
ead.   9. Mineral salts.—Annates da Chimie et de Phy-
sique, vol. xii. p. 358.
  DE'LPHYS.  AeXtbvs-  The  uterus, or pudendum
midlebre.
  DE'LTA.   (The Greek letter, A->  The external
pudendum muliebre is so called, from the triangular
shape of its hair.
  DELTOI'DES.   (From StXra, the Greek letter A,
and tiSos, a likeness; shaped like the Greek delta.)   1.
A muscle  of the superior extremity, situated on the
shoulder.  Sous-aeromio-elavi-humeralof Dumas.   It
arises exactly opposite to tlie trapezius, from one-third
part of the clavicle, from the acromion and spine of
the scapula, and is inserted, tendinous, into the middle
of the os humeri, which bone it lifts up directly; and
it assists with the  supraspinatus  and coracobrachial^
n all the actions of the humerus, except tbe depres-
sion;  it being  convenient that  the  arm  should  be
raised and sustained, in order to its moving on any
side.
  2. A leaf is so called, folium delloides, which  is
trowel shaped, or like the letter delta, having three an-
gles, of which the terminal one is much further from
the base than the lateral ones;  as in Chenopodium bo-   *
nus-henricus.
  DEME'NTIA. (From de, and mens, without mind.)
Absence of intellect;  madness; fatuity.
  DEMERSUS.  A leaf which is naturally under wa-
ter, and different from those above, is so called;  folia
immersa, and submersa, are the same as demersa.  See
Nutans.
  DEMULCENT.   (Demulcens;  from demulceo, to
soften.)  Medicines suited to obviate and prevent the
action of acrid and stimulant matters; and that not by
correcting or changing their acrimony, but by involving
it in a mild and  viscid matter, which prevents it from
acting upon the sensible parts of our bodies, or by cover-
ing tbe surface exposed to their action.
  Where these substances are directly applied to the
parts affected, it is easy to perceive how benefit  may
be  derived from their application.  But where  they
are received by the medium of the stomach, into tlie
circulating system, it has been supposed that they can be
of no utility, as they must lose that viscidity on whicb
their lubricating quality depends.  Hence it has been
concluded that they can be of no service in gonorrhoea,
and some similar affections.  It is certain, however,
says J. Murray, in  his Elements of  Materia Medica
and Pharmacy, that many substances which undergo
the  process of  digestion are afterward separated, in
their entire state, from the blood, by particular secret-
ing organs, especially by tbe kidneys; and it is possi-
ble, that mucilaginous substances, which are the prin-
cipal demulcents, may be separated  in this manner.
There can be no doubt, however, but that a great share
of the relief demulcents afford, in irritation or inflam-
mation of  the urinary passages, is owing to the large
quantities  of water  in which they  are diffused, by
which the  urine is rendered less stimulating from dilu-
tion.  In general, demulcents may be considered*merely
as  substances less stimulating than the fluids usually
applied.
  Catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery, calculus, and gonor-
rhoea, are the diseases in which demulcents are em-
ployed.  As they are medicines of no great power,
they may be token in as large quantities as the stomach
can bear.                                  ,
  The particular demulcents may be reduced to the
two divisions of mucilages and expressed oils.   The
principal demulcents are, the acacia vera, astragalus,
tragacanthe, linum usitatissimum, althaea officinalis,
malva, sylvestris, glycyrrhiza glabra, cycas circinalis,
orchis mascula, maranta arundtnacea, triticum hyber-
num, ichthyocolla, olea Europaea, amygdalus commu-
nis, cetaceum, and cera.
  [Dendritic  (From StvSpov, a tree.)  A  term used
in  mineralogy  to designate those  appearances fre-
quently found in minerals resembling trees or clusters
of trees.  A.l
  DENDROLI'BANUS.   (From StvSpov, a tree, and
oXiSavos, frankincense.)  Frankincense-tree. See Ros
marinus officinalis.
  DENS.   (Dens, tis. m.; quasi edens; from edo, to
eat, or from oSovs, oSovJos-)
  1. A tooth.  See Teeth.
  2. Many herbs have this specific name, from  their
fancied resemblance  to  the tooth of some animal,
as  Dens  leonis, the  dandelion;  Dens canis,  dog's
tooth, Sec
  Dens caninus.  See Teeth.
  Dens cuspidatus.   See Teeth.
  Dens incisor. See Teeth.
  Dens lacteus.  See Teeth, and Dentition.
  Dens leonis.  See Leontodon Taraxacum.
  Dens molaris. See Teeth.
  DENTA'GRA.  (Dentagra, oSovraypa; fronjjooovs,
a tooth, and aypa, a seizure.)  1. The toothache.
  2. An instrument for drawing the teeth.
  DENTA'RIA.  (Dentaria; from den*, a tooth: so
called because its root is denticulated.)   See Plumbago
europaa.
  DENTARPA'GA.   (From  oSovs, * tooth,   and
apiroijw, to fasten upon.)  An instrument for drawing
of teeth.
  Dintata.  Bee Dentatu*.
                                        839 
DEP                                             DES
  DENTA'TUS.  (Fromdens, a tooth;  from its tooth-
Jke process.)   1. The second vertebra of the neck.
DeMata;  Epistropheus.   It differs from the other
cervical vetebne, by having a tooth-like process at the
upper part of the bbdy.  See  Vertebra.
  2. Toothed: applied to roots; leaves, petals, Sec. which
are beset with  projecting, horizontal,  rather distant
teeth of its own substance; as in the leaf of Atriplex
lacinata, and the perianttlium of Marrubium vulgare,
and Ereca dcnticulata, and  the petals of the  Silene
lucitanica.   The Ophris corallorhiza has  a toothed

  Dentella'ria. (From dentella,  a little tooth; so
called because its root is denticulated.)    The herb
tooth-wort.  See Plumbago europaa.
  DENTIDU'CUM.  (From  dens, a tooth, and duco,
to draw.)  An instrument for drawing of teeth.
  DENTIFRICE.  (Dcntifricus; from dens, a tooth,
and fr<"o, to rub.)  A medicine to clean the teeth.
  DENTISCA'LPIUM.   (From dens,  a tooth, and
scalpo. to scrape.)  An instrument for  scaling teeth.
  DCNTITION.  (Denlitio; from dcniio, to breed
teeth.)  Odontiasis;  Odontophica.  The breeding or
cutting of the teeth.  The first dentition begins about
the sixth or  seventh month, and tlie teeth are termed
the primary or milk teeth.  About the  seventh year,
these  fall out, and tire succeeded by others, which re-
main  during life, and are called the secondary or pe-
rennial teeth.  The last dentition takes place between
the ages of twenty and five-and-twenty, when the four
last grinders appear; they are called dentes sapientia.
See also Teeth.
  De.ntodu'cum. See Dentiducum.
  Denudatje pi.antje.  The  name of an order of Lin-
nreus's Fragments of a Natural Method, embracing
those planis, ihe flowers of which are naked, or with-
out a flower-cup.
  DENUDA'TIO.  (From denudo, to make  bare.)
The layiug  bare any  part; usually  applied to  a
Done.
  DENUDATUS.  (From denudo, to  strip naked.)
Dcnndi:; naked.
  DEOBSTRUENT.  (Deobstruens;  from de, and
obstruo, to obstruct.)  A medicine that  is exhibited
with a view of removing any obstruction.
  DEOPPILA'NTIA.  (From de, and oppilo, to stop.)
Deoppilaliva.   Medicines which remove obstructions.
  Departi'tio.   (From de,  and partior, to divide.)
Separating metals.
  Depkrdi'tio.  (From deperdo, to lose.)  Abortion,
or the undue loss of the foetus.
  Depeti'oo.  (From de, and pctigo, a running scab.)
A ringworm, tetter, scurf, or itch, where the  skin  is
rough.
  DEPHLEGMA'TION.   (Dephlegmatio; from de,
and phlegma, phlegm.)  The operation of rectifying
or freeing  spirits from their watery parts, or any me-
thod by which bodies are deprived of their water.
  DEPHLOGISTICATED.  A term of the old che-
mistry, implying deprived of  phlogiston or the inflam-
mable principle.
  Dephlogisticatcd air.  See Oxygen gas.
  Dephlogisticated muriatic acid.  See Chlorine.
  DEPILATORY.  (Depilatorius;  from de, of, and
pilus, the hair.)  Any application which removes tbe
hairs  from any part of the body; thus,  a pitch cap
pulls the hairs ofthe head out by the roots.
  [A depilatory ointment is sometimes used to remove
hairs from inconvenient  places.  The  French call it
Pate depilatoire, a depilatory paste.  It is made with
quick lime, lapis calaminaris, and arsenic,  intimately
united and  made into a thm paste with a little water,
and a thin coat spread upon the surface.  The hairs
are removed by the action of tlie arsenic as a caustic,
but  its action  is modified  by  the  other ingredi-
ents.   A.]
  Deplu'matio.  (From de, and p'itma,'a featherA  A
dis< « < >f lite eyelids, which  causes the hair to fall off.
  l)\  i'UEHE'NSIO.  (From deprehendo, tocateh un-
awares.)  The epilepsy is so called, from the sudden-
ness with which persons are seized with it
   DEPRESSION.  (Urpressio;  from  deprimo,  to
press down.)  When the bines ofthe skull are forced
inwards by fracture, they are said to be depressed.
  DEPRESSOR.  (From deprimo, to press down.)
A muscle is so termed, wbich depresses the part on
which it acts.
      900
   Depressor alje nasi.  See Depressor labii wpt-
 rioris alrcque nasi.
   Depressor anouli oris.  A muscle of the mouth
 and lip; situated below the under lip.  Triangiilatis,
 of Winslow.   Depressor labiorumcommums,o( Doil|-
 las.  Depressor lubiorum, of Cowper. Sous-maxiUe-
 labial of Dumas.  It arises broad and fleshy, from the
 lower edge of the lower jaw, near tbe chin; and is in-
 serted into  the  angle of the month, which it pulls
 downwards.
   Depressor labii inferioris.   A  muscle of the
 mouth and lip.  Quadratus, of Winslow.  Depressor
 labii inferioris  proprius, of Douglas and Cowper.
 Mentonier labial, of Dumas.   It pulls the under lip
 and skin of the side of the chin downwards, and a
 little outwards.
   Depressor labii  superioris aljeque  nasi.  A
 muscle of the mouth and lip.  Depressor ala nasi, of
 Albinus.  Incisivus medius, of Winslow.   Depressor
 labii superioris proprius, of Douglas.  Constridores
 alarum nasi, he depreasores labii superiores,oi Cow-
 per.  Maxilla-alveoli nasal, of Dumas. It is situated
 above the mouth, draws the upper lip and ala nasi
 downwards and backwards.  It arises, thin and fleshy,
 from the superior maxillary bone, immediately above
 the joining of the gums, with the two incisor teeth and
 cuspidatus; from thence il  runs upwards, and  is in-
 serted into the upper lip and root of the ala of. tlie
 nose.    v
   Dfpressor labii superioris  proprius. SeeDa-
 pressor labii superioris aleque nasi.
   Depressor labiorum communis.   See Depressor
 anguli oris.
   Depressor oculi.   See Rectus inferior oculi.
   DEPRE3SUS.  Depressed; flattened vertically, as
 the  leaves of the Mcsembryanlhemum linguiforme*
 Folia depressa is applied also to radical leaves which*
 are pressed close to the ground, as is seen in Plantago
 media;  but when  applied to  stem leaves, it regards
 their shape only, as being vertically flattened  in op-
 position to compressa.
   DE'PRIMENS.  See Rectus inferior oculi.
   DEPURA'NTIA.   (Depurans;  from  depuro,  to
 make clean.)  Medicines which evacuate impurities.
   DEPURA'TION. Depuratio.  The freeing a liquot
 or solid from its foulness.
   DEPURATO'RIUS.  (From de, and pums, pure.)
 Depuritory:  applied  to fevers, which terminate  iu
 perspiration.
   DERBYSHIRE SPAR.  A mineral formed of cal-
 careous earth with fluoric acid.
   DE RIS  (Atpij;   from Septa, to excoriate.)  The
 Bkin.
   DERIVATION.  (Derivatio; from dcrivo, to drain
 off.)  The doctrines of derivation and revulsion talked
 of by the ancients, are now, in their sense of the terms,
 wholly  exploded.   Derivation  means the drawing
 away any disease from its original  seat to another
 part.
   DERMA.   Atpucu   The skin.  See Skin.
   DERMATOMES.  (From Stppa, skin, and ciioc, a
 likeness.)  Resembling skin, or leather; applied to the
 dura mater.
   DERMATOLO'GIA.  (From Stpua, the skin, and
 Xoyoj, a discourse.)   A discourse  or  treatise  on tbe
 skin.
   De'rtron.  (From  Septs, skin.)  The omentum,
 and peritonaeum, are  so named, from their skin-like
 consistence.
   DESAULT, Peter, was a  native of  Bordeaux,
 where he graduated,  and became  distinguished as a
 practitioner in medicine about the beginning of the
 last century.  He was author of  some  popular and
 useful dissertations on medical subjects.  In syphilis
 he maintained that a cure could be effected witlwiit
 salivation; and in calculous complaints, by Ihe patient
 drinking  the Bareges  water, this being also injected
 into tbe bladder; but it probably merely palliated tin
 symptoms.   He exposed also some of the prevailing
 errors concerning hydrophobia;  as that the pal lent
 barked like  a dog, and had a propensity to biu  his
 attendants.  The precise period of bis death is not
 mentioned.
   DESAULT, Peter Joseph, was chief surgeon to
 the Hdtel-Dieu at Paris. He published several num-
 bers of a surgical journal, in 1791, Sec.; also, jointiy
I with Chopart, in 1794, " A Treatise on Chirargical 
DEU
DIA
   Diseases, and the Operations required in their Cure;"
   which  is allowed to have considerable merit.   He
   attended the young King of France, Lewis XVII., in
   the temple; and died under suspicious circumstances,
   shortly before Ins royal patient, in 1795.
     DESCENSORIUM.   (From  descendo, to move
   downwards.)  A vessel in which the distillation by
   descent is .performed.
     DESCE'NSUS.   (From descendo, to  move down-
   wards.)  The same chemists call it a distillation per
   descensum, by descent, when the fire is applied at the
   top and round the vessel, the orifice of which is at the
   bottom.
     DESICCATI'VE.  (Desicativus; from desicco,  to
   dry up.)   An application to dry up the humours and
   moisture running from a wound or ulcer.
     DE.SIPIB'NTIA.   (From desipio, to dote.)  A de-
   fect of reason.
     DESIRE.  Will.  We give the name of will to that
   modification of the faculty of perception  by which we
  form desires.  It is generally the effect of our judgment;
  but what is remarkable, our happiness or our misery
  nre necessarily connected with it.   When we satisfy
  our desires we are happy; but we are miserable if our
  desires be not fulfilled;  it is then necessary to give
  such a direction to our desires that we may be enabled
  to obtain happiness.  We ought not  to desire things
  which cannot be obtained; we ought to avoid, even
  with greater care, those things which are hurtful; for
  in such cases we must be unhappy, whether our de-
  sires are satisfied or  not.  Morality is a science which
  lends to give the  best possible direction lo our desires.
    De'sme. (From Seta, to bind up.)  A bandage, or
  ligature.
    Desmi'dion.  (From  Scour;, a handful.)  A small
  bundle, or little bandage.
    De'smos.  (From  Seta, to bind up.)  1. A bandage.
    2. An inflammatory stricture of a joint, after luxa-
  tion.
    DE'SPUMATION.  (Despumatio;  from despumo,
  to clarify.)  The  clarifying a fluid, or separating Us
  foul parts from it.
    DESQUAMATION.  (Desquamatio ; from desqua-
  mo, to scale off.)  The separating of laminae, or scales,
  from a bone.  Exfoliation.
    Desquam ato'rium.  (From desquamo, to scale off.)
  A  trepan,  or instrument to  take  a  piece out of the
  skull.
    DESTILLA'TION.  See Distillation.
    DESUDA'TIO.  (From  desudo, to  sweat much.)
  An unnatural and morbid sweating.
    Dete'ntio.  (From detineo,  to stop,  or hinder.)
  Epilepsy is so called, from the suddenness with which
  the patient is seized.
   DETERGENT.  (From detergo,  to wipe awny.)
  1. A medicine which cleanses and removes such vis-
  cid humours as adhere to and obstruct the vessels.
   2. An application that clears away foulness from
  ulcers.
   DETERMINATE". Applied by botanists to branches
 and stems: determinate ramosus is abruptly branched,
 when each branch, after terminating in flowers, pro-
 duces a number of fresh shoots, in a circular order,
 from just below the origin of those flowers.  The term
 occurs frequently in the latter publication of Linnaeus,
 particularly  the second Mantissa; but he does not
 appear to  have any where explained its  meaning.—
 Smith.
   DETONATION.   (Detonatio;   from   detono,  to
 make a noise )  A sudden combustion and explosion.
   DETRA CTOR.  (From detraho,  to draw.)  Ap-
 plied to a muscle,  the office of which is to draw the
 part to which it Is attached.
   DE'TRAHENS.  (From detraho, to draw.)  The
 name of a muscle, the office of which is to draw the
 part it is attached to.
  Detrahens quADRATns.  See Platysma myoides.
  DETRU'SOR URIN^E.  (From  detmdo, to thrust
out.)  1. The name of a muscle, the office of which is
to squeeze out the urine.
  '2.  The muscular coat of the urinary bladder was
formerly bo called.
  Dku'teri.  (From Sev'Jtpos,  second:  because it is
discharged next after the foetus.)  The secundines, or
after-birth.
  DEUTEROPA'THIA.  (FromStv]epos,second,and
Faftoj, a suffering.)  An affection or suffering by con-
                                       T 2
   sent, where a second part suffers, from consent, with
   the  part originally affected, as where the stomach is
   disturbed through a wound in the head.
     DEUTOXUJE.  See Oxide.
     Deutoxide of azot.  See Nitrogen.
     DEVENTER, Henry, was born in Holland, toward
   the end of the 17th century.   He took a degree in me-
   dicine, but his practice was principally in surgery, and
   at last  almost confined  to  midwifery.  He distin-
   guished hjmself much by his improvements in this
   art,  as well as by his mechanical inventions for obvi-
   ating deformities in children.  He published some ob-
   stetrical works several years prior to his death, which
   occurred in 1739; after which appeared a Treatise on
   the Rickets in his native language, of which Haller
   makes favourable mention.
     Devil's dung.  See Ferula assafetida.
     Dewberry.  See Blackberry.
     DIA.  Aia.  Many terms in medicine, surgery, and
   pharmacy, commence with this word, when  they sig-
   nify composition and mixture; as Diacassia, Diacas-
   toreum, Sec
     [Diabase.  The Diabase of some French mineralo-
   gists is  the  greenstone  of  Werner and  Jameson.
   Greenstone abounds in tbe United States.  There is a
   long ridge of this kind of rock in Connecticut running
   northward  from  New-Haven.   There are  several
   ridges of this formation of superincumbent  rocks in
   New-Jersey.  The most remarkable is the ridge bor-
   dering  the Hudson river on  the west side, running
   north from New-York city to the extent of thirty or
   forty miles, and known by the common appellation of
   the Palisado Rocks.  There is a sublime show of this
   kind of rock on the south side of Lake Superior.
     Diabase or " Greenstone is essentially composed of
   hornblende and felspar, in the state of grains, or some-
   times of small crystals. The proportions are somewhat
   various; but the hornblende predominates, and very
   frequently gives to this aggregate more or less of a
  greenish tinge, especially when it is moistened. Hence
  the name of this rock (Greenstone).  Sometimes the
  tinge of green  is considerably lively, and may arise
  either from  the hornblende, or from Epidote dissemi-
  nated through the mass.  Sometimes also its colour is
  dark  gray, or grayish black.  In fine, its colour, espe-
  cially at the surface, is often modified by the presence
  of'oxide of iron.
    " This rock  presents a  considerable variety of as-
  pect,  depending on the general  structure, or on the
  size, proportion, disposition, and more or less intimate
  mixture of its constituent parts.
    " In some' of the more common varieties, the two
  ingredients are in distinct grains of considerable size,
  like those of granite ;  and the foliated structure both
  of the  hornblende  and  felspar  is often distinctly
  visible.   The proportion of felspar is sometimes very
  small.
    " From Greenstone with a coarse granular structure.
  to  those varieties whose texture  is so finely granular
  that the  two ingredients can  scarcely be perceived, '
  there  is a gradual passage, exhibiting every interme-
  diate  step.  Indeed the grains  are sometimes so mi-
  nute,  and so uniformly and intimately mingled, that
  the mass is altogether homogeneous, and the different
  ingredients a,e  hardly perceptible, even with a glass.
  Hence the texture of this rock is sometimes distinctly
 crystalline, and  sometimes  almost  compact and
  earthy. ,
   " Greenstone, like basalt, sometimes presents itself
 in prisms, or columns of various sizes.  These prisms
 may have from three to seven sides, and are sometimes
 as regular as those of basalt
   " The  general aspect of Greenstone  is sometimes
 much  diversified by the foreign ingredients, which it
 admits into its composition.  Among these are quartz,
 epidote, mica,  talc,  carbonate  of lime, and  almost
 always sulphuret of iron, which is sometimes mag-
 netic.—The quartz is,  in some cases, abundant, and
 seems  almost  to take the place of felspar,  iron fre-
 quently enters into the composition of this rock.  Hence
 by exposure to  the weather,  its exterior becomes
 brownish  or reddish brown; and sometimes Green
 stones  are gradually decomposed.
  " Many  Greenstones  are susceptible of a polish ;—
 and that variety which  admits epidote into its compo-
sition, often forms a very beautiful mineral, when pr>
lished,  especially if it  be porphyritic.  Its colour ia 
DIA
DIA
  often a fine dark  green, resembling serpentine.  The
  epidote, either crystallized or compact, is sometimes in
  very narrow veins;  and sometimes it is uniformly dis-
  seminated in very minute grains.  In other cases, the
  epidote  and felspar form a kind of base, containing
  acicular  crystals of hornblende; or the three ingre-
  dients  are distinct,  as in granite."—Cleavcland's Mi-
  neral.  A.]
    Diabe'cus.   (From  StaftSatoia, to strengthen ; so
  called, as affording the chief support to the foot.)   The
  ankle-bone.
    DIABETES.  (From c*ia, through, and Batvia, to
  pass.)  An immoderate flow of urine.   A genus of dis-
  ease in the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi of Cullen.
    There are two species in this complaint:
    1.  Diabetes insipidus, in  which there is a supera-
  bundant discharge of limpid urine, of its usual urinary
  taste.
    2.  Diabetes  mellitus, in  which the urine is very
  sweet, and contains a great quantity of sugar.
    Great  thirst, with a voracious appetite, gradual
  emaciation of the whole body,  and  a frequent dis-
  charge of urine, containing a large proportion of sac-
  charine and other matter, which is voided in a quan-
  tity even exceeding that of the aliment or fluid intro-
  duced, are the characteristics of this  disease.  Those
  of a shattered constitution, and those who arc in the
  decline of life, arc most subject to its attacks.   Il not
  unfrequently  attends  on hysteria,  hypochondriasis,
  dyspepsia, and asthma: but it is always much milder
  when symptomatic, than when it appears as a primary
  affection.
    Diabetes may be occasioned by the use of strong di-
  uretic medicines, intemperance of life, and hard drink-
  ing;  excess in venery, severe evacuations, or by any
  thing that tends to produce an impoverished state of
  the blood, or general debility.  Il has, however, taken
  place, in many instances, without any obvious cause.
    That which immediately gives  rise to the disease,
  has ever been considered as obscure, and various the-
  ories have been advanced on the occasion.  It has been
  usual to consider diabetes as the effect of relaxation of
  the kidneys, or as depending on a general colliquation
  of the  fluids.  Dr. Richter, professor of medicine in
  Iks university of Gottingen, supposes the disease to be
  generally of a spasmodic nature, occasioned by  a sti-
  mulus acting  on the kidneys; hence a secretio aucta
  urina, and sometimes  perversa, is the consequence.
  Dr. Darwin thinks tbat it is owing to  an inverted ac-
  tion  of the urinary branch of the lymphatics; which
  doctrine, although it did not escape the censure of the
  best  anatomists and experienced physiologists, met,
  nevertheless, with a very favourable reception  on its
  being first announced.   The late Dr. Cullen offered  it
  as his opinion, that the proximate cause of this disease
  might be some fault  in the assimilatory powers,  or in
  those employed in converting alimentary matters into
  the proper animal fluids, which theory has since been
• adopted by Dr. Dobson, and still later by Dr.  Rolla,
  surgeon-general to the royal artillery.  The liver has
  been thought, by some, to be the chief source of the
  disease; but diabetes is hardly ever attended with any
  affection of this organ, as lias been proved by frequent
  dissections; and when observed, it is to be considered
  as accidental.
    The primary seat of the disease is, however, far
  from being absolutely  determined in favour of any
  hypothesis yet advanced; and, from  the most atten-
  tive consideration of all the circumstances, the weight
  of evidence appears to  induce the majority of practi-
  tioners to consider diabetes as depending on a primary
  affection of the kidneys.
    Diabetes sometimes comes on slowly and impercep-
  tibly, without any previous  disorder;  and it now and
  then arises to a considerable degree, and subsists long
  Without being accompanied with evident disorder in
  any  particular part of the system;  the  great  thirst
  which always, and the voracious appetite which fre-
  quently occur in it,  being often the only remarkable
  symptoms; but it more generally happens, that a con-
  siderable affection of the stomach precedes tbe coming
  on of the disease; and tbat, in its progress, besides the
  symptoms already mentioned, there is a great dryness
  in the skin, with a sense of  weight in  the kidneys, and
  a pain in the ureters, and tbe other urinary passages.
    Under  a long continuance of the disease, the body
  becomes  much emaciated, the feet oedematous, great
debility arises, the pulse is frequent and small, and at)
obscure fever, with all the appearance of hectic, pre-
vails.
  The urine  in  diabetes mellitus, from being at first
Insipid, clear, and colourless, soon acquires a sweetish
or saccharine taste, its leading characteristic;  and,
when subjected to experiment, a considerable quantity
of saccharine matter is to beextracted from it  Some-
times it is so loaded with sugar, as to be capable of
being fermented  Into a vinous liquor   Upwards of
one-twelfth of its weight of sugar wa» extracted from
some diabetic urine, by Cruickshank, which was hi
the rate of twenty-nine  ounces troy a day, from oua
patient.
  In some instances, the quantity of urine in diabetes
is much greater than can be accounted for from all the
sources united.  Cases arc  recorded, in which 23 to
30 (tints were discharged in the space of a until ml day,
for many successive weeks, and even months; and in
which the whole ingesta, as was said, did  not amount
to half the weight of the urine. To account for this
overplus, it  has been alleged  that water  is absorbed
from the air by the  surface of the body; as also that
a quantity of water is compounded in the lungs them-
selves.
  Dissections of diabetes have usually shown the kid«
neys to be much affected.  In some  instances, they
have been found in a loose flabby state, much enlarged
in size, and of a pale ash colour; in others, they have
been discovered much more vascular than in a healthy
state, approaching a good deal to what takes place in
inflammation, and containing, In their inlundibula, a
quantity of whitish fluid, somewhat resembling pus,
but without any sign of ulceration whatever.   At Ihe
same time that these appearances have been observed
in their interior, the veins on their surface  were found
lo be much fuller of blood than usual, forming a  most
beautiful net-work of vessels, the larger branches of
which exhibited  an absorbent appearance.  In many
cases of dissection,  the whole of the mesentery has
been discovered to be much diseased, and its glands re-
markably  enlarged; some of them  being  very hard,
and of an irregular texture; others softer, and of a
uniform spherical shape.   Many of the lacteals have
likewise been seen considerably enlarged.   The liver)
pancreas, spleen, and f-'tomach, are in general perceived
lo be in a natural state; when they are  not so, the oc-
currence is to be considered as  accidental.  The blad-
der, in many cases, Is found to  contain  a considerable
quantity of muddy urine.
  A great variety of remedies  has been proposed foi
this disease;  but their success is generally  precarious,
or only temporary, at least in the mellitic form of the
complaint.   The treatment  has been generally  con-
ducted on the principles of determining the fluids to
other outlets,  particularly the skin, and of increasing
the  lone of the kidneys.  Diaphoretics are certainly
very proper remedies, especially the combination oi
opium with ipecacuanha, or antimonials,  assisted by
the warm bath, suitable clothing, and perhaps removal
to a  milder climate: hi the insipid form  of diabetes,
this plan has sometimes effected a cure;  and it appears
that the large use of opium has even the power of
correcting, for the time, the saccharine  quality ofthe
urine.  Cathartics are hardly of service, farther thai.
to keep the bowels regular.  Tonics are generally Indi-
cated by obvious marks of debility;  and if the patient
be troubled with  acidity  in  the prima? viae, alkaline
medicines will be properly joined with them, prefer-
ring those which have nodiuretic power.  Astringent!
have been highly extolled by some practitioners, but
do not appear likely to  prevail, except those whiesi
pass off by the urine, as uva ursi; or the milder sti-
mulants, which can be directed to the kidneys, as co-
paiba, &c. may correct the laxity of those organs, if
the  disease depend on this cause.  Tbe tinctura lyase
must be used with great caution, and Ks efficacy is not
well established: and blisters to the loins can only be
useful  as counter-irritants, though not the most suit-
able.  Frequent  friction, especially over the kidney*,
wearing a tight belt, and gentle exercise, may assist the
recovery of the patient; and when the function ofthe
skin is restored, using the bath gradually of a tower
temperature,  will tend greatly to obviate its suppres-
sion afterward.   It is likewise highly Important te
regulate the  diet, especially in tbe mellitic diabetes.
Dr  Rolla first pointed out the advantage derived from 
                       DIA

 nstrieting the patient to a diet principally of animal
 food, avoiding especially those vegetables which might
 afford saccharine matter, the urine  becoming thereby
 of a more healthy quality, and  diminishing in quan-
 tity : but unfortunately the benefit appears but tempo-
 rary, and the plan is not persevered in without distress
 to the patient.  The same gentleman recommended
 also the sulphuret of potassa, and still more Ihe hy-
 drosulphuret of ammonia;  but  they are very  nau-
 seous medicines, and of doubtful efficacy.  Another
 plan of treating the disease has been  more  recently
 proposed, namely, by bleeding, and other antiphlogistic
 measures; and some cases of its success have  been
 recorded: but farther experience is certainly required,
 before we should be justified in relying much upon it.
   Dia'bolus metallorum.  Tin.
   Diabo'tanum.  (From cim, and fioravrj, an herb.)
 A plaster made of herbs.
   Diaca'dmias. (From Sia, and xaSuea, cadmia.) The
 name of a plaster, the basis of which is cadmia.
   Diacalami'ntues.  (From Sta, and xaXaptvBti, cala-
 miut.)   The name of an antidote, the chief ingredient
 in which is calamint
   Dlaca'rcinum.  (From Sta, and  xapxtvos,  a crab.)
 The name of an antidote  prepared from the flesh of
 crabs and cray-fish.
   Diaca'ryon.  (From Sta, and xapvov, a nut.)   Rob
 of nuts, or walnuts.
   Diaoa'ssia.  (From Sta,  and xatrota, cassia.)  Elec-
 tuary of cassia.
   Diacasto'rium.   (From Sia, and xa^iap, castor.)
 An antidote, the basis of which is castor.
   Diacatho'licon.  (From  r5ia, and koBoXikos, uni-
 versal.)   The name of a  purge, so called  from its
 general usefulness.
   Diackntau'rium.  (From Sia, and xtvjavpiov, cen-
 taury.)  The Duke of Portland's powder is so called,
 because its chief ingredient is centaury.
   Diacentro'tum. (From 6ia, and xevjpota, to prick.)
 A collyrium, so called from its pungency and stimula-
 ting qualities.
   Diacualci'tis.  (From Sia, and x«^<"7'fi chalci-
 tisj A plaster, the chief ingredient in which is chalcitis.
   Diacha'lbis.  (From  StaxaXu, to be relaxed.)  1.
 A relaxation.
   2. The opening of the sutures of the head.
   Diacheiri'smvs.  (From r5ia,  and x«p, the hand.)
 Any operation performed by the hand.
   DiACHELioo'tflUM.   (From Sta,  and  xcAtoWtoi/,
 celandine.)   A plaster, the  chief ingredient in which
 ivas tbe herb celandine.
   Diachore'ma.  (From Siax<aptia, to separate from.)
 Diachoresis. Any excretion, or excrement, but chiefly
 that by stool.
   Diaciiore'sis.  See Diachorema.
   Diachri'sta.  (From  Sia, and XP'W>  to  anoint.)
 Medicines to anoint parts.
   Diachry'sum.   (From Sia, and xpucoc, gold.)  A
 plaster for fractured limbs;  so named from lis yellow
 colour.
   DIACHYLUM.  (From Sia, and jpiAoc, juice.) A
 plaster formerly made of certain juices,  but it now
 means an emollient digestive plaster.
   Dia'ciiysis.  (From  Sia,  and xvw> t0 Pour  out-)
 Fusion or melting.
   Diachy'tica.  (From Siaxvia, to dissolve.)  Medi-
 cines which discuss tumours.
   Diacine'ma.  (From Sta, and xivtia, to  move.)  A
 slight dislocation.
   Diaci'ssum.  (From Sia, and Kioaos, ivy.)  An ap-
 plication composed of ivy leaves.
  Dia'clasis.   (From Sta,  and  xAaw, to  break.)  A
 small fracture.
  Diaclv'sma.  (From StaxXugta, to wash out.)   A
gargle or wash for the mouth.
  Diacoccyme'lon.  (From Sta,  and KOKKvpnXov, a
plum.)  An electuary made of prunes.
  Diaco'dium.   (From Sta, and xiaSia, a poppy head.)
A  composition made of tbe  heads of poppies.
  Diacolocy'nthis.  (From Sia, and xoXoxvvBts, the
colocynth.)   A preparation, the chief  ingredient of
which is colocynth.
  Diaco'mma.    (From  Siaxonjia, to cut through.)
Diacope.  A deep cut or wound.
  Dia cope.   See Diacomma.
  Dlacoprje'oia.  (From Sta, xonpos, dung, and at\, a
joat)  A preparation with goat's dung.
                      DIA

   Diacora'llum.  (From&a, and xopaXXtov,  coral J
  A preparation in which coral is a chief ingredient.
   DIA'CRISIS.  (From Siaxpivta, to distinguish.) The
  distinguishing diseases  one from another by their
  symptoms.
   Diacro'cicm.  (From Sta, and xpoxos, saffron.)  A
  collyrium in which is saffron.
   Diacurcu'ma.  (From Sia, and xvpxovua, turmeric.)
  An antidote in which is turmeric or saffron.
   Diacydo'nium.  (From Sta, and xvSiavia, a quince.)
  Marmalade of quinces.
   Diadaphni'dion. (From Sia, and Saipvis, the laurel-
  tree.)  A drawing plaster in which were bay-berries.
   DIADELPHIA.  (From Sis, twice, and aStXQis, a
  broihcrhood ;  two brotherhoods.)  The name of a
  class in the sexual system of plants, embracing those
  the flowers of which are hermaphrodites, and have the
  male organs united below in two sets of cylindrical fila-
  ments.
   DIADE'MA.  (From StaStta,  to  surround.)  1.  A
  diadem or crown.
   2. A bandage to put round the head.
   Diade'xis.  (From SiaStvouai, to transfer.)  Dia-
  doche.  A transposition of humours from one place  to
  another.
   Dia'docre.  SeeDiadexis.
   Dia'dosis.  (From  StaSiAtaui, to  distribute.)  The
  remission of a disorder.
   DLE'RESIS.  (From Statptia, to divide or separate.)
  A solution of continuity of the soft parts of thehumun
  body.
   Dijere'tica.  (From&aipcu, to divide.)  Corrosive
  medicines.
   DLE'TA. (From Statjaia, to nourish.) Diet; food.
  It means  also the  whole of the non-naturals.  See
  Diet.
   Diaglau'cium.  (From Sia, and yXavxiov, the blue
 juice of an herb.) An eye-water made of the purging
 thistle.
   DIAGNO'SIS.  (From Stayivtaexta, to  discern or
 distinguish.)  The science which delivers the signs by
 which  a disease may be distinguished from another
 disease: hence those symptoms which distinguish such
 affections are termed diagnostic.
   Diagry'dium.  Corrupted from dacrydium or scam-
 mony.
   Diahermoda'ctylun.  (From(5ia, andtppoSaxJuXos,
 the hermodactyl.)  A  purging medicine, the basis of
 which is the hermodactyl.
   Diai'reon.  (From oia, and ipis-, the lily.)  An an-
 tidote in which is the root of the lily.
   Diai'um.  (From Sia, and tov, a violet.)  A pastil,
 the chief ingredient of which is violets.
   Diala'cca.  (From Sia, and Xaxxa.)  An antidote
 in which is the lacca.
   Dialaoo'um.  (From <5ia, and Xaytas, a hare.)  A
 medicine in which is the dung of a hare.
   Dlale'mma.  (From StaXapjiavio, to interrupt) The
 i emission of a disease.
   Diale'psis.  (From SiaXapSavia, to interrupt.)  1
 An intermission.
   2. A space left between a bandage.
   Dlali'banum.  (From r5ia, and XiSavov, frankin
 cense.)  A medicine in which frankincense is a chief
 ingredient.
   DIALLAGE.  Smaragdite of Saussure.   Verde di
 Corsica duro of artists.  A species of the genus Schil-
 ler spar.  It is  a mineral of a greenish colour, com-
 posed of silica, alumina, magnesia, lime, oxide of iron,
 oxide of copper, and oxide of chrome.  It is found
 principally in Corsica.
   Dia'loes.  (From Sia, and aXon, the aloe.)  A me-
 dicine chiefly composed of aloes.
   Dialtbje'a.  (From Sia, and aXBata, the mallow)
 An ointment composed chiefly of marsh-mallows.
   DIA'LYSIS.   (From StaXvia, to dissolve.) A solu-
 tion of continuity, or a destruction of parts.
  Dia'lyses.  The plural of dialysis.  The name of
 an order in the class Locales of Cullen's Nosology.
  Dialy'tica.  (From SiaXvta, to dissolve.)  Medi-
 cines which heal wounds and fractures.
  Diamargari'ton.   (From  Sta,  and papyapCJtt,
 pearl.)  An antidote in which pearls are the chief in-
gredient
  DIAMASSE'MA.   (From Sia, and  uaooopai, to
chew.)  A  masticatory, or substance  put  into the
mouth, and chewed to excite a discharge of the saliva.
                                        209 
DIA
DIA
   Dia'hhjl.   (From  Sta, and  auBpa, amber.)  An
 aromatic composition in which was ambergris.
   Diame'lon.  (From Sia, and unXov, a quince.)  A
 composition of quinces.
   DIAMOND.  The diamond, which was well known
 to the ancients, is principally found in the western
 peninsula of India, on the coast of Coromaudel, in the
 kingdoms of Golconda and Visapour, in the island of
 Borneo, and in the Brazils.  Il is the most valued of
 all minerals.
   Diamonds  are generally found bedded  in  yellow
 ochre or in rocks of freestone, or quartz, and sometimes
 in the beds of running waters.  When taken out of
 the earth, they are incrusted with an exterior  earthly
 covering, under which is another, consisting of carbo-
 nate of lime.
   In the  Brazils. It is supposed that diamonds might be
 obtained in greater quantities  than at present, if the
 sufficient working of the diamond-mines was not pro-
 hibited, in order to prevent that diminution of their
 commercial value, which a greater abundance of thein
 might occasion.
   Brazilian diamonds are, in  commercial estimation,
 inferior to the oriental ones.
   In the rough, diamonds are worth two pounds ster-
 ling the carat, or four grains, provided they are without
 blemish.   The  expense  of  cutting and   polishing
 amounts to about four pounds more.   The value how-
 ever is far above what is now stated when they be-
 come considerable in size.  The greatest sum that has
 been given for  a single diamond is one hundred and
 fifty thousand pounds.
   The usual method of calculating the value of dia-
 monds is by squaring tlie number of carats,  and  then
 multiplying the amount by tbe price of a single carat:
 thus supposing one carat to be 21. a diamond of 8 carats
 is worth  128J. being 8x»X2.
   The famous Pigol diamond weighs 188 l-8th grains.
          Physical Properties of  Diamond.
   Diamond  is  always  crystallized, but sometimes so
 imperfectly, that, at first  sight, it might appear amor-
 phous.  The figure of diamond,  when perfect, is an
 eight-sided prism. There are also  cubical, flat, and
 round  diamonds.  It is the oriental diamond  which
 crystallizes into octohedra, and exhibits all the varie-
 ties of this primitive figure.  The diamond of Brazil
 crystallizes into dodecahedra.
   The texture of the diamond Is lamellated, for it may
 be split or cleft with an instrument of well-tempered
 steel, by a swift blow in a particular direction.  There
 are however some diamonds which  do  not appear to
 be formed of lamina, but of twisted and interwoven
 fibres, like those of knots in wood.  These exceed the
 others  greatly in  hardness, they cannot  be cut or po-
 lished, and are therefore called by the lapidaries dia-
 monds of nature.
   The diamond is one of the  hardest bodies known.
 It resists the most highly-tempered steel file, which cir-
 cumstance renders it necessary to attack it with  dia-
 mond powder. It takes an exquisite and lasting polish.
 It has a great refractive power, and hence  its lustre,
 when cut into the form of a regular  solid, is uncom-
 monly great.  The usual colour of diamonds is a light
 gray, often inclining to yellow, at times lemon colour,
 violet, or black, seldomer rose-red, and still more rarely
 green or blue, but more frequently pale brown.   The
 purest diamonds are perfectly tiansparent The colour-
 less diamond has a specific gravity which is in propor-
 tion to that of water as 3.512 to 1.000, according to
 Brisson.  This varies however considerably.  When
 rubbed it becomes positively electric, even before it has
 been cut by the lapidary.
  Diamond is not acted  upon by  acids, or by  any
chemical  agent, oxygen  excepted; and this requires a
very great increase of temperature  to  produce  any
effect.
  The diamond burns by a strong heat, with a sensible
flame, like other combustible  bodies, attracting oxy-
gen, and becoming wholly converted into  carbonic
acid gas during tbat process.
  It combines with iron by fusion, and converts it, like
common charcoal, into steel;  but diamond requires a
much higher temperature for its combustion than com-
mon charcoal does, and even  then  it consumes but
slowly, and ceases to burn tbe instant its temperature
is lowered.
  "From the high refractive  power of the diamond.
      204
  Bigot and Arago supposed that it might contain hydro-
  gen.  Sir H. Davy, from the action of potassium on It,
  and its  non-conduction  of electricity, suggested In his
  third Bakerian lecture,  that a minute  portion of oxy-
  gen might  exist in it; and in his new experiments on
  the fluoric  compounds,  he threw out the ideu, that it
  might be the carbonaceous principle, combined with
  some new, light, and subtle element of the oxygenous
  and chlorine class
    This  unrivalled chemist,  during his  residence at
  Florence in March 1(314, made several  experiments on
  the combustion of the diamond  and of  plumbago, by
  means of the great lens in the cabinet of natural his-
  tory ; the same instrument us that employed in the first
  trials on the action of the solar heat on  the diamond,
  instituted iu 1694 by Cosmo III.  Grand Duke of Tus-
  cany.  He subsequently made a  series  of researches
  on the  combustion of different kinds  of charcoal at
  Rome.   His mode of investigation was peculiarly ele-
  gant, and led to the most decisive results.
    He found that diamond, when strongly  ignited by the
  lens, in a thin capsule  of platinum, perforated with
  many orifices, so as to admit a free circulation of air,
  continued  to  burn  with a steady brilliant red light,
  visible in  the  brightest sunshine, after  it was with- .
  drawn from the focus.   Home time after  the diamond!
  were removed out of the focus, Indeed, a wire of pla-
  tina that attached them 'o the tray was fused, though
  their weight was «.riiy 1.84 grains.  His apparatus
  consisted of clear jjass globes of the capacity of from
  14 to 40 cubic inches, having single apertures to which
  stop-cocks were attached.  A small hollow cylinder of
  platinum was attached to one end of the stop-cock,
  and was mounted with the little perforated capsule for
  containing  the diamond.  When  the experiment was
  to be made, the globe containing the capsule and the
  substance to be burned was exhausted  by an excellent
  air-pump, and pure oxygen, from chlorate of potassa,
  was then introduced.  The change of volume in the
  gas after combustion was estimated by means of a fine
  tube connected with a stop-cock,  adapted by a proper
 screw to the stop-cock of the globe, and the absorption
  was judged of by the quantity of mercury that entered
 the lube which  afforded  a measure so  exact, that  no
  alteration however minute could be overlooked.  He
  had previously satisfied himself that  a  quantity  of
  moisture, less than l-100th of a grain, is rendered evi-
 dent by deposition on  a polished  surface of glass;  for
  a piece of paper weighing one grain was introduced
  into a tube  of about four cubic inches' capacity, whose
  exterior was slightly heated by a candle.   A dew was
  immediately perceptible on the inside of the glass,
  though the  paper, when weighed  in a balance turning
  with l-100th of a grain, indicated no appreciable
  diminution.
   The diamonds were also heated to  redness before
  they were introduced into the capsule.   During their
 combustion, the glass globe was kept cool by the appli-
 cation of water to that  part of it immediately above
  the capsule, and where  the heat was  greatest.
   From  the results of his different experiments, con-
 ducted with the most unexceptionable precision, it is
 demonstrated, that diamond affords no other substance
 by its combustion than  pure carbonic  acid gas; end
 that the  process is merely a solution of diamond  in
 oxygen, without any change in the volume of the gas.
 Il likewise appears, that in the combustion of the dif-
 ferent kinds of charcoal, water is produced; and that
 from the diminution of the volume of the oxygen,
 there is  every  reason to believe  that  the water is
 formed by  the combustion of hydrogen existing  in
 strongly ignited charcoal. As the charcoal from oil of
 turpentine left no residuum, no  other cause but the
 presence of hydrogen can be assigned for the diminu-
 tion occasioned  in the  volume of the gas during its
 combustion.
   The only chemical difference perceptible  between
 diamond and the purest charcoal is, that  the last con
 tains a minute portion of hydrogen; but can a quan-
 tity of an element, less in some cases than 1-50,000th
 part of the weight of the substance, occasion so great
 a difference in  physical and chemical  character.-. ?
 Tbe opinions of Tennant that the difference depends
 on crystallization, seems to be correct   Transparent
 solid bodies are in general non-conductors of electri-
 city ; and it is  probable that the  same corpuscular
I a r ran/iements which give to matter the power of t raae- 
DIA
DIA
mining  and polarizing light,  are  likewise connected
with its relations to electricity.  Thus water, the hy-
drates of the alkalies, and a number of other bodies
which are conductors of electricity when fluid, become
non-conductors in their crystallized form.
  That  charcoal is more  inflammable  than the dia-
mond, may be explained from the looseness of its tex-
ture,  and from the hydrogen  it contains.  But the
diamond appears  lo  burn in oxygen with as much
facility as plumbago,  so that at least one distinction
supposed to exist between the diamond and common
carbonaceous substances is done away by these re-
searches.  The power possessed  by certain carbon-
aceous  substanco of absorbing gases, and separating
colouring matters from fluids, is probably mechanical
and dependent on their porous organic  structure; for
it belongs in the highest degree to vegetable and ani-
mal charcoal, and it does not exist in plumbago, coke,
or anthracite.
  The nature of the chemical difference between the
diamond and other carbonaceous substances, may be
demonstrated by igniting them in chlorine, when mu-
riatic acid is produced  from the latter, but not from the
former.  The visible acid vapour is owing to the moist-
ure present in the chlorine uniting to the dry muriatic
gas.  But charcoal, after  being intensely ignited in
chlorine, is not altered in its conducting powerof colour.
This circumstance is in favour of the opinion, that the
Minute quantity of hydrogen  is not the cause of the
great difference between  the  physical properties of
the diamond  and charcoal."  See Carbon.
  Diamond-shaped.  See Leaf.
  Diamo'ron.  (From Sta, and utopov, a mulberry.) A
preparation of mulberries.
  Diamo'schum.   (From rjia, and uooxos, musk.) An
antidote in which musk is a chief ingredient.
  Diamoto'sis.  (From Sia, and polos,  lint.)  The
introduction of lint into an ulcer or wound.
  KA'NA.  1. The moon.
  4; Tbe chemical name  for silver from  its white
shining appearance.
  Diananca saus.  (From  Sia, and  avayKotta, to
force.)  1.  The forcible restoration of a luxated part
into its proper place.
  2. An instrument to reduce a distorted spine.
   DIA'NDRIA.  (From Sis twice, and avrjp, a man.)
The name of a class in the sexual system, consisting of
 hermaphrodite plants  which  have flowers  with two
stamina?.
   DIA'NTHUS.   (From Acs,  dcoc,  Jove, and avBos,
a flower: so called from  the elegance and fragrance
of  its flower.)  The name of a genus  of plants in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Decandria ; Order, Di-
gynia.
  Dianthus caryophyllus.  The  systematic  name
ofthe clove-pink.  Garyophyllum rubrum ; Tunica;
 Vetonica;  Betonica;  Coronaria;  Caryophyllus hor-
tensis.  Clove gilliflower.  Clove July flower.  This
fragrant plant, Dianthus—floribus solitariis, squamis
calycinus subovatis, brevissimus, corollis crenatis, of
Linnaeus, grows wild in several parts of England; but
the flowers,  which are pharmaceutically employed,
are usually produced in gardens: they have a pleasant
aromatic  smell, somewhat allied  to that  of clove-
spice;  their taste is  bitterish  and  sub-adstringent.
These flowers were formerly in extensive  use, but are
now merely employed in  form of syrup,  as a  useful
and pleasant veliiele for other medicinrs.
  Diapa'sma.  (From Sianaoaia, to sprinkle.)   A me-
dicine reduced to powder and sprinkled over the  body,
or any part
  DIAPEDE'SIS.  (From StannSato, to leap through.)
The transudation or escape of blood through the coats
of an artery.
  Diapc'oma.  (From Stannyvvia, to close together.)
A surgical  instrument  for  closing  together  broken
bones.
  Diape'nte.  (From Sia, and jrcvrt, five.)  A medi-
cine composed of five ingredients.
  DIAPHANOUS. (Diaphanosus ; from Sia,through,
and ipatvia, to shine.)  A term applied to any substance
which is  transparent; ns  the  hyaioid  membrane
covering the vitreous humour of the eye, which is as
transparent as glass.
  Diaphce'nicum.  From Sta, and <f>otvi\, a date.)  A
medicine made of dates.
  DJA'PHORA. (From Sta<pepu, to distinguish.) 1 he
distinction  of diseases  by their characteristic marks
and symptoms.
  DIAPHORESIS (From Stai-optta, to carry through.)
Perspiration.
  DIAPHORETIC.  (Diaphoreticus; fromStatfioptta,
to carry through.)  That which, from being taken in-
ternally, increases the discharge by the skin.   When
this is carried so far as to be condensed on the surface,
it forms sweat: and the medicine producing it is named
sudorific.  Between diaphoretic and sudorific, there is
no distinction; the operation is in both cases the same,
and differs only in degree from  augmentation of dose,
or employment of assistant means.  This class of me-
dicines comprehends five orders.
  1.  Pungent diaphoretics, as the volatile salts, and
essential oils, which  are  well  adapted for the aged;
those in whose system there is little sensibility; those
who are difficultly affected by other diaphoretics; and
those whose stomachs will not bear large doses of me-
dicines.
  2.  Calefadent diaphoretics, such as serpentaria con-
trayerva, and guaiacum:  these are given in cases
where the circulation is low and languid.
  3.  Stimulant diaphoretics, as antimonial and mercu-
rial preparations, which are best fitted for the vigorous
and plethoric.
  4.  Antispasmodic diaphoretics, as opium, musk, and
camphire, which are  given  to produce a diaphoresis,
when the momentum of the blood is increased.
  5.  Diluent diaphoretics, as water, whey, Sec which
arc best calculated for that habit in which a predispo-
sition lo  sweating is wanted, and in which no diapho-
resis takes place, although there be evident causes to
produce  it.
  DIAPHRA'GMA.   (Diaphragma, matis.n.; from
Sta,  and tbparlia, to  divide.)   Septum  transversum.
The midrif, or diaphragm.  A muscle that divides the
thorax from the abdomen.  If is composed of two mus-
cles;  the first and superior of these  arises from the
sternum, and the ends of the last ribs on each side. Its
fibres, from this semicircular origination, lend tcwtirds
their centre, and terminate in a tendon, or aponeurosis,
which is termed the centrum tendinosum. The se-
cond and inferior muscle  comes from the vertebrae of
the loins by two productions, of which that on the
right side comes from the first, second, and third ver-
tebrae of  the loins; that on the left side  is somewhat
shorter, and both  these portions join and make the
lower part  of the diaphragm, which joins its tendons
with the  tendon ofthe other, so that they make but one
muscular partition.  It is covered by the  pleura on its
upper side, and by the peritonaeum on the lower side.
It is pierced in the middle for the passage of the vena
cava; in its lower part  for the oesophagus,  and the
nerves, which go to  the upper orifice of  the stomach,
and  between the productions  of the inferior muscle,
passes the aorta, the thoracic duct, and  the vena azy-
gos.  It  receives arteries and veins  called phrenic or
diaphragmatic, ftom  the  cava  and aorta: and some-
times  on its lower part  two branches from the vena
adiposa, and two arteries from the lumbares. It has
two nerves which come from the third vertebra of the
neck, which pass through the cavity of tlie thorax, and
are lost iu its substance.  In its natural situation, the dia-
phragm is convex on the upper side towards the breast,
and  concave on its lower side towards  the belly;
therefore, when its fibres swell and contract, it must
become plain on each side, and consequently the cavity
of the breast is enlarged to give liberty to the lungs to
receive air  in inspiration; and the stomach and intes-
tines are pressed for the distribution of their contents;
hence the use of this muscle is very considerable ; it is
the principal agent in  respiration, particularly in in-
spiration ; for when  it is in action  the cavity of the
thorax is enlarged, particularly at the sides, where the
lungs are chiefly situated ; and as the lungs must
always be  contiguous to  the inside of the thorax and
upper  side of the diaphragm, the air rushes into them,
in order to  fill up the increased space.  In expiration it
is relaxed and pushed up  by the pressure of the abdo-
minal muscles upon the viscera of the abdomen; and
at the same time that they press it upwards, they pull
down the ribs, by which the cavity of the thorax is di-
minished, and the air  suddenly pushed out of the lungs.
  DIAPHRAGMATI'TIS.  (From Siatboayua, the dia-
phragm.)  Inflammation of the diaphragm.  See Pa
raphrenitis. 
                       DIA

  Dia'phthora.  (From SiatfiBttpta to corrupt)  An
abortion where the fcetus is corrupted in the womb.
  Dlatrtla'ctica.   (From Staif>vXaoiria, lo preserve.)
Medicines which resist putrefaction or prevent infec-
tion.
  Dia'physis.  (From Siaipva, to divide.)   An inter-
stice or partition between the joints.
  Diapisbelje'um.   (From Sia,  and mooiXaiov, the
oil of pitch, or liquid pilch.)  A composition in which
is liquid pitch.
  Dia'plasis.  (From SianXaoata,  to put together.)
The replacing a luxated or fractured bone in its proper
situation.
  Diapla'sma.   (From  SiawXaoota, to anoint)   An
unction or fomentation applied to the whole body or
aay part
  Dia'pne.  (From  Sianvtia, to blow through, or pass
gently as the  breath does.)   An  insensible discharge
of the urine.
  DIA'PNOE.  (From  Sianvtia, to breathe through.)
The transpiration of vapour through the  pores of the

  DIAPNO'ICA.  (From Sianvtia, to transpire.)  Dia-
phoretics or medicines which promote perspiration.
  Diapore'ma.  (From Sianoptia, to  be  in  doubt.)
Nervous anxiety.
  Diaporon.   (From Sta, and orruipa, autumnal fruits.)
A composition in  which are several autumnal fruits,
as quinces, medlars, and services.
  Diapra'ssium. (From jta,and Trpaovtov,hoarhound.)
A composition in which hoarhound is the principal
ingredient.
  Diapru'num.  (From Sta, and npovvn, a prune.)  An
electuary of prunes.
  Diapso'ricum.   (From Sta, and ipiapa, the itch or
scurvy.)   A medicine for the itch or scurvy.
  Diaptc'rnes.  (From r5ia, and nltpva,  the heel.)
A composition of cow heel and cheese.
  Diaptero'sis.  (From Sta, and  n]tpov,  a feather.)
The cleaning the ears with a feather.
  Diapye'ma.  (From Sia, and 7niov, pus.)  A suppu-
ration or abscess.
  Diapye'mata.  (From Sianvnua, a suppuration.)
Suppurating medicines.
  Diapyk'tica.   (From Stanvr/pa, a suppuration.)
Suppurating applications.
  Diarho'cha.  (From Sta, and onx<>ii a space.)  The
space between the foldings of a bandage.
  DIA'RIUS.  (From dies, a day.)   A term applied to
fevers which last but one day.
  Diaroma'ticum.   (From Sia, and apopalixov, an
aromatic.) A composition of spices.
  Dia'rrbaoe.  (From Stappnyvvut, to  break asun-
der.) A fracture.
  Diarrhodo'meli. (From Sta, poSov,  a rose,  and
fieXi, honey.)   Scammony, agaric, pepper, and honey.
  Dia'rrhodon.  (From Sia, and poSov, a rose.)  A
composition of roses.
  DIARRHOEA.   (From Siapptta,  to flow through.)
A purging.  It is distinguished by frequent  stools with
the natural excrement, not contagious, and seldom at-
tended with pyrexia.  It is  a genus of disease in the
class Neuroses, and order Spasmi of Cullen, contain-
ing the following species:
  1. Diarrhea crapulosa.   The feculent diarrhoea,
from crapulus, one  who overloads his stomach.
  2. Diarrhea biliosa.  The bilious, from an increased
secretion of bile.
  3. Diarrhea mucosa.  Tbe mucous, from a quantity
of  slime being voided.
  4. Diarrhea kepatirrhaa.   The  hepatic, in which
there is a quantity of serous matter, somewhat resem-
bling the washings  of flesh, voided; the liver being
primarily affected.                     v
  5. Diarrhea lienterica.   The lientery; when the
food Basses unchanged.
  6. Diarrksta celiaca.   The coeliac passion: the
food passes off in this affection in a white  liquid state
use chyle.
  7. Diarrhea verminosa.   Arising from worms.
  Diarrhoea seems evidently to depend on an increase
of the peristaltic motion, or of the secretion of the in-
testines;  and besides the causes already noticed, it
may arise from many others, influencing  the system
generally, or the particular seat of tbe disease.  Of
the former kind are cold, checking perspiration, cer-
taia passions of the mind, and other disorders; as den-
      896
                       DIA

tition, gout, fever, fce;   To the latter belong varioui
acrid ingesta, drastic cathartics, spontaneous acidity,
tec.  In this complaint each discbarge is usually pre-
ceded by a murmuring noise, with a sense of weight
and uneasiness in the  hypogastrium.  When it is pro-
tracted, the stomach  usually becomes affected  with
sicknejs, or  sometimes  vomiting, the  countenance
grows  pale or sallow,  aud the skin generally dry and
rigid.  Ultimately great debility and emaciation,  with
dropsy of the lower extremities, often supervene.  Dis-
sections of diarrhoea, where it terminated fatally,  have
shown ulcerations of the internal surface of llie intes-
tines, sometimes to a considerable extent, especially
about the follicular glands; in which occasionally a
cancerous character has been observable.  The treat.
ment of this complaint must vary greatly according to
circumstances: sometimes we can only hope to  palli-
ate, as when it occurs in the advanced period of phthi-
sis pulmonalis; sometimes it is rather to be encour-
aged, relieving more serious symptoms, as a bilious
diarrhoea coining on in fever, though still some liiuiti
must be put to tlie discharge.  Where, however,  we
are warranted in using the most speedy means of stop-
ping it, the objects are,  1. To  obviate  the several
causes.   2. To lessen tlie  inordinate action,  and give
tone to the intestine.
  I. Emetics may sometimes be useful, clearing out
the stomach, and liver, as well as determining to  the
skin.   Cathartics also, expelling worms, or indurated
faeces; but any acrimony in the intestine would pro-
bably cause its own  discharge,  and where there is
much irritability,  they might aggravate the disease:
however, in  protracted cases,  the  alvine  contents
speedily become vitiated, and renew the irritation:
which  may  be best obviated by an  occasional  mild
aperient, particularly rhubarb.  If, however, the liver
do not  perforin its office, tbe intestine will hardly re-
cover its healthy condition: and that may most proba-
bly be effected by the cautious use of mercury.  Like-
wise articles which determine the fluids to other out-
lets, diuretics, and particularly diaphoretic*, in many
cases contribute materially to recovery; the latter per-
haps assisted by bathing, warm  clothing, gentle  exer-
cise, &c.   Diluent, demulcent,  antacid, and other
chemical remedies, may be employed to correct acri-
mony,  according to its particular nature.  In children
teething, the gums should be lanced; and if the boweil
have been attacked on the repulsion of some other dis-
ease, it may often be  proper to endeavour to restore
this.   But a matter of the greatest importance is  the
due regulation of the diet, carefully avoiding tboaa »r«,
tides, which are likely to disagree, or irritate the"
els, and preferring such as have a mild astringent
Fish, milk, and vegetables, little acescent, as rice, I
&c.  are best; and for the drink, madeira or brand;
sufficiently  diluted, rather than malt liquors.
  U. Some of the means already noticed will help
fulfil the second indication also, as a wholesome diet
exercise, diaphoretics, &c.: but  there are others tot
more power, which must be resorted to in urgent
At the head of these is opium, a full dose of '
frequently at once effects a  cure; but where there
some more fixed cause, and the complaint of any stand-
ing, moderate quantities repeated at  proper  intervals
will  answer better, and other subsidiary means ought
not to  be neglected; aromatics may prevent its disor-
dering the  stomach, rhubarb obviate its causing per-
manent constipation, &c.   Tonics are generally pro-
per, tbe discharge itself inducing debility, and where
there is a deficiency of bile particularly, the lighter
forms of the aromatic bitters, as the infusum caluaibc,
Sec will materially assist; and mild cnalybeates  are
sometimes serviceable. In protracted case* astringents
come in aid of tlie general plan, and where opium dis-
agrees, they may be more necessary: but the milder
ones should  be employed at first, tbe more powerful
only where the patient appears sinking.  Chalk and
lime-water answer best where tlierelsmcidity; other-
wise tbe pomegranate rind, iogwaed As tract, catechu,
kino, tormentil, Sec may be given: where these fail,
alum, sulphate of zinc, galls, or superacetate of lead.
   DIARTHRO SIS.   (From iiapdpou, to articulate.)
A moveable connexion of bones.  This genus has five
species, viz. enartlirosis, arthrodia, giuglymus, UechoV
des, and ainphiarthrosis.
   Diasapo'nium.   (From Sia, and etentas, soap.)  Aa
ointment of soap. 
                      DIA

  Diasaty'riuK.   (From  Sta,  and  gafypiov, the
orchis.)  An ointment of the orchis-root
  Diasci'llium.  (From Sta, and oxiXXa, the squill.)
Oxymel and vinegar of squills.
  Diasci'ncus.  (From Aia, and oxtyKos, tbe croco-
dile.)  A name for the mithridate, in tbe composition
of which there was a part of the crocodile.
  Diasco'rdium.   (From Sta, and oxopStov, the water
germander.)  Electuary of scordium.
  Diase'na.  (From  Sta, and sena.)  A medicine in
which is senna.
  Diasmy'rnum.   (From  Sta, and ouvpvn, myrrh.)
Diasmyrncs.  A  wash  for  the  eyes, composed of
myrrh.
  Diaso'sticus.  (From Staotagta, to preserve.)  That
which preserves health.
  Diaspe'rmatum.   (From  Sta,  and  ontpua, seed.)
A medicine composed chiefly of seeds.
  Dia'sphaoe.  (From Siac(baZ,<o,  to separate.)  Dias-
phaxis.  The interstice between two veins.
  Diasphy'xis.  (From Sia, and tx<bvr,ia,  to  strike.)
The pulsation of an artery.
  [Diaspsre, of Hauy, Brogniart, Cleaveland, &c.
" This mineral is but little known.  It is composed of
laminae, somewhat curved, easily  separable from each
other, and possessing a pearly gray colour, with consi-
derable lustre.  These laminae according to the natural
joints, which they present, when examined by a light,
seem to have separated in the direction of the smaller
diagonals of the bases of a rhomboidal prism.  The
edges or angles of its fragments are capable of scratch-
ing glass.  Its specific gravity is 3.43.
  " A small fragment, placed in the flame of a candle,
almost instantly decrepitates,  and is dispersed in nu-
merous little spangles.  Hence its name from the
Greek  AiaSntipia-  It is composed  of alumine 80,
water 17, iron 3.  Nothing is known of its geological
situation. Its gangue, is a rock, both argillaceous and
ferruginous."—Cleav. Min.  A.]
  DIA'STASIS.  (From j(iorn/u,toseparate.)  Dias-
tema.  A separation.   A separation of the ends of the
bones;  as that which occasionally happens  to the
bones of the cranium, in some cases of hydrocephalus.
  Diarte'aton.   (From Sta, and  ycap, fat.)  An oint-
ment of the fat of animals.
  Diastb'ma.   See Diastasis.
  DIASTOLE.  (From Sta, and  oreXXta,  to stretch.)
The dilatation of the heart and arteries.  See Circu-
lation.
  Diastomo'sis.   (From Sias-ouoia, to dilate.)   Any
dilatation, or dilating instrument
  Diastre'mma.   (From Sta$-pt<f><a,  to turn  aside.)
Diastropke.  A distortion of any  limb or part
  Dia'strophe.  See Diastremma.
  Dia'tasis.  (From Siartivia, to distend.) The ex-
tension of a fractured limb, in order to reduce it.
  Diatecoli'thum.   (From  Sia, and 'jrixoXiBos, the
Jew's stone.)  An antidote containing  lapis judaicus.
  DIATERE'SIS.  (From <5ia, and Itptia, to perfo-
rate.)  A perforation or aperture.
  Diatere'tica.   (From Sia  and ftptia, to preserve.)
Medicines which preserve health ana prevent disease.
  Diate'ssaron.   (From Sia, and t too opts, four.) A
medicine compounded of four simple ingredients.
  Diate'ttioum.  (From -Sia, and "]trjtytav, a grass-
hopper.)  A medicine  in the composition of which
were grasshoppers, given as an antidote to some ne-
phritic complaints, by jEginetus.
  DIA'THESIS.  (From SianBmu, to dispose.)  Any
particular state of the body: thus, in inflammatory
fever, there is an inflammatory diathesis, and, during
putrid fever, a putrid diathesis.
  Diathk'smus.  (From liaBeia, to  run through.) A
rupture through which some fluid escapes.
  Diatraoaca'nthuk.  From Sia, and rpayaKavBa,
tragacanth.)   A  medicine composed  of  gum-traga-
canth.
  Dia'trium.  (From Sia, and "Jptts-,  three.)   A me-
dicine composed of three simple ingredients.
  Diax yla loes.  (From Sta, and \v\aXon, the lignum
aloes.)  A medicine in which is lignum aloes.
  Diazo'ma.   (From  Siahawvpi, to  surround; be-
cause it surrounds tbe cavity of the thorax.) The dia-
phragm.
  Dlazo'ster.  (From Sta%iavwui, to  surround; be-
cause, when the body is girded,  the belt usually lies
upon it)  A name of the twelfth vertebra of the back.
                      DIE

  Dicentr'tuk.  (From eta, and xtvjtu, to stiimF
late.)  A pungent or stimulating wash for the eyes.
  Dichaste'res.  (From Stxa\ta, to divide, because
they divide the food.)  A name of the foreteeth.
  DicHoqHY'iA.  (From Stxa, double,  and o>v<o, to
grow.)  A distemper of the hairs, in which they split
and grow forked.
  DICHOTOMUS.  (From Sis, twice, and rsuvto, to
cut;  that  is, cat into two.)  Dichotornous or bifur-
cated.  Applied to stems, styles, Sec wbich are forked
or divided into two.
  DICHROITE. A species of iolite.
  DICOTYLEDONES.  Two cotyledons.  See  Co-
tyledon.
  DICROTIC.   (Dicroticus;  from  Sis, twice,  and
xpovta, to strike.) A term given to a pulse in which
the artery rebounds after striking, so as to convey the
sensation of a double pulsation.
  Dictamni'tes.   (From Sixjapvos, dittany.)  A wine
medicated with dittany.
  DICTA'MNUS.   (From  Dictamnus, a city in
Crete, on whose mountains it grows.)  The name of
a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, De-
candria; Order, Monogynia.  Dittany.
  Dictamnus albus.   White fraxinella, or  bastard
dittany.  Fraxinella.  Dictamnus albus—foliis  pin-
natis,  caule simplici, of Linnaeus.   The root of this
plant is the part directed for medicinal use; when
fresh,  it  has a moderately strong,  not disagreeable
smell.  Formerly it was much  used as a stomachic,
tonic,  and alexipharmic,  and was supposed to be a
medicine of much efficacy in removing uterine obstruc-
tions, and destroying worms; but its medicinal pow-
ers became so little regarded by modern physicians,
that it had fallen almost entirely into disuse, till Baron
Stoerck brought it into notice, by publishing  several
cases  of  its success,  viz.  in tertian intermittents,
worms, (lumbrici)  and menstrual suppressions.   In
all these cases, he employed the powdered root to the
extent of a scruple twice a day.  He also made use of
a tincture, prepared of two ounces of the fresh root di-
gested in  14 ounces of spirit of wine; of this 20 to 50
drops,  two or three times a day, were successfully em-
ployed in epilepsies, and, when joined with steel, this
root, we are told, was of great service to chlorotic pa-
tients.  The dictamnus undoubtedly, says Dr. Wood-
ville, is a medicine of considerable  power; but  not-
withstanding the account of it given by Stoerck, who
seems  to have paid little attention to its modus  ope-
randi, we may still say with Haller, "nondum autem
vires pro dignitate exploratus est," and it  is now
fallen into disuse.
  Dictamnus creticus.  See Origanum dictamnus.
  Didym£'a.  (From StSvpos, double.)  A cataplasm;
so called by Galen, from  the double use to which he
puts it.
  DI'DYMI.  (From StSvpos, double.)  Twins.  An
old name of the testicles, and two eminences of tbe
brain, from their double protuberance.
  DIDYNAMIA.  (From Sis,  twice, and  Svvauts,
power, two powers.)  The name of a class in the
sexual system of plants, consisting of those with  her-
maphrodite flowers, which have four stamina, two of
which are long, and two short
  Diecbo'lium.  (From Sta, and acBaXXu, to cast out.)
A medicine causing an abortion.
  Diele'ctron. (From Sia, and eXaclpov, amber.)
A name of a troche, in which amber is an ingredient
  DIEMERBROECK, Iserand,  was born  near
Utrecht, in 1609.  After graduating at Angers, he went
to Nimeguen in 1636, and for some  years continued
freely attending those who were ill ofthe plague, which
raged with  great violence, and of whicli he subse-
quently published  an account.  This obtained  him
much credit: and, in 1642, he was made professor ex-
traordinary  in medicine at Utrecht;  when he gave
lectures on that subject, as well as on anatomy, wbich
rendered  him very popular.  He  received also other
distinctions at that university, and continued in high
esteem till bis death, in 1674.  He was author, besides,
of a system of anatomy, and several other works in
medicine and surgery; part of which were published
after his  death by  his son, especially his treatise on
the measles and smallpox.
  DIERVI'LLA. (Named inhonourofMr.DlervUle,
who first brought it from Arcadia.)  See Lonittra
diervilla. 
DIG
DIG
  DIET.  Diata.  The dietetic part of medicine Is
no  inconsiderable  branch, and  seen.*  to  require  a
much greater share of regard than it commonly meets
with.  A great variety of diseases might be removed
by the observance of a proper diet and regimen, with-
out the assistance of medicine, were it not for the im-
patience ofthe sufferers.  However,  it may on all oc-
casions come in as a proper assistant to the cure,
which sometimes cannot be performed without a due
observance of the  non-naturals.  That food is, in ge-
neral, thought the best and most conducive to long life,
which is most simple, pure, and free from irritating
qualities, and such as approaches nearest to  the nature
of our own bodies  in a healthy state, or is capable of
being easiest converted into their substance by the vis
vitae, after it  has  been duly prepared  by  the  art of
cookery; but the nature, composition, virtues, and uses
of particular aliments,  can never be learnt to satisfac-
tion, without the assistance of practical chemistry.
  Diet  drink.  An  alterative decoction  employed
daily in considerable quantities, at least from a pint to
a quart.  The decoction of sarsaparilla and mezereon,
the Lisbon diet drink, is the most common  and most
useful.
  DIETETIC.  Dieteticus.   That part of medicine
which considers the way of living  with relation to
food, or diet, suitable to any particular case.
  Die'xodos.  (From  Sia, and t\oSos, a way to pass
out)  Diodos.  In Hippocrates it means evacuation
by steol.
  Diffla'tio.   (From difflo, to  blow away.)   Per-
spiration.
  DIFFUSUS.   Diffused; spreading.  Applied to pa-
nicles and stems.  Panicula diffusa, that is, lax and
spreading;  as in Saxifraga  umbrosa; the London
pride, so common in our gardens; and many grasses,
especially the  common cultivated oat.  The Buntas
kakile, or sea rocket, has the caulis diffusus.
  DIGA'STRICUS.  (From  Sis, twice, and yaorrjp, a
belly: so called from its having two bellies.)  Biventer
maxilla of Albinus.  Mastoido-hygenien of Dumas.
A muscle situated externally between the lower jaw
and os hyoides.   It arises, by a fleshy belly, from the
upper part of the processus mastoideus, and descend-
ing,  it contracts into a  round tendon, which  passes
through the stylohyoideus, and an annular ligament
which is fastened  to the os hyoides: then it grows
fleshy again, and ascends towards the middle of the
edge of the lower jaw, where it is Inserted.  Its use is
to open  the mouth by pulling the lower jaw down-
wards and backwards;  and when the jaws are shut,
to raise the larynx,  and consequently the pharynx, up-
wards, as in deglutition.
  Dioere'ntia.  (From digero, to  digest.)   Medi-
cines which promote the secretion of proper pus in
wounds and ulcers.
  DIGESTER.  A strong and tight iron kettle or cop-
per, furnished with a valve of safety, in which bodies
may be subjected to the vapour of water, alkohol, or
sether, at a pressure above that of the atmosphere.
  DIGESTION.  (Digestio; from   digero,  to dis-
solve.}
  1.  An operation  in  chemistry and pharmacy, in
which such matters as are intended  to act  slowly on
each other, are exposed to a heat, continued for some
time.
  2. In physiology, the change that the food under-
goes in  the stomach, by  which  it is converted into
chyme.
  " The immediate object of digestion  is the forma-
tion of chyle, a matter destined for the reparation of
the  continual waste of the animal economy.  The di-
gestive organs contribute also  in many other ways to
nutrition.
  If we judge of the importance of a function by the
number  and  variety of its organs, digestion ought to
be placed in the first rank;  no other function of the
animal economy presents such  a complicated  appa-
ratus.
  There always exists an evident relation between the
sort of aliment proper for an animal  and the  disposi-
tion of its digestive organs.  If,  by their nature, the
aliments are very  different  from the elements which
compose the  animal:  if, for example, it is gramini-
vorous, the dimensions of the apparatus will be more
complicated, and more  considerable; if,on the con-
trary, the animal feeds on flesh, the  digestive organs
 will be fewer and more simple, as Is seen In the carni-
 vorous animals.  Man, called to use equally animal
 and vegetable aliments, keeps a mean  between the
 graminivorous and carnivorous animals, as lo the dis-
 position  and complication of his digestive apparatus,
 without deserving, on that account, to be called omni-
 vorous.               «
   We may represent the digestive apparatus as a long
 canal differently twisted upon itself, wide in certain
 points, narrow in others, susceptible of contracting or
 enlarging its dimensions, and into which a great quan-
 tity of fluids  are poured by means of different ducts.
 The canal is divided into many  parts by anatomists;
   1. The mouth.
   2. The pharynx.
   3. The oesophagus.
   4. The stomach.
   5. The small intestines.
   6. The great intestines.
   7. The anus.
   Two membranous layers form the sides of the dlges
 live canal in its whole length.  The inner layer, which
 is intended to be in contact with tbe aliments, consists
 of a mucous membrane, the appearance and structure
 of which vary in  every one of the portions of the
 canal,  so that it is not the same in the pharynx as in
 the mouth, nor Is it in the stomach like what it is in
 the oesophagus, &c.   In the lips and the anus this mem-
 brane becomes confounded with the skin. The second
 layer of the sides of the digestive canal is  muscular;
 it is composed of two layers of fibres, one longitudinal,
 the other circular.  The arrangement, the thickness,
 the nature of the fibres which enter into  the composi-
 tion of these strata are different, according as they are
 observed in the  mouth, in the oesophagus, or in the
 large intestine, Sec  A  great number of  blood-vessels
 go to, or come  from the digestive canal; but the abdo-
 minal portion of this canal receives a quantity incom-
 parably greater than the superior parts. This presents   /
 only what are  necessary for Its nutrition, and the In-    .',
 considerable secretion, of which it is the  seat; while ..  (?:
 the number and the volume of the vessels that belong   ' '
 to the  abdominal portion show that it  must be the
 agent of a considerable secretion.  The chyliferous ',
 vessels arise exclusively from the small intestine.
  As to the nerves, they are distributed to the diges-
 tive canal in an order inverse to that of the vessels;
 that is, the cephalic parts, cervical and pectoral, receive
 a great deal more  than the  abdominal  portion,  the
 stomach excepted, where the two nerves of the eighth
 pair terminate.   The other parts of the canal scarcely
 receive any branch of the cerebral nerves.   The only
 nerves that are observed, proceed from the subdia-     i
phragmatic ganglions of the great sympathetic.  We
 will see, farther on, tbe relation that exists between the
 mode of distribution of the nerves, and the  functions ,
 of the  superior and inferior portions of  the digestive
 canal.
   The  bodies tbat pour fluids into (he digestive canal,
 are,
   1. The digestive mucous membrane.
  2.  Isolated follicles that are spread in great numbers
 in the whole length of this membrane.
  3. The agglomerated follicles which are found at
 the isthmus of the throat,  between the pillars of the
 velum of the palate, and sometimes at the junction of
 the oesophagus and the stomach.
  4. The mucous glands which  exist in a greater or
 less number in  the sides of the cheeks, in the roof of
 the palate, around the oesophagus.                  ,
  5. The parotid, the  submaxillary,  and sublingual
glands, which  secrete  the saliva of the mouth, the
 liver, and the  pancreas; the first of which pours  the
 bile, the second the pancreatic juice, by distinct canals.
 into the superior part  of the small intestine, called
 duodenum.
   All the digestive organs contained in the abdominal
 cavity are immediately covered, more  or  less com-
 pletely, by the serous membrane called the peritoneum.
 This membrane, by the manner in which it is disposed.
 and by its physical and vital  properties, Is very useful
 in the  act of digestion,  by preserving to the organs
 their respective relations,  by favouring their changes
 of volume, by rendering  easy  the  sliding  motions
 which they perform upon  each other, and upon  the
 adjoining parts.
   The surface of the mucous digestive membrane Is 
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DIG
always lubrificd by a glutinous adhesive matter, more
or less abundant, than is seen in greatest quantity
where there exist no follicles,—a circumstance  which
seems to indicate that these ate not the only secreting
organs.  A part of  this matter,  to  which is given
generally the name of mucus, continually  evaporates,
so that there exists habitually  a  certain  quantity of
vapours in all the points of the  digestive canal.  The
chemical nature  of this substance, as taken at the
intestinal surface, is  still very little  known.   It is
transparent, with a light gray tint; it  adheres to the
membrane which forms it;  its  taste is salt, and  its
acidity is shown  by the re-agents: its formation still
continues some time after  death.  That  which  is
formed in the mouth, in the pharynx, and in the oeso-
phagus, goes into the stomach mixed with the saliva,
and the fluids of the mucous glands, by movements of
deglutition, which succeed  each other at near inter-
vals.   According  to this detail, it  would  appear that
the stomach ought to contain, after it  has been some
time empty of  aliments, a considerable quantity of a
mixture of  mucus, of saliva, and follicular fluid. This
observation is not proved, at least in the greatest num-
ber of individuals.  However, in a number of persons,
who are evidently in a particular state, there exist, in
the morning, in the stomach, many  ounces  of  this
mixture. In certain cases it is foamy, slightly troubled,
very little viscous, holding suspended some flakes of
mucus; its taste  is quite acid, not disagreeable, very
sensible  in the throat, acting upon the teeth, so as to
diminish the polish of  their surface, and  rendering
their  motion upon  each other  more  difficult.  This
liquid reddens paper stained with turnsol.
  In the same individual, in other circumstances, and
with the same appearances as to colour, transparency,
and consistency, the liquid of  the stomach  had  no
savour, nor any acid property; it is a little salt:  Ihe
solution of potassa,  as well as the nitric and sulphuric
acids, produced in it no apparent change.
  When we examine the dead bodies of persons killed
by accident, the stomach not having received any ali-
ments nor drink for some time, this organ contains only
a very few acid mucosities adhering to the coats ofthe
stomach, purt of which, in the pyloric portion of that
viscus, appears reduced to  chyme.  It is, then, very
probable, thai  the liquid  which  ought to  be  in the
stomach is digested  by this viscus as an alimentary
substance, &nd  that this is the reason  why it does not
accumulate there.
  In animais the organization of which approaches to
that of mat,, such as dogs and cats, there is no liquid
found in the stomach after one, or many days of com-
plete abstinence;  there is seen only a small quantity
of viscous  mucoslty adhering to the sides of the organ,
towards  its splenic extremity.  This matter has  the
greatest  analogy, both  chemical and physical, with
that which is found in the stomach of man.   But, if
we make these animals swallow a body which is not
susceptible of being digested, as a pebble for example,
there forms, after some time, in  the cavity of the sto-
mach, a certain quantity of an acid liquid mucus of
a grayish colour, sensibly salt, which, in its composi-
tion,  is nearly  the same as tbat  found sometimes in
man.
  This liquid, resulting from the mixture of the muco-
sities of the mouth, of the pharynx, of the oesophagus
and the stomach, with the liquid secreted  by the folli-
cles of the  same parts and with the saliva,  has been
called by physiologists the gastric juice, and to which
they have attributed particular properties.
  In the  small  intestine there  is also formed a great
quantity of mucous matter, which  rests habitually
attached to the sides of the intestine; it  differs little
from that of which  we  have spoken above ; it is vis-
cid, tough, and has a salt and acid savour; it is renew-
ed with great rapidity.   If the mucous membrane of
this intestine is laid  bare, in a, dog, and the layer of
mucus absorbed by a sponge, it will appear again in a
minute.  This observation may be repeated as often as
we please, until the intestine becomes inflamed by the
contact of the air, and foreign bodies.
  The mucus of the stomach penetrates into the cavity
of the small intestine only under the'form of a pulpous
matter, grayish and opaque, which  has all the appear-
ance of a particular chyme.
  It is at the surface of this same portion of the diges-
tive canal that the bile is delivered as well as tbe liquid
secreted by  the pancreas.  In animals, such as dogs)
the flowing of these liquids takes place at intervals;
tbat is, about twice in a minute, there is seen to spring
from the orifice of the ductus choledochus, or biliary
canal, a drop of bile, which immediately spreads itself
uniformly in a sheet upon the surrounding parts, which
are already  impregnated  with it; there is, also, con-
stantly found a certain quantity of bile in the small
intestine.
  The flowing of the liquid formed by the pancreas
takes place  much in the same manner, but it is much
slower; sometimes a quarter of an hour passes before
a drop of this fluid springs from the orifice of the canal
which pours it into the intestine
  The different fluids deposited in the small intestine,
which are, the chymous matter that conies from the
stomach, the mucus, the  follicular fluid, the bile, and
the pancreatic liquid, all mix together; but, on account
of its properties, and perhaps of its proportions, the
bile predominates, and gives to the mixture its proper
taste  and colour.  A  great  part of tins mixture de-
scends towards the large intestine, and passes into it;
in this passage, it becomes more  consistent, and the
clear yellow colour which it had before becomes dark,
and afterward greenish.   There are, however, in this
respect, strong individual differences.
  In the large intestine, the mucous and follicular se-
cretion appears less active than in tbe small intestine;
the mixture of fluids which comes from the small in-
testine acquires in it more consistence; it contracts a
foetid odour, analogous to that of ordinary excrements:
it has,  besides, the appearance of  it, by  its colour,
odour, &c.
  The knowledge of these facts enables us to under-
stand how a person who uses no aliments can continue
to produce excrements, and how, in certain diseases,
their quantity  is very considerable, though  the sick
person has  been long deprived of every alimentary
substance, even of a* liquid  kind.  Round the anus
exist follicles, which secrete a fatty matter of a singu-
larly powerful odour.
  We find gas  almost always in the intestinal canal;
the stomach contains only very little.  The chemical
nature of these gases has not  yet been  examined with
care; but as the saliva tbat we swallow is always
more or less impregnated with atmospheric air, it  is
probably the atmospheric air, more or less changed,
which is found in Ihe stomach.   At least, it contains
carbonic acid.  The small intestine contains only a
smalt quantity of gas; it is a mixture of carbonic acid,
of azote and hydrogen.   The large intestine contains
carbonic acid, azote, and hydrogen, sometimes carbu-
retted, sometimes sulphuretted.   Twenty-three per
cent, of this gas was found in.the rectum of an in-
dividual,  whose large intestine contained no  excre-
ment.
  The muscular layer of the digestive  canal  deserves
to be remarked, in respect to the different modes o
contraction  it  presents.  The lips, the jaws, in mos
cases the  tongue, the cheeks, are moved by a contrac
tion, entirely like that of the muscles  of locomotion.
The roof of the palate, the pharynx, the oesophagus,
and  the tongue in certain  particular  circumstances,
offer many motions, wbich have  a  manifest analogy
with muscular contraction, but which  are very differ-
ent from it because they take place without the parti-
cipation of the will.
  This does not imply that the  motions of the parts
just named are beyond the influence of the nerves ;
experience proves directly the contiary. If, for exam-
ple, the nerves that come to the oesophagus are cut,
this tube is deprived of its contractile faculty.
  The muscles of the velum of the palate, those ofthe
pharynx,  the superior two-thirds of the oesophagus,
scarcely contract like digestive organs, but when they
act in permitting substances to pass from the mouth
into the stomach.  The inferior third of the oesophagus
presents  a phenomenon  wbich  is  important  to  be
known: this is an alternate motion of contraction and
relaxation which  exists in a constant  manner.  The
contraction commences at the union of the superior
two-thirds of the canal  with  the inferior third; it is
continued, with a certain rapidity, to the insertion of
the oesophagus into the stomach: when it is once pro-
duced, it continues for a  time, which is variable; its
mean duration is, at least, thirty seconds.   Being so
contracted in its inferior third, the cseophagusis hard 
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and elastic, like  a cord strongly stretched.  The re-
laxation which succeeds the contraction happens all
at once, and simultaneously in all the contracted fibres;
in certain cases, however, it seems to take place from
the superior to the inferior fibres.  In tbe state  of re-
laxation, the oesophagus presents a remarkable flac-
cidity, which makes a singular contrast with its state
of contraction.
  This motion ofthe oesophagus depends on the nerves
of the eighth pair. When these nerves of an animal are
cut, the oesophagus no longer contracts, but neither is
it in the relaxed state that we have described; its fibres
being separated from nervous influence, shorten  them-
selves with a certain force, and the canal is found in
an intermediate state between contraction and relaxa-
tion.  The vacuity, or distention of tbe stomach, has
an  influence upon tbe  duration and intensity of the
contraction of the oesophagus.
  From the  inferior extremity of the stomach  to tbe
end of the intestine rectum, the intestinal  canal pre-
sents a mode of contraction which differs, in almost
every respect, from tbe contraction of the sub-diaphrag-
matic portion of  the canal.   This contraction always
takes place slowly, and  in an irregular manner;  some-
limes an hour passes before any trace of it can be per-
ceived ; at other tunes many intestinal portions contract
at once.  It  appears to  be very little influenced by the
nervous system: fur example,—it continues in the sto-
mach after the section of the nerves of the eighth pair;
it becomes more active by tbe weakness of animals,
and even by tbeir death; in some, by this cause it be-
comes considerably accelerated; it  continues though
tlie intestinal canal is entirely separated from the body.
The pyloric  portion of the stomach, the small  intes-
tine, ate the points of tbe intestinal canal where it is
presented oftenest, and most constantly.  This motion,
which arises from tbe successive or simultaneous con-
traction of the longitudinal or circular fibres of the in-
testinal canal, has  been  differently denominated by
authors: some have named it vermicular, others peris-
taltic, others again, sensible organic contractility, Sec.
Whatever it til the will appears to exert no sensible
influence upon it.
  The muscles of the anus contract voluntarily.
  The supradiaphragmatic portion of the digestive
canal is not susceptible of undergoing any considerable
dilatation; we may easily see, by iu structure, and the
mode of contraction of its muscular coat, that it is not
intended to allow the aliments to remain in its cavity,
but that it is rather formed  to carry tliese substances
from  the month into the stomach: this lost organ, and
the large intestine, are  evidently prepared to undergo
a very great distention; substances, also, which are
introduced into the alimentary canal, accumulate, and
remain for a lime, more or less, in their interior.
  The diaphragm, and the  abdominal  muscles, pro-
duce a sort of perpetual agitation of the digestive or-
gans contained in the  abdominal cavity; they exert,
•pon  them, a continual pressure, wbich becomes some-
times very considerable.
  The digestive  actions which by their union consti-
tute digestion, are—
  1. The apprehension of aliments.
  €. Mastication.
  3. Insativation.
  4. Deglutition.
  S. The action of the stomach.
  16. The action of the small intestines.
  7. The action of the large intestines.
  fi. The expulsion of the faecal matter.
   All the  digestive actions do not equally contribute
lo the production of chyle; the action of the stomach
find tbat of the ■mall intestines, are alone absolutely
necessary.
   Tbe digestion  of solid food requires generally the
aright digestive actions; tint of drinks  is much more
simple; it comprehends only  apprehension, degluti-
tion, the action of the stomach, and tbat of the small
Intestine.
   The mastication and deglutition of the  food being
 effected, we have now to notice the action of the sto-
 mach on  the aliment:  chemical alterations will now
 present ttaesssetves to our examination.   In thesto-
 snach tbe toad is transformed into a matter proper  to
ejunmals, which is named chyme.
   Before sheering the changes that the food undergoes
to the ssnsnachiitu accessary to know tbe phenomena
of their accumulation  in  this viscus, as well as tin
local and general effects that result from it.
  The first mouthful* of food swallowed  are easily
lodged in the stomach.  This organ is not much com
pressed by the surrounding viscera;  its sides separate
easily, and give way to the force which presses the ali-
mentary bole;  but its distention becomes more difficult
in proportion as new food arrives, for  this is  accom-
panied by the  pressing together  of the abdominal vis-
cera, and the extension of the sides of the abdomen.
This accumulation  takes  place particularly towards
the right extremity and the  middle  pari: the pyloric
half gives way with more difficulty.
  While the stomach is distended, its form, its rela-
tions, and even its  positions, undergo alterations: in
place of bring flattened on  its  aspects, of occupying
only the epigastrium and a part of tlie left hypochondri-
um, it  assumes a round form; Its great cut de sac is
thrust into this hypochondrium, and fills it almost com-
pletely; the  greater curvature descends towards the
umbilicus, particularly on  the left side; the pylorus,
alone, fixed by a fold of the peritoneum, preserves its
motion and its relations with the  surrounding ports.
On account ofthe resistance that the vertebral column
presents behind, the posterior surface of the stomach
cannot distend itself on that side: for that reason this
viscus is wholly carried forward; and  as the  pylorus
and the oesophagus cannot be displaced in this direc-
tion, it makes a motion  of rotation, by which iu great
curve is directed a little forward;  its posterior aspect
inclines downwards, and Its superior upwards.
  Though it undergoes  these changes of position and
relation, it, nevertheless, preserves the recurved conoid
form which is proper to it.  This effect depends on the
manner in which the three tunics contribute to its dila-
tation.  The two plates of the serous membrane sepa-
rate and  give  place to  the stomach.   The muscular
layer suffers a real distention ; iu fibres are prolonged,
but so as to preserve the particular form of the stomach.
Lastly, the mucous membrane gives way, particularly
in the points where the folds are multiplied.  It will
be noticed that these are  found  particularly along the
larger curve, as well as at the splenic extremity.
  The dilatation of  the stomach alone produces very
important changes in the abdomen.  The total  voluma
of this cavity  augments;  tbe belly juts out;  the ab-
dominal viscera  are compressed with greater force;
often the necessity of passing urine, or faeces, is folk
The diaphragm is pressed towards the breast, it de-
scends with some difficulty;  thence the motions of re-
spiration, and the  phenomena  which depend on it,
are more incommoded, such as  speech, singing, sec.
   In certain cases, the dilatation of the stomach may
be carried so  far that the sides of the abdomen are
painfully distended, and respiration becomes difficult
   To produce  such effects, tbe contraction of the oeso-
phagus, which presses the food  in the stomach, must
be very energetic.  We have remarked above the con
siderable thickness of the muscular layer of this canal,
and the great number of nerves which go to it;  nothing
less than this disposition is necessary to account for the
force with which tile food distends the stomach.  For
more certainty, the  finger has only to be  introduced
into the  oesophagus of an animal by the cardiac ori-
fice, and the force of the contraction will be found
striking.
   But if the food exerts so marked an influence upon
the sides of the stomach and the abdomen, they ought
themselves to suffer a proportionate  reaction, and
tend  to escape by the  two  openings of the stomach.
Why does this effect not take place 1  It is generally
said that the cardia and pylorus shut;  but this pheno-
menon has  not been submitted to any particular re-
searches. Here is what Dr. Magendie's experiments
have produced in this respect.
   The alternate motion of the oesophagus prevent! the
return of the food into this cavity.  The more the sto-
mach is  distended,  contraction  becomes the more in-
tense  and  prolonged,  and the  relaxation  of  shorter
duration.  Iu contraction generally coincides with the
instant of inspiration, when  the stomach is most forci-
bly compressed.  Its relaxation ordinarily happens at
the instant of expiration.
   We may have an idea of this mechanism by layiag
bare the stomach of a dog, and endeavouring to rnatae
tbe food pass into the oesophagus by compressing the
stomach with both hands. It will be nearly fanposssble 
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 to succeed, whatever force is used, if it is done at the
 instant when the oesophagus is contracted: but the
 passage will take place, in a certain degree, of iuelf;
 if the stomach is compressed at  the instant of relaxa-
 tion.
  The resistance that the pylorus presenu to the pas-
 sage of the aliments is  of another kind.   In living
 animals, whether the  stomach is empty or full, this
 opening is habitually shut, by tbe constriction of its
 fibrous ring, and the contraction of iu circular fibres.
 There  is frequently seen another constriction  in  the
 Btomach, at the distance of one or two inches, which
 appears intended to prevent the food from reaching the
 pylorus;  we perceive, also, irregular  and peristaltic
 con'ractions, which commence at the duodenum, and
 are continued into the pyloric portion of the stomach,
 the  effect of which is to press the food towards the
 splenic part.  Besides, should ihe pylorus not be natu-
 rally shut, the food would have little tendency to enter
 it, fbr it only endeavours to escape into a place where
 the pressure is less; and this would be equally great in
 the small intestine as in the stomach, since it is nearly
 equally distributed over all the abdominal cavity.
  Among the number of  phenomena produced by the
 food in the stomach, there are several, the  existence
 of which, though generally admitted,  do not appear
 sufficiently demonstrated;  such  is the  diminution of
 the volume of the spleen, and that of the blood-vessels
 of the liver, or the omenta, Sec;  such is also a motion
 of the stomach, which should preside over the recep-
 tion of the food, distribute it equally by exerting upon
 it a gentle pressure, so that its dilatation, far from being
 a passive phenomenon, must be essentially active. Dr.
 Magendie has frequently opened animals the stomachs
 of which were filled with food;  he  has examined the
 bodies of executed  persons, a short time after death,
 and  lias seen nothing favourable to these assertions.
  The accumulation of food in the stomach is accom-
 panied by many sensations, of which it is necessary to
 take account:—at first, it is an agreeable feeling, or the
  leasure of a want satisfied.  Hunger is  appeased by
  egrees; the general weakness that accompanied  it is
 replaced by an active state, and a feeling ot new force.
 If the introduction of food is continued, we experience
 a sensation of fulness and satiety which indicates that
 the  stomach is sufficiently replenished; and if, con-
 trary to this instinctive information, we still persist to
 make use of food, disgust and nausea soon arrive, and
 they are very soon followed by vomiting.  These dif-
 ferent impressions must not be attributed to the volume
 of the aliments alone.  Every  thing being  equal in
 other respects, food very  nutritive occasions, more
 promptly, the feeling of satiety.   A substance  which
 is not very nourishing does not easily calm hunger,
 though  it is taken in great quantity.
  The mucous membrane of the stomach, then, is en-
 dowed  with considerable sensibility, since it distin-
 guishes the nature of substances which come in con-
 tact with it.  This property is very strongly marked if
 an irritating poisonous substance is swallowed: intole-
 rable pain is then felt.  We also know that tlie stomach
 is sensible to the temperature of food.
  We cannot doubt that the presence of the aliments
 of the stomach causes a great  excitement, from the
 redness of the mucous membrane, from the quantity
 of fluid it secretes, and the volume of vessels directed
 there; but this is favourable lo chymification.  This
 excitement of the stomach influences the general state
 of the functions.
  The time that the alimente remain in the stomach is
 considerable, generally several hours, it is during tins
stay  that they are transformed into chyme.
  Changes of the aliments in the stomach:—
  It is more than an hour before the food suffers any
apparent change in the stomach, more  than what re-
sulu from the perspiratory and  mucous  fluids with
which they are mixed, and which are continually re-
newed.
  The stomach  is  uniformly distended  during this
time  ; but the whole extent of the pyloric portion af-
terward contracu, particularly that nearest the splenic
portion, into which the food is pressed.   Afterward,
there is nothing  found  in the  pyloric  portion  bui
chyme,  mixed with a small quantity  of unchanged
food.
  The best authors have agreed to consider the chyme
as a homogeneous substance, pultaceous, grayish, of
 a sweetish taste, insipid, slightly acid, and preserving
 some of the properties of the food.  This description
 leaves much to be explained.
   The result of Dr. Magendie's experiments are as fol-
 lows:
   A. There  are as many sorts of chyme as there are
 different sorts of food, if we judge by the colour, con-
 sistence, appearance, &c.; as we may easily ascertain,
 by giving different simple  alimentary substances  to
 dogs to eat, and killing them during the operation of
 digestion.  He frequently found the same result  in
 man, in tbe dead bodies of criminals, or persons dead
 by accident.
   B. Animal substances are generally more easily and
 completely changed than vegetable substances.  It fre-
 quently  happens that these last traverse the whole in-
 testinal caual without changing their apparent proper-
 ties.   He has frequently seen in the rectum, and in the
 small intestine, the vegetables which are used in soup,
 spinage, sorrel, Sec, which had preserved the  most
 part of their properties:  their colour alone appeared
 sensibly changed by the contact of the bile.
   Chyme is formed particularly in the pyloric portion.
 The food appears to be introduced slowly into it, and
 during the time they remain they undergo transforma-
 tion.  The Doctor believes, however, that be has ob-
 served frequently chymou3  matter at the surface of
 the mass of alimenU which fill the splenic portion;
 but the alimente in general preserve their properties in
 tins part of the stomach.
   It would be difficult to tell why the pyloric portion  is
 better adapted to the formation of chyme than the rest
 of the stomach; perhaps the great number of follicles
 that are seen in it modify the quantity or the nature
 of the fluid that is there  secreted.  The transforma-
 tion of alimentary substances Into chyme takes place
 generally from the superficies to the centre.  On the
 surface of portions of food swallowed, there is formed
 a soft layer easy to be detached. The substances seem
 to  be attacked and corroded by a reagent capable of
 dissolving them.   The white of a hard  egg, for Di-
 stance, becomes in a little time as if plunged in vinegar,
 or in a solution of potassa.
  C.  Whatever is the alimentary substance employed,
 the chyme has always a  sharp odour mid taste,  and
 reddens paper coloured with turnsol.
  D.  There is only a small quantity of gas found in
 the stomach  during the  formation of chyme; some-
 times there exisu  none.  Generally, it forms a smal]
 bubble at the superior part of tbe splenic portion.
 Once only in the body of a criminal a short time after
 death  lie gathered wilh proper precautions a quantity
 sufficient to be analyzed.  Chevreuil found it com-
 posed of:
         Oxygen,.....................11.00
         Carbonic acid,...............  14.00
         Pure hydrogen,...............  3.55
         Azote,.......................  71.45

          Total......................100.00

  There is rarely any gas found in the stomach of  a
 dog.  We cannot then believe, with Professor Cbaus-
 sier, that we swallow a bubble of air at every motion
 of deglutition, which is pressed into tbe stomach by
 the alimentary bole.   Were it so, there ought to be
 found a considerable quantity of air in this organ after
 a meal: now the contrary is  to be seen.
  E. There is never a great quantity of chyme accu
 mulated in the pyloric portion: the most that the Doc-
 tor ever saw in it was scarcely equal in volume to two
 or three  ounces  of water.   The contraction of  the
 stomach appears to have  an  influence upon the  pro-
 duction of chyme.  The following is what he observed
 in tills respect.   After having been  some  time  im-
 moveable, the extremity of tlie duodenum contracts,
 Ihe pylorus and the pyloric portion contract also; this
 motion presses the chyme towards the splenic portion
 but it afterward presses it in a contrary direction, that
 is, after  being distended, and having  permitted  the
chyme to enter again into iu cavity, the pyloric por-
tion contracu from left to right, and directs the chyme
towards the duodenum, which immediately passes tile
pylorus and enters the intestine.
  The same phenomenon is repeated a certain number
of times, but  it stops to  begin again, after a certain
tune.  When the  stomach contains much food, this 
DIG
DIG
motion is limited to the parts of the organ nearest the
pylorus; but in proportion as it  becomes empty, tlie
motion extends farther, and is seen even in the splenic
portion when the  stomach is almost entirely empty.
It becomes  generally  more strom: about the  end  of
chytnification.  Some persons have a distinct feeling
of it at this moment.
  The pylorus has been made to play a very important
part in the passage of the chyme from the stomach to
Die intestine.  It judges, they say, of ihe chymitication
of the food; it opens to those that have the required
qualities, and shuu against those that have not. How-
ever, as we daily observe substances not digestible tra-
verse it easily, such as stones of cherries, it is added,
that becoming accustomed to a substance not chymi-
fied, which presenU itself repeatedly, it at last opens
a passage.   These considerations, consecrated in a
certain degree by  the word pylorus,  a porter,  may
please the fancy, but they are purely hypothetical.
  F.  All the alimentary substances are not transform-
ed into chyme with the same promptitude.
  Generally the fat substances, the tendons, the car-
tilages, the concrete albumen, tlie mucilaginous and
sweet vegetables, resist more the action of the stomach
than tbe  caseous, fibrinous, and glutinous substances.
Even some substances appear refractory: such as the
bones, tlie epidermis of fruits, their stones, and whole
seeds, etc
  In determining the digestibility of food, the volume
of the portions swallowed ought to be taken into ac-
count The  largest pieces, of whatever  nature, re-
main longest in ihe stomach ; on the contrary, a sub-
stance which is not digestible, if it is very small, such
us grape stones, does nol rest in tlie stomach, but passes
quickly witb the chyme into the intestine.
  In respect of the facility and quickness of the forma-
tion of chyme, it is different  in every different indi-
vidual.   It is evident, after what has been said, that to
fix  the necessary time  for the chymificalion of all the
food contained in the stomach, we ought to take into
account their quantity, their chemical nature, ihe man-
ner, iu which the mastication acu upon them,  and the
individual disposition.   However, in four or five hours
after an ordinary meal, the transformation ofthe whole
ofthe food into chyme is generally effected.
i  The nature of tne chemical changes that the food
undergoes in the  stomach is unknown. It is not be-
cause there have been no attempts at different periods
to give explanations of them more or less plausible.
The ancient  philosophers said that the food  became
putriried  in  the stomach;  Hippocrates attributed the
digestive process to coction;  Galen assigned the sto-
mach attractive, retentive, concoctive, expulsive fa-
culties, and  by their help he  attempted to explain di-
gestion.  The doctrine  of  Galen reigned in the schools
until  the middle of the seventeenth century, when  it
was attacked and  overturned by the fermenting che-
mists, who established in the stomach an effervescence,
a particular fermentation, by means of which the food
was macerated, dissolved, predpitated, Sec
  This system was not long in repute; it was replaced
by ideas  much less reasonable.   Digestion was sup-
posed to be only a trituration, a bruising performed by
the  stomach; an innumerable quantity of little worms
was supposed to attack and divide the food.  Boer-
baave thought he had  found  the truth, by combining
the  different  opinions  that had  reigned  before him.
Haller did not follow the ideas of his master;  he con-
sidered digestion a simple  maceration.  He knew that
vegetable and animal matters, plunged into water, are
booh covered wilh a soft homogeneous layer;  he be-
lieved that tbe food underwent a like change, by ma-
cerating  in  the saliva and fluids secreted  by the
stomach.
  Reaumur and Spallanzani  made experiments on
animals,  and demonstrated the falsity of the  ancient
systems;  they showed that food, contained in hollow
metallic balls pierced wilh small holes, was digested tlie
same as  if it was  free  iu the cavity of the stomach.
They proved tbat the  stomach contains a particular
fluid, which  tbey call gastric juice, and that this fluid
was tlie  principal  agent of digestion; but they much
exaggerated  iu properties, and they were mistaken
when they thought to have explained digestion in con-
sidering it as a solution: because. In not explaining
this solution, they did  not explain the clianges of food
la tbe stomach.
      300
   In tbe formation of chyme, it Is necessary to consi-
 der, 1st, The circumstances in which the food is found
 in the t-tomach.  'idly,  The chemical nature of it
   The circumstances affecting the food in the stomach,
 during iu stay there,  are not numerous: 1st, il suffers a
 pressure more or less strong, either from the sides of
 the abdomen, or'from those of the stomach ;  2dly, the
 whole is entirely moved by the motions of rcspirution;
 3dly, it is exposed to  a temperature of thirty lo thirty-
 two degrees of Reaumur; 4thly, it is exposed  lo the
 action ofthe saliva, ofthe mucosilies proceeding from
 the  mouth and the oesophagus, as well as the fluid
 secreted by the mucous membrane of tne stomach.
   It will be remembered thai this fluid is slightly vis-
 cous, that it contains much water, mucus, salu, with a
 base of soda and  ammonia, and lactic acid of Ber-
 zelius.
   With regard to  the  nature of the  food, we  have
 already seen how  variable it is, since all the imme-
 diate principles, animal or vegetable, may be carried
 into the stomach, in  different forms and  proportions,
 and serve usefully in the formation of chyme.  Now,
 making allowance for the nature of the food, and the
 circumstances in which it is placed in the stomarn,
 shall we be able to account for the known  phenomena
 of the formation of cbymel The temperature of thirty
 to thirty-two degrees, R. = 100 to 104 F.; the pressure,
 and the tossing that the food sustains, cnnnol be con-
 sidered as the principal cause of its transformation into
 chyme; il is probable that tbey only co-operate in this;
 the action of the saliva and that of the fluid secreted in
 the stomach remain ; but after the known composition
 of the saliva,  it is hardly possible that it can attack
 and change the nature  of the  food;  at  most, it can
 only serve to divide,  to imbibe it in such a manner aa
 to separate its particles:  i  must then be tbe action of
 the fluid formed by the internal  membrane of the sto-
 mach.  It appears certain that this fluid, in acting che-
 mically upon  the  alimentary substances,  dissolves
 them from the surface towards  the centre.
  To produce a palpable proof of it, with  this fluid pf
 which we speak, there have been attempts made to
 produce what is called  in physiology, artificial di-
gestions, that is, after having macerated  food, it is
mixed with gastric  juice, and then exposed in a tube,
 or any other vase, to  a temperature equal to tbat of
 the stomach.  Spallanzani advanced, that these di-
 gestions succeeded, and  that the food was reduced to
 chyme; but, according to the researches of de Monte-
 gre, it appears that they are not; and that, on the con-
 trary, the substances employed  undergo no alteration
 analogous to chymificalion; this is agreeable to expe-
 riments made by Reaumur.  But because the gastric
juice does not dissolve the food when put wilh it into
 a tube, we ought not  to  conclude that the same fluid
 cannot dissolve the food  when it is introduced into iba
 stomach; the circumstances are  indeed far from being
 the same:  in the stomach, the temperature is constant,
 the food is pressed and  agitated, and the saliva  and
gastric juice are constantly renewed;  as soon as the
chyme is formed, it is carried away and pressed in the
duodenum.  Nothing of this lakes place in the lube or
 vase which contains tbe food   mixed with gastric
juice; therefore,  the want of success in artificial di-
gestions, proves  nothing whicli  tends to explain the
formation  of chyme.
  But how does it happen  that the same fluid can act
in a manner similar upon the great variety of aliment-
ary substances,  animal  and vegetable 1 The acidity
which characterizes  it, though fit to dissolve certain
matters, as albumen,  for example, would not be suita-
ble for dissolving fat.
  To this it may be answered, that nothing proves tbe
gastric juice to continue always the same; the small
number of analyses that have been made of it demon-
strate, on  the contrary, that it presenU considerable
varieties in iu  properties.  The contact of different
sorts of food upon  the mucous membrane of the sto-
mach, may possibly influence iu composition ; it  is at
least certain, that this varies in the different animals.
For example, that  of man is incapable of acting on
bones; it is well known that ihe dog digesU these sub-
stances perfectly.
  Generally speaking, the action by wbich the rhyme
is formed  prevenu the  reaction of the  constituent
elemenU of the food  upon each  other: but this effort
takes place only in good digestions; in bod digestion, 
DIG
DIG
fermentation, and even putrefaction may take place:
Ills may be suspected by the great quantity of inodor-
ous gases that are developed in certain cases, and the
lulpliun-Ucd  hydrogen which is disengaged  in others.
  The nerves of the eighth pair have long been consi-
dered  to direct the act  of chyinificatiou:  in  fact, if
these nerves  are cut, or tied in the neck, ihe matters
introduced into the stomach undergo no  alteration.
But the consequence, (says Dr. Magendie) that is de-
duced from this fact, does not appear to me to be rigor-
ous.  Is not the effect produced upon the stomach by
the injury done to  respiration, confounded here with
the direct influence ofthe section of the nerves of the
eighth pair upon this organ 1  I am inclined to believe
It:  for, as  I have many times done, if the two eighth
pairs be cut in the breast below the branches which go
to the lungs, the food which is introduced afterward
into the stomach is transformed into chyme, and ulti-
mately furnishes an abundant chyle.
  Some  persons imagine that electricity may have an
•nfluence in  the production of chyme, and that the
nerves we mention may be the conductors:  there is no
established fact to  justify this conjecture.  The most
probable use of the nerves of the eighth pair i9, to esta-
blish intimate relations between  the stomach and the
brain, to give notice whether any noxious substances
have entered along with the food, and whether they
arc  capable of being digested.
  In a strong person, the operation ofthe formation of
chyme takes  place  without his knowledge; it is merely
perceived that the sensation of fulness, and the diffi-
culty of  respiration produced by the distention of the
stomach, disappear by degrees;  but frequently, with
people of a delicate temperament, digestion is accom-
panied with feebleness in Ihe action ofthe senses, with
a general coldness, and slight shiverings; the activity
of the mind diminishes, and seems to become drowsy,
and there is a disposition to sleep. The vital powers
are then  said to be concentrated in the organ that acu,
and to abandon for  an instant the others.  To those
general effecu are joined the production of the gas that
escapes by the mouth, a feeling of weight, of heat, of
giddiness, and sometimes of burning, followed by an
analogous sensation along the oesophagus, &c.  These
effecu are felt particularly towards  the end of the
chymificalion.  It does not appear, however, that these
laborious digestions are much less beneficial than the
others.
  From  the  stomach, the  food is received into the
small intestine, which is ihe longest portion of the di-
gestive canal; it establishes a communication between
the stomarh  and ihe  large intestine.  Not being sus-
ceptible of much distention, it is twisted a great many
times upon itself,  being much longer than the  place
in which il is contained.  Il is fixed to the vertebral
column by a fold ofthe peritonaeum, which limiu, yet
aids its motions; its  longitudinal and circular fibres
are not separated as in the stomach; iu mucous mem-
brane, which presents many villi, and a great number
of mucous follicles, forms irregular circular folds, the
number of which are greater in proportion as the intes-
tine is examined nearer the pyloric orifice: these folds
are called valvule conniventes.
  The small intestine receives many blood-vessels; its
nerves come from the ganglions of the great sympa-
thetic.  At its internal surface, the numerous orifices
of the chyliferous vessels open.
  This intestine is divided into three parts, called the
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.  The mucous mem-
brane of the small intestine, like that of the stomach,
secretes  abundance of mucus; viscous, thready, of a
salt ta.-te, and reddens strongly turnsol paper; all which
properties  are also in tbe liquid secreted by the sto-
mach.  Haller gave  this fluid the  name of intestinal
juice; the quantity that is formed in twenty-four hours
lie estimated  at eight pounds.
  Not far from the gastric extremity of this intestine
is the common  orifice of the biliary and pancreatic
canals, by which the fluid secreted by the liver and
the  pancreas flow into  the intestinal cavity.  If the
formation ofthe chyme is still a mystery, the nature of
the phenomena that take place in the small intestine
are little better known.
  In the experiments which have been made on dogs
and  rabbits, tbe chyme is seen to pass from the stomach
Into the duodenum.   The phenomena are these.  At
Intervals, more or less  dittant, a  contractile motion
commences towards the middle of the duodenum; tt
is propagated rapidly to tlie  site of ihe pylorus: this
ring contracu iuelf, as also the pyloric part of the
stomach; by this motion, the matters contained in the
duodenum are pressed back towards the pylorus, where
they are stopped by the valve, and those that are found
in the pyloric part, are partly pressed towards  the
splenic part; but this motion, directed from the intes-
tine towards the stomach, is very soon replaced by
another in a contrary direction, that is, which propa-
gates iuelf from the stomach towards the duodenum,
the result of which is to make a considerable quantity
of chyme pass the pylorus.
  This fact  seems to indicate that the valve of the
pyiorus serves as much to prevent the mallei s con-
tained in the small intestine from flowing back into the
stomach, as  to retain the chyme and the food in the
cavity of this organ.
  The motion that we have described, is generally re-
peated many times  following, and modified as to the
rapidity, the intensity of the contraction, &c.; it then
ceases to begin again after some time.  It is not very
marked in the first moments of the formation of the
chyme; the  extremity only of the pyloric part partici-
pates in it.  It augments in proportion as the stomach
becomes empty ; and, towards  Ihe end of chymifica-
tion, it often takes place over the whole stomach.   It
is  not suspended by the section of the  nerves of the
eighth pair.
  Thus the entrance of chyme into the small intestine
is not perpetual. According as it is repeated, the chyme
accumulates in the first portion ofthe intestine, it dis-
tends  iu sides a little, and presses into the intervals of
the valves; iu presence  very soon excites the organ
to contract, and by this meaps one part advances into
the intestine; the other remains attached  to the sur-
face of its membrane, and afterward  takes the same
direction.  The same phenomenon continues down to
the large intestine; but, as the duodenum receives new
portions of the chyme, it happens at last that the small
intestine is filled in iu whole  length with this matter.
It is observed only to be much less abundant near  the
cecum than  at the pyloric extremity.
  The motion that determines the progress of  the
chyme through the small intestine, has a great analogy
with that of the pylorus:  it is irregular, returns at pe-
riods which  are variable, is sometimes  in one direc-
tion, sometimes in another, takes place sometimes in
many parts at once;  it is always slow, more or less;
it  causes  relative changes among the intestinal cir-
cumvolutions. It is beyond the influence ofthe will.
  We should form a false idea of it were we merely
to examine the intestine of an  animal recently dead;
it has then a much greater activity than during life.
Nevertheless, in weak digestions it appears to acquire
more than ordinary  energy and velocity.
  In whatever manner this  motion takes place,  the
chyme appears to move very slowly in the small intes-
tine:  the numerous  valves that il contains, the multi-
tude of asperities that cover the mucous membrane,
the many bendings of the camKare so many circum-
stances that  ought to contribute to retard its progress,
but which ought to  favour its mixture with the fluids
contained  in the intestine, and the production of the
chyle  which resulu  from it.
  Changes that tlie chyme undergoes in the small in-
testine.—It is only about the height of the orifice of
the choledochus and pancreatic canal that the chyme
begins to change  iu properties.  Before this, it pre-
serves iu  colour, its semi-fluid consistence, its sharp
odour, its slightly acid savour; but, in mixing wilh the
bile and the pancreatic juice, it assumes new qualities:
its colour becomes yellowish, iu taste bitter, and iu
sharp odour diminishes much. If it proceeds from ani-
mal or vegetable matters, which contained grease or
oil, irregular filaments are seen to form here and there
upon  iu surface; they are sometimes flat, at other
times rounded, attach themselves quickly to the surface
of the valve, and appear to consist of crude chyle.
This matter is not seen when the chyme proceeds from
matter that contained no fat; it is a  grayish layer,
more or less thick, which adheres to the mucous mem-
brane, and appears  to contain the  elements of chyle.
The same phenomena are observed in the two superior
thirds of the small intestine: but in the inferior third,
the cbymous matter is more consistent; its yellow co-
lour becomes more deep, it ends sometimes bvheceiu 
DIG
DIG
 rag of a greenish brown, wbicb pierces through tbe
 intestinal parietes, and gives an  appearance  to tlie
 ileum, distinct from that of the duodcnu m and jejunum.
 When it is examined near the cecum, there are few or
 no whitish chylous striie seen; it seems, in this place,
 to  be only the  remainder of the maUer which has
 served in the formation of the chyle.
   After what has been said above, upon the varieties
 that the chyme presents we may understand that tlie
 changes it undergoes in the small intestine are variable
 according to iu properties;  in fact, the phenomena of
 digestion in the small intestine, vary according to the*
 nature of the food.   The cbyme, however, preserves
 its acid property; and if it  contains small quantities
 of food or other bodies that have resisted the action of
 the stomach, they traverse the small intestine without
 undergoing any alteration.  The some phenomena ap-
 pear when the same substances have  been used.   Dr.
 Magendie has ascertained tbU fact upon tbe bodies of
 two criminals, who, two hours before death, had taken
 an ordinary meal, in which they had eaten the same
 food nearly la equal quantity; the malters contained
 in  the stomach, the chyme  in the  pyloric portion
 and in the small intestine, appeared to him exactly
 the same as to consistence, colour, taste, odour,  &c.
  There is generally gas found in the small intestine
 during the formation of chyle.   Drs. Magendie  and '
 Chevreuil have asade experimenu upon the bodies of
 criminals opened shortly after death, and who, being
 young and vigorous, presented the most favourable  con-
 ditions tor each researches.  In  a subject of twenty-
 four years, who had eaten, two hours before his death,
 bread, and some Swiss cheese, and drank water  red-
 dened with wine, they found in tlie small intestine:
        Oxyaan......................  0.00
        Carbonic acid................ 34.39
        Pure hydrogen................55.511
        Azote........................20.08

          Total......................100.00

  In a second subject, aged  twenty-three years, who
 had eaten of tlie same food at the same hour,  and
 whose punishment took place at the same time:
        Oxygen......................  0.00
        Carbonic acid................ 40.00
        Pure hydrogen...............51.15
        Azote.......................  8.85

         Total......................100.00

  In a third experiment, made upon a young man of
 twenty-eight years, who, four hours before death  had
 eaten bread, beef, lentiles, and drank red wine, they
 found in tbe same intestine:
       Oxygen......................  0.00
       Carbonicacid............•••• 25.00
       Pure hydrogen...............  8.40
       Azote....................... 66.60

         Total......«...............100.00

  They never observed any other gases in the small in-
testine.   These gases might  have different origins.
 They might possibly come from tbe stomach with tlie
 chyme;  or tbey were, perhaps, secreted by the intes-
 tinal mucous  membrane; tbey might arise from  tbe
reciprocal action of tbe matters contained in tbe intes-
 tine ; or perhaps they might come from all these sources
 at once.
  However, the stomach contains oxygen, and very
little hydrogen, while they have almost always  found
 much hydrogen  in the small intestine, and never  any
oxygen.   Besides, it  is a daily observation, that  the
little gas that the stomach contains is generally passed
by the mouth  towards the end of chymificalion, pro-
bably, because at this instant it can more easily ad-
 vance into the oesophagus.
  Tbe probability of the formation of gases by  the
secretion of the mucous membrane could not be at all
admissible, except for carbonic acid, which seems to
be formed in this manner in respiration.  With regard
to the action of matters contained in the intestine, Dr.
Magendie says he has many limes seen the chymous
matter  let bubbles of gas  escape very rapidly.  This
took place from  the orifice of the ductus choledochus
lo the commencement cd the  ileum ■ there was no trace
     30s
 of it perceived in this last intestine, nor In tbe superior
 part of the duodenum, nor  the stomach.   He mad*
 this observation again  upon the body of a criminal
 four hours after death; it presented no traces of putre-
 fuction.
   The alteration wbich cbyme undergoes in the sina'l
 intestine is unknown; it is easily seen to be the result
 of the action of the bile, of  the panereMso juice, and
 of the fluid secreted by the mucous membrane, upon
 the cbyme.  Hut what is the play of the affinities in
 this real chemical operation, and why is the chyle pre-
 cipitated against the surface  of the valvule emaiorn-
 tes, while the  rest remains in the intestine  to be after-
 ward expelled 1  This is completely unknown.
   We have learned something more of the time that
 is necessary for this  alteration of the  chyme.  The
 phenomenon does not take place quickly: in animals,
 it often happens that we do not find any chyle formed
 three or four hours after the meal.
   After what  has been said,  we see that in theamall
 intestine, the chyme is divided into two parts: the one
 which attaches  iuelf to  the sides, and which  is the
 chyle still impure; the other the true refuse, which is
 destined to be thrown into the large intestine, and af-
 terward entirely carried out of the body.
   The manner in which drinks accumulate in the  sto-
 mach differs little from that of the alimenu; it is gene-
 rally quicker, more  equal, and more easy; probably
 because the liquids  spread, and distend the stomach
 more uniformly.  In the same manner as tbe food, -
 they occupy more particularly its left and middle por-
 tion ; the pyloric, or right extremity, contains always
 much less.
   The distention of the stomach must not, however, be
 carried to a great degree, for the liquid would  be ex-
 pelled by vomiting.  This frequently happens to per-
 sons that swallow a great quantity of drink quickly.
 When we wish to excite vomiting in persons who
 hnve taken an  emetic,  one  of the best  means is to
 make them drink a number of glasses of liquid quickly.
  The  presence of  drinks in the  stomach  produces
 local phenomena like those which take place from  the
 accumulation of the aliments; the same changes in tbe
 form and position of the organ, the sume distention of
 the abdomen, tlie same contraction of the pylorus and
 the oesophagus, tc.
  Tbe  general phenomena are  different from  tbos«
 produced by the  alimenu: this depends on the action
 of  the liquids upon tbe  sides of  the stomach, and
 the quickness with  which tbey  are carried into  the
 blood.
  Potations, in passing rapidly through the mouth and
 the oesophagus, preserve  more than the food their pro-
 per temperature until they arrive in the stomach. We
 therefore prefer them to those, when we wisb to expe-
 rience in this organ a feeling of heat or of cold: hence
 arises tbe preference  that we  give to hot drinks in
 winter, and cold drinks in summer.
  Every one  knows tbat the drinks remain a much
 shorter time in tlie stomach than the aliments; but  tbe
 manner of their passage out of this viscus is still very
 little known.  It is generally supposed that they tra-
 verse the  pylorus and pass  into the small intestine,
 wbere they are absorbed with the chyle; nevertheless
a ligature applied round the pylorus in such a manlier
as to hinder it from penetrating into  the duodenum,
does not much retard its disappearance from the cavity
of the stomach.
  Alteration of drinks in the stomach.—Fluids, in
respect of the alterations that they prove in the sto-
mach, may be divided into two classes: the one sort
do not form any chyme, and  the other are chyrnified
wholly or in part.
  To the first class belong pure water, alkohol,  suffi-
ciently  weak to be considered as a drink, the vegetable
acids, Sec   During iu stay  in  the stomach, water
assumes an equilibrium of temperature with the side*
of this  viscus: it mixes at the same time with mucus,
the gastric juice, and the saliva which are found  in it;
it becomes muddy, and afterward  disappears slowly
without suffering any other transformation.  One part
passes into the  small intestine; the other appears to be
directly absorbed. There remains  after iu disappear-
ance e certain quantity of mucus, which U  very noon
reduced to chyme like the aliments.  By observation
we know  that water deprived of atmospheric air, as
distilled water, or water charges with a great quantity 
DIG                                             DIG
 efenlta, ns well-water, remain long in tlie stomach
 and produce a feeling of weight.
   Alkohol ocu quite in a different manner. We know
 the impression of burning heat that it causes at first in
 iu passage through the mouth, the pharynx, the oeso-
 phagus ; and that which it excites when it enters the
 stomach i the effecu of this action determine the con-
 traction of this organ, irritate the mucous membrane,
 and augment the secretion of which it is the seat; it
 coagulates at the same time all the albuminous parts
 with which it is in contact; and as the different liquids
 in the stomach contain a considerable proportion of
 this matter, it happens that a short time after alkohol
 has been swallowed, there is in this viscus a certain
 quantity of concrete albumen.  The mucus undergoes
 a modification  analosous to that of  the albumen; it
 becomes hard, forms irregular elastic  filaments, which
 preserve a certain transparency.
   In producing these phenomena, the alkohol  mixes
 with the water that the saliva and the gastric juice
 contain; probably it dissolves a part of tlie elemenu
 that enter into their composition, so that it ought to be
 much weakened by ite stay in the stomach.  It dis-
 appears very quickly; its general effecu are also very
 rapid, and drunkenness or death follow almost  imme-
 diately the Introduction of too great a quantity of alko-
 hol into the stomach.
   The matters coagulated by the action of the alkohol
 are, after iu disappearance, digested like solid ali-
 ments.
   Among the drinks that are reduced to chyme, some
 are reduced iu part and some wholly.
   Oil  is in this last case; it  is transformed,  in  the
 pyloric part, into  a matter analogous iu appearance
 with thai which is drawn from the purification of oils
 by sulphuric acid ; this matter is evidently  the  chyme
 of oil.  On account of this transformation, oil is per-
 haps the liquid that remains longest in the stomach.
   Every one knows that milk curdles soon alter it is
 swallowed; this curd then becomes a solid aliment,
 which is digested In the ordinary manner. Whey only
 can be considered as drink
   The greatest number of drinks that we  use are
 formed of water,  or of alkohol, in  which are in sus-
 pension or dissolution, immediate animal or vegetable
 principles, such as gelatine, albumen, osmazome, sugar,
 gum, fecula,  colouring or astringent  matters,  Sec
 These drinks  contain salu of lime, of soda,  of po-
 tassa, &c.
   The result of several experiments that have been
 made upon animals, and some observations that have
 been made on man, is, that there is a separation of the
 water and the  alkohol in the stomach  from the mat-
 ters that these  liquids hold in suspension or solution.
 These matters remain in tbe stomach, where they are
 transformed into  chyme, like the aliments;  while the
 liquids with which they were united  are absorbed, or
 pass into tbe small intestine; lastly, they are conduct-
 ed, as we have just now seen, in treating of water and
 alkohol.
   Salte that are in solution in water do not abandon
 this liquid, and are  absorbed with it  Red wine, for
 example, becomes muddy at first by its mixture with
 juices that are formed in, or carried into the stomach;
 it very  soon coagulates tbe albumen of these fluids,
 and becomes flaky; afterward, its colouring matter,
 carried perhaps by ihe mucus and the albumen, is de-
 posited upon the mucous membrane: there  is a cer-
 tain quantity of it teen at least in  the pyloric por-
 tion ; the watery  and alkohoiic parts disappear with
 rapidity.
  The  broth of meat undergoes the same changes.
 The water that il contains  is absorbed; the gelatine,
 the albumen, tlie  fat,  and probably the osmazome,
 remain in the stomach, where they are  reduced into
 chyme.
  Action of the small  intestine upon drinks.—After
 what has been read, it  is clear that fluids penetrate,
 under two forms, into the small intestine: 1st,  under
 that of liquid ;  2dly, under thai of chyme.
  The  liquids that pass from the stomach into the in-
 testine remain but a short time, except  under particular
 circumstances;  they  do  not appear to  undergo any
 other alteration  than their mixture with the intestinal
juice, the chyme, the pancreatic liquid, and the bile;
 they do not form any tort of chyle;  they are generally
 absorbed in the duodenum, and the  commencc-cieni ot
  the jejunum;  they are rarely  seen in tlie ilium, and
  still more rarely iu the large intestine.  It appears that
  this  last case does not happen except  in the  state
  of sickness; for example, during the action of a pur-
  gative.
   The chyme  that proceeds  from drinks follows the   *
  same rule, and appears to undergo the same changes as
  that of the food ;  it therefore produces chyle.
   Such are the principal phenomena of the digestion
  of drinks :  wesee bow necessary it was to distinguish
  them from those that  belong to the  digestion of the
  alimenu.
   But we do not always digest the alimenu and the
  drinks separately, as we  have supposed; very fre-
  quently the two  digestions take  place at tlie same
  time.
   Drink  favours  the digestion of the aliments; this
  effect is probably produced in various manners. Those
  that are watery, soften, divide,  dissolve even certain
  foods;  they aid in this manner their chymificalion and
  their passage through the pylorus.
   Wine  fulfils analogous  uses, but only for the Sub-
  stances that it is capable of dissolving; besides, it ex-
  cites by its contact the mucous membrane of tovsto-
  rnach,  and causes a greater secretion of the gastric
  juice.  Alkohol acu  much in the same  manner  as
  wine, only it is  more intense.  It is thus that those
  liquors which are used  after  meals, are useful in ex
  citing the action of the stomach."—Magendie's  Phy-
  siology.
   DIGESTIVE.  Digestious;  from digero, to dis
  solve.)  A  term  applied  by surgeons to those  sub-
  stances  which, when applied to an ulcer or  wound,
  promote  suppuration: such are the ceratum resina,
  unguentum elemi, warm poultices, fomentations, Sec
   Digestive salt.   The muriate of potassa.
   Digestive salt  of  Sylvius.  The muriate of po
  tassa.
   Digesti'vum sal.  See Potassa murias.
   DIGITA'LIS.   (From digitus, a finger; because its
  flower represenu a finger.)
   1. The name of a genus of planU in the Linnaean
  system.   Class,  Didynamia; Order, Angiospermia.
  Fox-glove.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of tbe common fox-
  glove.  See Digitalis purpurea.
   Digitalis purpurea.  The systematic name ofthe
  fox-glove.  Digitalis—calycinis foliolis ovatis  acu-
  tis, corollis vbtusis, labio  superiore integro, of  Lin-
  naeus.  The leaves of this plant have a bitter nauseous
  taste, but no remarkable smell; they  have been  long
  used externally to ulcere  and scrofulous  tumours
  with considerable advantage.  When properly dried,
  their colour is a lively green.  They ought to be col-
  lected when the plant  begins to blossom, to be dried
  quickly before the fire, and preserved unpowdered.
   Of all  the narcotics, digitalis is that which dimi-
  nishes most powerfully the actions  of the system; and
  it does so without occasioning  any previous excite
  inent  Even in tlie most moderate dose, it diminishes
  the force and  frequency of the pulse, and, in a large
  dose, reduces it to  a great extent, as from TO beats to
  40 or 35 in a minute, occasioning,  at the same time,
 vertigo, indistinct  vision, violent and durable sickness,
I  with vomiting.  In a still  larger quantity, it induces
| convulsions, coldness of the  body, and insensibility;
 symptoms which have sometimes  terminated fatally.
 As a narcotic, fox-glove has been recommended in epi-
 lepsy, insanity, and in some acute  inflammatory dis-
 eases.  Lately it has been very extensively employed
 in  phthisis, and the beneficial effecu which it  pro-
 duces in  that disease, are probably owing to its  nar-
 cotic power, by which it reduces the force of the cir-
 culation through tlie lungs and general  system.   It  is
 administered so as to produce this effect.  One grain
 of the powdered leaves, or ten drops of the saturated
 tincture, may be given night and morning.  Tins  dose
 is increased one-half every second day, till iu action
 on the system becomes apparent As soon as the pulse
 begins to be diminished, the increase of dose must be
 made with  more caution: and, whenever nausea  is
 induced, it ought rather to be reduced, or, if necessary,
 intermitted for a short time.   If the sickness become
 urgent, it Is  best relieved by  stimulanu,  particularly
 large doses of brandy, with aromatics. 1 he tincture
 has been supposed to be the best form of administering
 aigitalie, when  tbe remedy ii defined to act as a  uar- 
DIS                                              DIO
 cotic: it is also more manageable in Itsdose, and more
 uniform in iu strength, than the dried leaves.
   Besides iu narcotic effects, digitalis acn as one of
 the most certain diuretics in dropsy, apparently from
 iu power of promoting absorption.  It has frequently
 succeeded where the other diuretics have failed.   Dr.
 Withering has an undoubted claim to this discovery ;
 aud the numerous cases of dropsy related by him, and
 other practitioners of established reputation, afford in-
 contestable evidence of its diuretic powers, and of its
 practical ini]<ortance in the cure of those disorders.
 From Dr. Withering's extensive experience ofthe  use
 of the digitalis in dropsies, he has been able to judge of
 iu success by the following circumstances;—"It  sel-
 dom succeeds in men of great natural strength, of
 tense fibre, of warm skin, of florid complexion, or in
 those with a tight and cordy pulse.  If the  belly iu as-
 cites be tense, hard, and circumscribed, or the limbs in
 anasarca solid and resisting, we have but  little hope.
 On the contrary, if the pulse be feeble, or intermitting,
 the countenance pale, the lips livid, tlie skin cold, the
 swollen  belly soft  and fluctuating, the anosnrcous
 limbs readily pitting under the pressure of the finger,
 we may expect the diuretic effecu to follow  in a kindly
 manner."  Of the  inferences which he deduces, the
 fourth is, " that if it (digitalis)  fails, there  is hut little
 chance nf any other medicine succeeding."   Although
 the  digitalis  is now generally admitted to  be a  very
 powerful diuretic, yet it is but justice to acknowledge
 tbat this  medicine  has more frequently failed  than
 could have been reasonably expected, from  a compari-
 son ofthe facts stated by Dr. Withering.  The dose of
 the dried leaves in powder is from one to three grains,
 twice a day.   But if a liquid medicine be preferred, a
 drachm of the dried leaves is to be infused for four
 hours, in half a pint of boiling water, adding lo the
 strained liquor an ounce of any spirituous water.  One
 ounce of this infusion, given twice a day, is a medium
 dose. It is to be continued in these doses till it either
 acu upon tbe kidneys, the stomach, the pulse (which,
 as has been said, it has a remarkable power of lower-
 ing,) or the bowels.
  The administration of this remedy requires to  be
 conducted with much caution.   Iu effects do not im-
 mediately appear; and when the doses are too fre-
 quent, or too quickly augmented, iu action is concen-
 trated so as to produce frequently tlie most violent
 symptoms. The general rules are, to begin with a
 small dose, to Increase it gradually, till the action is
 apparent on the kidneys, stomach, intestines, or vas-
 cular system;  and Immediately suspending  iu exhibi-
 tion, when iu effecu on any  of these  paru  take
 place.
  The symptoms arising from too large a dose of digi-
 talis are, extreme sickness, vertigo, indistinct vision,
 incessant vomiting, and a great reduction of the force
 of the circulation, terminating sometimes in syncope,
 or convulsions.   They are relieved  by frequent and
 small doses of opium, brandy, aromatics, and strong
 bitters, and by a blister applied  to the region of the
 stomach.
  DIGITATUS.  Digitate or fingered.   A leaf is call-
 ed folium digitatum, when  several leaflets proceed
 from the summit of a common footetalk, as in Poten-
 tilla vrrna; and reptans.
  DIGITIFORMIS.   Finger-like.  Applied to the re-
 ceptacle of the Arum maculatum, and  Callaathio-
 vira.
  Dioi'tium.   (From digitus, a finger.)
  1.  A contraction ofthe finger-joint
  2.  A whitlow, or other sore upon the finger.
  DIGITUS.   (From  digero,  to direct.)   A finger.
 Digitus manus, is the finger, properly so called; and
 digitus pedis, the toe.
  Digitus  manus. A finger. The fingers and thumb
in each  hand  consist of fourteen bones, there being
three to each finger, and two to the thumb;  they are a
little convex and round towards the back ofthe hand,
but hollow and plain towards the palm, except the
last, where the nails are.  The order of their disposi-
tion  is called first, second, and  third phalanx.  Tbe
first is longer than the second, and the second longer
 than the third.  What has been said of the fingers, ap-
plies to the toes also.
  Digitus pedis.  A toe.  See Digitus Manus.
  DIGLO'SSUM.  (From Sis- double, and  yXiaosa, a
tongue: so called beeause above ils leaf there grows a
     900
 lew leaf, like  two tongues.)  1. The  Laurus alezms-
I drina.
|   3. Galen  makes mention of a man bom with two
 tongues.
   Diono'tio.   (From  dignosco, to distinguish.)  See
 Diagnosis.
   DIGY'NIA.  (From Sis. twice,  and yw», a wo-
 man.)  The name of an order of several classes of tho
 sexual system of plants, embracing those plants which
 to the character of the ctnss, whatever it may be, add
 the circumstance of having two styles.
   Dihc'maton.   (From <5io and aipa, Mood.)   An1
 antidote in which is the blood of many unimals.
   Din a lon.  (From Sia and aXj,  salt)  A plaster
 prepared with salt and  nitre, adapted to foul ulcers.
   Dh'pktks.  (From Ztvs, Sios heaven, and 0nr7ur
 to fall:  i.e.  falling as  rain.)   An epithet  applied by
 Hippocrates to semen, wheu it is discharged like s
 shower of rain.
   DILATA'TIO.  (From dilato, lo enlarge.)
   1. Dilatation, or enlargement
  2. The diastole of the heart.
  DILA'TOR.  (From dilato, to enlarge.)  The name
 of some muscles, the office of  which is to open  and
 enlarge paru.
  Dilator  al* nasi.   See Levator labii superioris.
  DILATO'RIUM.  (From  dilato, to enlarge.)  A
 surgical instrument for enlarging any part.
  DILL.  See Anethum.
  DILUENT.  (Dituens; from diluo, to wash away.)
Those substances which increase the proportion of
 fluid in the blood.  It is evident that this must be done
 by watery liquors.  Water  is, indeed, properly speak-
 ing, the only diluent.  Various udditions  arc  made to
 it, to render it pleasant, and  frequently to give it  a
 slightly  demulcent quality.  But  these are not suffi-
 ciently important to require  to be noticed, or to be
classed as medicines.
  Diluents are merely secondary remedies.  They are
given in acute inflammatory diseases, to lessen the sti-
mulant  quality of the blood.  They are used to pro-
mote the action of diuretics in dropsy, and to favour
the operation of sweating.
  Di nica.  (From Sivos, giddiness.)  Medicines which
relieve a giddiness.
  Di'nos.  See Dinus.
  DI'NlTS.  (From Stvtta,  to turn  round.)  Dinos.
Dizziness.  The name of a  genus of disease In Good's
Nosology.   Class, Neurotica;  Order, bystatica.  It
has only one  species.  Dinus  vertigo.  Vertigo, or
giddiness.
  Dio'crbs.  The name of  a lozenge.
  Di'odos.  (From Sta, and  oSos, the way through.)
Evacuation by stool.
  DICfl'CIA.  (From Sis, double, and oixia, a house.)
The name of a class of plants in the sexual system of
Linnaeus, containing such  as have  barren, or  male,
 flowers on one individual, and fertile, or  female, onus
on another ofthe same species.
  Diojna'nthes.  (From Sta, and otvavBn, the flower
of the vine.)   A  remedy said  to be good for  cholera,
in which was the flower of the vine-tree.
  DIO'GMUS.  (From  Siiaxia, to  persecute.)  A dis-
tressing palpitation of the heart.
  DIOrCUS.  (From Sis, double, and ouria, a house.)
Dioecious.  Plants and flowers are so called when the
barreu and fertile flowers  grow from two separate
roou.
  DIONIS, Petkr, was born about the middle ofthe
17th century, and educated to tbe practice of surgery.
He was appointed to read the lectures in anatomy, Ac.
in the royal gardens at  Paris,  instituted by Lewie
XIV., and after this, surgeon to the queen, and oilier
branches of  the royal family, which offices he held,
with great credit, till his death,in 1718.   His first pub-
lication gave an account of a woman who died in  the
sixth month  of pregnancy, of what he considered to be
a ruptured uterus; but as he slates that there were two
uteri, it is suspected that the ruptured part was one of
the Fallopian  tubes much  enlarged.   He afterward
gave a useful epitome of anatomy, which was very fa-
vourably received, passed  through several editions,
and was even  translated into the Tartar language, by
order of the emperor of China.  His next  work, a
course of surgical operations, obtained still more cele-
 brity, which it even now in  some degree retains, esyv
dally as commented upon by  HebUtr.  Betides tito* 
DIO                                             DIS
  a dissertation on sudden death, and a treatise on mid-
  wifery, were published by this author.
    Dionvsi'sci.'s.  (From Atovvooc, Bacchus, who was
  of old represented  as having horns.) Certain bony
  excrescences, near the temples, were called dionysisci.
    Dionysony'mphas.  (From Aiovvsos, Bacchus, and
  vvji<i>a, a nymph.)  An herb which, if bruised, smells
  of wine, and yet resists drunkenness.
    Diopo'rum. (From Sia, and oniapa, autumnal fruiu.)
  A medicine composed of ripe fruits for quinsy.
    DIOPSIDE.  A subspecies of oblique-edged augite,
  found near Piedmont.
    DIOPTASE.  Emerald, copper ore.
    Dio'ptra. (From Stonjouat, to see through.) Di-
  optron.   1. Speculum ani, oris, or uteri.
    2. The lapis specularis.
    DIOPTRICS.  (Dioptricus;  from Sionjopai,  to
  see through.)  The doctrine ofthe refraction of light
   Dioptki'smus.  (From Stonfopat, to see through.)
  Dilatation of any natural passage.
   Dio'robum.  (From Sta, and opoSos, a vetch.)   A
  medicine,  in the composition  of  which there are
  vetches.
   Diorrho'sis.  (From Sta, and oppos,  the  serum.)
  Diorosis.  1. A dissolved state ofthe  blood.
   2.  A conversion of the humours  into  serum and
  water.
   Diortiiro'sis.  (From StopBpoia, to direct) The
  reduction of a fracture.
   DIOSCO'REA. (Named in honour of Dioscorides.)
  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
  Class, Diecia;  Order, Hexandria.
   Dioscorea alata. The name of the plant which
  affords the esculent root, called the yam.  It is obtain-
  ed, however, from three species; the alata, bulbifera,
  and sativa.  They grow spontaneously in both Indies,
  and their roots are promiscuously eaten, as the potato
  is with us.   There is great variety in  the colour, size,
  and shape of yams;  some are generally blue or brown,
  round or oblong, and weigh from one pound to two.
  They are esteemed, when dressed, as being nutritious
  and easy of digestion, and are preferred to  wheaten
  bread. Their taste is  somewhat like  the potato, but
  more luscious.  The negroes, whose common food  is
  yams, boil and mash them.  They are also ground
  and made into bread and puddings.
   When  they are lo be kept for some time, they are
  exposed upon the ground to the sun, as we do onions,
  and when sufficiently withered, they are put into dry
  sand in casks, and placed in a dry garret, where they
  remain often for many seasons without losing any of
  their primitive goodness.
   Dioscorea bulbifera.  See Dioscorea alata.
   Dioscorea sativa.  See Dioscorea alata.
   DIOSCORI'DES,  Pedacics, or Pedanius, a cele-
 brated Greek physician and botanist of Anazarba, in
 Cilicia, now Caramania, who is supposed to have lived
 In the time  of Nero.  He  is said to have been origin-
 ally a soldier, but soon became eminent as a physician,
 and travelled  much  to improve  his knowledge.  He
 paid  particular attention to the materia medica, and
 especially to  botany,  as subservient to medicine
 He profited  much by the writings of Theophrastus,
 who  appears  to have been a more philosophical bo-
 tanist.  Dioscorides has left a treatise on the materia
 medica, in five books, chiefly considering plants; also
 two books  on the composition  and  application of
 medicines, an essay  on antidotes, and  another on ve-
 nomous animals.  His works have been  often printed in
 modern times, and  commented upon, especially by
 Matthiolus.   He notices about 600 planU, but hie de-
 scriptions are often so slight and superficial, as to leave
 their identity a matter of conjecture;  which is perhaps
 of no very  great medical importance; though their
 virtues being generally banded down from the Greeks,
 It might be useful to  ascertain which particular plants
 they meant.
  Dioscu'ri.  (i- e. Aioc, Koupoi, the sons of Jupiter,
 or Castor and Pollux.)  The parotid glands were so
 named from their twin-like equality in  shape and po-
sition.
  I" DiosrYROs.   Persimmon.   The persimmon-tree
is very common in the middle and western states, and
grows also in the southern  paru of our country.  The
bark Is bitter, and has  been added to  our  numerous
list of native tonics.  It is  recommended in intermit-
tents and ulcerated sere throats, and may Be exhibited
  In the same manner as cinchona."—Birclow's Mat
  Med.  A.l                           *
   Diosrv'aoB lotos.  The Indian date plum.  The
  fruit, when ripe, has an agreeable taste, and is very
  nutritious.
   IIioxkl*:'um. (From Sia, o^vc, acid, and sXatov,
  oil.)  A medicine composed of oil and vinegar
   Dio'xos.  (From c"ia, and  otys, acid.)  A collyrium
  composed chiefly of vinegar.
   DIPHYLLUS.   (From Arc, double, and  ibvXXov, a
  leaf.)   Diphyllotis, or  two-leaved.  Applied lo  the
  perianthium of flowers, when there are two calyces;
  as in Papaver rhaas.
   Diplasia'smcs.   (From SmXoia, to  double.)  The
  re-exacerbation of a disease.
   DI'PLOE. (From SmXoia, to double.)  The spongy
  substance between the two tables of tbe skull.
   DIPLO'Pf A.  (From StnXoos, double, and annual,
  to see.)  Visus duplicatus.   A disease of the eye, in
  which the person sees an object double or triple.  Dr.
  Cullen  makes it a variety of the second species of
  pseudoblepsis, wbich he calls mutans, in which  ob-
  jects appear changed from what they really are; and
  the disease varies according to the variety  of the re-
  mote causes.
   Di'pnoos.  (From Sis, twice, and nvtco, to breathe.)
  A wound which is perforated quite through, and  ad-
  mits the air at both ends.
   Dipple's animal oil.  See Animal oil.
   DP PS ACUS.  (From Sti^a, thirst; so called from
  the concave situation of iu leaves, which hold water,
  by which  the thirst of the traveller may be relieved.)
  Dipsacum.
   I. The name  of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean
  system.  Class, Syngenesia;  Order, Polygamia.  The
  teasel.
   2. A  diabetes, from  the  continual  thirst  attend-
  ing it.
   DIPSOSIS.   (From Sidia, thirst.)  The name of a
  genus of diseases in Good's  Nosology, known  by the
  desire for drinking being excessive or  impaired. It
  has two species, Dipsosis avens, and Dipsosis expers,
   DIPYRE.  Schmelstein.  A mineral found in white
  or reddish steatite in the Western Pyrenees, composed
  of silica, alumina, and lime.
   Dipyre'num.   (From Sis,  twice, and  mipi7v,  a ber
  ryj   1. A berry, or kernel.
   2. A probe with two buttons.
   Diptri'tes.  (From Sis, twice, and imp, fire.)  Di-
  pyros.   An epithet given  by Hippocrates to bread
  twice baked, and which he recommended in dropsies.
   DIRE'CTOR. (From dirigo, to direct)
   1. A hollow instrument  for  guiding  an incisor-
  knife.
   2. The name of a muscle.
   Director penis.   (From dirigo, to direct.)  The
  same as erector  penis.
   Diri'nqa.  A name, in the isle of  Java, for  the
  Calamus aromaticus.  See Acorus calamus.
   Disce'ssus.  (From discedo, to depart.)  The sepa-
  ration of any two bodies, before united, by chemical
I  op ration.
   DISCIFO'RMIS.  (From discus, a quoit, and forma,
 likeness.)  Resembling a disk, or quoit, in shape.  It
 is applied to the  knee-pan.
   DISCOI'DES.  (From £10*00, a quoit, and  tiSos,
 resemblance.)  Resembling a disk, or quoit, in shape
 It is applied to the crystalline humour ofthe eye
   Discri'mcn.  1. A small roller.
   2. The diaphragm.
   DISCUS.  (From Siokos, a quoit and disk, and from
its flat and round appearance like the circumference
 of the sun.)  The disk, or central part  of e leaf, and
 of a compound  flower.  In  the common daisy, the
 white leaflets of the flower surround the disk.
   Tbe disk of a leaf is the whole flat surface within
 the margin
   DISCU'TIENT.   (Diseuliens;  from discutio,  to
 shake in  pieces.)    Discusorius;  Diachyticus.  A
 term  in  surgery, applied to  those  substances which
 possess a power of repelling or resolving tumours.
   DISEASE.  Morbus.   Any alteration from a per-
fect state of health.  A  disease Is  variously termed-
when it pervades the whole system, as fever does, it is
called a general disease,  to distinguish it from inflam-
 mation of the eye,  or any other viscus, »"bicb is a
»</! rtai, or  heal  one.  When It does nut derif nd  on 
DIS
DHJ
another disease, it ia termed idiopathic, which may be
either general or partial, to distinguish it from n symp-
tomatic one, wbich depends upon another disease.  See
also Endemic, Epidemic, Sporadic, Sec.
  [Disintegration.  This  is a geological term, and
means  the crumbling  down  of  rock by their  de-
composition, and the consequent formation of alluvial
b»u.  a.j
  DISK.  See Discus.
  DISLOCA'TION.  (Dislocatio; from disloco, to
put out  of place.)   Luxation.   The secession of a
bone of a moveable articulation from iu natural ca-
vity.
  DISPE'NSARY.  (Dispcnsarium;  from dispendo,
to distribute.)  1. The shop or place in which medi-
cines are prepared.
  2. Tlie name  of an institution, in which the poor
are supplied with medicines and advice.
  DISPENSATORY.   (Dispcnsatorium; from dis-
pendo, to distribute.)  Antidotarium.  A  book which
treau of the composition of medicines.
  DISSE'CTION   (Dissectio; from  disseco, to  cut
asunder.)  The cutting to  pieces of any part of an
animal, or vegetable, for the purpose of examining its
structure.  See  Anatomy.
  DISSECTUS.  Cut.  A term used by botanists sy-
nonymously with incised and lacinialed, to leaves
which are cut, as  it  were,  into  numerous irregular
portions.  See Leaf.
  DltJSEPIMENTUM.  (From dissepio, to separate.)
A partition.  Applied by botanists to partitions which
separate tbe cells of a capsule.  See Capsula.
  Dijsk'ptum.   (From  dissepio, to enclose  round.)
The diaphragm, or  membrane, which  divides Die  ca-
vity of the thorax from the abdomen.
  Dissolvk'ntia.  (From dissalvo, to loosen.)
  1. Medicines which loosen and dissolve  morbid con-
cretions in the body.
  2. In chemistry, it menus menstrua.
  Dissolu'tus.  (From dissolve, to loosen.)  Loose,
morbus  dissolutus.  An epithet applied to  dysentery.
  DISTANS.  Distant.  Applied to petals from their
direction; as in Cucubalus bacctferus.
  Distb'ntio.  (From distendo, to stretch out.)  1.
Distention, or dilatation.
  ♦' A ceavujsiom
  DISTHENE.   See Cyanile.
  Disti'chia.  See Disiichiasis.
  DISTICHI'ASIS. (From cWtxia: from Sis, dou-
ble, and stxoc, a row.)   Distriehiasis ; Disticltia.  A
disease  of the eyelash, in which there  is a double row
of hairs, the one row growing outwards, the other in-
wards towards tbe eye.
  DISTICHUS.  Two-ranked.   Applied to stems,
leaves, &c. when they spread in two horizontal direc-
tions ; as the branches  of the Pinus picea, or silver
fur, and the leaves ofthe Taxus baccata, or vew.
  DISTILLATION.  (Distillatio; from distillo, to
drop Uttie by little.)  Alsacla; Catastagmos.  A che-
mical process, very similar to evaporation, instituted
to separate the  volatile from the fixed principles, by
means of heat.  Distillatory vessels are either alem-
bics or retorts;  the  former consist of an inferior ves-
sel  called a cucurbit designed to contain the matter to
be  examined, and having an upper part  fixed  to it,
called the capital, or head.  In this last, the vapours
are condensed by the  contact of the surrounding  air,
or,  in other cases, by the assistance  of cold water sur-
rounding the  head, and contained in a vessel called the
refrigeratory.   From  the lower  part of the capital
proceeds a tube called the nose, beak,or spout, through
which the  vapours, after condensation, are, by a pro-
per figure of the capital, made to flow into a vessel
called the receiver, which is usually spherical.  These
receivers have different names, according to their
figure, being  called mattresses, balloons, Sec.  Retoru
are a kind of bottle of glass,  pottery, or metal, the bot-
tom being spherical, and the upper  part  gradually di-
minishing into a neck, which is turned on  one side.
  Distilled vinegar.  See Acetum.
  DISTO'RTION.   (Distortio;  from distorqueo, to
wrest aside.)   A term applied to the eyes, when a per-
son seems to  turn them from the object he would look
at,  and  is then called squinting, or strabismus.  It also
signifies the bending of a bone preternaturally to  one
side; as distortion of the spine, or vertebrae.
  DIfSTO RTOR.  (From distorqueo, to wrest aside.)
      30U
A muscle, tlie office of which is  to draw the month
awry.
  Distortor oris.  See Zygomaticus minor.
  Districiii'asis.  See Distichiasis.
  Dl S'l'KIX.  (From cic, double, and Bpi\, the hair.)
A disease of the hair, u hen ii spliu and divide* at the
end.
  DITTANDER.  See Ltpidium  sativum.
  DITTANY.  See Dictamnus.
  Dittany, bastard. See Dictamnus albus.
  Dittany of Crete. See Origanum dictamnus.
  Dittany, white.   See Dictamnus albus.
  DIURESIS.   (From Sta, through, and ovptia, to
make water.)  An increased secretion of urine.  It la
also applied to a diabetes.
  DIURETIC.  (Diurcticus. AiovpnrtKas; from Slow
pvois, a discharge  of urine.)  That which, when taken
internally, atigiuenu the now of urine from the  kid-
neys   It is obvious that such an effect will be produced
by any substance  capable of stimulating  the secreting
vessels of the kidneys.  All the saline diuretics seem
to act Iu this manner.  They are received into the cir-
culation ; and passing off wilh the urine, stimulate ihe
vessels, and increase the quantity secreted.
  There  are other diuretics, the effect of which  ap-
pears not to arise  from direct application, but from an
action excited in  the  stomach,  and  propagated by
nervous  communication  to the   secreting  urinary
vessels.
  The diuretic operation  of squill, and other vegeta-
bles, appears to be of this kind.
  There is still, perhaps, another mode in which cer-
tain substances produce a diuretic effect; that is, by
promoting absorption.   When a large quantity of wa-
tery fluid is introduced' into the circulating mass,  it
stimulates the secreting vessels of the kidneys, and  is
cart tid off by urine,  ff, therefore, absorption lie pro-
moted, and if a portion of serous fluid, perhaps previ-
ously effused, be taken up, the quantity of fluid secret-
ed by Ihe kidneys  will be increased.  In this way digi-
talis seems to act: iu diuretic effect, it has been said,
is greater when  exhibited in dropsy than it  is in
health.
  On the same principle (the effect arising from stimu-
lating the absorbent system) may probably be explained
the utility of mercury in promoting the action of seve-
ral diuretics.                        •
  The action of these remedies is  promoted by drink-
ing freely of mild diluents.  It  is  also influenced by
the state of the surface ofthe body.  11'external beat
be applied, diuresis is  frequently prevented, and dia-
phoresis  produced. Hence the doses of them should!
be given in the course of the day, and the patient, if
possible, be kept out of bed.
  The direct effects of diuretics are sufficiently evi-
dent.  They discharge  the watery part of the blood;
and, by  that discharge, they indirectly promote ab-
sorption over the  whole system.
  Dropsy is the disease in which they are principally
employed; and when  tbey can be  brought lo act, the
disease is removed with less injury to the patient than
it can be by exciting  any other  evacuation.  Their
success is very precarious, ihe most  powerful often
failing; and,  as the disease is so frequently connected'
with organic affection, even the removal ofthe effused'
fluid, when it takes place, only palliates without effect-
ing a cure.
  Diuretics have been likewise occasionally used in
calculous affections, in gonorrhoea,  and with a view of
diminishing plethora, or checking profuse perspiration.
  Murray, in his  Elements of Materia Medica, classes
the supertartrate  of polassa, or cream of tartar, and
nitrate of potassa, or nitre, the muriate of ammonia, or
crude sal-ammoniac, potassa, and the acetate of po-
tassa, or kali acotatum, among the saline diuretics;
and selects the following from the vegetable kinifdoin:
—scilla maritima, digitalis parpurea, nicoliana taba-
cum, solatium dulcamara, IsctuCa virosa, colchictun
autumnale, gratiola officinalis, Fpartittm scoparium,
juniperis  communis, copaifecn.OtnciiiniM, pmns bal-
samea, and pinus larix; and the lytta vesicutoriu from
tbe animal kingdom.          '
   In speaking of  particB!<B*Whri»j|ir«, Dr. Cullen says,
the diuretic  vegetables;sMtifftsnW by writers, are of
very little power, ttppbjummlfyed with very little
success.  Of the  umbenansftne'iiicdiclnal power re-
sides especially in their seeds; bat lie never found srrf 
DOG                                         DOR
ef them very efficacious.  The semen dauci sylvestris i
has been commended as a diuretic;  but its powers as
such are not very remarkable.  In like manner, some
of the planta stellate have been commended as diu- I
retics; but none of them deserve our notice,  except
the rubia ttnetorium, tbe root of which passes so much
by  the kidneys as to give lu  colour to the urine.
Hence it may fairly be supposed to stimulate the se-
cretaries;  but Dr. Cullen found iu diuretic powers did
not always appear, and never to any considerable de-
gree ; and as, in brute animals, it has always appeared
hurtful to the system, he does not think it fit to be em-
ployed to any extent in human  diseases.  The bar-
dana, lithospermtim, ononis, asparagus, enula campa-
na, are all substances which  seem to pass, in some
measure,  by tlie kidneys;  but their diuretic powers
are hardly worth notice.
  The principal articles included by Dr. Cullen, in his
catalogue  of diuretics, are dulcamara, digitalis, scilla;
some of the alliacete and  siliquosaj; the  balsams and
resins; csMtharidesy and the diuretic salu.
  Divapoba'tio.  Evaporation.
  DIVARICATION. The crossing of any two things:
thus when the  muscular or tendinous fibres intersect
each other at different angles, they are said  to diva-
ricate.
  Divellent affinity.  See Affinity quiescent.
  Diverso'rium.  (From diversor, to resort to.) The
receptaculum chyli.
  DIVERTICULUM.  A malformation or diseased
appearance of a part, in which a portion goes out of
Ihe regular course; and thereby forms a diverticulum,
or deviation  from the  usual  course.  It is generally
applied to the alimentary canal.
  Diverticulum nuckii. The opening through which
the round ligaments of the uterus pass.  Nuck assert-
ed  that It  remained open a long time after birth;  to
these openings he gave the name of diverticula.
  DIVI'NUS.   A pompous epithet of many composi-
tions, from their supposed excellence.
  Divu'lsio.   (From divelto, to pull asunder.)  Urine
with uneven sediment.
  DOC1MASTIC.   Ars docimastica.  The art Of ex-
amining fossils, in  order to discover what metals, Sec.
they contain.
  DOCK.  See Burner.
  Dock-cresses.  See Lapsana.
  Dock, sour.  See Rumex acetosa.
  Dock, water.  See Rumex hydrolapathum.
  DODDER.   See Cuscuta epithymum.
  Dodecada'ctylus.  (From  SiaStxa,  twelve, and
SaxlvXos, a finger; so named  because  iu length is
about the breadth of twelve lingers.)  The duodenum,
an intestine so called.  It must  be observed, that at
the  time  this name was given, anatomy consisted in
the dissection of brutes; and the length was therefore
probably adjudged from the gut of some animal, and
not of man.
  DODECA'NDRIA.  (From SiaStxa,  twelve, and
avnp, a man.)   The name of a class of plants in the
sexual system, embracing those  with hermaphrodite
flowers, and twelve stamina.
   Dodecatha'rmacum.  (From  SiaStxa, twelve, and
tfutpuaxov, a medicine.)   An  ointment consisting  of
twelve ingredients, for which reason it was called the
ointment of ihe twelve apostles.
   Dodeca'tiikon.  (From SiaStxa, twelve, and "JiBnpi,
to put)   An antidote consisting of twelve simples.
   DOoONJEUS,  Rembertus,  (or Dodoens,) was
born at Mechlin,  iu 1517.  He became  physician  to
two succeeding emperors, and, in 15fcfi, was appointed
professor  of physic in the newly-founded University
of Leyden, the duties of which he performed with cre-
dit, till his death, three years after.  His lame at pre-
sent chiefly resu on his botanical publications, parti-
cularly his " Pcmptades," or 30 books of the history
ofplanu.  The"Frugum  Historia,"   "F—
Belgicum," &c. are of much inferior merit.
  DOG.  See Cani*.
  Dog's-bane,  Syrian.  See Asclepias syriaca.
  Dog's-grass. See Triticum repens.
  Dog's-mercury.   See Mercurialis perennis.
  Dog-rpse.  See  Rosa canina.
  Dog-stones.  See Orchis  mascula.
    (Dogwood.   See Cornus Florida.  A.J
    lO'GMA.  (From Soxtia, to be of opinion.)  Ai
Aw, or opinion, founded on reason and eiperienco.
  DOLERITE.  When volcanic masses are composed
 of grains distinct from each other, and contain be-
 sides felspar, much pyroxene, black oxide of iron, am-
 pibole, Sec, they are called,  by tlie French geologist,
 dolerite.
  DOLICHOS.  (From SoXtxos, long: so called from
 Iu long shape.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linniean system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order, De-
 candria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the cowhage.  See
 Dolichos pruriens.
  Dolichos pruriens. The systematic name of the
 cowhage.  Dolichos; Dolichos—volubilis,  legumini-
 bus raccmosis, valvulis subcarinatis hirtis, peduncu-
 lis ternis, of Linnajus.  The pods of this plant are co-
 vered with sharp hairs, which are the parts employed
 medicinally in form of electuary, as anthelmintics.
 The manner in  which these hairy spicula  act, seems
 to be purely mechanical: for neither the tincture, nor
 the docoction, possess the least anthelmintic power.
  Dolichos soja.  The plant which affords the soy.
 It is much cultivated in Japan, where it is called da-
 idsu: and where the pods supply their kitchens with
 various productions; but the two principal  are, a sort
 of butter, termed miso,  and a pickle called sooju.
  DOLABRIFORMIS. (From dolabella, a hatchet,
 and forma, resemblance.)  llatchet-sbaped.  A term
 applied to a leaf, which is compressed with a very pro-
 minent dilated  keel, and a cylindrical base;  as in
 Misembryanthemum dolabriforme.
  DOLOMITE.  A calcareo-magnesian carbonate
  DOLOR.  (Dolor, oris, f.)  Pain.
  Dolor  faciei.  See Tic douloureux.
  DORONICUM.  (From dorongi, Arab.)  Leopard's
 bane.  See Arnica montana.
  Doronicum germanicum.   See Arnica montana.
  Doronicum romanum.  The pharmacopceial name
 of the Roman leopard's bane.  See Doronicum par-
 dalianches,
  Doronicum pardalianches. The systematic name
 ofthe Roman leopard's bane.  Doronicum romanum;
 Doronicum—foliis  cordatis, obtucis, denticulatis; ra
 dicalibus  petiolatis;  caulinis amplexicaulibus, of
 Linnaeus.  The  root of this plant, if given in a full
 dose, possesses  poisonous properties;  but instances
 are  related of  its  efficacy in epileptical and  other
 nervous diseases.
  DO'RSAL.   (Dorsalis;  from dorsum, the back.)
 Belonging to the back.
   Dorsalis nervus.  The  nerve which passes out
 from the vertebra? of the back.                 -
   [DORSEY, Jon* Syno, M.D., Professor of anatomy
 in the university of Pennsylvania, was born in the city
 of Philadelphia, in December, 1783.  In early life he
 received an excellent elementary and classical educa-
 tion at a school in Philadelphia, of the  society of
 Friends, then iu high repute, and here manifested the
 same vivacity of genius and quickness in learning, with
 the mild and gracious  dispositions, for which he was
 subsequently so conspicuous.  At the age of 15 years,
 he entered the office of his relation, the celebrated Dr.
 Physick.
   Not long after receiving his degree, the yellow fever
 reappeared iu the city,  and prevailed so widely that an
 hospital was  opened for the  accommodation exclu
 sively of the sick with  this disease, to wbich he was
 appointed resident physician.  So great was the value
 attached to his services, that it is difficult to speak too
 highly of the manner in which lie discharged the du-
 ties of his office of hazardous benevolence.   At the
 close of the same season, he proceeded to Europe, for
 the purpose of improving his medical knowledge.  In
 December, 1804, he returned home, and immediately
 entered on the practice of his  profession.   The repu-
 tation he brought wilh him, his amiable temper, and
 popular  manners, his fidelity and attention,  speedily
 introduced him  into a  large share of business.  From
 this period professional honours were heaped on him
 with profusion.  He  was appointed surgeon to the
 dispensary, (he alms-house, and hospitals,  and in
 all our medical associations he  held some  elevated
 office.  But there was  reserved for hitn  a still bighet
 amUiore digmfied station.  In 1807 he was elected
 adjunct professor of surgery, in which  office he con-
 tinued till he was raised  to the chair of anatomy, by
 the lamented death ofthe venerable Dr. Wislar.
I <lConsidering himself now placed for the first tune 
DOU
DRA
In the proper sphere for the exercise of his talents and
the gratification of a  generous ambition, tbe  appoint-
ment gave him  much delight;  and with ample prepa-
ration, he opened the session by one of the finest exhi-
bitions of eloquence ever heard within tlie walls of the
college.  But here his bright  and prosperous career
ended, and tlie expectations of success thus  created
were not permitted to be realized.  Elevated to a po-
sition above which he could hardly ascend, and sur-
rounded by all that we most value, Providence seems
to have sek-cted him as an instance to teach a salutary
lesson  of the shortness of life, the insignificance of
things transitory, and the importance of that eternity
which  absorbs all being and all time.  On the evening
of the same day that  he pronounced  his introductory
lecture, and while the praises of it still resounded, he
was attacked with a fever of such vehemence, that in
one short week it closed  his existance, leaving to us
only his enviable name and inestimable example.  He
died in  November, 1818,  aged  35 years."— Thach.
Med. Biog.  A.]
  DORSTE'NL\.   (Named in honour of Dr. Dors-
ten.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnrcan
system.  Class,  Tdrandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Dorstenia braziliensis.   The root of this plant
is used by the natives of Brazil, internally and exter-
nally.  They call it Caa apia.   When chewed, it has
the same effecu as ipecacuanha.  The wounds from
poisoned  daru are said to be cured with the juice of
the root, which they pour into the wound.
  Dorstenia contrayerva.  The systematic name
of the plant which  affords the contrayerva root; Con-
trayerva; Drakena;  Cyperus longus, odorus, perua-
nus;  Bezoardica radix.  The contrayerva  root was
first brought Into  Europe about the year 1581, by Sir
Francis Drake,  whence iu name Drakena.   It is the
root of a  small plant found in Peru, and other paru of
the Spanish West Indies.   Dr. Houston observes, that
the roots  of different species of dorstenia are promis-
cuously gathered and exported for those ofthe contra-
yerva, and, as all the  species bear a great resemblance
to each other, they are generally used for medical pur-
poses in  this country.  The tuberous parts of these
rooU are  the strongest, and should be chosen for use.
They have an agreeable aromatic smell; a rough, bit-
ter, penetrating taste; and, when chewed,  they give
out a sweetish Kind of acrimony.
  It is  diaphoretic  and antiseptic; and was formerly
used in low nervous fevers, and those of the  malig-
nant kind; but its use is superseded by the cinchona.
  Dr. Cullen observes, that this and serpentaria are
powerful stimulanu;  and bolh have been employed in
fevers  in which  debility  prevailed.   However, he
thinks, wine may always supersede  the  stimulant
powers of these medicines; and that debility is better
remedied by the tonic and antiseptic powers of cold
and Peruvian bark, than by any stimulants.
  By the  assistance of heat, both spirit and water ex-
tract all iu virtues; but they carry little or nothing in
distillation; extracu made by  inspissating the decoc-
tion, retain all the virtues of the root.
  The London College forms the compound powder of
contrayerva, by combining five ounces of contrayerva
root with a pound and a half of prepared shells. This
powder was formerly made up in balls, and called
lapis contrayerva, employed in tbe decline of ardent
fevers, and through the whole course of low and ner-
vous ones.  The radix serpentarhe virginiensis, in all
cases, may be substituted for the contrayerva
  Dorstenia drakena. The systematic name for one
sort of the contrayerva.
  Dorstenia boustonii.   See  Dorstenia  contra-
yerva.
  Do'tbiin.  A name for the furunculus.
  DOUGLAS, James, M. D. was born in Scotland in
1675.   After completing his education, he came to
London, and applied  himself diligently to the study of
anatomy  and surgery, which he both taught and prac-
tised several years with success.  Haller has spoken
very highly of his preparations, to show the motion of
the joints, and the structure of the bones.  He patron-
ised tbe celebrated William Hunter;  who  assisted
him shortly before his death In 1742.  He was reader
of Anatomy to tbe Company of Surgeons, and a Fel-
low of the Royal Society, to which he made several
communications.  He published,  in 1707, a more cor-
rect description of the muscles than had before appear-
ed ; eight years after, a tolerable account of preceding
anatomical writers; In 1738. a History of the  In ten]
Operation for the Stone; and in 1730, a very accurate
Description of  the Peritontruiii,&,-.
  DOUGLAS, Johk, brother  of the preceding, was
surgeon to the  VW-tminster Infirmary, and author of
several controversial  pieces.  In one of them, culled
" Remarks on a late pompous  Work," be censures,
with no small degree of severity, ("heselden's Anatomy
of the  Bones;  in  another,  he  criticises, wilh <-<|iial
asperity, the works of Chomberlen und Clinpinan; and
in a third, he decries the new forceps of Dr. Smellic
He also wrote  a work on  the  high operation  lor the
stone, which he practised ; a Dissertation on tbe Vene-
real Disease ; and an Account of the Efficacy of Bark
in slopping Gangrene.
  DOVE'S FOOT.  See Geranium rotundifolium.
  Dover's powder.  See Pulvis  ipecacuanha compo
situs.
  Down of seed.   See Pappus.
  DRA'BA. (From Spaooia, to seize;  so called from
IU sudden effect upon the nose of those who eat it.)
The name of a genus of plants In the  Linnean sys-
tem.  Class, Tetradynamia; Order,  Siliculosa.
  Draba verna.  A  common plant on most  walls.
The seed is hot and stimulating, and might be used for
pepper.
  DRA'CO. (Draco, onis. m.  Apaxiav, the dragon.)
The dragon.
  Draco mitioatcs.  The submuriate of mercury.
  Draco sylvestris.  See Achillea Ptarmica.
  DRACOCEPHALUM.  (From Spaxiav, a dragon,
and xtibaXr), a head.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the  Linnaan  system.  Class, Didynamia;  Order,
Qymnospermia.
  Dracocephalum  canariense.  The  systematic
name of  tbe balm of Gilead.  Turkey-balsam;  Cana-
ry balsam ; Balsam of Gilead.   Motdavica; Melissa
Turcica.  Dracocephalum  moldavica—floribus verti-
cellatis, bracteis lanceolatis, serraluris capillaceis of
LinnaHis.  This plant affords a  fragrant essential oil,
by distillation,  known in Germany by the name of
oleum syria. The whole herb abounds with an aro-
matic smell, and  an agreeable taste, joined  with  an
aromatic flavour;  it is recommended to give tone to
the stomach and nervous system.
  Draconis sanouis.  Dragon's blood. See Calamus
rotang.
  Dracontia.  The dracontia of the Greeks, accord-
ing to Pliny, was the  Guinea-worm, or dracunculus.
See Medinensis vena.
  Draco'ntium.   (From Spaxiav, a  dragon;  so called
because iu roote resemble a dragon's tail.) See Arum
dracunculus.
  [" Dracontium.   Skunk Cabbage.   The  skunk
cabbage is an indigenous plant, very common in wet
meadows throughout  the  United  States,  and well
known for ite ofleusive odour,  perfectly  resembling
that of the animal whose name it  bears.   Its odour
resides in a volatile substance not easily obtained ia
a separate state, and  soon dissipated by heat or by
drying.  It contains likewise an acrid principle like that
of the genus arum; also a portion of resin and inu
cilage.
  " This plant in  small doses is a stimulant and anti
spasmodic,  and in large ^oses  a narcotic.   Thirty
grains of the powdered root, if freshly prepared, will
bring on vertigo,  nausea,  and frequently vomiting.
Age and exposure, however,  diminish Its  activity.
In medicine this vegetable  has been found of impor-
tant use  in certain forms of asthma, and In chronic
catarrh, in which diseases it has succeeded, even when
the cases had previously been of great obstinacy.  It
has also been recommended in rheumatism, in hysteria,
and in dropsy.
  " A popular form of using this medicine is that of a
syTup.  ThU is an uncertain preparation, owing to the
volatility of the active ingredients.  It  Is better given
In powder made from the dried root a  short time be
fore it is wanted.  Ten grains may be taken at a dose,
in honey  or treacle,  and the  quantity gradually in-
creased as long as the stomach and head remain unaf-
fected."— Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  DRACU'NCULUS.  (From  Soaxuv, a  serpent)
Gordius medinensis ; Vermis meainende ; Vena me-
dinensis , Vermiculus capillaris.  The Guinea worm.
ThU animalcule is common in both Indies, In most 
DRO
DUC
parts of Africa, occasionally at Genoa, and other hot
countries.  It resembles  the  common worm, but is
much larger; is commonly found in tbe legs, but some-
times in the muscular part of the arms.  It principally
affects children, and iu generation  is not unlike that
of the broad worms of the belly.  While it moves
under the skin, it creates no trouble; but in length of
time, the place near the dracunculus suppurates, and
•he animal puts forth iu head.  If  it be drawn, it ex-
cites  considerable uneasiness, especially if drawn so
forcibly as to break it; for the part left within creates
intolerable pain.  These  worms   are  of  different
lengths.  In the  Edin. Med. Essays, mention is made
of one that was three yards and a half iu length.
  Dracunculus pratensis.   See Achillea ptarmica.
  Draoaca'ntha.  See Astragalus.
  Dragant gum. Sec Astragalus.
  DRAGON.  See JDraco.
  Dragon's blood.  See Calamus rotang.
  Dragon's wort.  See Arum dracunculus.
  DRAKE, James, M.D. Fellow  of the College of
Physicians, and of the Royal Society, published, in
1707,  " A New System of Anatomy," which, though
taken principally from Cowper, being on a reduced
plan,  and more  within  the  reach of students, was
pretty favourably received.  In the third edition,  it
was styled " Anthropologia  Nova."  In abscesses of
the antrum maxillare, he advised drawing one of the
molar teeth, to let out the matter.  The description of
the internal nostrils, and  of the cavities entering them,
is new;  as  are ateo  the  plates of the abominal
Viscera.
  Drakena.  Bet Dorstenia contrayerva.
  DRA'STIC.  (Drasticus.  Apaonxos,  active, brisk;
from Spaia, to effect.)   A term generally applied to
those medicines which are very violent in their action;
thus, drastic purges, emetics, Sec.
  Drawing slate.  See Chalk, black.
  DRELINGCOURT, Charles, was born nt Paris in
16.13; and after  studying some years at Saumur, he
went to graduate at Montpelier.  He soon after attend-
ed the celebrated Turenne in his campaigns, and was
by him made  physician to the army.  He was also
appointed one  of the physicians to Lewis XIV.  But
in 1688 he was chosen to succeed Vander Linden, as
  Srofessor of medicine at Leyden; and two years after
  e was advanced to the chair of  anatomy.   He was
also  made physician to  William,  then Prince of
Orange, and his consort; and on their accession to the
throne of England, he spoke the congratulatory ora-
tion to them, as  rector  of tbe university. He conti-
nued in his professorship, giving general satisfaction, to
the period of his death in 1697. He was a voluminous
and learned, but hardly an original writer; yet his
works were very  much  read al the time.  In one of
his orations, he  exculpates  medical men from the
charge of impiety, observing  that the contemplation of
the works of God tends to blind them more to religion.
Li his " Apologia Medica," he refutes the notion, that
physicians were excluded from Rome for six hundred
years.  He strenuously  opposed the introduction of
chemical preparations into medicine, which was then
very  prevalent.  His son, Charles, succeeded him in
practice, but lias left no publication, except his thesis
" De Lienosis."
  Dro'ma.  The name of a plaster  described  by
My reps us.
  DaoPACi'sMus.  (From Sptnia, to remove.)   Dro-
pax.   A stimulant plaster of pitch, wax, Sec to take
off hair.
  Dro'tax. See Dropadsmus.
  DRO PSY.  Hydrops.  A collection of a serous
fluid  in the cellular membrane; to  the viscera and the
circumscribed  cavities of tlie body. See Hydrops,
Ascites, Anasarca, Hydrocephalus, Hydrothorax, Hy
drocde.
  Dropsy of the belly.  See Ascites,
  Dropsy of the brain.  See Hydrocephalus.
  Dropsy nf the chest.  See  Hydrothorax.
  Dropsy of the ovary.  See Ascites.
  Dropsy of the skin.  See Anasarca.
  Dropsy of the  testicle,  gee Hydrocele.
  DROPWORT.  See (Enanthe, and Spiraa.
  Dropwort, hemlock.  See (Enanthe.
  Dropwort, water.  See (Enanthe.
  DRO'SERA.   (From Spootpa, dewy; which is from
Spans, dew; drops  hanging on the leaves like dew.)
Tlie name of a genus of planu.  Class, Pentandria ;
Order, Hexagynia.  Sun-dew.
  Drosera ROTUNDirouA.  The sytematic name of
the sun-dew.  Ros solis; Rosella.  Sun-dew.  Dro-
sera rotundifolia—scapis radicatis; foliis orbiculatis
of Linnaeus.  This elegant little  plant is said to be so
acrid as to ulcerate the skin,  and remove warts and
corns; and to excite a fatal coughing and delirium in
sheep who eat it.  It is seldom given medicinally in
tiffs country but by  the  lower  orders, who esteem
a  decoction of it  as serviceable in asthmas  and
coughs.
  Drosobo'tanum.   (From Spooos, dew, and Bofavn,
an herb: so called from iu being covered with au aro-
matic dew.)  The herb betony.  See Betonica.
  Drosso'meli. (From Spooos, dew, and usXi, honey.)
Honey-dew.  Manna.
  DRUPA.  (Drupe, unripe olives.)  A stone fruit
formed of a fleshy or coriaceous seed-vessel, enclosing
a nut
  It is distinguished into,
  1. Drupa succosa, when of a  succulent fleshy con-
sistence ; as the cherry, plum, peach, and nectarine.
  2. D. fibrosa, the nut being fibrose; as in Cocus nu-
cifera.
  3. D. exsicca, dry and subcoriaceous; as the almond
and horse-chesnut
  4. D. dehiscens, opening^ as in Juglans regia, and
Myristica moschata.
  From the number of nuts it contains, the drupa is
said to be monosperma, when  there is but one, as in the
olive and pistachia; and disperma when there are two,
as in Styrax.
  DRUPACEUS.  Drupaceous; resembling a drupe.
or  stone fruit.  Applied to the pod of Erugago ana
Bunias.
  DUCT.  See Ductus.
  Duel, biliary.  See Biliary duct.
  DUCTI'LITY.  Dudilitas.   A property by which
bodies  are elongated by  repeated or continued pres
sure.  It is peculiar to metals.  Most authors confound
the words malleability, laminability, and ductility, to-
gether, and use them in  a loose indiscriminate way;
but they are very different.  Malleability is the pro-
perly of a body which enlarges one or two of iu three
dimensions, by a blow or pressure very suddenly ap-
plied.  Laminability belongs lo bodies extensible in
dimension by a gradually applied pressure; and duc-
tility is  properly to be attributed  to such bodies as can
be  rendered longer and  thinner  by drawing them
through a hole of less area than the transverse section
ofthe body so drawn.
  DUCTUS.  A canal or duct
  Ductus  arteriosus.    A great  artery-like  canal
found only in the  foetus, and  very young children, be-
tween the pulmonary artery and the aorta.   In adulu
it is closed up.
  Ductus auris palatinus.  The Eustachian tube.
  Ductus diliaris.  See Choledochus ductus.
  Ductus  communis choledochus.  See Choledo-
chus ductus.
  Ductus cysticus.  The trunk of the biliary ducU
fn the liver which carries the bile from them into the
gall-bladder.
  Ductus hepaticus.  See Hepatic duel.
  Ductus lachrymalis.  See Lachrymal ducts.
  Ductus lactiferus.  Ductus galactophorus.  The
excretory ducte of the glandular  substance  composing
the female breast  The milk passes along these ducu
to the nipple.
  Ductus ad nasum. See Canalis nasalis.
  Ductus pancreaticus- The pancreatic duct.  It
is white and small, and arises  from the sharp extremity
of the pancreas, runs through the middle nf the gland
towards the duodenum, into which it pours Ite contenU
by an opening common to it and the ductus communis
choledochus.
  Ductus  salivalks.  The excretory ducts of tho
salivary  glands, wbich convey  the saliva into  the
mouth.
  Ductus  stenonis.  The  Stenonian duct, which
was so called after  iu  discoverer, Steno.  It arises
from all the small excretory ducu ofthe parotid gland,
and passes  transversely over the masseter muscle,
penetrates the buccinator, and opens into tlie mouth.
  Ductus thoracicus.  See Thoracic duct.
  Ductus vshosus.  When the  vena cava passes tbf. 
DUR
DiS
 Hver in Jie foetus, it sends off the dactus venosus,
 wbich communicates with tlie sinus of the verm ports;
 but, in  adulu, it becomes a Hen ligament.
   Ductus warthoniawws.  The excretory duct  of
 the maxillary glands; go named after iu discoverer.
   Dulca'cidum.   (From dulcis, sweel, and acidus,
 sour.)  A medicine composed of a Bweet and sour  in-
 gredient
   DULCAMA'HA.  (From  dulds,  sweet, and owin-
 rus, bitter.)  Bitter-sweet.  See Solanum dulcamara.
   Dumbness. See Aphonia and Paracusis.
   DUMOSUS.  (From uumus a bush.)  Bushy.
   DvmosjE.  The name of an order of plants in Lin-
 naeus's  Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting of
 shrubby plants, which  are thick  set wilh irregular
 branches, and bushy.
   DUNCAN, Daniel,  was  born at  Montaubon, in
 Longuedoc, in 1649, son of a professor of physic  in
 thai city, but of a family originally Scotch.  Having
 lost both his parenu in early infancy, he was  taken
 under the protection of  his maternal uncle, and at a
 proper age sent to study medicine at Montpelier, where
 he took his degree.   He afterward resided seven years
 at Paris, where he published his first work, upon the
  Erinciple of motion in animal bodies.  He then visited
  iondou, partly to arrange some family affairs, partly
 to obtain information concerning the plague, and  in-
 tended  to have settled there; but after two years  he
 was summoned to attend his patron,  tlie great Colbert
 He soon after made public two works, in which he  at-
 tempted to explain the Annual Functions on Chemical
 and Mechanical Principles.  On the death of Colbert,
 he resided for some years in his native city; but the
 persecution of the Protestants in  1690 drove him to
 Switzerland, and he was appointed Professor of Ana-
 tomy and Chemistry at  Berne, where he got into con-
 siderable practice.  In 1699 he was  sent for to attend
 the Princess of Hesse-Cassel, who had symptoms  of
 threatening consumption, induced  by the excessive
 use of tea, and other hot liquors; which led him  to
 write a Treatise against that practice, published sub-
 sequently by the persuasion of his friend, Boerbaave.
 He remained there three years, affording meanwhile
 much relief to the French refugees;  and the fame  of
 his liberalify procured his invitation to Ihe court  of
 Berlin: bur a regard to his health and to economy soon
 obliged him to remove to the Hague.  In 1714 he ac-
 complished his favourite object of settling in London,
 and when he reached his 70th year, put in practice his
 previous resolution of giving his professional services
 only gratuitously:  in which  he steadily persevered
 during the remaining sixteen years of his life, though,
 in 1721, he lost the third part of his property by the
 South-sea scheme.
   DUNG.  See Fax.
   Dung, devil's.   See Ferula assafetida.
   DUO.  (Avta, two.)   Some compositions consisting
 of two  ingredients, are distinguished by this term;  as
 pilula- ex duobtts.
   DUODE'NUM.  (From duodenus,  consisting  of
 twelve; so called because it was supposed not to ex-
 ceed the breadth of twelve fingers: but as the ancients
.dissected only animals, this does not hold good in the
 human subject)  The first portion of the Bmall intes-
 tines.   See Intestines.
   DUPLEX.  (From duo, two, and  plico, to fold.)
 Double or two-fold.  In  botany applied  to leaves,
 petals, perianths,  Sec. Thep'erianthum duplex is seen
 rn Malva althaa and Hibiscus.
   Duplica'na.   (From duplex, double.)  A name  of
 the double tertian fever.
   DUPLICATUS.   (From  duifex. double.)  This
 term Is applied to a flower which has two series  or
 rows of petals.
   DU'RA MATER. (From durus, hard, and mater, a
 mother: called dura, from iu comparative hardness
 with the pia mater; and mater, from iu being sup-
 posed to be  the source of all  the other membranes.
 Other parts have received the trivial name of dura,
 from their comparative hardness; as portio dura, a
 branch  of the seventh pair of nerves.)  Dura meninx ;
 Dermatodes.  A thick and somewhat opaque and  in-
 sensible membrane, formed  of two layers, that sur-
 rounds  and defends the brain, and adheres strongly to
 the Internal surface of the cranium.   It has ihrec con-
 siderable processes, the falciform, the tentorium, and
 the  septum cerebelli; and several sinuses, of wbich
      313
the longitudinal, lateral, and inferior loogituslinai, are
the principal.  Upon the external surface of tin- dura
mater, there arc little hole*, from which emerge fleehy-
colourcd papilla),  and which, upon examining the
skull-cap, will be found to have corresponding lo\.«.
These are the external glandula1 Pacchioni.  Tin* are
in number from  ten to fifteen  on each  side, nnd are
chiefly lateral to the course of the longitudinal sinus.
The arteries which supply this membrane with vessels
fbr iu own nourishment,  for that of the contiguous
bone, and for the perpetual exudation of the fluid, or
halilos rather, which moistens or bedews its internal
surface, may be divided into anterior, middle, and pos-
terior. The first proceeds from the ophthalmic and
ethmoidal branches;  the  second from  the internal
maxillary and superior pharyngeal; ihe posterior from
the occipital and vertebral arteries.
  The principal  artery of the dura mnter, named, by
way of distinction, the great artery of the dura  mnler,
is derived from the internal maxillary artery, a branch
of the external carotid.   Il is  called the spinalis, or
spheno-spinalis, from its passing into the head through
the spinous hole of the sphenoid bone, or mcttinga me-
dia, from ils relative situation, as it rises in the great
middle fossa  of the skull.  This artery,  though it
sometimes enters tbe skull iu two branches, usually
enters in one considerable branch, and divides, soon
after  it reaches the dura mater, into  three or four
branches, of which the  anterior is the  largest; and
these  spread their ramifications beautifully upon ibe
dura mater, over all that pari which Is opposite to the
anterior, middle, and posterior lobes of the brain.  Iu
larger trunks run upon the internal surface of the pa-
rietal  bone, and are sometimes for a considerable spice
buried in its substance.  The extreme branches ot this
artery extend so as to inosculate with the anterior and
posterior arteries of the dura mater;  and through the
bones (chiefly parietal and temporal bones), they inos-
culate with the temporal and occipital arteries.  The
meningeal artery has been known to become aneuris-
mal, arid distended at intervals; it has formed  an
aneurism, destroying the bones and causing epilepsy.
  Dura meninx.  See dura mater.
  DWALE.  See Atropa belladonna.
  Dwarf elder.  See Sambucus ebulus.
  Dyo'ta.  (From Svta, two, und cms, <alos, an ear.) A
chemical instrument With two ears, or handles.
  DYSESTHESIA.  (From Svs, difficulty, and oio-
Bavouai, to feel or perceive.)  Impaired feeling.
  Dys/esthbsi*. (The plural or Dysesthesia.) The
name of an order in the class Locales of Dr. Cullen'a
Nosology, containing  those  diseases, in  which the
senses are depraved, or destroyed, from a defect of the
external organs.
  Dysanago'ous.   (From Svc, with difficulty, and
avayto, to subdue.)   Viscid expectoration.
  DYSCATAPO'TIA.  (From Ate, and xalamvw, to
drink.)  A difficulty of swallowing liquids, which Dr.
Mead thinks a more proper term than that generally
used for canine madness, viz.  hydrophobia; as It la
more  particularly descriptive of the  affection  under
which the unhappy patients labour; for, in reality,
they dread water from the difficulty nf swallowing it.
  DYSCINE'SIA.   (From Svs, bad, and xtvtia, to
move.)  Bad or imperfect motion.
  Dyscinesi/e.   (The plural Of dyscinesia.) Applied
to an  order in the class Locales  of Cullen's Nosology;
embracing diseases in which the motion Is Impeded, or
depraved, from an imperfection ofthe organ.
  DYSCOPHO'SIS.  (From Svs, with difficulty, and
xiaioia, IP be deaf.)   A defect In the sense of hearing.
  DYSCRA'SIA.  (From Svs, with difficulty, and
Ktpavwut, to mix.)  A bad habit nf body.
  DYSECtE'A.  (From Svs, difficulty, and aron, hear-
ing).  Cophosis.  Deafness. Hearing diminished, or
destroyed.  A genus of disease In the class Locales
and order Dysesthesia of Cullen.containing two spe-
cies : Dysecaa organica, which arises from wax In the
meatus, injuries of  the membrane, or  inflammation
and obstruction ofthe lube: Dyseeea atoniea, when
without any discernible injury ofthe orean.
  Dyse'lcia.  (From fvs. with difficulty, and  iXkoj
an ulcer.) An inveterate ulcer, or one difficult to heal-
  Dysk'metus.  (From Svs, with difficulty, Bttd tutt*
to vomit.)  A person hot etuiiv  rnadf to vomti.
  DYSKJ*TB'BIA.  See Dysentery
  DYSENTBBY.   (DysenUria; from oV$, dlffleultT 
DYS
DYS
and uftpa, the bowels.)  Diaaolutus mortus.  Diar-
rhea camooa.  The flux.  A genus  of disease in the
class Pyrexia, and order Profiuvia of Cullen's Nosolo-
gy.  It ia known by contagious pyrexia;  frequent
gaping stools; tenesmus; stools,chiefly mucous, some-
times mixed With blood, the natural fruces being re-
tained or voided in small, compact,  hard  substances,
known by tbe name of scybald, loss of appetite, and
nausea.  It occurs chiefly in summer  and autumn, and
la often  occasioned by much moisture  succeeding
quickly intense heat, or great  drought; whereby the
perspiration is suddenly checked, and a determination
made to the intestines.   It is likewise occasioned by
the  use of unwholesome and putrid food, and by
noxious exhalations  and vapours; hence it  appears
often in armies encamped  in  the neighbourhood of
low marshy ground, and proves highly destructive; bat
the cause which most usually gives rise to it, is a spe-
cific cooiagion; and when it once makeB iu appear-
ance, where numbers of people are collected together,
It not unfrequently spreads wilh great rapidity.  A pe-
culiar disposition in the atmosphere seems often to pre-
dispose, or give rise to the dysentery, in which case it
prevails epidemically.
  It frequently occurs about the same time with au-
tumnal intermittent  and remittent  fevers, and wilh
these, it is often complicated.
  The disease, however, is much more  prevalent in
warm climates than in cold ones; and in the months
of August, September, and October, which is the rainy
season of the year in the West Indies, it is very apt to
break  out and  to become  very general  among the
negroes on the different plantations in the colonies.
The body having been rendered irritable by the great
heat of the summer, and being exposed  suddenly lo
much moisture with open pores, the blood is thereby
thrown from the exterior vessels upon the interior, so
as to give rise to dysenteries.
  An attack of dysentery  is sometimes preceded by
loss of appetite, costiveness, flatulency, sickness at the
stomach,  and a slight vomiting, and comes on with
chills, succeeded by heat in the skin, and frequency of
the  pulse. These symptoms are in  general the fore-
runners of the griping and increased evacuations which
afterward occur.
   When  the Inflammation begins to occupy the lower
part of the intestinal tube, the stools become more fre-
quent, and teas abundant; and, in passing through the
inflamed parts, tbey occasion great pain, so that every
evacuation is preceded by a severe  griping, as  also a
rumbling noise.
   The  motions -vary both in colour and  consistence,
being sometimes composed of frothy mucus, streaked
with blood, and at other times of an acrid watery hu-
mour, like the washings of meat, and with a very foetid
smell. Sometimes pure blood is voided ; now and then
lamps of coagulated mucus, resembling bits of cheese,
tore* to be observed In the evacuations, and in some in-
stances a quantity of purulent  matter is passed.
   Sometimes what  is  voided  consisU merely of a
taucous mailer, without any appearance of blood, exhi-
biting that disease which is known by tlie  name of dy-
■enteria alba, or morbus mucosus.
   While the stools consist of these various matters,
and are voided frequently, it  is seldom that we can
perceive any natural faeces among them, and when we
do,  they appear in small bard balls, called scybala,
which being passed, the patient is sure to experience
some temporary relief from the griping and tenesmus.
   It frequently happens, from the violent efforts which
tare  made to discharge the irritating matters, tbat a por-
tion of the  gut  is  forced  beyond  the verge of the
anus, which, in the progress of the disease, proves n
'troublesome  and distressing symptom; as does like-
wise the tenesmus, t-here being a constant inclination
to go to stool, without the ability of voiding any thing,
except perhaps a little mucus.
  More or less pyrexia usually attends with the symp-
toms which have been described, throughout the whole
of the disease, where it l« inclined to terminate fatally;
and Is either of an inflammatory or putrid tendency.
In other cases, the febrile state wholly disappears after
a lime, while the proper dysenteric symptoms probably
will be of long continuance.  Hence tbe distinction
into acute and chronic dysentery.
  When the symptoms run high, produce great loss of
strength and are accompanied with  a putrid tendency
and a foetid and involuntary discharge, the disease often
terminates fatally in the course of a few days; but
when they are more moderate, it is often protracted to
a considerable length of time, and so goes off al last by
a gentle perspirhtion, diffused  equally over the whole
body; the fever, thirst, and  griping then ceasing, and
the stools becoming of a natural  colour and  consist-
ence.  When tbe disease is of long standing,  and has
become habitual, it seldom  admits of any cure;  and
when it attacks a person labouring under an advanced
stage of scurvy, or pulmonary  consumption, or whose
constitution has been much impaired by any other dis-
order, it is sure to  prove fatal.  It sometimes  appears
al the same lime with autumnal intenniuent and re-
mittent fevers, as has been observed, and is then more
complicated and difficult to remove.
  Upon opening the bodies of those wbo die of dysen-
tery, ihe internal coat of the  intestines (but more parti-
cularly ofthe colon and rectum) appears to be affected
with inflammation end its consequences, such as ul-
ceration, gangrene, and contractions.  The periio-
nteum, and other coverings ofthe abdomen, seem like-
wise, in many instances, to be affected by inflammation.
  In the treatment of the acute dysentery, when not
arising from contagion, but attended by considerable
pyrexia and pain, in persons of a strong and full habit,
il will be right to commence  by a moderate vena-sec-
tion; but in general, leeches to the abdomen will ab-
stract a sufficient  quantity  of blood followed by fo-
mentations, or the warm bath, which may produce a
powerful determination to the surface as well as coun-
teract spasm; also blisters  or luhefecieiMs should not
be neglected.  With regard to internal remedies, a
brisk emetic will often be ad visabre,particularly where
the tongue is very foul, the stomach loaded, or marks
of congestion in the liver appear: it may also, by in
ducing  diaphoresis, materially check the violence of
the  symptoms, nay sometimes cut short the disease
at once. The next object is  effectually to clear out the
bowels: for which purpose calomel, joined with opium
in quantity sufficient lo relieve the pain may be given.
and followed up by castor  oil, neutral sals, sec. till
they operate.  In the mean time, mucilaginous demul-
cents may help to moderate the irritation.  When the
bowels have been thoroughly evacuated, it will be tan*
portant to procure a steady determination lo the sur-
face, and ihe compound powder  of ipecacuanha is
perhaps the best medicine; assisted by warm clothing,
friction, exercise, &c.  Should  the liver not perform iu
office properly, the continued  use of mercury may be
necessary; to restore the strength, and relieve dyspep-
tic symptoms, tonics and antacids will be useful, with
 a mild nutritious diet; and great care must be token to
obviate accumulation of feces.  In the chronic form
of the disease, demulcents and sedatives may  he freely
 employed by trie mouth, or in  the form of clyster; the
 bowels may  be  occasionally relieved by rhubarb, or
other mild aperienu; mercury should be cautiously
employed, where the discharge of bite is indicated, or
if that cannot be borne, nitric acid may be tried ; and
besides great attention to regimen, as in the decline of
acute dysentery, mild astringente, with tonics,  &c. may
contribute materially to the recovery of the patient%
   Dvsepulo'ticus.  (From Svs, with difficulty, and
envXoia, to cicatrize.)  Dysepulotus.  An inveterate
ulcer difficult to be healed.
   DYSHXMORRHo'rs.  (From Svs, with difficulty, and
aipoppots, the piles.) Suppression of the bleeding from
piles.
   DYSLO'CHIA.  (From Svs, difficulty, and Aox»o,
the lochia.)   A suppression ofthe lochia.
   DYSMENORRHEA.  (From Svs, wit* difficulty,
and uyvoppota, the menses.)  A  difficult or painful
menstruation, accompanied With  severe pains in the
back, loins, and bottom of the  belly.
   Dyso'des.   (From Svs,  bad,  and ojw, to smell.)
1. A bad smell.  Foetid.
  2. Hippocrates applies it to a foetid disorder of the
small intestines.
   3. The name  of a malagiha and acopon in Galea
and  Paulus A^gineta.
   DYSO'PIA.   (From coy, bad, and «ruV» an e>'e)
Parorasis. Difficult sight.  Sight depraved, requiring
one  certain quantity of light  one particular distance,
or one position.  A genus of disease In tbeelM'loca-
le*, and order Dysesthesia of Cullen, coTftalBtag tM
five following sjiecies: 
DYS
DYS
   1. Dysopia tenebrarum, called also Amblyopia ere-
 Jiuscularis, requiring objecU to be placed in  a strong
 ight
   2. Dysopia luminis,  likewise termed Amblyopia
 meriiiana, objecu only discernible iu a weak light
   3. Dysopia dtssitorum, in wbich distant objecu are
 not perceived.
   4. Dysopia proximorum, or  Dysopia amblyopia, in
 which objecu too near are not perceived.
   5. Dysopia lateralis, called  also Amblyopia lusco-
 rum, in which objecu are not seen, unless placed iu an
 oblique position.
   DVTSORE XIA.   (From  oiic, bad, and opd-tc, appe-
 tite.)  A depraved appetite.
   DysoRK.vi.t.  (The plural  of Dysorexia.)  The
 name of an order in the class Locales of Cullen's No-
 sology, which he divides into  two sections, appetitus
 errouei and deficientes.
   DYSPE PSIA.  (From Svs, bad, and Btir7u, to con-
 coct)   Apepsia.   Indigestion.  Dr. Cullen arranges
 tbis genus of disease in the class Neuroses, and order
 Adynamia.  Il chiefly arises in persons between thirty
 and  forty years of age, and is principally to be met
 with iu those who devote much time to study, or who
 lead either  a very sedentary or irregular life.  A great
 singularity  attendant on it is,  that it may and often
 does continue a great length of time, without any ag-
 gravation or emission of the symptoms.
  Great grief and  uneasiness of mind, intense study,
 profuse evacuations, excess in  venery, hard  drinking,
 particularly of spirituous liquors, and of tea, tobacco.
 opium, and other narcotics, immoderate repletion, and
 over distention of the  stomach, a deficiency in tlie se-
 cretion of the bile, or gastric juice, and the being much
 exposed to  moist and cold air, when without exercise,
 are the causes which usually occasion dyspepsia.
  A long train of nervous  symptoms generally attend
 on this disease, such  as a loss of appetite, nausea,
 heart-burn, flatulency, acid, foetid, or indorous eructa-
 tions, a gnawing in the stomach when empty, a sense
 of constriction and  uneasiness in the throat, with pain
 in the side,  or sternum, so that the patient at times can
 only lie on his right side; great costiveness,  habitual
 chilliness, paleness of  the  countenance, languor, un-
 willingness to  move about, lowness of spirits, palpita-
 tions, and disturbed sleep.
  The number of  these symptoms  varies in  different
cases, with some, being felt only in part; iu others,
 being accompanied even with additional ones, equally
 unpleasant, such as severe transient pains in the head
 and  breast, and various affections of  the sight, as
 blindness, double vision, &c.
  Dyspepsia never proves  fatal, unless when, by a
 very long continuance, it produces great general de-
 bility and weakness; and  so passes into some other
 disease, such as dropsy; but it is at all times very diffi-
 cult to remove, but more particularly so in warm cli-
 mates.
  The  morbid  appearances to  be observed on dissec-
 tions of this disease, are principally confined to that
 part of the stomach which U called tbe pylorus; which
 is often found either in a contracted, scirrhous, or ul-
 ceaated  state.  In every/ instance, the stomach is per-
 ceived to be considerably distended with air.
  The treatment of dyspepsia consisu, 1. In obviating
the several exciting causes.  2. In relieviug urgent
symptoms, some of wbich may tend to prolong the dis-
 ease.  3. In restoring  the tone of the stomach, or of
 the general system, and thus getting rid of the liability
 to relapse.
  I. In fulfilling the first indication, we are often much
circumscribed  by the circumstances or habiu of the
 patient; and particularly when they have been accus-
tomed to drink spiriu, which  they can  hardly relin-
quish, or only in  a very gradual manner.  The diet
 must be regulated by the particular form of the disease;
in those who  are liable to acidity, it should be chiefly
 of an animal nature, with the least acescent vegetable
substances, and  for drink, toast and water, or soda
 water,  adding  a little  brandy, if  really necessary;
 where the opposite, or septic tendency appears, which
 happens especially in persons of a florid complexion, it
 should consist principally of vegetable matter, particu-
 larly the ripe subacid  fruits, with the meat of young
 animals occasionally, and if plain water be not agreea-
 ble, table-beer, cider, Sec may  be allowed for drink;
 and to those of the phlegmatic temperament the most
 nutritious and digestible articles must  be selected,
 mostly of an  animal nature,  assisted by  the warmer
 condiments, and the more generous fermented liuuore
 in moderation.  It will be generally butter to lake food
 ofteuer, rather than to load Ihe stomach  loo much at
 once; but more thau four meals a day can hardly be
 requisite; if at any other time a craving should occur,
 a crust of bread or a piece of biscuit may be eaten.
  II. Among  tbe symptoms requiring palliation, heart-
 burn is frequent, resulting from acrimony In tlie »t<>-
 macli.  and to be relieved by antacid, or antiseptic
 remedies, according to circumstances, or diluent* and
 demulcents may answer the  purpose.   A sense  of
 weight at the stomach, with nausea, may occasionally
 indicate u gentle emetic; but will be less likely to occur
 if the bowels arc kept regular.  Flatulence may be re-
 lieved by aromatics, Ether, Sec.; and these will be pro-
 per for spasmodic, or nervous pains; but if ineffectual,
 opium should be had recourse to.   Vomiting is gene-
 rally best checked by carbonic acid.  When diarrhoea
occurs, the aromatic confection is mostly proper, some-
times with a little opium.  But the bowels are much
 more commonly confined, and mild cathartics should
 be frequently exhibited, as castor  oil, rhubarb, aloes,
Sec.; sometimes the more active, where these do not
 answer.  In those of a florid complexion a laxative
diet, with tlie supertartrate of potassa, or other saline
cathartic occasionally, may agree  better:  and where
the liver is torpid, mercurials should be resorted lo.
  HI. The  third object  is to  be attempted by tonics,
 particularly the aromatic bitters, the mineral acids, ot
 the preparations of  iron; by the cold bath prudently
 regulated; by gentle exercise steadily persevered  in,
 particularly walking or riding on horseback; by a care-
 ful attention  to tlie diet; by seeking a pure mild air,
 keeping regular hours, with relaxation and amusement
of the mind, Sec
  DYSPERMATI'SMUS. (Fromovr, bad, andontpua,
seed.)  Agenesia.  Slow, or impeded emission of se-
 men, during coition, insufficient for the  purpose  of
generation.  A genus of disease In the class Locales,
and order Epischeses of Cullen.  The species are:
  1. Dyspermatismus urethralis,  when the  obstruc-
tion is in the urethra.
  2. Dyspermatismus  nodosus, when  a   tumour u
formed iu either corpus cavernosum penis.
  3. Dyspermatismus praputialis, when the imped!
ment is from  a straightness of the orifice of tbe pre*
 puce.
  4. Dyspermatismus mucosus, when  the urethra ia
obstructed by  a viscid mucus.
  4. Dyspermatismus hypertonics, when there  Is an
 excess of erection  of the penis.
  6. Dyspermatismus epilepticue,  from epileptic flu
 coming on during coition.
  7. Dyspermatismus apradodes,  from a  want of vi-
 gour in the genitals.
  8.  Dyspermatismus refluus, in which the semen is
 thrown back into the urinary bladder.
  DYSPHA'GIA.   (From Svs,  with difficulty, and
 0ay<i>, to eat)  A difficulty of deglutition.  A genua
 of disease in Good's Nosology, embracing five species,
 Dysphagia constrida; atonica;  globosa; uvulosa;
 linguosa,
  DYSPHO'NIA.   (From Svs, bad, and tfnavn, the
 voice.)  A  difficulty of speaking.  Dissonant voice.
 The sound of the voice  imperfect or depraved.  A ge-
 nus of disease in Good's Nosology, embracing  tbrea
 species Dysphonia  susurro-is, puberans,  and immo-
 dulata.
  DYSPHORIA.    (From  Svs, and  cbopua,  gesto.)
 Restlessness.  A genus of disease in Good's Nosology,
 it has two species, Dysphorea simplex and  annetas.
  DYSPNOS'A.  (From Svs, difficult,  and *vaa,  to
 breathe.)  Dyspnoon.   Difficult respiration, without
 sense of  stricture,  and  accompanied with cough
 through the whole course of the disease.  A genua of
 disease  in the class Neuroses, and order  Spasmi ot
 Cullen.   He distinguishes eight species.
  1. Dyspnea catarrhalis, when with a cough there
 are copious discharges of viscid  mucus,  called  also
 asthma  catarrhale,  pntumodes, pneumonicum,  and
pituitosum.
  2. Dyspnea sicca, when there is a cough  without
 any considerable discharge.
  3. Dyspnea  alrea, when  the disease is much In
 creased by slight changes of tbe weather 
EAR
EAR
  4.  Dyspnea terrea, when earthy or calculous mat-
ters are spit up.
  5.  Dyspnea aquosa,  when  there  is a ecarcity of
urine and oedeinatous feet, without the other symptoms
of a dropsy in the chest.
  6.  Dyspnea pinguedinosa, from corpulency.
  7.  Dyspnea thoracica, when parte surrounding the
chest are injured, or deformed.
  8.  Dyspnea\ extrinseca,  from  manifest  external
causes.
  Dy'spnoon. See Dyspnea.
  DYSTHETICA.  (AvaBtrtKO, an  ill-conditioned
state of the body.)  Tbe name of the fourth order of
Ihe class Hematica in Good's Nosology.  Cachexies.
Iu genera are Plethora ; Hamorrhagia; Marasmus;
Struma ; Carcinus;  Lues ; Elephantius ; Bucnemia;
Catacausis; Porphyra; Exangia; Gangrena ; Ulcus.
  DYSTHY'MIA.  (From Svs, bad, and 0iu<oc, mind.)
Insanity.
  DYSTO'CHfA.  (From Svs, with  difficulty,  and
nx'Jia, to bring forth.)  Difficult labour.
   DYSTOSCHI'ASiS. (From due, bad, and roixoc, or-
der.) An irregular disposition of the hairs in the eyelids.
  DYSU'RIA. (From Svs, difficulty, and ovpov, urine.)
Slillicidium;  Ardor urina ;  Culbicio.  A suppression
or difficulty in discharging the urine.  A total suppres-
sion  is called ischuria;  a partial suppression, dysuria:
and  this may be with or without heat.  When there
are frequent, painful, or uneasy  urgings to discharge the
urine, and it  passes off only by drops, or in very small
quantities,  the disease is called strangury.   When a
seme of pain, or heat, attends  the discharge, it passes
with difficulty, and is styled ardor urina;, heat of the
urine.   The dysuria  is acute, or chronic.  Dr. Cullen
places this disease in  the class Locales, and order Epis-
chests, containing six species:
  1.  Dysuria ardens, with a  sense of heat, without
any manifest disorder of the bladder.
  2.  Dysuria spasmodica, from spasm.
  3. Dysuria compressionis, from a compression of
the neighbouring paru.        ^
  4. Dysuria phlogistica, from violent inflammation.
  5. Dysuria calculosa, from stone in the bladder.
  6. Dysuria mucosa, from an abundant secretion of
mucus.
  The causes which give rise to these diseases are, an
inflammation of the urethra, occasioned either by ve-
nereal sores, or by the use of acrid injections, tumour,
ulcer of the prostate gland, inflammation of tbe kid
neys, or  bladder, considerable enlargements of  the
hemorrhoidal veins, a lodgment of indurated fasces in
the rectum, spasm  at  the  neck  of the bladder,  the
absorption of cantharides, applied externally or taken
internally, and excess in drinking either spirituous or
vinous liquors;  but particles of gravel, sticking at tbe
neck of the bladder, or lodging in tbe urethra, and
thereby producing irritation, prove the most frequent
cause.  Gouty matter falling on the neck of the blad-
der, will sometimes occasion these complainte.
  In dysury, there is a frequent inclination to make wa-
ter, Willi  a smarting pain, heat, and difficulty in void-
ing it, together with a sense of fulness in tbe region of
the bladder.  The symptoms often vary, however, ac-
cording to the cause which has given rise to it.  If it
proceeds  from a calculus in the  kidney or ureter, be-
sides the affections mentioned, it will be accompanied
with nausea, vomiting, and acute pains in the loins and
region of the ureter and kidney  of the side affected.
When a stone in the bladder, or gravel in tbe urethra,
is  the cause, an  acute pain will  be felt at the end of
the penis, particularly on  voiding  the last drops of
urine, and the stream of water will either be divided
into two, or be  discharged in  a twisted  manner, not
unlike  a corkscrew.  If a scirrhus of the prostate
gland has occasioned the suppression or difficulty of
urine, a hard indolent tumour, unattended  with any
acute pain, may readily be felt in the perineum, or by
introducing the finger into the rectum
E
 "l^AGLE STONE.  An argillaceous iron stone.
 M-i  EAR.  Auris.  The ear is the organ of hearing.
 It is situated at the side of tlie head, and is divided into
 external and internal ear.   The auricula, or pinna,
 commonly called the ear, constitutes the external part.
 It is of a greater or less size, according  to the indi-
 vidual.  Iu  external face, which, in a  well-formed
 ear, is a little anterior, presenU five eminences,  the
 hdix, anti-helix, tragus, anti-tragus,  lobula; and
 three cavities, those of the  hdix, fossa  navicularis,
 concha.
  The pinna is  formed of a fibrous cartilage, elastic
 and pliant; the skin which covers it is thin and dry;
 adheres to the fibre-cartilage by a cellular tissue, which
 is compact, and  contains very little adipose substance:
 the lobule alone contains it in considerable quantity.
 There are seen under the skin a number of sebaceous
 follicles, which furnish a  micaceous white matter,
 that produces the polish and suppleness of the skin.
  There are  also seen, upon the different  projections
 of the cartilaginous ear, certain muscular fibres, to
 which the name of muscles have been given, but which
 are only vestigia.  The pinna, receiving many vessels
 and nerves, is very sensible, and easily becomes red.
 It is fixed to the head by the  cellular tissue, and  by
 muscles, which are called according to their position,
 anterior, superior, and posterior.  These muscles are
 much developed in many animals:  in man they may
 be considered as simple vestiges.
  The meatus auditorius extends from the concha to
 the membrane of the  tympanum; iu length, variable
 according to age,  is from ten  to twelve lines in the
 adult; it is narrower in the middle than at the ends;
 it presenU a slight curve above, and in  front  lu ex-
 ternal orifice is commonly covered with hairs, like the
 entrance to the  other  cavities.  It is  composed of an
osseous part, of a fibro-cartilaginous substance, wbich
 is confounded with that of the pinna, of a fibrous part,
 which completes it above.  The skin sinks into it, he-
mming thinner, and terminates in covering the exter-
 nal surface of the membrane of tbe tympanum.  Be
 low this skin exist a great number of sebaceous fol-
 licles,  which furnish the cerumen, a yellow, bitter
 matter.
  The middle  ear comprehends  the cavity of the
 tympanum, the little bones wbich are contained in
 this cavity, the mastoid cells, the Eustachian tube, ace
  The tympanum is a cavity which separates the ex-
 ternal from the internal ear.  Iu form is that of a por-
 tion of a cylinder, but a little irregular.  Its  external
 partition presents, on the upper part, the .fenestra ovalis,
 which communicates with the vestibule, and which
 is formed by a membrane; immediately below, a pro-
jection which is called promontory; below this projec-
 tion, a little groove, which lodges  a small nerve; still
 lower, an opening called the fenestra rotunda, which
 corresponds to  tlie external winding of Hie cochlea:
 and which  is  also shut by a membrane.  Tbe external
side presents the membrana tympani. This membrane
is directed obliquely downward and inward; it is bent,
very slender and transparent, covered on  the outside
 by a continuation of the skin, on the inside  by the
narrow membrane which covers the tympanum; it is
also covered on  this side by the nerve called chorda
tympani: its  centre serves as a point of fixation for
the extremity of the handle of the malleus; iu cir-
cumference is fixed to tbe bony extremity of the mea-
tus auditorius: il adheres equally in every point, and
presents no opening that might admit a communica-
tion betweeu the external and middle ear.  Its tissue
is dry, brittle,  and has nothing analogous In the animal
economy;  there are neither fibres,  vessels, nor nerves,
found in it. The circumference of the tympanum pre-
senU, in the forepart, 1st, The opening of the Eusta-
chian tube, by which the cavity communicates with
the superior part of the pharynx;  2dly, The opening
by which the tendon of the internal muscle  of the
malleus enters.  Behind are seen, 1st, The opening of
the mastoid cells,—irregular winding  cavities, which
are formed  in the mastoid process, and which are si-
                                       315 
EAR
EAU
ways filled with air; 2dly, The pyramid, a little hollow
projection, which lodges the muscle of  the  stapes;
3dly,The opening by which tbe chorda timpani enters
into the hollow ofthe tympanum.  Beloiv, the tympa-
num presenU a slit, called glenoid, by which  the ten-
don of the anterior muscle of the malleus enters, and
the chorda tympani passes out, and goes to unite itself
with the lingual nerve ofthe fifth pair.
  Above, the circumference presents only a few small
openings, by which blood-vessels pass.  The cavity of
the tympanum, and all the canals which end there, are
covered with a very Blender mucous membrane: this
cavity, which is always full of air, contains besides
four small  bones, (the malleus, incus, os orbicularc,
and stapes,) which form a chain from the membrana
tympani to the fenestra ovalia, where the  base of the
stapes is fixed.   There are some little muscles for the
purpose of moving this osseous chain, of stretching
and slackening the membranes to which they are at-
tached:  thus, the internal muscle of the malleus draws
it  forward,  bends  the chain in  this direction, and
stretches the membranes; the anterior muscle pro-
duces the contrary effect: it is also supposed that the
small muscle which  is placed In the pyramid, and
which is attached to the neck of the  stapes, may give
a slight  tension  to the chain, in drawing it towards
Itself.
  The internal ear, or labyrinth, is  composed of the
cochlea, of the semicircular  canals, and of the ves-
tibule.
  The cochlea is a bony cavity, in form of a spiral,
from which it has taken its name.  This cavity is di-
vided into two others,  called the gyri of the cochlea,
and which are distinguished into external and internal.
The partition which separates them is a plate set edge-
ways,, and which in iu whole  length is  partly bony,
and partly membranous.  The external gyration com-
municates by the fenestra rotunda with the cavity of
the tympanum; the internal gyration ends in the ves-
tibule.
  The semkircular canals are, three cylindrical cavi-
ties, bent in a semicircular form, two of which  are
disposed horizontally, and the others vertically. These
canals terminate by their extremities in the vestibule.
They contain bodies of a gray colour, the extremities
of which are terminated by swellings.
  The vestibule is the central cavity, the point of union
of all the others. It communicates with  the tympa-
num by the fenestra ovalis, wilh the internal gyration
of the cochlea, with the semicircular canals, and with
the internal meatus auditorius, by a great number of
little openings.
  The whole of the cavities of the internal ear are
hollowed out of the hardest part of the petrous portion
of the temporal bone: they are covered with  an ex-
tremely thin membrane, and are full of a very thin and
limpid fluid, called  Liquor of Cotunnius, which can
flow out by two narrow apertures, known by the name
of the aquaduds of the cochlea, and of the vestibule:
they contain, besides, the acoustic nerve.
  The acoustic nerve proceeds from the fourth ventri-
cle ; it enters Into the labyrinth by tbe holes that the
internal auditory meatus presenU in iu bottom.  Hav-
ing entered into the vestibule, It separates itself into a
number of branches, one of which remains in the ves-
tibule, another enters into the cochlea, and two go to
tue semicircular canals.   Scarpa  has very minutely
described the distribution of these different branches
in the cavities of the internal ear.
  In terminating this  short  description, we  remark
Chat the internal and middle  ear are traversed by
several nervous threads, the presence of which is, per-
haps, useful to hearing.  It is known that the racial
nerve proceeds a considerable space  in a canal of the
petrous  portion.   In this canal it receives a small
thread of the vidian nerve; it furnishes  the chorda
tympani, which attaches itself  to  this  membrane.
There are two other nervous inosculations iff the ear;
to one of which Ribes called the attention of anato-
misu not 10% since; the other was recently discovered
by Jacobson.
  Ear-wax. See Cerumen aurium.
  Eari'tes.  Haunatites, or blood-stone.
  EARTH.  Terra,   Although there seems to be an
almost infinite Variety of earthy substances scattered
on  the surface of this globe, yet when we examine
them  with a chemical 4ye, we find, uot without sur-
      31B
prise, that all the earth and stones which we tread un-
der our feet, and which compose the largest rocks, est
well as the numerous different specimens which adorn
tin cabinets of the curious, are composed of a very
few  simple  or  elementary earths.   "Analysis has
shown, that the various stony or pulverulent masses,
which form our mountains, valleys, and plains, might
be considered as resulting from the combination or In-
tennixtore, in  various numbers and proportions,  of
nine primitive  earths, to which  the following names
were given:
  1.  Barytes.  2. Strontites.  3. Lime.  4.  Magmwla.
5. Alumina, or clay.  6.  Silica.  7. Glucine.  8. Zlr.
conia.  9. Yttria.
  Alkalies, acids, metallic ores,  and native mefala,
were supposed  to be of an entirely dissimilar consti-
tution.
  The brilliant  discovery by Sir  H. Davy, in 1K8,  of
the metallic  bases of polassa, soda, barytes, strontites,
and  lime, subverted the  nncirnt ideas regarding tho
earths, and taught us to regard them as nil belonging,
by most probable analogies, to the metallic clasp.
  To tlie above nine earthy substances, Berzelius has
lately added a tenth, which he calls thorina.  Whnt-
evermay be the revolutions of chemical nomenclature,
mankind will never cease to consider as earths, those
solid bodies composing the mineral strata, which are
incombustible,  colourless, not convertible Into metals
by all the ordinary methods of reduction, or when re-
duced  by scientific refinements,  possessing but an
evanescent metallic existence, and which either aloiMj
or at least when combined with carbonic acid, are in-
sipid and insoluble in water.
  Earth, absorbent.  See Absorbent.
  Earth, aluminous.  See Alumina.
  Earth, animal calcareous.  This term Is applied  M
crah's-claws, &c. whichcontain calcareous'earth,and
are obtained from the animal kingdom.
  Earth, argillaceous.  See Alumina.
  Earth-bath.   A remedy recommended  by some
writers on the continent, as a specific in consumption.
  Earth, bolar.  See Bole.
  Earth, fullers'.  Cimolia purpurescens.  A compact
bolar earth, commonly of a grayish colour.  It is some-
times applied  by tlie common people to Inflamed
breastt, legs, &c. with a view of cooling them.
  Earth, heavy. See Barytes.
  Earth, Japan.  See Acacia catechu.
  Earth, mineral calcareous. Those calcareous earths
which are obtained from the mineral kingdom.  The
term is applied  in opposition  to those obtained from
animals.
  Earth-nut.  See Bunium bulbocastanum.
  Earth, sealed.  Terra sigillata.  Little cakes Of
earths, which  are stamped with Impressions.  They
were formerly in high estimation  as absorbents, bot
now fallen into disuse.                   '
  Earth-worm.   See Lumbricue terreatria.
  Eaton's styptic.  French brandy  kigltly impreg-
nated with  calcined green vitriol.  A Remedy m
checking hemorrhages.                      •• • -'•>
  [EATON, Aatos, professor in Hie ReMtetaeY IMlNMl'
at Troy, in the state of New-York.  AltmtagfclMP1
fessor Eaton to still Irving, we deem it but Jns*lce*to
say, that he  is one of the most industrious acsl-Inde-
fatigable votaries of natural science In the state. He
has lectured a number of years at Alesmy and  Trojy
on botany, mineralogy, and geology.  He has publtofr-
ed a valuable Manual of Botany for the NortheMb
States, a Geological Section of the Country from Bos-
ton to Lake Erie, and a pamphlet, containing n"Ge-
ological Nomenclature for North America."  He has
been employed forseven  years past, under tbe direc-
tion ofthe Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer, in travelling
over different  paru of the state of New-York, and
those adjoining, and in making geological surveys and
examinations of strata.   He hw probably done more
in this way than any geologist iu the country. He
promises to publish a System of American Geology,  in
which will be  displayed  some peculiarities of the for-
mations in this country, and  show how  they differ
from those of the Eastern continent   A.]
  Eau-de-luce.  See Spiritus ammonia succinate*.
  Eau-de-rabd.   This  Is composed of one putt ef
sulphurous acid to three of rectified spirit of wine,  (t
s much used in France,  when diluted, In tho cure nf
■gonorrhoeas, lenxorrhoBe, fcd 
ECK
ECP
  Bat'sctra.  Bee Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  EBULLITION.   (Ebullitio.   From  ebullio, to
bubble up.)   Boiling.  This consists in the change
which a fluid undergoes from a stale of liquidity to
that of an elastic nuid,  in  consequence  of the ap-
plication  of heat, which  dilates and converts il into
vapour.
  E'BL'LUS.  (From ebullio, to make boil:  so called
because of its  supposed use in purifying the  humours
of the body.)  See Sambucus ebulus.
  Ecbo'uua..  (From exSaXXta, to cast out.)  Medi-
cines which cause abortion.
  Ecno'uos.  (From cirfaAAw, to cast out.)   Miscar-
riage.
  E< bra'smata.   (From txSpagta, to  be  very hot.)
Ecchymata.  Painful fiery pimples in the face, or sur-
face of the body.
  Ecbra'smos. (From txCpa^ia, to become hot.)   Fer-
mentation.
  Ecbyrso mata.   (Prom tx,  and Bvpsa, the skin.)
Protuberances of the bones at tbe joinu, which appear
through the skin.
  Kcciiylo'ma.   (From  ex, and xv^°(, juice-)  An
extract.
  Euchy'kata.   (From  iirxvtii,  to  pour  out.)  See
Ecorasmala.
  ECCHYMO'MA.   (Exxvpiapa;  from  txxvu, to
pour out.)  Ecchymosis;  Crustula;  Sugillatio.  Ex-
travasation.  A black and blue swelling, either from a
bruise or spontaneous extravasation of blood. A ge-
nus of disease in the class Locales, and order  Tumores
of Cullen.
  Ecchymoma. arterioscm.  The false aneurism.
  ECCHYMO'SIS.  See Ecchymoma.
  E'CCLlSIrf.  (From txxXivia,  to turn aside.) A
luxation or dislocation.
  E C'COPE.  (From tKKonjia, to cut off.)   The cut-
ting off any part.
  Ecco'rtos.  (From  tKKortln, to cut off.)   An an-
cient instrument, the raspatory, used in trepanning.
  ECCOPRO'TIC.   (Eccoproticus;  from  tx, and xo-
irpoc, dung.)  An opening medicine,  the operatiou of
Which is  very gentle; such as manna, senna, &c.
  ECCRINOCRITICA.  (From txxpivia, to secrete,
and xftvia, to judge.)   Judgments formed from the se-
cretions.
   EIX' RINOLO'GIA.  (From txxpivia, to secrete, and
Xoyos, a discourse.)  Eccrinologica.  The doctrine of
secretions.
  E'CCRISIS. (From exxptvia, to secrete.)   A secre-
tion of any kind.
  ECCRITICA.  (From ttcxpivta, to secern, or strain
off)  Dr. Good applies this name to a class of diseases
ofthe execrueut system.  It haB three orders, viz. Me?
sotica, Catotica, Acrotica.
  ECOYESIS.   (From  tx, and  xvmns,  gravidity.)
Extra-utei ine fcetatiou.  The name of a genus of dis-
eases in Good's Nosology. It has three species: Ec-
cyesis ovaria, tit ball s, abdominalis.
  ECCYMO'SIS. . See Ecchymoma.
  ECDORA^ (From cxStpia, to excoriate.)  An exco-
riation: and particularly used for an excoriation of
the urethra.
  Ecoo'ria.  (From acStpta, to excoriate.)  Medicines
which excoriate and  bum through the skin.
  Eoheco'llon.   (From txia, to have, and koXXo,
glue.) Echecollum.  Any topical glutinous remedy.
  Echetro'sis.   So  Hippocrates  calls  tlie  white
briony.
  ECHiNATUS.  Bristly.  Applied in botany to any
thing beset with  bristles, as the pod of Glycyrrhiza
tchinata, and to the gourd seed-vessel, or pepo.
  Echini'des.  In Hippocrates it is mentioned as what
be used for purging the womb with.
  ECHINOPHTHA'LMIA.  (From (pivot, a hedge-
bog, and  oepBaXuta, an inflammation  of the eye.)  An
inflammation  of that part of the  eyelids, where the
hairs bristle out like the quills of an echinus,  or hedge-
hn».
  J'.CHINOPO'DIUM.   (From tx'yot, a  hedge-hog,
and jrotic, a foot; so named because its flowers rescm-
Me the foot of an urchin.)  A species of  broom or
genista.
  ECHI'NOPS.  (From rxivoc, as beset with  prickles.)
Tbe name of a genus of planU.   Class, Syngenesia;
Onlf-r, Polygamia scgregata.
  •i-kinok ariliRocErnAi.cs. The systematic name
of the  globe thistle.   Crocodilian;  Aecmthairuca;
Scabiosa carduifolia ; Spherocephala datis ; Echino-
pns.  It is raised in our gardens.  The root and seedfe
are moderately diuretic, but not used.
  Echi'nopvs.  See Echinops.
  ECHINUS.  1. The-hedge-hog, or Erinaceus Eu-
ropaus of Linnsus.
  2.  A genus in  the Linnaean system, included in the
molusca order of vermes.
  3.  The calcareous petrifaction of the sea hedge-hog,
  4.  The prominent poinU on the surface of the pileus,
or upper part ofthe mushroom tribe, are called echini.
See Fungus.
  ECHIOIDES.   (From txis, a viper, and tiSos, re-
semblance.)  The trivial name of some plants, from
their supposed resemblance to the Echium.
  E'CHIUM.  (From exit, a viper; so called because
it was said to heal the slings of vipers.)  The name of
a genus of plants in the Limucan system.  Class, ten-
tandria; Order,  Monogynia.  Viper's bugloss.
  Eciiium  JEGYPTIACUM.   Wall bugloss.   The Aspe-
rugo egyptiaca, the root of which is sudorific, and  is
used with oil as a dressing for wounds.
  E'CHOS. Kxos-  Sound.   In Hippocrates, it signi-
fies the same as the tinnitus aurium, or noise in the*
ears.
  E'CHYSIS.   (From txvu,  to pour out)  A fainting.
or swooning.
  ECLAMPSIA.   (From txXaunia, to shine.  See
Eclampsis.
  ECLAMPSIA. (From txXaunia, to sbine*  Edarmp
sia.   It signifies a splendour, brightness, effulgence
flashing nf light,  scintillation. Il is a flashing light, or
those sparklings which strike the eyes of epileptic pa-.
tienu.  Ccelius Aurelianus calls them circuit ignei,
scintillations, or  fiery circles.  Though only a symp-
tom of the epilepsy, Hippocrates puts it for epilepsy
itself.
  ECLE'CTIC.   (Eclecticus; from rxXcyu, to. select.)
Archigenes  and some  others selected from  all other.
sects what appeared to them to be tbe best and most
rational; hence they were called Eclectics, and their
medicine Eclectic medicine.
  ECLE'CTOS.  (From ettXtix". to lick up.  A linc-
tus, or soft medicine, like an electuary, to be licked up.
  ECLE'GMA.  (From t/cAtixwi to lick.)  A linctus,
or form of medicine made by the incorporation of oils.
with syrups, and which is to be taken upon  a liquor-
ice stick.
  E'CLYSIS.   (From cxXvta, to dissolve.)  A uni
versa) faintnese.
  ECMA'GMA.  (From txuaaaw, to form together.)
A mass of substances kneaded together.
  ECPEPIE'MENOS.  (From txnit^a, to press out.)
An ulcer wilh protuberating lips.
   ECPHLYSIS.  (EKtbXvots; from uctbXvgio,  to boil, or
bubble up, or over.) A blam, or vesicular  eruption.
The name of a genus of disease in Good's Nosology.
It has four species, viz. Ecphlysis pompholex, herpes,
rhi/pia, and eczema.
   ECPHRA'CTIC.  (From  txt^paaoia, to remove ob-
structions.   That which attenuates tough humours, so
as lo promote their discharge.
   ECPHRA'XIS.   (From txibpaooia, to  remove ob
struction.)   A perspiration-, an opening of obstructed
pores.
   ECPHRONIA.  (E*0p<i>vs, or cxdipoovvn,  from tx-
tbptov, extra menlem, out of one's mind.)  The name
of a genus in Good's Nosology. Insanity and crazi-
ness.  It has two species:  Ecphronia melancholia,
and Ecphronia mania.
  E'CPHYAS.  (From tx, and cbvo, to produce.)  1.
An appendix, or excrescence.
  2. The appendicula exci vermiformis.
  ECPHYMA.  (From txipvia, educo, egero.)  A cu
taneous excrescence. The name of a genus of diseases
in Good's Nosology.  Class, Eccritica;  Order, Aero-
tia.  Il has four species, viz.  Ecphyma caruncula, ver-
ruca, clavus, and callus.
  E'cphysk. (From txibvoaia, to blow out)  Flatus
from the bladder through ihe urethra, and from the
wound through the vagina.
  Ecpiivse'sip.   (From extbuaata, to breathe through.),
A quick expulsion ofthe air  from the lungs.
  E'CPHYSIS.  (From txipvia, to produc.:.)
  1. An apophysis, or appendix.
  2.  A process. 
ECT                                            ECT
  Ecpie'sma.  (From wirieC**, to press out.)  A frac-
ture ofthe skull, in which the bones press inwardly.
  Ecria'sMos.  (From trruju, to press out.)   A dis-
order of the eye, in which ihe globe is  almost pressed
out of the socket by an afflux of humours.
  Ecplero'ma.  (From ecxXnpou, to fill.)  In  Hippo-
crates tbey  are bard balls ot leather, or  other sub-
stances, adapted to fill the arm-piu, while by tile help
of the heels, placed against the balls, and repressing
the  same, the luxated os humeri is reduced into iu
place.
  ECPLE'XIS. (From ticnXtjoia, to terrify or astonish.)
A stupor, or astonishment, from sudden external acci-
denu.
  E'cpnoe.  (From txnvtia, to breathe.)  Expiration;
that part of respiration in which the air is expelled from
the lungs.
  ECPTO'MA.  (From cmn^M, to faU out.)   1. A
luxation of a bone.
  2. The expulsion of the secundines.
  3. The falling off of gangrenous parts.
  4. A hernia in the scrotum.
  5. A falling  down of the womb.
  Ecpy'ctica,  (From txnvxaXfo, to condense.)  Medi-
cines that render the fluids more solid.
  ECPYE'MA.  (From  tx, and nvov, pus.)  A collec-
tion of pus, from tiie suppuration of a tumour.
  ECPYESIS.  (From txnvia, to suppurate.)   The
name of  a  genus  of diseases  in Good's Nosology.
Class, Eccritica ; Order, Acrotica.  Humid scalp. It
has  four species, Ecpyesis impetigo, porrigo, ecthyma,
scabies.
  Ecre'oma.   (From txpnyvvpi,  to break.)  A rup-
ture.
  Ecre'xis.   (From cKonywut, to break.)  A rupture.
Hippocrates expresses by it a rupture or laceration
of the womb.       '
  Echry'thmos.  (From tx, and  pvBpos,  harmony.)
A term applied to the pulse, and signifies that it is irre-
gular.
  E'croe.  (From txptta, to flow  out.)  An efflux, or
the  course  by which  any humour  which  requires
purging is evacuated.
  Ecrueles.  The  French for scrofula.
  E'crysis.  (From  txptia, to flow out.)  In Hippo-
crates it is an efflux of tlie semen before it receives the
conformation of a fcetus, and therefore is called an
efflux, to distinguish it from abortion.
  ECSARCO'MA.  (Frorh tx,  and aap\,  flesh.)  A
fleshy excrescence.
  E'CSTASIS. (Ecstasis, cos. f. Kx^aois; from £sifa-
uai, to be out of one's senses.)  An ecstasy, or trance.
In Hippocrates it signifies a delirium.
  Ecstro'phius.  (From tKs-pttbia, to invert.)   An
epithet  for any medicine, that makes the blind piles
appear outwardly.
  Ecthely'nsis.  (From txBtXvvia, to re ndcr effemi-
nate.) Softness.   It is applied to  the skin and flesh,
when lax and soft, and to  bandages, when not suffi-
ciently tight
  Ecthli'mma.  (From txBXtSia, to press out against.)
An ulceration caused by pressure of the skin.
  Eothli'psis.  (From txByiSia, to press out against.)
Elision, or expression.  It is spoken of  swelled eyes,
when they dart forth sparks of light
  E'CTHYMA.  (Ecthyma, atis. n. txBvtiv, to rage, or
break forth with fury.)  A pustule or cutaneous erup-
tion.
  Ectillo'tica.  (From txfiXXia, to pull out.)   Medi-
cines which eradicate tubercles or corns,  or destroy
superfluous hair.
  ECTO'PIA.   (From txjonos, out of  place.)  Dis-
placed.
.  Ectopia.   (The  plural of  edopia.)  ParU dis-
placed.  An order in the class locales of Cullen's No-
Mlogy.  See Nosology.
  Ectrapeloga'stkos.  (From txjpcnouai, to degene-
rate, and yasnp, a belly.)  One who has a  monstrous
belly, or whose appetite is voraciously large.
  Ectri'mma.  (From sxJpiSta, to  rub off)  An exco-
riation.  In  Hippocrates il is an  exulceration of the
skin about the os sacrum.
  E'ctrope.  (From tx]ptnia, to divert, pervert, or in-
vert) It is any duct by which the humours arediverted
and drawn off. InP.ASgiiietaitisthe same as Euro-
pium.
  ECTRO'PHJM.   (From  «7<w*i, to  evert;   An
      »a
•version of the eyelids, so tbat their internal surface
U outermost
  There are two species of this disease: one produced
bynn unnatural swelling of the lining of the eyelids,
which not only pushes their edges from the eyeball, but
also presses thein so forcibly, thai they become everted;
the other arising from a contraction of the skin cover-
ing the eyelid, or of  that  in the  vicinity,  by which
means the edge of the eyelid is first removed tor aotne
distance from tlie eye, and afterward  turned com-
pletely outward, together with the whole of the affect
ed eyelid.
  The morbid swelling of the lining of the  eyelids,
which causes the  first species of  ectropium, ari.sea
mostly  from  a  congenital  laxity of this membrane,
afterward increased by chronic ophthalmies,  particu-
larly of a scrofulous nature,  in   relaxed,  unhealthy
subjecu; or else the disease originates from the small-
pox affecting the eyes.
  While the disease is confined to the lower eyelid, as
it most commonly is, the lining of this part may be ob-
served rising in  the form of a semilunar fold, of a pale
red colour  like  the  fungous granulations of wounds,
and intervening between the eye and eyelid, which lat-
ter it in some measure everte.   When tlie swelling ia
afterward occasioned by the lining of both the  eye-
lids, the disease assumes an annular shape, In the cen-
tre of which the eyeball seems sunk, while tin  circum-
ference of the ring presses  and everU the edges of the
two eyelids, so  as to cause both great uneiaineeeand
deformity.  In each of the above-cases, on pressing the
skin of the eyelids with the point of the finger, ft. be-
comes manifest that  they are very capable or being
elongated, and would readily yield, so as entirely to
cover the eyeball, were they not prevented by tha in-
tervening swelling of their membranous lining.'. '^.
  Besides the very considerable deformity vrannjthe
disease produces, it occasions  a continual dlsch^Sk of
tears over the cheek, and,  what is worse, a drymfipf
the eyeball, frequent exasperated  attacks of  clisfnic
ophthalmy, incapacity  to  bear tbe light, and, fsitly
opacity and ulceration of the cornea.            '_,
  The second species  of  ectropium, or that arising
from  a contraction of the  integuments of the eyelids,
or  neighbouring parts, is not unfrequently a ;Conee-
quence of puckered scars, produced by  a cwueut
small-pox, deep burns, or the excision of cancerous or
encysted tumours, without saving a sufficient quantity
of skin; or, lastly, the disorder is the effect of malig-
nant carbuncles, or any kind of wound attended with
much loss of substance. Each of these causes is quite
enough to bring on such a contraction of the  akin of
the eyelids as lo draw the  parts towards the arches of
the orbiu, so as to remove  them from the eyeball, and
turn their edges outward.  Nosooner has ibis circum-
stance happened, than it is often followed by another
one equally unpleasant, namely, a  swelling  of the in-
ternal membrane of the affected eyelids, which after-
ward has a great share in completing the eversion.
The lining of the eyelids, though trivially everted,
being continually exposed to the air, and irritation of
extraneous substances,  soon swells, and rises  up like
fungus.   One side of this fungous-like tumour covers a
part of the eyeball; the other pushes the eyelid so con-
siderably outwards, tbat its edge is not unfrequently iu
contact with the margin of the orbit  ThecomplainU
induced by this  second species of ectropium arc the
same as those brought on by the first; it being noticed,
however, that in both cases, whenever the disease is
very inveterate, the  fungous swelling of tile inside of
the eyelids becomes hard, and as it were callous.
  Although, in both species of ectropium, the lining of
the eyelids seems equally swollen, yet the surgeon  can
easily distinguish to which  of the two species the  dis-
ease belongs.  For, in tlie first, the skin of the eyelids,
and adjoining parts, u not  deformed with scars;  and
by pressing the  everted eyelid  with the  point of the
finger, the part would with ease cover the eye,  were il
not for the intervening fungous swelling.  Rut in the
second species of ectropium, besides the obvious cica-
trix and contraction of the akin of the eyelids, or adja-
cent parts, when an effort is made to cover the  eye
with the everted eyelid, by pressing upon the latter part
with the point of tbe finger, it does uol give way to aa
completely to cover die globe,  aa it ought to do. only
yieldine for a certain extent: or it does not move In lbs
least from its unuuauiral  poailion, by reaauu of tlie 
EIS
ELA
Integumenu of the eyelids having been so extensively
destroyed, that their margin has  become adherent to
the arch of the orbit.
  ECTRO'SIS.  (EktoWic ; from tfliJpiaoKu), to mis-
carry.)  A miscarriage.
  Ectro'tica. (From txlilptaoxta, to miscarry.)  Ec-
tyrotica; Ectylotica.  Medicines wbich cause abor-
tion.
  Ectylo'tica.   See Ectillotica.
  Ectyro'tica,  See Edrotica.
  ECZE'MA. (From «J«ii, to boil out)  Eczesma. A
hot, painful eruption, or pustule.
  Ede'lphus.  The prognosis of a disease from the
nature of elemenu.
  EDULCORA'NTf A. (From edulco, to make sweet.)
Edulcnranu.   Medicines  which purify the fluids, by
depriving them of their acrimony.
  EFFERVESCENCE.   (Effervescentia; from effer-
vesco, to grow hot.)  1. That agitation which is  pro-
duced by mixing substances together, which cause the
evolution of a gas.
  2. A small degree of ebullition.
  E'ffila.  Freckles.
  EFFLORESCENCE.   (Effiorescentia; from efflo-
resco, to blow as a flower.)  1. In pathology, it is used
to express a  morbid redness of the skin, and is gene-
rally synonymous with exanthema.
  2. in chemistry, it means that effect  which takes
place when bodies  spontaneously become converted
into a dry powder.   It is almost always occasioned
by the loss of the  water of  crystallization in saline
bodies.
  3. In botany, it is  applied to express the blooming of
flower*, and the time of flowering.  .
  EFFLU'VIUM.  (From effiuo, to spread  abroad.)
See Contagion.
  Effiiactu ra.  (From effringo, to break down.; A
fracture, in which the bone is much depressed by the
Mow.
  EFFUSION.  (Effusio; from effundo, to pour out.)
In pathology it means the escape of any fluid out of
the vessel, or viscus, naturally containing it, and its
lodgment In another cavity, in the cellular substance,
or iu the substance of parts.   Effusion aUo sometimes
signifies the morbid secretion of fluids from the ves-
sels ; thus physicians frequently speak of coagulable
lymph being effused on different surfaces.
  EGERAN.  A sub-species of pyramidal garnet of a
reddish-brown colour.
  Eoe'ries.   (From egero, to carry  out.)   Egestio.
An excretion,  or evacuation.
  EGG.   Ovum.  The eggs nf hens, end of  birds in
general, arc composed of several  distinct substances.
1. The shell or external coating, which is composed of
carbonate of  lime  .72, phosphate of lime .2,  gelatine
.3.  The remaining  .23 are perhaps water. 2. A thin
white and strong membrane, possessing the usual cha-
racters of animal substances.  3. The  white of the
egg, for which, see Albumek.  4. The yelk, which ap-
pears to consist of an oil of the nature of  fat oils,
united with  a portion of serous  matter, sufficient to
render  it diffusible  in cold water, in the form of an
emulsion, and coucrecible by  heat  Yelk of egg is
used as the medium for rendering resins and oils diffu-
sible in water. 'The eggs of poultry arc chiefly used as
food, the different parts are likewise employed in phar-
macv and in medicine. Thecalcined shell is esteemed
os an absorbent  The oil is softening, and is used ex-
ternally to burns and chaps.  The yelk renders oil inis-
cible with water, and is triturated with the same view
with resinous and other  substances.   Raw eggs have
been  much recommended  as a  popular remedy for
jaundice.
  Eoreoo'rsis.  (From typnyoptto,  to  watch.)  A
watchfulness, or want of sleep.
  Ei'lamis.   (From ttXtia, to involve.) A membrane
(lvolving the brain.
  Eili'ma.   (From etXtta, to form convolutions.)  In
Hippocrates, it signifies painful convolutions of the in-
testines from  flatulence.  Sometimes it signifies a co-
vering.  Vogel says, it is a fixed pain in the bowels, as
Ifa nail was driven  in.
  Ei'leon.  (From  ttXtia, to wind.)  Gorraus says it
ia a name ofthe intestinum ileum.
  Ei'leos.  (From tiX«i)> to form convolutions.) The
Disc passion.
  Ei'sBOLK.  (From us, into, and BaXXu, to cast) It
signifies strictly an injection, but is used to express the
access of a distemper, or of a {.articular paroxysm.
  Ei'spnok.   (From ««, into, and neia, to breathe.)
Inspiration of air.
  EJAOULA'NTIA.   (From  ejaculo,  to cast out.)
Ejaculatoria.  The vessels which convey the seminal
matter secreted in  the testicles to the penis.   These
are the epididymis, and the vasa deferentia; the vesi-
cula? seminales are the receptacles of the semen.
  EJE'CTIO.   (From  ejicio, to cast out.)  Ejection,
or the discharging of any thing from the body.
  Elaca'lm.  The Indian name of a cathartic shrub,
the Euphorbia nervifolia, of Linnaeus.
  Elaea'onon.  (From  cXatov, oil, and ayvos, chaste.)
See Vitex agnus castus.
  Elso'meu.  (From  tXatov, oil,  and ucXi, honey.)
A sweet 'mrging oil, like honev.
  ELcEOSA'CCHARUM.  (From eXatov, oil,  and
oaKxapov, sugar.)  A mixture of an essential oil with
sugar.
  Elcoseli'nitm.  See Eleoselinum.
  ELAIN.   The oily principle of solid fats, so named
by its discoverer, Chevreuil, who dissolves tallow  in
very pure hot alkohol, separates the stearin by crys-
tallization, and then procures the elain by evaporation
of the spirit.  Braconnot  has  adopted a simpler, and
probably a more exact method.  By squeezing tallow
between the folds of porous paper, the elain soaks into
it, while the stearin remains.  The paper being  then
soaked in water, and pressed, yields up its oily im-
pregnation.  Elain has very much the appearance and
properties of vegetable oil.  It is liquid at the tempera-
ture  of CO0.  Its smell and colour are derived from
the solid l'au from which it is extracted.
  [" Mr. Pictet's method of procuring elftine, consists
in pouring upon oil a concentrated solution of caustic
soda, stirring the mixture, heating it slightly to sepa-
rate the elaine from the soap of the stearine, pouring
it on a cloth, and then  separating by decantation the
elaine from ihe excess of alkaline solution.— Webster's
Man. of Chemistry.  A.]
  Elais guinex'nsis.  A species of palm which grows
spontaneously on the coast of Guinea, but is much cul-
tivated in the West Indies.  It is from this tree that
the oil, called in the West Indies Mackaw fat, is ob-
tained :  and, according to some, the palm-oil, which ia
considered  as an emollient and strenglhener of all
kinds of weakness of  the limbs.   It also is  recom-
mended against bruises, strains, cramps, pains, swell-
ings, Sec.
  Elambica'tio.  A method  of analyzing mineral
waters.
  ELAOLITE.  A subspecies of pyramidal felspar.
  ELAPHOBO'SCUM.  (From tXutbos, a stag, and
Booxia, to eat: so called, because deer eat them greedi
ly.)  See Pastinaca.
  ELAPHOSCO RODON.  (From tXatbos, the stag,
and oxopoSov, garlic.)  Stag's or viper's garlic.
  Ela'sma.   (From tXavvia, to drive.)  A lamina of
any kind.  A clyster-pipe.
  ELASTIC.  (Elasticus; from tXasilS, impulsor,  or
of tXavvtiv,  to impel, to push.)  Springy; having the
power of returning to the form from which it has been
forced to deviate, or from which il is withheld; thus,
a blade of steel is said to be elastic, because if  it  ia
bent to a certain degree, and then let go, it will of it-
self return lo iu former situation; tbe same will hap-
pen to the branch of a  tree, a piece of Indian rubber,
Sec  See Elasticity.
  Elastic fluid.  See Gas.
  Elastic gum.  See Caoutchouc.
  ELASTICIT Y.  Elaitidtas.  A force in bodies, by
which they endeavour to restore themselves  to the
posture from whence they were displaced by any ex
ternal force.  To solve this property, many have re
course to the universal law of nature, attraction, by
which the paru of solid and firm bodies are caused  to
cohere together:  whereby, when  hard bodies are
struck or bent, so that the component paru are a little
moved from one another, but not quite disjoined or
broken off, nor separated so  far as to be out of the
power  of the attracting force, by which tbey cohere
together; they certainly must, on the cessation of the
external violence, spring back with a very great velo-
city lo tbeii former state.  But in this circumstance,
the atmospherical pressure will account for it as well;
because such a violence,  if .t be not great enough  to
                      '                 -no 
ELA
ELE
separate the constituent particles of a body far enough
to let in any foreign matter, must occasion many va-
cuole between tbe separated siiuaces, so that upon the
removal of the external force, tney will close  again by
the pressure of the aerial fluid upon the external pai U,
i. e. tiie body will come again into iu natural posture.
Tbe included  air, likewise, in most bodies, gives that
power of resilition upon their percussion.
  If two  bodies  perfectly dastic strike, one against
another, there will be or remain in each the same rela-
tive velocity as before, i. e. they will recede  with the
same velocity as they met together. For the compress-
ive force,  or the magnitude of the stroke in any given
bodies, arises from the relative velocity of those bodies,
and is proportional  to  it, and  bodies perfectly elastic
will restore themselves completely to tiie figure they
had before the shock;  or, in other words, tbe resti-
tuiive force is equal to the compressive, and therefore
must be equal  to the force wilh which they came to-
gether, and consequently they must, by  elasticity, re-
cede again from each other with the same  velocity.
Hence, taking equal times before and after the shock,
the  distances  between the bodies will be equal: and
therefore the distances of them from tiie common cen-
tre of gravity will, in the same times, be equal.  And
hence the laws of percussion of bodies perfectly elastic
are easily deduced.
  ELATERIUM.   (From tXavvia, to  stimulate  or
agitate: so named from iu great purgative qualities.)
See Momordica daterium.
  ["The  Momordica elaterium is a perennial  plant,
growing spontaneously in the  south of Europe.  The
fruit, which is botanically allied to the cucuinber and
melon, has the curious property of separating itsell, |
when ripe, from  ils stalk, and ejecting iu seeds with
great force through an opening in the base, where the
3talk was attached.   The medicinal property resides
 chiefly in the juice at the centre of the fruit, and about
 the seeds. The drug called Elaterium iu  our Phar-
 macopoeia, and which ihe London College have, with
 some latitude of application, called an  extract, is the
 sediment which subsides from  the juice of ihe fruit
 after it has been drawn out  The quantity of genuine
 elaterium contained in a single fruit is extremely small,
 as  it appears  that  only six grains were obtained by
 Dr. Clutterbuck  from forty of the cucumbers.   The
 plant might be raised in this country.
    « Elaterium is sold in small, thm cakes, or fragments,
 of a greenish colour, and a bitter and somewhat acrid
 taste. It is liable to vary in strength, according to the
 mode of iu preparation.  If tiie juice has been  ex-
 tracted with  much pressure, the  sediment contains
 portions  of  the  fruit which  are comparatively inac-
 tive, and which, of course, tend to lessen its acuvity.
 In selecting elaterium, those specimens which have a
 ■very dark colour, are compact and  heavy,  and break
 wRh a shining resinous fracture, are to be rejected as

 *"" This drug is one of the most violent cathartics.
 It was cmnioved by the ancienU as a hydragogue in
 drops?, fo a form  not dissimilar to  that used at  the
 present day.  It was also used  by the Arabians, and
 in more  modern limes by Boerhaave Sydenham and
 Lister,   auite  recently it has been  highly recom
 mended  in dropsy  by some distinguished1 Enghsb phy
 jffcians, and their  practice has been  successfully mi
 tated in this country; although the peat uncertainty
 of its operation  has repeatedly caused  it to be Man
 4oned.   It lias the peculiar property of«otM^u
 ging, but at  the same time exciting  a  febrile  acuon.
 which Lister  describes as attended with a throbb nf
 tiiat is felt to the  fingers'  ends.  Orfila found that a
«& Li^r Ifosc^es ^attended with a  throbbing
tiiat is felt to the  fingers' ends   Orfilai foundI that a
large dose, given to a dog, brought on inflammat on M
tiie stomach, but when injected in two  cases into the
cell.tiar texture of  the thifh, tbe rectum^wos toe only
par, of the canal which became wn^A^on
concludes, that the medicine has some peculiar acuon

°VTt° ^certainty arising from  the different prepa-






is ventured on in any ?°n»de'*l>7 C" iiVen from one


      320
excessive  operation  resulting from it."—Ma. Jtm
Med.  AJ
  ELATHE'RIA. A name  for the cascarilla bark.
  ELATIN.  The active principle of elatenuui.  ties
Momordica elaterium.
  ELATI'NE.   (From  tXalnov, smaller, being toe
smaller species.)  See Antirrhinum clatine.
  ELATIO.  Elevated, exalted.  This term is ap-
plied in Good's Nosology,  to  a species of the genus
Alusio, to designate mental extravagance.
  Elati'tes.  Bloodstone.
  ELCO'SIS.  (From tXxos, an ulcer.)  A disease at-
tended wilh foetid, carious, and chronic ulcers.  Tbe
term is seldom used.
  ELDER.  See Sambucus.
  Elder, dwarf.  See Sambucus Ebulus.
  ELECAMPANE.  See Inula hclenium,
  ELECTIVE.  That which  is done, or passes, by
election.
  Elective affinity, double.  See Affinity double.
  Elective attraction.  Sec Affinity.
  Elective attraction, double.  See Affinity double
  ELECTRICITY.   (Eiec'ricitoj; from dectrum,
nXtxrpov, from nXtxliap, the sun, because of its bright
shining  colour; or from tXxta, to draw, because of ita
magnetic  power.)  A  property which certain bodies
possess  when rubbed, heated, or otherwise  excited,
whereby they attract  remote bodies, and frequently
emit sparks or streams of light  The ancients first ob-
served tiiis property in amber, which they called Elecr
trum, and hence arose the word electricity.
   " If a piece of sealing-wax and of dry warm flannel
 be rubbed against each other, they both become capa-
I ble of attracting and repelling light bodies.  A dry and
I warm sheet of writing-paper, rubbed with India rub-
 ber, or  a tube of glass  rubbed upon silk, exhibit the
 same phenomena.  In these cases, the bodies are Baid
 to be electrically excited;  and when  in a daik room,
 they always appear luminous.  If two pith-balls be
 electrified by touching them with the sealing-wax, or
 with the flannel, they  repel each other; but if one
 pith-ball be electrified by the wax, and the other by the
 flannel, they attract each  other.   The same applies to
 the glass and silk: it shows a difference- in the electri-
 cities of the different bodies, and the experiment leads
 lo the conclusion, tbat oodia* similarly electrified repel
 each other; but that when dissimilarly electrified, they
 attract each other.
    The  term electrical repulsion is berc used merely to
 denote the appearance of tlie phenomenon, tbe separa-
 tion being probably  referrible to the new  attractive
 power which they acquire, when electrified, for the air
 and other surrounding bodies.
    If one ball be electrified by sealing wax rubbed by
 flannel, and another by sUk rubbed with glass, those
 balls will repel each other;  which  proves  that the
 electricity of thesilk is the same as that of the sealing-
 wax   But if one ball be electrified by the sealing-wax
 and the  other by the glass,  they then attract each
 other, showing that they are oppositely electrified.
    These experimenu are most conveniently performed
 with a large downy  feather, suspended by a silken
 thread   If an excited glass tube be brought near It, it
 will receive and retain its electricity; il will be that
 attracted and then repelled;  and upon re-exelting  tbe
 tube, and again approaching it, it will not again be at-
 tracted, but retain ita state of repulsion; but upon ap-
 proaching it with excited sealing-wax, it will instant y
 be attracted, and remain  in contact wilh the wax till
 it  has acquired iu electricity, when it will be repelled,
 and in that state of repulsion it will be attracted by
tne glass,  in uu.-=o <=»k»-.....—■--i--------  -.   .      •
that  the feather remains treely^usramded  in the air,
and  touches nothing capable ol carrying off iu elec-

^ The terms vitreous and resinous electricity  were
anolied to these two phenomena; but 1 ranklin,  ob-
■eSthat ihe same electncity was not ... hereof In
tiie same body, but ibal glass sometimes exhibited the
same phenomena as wax, and viceversa, adopted anc-
 KS instead of regarding tne plieim.nc.ia as
dependent upon two electric  fluids, referred them to
rh« wraeaoe of one fluid, in excess in some caws, and
 ndScy taSnersT  Toreprweni these state* he
used Ibe S plus and sums, po.itis, and negative.
WhcrMdulis tubbed "ith silk' '  P"1 °? of eU*"1 
ELE                                             ELE
  sitite, therefore, and the silk negative: but when seal-
  ing-wax ia rubbed with flannel, the wax loses, and the
  flannel gains; the  former, therefore,  is negative, and
  tiie latter positive.   All bodies in nature are thus re-
  garded as containing  the electric fluid, and when its
  equilibrium  is duturbed,  they exhibit the  phenomena
  just described.  The substances enumerated in the fol-
  lowing tallc become positively electrified when rubbed
  witii tlnoe which  follow them in  the list;  but with
  thoae  which precede  them  they become negatively
  electrical.—Biot, Traiti de Physique, torn ii. p. 220.
        Cat's-skin.               Paper.
        Polished glass.           Silk.
        Woolen cloth.           Gum lac.
        Feathers.                Rough glass.
    Very delicate pith-balls,  or strips of gold  leaf, are
  usually employed in ascertaining the presence of elec-
  tricity ; and by the way iu which their divergence  is
  effected by glass or sealing-wax, the  kind or state of
  electricity is judged of.  When  properly suspended or
  mounted for delicate experiments, they form an elec-
  trometer or dectroscope.  For this purpose, the slips ofi
  gold leaf are suspended by a brass cap and wire in a
  glass cylinder: they hang in  contact when unelec-
  trified, but when electrified they diverge.
    When  this   instrument,   as  usually  constructed,
  becomes in a smtdl  degree damp, its delicacy is much
  diminished, and it is rendered nearly useless.
    The kind of  electricity by which the gold leaves are
  diverged may be judged of by approaching the cap of
  the instrument with a stick of excited sealing-wax;  if
  it be negative, the divergence will increase; if positive,
  tiie leaves will collapse, upon tlie principle ofthe mu-
  tual annihilation of the opposite electricities, or that
  bodies similarly electrified repel each other, but that
  when  dissimilarly  electrified, they become mutually
  attractive.
   Some bodies suffer electricity to  pass through their
  substance,  and  are called conductors.  Others only
  receive it upon the spot touched, and are called non-
  conductors.  The former do not, in general, become
  electrified by friction,  and are called non-electrics:
  the latter, on the contrary, are electrics, or acquire elec-
 tricity by friction.   They are also called  insulators.
 The metala are all conductors;  dry air, glass, sulphur,
  and resins, are  non-conductors.  Water, damp wood,
  spirit of wine, damp air, and some oils, are imperfect
  conductors.
   Raritied air admiu of Ihe passage of electricity; so
  does tiie Jarricellian vacuum; hence, if an electrified
  body be placed under the  receiver of the air-pump, it
 loses its electricity during exhaustion.  So  that  the
 air, independent of  its non-conducting power, appears
 to influence  the retentive properties of bodies, in re-
 spect to electricity, by its pressure.
   There appears to be no constant relation between the
 state of bodies  and  their conducting powers: among
 aolids, metals are conductors; but gums and resins are
 non-conductors: among liquids, strong alkaline acid,
 and saline solutions, are good conductors; pure water
 Is an imperfectconductor, and oils are non-conductors;
 solid wax Is almost a non-conductor; but when melted
 a good one.
   Conducting powers belong to bodies in the roost op-
 posite stales;  thus,  the flame of alkohol and  ice are
 equally good  conductors.  Glass is  a non-conductor
 when cold, but conducu when red-hot: the diamond
 is a non-conduoior; but pure and well-burned char-
 coal is among the best conductors.
   There are  many  mineral  substances which show
 signs of electricity when  heated, as the tourmalin,
 topaz, diamond, boracite, Sec, and in these bodies the
 different surfaces exhibit different electrical states.
   Whenever one part of a body, or system of bodies,
 is positive, another part is invariably negative; and
 these opposite electrical states are always such as ex-
 actly to neutralize each other.  Thus, in the common
 electrical machine, one conductor receives the  electri-
 city of the glass-cylinder,  and tbe other that of the
silk-rubber, and  tiie  former conductor ia positive, and
the latter negative; but, if they be connected, all elec-
trical phenomena cease.
  Electricians  generaUy  employ the  terra quantity to
Indicate the absolute quantity of  electric power in any
 body, and the  term intensity, to signify iu power of
passing through  a certain stratum of air, or other ill-.
conducting, medium.
    If we suppose a charged Leyden phial to furnish a
  spark, when discharged,  of one inch in length, we
  should find that another uncharged Leyden phial, the
  inner and outer coating of which were communicated
  with those of the former, would, upon the same ouan-  »
  tity of electricity being thrown in, reduce the length of
  tlie spark to half an  inch ;  here the quantity of elec-
  tricity remaining the  same, its intensity is diminished
  by one-half, by its distribution over the larger surface
    It isobvious that the extension of surface liluded to
  in the last paragraph will be attended with 1 greater
  superficial exposure to the unelectrified air; and hence
  it might be expected that a similar diminution of in
  tensity would result from the vicinity of the electrified
  surface to the ground, or to any other body of sufficient
  magnitude in iu ordinary state.  That this is the case,
  may be shown by diverging  tbe leaves of the gold leaf
  electrometer, and in that state approaching the instru-
  ment with an uninsulated plate, which, when within
  half an inch of the electrometer plate, will cause the
  leaves to  collapse; but, on removing the uninsulated
  plate, they will again diverge, in consequence of the
  electricity regaining its former intensity.   The same
  fact is shown by the condensing electrometer.
    The power of the Leyden jar is proportioned to its
  surface; but a very large jar is inconvenient and diffi-
  cult to procure ; the same end is attained by arranging
  several jars, so that by  a communication existing be-
  tween all their interior coatings, their exterior belrig
  also united, they may be  charged and discharged  aa
  one jar.   Such  a combination is called an electrical
  battery, and is useful  for exhibiting the effect of accu-
  mulated electricity.
    The discharge of the  battery is attended by a consi-
  derable report, and  if it be  passed through small ani-
  mals, it instantly kills them; if through fine metallic
  wires, they are  ignited,  melted, and burned; and gun-
  powder, cotton  sprinkled with powdered resin,  and a
  variety of other combustibles, may be inflamed by the
  same means.
    There are many other sources of electricity than
  those just noticed.  When glass Is rubbed by mercury,
  it becomes electrified;  and  this is the cause of the
  luminous  appearance observed when a barometer Is
  agitated in a dark room, in which case flashes of light
  are seen to traverse the empty part of the tube.   Even
  the friction of air upon  glass is attended by electrical
 excitation : for Wilson found, that by blowing upon a
 dry plate of glass with a pair nf bellows, it acquired a
  positive electricity.  Whenever  bodies change their
  forms, their electrical  states are also altered.  Thus,
 the conversion of water into vapour, and the congela-
 tion of melted  resins and sulphur are  processes in
  which electricity ia also  rendered sensible.
   When an insulated plate of zinc is brought into
 contact with one of copper or silver, it is found, after
  removal, to be positively electrical, and the silver or
 copper is left in the opposite  stale.
   The  most oxidisable  metal is always positive, in
 relation to  tbe least oxidisable metal, which is nega-
 tive, and the more opposite the metals in these respects
 tlie greater tbe electrical excitation; and if the metals
 be placed  in the following order, each will become
 positive by the contact of* that which precedes it, and
 negative by the contact of that which follows it; and
 the greatest effect will result from the contact of tbe
 most distant metals.
      Platinum.       Mercury.      Tin.
      Gold.           Copper.       Lead.
      Silver.          Iron.          Zinc.
   If the nerve of a recently killed frog be attached to
 a silver probe, and a piece of zinc be brought into the
 contact of  the muscular ports of the animal, violent
 convulsions are  produced  every time tlie metals thus
 connected are made to touch  each other.  Exactly the
 same effect is produced by an electric spark, or the dis-
 charge of a very small Leyden-pbial.
  If a piece of zinc be placed upon the tongue, and a
 piece of silver under it, a peculiar  sensation will be
 perceived every time the two metals are made to touch.
  In these cases the chemical properties of tbe metala
 are observed to be effected.  If a sliver and zinc wire
be put into a wine glass full  of dilute sulphuric acid,
the zinc wire will only evolve gas; but upon bringing
the two wires in contact with each other, the silver
will also copiously produce air bubbles.
  If a number waiteratlons be made of coppctjat stt- 
ELE
ELE
 ter leaf, zinc leaf, and thin paper, the electricity ex-
 cited by the contact of the metals will be rendered evi-
 dent to the common electrometer.
   If the same arrangement  be  made with  the paper
 moistened with brine," or a weak acid, it will be found,
 on bringing a wire communicating with the last copper
 plate into contact with the first zinc plate, that a spark
 is  perceptible, and also  a slight shock, provided the
 number of alternations be sufficiently numerous.  This
 hi the voltaic apparatus.
   Several modes of constructing this apparatus  have
 been adopted  with a view to render it more conve-
 nient or active.   Sometimes  double  plates of copper
 and zinc soldered together, are cemented into wooden
 troughs in regular  order, the intervening cells being
 filled with water, or saline, or acid solutions.
   Another form consisU in arranging a row of glasses,
 containing dilute sulphuric acid, in  each of which is
 placed a wire, or  plate of silver,  or copper, and one of
 zinc, not touching each other, but  so connected  by
 metallic wires, that the zinc of the first cup may com-
 municate with the copper of the second ; the zinc of
 the second  with the copper of  tiie  third; and so on
 throughout the series.
   Wlien the poles of the Voltaic apparatus are con-
 nected by a steel wire, it requires magnetic properties,
 and if by a platinum, or other metallic wire,  that  wire
 exhibits numerous  magnetic poles, which attract and
 repel the common magnetic needle. This very curious
 fact was first observed by Professor Oersted, of Copen-
 hagen.
   On immersing  the  wires from the extremes of this
 apparatus into water, it is found that the fluid suffers
 decomposition, and that  oxygen  gas is liberated at the
 positive wire or pole,  and hydrogen gas at the negative
 pole.
   All other substances are decomposed with similar
 phenomena, the inflammable element being disengaged
 at  the negatively electrical surface; hence  it would
 appear,  upon  the  principle  of  similarly electrified
 bodice repelling each other, and dissimilarly electrified
 bodies attracting each other, that  the inherent or natu-
 ral electrical state of the inflammable substances is
 positive, for they  are attracted by the negative or op-
 positely electrified pole; while the bodies, called  sup-
 porters  of combustion, or  acidifying principles, are
 attracted by the positive  pole, and, therefore, may be
 considered as possessed of the negative power.
   When bodies are thus under the influence of elec-
 trical decomposition, their usujuVchemical energies arc
 suspended', and some very curious phenomena are ob-
 servedl
  The most difficult decomposable compounds may be
 thus resolved into their component paru by  the elec-
 trical agency;  by a weak  power the proximate  ele-
 ments are separated, and  by a stronger power these
 are resolved into their ultimate constituents.
  All bodies which exert powerful chemical agencies
 upon each other when freedom of motion  is given to
 their  particles,  render each other oppositely electrical
 when acting as masses.  Hence Sir H. Davy, the great
 and successful investigator of this branch of chemical
 philosophy, has supposed tbat electrical and chemical
 phenomena, though in themselves quite distinct, may
 be dependent on one and the same power, acting in the
 former case upon  masses  of matter, in the other upon
 iu  particles.
  The power of the Voltaic apparatus to communicate
 divergence to the electrometer, is  most observed when
 it is well Insulated, and filled with pure water; but iu
 power of producing ignition and of giving shocks, and
 of producing the other effecu observed when iu poles
 are connected, are much augmented by the  interpo-
 sition of dilute  acids,  which act chemically upon  one
 ofthe plates: here the insulation is interfered wilh by
 tbe production  of vapour,  but the quantity  of elec-
 tricity is much increased, a circumstance which may,
 perha|«, be referred to the increase of the  positive
 energy of tbe most oxidisable metal by the contact of
the acid.  In experiments made with the great battery
 nf the Royal  Institution,  it has been found  that  130
plates rendered active by a mixture of one part of ni-
tric acid, and three of water, produces effects  equal to
480 plates rendered active by one part of nitric acid,
and fifteen of water.
  In the Voltaic pile, the intensity of the electricity
Increases with  the number of alternations,  but  the
      •jas
 quantity is increased by extending the surface of that
 plates.  Thus,  if a  battery, composed of thirty pairs
 of plates, two inches square, be compared wilh another
 battery of thirty pairs of twelve inches square charged
 in the same  way, no difference will be perceived la
 their effects upon bad or imperfect conductor*; Uiett
 powers of dec (imposing  water, and of giving shocks,
 will be similar; but  upon  good conductora the effecu
 of the large plates will be considerably greater than
 those  of tiie  small:  they  will  ignite  and fuse large
 quantities of  platinum wire, and produce a very bril-
 liant spark between  charcoal points.  The following
 experiment well  illustra. is  the different effecu of
 quantity and intensity in ine Voltaic apparatua.
   Immerse the platinum wires connected with the ex-
 tremity of a charged battery composed of twelve-inch
 plates into water, and it will be found that the evolu-
 tion of gas is nearly the same as that occasioned by a
 similar number  of two-inch plates.   Apply the moist-
 ened fingers to the wires, and the shock will be the
 same  as if there were no connexion  by the water.
 While the circuit exisU through the human body and
 the water, let a wire attached to a thin slip of char-
 coal be made  to connect the poles of the battery, and
 the charcoal will become vividly ignited.  The water
 and the animal substance discbarge the electricity of a
 surface, probably, not superior to their own surface of
 contact with the metals ; the wires discharge all the
 residual electricity of the  plates; and if a similar ex-
 periment be made on plates of an inch square, there
 will scarcely  be any sensation when  the hands are
 made  to connect the ends of the battery,  a circuit
 being previously made through water ; and  no spark,
 when charcoal is made the medium of connexion, im-
 perfect conductors having  been previously applied.
 These relative effects of quantity and intensity were
 admirably illustrated  by the experimenU instituted by
 Children, who constructed  a battery, the  plates of
 which were two feet eight inches wide, and six feel
 high.  They were fastened to a  beam, suspended by
 counterpoises, from the ceiling of his laboratory, so aa
 to be  easily immersed into, or withdrawn  from tlie
 cells of acid.  The effecu upon metallic wins, and
 perfect conductors, were extremely intense;  but u|h>b
 imperfect conductors, such as the human  body, and
 water, they were feeble.—Phil. Trans. 1815, p. 303.
  When the extremes of a battery composed of large
 plates  are united  by  wires of different metals, it is
 found  that some are  more easily ignited than others,
 a circumstance which has been referred to their con-
 ducting powers: thus platinum is more easily ignited
 than silver, and  silver than zinc.  If the ignition be
 supposed to result from the resistance  to the paasags
 of electricity, we should say that the zinc conducted
 better than silver, and the silver than platinum.   .«
  An important improvement has been suggestedjjn
 the construction of the Voltaic apparatus, by Dr. Vfa-
 laston, (Annals of Philosophy, Sept. 1815;) by whys
 great increase of quantity is obtained, without incon-
 venient augmentation ofthe size ofthe  plates; it coo-
 sisu in extending the copper plate, so as to oppose il
 to every surface  of the zinc.
  With the single pair of plates, of very small dimes
 srons, constructed  upon this principle,  Dr. Wollaston
 succeeded in fusing and igniting a fine platinum wire.
 This is the most economical and useful form of the
 Voltaic apparatus ; certainly, at least it is so  for all
 those researches in which there is an occa-ional de-
 mand for quantity as well as intensity of electricity.
  The  theory of the Voltaic pile is involved  in many
 difficulties.  The original source of electricity appears
 to depend upon the contact of t lie metals, for we know
 that a plate of silver and a plate of zinc, or of any other
 difficultly and  easily oxidisable metals, become nega-
 tive and positive on contact Tbe accumulation rnujt
 be referred to induction, which takes place in the elec-
 trical column,  through tbe very thin stratum of air, or
paper, and through water, when that fluid Is interposed
between the plate*.  Accordingly, we  observe, that
tbe apparatus ia in tile condition of the scries of cosr
doctors, with interposed1 fir, and of tbe Leyden phials.
 When the electiiccoJuuk|s insulated, the extreoilties
exhibit  feeble  negative gnd positive powers,  but If
either extremity be connected  with  the ground, the
electricity r^TTf^iwl«l—'"- isgreetly increased,
 as may be shown by the increased divergence of tbe
leaves of ihe electrometer which then ensue*. 
ELE
ELE
  As general changes in the form and constitution of
■matter are connected with iu electrical states, it is ob-
vious that electricity must be continually active in na-
ture.  Its effecu are exhibited on  a magniticent scale
■in the  thunder-storm, which results from the accumu-
lation of electricity in the clouds, as was first experi-
mentally demonstrated by Dr. Franklin, who also  first
showed the advantage of pointed  conductors as safe-
guards to  buildings.  In these cases, the conducting
rod, or rods, should be of copper, or iron, and from half
to three-fourths of an inch diameter.  Iu upper end
should be elevated three or four feet above the highest
part of the building,  and  all the  metallic parts of the
roof should be connected with  the rod, which should
be perfectly continuous throughout, and passing down
the side of the building, penetrate several feet below iu
foundation, so as always to  be immersed in a moist
stratum of soil, or if possible, into water.  The leaden
water  pipes attached to houses, often might be made
to answer the purpose of conductors, especially when
thick enough to resist fusion.
  During a thunder-storm the safest situation is in the
middle of a room, at a distance from the chimney, and
standing upon a woollen rug, which is a nonconductor.
Blankets  and  feathers being nonconductors, bed is a
place of comparative safety, provided the  bell-wires
are not too near, which are  almost always melted in
houses struck by lightning.  When out of  doors, it is
dangerous to take shelter under trees: the safest situ-
ation  is within some yards of them, and upon the
dryest spot that can be selected.
  The discharge of electricity in a thunder-storm is
sometimes only from cloud to cloud; sometimes  from
the earth to tlie clouds; and sometimes from the clouds
-to the earth; as one or the other may be positive or
negative.  When aqueous vapour  is condensed, the
clouds formed are usually more or less electrical; and
the  earth Mow them being brought into an opposite
slate, by induction, a discharge takes place when the
clouds approach within a certain distance, constituting
lightning; and the indulation of the au,  produced by
the discharge, is the cause of thunder, which is more
or  less intense, and of longer or shorter duration, ac-
cording to the quantity of air acted upon, and the dis-
tance  of the place, where the  report is heard from the
 point of the discharge. It may not be uninteresting to
 give a further illustration of this idea.  Electrical
 effecu take place in no sensible time.  It has  been
 found that a discharge through a circuit of four miles
 is instantaneous; but sound moves at tbe rate of about
 twelve miles a minute.  Now, suppose the lightning to
 pass through a space of some miles, the explosion will
 be first heard from the point of the air agitated nearest
 to the spectator: it will gradually come from the more
distant parts of the course of electricity,  and last of
all, will be heard from the remote extremity, and the
 different degrees of the  agitation of the air, and like-
wise  the difference of the distance, will account  for
 •» different intensities of the sound, and iu apparent
 reverberations and changes.
   In a violent thunder-storm, when the sound instantly
 succeeds the flash, the persons who witness  the cir-
 cumstance are in some danger; when the interval is a
quarter of a minute, they are secure.
   A variety of electrical apparatus has  been devised
 to Illustrate the operation of conductors for lightning,
 and the advantage of points over bolls; the  simplest
 consists of a model of a house having a conductor with
 a  break  in  it, In  which some  Inflammable matter
 should  be  placed;  the lower end of the conductor
 should be communicated with the exterior of a charged
 Leyden phial,  the  knob of which, brought  over iu
 upper end, will then represent a thunder cloud.  If the
 conductor be  pointed, it will be slowly discharged, if
 surrounded by a ball, there will be an explosion, and
 the combustibles probably inflamed.
   Tbe coruscations of tbe Aurora borealia  are also
 probably electrical, and much resemble flashes of elec-
 tric light traversing rarefied air.  The water-spout may
 be referred to the same source, and is probably the re-
 sult of the operation of a weakly electrical cloud, at
 an  inconsiderable  elevation  above the sea, brought
 Into an opposite electrical state:  and the attraction of
 the lower part of the cloud, for  the surface of the
 water, may be the immediate cause of this extraordi-
 nary phenomenon.
   In tits gymnotus, or electric eel, and in tile torpceh,
or electric ray,  are  arrangemenu given to those re
markable  animals for the purimse of defence, which
certain forms of the Voltaic apparatus must resemble;
for they consist of many alternations of different sub-
stances.   These electrical organs are much more
abundantly supplied with nerves than any other part
of the  animal, and  the  too frequent  use of them is
succeeded by debility and death.
  Tbat arrangements of different organic substances
are capable of  producing electrical effects, has  been
shown by various experimentalists. If the hind-legsof
a frog be placed  upon a glass plate, and thecrural nerve
dissected out of one made to communicate with ano-
ther, it will  be found on making occasional  contacU
with the remaining crural nerve, that  the limbs of the
animal  will be agitated  at each  contact.   These cir-
cumstances  have induced some  plwsiologisu to sup-
pose, that electricity may be concerned in some of the
most recondite  phenomena of vitality, and Dr. Wol-
laston, Sir E. Home, and myself, have made some ex-
periments tending to confer probability on this idea.
  We have as yet no plausible hypothesis concerning
the cause of electrical phenomena, though the subject
has engaged the attention of the  most eminent philo-
sophers of Europe.  They have been, by some, referred
to the presence of a peculiar fluid existing in all mat-
ter, and exhibiting itself by tbe appearances which
have been described wherever iu equilibrium is dis-
turbed, presenting  negative and positive electricity,
when  deficient, and when redundant.  Others have
plausibly argued for the  presence of two fluids, distinct
from each other. Others have considered the effects
aa referrible to  peculiar exertions of the  attractive
powers of matter, and have regarded the existence of
any distinct fluid, or form of matter, to  be as unneces-
sary to the explanation of the phenomena, as it is  in
the question concerning the cause of gravitation.
   When  the flame  of a candle  is placed between a
positive and negative surface, it  is urged towards the
latter;  a circumstance which has been explained upon
the supposition of a current of electrical  matter pass-
ing from the positive to the negative pole; indeed, it
has been considered as demonstrating the existence of
such a current  of matter. But if the flame of phos-
phorus be substituted for that of a candle, it takes an
opposite direction; and  instead of being attracted to-
wards the negative, it bends to the positive surface.  It
has been  shown that inflammable bodies are always
attracted by negative surfaces;  and acid bodies, and
those in which the supporters of combustion prevail,
 are attracted by positive surfaces.  Hence the  flame
 of the candle throwing off carbon, is directed to the
 negative pole, while that of phosphorus forming acid
 matter goes to the positive, consistently with the ordi-
 nary laws of electro-chemical attraction.
   There are other experimenU opposed to the idea tha"
 electricity is a material substance. If we discharge a
 Leyden phial through a quire of paper,  the perforation
 is equally burred upon both sides, and not upon tbe
 negative side only, as would have been  the case  if
 any material body had gone through  in that direction.
 The power seems to have come  from the centre of the
 paper, as if one half of the quire had been attracted by
 the positive, and the other by the negative surface.
   When a pointed  metallic wire is presented towards
 the conductor of the electrical machine, in a darkened
 room, a star of light is observed when the conductor is
 positive', but a  brush of light when it is negative; a
 circumstance which has been referred to the reception
 of the electric fluid in the one case, and its escape in
 the other.  In  the Voltaic discbarge  the same appear-
 ances are evident upon the charcoal point; rays ap-
 pearing to  diverge from the negative conductor, while
 from the positive a spot of bright light is perceptible.
 But these affections of light can scarcely be considered
 as indicating tbe omission, or reception of any specific
 form of matter.
   The efficacy of electricity in the cure of several dis-
 eases  has been supported by many very respectable
 authorities, especially in paralytic diseases.  It con-
 siderably augmenu the circulation of the blood, and
 excites the action ofthe absorbents.''—Brands'a Che-
 mistry.
   ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.   The name given to a
 —ass of very interesting phenomena, first observed by
 Oersted, of Copenhagw, in the w inter of 181&-30, and
 which line since received great Illustration from tiie 
ELE
ELE
 labours 'of Ampere, Arago, Sir  H. Davy, Wollaston,
 Faraday, de la Rive, ana several other philosophers.
 The following is a short outline of the fundamental
 facta.
   Let the opposite  poles of a voltaic battery be con-
 nected by a metallic wire, which may be lot! of such
 length as to suffer iu being benl or turned in various
 directions.  ThU is the conjunctive wire of Oersted.
 Let us suppose that the rectilinear portion of this wire
 is extended horizontally in the line of the magnetic
 mewdian.  If a freely suspended compass-needle be
 now introduced, with its centre under the conjunctive
 wire, the needle will instantly deviate from the mag-
 netic meridian;  and it will decline towards the west,
 under that part of the conjunctive wire which is near-
 est tbe negative  electric pole, or tbe copper end  of the
 voltaic  apparatus.  The  amount of this declination
 depends on the strength of tiie electricity, and the sen-
 sibility of tlie needle. Ite maximum is SO0.
  We  may  change the  direction of  the  conjunctive
 wire, out of the  magnetic meridian, towards tbe east
 or tiie west, provided it remains above the needle, and
 parallel to its plane, without any change in tlie above
 result, except that of iu amount  Wires of platinum,
 gold, silver, brass, and iron, may be equally employed;
 nor does the effect cease, though the electric circuit be
 partially formed  by water.  The effect of  the con-
junctive wire takes place across plates of glass, metal,
 wood, water, resin, pottery, and stone.
  If the conjunctive wire be disposed  horizontally be-
 neath tiie needle, tlie effecu are of the same nature as
 those which occur when it is above it; but they operate
 in an inverse direction ; that is to say, the pole of tbe
 needle under which is placed the portion  of the con-
junctive wire which receives tbe negative electricity
of the apparatus, declines  in tbat case towards the
 east.
  To remember  these results more readily, we may
 employ the following proposition:  The pole, abovk
 which the negative electricity enters, dedines towards
 the west ; but if it  enters iiknxatii it, the needle de-
 clines towards  the east.
  If the conjunctive wire (always supposed horizon-
 tal) is slowly turned about, so as  to form a gradually
 increasing angle with the magnetic meridian, the  de-
 clination of the needle increases, if tbe movement of
 the wire be towards the  line of position  of the dis-
 turbed needle; it diminishes, on the contrary, if it re-
 cede from its position.
  When tbe conjunctive wire Is stretched alongside
 of the needle in the same horizontal plane, it occasions
 no declination  either to the east or west; but it causes
 it merely to incline  in a vertical line, so that the pole
 adjoining the  negative influence of the  pile on the
 wire dips when the wire is on iu west side, and rises
 when it is on the east.
  If we stretch the  conjunctive wire, either above or
 beneath the needle, in a plane perpendicular  to the
 magnetic meridian,  it remains at rest, unless the wire
 be very near the pole ofthe needle ; for, in  this case,
 it rises when the entrance takes place by the west part
 of the wire, and sinks when it takes place by the east
 part
   When we dispose the conjunctive wire in a vertical
 tine opposite the pole of the needle,  and make the
 upper extremity of the wire receive the electricity of
 the negative end of the baltery, the pole of the needle
 moves towards the east;  but if we place the wire op-
 posite a point  between the pole and the middle  of the
 needle,  it moves to the west. The phenomena  are
 presented in an  inverse order, when the upper extre-
 mity of the conjunctive wire receives the electricity
 of the positive side of the apparatus.
   It appears from the preceding facte,  says  Oersted,
 that tbe electric conflict (action) is not enclosed within
 the conducting wire, but that it has a pretty extensive
 sphere of activity round it  We may also conclude
 from the observations, that this conflict acu by revo-
 lution ;  for without this supposition we could not com-
 prehend bow  the same  portion of the  conjunctive
 wire, wbich, placed beneath the magnetic  pole, carries
 the needle towards the east, when it is placed aoooe
 this pole, should carry it towards the west  But such
 is the nature of the circular action, that the  move-
 ments which it produces  take place in directions pre-
 cisely contrary to tbe two extremities ofthe same  di-
 ameter.  It appears also, that the circular movement,
 combined with a progressive movement In the tbm
 tion of the length of the conjunctive wire, ought la
 form a kind of action, which operates spirally around
 this wire  as an axis.  For further information, Fara-
 day'* able Bud original  paper, in tin- Journal  of Sci-
 ence, may bu consulted; oe alsoAiuptia-'a several In-
 genious memoirs in the Annates de Chiiuie el de Phy-
 sique.
  ELECTRO DES.   (From nhtxlpov, amber.)  An
 epithet for intestinal faeces which shine like amber.
  ELECTROMETER.  (From nXuloov, and ptipnv,
 a measure.)  See Electricity.
  ELECTROSCOPE.  (From tXtKfpov, lad oxonua,
 to see.)  See Electricity.           t
  ELE'CTRUM.   EA«c7poi>. Amber.
  Electrum minerals.   The tincture of metal*.  It
 is made of tin and copper, to wbich some add gold, and
 double iu quantity of murtial  regulus of  antimony
 melted together; from  these there results a metallic
 mass, to which some chemists have giveu tiie name of
 clectrum minerale.  This mass is powdered and deto-
 nated with nitre and charcoal to a kind of scoria; It
 is powdered again while  hot, and then  digested ia
 spirit of wine, wlience a tincture is obtained of a fin*><
 red  colour.                                      -1
  ELECTUARIUM.  An electuary.  The Londoa.
 Pharmacopoeia refers those articles which  were for--
 inerly called electuaries to confections.  See Confetti**^
  Electuarium antimonii.  $. Electuaril senna,
 Jj ; guaiaci gummi, hydrargyri cum sulphure, ami-.
 monii ppli. sing. 5 ss; syrupi  siuiplicis q. s. misce.  Of .1
 this electuary, from a drachm to about two drachma*!
 given twice a day, in those cutaneous diseases wbich
 go under tbe general name  of scorbutic.  It is usually
 accompanied with the decoctions of elm bark  or sar-
 saparilla.
  Electuarium cassi*.  See Confectio cassia.   i*i
  Electuarium  catechu.    Confectio  Japonic***
 Electuary  of catechu, commonly called Japonic con-
 fection.  Take of mimosa catechu, four ounces; kino,
Ihree ounces; cinnamon,  nutmeg, each one ounce;
opium diffused iu a sufficient quantity of Spaniah white
wine one drachm and a half; syrup of red roses boiled
to the consistence Of honey, two pounds and a quartet
Reduce the solids to powder,  and, having mixed tins)
 with the opium and syrup,  make them into an electu-
ary.  A very useful astringent, and perhaps the attVtl
efficacious way of  giving the catechu to advantage.
Ten scruples of this electuary contain one goaanof
 opium.                                    ;-*Sp
  Electuarium cinchona  cum  natro.   Bi.tfiatri
 ppti. 3 ij.;  pulveris cinchona;  unc.: mucilaginis*un»toi
 arabici q.  s. misce. In this composition, inuclla   '
 preferred 10 syrup on account of its covering tit
 of the bark much  more advantageously. It tl;
 for  this purpose, however, be made thin, otherw;
 will increase the bulk of the electuary too much.i
  This remedy will be found an excellent subsi
 for the burnt sponge, the powers of which, as B
 in scrofula, arc known solely to depend on
 portion of natron contained in it  The dose
 drachms, twice or thrice a day.             .. ht
  Electuarium opiatum.  See Confectio opii.
  Eleli'sphacos.   (From  tXtXt^ia,  to  distort,
 atbaxos, sage:  so named from the spiral coiling tef its
 leaves and branches.)  A species of sage.  •>.
  ELEMENT. Radical.  First principle*.;
 Btance wbich can no further be divided er "
 by chemical analysis.
  E'LEMI.  (It is said this  is the Ethiopian name.)
 Gum elemi.   The parent  plant of this resin 'is sop-
 posed to be an amyris.  See Amyris damife*a.n
  Elen'gi.  A tree of Malabar, which ia aasaVto pos-
 sess cordial and carminative  properties.'   -V**
  ELEOCHRY'SUM.   (From nXioj, the «*n, and
 Xpvooc, gold:  so called from its gcld-sUslhmsbiaiQf
 yellow appearance.)  Goldilocks.   Bee  tWpAiih'sss
 stachas.
  ELEOSELI'NUM   (From sXos, a lake, and «Xf
 vov, parsley.)  See Apium.
  ELEPHANTIA.   (From tXttpas, antelephaotl w
 called from the great enlargement of the body In this
 disorder.)   See Elephantiasis.
  Elephantia arabim.   In De. Cullen'* Noaoloff *
 is synonymous with elephantiasis.  The term is. boar
 ever, occasionally confined  to this dieses* When i
 affects the feet 
ELE
ELM
  ELEPHArTTTABIS.  (From tXttpat, an elephant:
■o named from the  legs of people affected with this
disorder growing scaly, rough, and wonderfully large,
at an advanced period, Kke the legs of an elephant.;
Elephas;  Elephantia;  Luzari  morbus vel malum;
Pheniceus morbus.  A disease that attacks the whole
body, but mostly affects the feet, which appear some-
what like those of the elephant   It is known by the
skin being thick, rough, wrinkly, unctuous, and void
of hair, and mostly without the sense of feeling.  It is
said to be contagious.  Cullen makes it a genus of dis-
ease in the class Cachexia, and order Impetigines.
  Elephantiasis has generally been supposed to arise
In consequence of some slight attack of fever, on the
cessation of which the morbid matter foils on the leg,
and occasions  a distention and  tumefaction of the
limb, which is afterward  overspread  with  uneven
lumps, and deep fissures. By some authors It has been
considered as a species of leprosy; but it often subsisu
for many years without  being accompanied with any
Of the symptoms which characterize that disease.
  It sometimes comes on gradually, without much pre-
vious indisposition; but more generally, the person is
seized with  a coldness and  shivering, pains  In the
head, back,  and loins,  and some degree of nausea.  A
Blight fever then ensues, and a severe pain Is  felt in
one of the inguinal glands, which, after a short time,
becomes hard, swelled, and  inflamed.   No suppura-
tion, however,  ensues; but a red streak may be ob-
served running down the thigh from the swelled gland
to the leg.   As the inflammation increases in  all the
parts, the fever gradually abates; and,  perhaps, after
two or three days' continuance, goes off.  It, however,
returns  again at uncertain periods, leaving  the leg
greatly swelled with varicose turgid veins,  the skin
rough and rugged, and a thickened membrana cellu-
losa.  Scales appear also on the surface, which do not
fell off, but are enlarged by the Increasing thickness of
the membranes; Uneven lumps, with deep fissures, are
formed, and the leg and foot become at last of an
enormous size.
   A person may labour under this disease many years
without finding much  alteration in the general health,
except during  the continuance  of the attacks;  and
perhaps the chief inconvenience he will experience is
the enormous bulky leg which  be drags about with
him. The  incumbrance has, Indeed, induced many
who have laboured  under this disease to submit to an
Smptotalion; but the operation seldom proves a radi-
cal cure, as the other  leg frequently becomes affected.
   Hilary observes, that lie never saw both legs swelled
at  the same time.  Instances where they have alike
acquired a frightful and prodigious size, have, how-
ever, frequently fallen under the observation of other
physicians'.
   Elephanti'num emplastrum.  A plaster described
by Oribaaius.   Celsus  describes one ofthe same name,
but very different in qualities.
   E'LEPHAS.  (EXe^ac, the elephant.)
   1. The name of an animal.
   6. The  name of a  disease  of tbe skin.   See Ele-
phantiasis.
   3.  Aqua fortis was  so called in some old chemical
books.
   Ele'ttari primum.  The true amomum.   See
Eleltaria cardamomum.
   ELETTA'RIA.  (From eldtari.)  The name of a
new genus of planu formed  by  Dr. Maton, to which
tbe less cardamom is referred.  Class, Monandria;
Order, Monogynia.
   ElkttaRIa cardamomum.  Cardamomum minus.
Less or officinal cardamom.   Amomum repens; or le
emrtamome de la die de Malabar, of Sonnerat  Elel-
taria cardamomum, of Maton, in Act. Soc. Lin.  The
seeds of this  plant are  imported in their capsules or
husks, by which they  are preserved, for they soon lose
a part of their flavour when freed from this covering.
On being chewed,  they impart a glowing aromatic
warmth, and  grateful pungency; they are supposed
gently to stimulate  the stomach, and  prove  cordial,
carminative, and antispasmodic,  but without that irri-
tation and heat which  man v of the other spicy aroma-
tics are apt to produce.  Simple and compound spi-
rituous tinctures are prepared from them, and they are
ordered as a spicy ingredient in many of the officinal
Compositions.
   RLKUTHE'RIA.  See Croton eastariUa.
  Eleva'tto.  (From elevo, to lift up.)  Elevation.
Sublimation.
  ELEVA'TOR.  (From elevo, to lift up.)
  1. A muscle is so called, the office of which is to lift
up the part to which it is attached.
  2.  A  chirurgical  instrument,  elevatorium,  with
which surgeons raise  any depressed portion of bone,
but chiefly those of the cranium.
  Elevator labii inferioris proprius.   See  Le-
vator labii inferioris.
  Elevator labii superioris proprius.  See Le-
vator labii superioris alaque nasi.
  Elevator labiorum.   See Leoator anguli oris.
  Elevator nasi alarum.   See Levator labii supe-
rioris alaque nasi.
  Elevator oculi.  See Rectus superior oculi.
  Elevator  palpkbr*  superioris.  See Levator
palpebra superioris.
  Elevator scapulc  See Levator scapula.
  ELEVATCRIDM.   (From elevo, to lift up.)   An
instrument to raise a depression in the skull.
  Eli'banum.  See Juniperus lycia.
  ELICHRY'SUM.  (Prom nXios, the  sun, and  %pv-
oos, gold; so called from its gold-like, or shining yel-
low appearance.)  See Gnaphalium stadias.
  Eli'drion.  Mastich.  A mixture of brass.
  ELI'GMA.  A linctus.
  ELIOSELI'NUM.  See Eleoselinum.
  ELIPTICUS.  Eliptlc.  Applied to leaves and re-
ceptacles, which  are of a somewhat oval form, but
broader at each end; as in the-leaf of the Convalla-
ria majalis, and  the receptacle of the Dorstenia
drakenia.
   ELIOUATION.  An operation, by means of which
a more fusible substance is separated from another,
which is less fusible.  It consists in the application of
a degree of heat, sufficient to fuse the former, but not
the latter.
   [" If lead be heated so as to boil and smoke, it  soon
dissolves pieces of copper thrown into it; the mixture
when cold is brittle.  The union of these two metals
is remarkably slight;  for upon exposing the moss to a
heat no greater than that in which lead melu, the lead
almost entirely runs  off  by itself.   This  process is
called eliquation.  The coarser sorts of lead, which
owe their brittleness  and granulated texture to an ad-
mixture of copper, throw it up to the surface on being
melted by a small heat"— Web. Man. of Chem.  A.)
   ELITHROI'DES.  The vaginal coat of the testicle
See  Elythroides and Testis.
   Elixa'tio.   (From elixo,  to  boil.)   The act of
seething or boiling.
   ELI'XIR.   (From  elekser, an Arabic word, signify-
 ing quintessence.) A term formerly applied to many
 preparations similar to compound tinctures. It is now
 very little employed.
   Elixir of health.  Elixir salutis.  A term formerly
 applied to tincture of senna.
   Elixir parbgoricum.  See  Tinctura  camphora
 composita.
   Elixir  proprietatis.   A preparation  like the
compound tincture of aloes.
   Elixir sacrum.  A tincture of rhubarb and aloes.
   Elixir salutis.  See  Tinctura senna.
   Elixir  stomachicum.   See  Tinctura gentian*
composita.
   Elixiva'tio.  (From elixo, to boil, or from lixivium,
lye.)  The extraction of a fixed salt from vegetables,
by an affusion of water.   See Lixiviation
   ELLAGIC  ACID.  (Aridum dlagicum ; so named
by Braconnot, by leversing the word galle.)  The de-
posite which  forms  in infusion of nut-galls, left  to
iuelf, is not composed solely of gallic acid and a mat-
ter which colours it.   It contains, besides, a little gal-
late and sulphate of lime, and a new acid, which was
pointed out for the first time by Chevreuil, in 1815, an
acid on which Braconnot made observations, in 1818,
and  which he proposed to call acid dlagic, from the
word galle reversed.  Probably this  acid does not
exist ready formed in nut-galls.   It is insoluble; and,
carrying down with it the greater part  of the gallic
acid, forms the yellowish crystalline  deposite.  But
boiling water removes the gallic acid from the ellagic;
whence the means of separating them  from one ano
ther.  Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. ix. 181.
   Eli.ebori'm. See  Hellebonts and Veratrum.
   ELM.  Pee Ulmus.                    ___
                                        389 
EMB                                          EME
   Elm-leaved sumach.  See Rhus coriaria.
   ELMI'NTHES.  (From tiXtta, to involve, from iu
 contortions.)  A worm.
   ELO'DES.  (From tXos, a swamp.)  A term given
 to a sweating fever, from iu great moisture.
   Elonoa'tio.  (From elongo, to lengthen out.)  An
 imperfect luxation, where the ligament is only length-
 ened, and the bone not put out of its socket.
   ELOY, Nicholas Francis Joseph, was bom at
 Mons, in 1714, and died in 1788, having practised as a
 physician with great ability and humanity.   He had
 the honour of attending Prince Charles of Lorraine.
 He was a man of extensive learning,  and, notwith-
 standing his professional avocations, was author of
 several publications.  Tbe principal of these, an His-
 torical Medical Dictionary, was originally in two octavo
 volumes;  but in 1788, it  appeared greatly  Improved
 and enlarged in four volumes quarto.  An Introduction
 to Midwifery; a Memoir on Dysentery; Reflections on
 the Use of Tea; and a Medico-Political Tract on Cof-
 fee ; were likewise written by this author.  The latter
 work procured him the reward of a superb snuff-box
 from  the  estates  of Hainault, inscribed "Ex dono
 Patriaj."
   ELUTRIATION.  (Elutriatio; from dutrio, to
 cleanse.)  Washing.  It is the pouring a liquor out of
 one vessel into another, in order to separate the lighter
 earthy paru, which are carried away while the heavier
 metallic parts subside to the bottom.
   ELUVIES.  (From eluo, to wash out.)  The efflu-
 vium from a swampy place.  Also the humour dis-
 charged in fluor albus.
   Eluxa'tio.   (From eluzo, to put out of joint.)  A
 luxation, or dislocation.
  ELYMAGRO'STIS.  (From'tXu^oc, the herb panic,
 and ayotafts, wild.)  Wild panic.
  ELY'MUS.  EAtuioc.  The herb panic, or panicum
 of Dioscorides, but now tbe  name of a  new genus of
 grasses, in the Linnsan system.
  ELYOT, Sir Thomas, was  born of a good family
in Suffolk, about the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury.  After studying at Oxford, and improving himself
 by travelling, he was introduced at court; and Henry
 VIII.  conferred upon him the honour of knighthood,
 and employed him in several embassies.  He distin-
 guished  himself in various branches  of learning,  as
 well as by patronising learned men; and was generally
 beloved by his contemporaries for bis virtues and ac-
complishments.   He died  in 1546, and was buried in
 Cambridgeshire, of wbich he had been sheriff.  Among
other  studies, he was partial to medicine, and  made
himself master of the ancient authors on that subject,
though he never exercised the profession.  He pub-
lished a work about the year 1541, called " The Castell
of Health," which was much admired, even by some
of the faculty: in this he is a strong advocate for tem-
perance, especially in sexual pleasures.   He also no-
tices,  that catarrhs were  much more common than
they had been forty years before; which  he ascribes
chiefly to free living, and  keeping the head too  much
covered.   He also wrote and translated several other
works, but not on medical subjecu.
  ELYTROCE'LE.  (From tKorpov,  the vagina, and
icnXn, a tumour.)  A hernia in the vagina.  See Hernia
 vaginalis.
  ELYTROI'DES.   (Elytroides; from eXvrpov, a
sheath, and tiSos, form.)  Like a sheath.  The tunica
vaginalis is so called by some writers, because it in-
cludes the testis like a sheath
  ELYTRON.  (From tXvia, to involve.)  The  va-
gina.  A sheath.  The membranes which involve the
spinal marrow are called eXvlpa.
  EMACIATION.   See Atrophia and Marasmus.
  Emargina'tio.   (From emargino,  to cleanse  the
edges.)  The cleansing of the edges of wounds from
scurf  and filth.
  EMARGINATUS.  Emarginate, nicked, that  is,
having a small acute notch at the summit; as the leaf
of the bladder senna, Colutea  arborescens, the  petals
 of tbe Allium roseum, and Agrostema floe jovis.
  ESIASCULA'TUS.  (From emasculo, to render im-
 potent)   Having the testicles in  the belly, and  not
 fallen into tbe scrotum.'
  Emba'mma.   (From tuBanJta, to emerge in.)   A
 medicated pickle to dip the food in.
   E'mbolc.   (From tptaXXw, to put in.)  The setting
 of a dislocated bone
      390
   E'MBOLUM.  (From tuBatott,  to  cast om- «
 named because it ejecu the semen.)  The penis.
   Embrro.ma.  (From tpgpexta, to  make wet)  A
 fluid application to any part oi the body.
   KMBROCA'TIO.   (From  tp6ptx<a, to  moisten or
 soak in.)  Embroche. An embrocation.  A fluid ap-
 plication to rub any part of the body with.   Many use
 the  term, however,  as  synonymous with liniment
 The following embrocations are in general use.
   Embrocatio aluminis. ft. Aluminis 3 ij.  Acetl,
 spiritus vinosi tenulons, sing. Ibss. For chilblains and
 diseased joints.
   Embrocatio ammonije.    ft.  Embrocationis  am
 mouias acetatis  3 ij.   Aqua: ammonia; purs; 3 ij.  F01
 sprains and bruises.
   Embrocatio ammoni* acetatis.  ft. Aqua am-
 monia; acetate:.  Solutionis saponis sing. Jj M.  For
 bruises with inflammation.
   Embrocatio ammonia acetatis camphorata. ft
 Solutionis saponis cum  camphora, aqua; ammonia
 acetate sing.  $j.  Aqure ammonia; puree  Jss.   For
 sprains and  bruises.   It  U also frequently applied to
 disperse chilblains which  have not suppurated.  It is
 said to be tiie same as Steer's opodeldoc.
   Embrocatio  cantharidis  cum camphora   ft
 Tinct.  cantharidis.   Spiritus  camphorre sing.  5j M.
 This may be  used in any case in which the object is
 to stimulate the skin.  The absorption of cantharides,
 however, may bring on a stranguary.
   Embroche.  See Embrocatio.
   EMBRYO.  (From tujbpwa, to bud forth.).  1. The
 germ of  a plant; called:  by Liniusua the corculum.
 See  Corculum and Cotyledon,
  2.  The fetis  in utero  is so called before the fifth
 month of pregnancy, because iu growth resembles that
 of the budding of a plant.
  Embryothla'stbs. (From tuSpvov, the foetus, and
 BXata, to break.) Embryorectes.  A crotchet or instru-
 ment for breaking the bones of a dead fcetus to pro-
 mote iu delivery.
  EMBRYOTOMY.  (Embryotomia; from tutpvov,
 a  foetus, and  repvia, to cut)   The separating or any
 part  of the foetus while in utero, to extract it
  Embrvu'loits.  (From tpSpvov, a fcetus, and eXsia,
 to draw.;  A blunt hook  or forceps, for  drawing the
child from the womb.
  EMERALD.  A beautiful genus of minerals, which
contains two species.
  1.  The prismatic emerald, Euclase of Hnliy.  This-
 is of a green and sky-blue colour, and is found in Peru
 and Brazil.
  2.  Rhomboidal emerald, of which there  are two sub-
species, Ihe precious emerald and the beryl.  The first
 is well known by iu emerald green colour.  The most
 beautiful emeralds come  from Peru.   As a gem, it U
 valued  next to ruby.
  ["  This mineral is by no means uncommon in the
 United States.  It  occurs in the primitive range, and
 particularly in granite, in which it ia imbedded, ■ In
 the State of  Maine, it has been  found remarkably
clear and transparent, and in every respect resembling
 the SiberianBeryl, particularly that discovered at Tofs-
ham by Professor  Cleveland,   of Brunswick  Collage
The crystals are well defined hexatedral prisms, and an
often imbedded in the smoky quartz which abound ia
 tbe large-grained granite.  In some instances, in point
of colour, it equals the finest Peruvian emerald.
  " At Chesterfield, in Masaachusetu, it occurs in greal
 abundance.   Dr. J. F. Waterbouse, who has carefully
examined this locality, informs us tbat crystals, io
 hexangular prisms, from  an ounce and under to  6fl>.
 in weight, are found singly disseminated through the
 granite.  They are of various dimensions, from a small
 size  to that of a foot in  diameter; their colour light
 green.  The  Chesterfield emerald greatly resembles
 that  lately discovered  in  France.  If the  new earth
glucine should  be required for the arts  or manufac-
 tures, this emerald would furnish it iu abundance; as
 such is the quantity occurring at this place, that Dr.
 Waterhouse obtained upwards of 701b. within a very
 small space.   The emerald occurs in  other parts ot
 Masaachusetu.  To the politeness of Dr. David Hunt,
 we are indebted for several specimens found by that
 indefatigable  mineralogist, in  the vicinity of North-
 ampton and Goshen.
   " At Haddara, in Connecticut, this mineral occurs ia
 abundance; the crystals are from a very small size to 
EME
EMP
■everai inches in length; they are generally of a light
yellowish-green, and sometimes ot an amber colour,
resembling topaz.  Col. Gibbs  has in  bis possession
a crystal of a deep green an inch in  diameter, and
several  iu length, it bears a strong resemblance to the
Peruvian emerald.  Mr. Mather, a young mineralogist
of great promise, discovered one seven inches in length,
by nine inches in the diagonal diameter: it U in the
cabinet of Professor Silliman.
  " New-York affords but few instances of the pro-
duction of emerald.  It now and then, though rarely,
occurs in the granite veins which traverse  the gneiss
on the island, about four miles from the city.
  " The emerald is foundin the vicinity of Philadelphia,
and at Chester.  These arc the principal localities of
this mineral in the United States, which have as yet
come to our knowledge.  As others occur, we shall
with pleasure notice  them,"—Bruce's  Min. Journal.

    MERSUS.   (From emerge, to  rise up or appear
out of tlie water.)   Raised  above the water, as the
upper (eaves accompanying the flowers of the Merio-
phytlum verticillatum, while iu lower ones are de-
mersa.
  E'merus.   Scorpion senna.  A laxative.
  EMERY.   A sub-species of rhomboidal corundum,
found in quantities in the isle of Naxor, and at Smyr-
na.  IU fine powder, which is used for polishing hard
minerals and metals, is made by trituration and elu-
triaiiou.
  EMESIA.   (From tutto,  to  vomit.)   Emesma;
Ernests.   The act of vomiting.  Medicines which
cause vomiting.
  EME'TIC.  (Emeticus; from tptia, to vomit.) That
wbich Is capable of exciting vomiting, independently
of any effect arising from the mere quantity of matter
introduced into the stomach, or of any nauseous taste
or flavour.
  The susceptibility  of vomiting is very different in
different individuals, and is often considerably varied
by disease.
  Emetics are employed in many diseases.
  When any morbid affection depends upon, or is con-
nected with, over-distention of the stomach, or the
presence of acrid, indigestible matters, vomiting gives
speedy relief. Hence its utility in impaired appetite,
acidity in the stomach, in intoxication, and where poi-
sons have been swallowed.
  From the pressure of tbe abdominal viscera in vo-
miting, emetics have been considered as serviceable in
jaundice, arising from biliary calculi  obstructing the
ducts-.
  The expectorant power of emetics, and their utility
in catarrh and phthisis, have been ascribed toa similar
pressure extended to the thoracic viscera.
  In  the different varieties of febrile affections, much
advantage is derived from exciting vomiting, especially
in the very commencement of the disease.  In high
inflammatory fever it is considered as  dangerous, and
in the advanced stage of typhus it is prejudicial.
  Emetics given in  such doses, as  only  to  excite
nausea, have been found useful in restraining hxnior-
rhage.
  Different speciesof dropsy have been cured by vomit-
ing, from  iu  having excited absorption. To the same
effect, perhaps, U owing the dispersion of swelled tes-
ticle, bubo, and other swellings, which has  occasion-
ally resulted  from this operation.
  The operation of vomiting is dangerous, or hurtful,
in the following cases: where there is determination
of the blood to the head, especially in plethoric ha-
biu;  in visceral inflammation; in the  advanced stage
of pregnancy;  in  hernia and prolapsus  uteri; and
wherever there exisU extreme general debility.  The
frequent use of emetics weakens the lone ofthe sto-
mach.  An emetic should always be administered in
the fluid form.  Iu  operation may be promoted by
drinking any tepid diluent, or bitter infusion.
  The individual emetica may be arranged under two
beads, those  derived from tne vegetable,  and those
from tlie mineral kingdom.  From the  vegetable king-
dom are numbered ipecacuanha, scilla ruaekiuia, an-
themis nobilis, sinapis alba, asarum Eurousmm, nico-
tisma tabacum.  From tbe mineral kingdom^ antimony,
the sulphates of zinc and copper, and  the subacetate
•f copper.  To these may be added ammonia and iu
hydro-tulphuret.
  EMETIN.   Emetine.   Digest ipecacuan root, first
in airier and then in alkohol.  Evaporate the alkohoiic
infusion to dryness, redissolve in water, and drop in
acetate of lead.  Wash the precipitate, and then dif-
fusing it in water, decompose by a current of sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas.  Sulphuret of lead falls  to the
bottom, and the cmetin remains in solution.  By eva-
porating the water, this substance is obtained pure.
  Emetin forms transparent brownish-red scales. It
has no smell, but a bitter acrid taste.  At » heat some-
what above thai of boiling water, it is rt&oived into
carbonic acid, oil, and vinegar.  It affords no ammo-
nia.  It is soluble both in water and alkohol, but not
in aether; and  uncrystallizable.  It is precipitated by
protonitrate of mercury and corrosive  sublimate, but
not by tartar emetic. Half a grain of emetin  acts as
a powerful emetic, followed by sleep ; six grains vomit
violently, and  produce stupor and death.  The lungs
and  intestines are  inflamed."—Pelletier and  Ma
gendie.
  Emetine.  See Emetin.
  EMETOCATHA'RTICUS.  (From tufta, to vomit,
and  KaBaipia,  to purge.)  Purging both by vomit and
stool.
  EMINE'NTIiE QUADRIGEMLNJ3.  See Tuber-
cula quadrigemina.
  ENMENAGOGUE. (Emtntnagogus; from tppnvia,
the menses, and ayia, to move.)  Whatever possesses
the power of promoting that monthly discharge by tlie
uterus, which, from a  law of the  animal economy,
should take place in certain conditions of the female
system.  The  articles belonging to this class may be
referred to four ordres: —
  1. Stimulating emmenagogues, as hydrargyrine and
antimonial preparations, which are principally adapted
for the young, and those with peculiar  insensibility of
the uterus.
  2. Irritating emmenagogues,  as aloes, savine, and
Spanish flies:  these are to be preferred in torpid and
chlorotu: habiu.
  3. Tonic emmenagogues, as  ferruginous prepara-
tions,  cold bath,  and exercise, which are advanta-
geously selected for  the lax and phlegmatic.
  4. Antispasmodic emmenagogues,asasafetida, cas-
tor, and  pediluvia: the constitutions  to which these
are more especially suited are the delicate, the weak,
and the irritable.
  EMME'NIA.  (From tv, in, and pnv, a month.)
The menstrual flux.
  EMOLLIENT.  (Emolliens; from emollio,  to soft-
en.)  Possessing the power of relaxing the living and
animal fibre, without producing that effect from any
mechanical action.  The  different articles belonging
to this class of medicines may be comprehended under
the following orders:—
  1. Humectant emollients, as warm water, and tepid
vapours, which are fitted for the robust and those in
tlie prime of life.
  2. Relaxing emollients, as althea, malva, Sec These
may be employed  in all constitutions, while at the
same time they do not claim a preference to others
from any particular habit of body.
  3. Lubricating emollients,  as bland oils,  fat, and
lard.  The same observation will hold of this order as
was made of the last mentioned.
  4. A tonic emollients, as opium and pediluvia.  These
are applicable to  any constitution, but are to be pre
ferred  in habits where the effecu of this class are re-
quired over the system in general.
  EMTATHEMA.  ('Kunadns; from na9n.ua, passio,
affectio.)  Ungovernable passion.  A genus of disease
in  Good's  Nosology.   Class, Neurotica;  Order,
Phrenica.
  It has three  species, Empathema entonieum, atoni
cum, insane, and innumerable varieties.
  Empei'ria.  (From cv,  and tzeipia,  to endeavour.)
Professional experience.
  Emphero'menus.  (From tutbtpia, to bear.)  Urine,
or other substances which have a sediment.
  EMPHLYSIS.   (From tu, in, and <f>Xvots, a vesicu-
lar  tumour or eruption.)  The name of  a  genus,
ichorous exanthem, of Good's Nosology, which includes
six species: Emphlysis miliaria; Aphtha ; Vaccinia;
Varicella; Pemphigus ; Erysipdas.
  Emphra'ctica.   (From  tpipparlia,  to  obstruct)
Medicines which, applied to tho skin,  shut  up the 
EMP
EMP
  EMPHYMA.  This  term,  applied by  Good to a
genus of disease, Class, Eccritica; Order, Mesotica,
of his arrangement, imports (in contradiction to Phy-
na, which, in his system, is limited to cutaneous tu-
mours,  accompanied with  inflammation,) a tumour
originating below the integumenu, and unaccompanied
with inflammation, at least in iu commencement  It
embraces three species, viz.  Emphyma sarcoma;  En-
cystis;  Exostosis.
  EMPHYSE'MA.   (Emphysema,  atis,  n.;  from
tp&vaaia, to inflate.)  See Pneumatosis.
  EMPIRIC.  (Empiricus.  Epntipixos; from tv, in,
and attpa, experience.)   One  who practises the heal-
ing art upon  experience, and  not theory.  This is the
true meaning of the word empiric; but  it is now ap-
plied, in a very opposite sense, to those who deviate
from the line of conduct pursued by scientific and re-
gular practitioners, and vend nostrums, or sound their
own praise in the public papers.
  Ehpla'stica.   (From tunXaoma, to obstruct.)  Me-
dicines which, spread upon the skin, stop the pores.
  EMPLA'STRUM.     (Emplastmm,  i.  n.; from
tpnXaooio, to spread upon.)  A plaster.  Plasters are
composed  of unctuous  substances, united either to
powders or metallic oxides, &c.   They ought to be of
such a consistence as not to stick to the fingers when
cold, but to become soft, so as to be spread out in a
moderate degree of heat, and in that of the human
body, to continue tenacious vnough to  adhere to the
skin.  They owe their consistence either to metallic
oxides,  especially those of lead, or to wax, resin, Sec
They are usually  kept in rolls wrapped in paper, and
spread, when  wanted for use, upon thin leather; if tiie
plaster be not of iuelf sufficiently  adhesive, it is to
be surrounded at iu margin by a boundary of resin
plaster.
  Emplastrum ammoniaci.  Take of  purified am-
moniacum, five ounces; acetic acid, half a pint.  Dis-
solve the ammoniacum  in the acid, then evaporate the
liquor in an  iron vessel, by means of a water-batb,
constantly stirring it, until it  acquires a proper con-
sistence. This plaster is now first introduced into the
London Pharmacopoeia; it adheres  well to the skin,
without irritating it, and without producing inconve-
nience by iu smell.
  EMPLA8TRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARQYRO.  Take
of purified ammoniacum, a pound; purified mercury,
three ounces; sulphuretted oil, a fluid drachm.  Rub
the mercury with the sulphurated oil until the glo-
bules disappear; then add by degrees the ammonia-
cum, pieviously melted, and mix the whole together.
This composition is said to  possess resolvent vir-
tues; and the plaster is  recommended with this view
to be applied to nodes, tophs, indurated glands, and
tumours.
  Emplastrtm ASAro-.TiD«.  Emplastrum antihys-
tsricum.  Piaster  of asafoetida.  Take  of plaster of
semi-vitrified oxide of lead, asafoetida, each two parts:
galbanum, yellow wax,  each one part.   This plaster
is said to possess anodyne and antispasmodic virtues.
It is, therefore, occasionally directed to be  applied to
the umbilical region in hysterical cases.
  Emplastrum cantharidis.  Blistering-fly plaster.
Emplastrum  vcsicatorium.  Take of blistering flies,
in very fine powder, a  pound; wax  plaster, a pound
and a half; prepared fat, a pound. Having melted
the  plaster and fat together, and removed them from
the fire,  a little before they become solid sprinkle in the
blistering flies, and mix the whole together.   See Blis-
ter and Cantharis.
  Emplastrum ciss.   Wax plaster.   Emplastrum
cttraksus.  Take of yellow wax, prepared suet, of
each three pounds; yellow resin, a pound.  Meltthem
together and strain.  This is a gently-drawing prepa-
ration, calculated to  promote a moderate  discharge
from the blistered surface, with which intention it is
mostly used.  Where the stronger preparations irri-
Utt, this will be found in general to agree.
  Emplastrum cumini.  Cumin  plaster.   Take of
cuinin-aeeds, caraway-seeds, bay-berries, of each three
ounces; dried pitch, three pounds; yellow wax, three
ounces.  Haviag melted the dry pitch and wax toge-
ther, add the Mtaaining  articles previously powdered,
and mix. A warm stomachic plaster, wbich, when ap-
plied tothe stomach, expels  flatulency.  To indolent
scrofulous tumours, where the object is to promote
suppuration, this is an efficacious plaster.
   Emplastrum  oalbani compositum.  Conrpmrni
 Galbanum plaster, formerly called rmplastrmn lithar-
 gyri compositum  and diachylon magnum cum gummi.
 Take of galbanum gum resin purified, eight ounce*;
 lead plaster, three  pounds;  common turpentine, ten
 drachms; resin of the  spruce fir, three ounces.  Hav-
 ing melted the galbanum gum  resin with the turpen-
 tine, mix in first the powdered resin of the spruce fir,
 and then tlie lead plaster, previously melted by n slow
 fire, and mix the whole.  This plaster is oted as a
 warm  digestive and suppurative,  calculated to  pro-
 mote maturation  of indolent or  scirrhous tumours,
 and to allay the pains of sciatica, arthrodynia, fee.
   Emplastrum   hydrargyri.    Mercurial  plaster.
 Emplastrum lithargyri cum hydrargyro.   Take  of
 purified mercury, three ounces; sulphurated oil, a fluid
 drachm; lead plaster, a pound. Rub tbe mercury with
 the sulphurated oil, until the globules disappear;  then
 add by degrees the lead plaster, melted, and  mix tin
 whole.
   Emplastrum ladani compositum.  Take of soft
 labdanum, three ounces; of frankincense, one ounce;
 cinnamon and expressed oil of mace, each half an
 ounce; essential oil of mint, one drachm: add to the
 frankincense, melted first, the labdanum a little heat-
 ed, till it becomes soft, and then the oil of muce: after-  i
 ward mix in the  cinnamon with the oil of mint, and  -
 beat them together into a mass, in a warm mortar, and
 keep it in a vessel well closed.  This may be used with
 the same intentions  as the cumin-plaster, to which
 it is in no way superior, though composed of mora
 oxpensive  materials.   Formerly, it was  considered
 as a very elegant stomach plaster, but is now dis-
 used.
  Emplastrum  lithargyri.    See   Emplastrum
plumbi.
  Emplastrum lithargyri compositum.  SeeEnt-
plastrum Galbani compositum.
  Emplastrum lithargyri  cum resina.  See Em-  '
plastrum resina.
  Emplastrum lyttx.  See Emplastrum  cantha-
ridis.                                             '
  Emplastrum opii.  Plaster Of opium.   Take of •'
hard opium,  powdered,  half an ounce ; resin of tbe
spruce  fir,  powdered, three  ounces; lead  plaster, a
pound.  Having melted the plaster, mix in the resin of
the spruce fir, and  opium, and mix the whole. Opium
is said to produce  somewhat, though in a smaller de-
gree, its specific effect when applied externally.
  Emplastrum picis compositum.  Compound pitch
plaster.   Emplastrum picis Burgundica.  Take of
dried pitch, two pounds; resin of spruce fir, a pound;
yellow resin, yellow wax, of each four ounces; ex-
 pressed oil of nutmegs, an ounce.  Having melted to-  ;
gether  the pitch, resin, and wax, add first the resin of
the spruce fir, then  the oil of nutmegs, and mix the
 whole  together.  From the slight  degree  of redness
this stimulating application produces, it is adapted to
gently  irritate the skin, and thus relieve rheumatic
pains.  Applied to the temples, it is sometimes of use
in pains of the head.
  Emplastrum plumbi.  Lead plaster.  Emplastnsst *
lithargyri;  Emplastrum commune; Diachylon stWh
plcx.  Take of semi-vitreous oxide of lead, in very fine
powder, five  pounds; olive oil, a gallon;  water, two
 pinu.  Boil them with  a slow fire, constantly stirring
until the oil and litharge unite, so as to form a piaster.
Excoriations  of the skin, slight bums, and the llke«
may be covered with this plaster: but is in more gene-
ral use, as a defensive, where the  skin becomes red
from lying a long time on the part.  This phester iralso
of great importance, as forming the basis, by addition
to which many other plasters are preparsaV
  Emplastrum REsiN.e.  Resin plaster; •Mmplastrvm
 adhasivum; Emplastrum lithargyrieuntrestna. Take
of yellow  resin,  half  a pound; lead plaster,  three
 pounds.  Having  melted the lead piaster ewer a slow
fire, add  the resin in powder, ami mis, 'The adhe-
sive,"or sticking plaster, is chiefly ttsed<tr fceeping on
other dressings, and for retaWngithe *MgM«f recent
 wounds together.               r.*-.,-., ■
  Emplastrum  saponis.  Soap tsastsv.   Take of
 bard soap sliced, half a pound; Mid-planter, three
 pounds.  Having  melted the plastee/Hlstrrtiic soap;
 then boil it down  to a iuit|Mi sissstiaMi ■>»' insentient
 properties- are attrimrejaVs* Ma atsjitil titter, with
 which view, it ia appiiesUQ-ljsjjfciM hi il ather irate 
EMt)
ENG
lent tumours.  It forms an  admirable defensive and
soft application, spread on  linen, to surround a frac-
tured limb.
  Emplastrum  thuris  compositum.   Compound
frankincense plaster.  Take of frankincense, half a
pound; dragon's blood, three ounces; litharge plaster,
two pounds.  To the melted lead plaster, add the rest
powdered.   This plaster Is said to possess strengthen-
ing, as well as adhesive powers.  By keeping the skin
firm, il may give time to the relaxed muscles it sur-
rounds, but cannot, in any way, impart more strength
than the common adhesive plaster.
  [The pharmacopoeia of the United States admits the
following plasters:
    Emplastrum ammoniaci.
        Do.     asafoetida;.
        Do.     lerri.
        Do.     hyorargyri.
        Do.     plumbi.
        Do.     plumbi subcarbonatis compo&itum.
        Do.     resinosum.
        Do.     resinosum cantharldum.  A.]
  Empnecmato'sis.  From cv, in, and tsvua, to blow.)
An inflation of the stomach, or any other viscus.
  EMPO'RIUM.  (From  tunoptta, to negotiate-)  A
mart.  The brain is so called, as being the place where
all rational  and sensitive transactions are collected.
  EMPRESMA. Good revives this term (used in its
simple form both by Hippocrates and Oolcn, to express
internal inflammation) to designate a genus of disease
in bis Class, Hamatica; Order, Pklogotica.   Visceral
inflammation.  It embraces inflammation of all the
viscera: hence Empresma cephalitis ; otitis ; paroti-
tis ; paristhmitiS ;  laryngitis; bronchitis ; pneumo-
nitis ;  pleuritis;  carditis;  peritonitis;  gastritis;
enteritis;  hepatitis; splenitis; nephritis;  cystitis;
hysteritis /  orchitis.
  E'mprion.  (From cv, and apttav, a saw.)  Serrated.
Formerly applied to a pulse, in which tbe artery at dif
ferent times is unequally distended.
  EMPROSTHO'TONOS.  (From tunpooBtv, before,
or forwards, and rtivta, to draw.)  A clonic  spasm of
several muscles, so as to keep the body in a fixed posi-
tion and bent forward. Cullen considers it as a spe-
cies of tetanus. See Tetanus.
  E'MPTYSIS.  (From  tpnTvto, to spit out.) A dis-
charge Of blood from the mouth.
  EMP YE'MA.  (From  n>, within, and  vsvov, pus.)
A collection Of pus iu the cavity of the thorax.  It is
one of the terminations of pleuritis. There is reason
for  believing tbat matter is contained In the cavity of
the chest, when, after a pleurisy, or inflammation in
the thorax, the patient bas  a difficulty of breathing,
particularly on lying on the side opposite the affected
one; and when an edematous swelling is externally
perceptible.
  EMPYE'MATA.  (From tv, and rsvov, pus.) Sup-
purating medicines.
  EMPYEStS. (From epnvota, or tpnvtta, suppuro.)
Good has given this term (found in the fifth book of
Hippocrates's aphorisms) to a genus of disease, class,
Hamatica; order,  Exanthematica, characterized  by
phlegmonous pimples, which gradually fill with a pu-
rulent  fluid. _ It has  only  one species, small-pox—
Empyesis variola.
  Empyreal air.  Scheele gave this name to oxygen
gas.
  EMPYREU'MA.  (From  tpmptve, to kindle, from
jrvp, fire.)  A peculiar and offensive smell that distilled
waters and other substances receive from  being ex-
posed to beat in closed vessels, or when burned under
circumstances which prevent the accession of air to a
considerable part of the mass.
  EMPYREUMATIC.  EmpyreHmatieus; from sp-
nvptwa, to kindle.)  Smelling as it were burnt; thus
empyreumatic oils are those distilled with a great heat,
and impregnated with a smell of tbe fire.
  EMU'LGENT.    (Emulgcns; from  emulgeo,  to
melt out; applied  to tbe  artery and vein which  go
from the aorta and vena cava to the kidneys, because
the  ancients supposed they strained, and, as it were.
milked the  serum through tbe kidneys.)   The vessels
of the kidneys are so termed.  The eiuulgerft artery is
a branch of the aorta. TheemttifeM vetn evacuates
Us blood Into the ascending cava.
  BMU'LSIO.  (Emtklsio, onis. f.; from emulgeo, to
mUk.)  An  emulsion.  A soft and somewhat oily me-
dicine resembling milk.  An Imperfect comUnatRm W
oil and water, by the intervention of some other sub-
stance capable of  combining with both these sub-
stances.
   Emulsio acacis.  This is made in the same man-
ner as the almond emulsion, only adding while beating
the almonds, two ounces of gum arable.  This cooling
and demulcent emulsion, ordered  in the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia, may  be  drank ad  libitum to mitigate
ardor Urina;, Whether from the venereal vims or  nny
other cause.  In difficult and painful micturition, and
strangury, it is of infinite service.
   Emulsio amygdala:.  Almond emulsion.   Take of
almonds, one  ounce; water, two pounds and a half.
Beat  the  blanched almonds in  a stone  mortar, gra-
dually pouring on them the water; then strain off tbe
liquor.  It possesses cooling and demulcent properties.
   Emulsio  camphorata.   Take of  camphor,  one
scruple; sweet almonds,blanched, two drachms; dou-
ble refined  sugar,  one  drachm; Water,  six  ounces.
This is to be made in the same manner as the common
emulsion.   It  is calculated for the stomachs of those
who can only bear small quantities of camphire.
   EMULSION.  See Emulsio.
   Emulsion, almond.  See Emulsio amygdala.
   Emulsion, Arabic.   Bee Emulsio acacia.
   Emulsion of asafetida.  Sec Mistura asafafidst
   Emulsion, camphorated.  See Emulsio  camphorata.
   Emulsion, of gnm-ammoniac.  See Mistura ammo-
niaci.
   EMU'NCTORY.   (Emundoriuin;  from  emungo,
to drain off.)  The excretory ducts  of the body are so
termed; thus the exhaling arteries of the skin consti-
tute the great emunctory of the body.
   Enje'ma.   (From  tv,  and atua, blood.)  Enemos.
So Hippocrates and Galen call such topical medicines
as are appropriated to bleeding wounds.
   En^ore'ma. (From tv, and aiiaptia, to lift up.) The
pendulous substance which floats in the middle of the
urine.
   ENA'MEL.  See Teeth.
   ENANTHE'SIS.  ]. (From cv, in, intra, and avBtm,
floreo; efflorescence  from within, or from internal af-
fection.)   A genus of disease, Class, Hamatica; Order,
Exanthematica, in Good's Nosology.  Rash exahtlWm.
It comprehends three species: vkt. Enattthesto rvtaltbii
rubeola; urticaria.
   2. (From tv, and  av7aw, to meet.)  The new api
proachof  ascending and descending vessels.
   ENARTHRO'SIS.  (From cv,  in,  and  opMevj *
joint)  The ball and socket-joint  A species or diar-
throsis, or moveable connexion of bones; In which ihe
round head of one is received Into the deeper cavity
of another, so as to admit of motion in every direction;
as the head of the os femoris with  the  acetabulum of
the os innominatum.   See Articulation.
   ENCA'NTHIS.  (From tv, and xavBos; the angle of
the eye.)  A disease of tbe caruncula lachrymaus, of
which there are two species.  Encanthis  benigna,
apd Encanthis maligna sen inveterata.  The encan-
this,  at its  commencement,  u nothing more than a
small, soft, red, and sometimes rather livid excrescence
which grows from  the caruncula lachrymal!*, arid at
the same time from the neighbouring semilunar fold 6f
the conjunctiva. This excrescence on its first appear-
ance is commonly granulated, like a irrarberry, or is of
a ragged and  fringed structure.  Afterwara, when it
has acquired a certain size, one part of h represents a
granulated tumonr, While  the  rest appears We} a
smooth, whitish, or ash-coloured substance^ streaked
with varicose vessels, sometimes advancing as far over
the conjunctiva, covering tbe side of tbe  eye next to
the nose, as where the cornea and sclerotica unite.
  The encanthis keeps  up a chronic ophthalmy, im-
pedes the action of  the eyelids, and prevents, in parti-
cular, the complete closure of the eye.  Besides, partly
by compressing and partly by displ icing ihe orifices of
the puncta lachrymalia,  it obstructs the free passage
of the (ears into the nose.  The  inveterate  encanthis
is ordinarily of a very considerable magnitude; ite roots
extend beyond tbe caruncula lachrymalis and semi-
lunar fold  to the membraneous  lining of one or both
eyelids.  The  patient experiences very serious incon
venience from  its origin and Interposition  between the
commissure of the eyelids, which it necessarily keeps
asunder on the side towards the nose.  Sometimes the
.disease assumes a cancerous malignancy. This cfaa- 
END
ENN
Meter is evinced by the dull red, and, as it were, leaden
colour of the excrescence;  by iu exceeding hardness,
and tbe lancinating pains  which occur in it, and ex-
tend to the forehead, the whole eyeball and the  temple,
especially when the tumour has been, though slightly,
touched. It is also  shown, by tbe propensity of tbe
excrescence to bleed, by the partial ulcerations on  iu
surface, which emit a fungous substance, and a thin
and exceedingly acrid discharge.
  ENCATALE'PSIS.   (From o>, and  xalaXauBavw,
to seize.) A catalepsy.
  ENCATHl'SMA.  (From tv, and koOiZm, to sit in.)
A aemicupium, or  bath for half the body.
  ENCAU'MA.  (From tv, in, and xatta, to burn.)  A
burn   See  Bum.
  ENCAU'SIS.   (From cv, and xatia,  to burn.)  A
burn.  See  .Bum.
  ENCEPHALOCE'LE.  (From cvKcatoAov, the brain,
and irnXn, a tumour.)  A rupture of the brain.
  ENCE PHALON.  (From tv, in, and  KtibaXn, the
head.)   Encephalum.  By some writers the cerebrum
only is bo called; and others express by this term tlie
contenu of  the cranium.
  Ence'ris.  (From cv, and xnpos, wax.) A roll of
wax for making plasters.
  Encero'sis. (From tv,  and xepoia, to wax.)  The
covering of a plaster with wax.
  ENCHARA'XIS.  (From tv,  and xapaoau, to sca-
rify.)  A scarification.
  ENCHEIRE'SIS.  (From tv, and x"V, lhe  hand.)
Enchdra.  Galen  uses this  word as a part of the title
to one of his works, which treau of dissection.  The
word imports the manual treatment of any subject.
  Encbei'ria. See Enchdresis.
  Enchilo'ma.  See Enchyloma.
  Encho'ndrub.   (From tv, and %ov5poc, a cartilage.)
A cartilage.
  Enchris'ta.  (From cyxP"11! *° anoint)   Oint-
menu.
  Enchylo'ma.  (From tv, and  %u\oc, juice.)  An
inspissated juice.   An elixir, according to Lemery.
  E'NCHYMA.  (From c», and xeui to infuse.)  En-
chysis,  1.  An infusion.
  2. A sanguineous plethora.
  Enchy'kata.    (From tyxvta, to infuse.)   Injec-
tions for the eyes and ears.
  Enchymo'ma.  (From tv, and x»(a, to pour in.)  In
the writings of the ancient physicians, it is a wdrd by
which tbey  express that sudden effusion of blood  into
the cutaneous vessels, which arises from joy, anger, or
shame;  and, in the last instance, U what we usually
call blushing.
  Enchymo'sis.  Kyxvpiaats-  1- Blushing.
  2. An extravasation of blood, which makes the part
appear livid.
  E'nciiysis.  See Enchyma.
  Encly'sma.  (From  cv, and ttXuJoi, to cleanse out.)
A clyster.
  ENCC3LIA.   (From cv, within, and koiXio, the
belly.)   The abdominal viscera.
  Enoolpi'smus.  (From cyxoXntta, to insinuate.)  A
uterine injection.
  ENCRA'NIUM.  (From a>, within, and xpavtov, the
skull.)  The cerebrum  and the whole contenu of the
skull.
  Encrasi'cholus.  (Fiomev, in, xcpas, tbe head, and
  SaXri, bile;  because  it is said to have  the gall in iu
  ead.)  The anchovy.  See Clupea.
  E'ncris.  Eyxotc.  A cake of meal, oil, and  hemey.
  E'mcymon.   (From  cv,  and  xvia, to conceive.)
Pregnancy.
  ENCYSIS.  (From  cv, and xvia, to bring  forth.)
Parturition.
  ENCYSTED.   Saccatus. A term applied to those
tumours wi'iich consul of a fluid or other matter, en-
closed m a sac or cyst-                             .
  ENCY'STIS.   (From cv, in, and ctj-ic, a bag.)  An
encysted tumour.
  ENDE MIC.  (Endemicus, sc. morbus;  from cv, in,
and Srjuos, people.)  A disease is so termed tliat is pe-
culiar to a certain class of persons, or country: thus
struma is endemial to the  inhabitauU of Derbyshire
and tbe Alps; scurvy  to seafaring people; and the
plica polonica is met with in Poland.
  E'noesis.  (From cv, and Sua, to tie up.)  A ligature.
A bandage.
  ENDIVE.  See  Cichorium.
     330
  ENDI'VIA.  (Quasi eundo via, fni'epassim nssd-
 tur;  named from the quickness of iu growth.)  Sea
 Cichorium,
  E'mdosis.  (From cv, and StSiaut, to  give.)  A re-
 mission, disorder.
  ENECIA.  (From Hvwrnc, continued.)  A genus of
 disease in Good's Nosology.  Class,  Hamatica; Or
 der, Pyretica: continued fever.  It comprehends three
 species, Eneeia cauma;  typhus; synochui.
  Enella'gmenus.    (From  cvoMar7w, to  inter-
 change.!  An  epithet applied to the union of the
joinu of the vertebra;.
  ENEMA.  (Enema, mafic, neut;  from  cvuipi, to
 inject.) A clyster.  A well-known form of conveying
 both nourishment and medicine to the system, under
certain morbid  circumstances.   The former takes
place where obstruction of tbe passage to the stomach
is so great as to render access to that organ impossible,
such as occurs  in lockjaw, diseased oesophagus, Sec.
By  these means the body can be supported  for a few
weeks, while an attempt is made  at effecting a cure.
It is composed, in such cases, of animal broths, grueli
made of farinaceous seeds, mucilages, &c.  As a form
of medicine, clysters are no less useful;  and, accord-
ing to the  intention  with which they are prescribed,
they are cither of an emollient, anodyne, or purgative
nature. The following forms are in general use.
  Enema anodynum.   Take of starch  jelly, half  a
pint;  tincture of opium, forty to  sixty  drops.  Mix.
 The whole to be injected by means of a clyster-syringe,
in cases of dysentery or violent purging, and pain in
the bowels.
  Enema  antispabmodicum.  Take of tincture of
asafoetida, half an ounce;  tincture of opium, forty
drops; gruel, half a pint.  Mix. For spasmodic affec-
tions of the bowels.
  Enema laiativum.  Take of sulphate of magne-
sia, two ounces; dissolve in three quarters of a pint
of warm gruel, or broth, with an ounce of fresh butter,
or sweet oil.
  Enema nicotian*.   Take  of the infusion of to-
bacco from a hal f to a whole pint  Employed in cases
of strangulated hernia.
  Enema nutriens.  Take of strong beef tea, twelve
ounces; thicken with hartshorn shavings, or  arrow-
root.
  Enema terebinthinc  Take of common turpen-
tine, half an ounce; the yelk of one egg, and half a
pint of gruel.  The turpentine being first incorporated
with the egg, add to them the gruel.  This clyster is
generally used, and with great good effect, in  violent
fiu of the stone.
  Enerei'bis.   (From tvepeiSta, to adhere to a com-
pression.)   A tight ligature.
  E'NERGY.  (Energia; from tvtpytta, to act.)  The
degree of force exercised by any power: thus, nervous
energy, muscular energy, &c.
  ENERVATING.  The act of destroying the force,
use, or office of the nerves, either by cutting them, or
breaking them by violence  or abuse of the non-na-
turals.
  Eneurb'sIS.  See Enuresis.
  ENERVIS.  Ribless: applied to leaves which are
without lines or  ribs.
  Engala'ctum.  (From  tv, and yaXa, milk; so
called, because it is  eaten by nurses  to increase tieir
milk.)  The herb saltwort.   See Salsola.
  ENGASTRIMY'THUS.   (From cv, in, yaeijp, tbe
belly,  and  uvdeouat, to discourse.)  A ventriloquist;
one who appears to speak from his  belly.
  Enoiso'ma.  (From eyyifyo, to approach.)
  1. An instrument  for making the parts of a broken
clavicle meet
  2. A fracture of tne cranium.
  English Mercury.  See Mercurialis.
  Enolotto-gastor.   (From tv, yXiar]ti, the tongue,
ana yacTip, the belly.)  A ventriloquist.
  ENGOMPHO'SIS.  (From tv, and youibos, a nail.,
That  species of articulation which resembles a nail
driven into wood, as a tooth in iu socket.
  Engo'nios.  (From cv, and yiavta, an angle.)  The
flexure, or angle made by the bending of a joint
  Eni'xum  paracelsi.  The caput mortuum of the
dutitlation of nitric acid, which is a super-sulphate of
potassa.
  ENNEANDRIA.  (From cvvta, nine, and  dmp, a
man.)  The name of  a class of pianu in the sexual 
ENT
ENT
 tystem. containing such as have hermaphrodite flow-
 ers with nine stamina.
    Enneapha'rmacum.  (From evvta, nine, and q}ap-
 fiaxov, a medicine.)   A  medicine composed of nine
 simple ingredients.
    ENNEAPHY'LLUM.    (From  cvvta,  nine,  and
 6vXXov,  a leaf;  because iU  flower consisu of nine
 leaves.)   A name for helleboraster, or bear's-foot.
    ENODIS.  Without knots:  applied  to stems of
 plants, as Culmus enodis; that is, a smooth culm, as
 in our common rushes.
    Enry'tiimus.  (From cv, and pvBuos, number.)  A
 pulse in some  respect regular.
    ENS.   This word denoted in ancient chemistry the
 most efficacious part of any natural mixed body, whe-
 ther animal, vegetable, or fossil, wherein all the qua-
 lities or  virtues of the ingredients of the  mixed are
 comprehended in a small compass.
    ENSATjE.   (From ensis, a sword.)  The name of
 a natural order of plants, consisting of such as have
 sword-shaped  leaves.
    E'NSIFORM.  (Ensiformis; from ensis, a sword,
 and forma, resemblance.)  Sword-like.    1. A term
 applied to some paru from  their resemblance;  as the
 ensiform cartilage.
    2. In botany, a leaf is called folium ensiforme, which
 has two edges, and tapers to a point, like a sword.
 See Leaf.
    Ensta'ctum,  (From cv, and s-a^oi, to  instil.)  A
 liquid medicine, wbich is applied instillatim, or drop
 by drop.
    ENTASIA.  (From cvracic, intentio  vehementia.)
 A name of a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.
 Class, Neurotica;  Order,  Cinetica.   Constrictive
 spasm.   It has eight species, viz.  Entasia priapis-
 mus; loxia; articularis; systremma; trismus; teta-
 nus;  lyssa; acrotismus.
    Enta'tica.   (From tvlttvia, to  strain.)  Provoca-
 tives, or whatever excites venereal inclination.
a,  E'NTERA.   (From cv7oc, within.)
   j, The bowels.
 '  S. Hippocrates calls by this name the bags in  which
 medicines for fomentations  were formerly enclosed.
 .  ENTERADE'NES.  (From  tvttpov, an intestine,
 tod aZnv, a gland.)  The intestinal glands.
    Entere'nchyta.  (From tvltpa, ihe  bowels, and
 tyxvta, to Infuse into.)  An instrument  for adminis-
 tering clysters. A clyster-pipe.
    ENTERICA.   (From tvrtpov, intestinum, alvus.)
 The name of the first order,  class Celiaca, of Good's
 Nosology.  Diseases affecting the  alimentary  canal.
 Its genera are,  Odontia;  Ptyalismus;  Dysphagia;
 Dipsosis;  Limosis; Colica;  Coprostasis;   Diar-
 rhea; Cholera; Enterolithus; Helminthia; Proctica.
   ENTERI'TIS.  (From cvjtpov, an intestine.)  In-
 flammation of the intestines.   It is a genus of disease
In tbe Class Pyrexia,  and order Phlegmasie of Cullen,
 and is known  by the presence of pyrexia,  fixed pain
 in the abdomen, costiveness,  and  vomiting.   The
 causes of enteritis are much the same as those of gas-
 tritis, being occasioned by acrid substances, indurated
 fasces, long-continued and obstinate costiveness, spas-
 modic colic, and a strangulation of any part ofthe in-
 testinal canal;  but another  very general cause  is  the
application of  cold to the lower extremities, or  to  the
belly iuelf.  It is a disease which is most apt to occur
at an  advanced period of life, and  is very  liable to a
relapse.
   It comes on with an acute pain, extending  in general
over the whole of the abdomen; but more  especially
round the navel, accompanied with eructations, sick-
ness at the stomach, a vomiting of bilious matter, ob-
stinate costiveness, thirst, heat, great anxiety, and a
quick and hard small pulse.   After a short time the
pain becomes more severe, the bowels seem  drawn to-
gether by a kind of spasm, the whole region of tlie
abdomen  is highly painful  to the touch, and  seems
drawn together in'lumpy contractions; invincible cos-
tiveness prevails, and the  urine U voided with  great
difficulty and pain.
  The inflammation  continuing to  proceed with vi-
olence, terminates at last  in  gangrene;  or abating
gradually, it goes off by resolution.
  Enteritis is always attended  with considerable dan-
ger, aa it often terminates in  gangrene to the space of
m few hours from iu  commencement; which event is
narked by the  sadden remission of pain, sinking of
 the pulse, shrinking of the features, and distention of
 the belly, and it frequently proves fatal likewise, du-
 ring the inflammatory stage.  If the pains abate gra-
 dually, if natural stools be passed, if a universal sweat,
 attended wilh a firm equal  pulse, comes on, or if a
 copious discharge of loaded urine, with the same kind
 of pulse, takes place, a resolution and favourable ter-
 mination may be expected.
   Dissections of this disease show, that the inflamma-
 tion pervades the intestinal tube to a very considerable
 extent; that adhesions of the diseased portion to con-
 tiguous parts are formed ;  and that, in some cases, the
 intestines are in a gangrenous state, or that ulcerations
 have formed.  They likewise show, that, besides ob-
 stinate obstructions, introsusception, constrictions, and
 twistings, are often to be met with; and that, in most
 cases, the peritoneeum is more or less affected, and ia
 perceived, at times, to  be covered with a layer of
 coagulable lymph.  The treatment must be begun by
 taking blood freely from the arm, as far as the strength
 of the patient will allow; but the disease occurring
 more frequently In persons rather advanced in years,
 and of a constitution somewhat impaired, it  becomes
 more  important to limit this  evacuation and  rely in a
 great measure on the effects  of a number of leeches,
 applied to tbe abdomen.  Another very useful step ia
 to put the patient into a hot bath, which may presently
 induce faintness; or where this cannot be procured,
 fomenting tbe abdomen assiduously.  When the symp-
 toms are thus  materially relieved, an  ample  blister
 should be applied.  It becomes also ofthe first import-
 ance to clear out the bowels: a copious laxative clyster
 will evacuate the inferior part of tbe canal, and solicit
 the peristaltic  motion  downwards;  and the milder
 cathartics, as castor  oil, neutral sails, &c. in divided
 doses, may gradually procure a passage. But  where
 the disease  has been preceded by costiveness, norc
 active articles will probably be necessary, as calonel,
 compound extract  of colocynth,  infusion of serins,
 with salts, sec.  If the stomach  be irritable, the  effer-
 vescing saline draught may enable it lo retain tbe re-
 quisite cathartics.  Another plan, often  very success-
 ful, is giving opium in a full dose, particularly in col-
 junction with calomel, taking care to follow it up ly
 some of the remedies above mentioned, till the bowtls
 are relieved; which effect il appears to promote by its
 soothing artispasmodic power. Afterward we may en-
 deavour, to keep up diaphoresis, and recruit tiie strength
 of the patient by a mild nourishing diet; taking rare
 to guard against accumulation of freces, exposure to
 cold, or any thing else likely to occasion a relapse
   ENTERO'.  (From tvftpov, an intestine.)  Names
 compounded of this word belong to things which re-
 semble an Intestine; or to parts connected witti, or
 diseases of some part of the intestine.
   ENTEROCE'LE.  (From tvjtptv, ai intestine, and
 107*17,  a  tumour.)  An  intestinaF rurture or hernia.
 Every hernia may be so called that is produced by the
 protrusion of a portion of intestine, whether it is in the
 groin, navel, or elsewhere.
   Entero-epiplocele.  (From ttjtpov, an intestine,
 tiriirXoov, the epiploon, and <nXn, a  tumour.)  A  rup-
 ture formed  by tbe protrusion of part of an intestine,
 with a portion ofthe epiploon.
   Entero-hydrocelb.   (From tvrtpov, an intestine,
 vSiap, water, and KnXn, a tumour.)   This must mean a
 common scrotal  hernia,  with  a good Jeal of water in
 the hernial sac ; or else a hernia congenita, (in wbich
 the bowels descend into the tunica vaginalis testis,)
 attended with a collection of fluid in the cavity of this
 membrane.
  ENTEROLITHUS.  (From evrcpov, an intestina,
 and Ai0oc, a stone.)  The name of a genus of disease,
 Class, Celiaca; Order, Entertca, in Good's Nosology
 Intestinal  concretion.  It embraces  three species, via  >>
 Enterolithus bezoar ; calculus; scybalum
  ENTERO'MPHALUS.  (From evrcpov, an tittes
 tine, and outbaXos, the nave?.)  An  umbilical  henna,
 produced by the  protrusion of a portion of intestine.
  ENTERO'PHYTUM.  vFrom cv7£pov, an intestine,
 and fiJu7ov, a plant.)  A pfant which grows in the form
 of a cut, the sea-chUteriing.
  ENTERORA'PHLi.  (From tvrtpov, an intestine,
 and padi?, a suture.>  A suture of the intestines, or the
 sewing toeether the divided edges of an intestine.
  ENTEROSCHEOCE'LE.  (From tvrtpov, an httes-
tine, ooxte-v, the scrotum,  and KnXn,  • rupture.) A 
                      EPH

 icrotal hernia, or rupture of the intestines into the
 scrotum.
   Enthe'kata.  (From cv7«0»«i, to put in.)  Anti-in-
 flammatory styptics.
   Enthlasis.  A contusion witli the  impression of
 die instrument by which it happened.
   Entire Leaf.  See InUftrrimus.
   ENTROCHI.  A genus of extraneous fossils, made
 up of round joinU, which, when separate and loose,
 are called trochitm.
   ENTRO PIUM (Entropium, i. n.;  from tv, and
 rpcirc*, to turn.)   A disease of the eyelids, occasioned
 by the eyelashes and eyelid being inverted towards tlie
 bulb of tbe eye.
   Enttpo'sjs.  (From tvlvnoia, to make an impres-
 sion.)  1. The acetabulum.
   2.  The scapula, or concave bone of the shoulder.
   E'NULA.   (A corruption of henula,  or Helenium,
 from  Hdene, the island where it grew.)   See Inula
 helenium.
   Enula campana.  See Inula helenium.
   Enu'lon.  (From  tv, and ovXov, the  gums.) The
 internal flesh of the gums, or that part of them which
 b within tbe mouth.
   ENURE SIS.   (Eneuresis, is. f.; from  tvovptia, to
 make water.) An fiicoutinency, or involuntary flow of
 urille.  This disease  usually proceeds either from re
 taxation or a paralytic affection of the sphincter of the
 braider, induced by various debilitating causes, as too
 free a use of spirituous liquors, manustupration, and
 excess in venery; or it arises from compression on the
 bladder, from the diseased state of the organ, or from
 tone irritating substance contained in iu  cavity.  It
 is arranged in the class Locales, and order Apocenoses
 of Cttilen, and contains two species: 1. Enuresis ato-
 itica the sphincter of the bladder having lost iu tone
 Iron) some previous disease.  2. Enuresis ab irrita-
 liont, vd compressions vesica), from  an irritation or
 (omprcssion of the bladder.
  Bpacma'sticub. (From em,  and  oxua&io, Jto in-
 crease.)  A fever which is Increasing in  malignity.
  Epa'cme.  (From tnaxpafyo, to increase.)  The in-
 rease, or exacerbation ot a disease.
  Epaoo'oium.   (From cnaya>,ia draw  over.)  The
 prepuce, or that part of tbe penis which is drawn over
 tbe glans, according to Dioscorides.
  Epanamdo'ntes.  (From c»<T»a<5i(5<o/u,to increase.)
 A term applied to fevers which continue to increase
 in their degree of heat
   Xpaiaoiplo'Sis.  (From  tnavaStnXota, to redupli-
 cate.)  The reduplication of a fit of a semitertian fever;
 that is, the return of the cold fit before the hot fit is
 ended.
   Etai»a'sta»is.   (From em, and avtsnut,  to excite.)
 A tubercle, or small pustule upon the skin.
  Epawcylo'ths.  (From cm, and ayxvXos, crooked.)
 A sort of crooked bandage in Oribasius.
  EPANETUS.  (Fiom 'Rnavttui, to return.)  The
 name of a genus,»Cla» He mat tea; Order, Pyretica,
 in Good's Nosology.   Remittent fever.  It has three
 •pecfes, viz. Epanttus nttis; malignus; heciica.
  Epa'rma.   (From  tnaipu, to elevate.)   Eparsis.
 Any kind of tumour,  but frequently applied to one of
 the parotid gland.
   Epa'rsis.  See Eparma.
  Epasma'btiqa febris.  A fever is so called by Bel-
 lini, and others, while it is in iu increase.  See Epac-
 masttcus.
  Ew'ncranis.  (From em, cv, in, and upawov, the
 »*ull.)  1 he name of the cerebellum.
  Epheb^'um.  (From cm, and nfin, the groin.)  The
 Balr upon the pubes.
 . ?'rH«ORA- (From tupAfiuai, to sit upon.) Ephedrana.
 L,The buttocks.        r         r~ /  r
  1  A species of horse-tail.
  Ephe|drara.  See Ephedra.   '
  Ethc'lcis.  (From mi, upon, and eAcoc, an ulcer.)
 1. The crust of an ulcer.
  2.  Hardened purulent expectoration.
  EPHELIS.   (Ephelis;  from cm,  and  nXioy, the
 sun.)  A etm spot A solitary, or aggregated spot, at-
 tacking most commonly tbe face, back of the hand, and
 fcti^ast, from exposure to the sua.
  EPHEMERA.  (From tn,upon,and vptpa, a day.)
A •disesse of a day's duration.
  it.  A fever  which begins, is perfectly  formed, and
rut 0 through its course In the space of twelve hours.
                        EPI

   EPHEME'RIDES.   (Ephemtrit.  idis.  f.;  (rem
  ttbnptpts,  an almanac: so called  because, Ilk* the
  moon's age, they may be foretold  by the almanac.)
  Diseases which return at particular times of tiie moon.
   EPHIALTES.  (From c0aXAouai, to leap upon;
  so called because it was thought a demon lca|>ed upon
  the breast.) Incubus, or nightmare. See Oneirodynia,
   Epiiia'ltia.  (From ephialtes, the nightmare ;ao
  called because it was said to cure the nightmare.)
  The herb peony.
   EPHIDRO'SIS.  (From tduSpoia,  to perspire.) Su.
  datio.  Mador.   A violent and morbid perspiration.
  A genus of disease in the class  Locales, and order
  Apocenoses of Cullen.
   EPHI'PPIUM.  A saddle, which it is thought to re-
 semble.   See Sella turcica.
   E'phodos.  (From  cm and ooos, a way.)  In Hip-
 pocrates ithath three significations:
   1. The ducu or passages, by which  the excrement!
 of the body are evacuated.
   2. The periodical attack of a fever, from the com-
 mon use of it to express the attack of thieves.
   3. The access of similar or dissimilar things, which
 may be useful or hurtful to the body.
   Epia'ltes. See Ephialtes.
   Epi'alus.   (From  nmov, gently, and aXtalia,  to
 heat.)  Epialos. An ardent fever, In which both heal
 and  cold arc felt in the same part at the same time.
 Galen defines it to be  a fever in which the  patient
 labours under a preternatural heat and a coldness at
 the same time. The ancient Latins call it Quercera.
   Epi'uole.   (From tntSaXXia, to press upon.)  Thl
 nightmare, or ephialtes.
   Epica'nthis.  (From cm, and xavBos, the angle of
 the eye.)  The angle of the eye.
   Epica'rpium.  (From em, upon,  and xapnos, the
 wrist.)  A medicine applied to the wrist.
  Epica'uma.  (From em, and xatta, to burn.)   A
 burn.
  Epicau'sis. A burn.
  Epi'ceras.  (From cm, and Ktpas,  a horn: so called
 because ite pods ere shaped  like a horn.) See Trigo-
 nella fanum grecum.
  Epicera'stica.   (From em, and kipavwui, to mix.)
 Medicines which, by mixing with acrimonioiU juices,
 temper them and  render them less  troublesomej.ai
 emollienU.
  Epicheire'sis.   (From  cm,  and  xcip, the  hand.)
 A manual operation.
  Epicholus.   (From em,  and x^Vi  the  bile.)
 Bilious.
  Epicho'rdis.  (From tni, upon, and x°P&V, a Eut-)
 The mesentery.
  Epicho'rios.  (From em, upon, and x°pa, a region.)
 Tbe same as epidermis.
  EPICHROSIS.   (From  tmxpuots,  a coloured or
 spotted surface.)  The name of a genus of dlsea<*,
 Class, Eccritica; Order, Acrotica, in Good's No'sOftjsJ.
 Macular skin, or Simple discoloration of the surfaqe
 It embraces seven species, vte. Epichrdsis IcucasmuSj
 spilus ; lenticula; ephelis ;  aurigo ; petilia ; alphdsU.
  Epiccelis.  (From tni, upon, and koiXjc, tiie eyelid.)
 The upper eyelid.
  EPICO'LIC.  (Epicolicus; from tni. upon, fad
xiaXov, the colon.)  That part of the abdomen Which
lies over the head of the ccecum  and  the sigmoid tmC-
 ure of the colon, is called the eplcolic region.
  Epicopho'sis.   (From tni, and «uf)oc, deaf.)  A
total  deafness.
  EPICRA'NIUM.   (From tm,  and  itpaviov, the
cranium.)  The common  integumenu, aponeurosis,
and muscular expansion which lie upon the cranium.
  Epicra'nius. See Occipito frontalis.
  EPI'CRASIS.   (From tni, and xtpavwui, to tem-
per.)  A critical evacuation of bad  humours,  an at-
temperation of bad ones.   When a cure is performed,
in the alterative way, It is called per Epicrasin.
  EPICRISIS.  (From cm,  and xptvia, to Judge from.)
 A judgment of the termination or a disease from pre-
sent symptoms.
  Epicte'nium.   (From tnt, about, snd x^us, the
 pubes.)  Tbe parts above and about the pubes.
  Epicye'ma.  (From cm, upon, and xvta, to conceive.)
 Epicyesis.  Superfcetatlon.
  Epicye'sis. See Epieyema.
  EPIDEMIC.  (Epidmitujj from cm, upon, and
 Snuot, the people.)  A contafwtis disease is so termed 
EPI
EPI
 that attacks many people at the same season, and In
 the same place; thus, putrid  fever, plague, dysentery,
 sec. are often epidemic.
   EPIDE NDRUM.  (From cm, upon, and StvSpov, a
 tree; because all  this genus of plants  grow parasiti-
 ca I ly on  the trunks or branches of trees.)   The name
 of a genus of plants in the Llnnaiau system.   Class,
 Qynandria; Order, Monandria.
   Epidendrum  vanilla.  The systematic name of
 the vanelloe plant.   Vanilla; llanlia; Banilas; Ara-
 tus aromaticus; Epidendrum—scandens, foliis ovato
 oblongis nervosis sessilibus caulinis, cirrhis spiralibus
 ot Linnceus.  The vanelloe is a long, flattish pod, con-
 taining, under a wrinkled brittle shell, a reddish brown
 pulp, with small shining black  seeds, which have an
 unctuous aromatic taste, and a fragrant smell like that
 of spine of the finer balsams heightened with musk.
 Although chiefly used  as perfumes,  they are said to
 possess aphrodisiac virtues.
   Epi'oeris.   (From tm, and Stpas, the skin.)  The
 clitoris.
   EPIDERMIS,  (From tm, upon, and  Stpua, the
 true skin.)   The scarf-skin.  See Cuticle.
   Epi'desis.  (From cm, upon, and Stia, to bind.)  A
 bandage to stop a discharge of blood.
   Epide'smus.  (From  cm, upon, and Sua, to bind.)
 A bandage by which splints, bolsters, &c. are secured.
   EPIDIDYMIS.   (From em, upon, and SiSvuos, a
 testicle.)  A hard, vascular, oblong substance, that lies
 upon the testicle, formed of a convolution of the vas
 deferens.  It  has a thick end, which is convex, and
 situated jiosteriorly ; and a thin end, which  is rather
 flat, and situated inferiorly.   The epididymis adheres
 to the testicle by iu two extremities only, for its middle
 part Is free, forming a bag, to which the tunica vagi-
 nalis of the testicle is attached.
   Epi'dosis.  (From tmSiSiaut, to grow upon.) Apre-
 teruatural enlargement of any part.
   EPIDOTE.   Pistacite of Werner.   Acanticone from
 Norway.   A sub-species of prismatoidal augite.  A
 compounded ore, containing silica, alumina, lime, ox-
 ide of iron, oxide  of manganese, found in primitive
 beds and veins, along with augite, hornblende, calca-
 reous spar, sec.
   Epi'drome.   (From tmSptuia, to run upon.)   An
 afflux of humours.
   EPIGA'STRIC.   (Epigastrieus;  from em, upon,
 or above, and yae-fjp, tbe stomach.)  That  part of the
 abdomen that lies over the stomach,  is called the epi-
 gastric region; it reaches from  the pit of the stomach
 to an imaginary lino above the navel, supposed to be
 drawn from one extremity of the last of the false ribs
 to the other.   Ils sides are called hypochondria, and
 are covered by tbe false ribs, between which lies the
 epigastrium.
   EPIGA'STRIUM.  (From  tm, upon, or above, and
 yas-np, the belly.)    The part  immediately over the
 stomach.
   EPIGENESIS.  A name given by the ancients, to
 that theory of generation which consisu in regarding
 the fcetus as the joint production of matter afforded by
 both sexes.
   EPIGENNE'MA.   (From  emyivouai, to generate
 upon.}   1. The fur on the tongue.
   3, An accessory  symptom.
   EPIGENNE"SIS.  See Epigennema.
   EPIGINO'MENA.   (From tmyivopat, to succeed
 or supervene.)  Galen says, they  are those symp-
 toms which naturally succeed, or may be expected
 In tbe progress of a disease; but Foesius says, they
 are accessions of  some  other  affection to diseases,
 which  never happen but in stubborn and malignant
 diseases.
  EPIGLO'SSUM.  (From cm, upon, and yXiaaaa,
 the tongue: so called because a less leaf grows above
 the larger in the shape of a tongue.)  The Alexandrian
 laurel, a species of Ruscus.
  EPIGLOTTIS.   (From cm, upon, and yXiarfis, the
tongue.)  The cartilage at tbe root of the tongue that
fall* upon the glottis or superior opening ofthe larynx.
Its figure is nearly oval; it is concave posteriorly, and
convex anteriorly.   Iu apex or superior extremity is
loose, and  is always elevated upwards by its  own
elasticity.   While the back of  the tongue is drawn
backwards in swallowing, the epiglottis is put over the
 aperture of the larynx, hence it shuu up the passage
from the mouth into the larynx.  The base of the epi-
 glottis is fixed to tbe thyroid cartilage, the os hyoide%
 and the base of the tongue, by a strong ligament.
   Epiglo'ttum.   (From tmyAii)T7ic, the epiglottis,
 which it resembles in shape.)  An instrument men
 tioned by Paracelsus for elevating the eyelids.
   EP1GLOU TIS.  (From em, upon, and yXovlos, the
 buttocks.)  The superior paru of the buttocks.
   Epigo'natis.   (From em, upon, and yovn, the knee.)
 The patella or knee-pan.
   Epioo'nides.  (From eui, and yovv, the knee.)  The
 muscles inserted into the knees.
   Epioonum.  (From emyivouac,  to proceed upon.)
 A superlactation.
   Epile'mpsis.  See Epilepsy.
   Epile'ntia.  Corrupted from epilepsia.
   EPILEPSY.   (Epilepsia, e,  f.;  from cmXapBavta,
 to seize upon: so called, from the suddenness of iu
 attack.)   It is also called  falling sickness, from the
 patient suddenly falling to the ground on an attack of
 this disease.   By the ancients it was termed, from its,
 affecting the mind, the most noble part of the rational
 creature,  the sacred disease.  It consists of convul-
 sions with sleep, and usually froth issuing from the
 mouth.  It is a  genus of disease  in the  class New
 roses, and order Spasmi, of Cullen,  and contains three
 species:
   1. Epilepsia cerebralis; attacking suddenly without
 manifest cause, and not preceded  by any unpleasant
 sensation, unless perhaps some giddiness or dimness of
 sight
   2. Epilepsia sympathica; without manifest cause,
 but preceded by a sensation of an aura ascending from
 some part of the body to  the head.
   3. Epilepsia  occasionalis;  arising from  manifest
 irritation, and ceasing on the removal of this.  It com-
 prehends several varieties:—a. Epilepsia traumatica,
 arising from an injury of the head:  b. Epilepsia A do-
 lore, from pain: c. Epilepsia verminosa, from the irri-
 tation of worms: d. Epilepsia d veneno, from poisons:
 e. Epilepsia exanthematica, from the repulsion of cuta-
 neous eruptions:  f. Epilepsia a cr adit ale  ventriculi,
 from crudities of the stomach: g. Epilepsia ab inani
 tione, from debility: h. Epilepsia uterina, from hys-
 terical affections: I.  Epilepsia ex onanismo, from
 onanism, Sec.
   Epilepsy attacks by fits, and after a certain duration
 goes on, leaving the  person  most  commonly in his
 usual state; but sometimes a considerable degree of
 stupor and weakness remain behind, particularly where
 the disease has frequent recurrences.  It is oftenermet
 with among  children than grown  persons, and boys
 seem more subject to iu attacks than girls.  Its returns
 are  periodical,  and iu paroxysms  commence  more
 frequently in the night than in the day, being some-
 what connected with sleep.  It is sometimes coun-
 terfeited,  in order to extort charity or excite com-
 passion.
   Epilepsy is properly distinguished into sympathetic
 and  idiopathic, being considered as sympathetic, when
 produced  by  an  affection in some  other part of the
 body, such as acidities in the stomach, worms, teeth-
 ing,  Sec.  as idiopathic when It is a primary disease,
 ueilher dependent on nor proceeding from any other.
  The causes which give rise to epilepsy are blows,
 wounds, fractures, and other injuries, done to tbe bead
 by external violence, together with lodgments of water
 in the brain, tumours, concretions, and polypi.  Violent
 affections of the nervous system, sudden frights, fiu of
 passion, great emotions of the mind, acute pains  in
 any part, worms in the stomach or intestines, teething,
 the suppression of long-accustomed evacuations, too
 great emptiness or repletion, and poisons received into
 the body, are causes which likewise produce epilepsy.
 Sometimes it is hereditary, and at others it depends on
 a  predisposition  arising  from mobility of the senso
 rium, which is occasioned either by plethora, or a state
of debility.
  An attack of epilepsy is now and  then preceded by
a heavy pain  in  the head, dimness  of sight, noise  in
the ears, palpitations, flatulency in  the stomach and
intestines, weariness, and a small degree  of stupor,
and in some cases, there prevails a sense of something
like a cold vapour or aura arising up to the head; but
it more generally happens that the patient falls down
suddenly without much previous notice; his eyes are
distorted, or turns so that only the whites of tbem can
be seen; his fingers are closely clenched, and tiie trunk 
EPI
EPI
•f his body, particularly on one side, is much agitated;
he foams at  the mouth, and thrusu  out his tongue,
which often suffers great  injury from the muscles of
tbe lower jaw being affected;  he loses all sense of
feeling, and not unfrequtntly  voids  both  urine and
feces involuntarily.
  Tbe spasms  abating, he recovers gradually;  but on
coming  to himself feels languid and exhausted, and
retains not the smallest recollection of what has ptu-y. d
during the fit
  When the disease arises from an hereditary disposi-
tion, or comes  on after the  age of puberty, or where
the fits recur frequently, and are of long duration, it
will be  very difficult to effect a cure:  but when its at-
tacks are at  an early age, and occasioned  by worms.
or any accidental cause, it may  in general be removed
with ease.  In some cases, it has been entirely carried
off  by the occurrence of a fever, or by the appearance
of a cutaneous eruption.  It  has been known  to ter-
minate in apoplexy, and in some instances to produce
a loss of the powers of the mind, and to  bring on
idiotism.
  The appearances usually to be observed  on dissec-
tion, are serous and sanguineous effusion, a turgid tense
state of the vessels of the brain without any effusion,
a dilatation of some particular part of the brain, ex-
crescences, polypi, and  hydatids, adhering to it, and
obstructing iu functions, and likewise ulcerations.
  Durlug the epileptic  paroxysm in general, little or
nothing is to be  done, except using precautions, that
the patient may not injure himself; and it will be pru-
dent to  remove any thing  wbich  may compress the
veins of the neck, to obviate congestion in  the head.
Should  there be a considerable determination of blood
to this  part, or the patient  very plethoric,  it may be
proper, if you can keep him steady, to open a vein, or
Ihe temporal artery ;  and in weakly constitutions the
most powerful antispasmodics may be tried in ihe form
of clyster, as they could hardly be swallowed:  but
there is very seldom time for such measures.   In the
intervals, the treatment consists: 1. In obviating the
several  exciting causes.   2. In correcting any observ-
able predisposition.  3.  In  the  use of those means,
which are most likely to break through the habit of re-
currence.
  I. The manner of fulfilling the first indication re-
quires little explanation; after an injury to  the head,
or where there is disease of the bone, an operation may
Be necessary, to remove irritation from the  brain ; in
Children teething, the gums ought to be lanced:  where
tbe bowels are  foul, or worms suspected, active  purga-
tives should  be exhibited, &c.  In those instances in
which the aura epileptics is perceived, it has been re-
commended  to destroy the part, where it originates, or
divide the nerve going to it, or correct  the morbid ac-
tion by a blister, ate.; such means would certainly be
proper when there is any disease discoverable in it.
Making a tight ligature on tbe limb  above has some-
times prevented a fit; but, perhaps, only through the
medium of the imagination.
  II. Where a plethoric state appears  to lay the foun-
dation of the disease, which  is  often the case, the pa-
tient must be restricted  to a low diet, frequent  purges
exhibited, and  tbe other excretions kept  up, and he
f bould take regular moderate exercise, avoiding what-
ever may determine the blood to the head; and to
counteract such a  tendency, occasional cupping, blis-
ters, issues, &c. may be useful, as well as the shower-
bath ; but in urgent circumstances, the lancet ought to
be freely used.  If, on the  contrary, there  are  marks
of inanition  and debility, a generous  diet, with tonic
medicines, and other means of strengthening the sys-
tem, will be  proper.  The vegetable  tonics have not
been so successful in this disease as the metallic pre-
parations, particularly tbe FUlpbate of zinc, the nitrate
of silver, and the ammoniated copper, but this cannot
perhaps he so safely persevered in : where the patient
is remarkably exsanguineous, chalybeatcs may answer
better,  and, in obstinate cases,  tbe  arsenical solution
might have a cautious trial.   In irritable constitutions,
sedatives are indicated, as digitalis, opium, ace.: but
the  free use of opium  is restricted by a tendency to
congestion in the head.  Where syphilis appears to be
concerned, a course of mercury is proper;  in scrofu-
lous habits, bark, or steel, with  iodine, soda, and  sea-
bathing; and so on.
  III. The third division of remedies comes especially
In use, where the flu arc frequent, or where their re
currence can be anticipated; emetics will often pre-
vent them, or a full dose of opium; also other power-
ful antispasmodics, S9 atthcr, musk, valerian, Set.  or
strong odours, and in short any thing producing a con-
siderable impression on the system.  Bark, taken large-
ly, might perhaps be more successful on this principle.
The disease has sometimes been  cured,  especially
when originating from sympathy, by inspiring fear or
horror; and many frivolous charms may, no doubt
have taken effect through the medium of the imagina-
tion.  Also long voyages have removed it, which might
especially be hoped for at the age of puberty, particu-
larly if a considerable change in the mode of life were
made in other respects; those who bad lived Indo-
lently being obliged to exert themselves,  the diet pro-
perly adapted to the state of the system, See.
  EP1LO BIUM.   (From em XoBov tov, a violet or
beautiful flower, growing on a pod.)  The  name of a
genus of planu in the Linnman system.  Class, Oc-
tandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Epilobium angustifolium. Rose-bay-wlllow herb.
The young tender shoots cut in tho spring, and dressed
as asparagus, are little inferior to it.
  Epime'dil-m.  The plant barren-wort.
  Epimo'rius.  (Fro em, and pttpia, to divide.)  An
obsolete term, formerly applied to an unequal pulse.
  Epimy'lis.  (From em, and pvXt}, the  knee.)  The
patella or knee-bone.
  Epineneu'cub.   (From tmvevia, to nod or incline.)
An unequal pulse.
  Epino'tium.   (From  em,  upon, and via"]os, the
back.)   The shoulder-blade.
  EPINY'CTIS.   (From em, and vuL night.)  A pus-
tule, which rises in the night, forming an angry tumour
on the skin ofthe arms, hands, and  thighs, of the size
of a lupine, of a dusky red,  and sometimes of a livid
and pale colour, with great inflammation and pain.  In
a few days it breaks, and sloughs away.
  Epipa'ctis.  (From cmnaxjoia,  to coagulate.)  A
plant mentioned by Dioscorides; and so named be-
cause iu juice was  said to coagulate milk.
  Epiparoxy'smus.  (From em, upon, and napc\vo-
uos, a paroxysm.)  An  unusual frequency of febrile
exacerbation.
  Epipa'stum.   (From  em,  upon, and naaoia,  to
sprinkle.)  Any powdered drug sprinkled  on the body.
  Epipe'chys.  (From tm, above, and irnxwi the cu-
bit) That part of  the arm above the cubit.
  Epiphlooi'sma.  (From em, upon, and <pXoyi£ta, to
inflame.)  1. Violent inflammation, or burning heat in
any part, attended with pain, tumour, and redness. "'
  2. A name given by Hippocrates to the shingles.
  EPIPHORA.  (From tmiptpia, to carry forcibly.)
The watery eye.  An involuntary flow of tears.   A su-
perabundant flowing of a serous or aqueous humour
from the eyes. A genus of disease in the class Locales,
and order Apocenoses, of Cullen.  The humour which
flows very copiously from the eye in  epiphora, appears
to be furnished, not only by the  lachrymal  gland, but
from the whole surface of the conjunctive membrane,
Meibomius's glands, and the caruncula  lachrymalis;
which increased and morbid secretion may be induced
from any stimulus seated between the globe of the eye
and lids, as sand, acrid fumes, and the like; or it may
arise from tbe stimulus of active inflammation; or from
the acrimony of scrofula, measles,  small-pox,  &c, or
from general relaxation.   The disease may also arise
from a more copious secretion of tears, than tbe pun eta
lachrymalia can absorb, or, as is most common, from
an obstruction in the lachrymal canal, In  consequence
of which the tears  are  prevented from passing freely
from the eye into the nose.
  EP1PHRAGMA.   The slender  membrane which
sometimes shuu the  peristoma  of mosses,  as is seen
in Polytricum.
  EPIPHYSIS. (From em, upon, and Qvia, to grow*)
Any portion of bone  growing upon another, but sepa-
rated from it by a cartilage.
  Epipla'sma.   (From  eirii upon, and  nXaaoaia, to
spread.)  1. A poultice.
  2. A name for an application of wheat meal, boiled
in hydrela-um, to wounds.
  EPIPLO.  (From tmnXoov, tbe omentum.)  Names
compounded of this word belong to parts  connected
with, or disease of the epiploon.
  EPIPLOCE'LE.   (From  ciktXoov, the  omentum, 
EPI
EPS
 and rnXi, a tumour.)  An omental hernia.  A rupture >
 produced by the protrusion of a portion of the omen-1
 tum.  See Hernia omenlalis.
   Epiplocomi'stis.  (From cmrAoov, the  omentum,
 and xopfyi, to carry.)   One who has the omentum
 morbidly large.
   Epiploic appendages.  See Appendicule epiploice.
   EPIPLOl'TIS.   (From  emnXoov,  the  omentum.)
 An inflammation of the process ofthe peritoneum,
 tliat forms the epiploon or omentum.   See Peritonitis.
   EPIPLOO'MPHALON. (From emirXoov, the omen-
 tum, and ouibaXos, the navel.)  An  omental  hernia
 protruding at tbe navel.
   EPI'PLOON.  (From tmnXota, to sail over, because
 it is mostly found floating, as it were, upon the  intes-
 tines.)   See Omentum.
   EPIPLOSCUEOCE'LE.  (From emirAoov.the
 omentum, ooxtov, the scrotum, and xnXn, a  tumour or
 hernia.)  A rupture of tbe omentum into the scrotum,
 or n scrotal hernia containing omentum.
   Epipo'lasis.  (From tmnoXat/a, to swim on the top.)
 1.  A fluctuation of humours.
   2. A species of chemical sublimation.
   Enpo'MA.   (From em, upon, and ntaua, a lid.)  An
 Instrument to cover the shoulder in a luxation.
   Epiporo'ma.  (From tmniaptia, to harden.)  A hard
 tumour about the joints.
   Epipty'xis.  (From  emn]voc^a, to close up.)   A
 spasmodic closing of the lips.
   Epipyre'xis.  (From tm, and nvptrjia, to be fever-
 IshO  A rapid exacerbation in a fever.
   Epirioe'sis. (From em, and ptyeui, to become cold.)
 An unusual degree of cold, or repetition of rigors.
   Epi'rrboe.  (From  em, upon, and pirn, to  flow.)
 An influx or afflux of humours to any part.
   EPISARCT'DIUM.  (From em, upon, and capl, the
 flesh.)   An anasarca, or dropsy, spread between the
 skin and flesh.
   EPISCHE'SES.  (From tmoxeia,  to restrain.) A
 suppression of excretions.  It is an order  in the class
 Locales of Cullen's Nosology.
   EPl'SCHIUM.  (From em, upon,  and  ttrxtov, the
 hip-bone.)  The os pubis.
   EPISCOPA'L.  (From episcopus,  a bishop, or mi-
 tred dignitary.)  Of, or belonging to a bishop: applied
 to a vulve at the orifice between the left auricle and
 Ventricle of the heart.  See Mitral valve.   •
   Epispa'bmub.  (From  tmcrnaia, to  draw together.)
 A quick Inspiration.
   EPISPA'STIC.  (Epispasticus; from tmcmaia, to
 draw together.) Those substances which are capable,
 when applied to the surface of the body, of producing
 a serous or puriform discharge, by exciting a previous
 state of inflammation.   The  term,  though  compre-
 hending likewise issues and setons, is more commonly
 restricted to blisters—those applications  which, ex-
 citing inflammation on the skin, occasion a thin serous
 fluid to be poured from the exhalanu, raise the cuticle,
 and form  the  appearance  of a vesicle.  This effect
 arises from their strong stimulating power, and to this
 stimulant operation and the pain tbey excite, are to be
 ascribed the advantages derived  from them  in the
 treatment of disease.  The evacuation they occasion
 is too inconsiderable to have any material effect.  See
 Blister.
   Episph.c'ria.  (From cm, and otbaipa, a sphere: so
 called from the spherical shape of  tne brain.)  The
 windings of the exterior surface of the brain; or the
 winding vessels upon it.
   Epista'omus.   (From em,  and  jago), to  trickle
 down.)  A catarrh.
   EnsTAPHYMNt a.  (From tm, and $-a<pvXri,  the
 uvula.)  See Uoula.
  EPISTA'XIS.    (From  emc-at/o,  to distil  from.)
 Bleeding at the nose, with pain or fulness of the head.
 A genus of disease arranged by Cullen in the class
 Pyrexie, and order Hemorrhagia.
  "Persons of a sanguine and plethoric habit, and not
yet advanced to  manhood, are very liable to be at-
tacked with this complaint: females  being much less
subject to it than males, particularly after menstruation.
  Epistaxis comes on at times without any previous
warning; but at others, it is preceded by a pain  and
heaviness in  the head, flushing  in the face, heat and
itching in the nostrils, a throbbing of the temporal ar-
teries,  and a quickness  of the pulse. In some In-
stances  a coldness of the feet, and shivering over the
whole body, together with a costive belly, are observed
to precede an attack of this haemorrhage.
  This complaint ia to be considered as of little con-
sequence, when  occurring in young persons, being
never attended with any danger; but when it arises
in those who are advanced in life, flows profusely, and
returns frequently, it indicates too great fulness of the
vessels of the  bead, and not unfrequently precedes
apoplexy, palsy, ate. and, therefore, in such cases, is to
be  regarded  as  a  dangerous disease.   When  this
hemorrhage arises in  any putrid disorder, it is to be
considered as a fatal symptom.
  In general, we  need not  be very anxious to stop
a  discharge of  blood  from  the  nose,  particularly
where there are  marks of fulness  of the vessels of
the head: but if it occurs under a debilitated state of
the system, or becomes very profuse, means must be
employed to suppress it.  These are chiefly of a local
nature; applying  pressure  to the  bleeding vessels, in-
troducing astringents into the nostrils, as solutions of
alum, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper, sec. apply-
ing cold to the head, or to 6ome very sensible part of
the skin,  as in the  course of the spine, ace.   At tbe
same time the patient should  be kept in the erect posi-
tion.  If the haemorrhage be of  an  active character,
the antiphlogistic regimen should  be  carefully ob-
served: the patient  kept cool and  quiet; the saline
cathartics, refrigeranu, as nitrate of potassa and the
acids, digitalis,  diaphoretics, Sec administered inter-
nally ; and blood may be  taken  from the temples by
leeches, or  even from  the arm, if the patienl be very
plethoric. Sometimes, after the failure of other means,
closing the posterior as well as anterior outlete from the
nose, and preventing the escape of tbe Mood for some
time  mechanically, has  been successful;  and  this
might be particularly proper, where it was discharged
copiously into the fauces, so as to endanger suffocation,
on the patient falling asleep.
  EPISTHO'TONOS.  (From emoflw, forwards, and
rttvia, to extend.) A spasmodic affection of muscles
drawing the body forwards.  See Tetanus.
  Episto'mion.  (From em, upon, and foua, a mouth.)
  1. A stopper for a bottle.
  2. A venthole of a furnace, called  the register.
  EnsTRo'PHALus.   (From em, upon, and s-pc^u, to
turn about)  Epistrophia, and Epistropkis.  Applied
to the first vertebra ofthe neck, because it turns about
upon the second as upon an axis.
  Epi'strophe.   (From tnts-ptcbia, to invert.)  1. An
inversion of any part, as  when the neck is  turned
round.
  2. A return of a disorder which has ceased.
  EPISTROPHEUS.    (From  tms-potbaia,  to  tum
round, because the head is turned upon it.)  The se-
cond cervical vertebra.  See Dentatus.
  Epi'strophis.  See  Epistropheus.
  Epi'tasis.   (From em, and reive*, to extend.)  The
beginning and increase of a paroxysm or disease.
  EPITHE'LIUM.  The cuticle on the red part of the
lips.
  Epithe'ma.  (From tm, upon, and n&nut, to apply.)
A term formerly applied to a lotion, fomentation,  or
any external application.
  Epithema'tium.  The same.
  Epi'thesis.  (From tm, and riBnui, to cover, or lay
upon.) The rectification of crooked limbs by means of
instruments.
  EPITHY'MUM.  (From cm, upon, and Bvuos, the
herb thyme.)   See Cuscuta epithymum.
  Epo'de.  (From em, over, and iaSn, a song.)  Epo-
dos.  The method of curing distempers by incantation.
  Epom'is.  (From em, upon, and upos, the shoulder.)
The acromion, or upper part of the shoulder.
  Epompha'lium.  (From em, upon, and  ou^aXoc, the
navel.)  An application to the navel.
  EPSOM.  The name of a village in Surrey, about
eighteen miles from London, in the  neighbourhood of
which is a considerable mineral spring, called Epsom
water. Aqua Epsomensis.  This water evaporated to
dryness leaves a residuum, the quantity  of which has
been estimated from an ounce and a half in the gallon,
to five drachms  and one scruple.  Of the total  resi-
duum, by far the greater part, about  four or five-sixths,
is Bulphate of magnesia mixed with a very few muri-
ates, such as that of lime, and  probably magnesia,
which  render it very deliquescent,  and increase the
bitterness of taste, till purified by repeated crystalliza 
ERE
ERR
dans.  There is nothing sulphurous or metallic ever
found in this spring.  The diseases in which it is em-
ployed are similar to those in  vvfiich we use Seidlitz
water. There are many other of the  simple saline
springs that might be enumerated, all of which agree
with that of Epsom, in' containing  a notable propor-
tion of some purging  salt, which, for tiie most part, is
either sulphate of magnesia, or  sulphate  of soda, or
often a mixture of both, such as Acton, Kilburne, Bag-
nigge Wells, Dog and Duck, St. George's Fields, &c.
  Epsom salt.  A purging salt formerly obtained by
boiling down  the  mineral water found in the vicinity
of Epsom  in Surrey.  It is at present prepared from
sea water, which, after being boiled down, and  the
rauijateof soda separated, deposites numerous crystals,
that consist chiefly of sulphate  of magnesia, and sold
is the shops under the name of sal catharticus amarus,
OK bitter purging salt.   See Magnesia sulphas.
  EPU'LIS.   (From cm, and owXa, the  gums.)  A
small tubercle on the gums.  It is said sometimes to
become cancerous.
  EPULCTIC.  (Epuloticus; from tnovXont, to cica-
trize.)  A  term given by surgeons to those applica-
tions which promote the formation of skin.
  EQUISE'TUM.  (From equus, a horse, and seta, a
bristle: so named from iu  resemblance to a horse's
tail.)  1. The  name of a  genus of plants in the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Cryptogamia ; Order, Filices.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the Cauda equina.
See Hippuris vulgaris.
  Equiskti m  arvense.  See Hippuris ulgaris.
  EQUITANS.  Equitant   This term is applied to
leaves, which are disposed in two opposite rows, and
clasp each  other by their compressed base;  as in Nar-
thedum ossijragum.
  EQUIVALENTS.   A term introduced into chemis-
try by Dr. Wollaston, to express the system of definite
ratios, in which the corpuscular objecu of this science
reciprocally combine, referred to a common standard,
reckoned unity.  See Atomic system.
  E'QUUS.  1. The horse.
  S. The  name of a genus of animals of the order
Bellue.
  Equus asinus.   Tbe systematic name  of tbe ani-
mal called on ass; tbe female affords a light and nutri-
tious milk. See Milk, asses'.
  Era'nthemus.  (From np, the spring, and avBtuos,
a flower: so called because it flowers in the spring.)
A sort of chamomile.
  ERASIS'TRATUS.  A  celebrated Greek physi-
cian, said to have been born in the island nf Ceos, and
to have been the most distinguished pupil of Chrysip-
pus, of the Cnidian school.  He was the first, in  con-
junction with  Heropbilus, to dissect human bodies,
anatomy having  been before studied only in brutes;
but the Ptolemies having allowed them to examine
malefactors, they were enabled to make many impor-
tant discoveries.   Celsus notices a very improbable re-
port,  that  tbey opened  the bodies of  those persons
alive, to observe the internal  motions;  they  could
hardly then have maintained, that the arteries apd left
ventricle, do not naturally contain blood, but air only.
The works of Erasistratus, which were numerous, are
lost; but,  from the account of Galen, he  appears to
have  very accurately described the brain, which he
considered as  the common sensorium;  also tbe heart
and  large  vessels; and pointed out the office ofthe
liver and kidneys; but he supposed digestion perform-
ed by trituration.  He imagined inflammation and fe-
ver to arise from the blood  being  forced through the
minute veins into the corresponding arteries.  He was
averse to blood-letting, or  tbe use of active medi-
cines, but  sometimes employed  mild clysters; trusting,
however,  principally to abstinence, and proper exer-
cise.  Being tormented with an ulcer in the foot, at an
extreme old age, he is said to have terminated his ex-
istence by poison.
  Erate'va  marmelos.  This  plant, a  native of
several parts of India, affords a fruit about the size of
an orange, and covered  with a hard bony shell, con-
taining a yellow viscus pulp, of a most agreeable fla-
vour; which, when  scooped  out,  and mixed  with
sugar and oranze, is brought to  the  tables of the
grandees  in  India, who eat it as a great  delicacy.
It is  also esteemed as  a sovereign .remedy against
dysentery.
  Erbbi'ktbtc*,  EptSivBts.  The vetch.
  ERECTOR.  The name of several muscles, the
office of which is to raise up the part to which tbey ate
inserted.
  Erector clitoridis.  First muscle of the clitoris
of Douglas.  Ischio-cavernosus of Winslow, and /#-
chio-clitoridien of Dumas.  A  muscle of the clitoris
thaldtaus it downwards and  backwards, and serves
to make the body of the clitoris more tense, by squeez-
ing the blood into it from its crus.  It arises from
the tuberosity of the ischium, and is inserted into tbe
clitoris.
  Erector penis.   Ischio-cavernosus  of Winslow,
and  Ischio-cavcrneux of  Dumas.  A muscle of the
penis that drives the urine or semen forwards, and, by
grasping the bulb of the urethra,  pushes the blood to-
wards the corpus cavernosum and the elans, and thus
distends them.  It arises  from the tuberosity of the
ischium, and is inserted into tbe Bides of the cavernous
substance of tbe penis.
  ERECTUS.  Upright   Botanists  use  this to ex-
press the direction of the stem, branches, leaves, petals,
stamens,  pistils,  Sec.; as  Caulis  erectus, an uptight
stem, as  in Lysimachia  vulgaris;  folium  erection,
forming an acute angle with tiie  stem, as in Juncus
articulatus,  Sec.  The  petals  of  the [Brassica

  ERETHI'SMUS.   (From tptBtlia, to  excite or irri-
tate.)  Increased sensibility  and Irritability.  ll/i«
variously applied by modern writers.  Mr. Pearson
has described a state  of the constitution produced by
mercury acting on it as a poison.  He calls it the mer-
curial erithismus, and mentions  that it is characterized
by great  depression  of strength, anxiety about the
prtecordia, irregular action of the  heart, frequent sigh-
ing, trembling, a  small, quick, sometimes intermitting
pulse, occasional vomiting, a pale, contracted counte-
nance, a sense of coldness; but tlie tongue is seldom.
furred, nor are the vital and natural functions much'
disturbed.  In this state, any  sudden exertion will,
sometimes prove fatal.                            ,.
  Ergaste'rium.  (From cpyov, work.)  A labora-
tory : that part of the furnace in  wbich is contained)
the matter to be acted upon.
  ERI'CA.  (From cptixia, to break; so named from
iu fragility, or because it  u brqken into rods to make
besoms of.) The name of a genus of planU in tbe
Linurean system.  Class, Octandria; Order, Monogy-
nia.  Heath.
  Erice'rum.  (From tptixn, heath.)  A medicine in
which heath is an ingredient
  ERI'GERON.  (Hpiyep&iv, of the ancient  Greeks;
from «p the spring, and ytpiav, an  old man, because, ia
the spring, it  has  a  white,  hoary  blossom,  like tiie
hair of an old man.)  1. The name of  a genus ot
planU.  Class, Syngenesia;  Order, Polygamia <u-
perflua.
  2.  The common chick-weed is so called in old books.
See Senecio vulgaris.
  Erioerum.  See Senecio vulgaris.
  ERO'SION.  (Erosio;  from eredo, to gnaw off.)
This word is very often used in the  same sense as ul-
ceration, viz.  the formation of  a  breach or chain
in the substance of paru, by the  action of the abaoi-
benu.                                         ~
  EROSUS.  Jagged.  Aleaf is called folium eromm,
the margin of which is irregularly cut or  nytcj»i
especially when otherwise divided besides; asjrtjffc
necio squolidus.                                \*
  EROTIA'NUS,  the author of a Glossary, contain-
ing an explanation of the terms in  Hippocrates, lived
in the reign of Nero.  The work was primed at Ve-
nice, in 1566;  and  also annexed  to Foesius's Edition
of Hippocrates.
  EROTOMA'NIA.   (From tptos, love,  and uovia,
madness.)  That melancholy,  or madness, which  is
the effect of love.
  E'rpes.   (From epmo, to creep: so named from theis
gradually increasing in size.  See Herpes.
  ERRA'TIC.  (Erraticus; from  errs, to wander.l
Wandering; irregular. A term  occasionally applied
to pains, or any disease which is  not fixed, but moves
from one part to another,  as gout, rheumatism, ate.
  E'RBHINE.  (Errhinus; tpptva, from cv,  in, and
piv, the nose.)  By errbines are to be understood those
medicines  which, when topically applied to the inter-
nal membrane of the nose, excite sueeziug,  and  in-
cresu the tecretioff,  mdependent of any mechanical 
ERY
ERY
 Irritation.  The articles belonging to this class may be
 referred to two orders.
   1. Sternutatory errhines;  as nicotiana, hellcborus,
 euphorbium,  which  are selected  for the torpid, the
 vigorous, but not plethoric,  and those to whom  any
 degree of evacuation would  not be hurtful.
   ii. Evacuating errhines; us asarum, Sec. which are
 calculated tor the phlegmatic and infirm.
   ERROR LOCI.   Bocrhaave is said to have intro-
 duced this term, from the opinion that the vessels weVe
 of different sizes, for the circulation of blood, lymph,
 and serum, and that when  the larger sized globules
 were forced into the less vessels, they became ob-
 structed, by an error of place. But this opinion does
 not appear to be well-grounded.
   Eruca.  (From  erit^-o, to make smooth; so named
 from the smoothness of iu  leaves, or from tiro, to
 burn,  because  of its biting  quality.)   See Brassica
 eruca.
   Eruca byl'vestris. The wild rocket.  See Bras-
 sica eruca.
   ERUCTATION.  Belching.
   ERUPTION. Eruptio.   A discoloration, or spoU
 on the skin; as the eruption of  small-pox, measles,
 nettle-rash, Sec.
   Erutukma.  (From tpvBia, to  make red.).  A fiery
 red tumour, or pustules on the skin.
   E'RVL'M.  (Quasi arvum, a field, because it grows
 wild in the fields; or from eruo, to pluck out, because
 it is diligently plucked from com.} The tare.  1. The
 name or a  genus of plants  in tne  Linnaean system.
 Class, Diadelphia;  Order, Decandria.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of tare. See Ervum
 ervilla .
   Ervum  ervilia.  Orobus.  T;ne seeds of this plant,
 Ervum crvilia—germinibus undatoplicatis, foliis im-
 paripinnatis of Linmcus, have been made into bread
 in times of scarcity, which is not  the most salubrious.
 The meal was formerly among the resolvent remedies
 by Way of poultice.
   Ervum lens.  The systematic name of the  lentil.
 Lens.  4>a*oc of the Greeks.  Ervum—pedunculis sub-
 bifloris; scminibus compressis, convexis, of Linnaius.
 There  are two varieties; the one  with large, the other
 with small seeds.   They are eaten in many places as
 we eat pease, than  which they are more flatulent, and
 niore difficult to digest  A  decoction of these seeds is
 used as a lotion to the ulcerations after small-pox and,
 it is said, with success.
   ERYNGIUM.    (From  epuvyavco,   to  eructate.)
 Eryngo, or  sea-holly.  1. The name of a genus of
 planU  in  the  Linntean system.  Class  Pentandria;
 Order, Digynia.
   2. The pharniacopoeial name of the sea-holly.  See
 Eryngium mantimum.
   [" Erynoium aquaticum. Button snake-root. The
 Eryngium aquaticum is a native ofthe southern states.
 We are told in Mr. Elliott's  botany, that the root is of
' a pungent, bitter, and aromatic taste.  When chewed,
 it very sensibly excites a flow of saliva.  A decoction
 of it is diaphoretic and expectorant, and  sometimes
 proves emetic. It is preferred by some physicians to
 the Seneca snake-root, wbich it much resembles in iu
 effects."   A.]
   Erynoium campistrb.  The root of this  plant,
 Eryngium—foliis  radicalibus, amplexicaulibus, pin-
 nato-laneeolatis, of Linneus, is  used  in many places
 for that of the sea-eryngo.  See Eryngium.
   Ertnoibm maritimum.  The  systematic name of
 the sea-holly or eryngo. Eryngium—foliis radicalibus
 subrotundis, plicatis spinosis, capitulis pedunculatis,
 voids tricuspidatis, of Linneus.  The root of this
 plant is directed for medical use.  It has nq particular
 emell,  but to the taste it manrfesu a grateful sweet-
 ness ; and, on being chewed for some time, it discovers
 a light aromatic warmth or  pungency.  It was former-
 ly celebrated for IU supposed aphrodisiac powers, but
 it is now very  rarely employed.
   ERYNGO.  See Eryngium.
   Eryngo, sea. See Eryngium.
   Eryngo-leaved lichen.  See Lieften islandicus.
   ERY SIMUM.   (From tpvia, to draw, so called from
 ite power of drawing and producing blisters.  Others
 derive it from airo  rov tptixtiv, because the leaves are
 much  cut; others  from coitiwov, precious.)  1. The
 name  of a genus of planu in the Linnean system.
 Class, 7Wrooynamia; Order, Siliquosa.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the hedge-mustard
See Erysimum officinale.
  Erysimum alliaria.   The systematic  name  of
Jack-in-the-hcdge.   Alliaria; Chamaplion of Oriba-
sius.  Sauce alone, or stinking hedge-mustard.  The
plant to which this name is given, is the Erysimum
foliis cordatis, of Linnteus; it is sometimes exhibited
iu humid asthma  and dyspncea,  wilh  success.  Its
virtues are powerfully diaphoretic, diuretic, and anti-
scorbutic.
  Erysimum barbarea.   The systematic name  of
the barbarea of the shops.  The leaves of this plant,
Erysimum—foliis lyratis, extimc subrotundo  of Lin-
naeus, may be ranked among the antiscorbutics.  They
are seldom used in practice.
  Erysimum officinale.  The systematic name  of
the hedge-mustard.   Erysimum—siliquis spice ad-
pressis, foliis runcinatis, of Linneus.  It was former-
ly much used for its expectorant and diuretic qualities,
which are now forgotten.  The seeds are  warm and
pungent, and very similar to those of mustard in their
sensible effecu.
  ERYSIPELAS.  (From epuw, to draw, and oeAaf,
adjoining: named  from the neighbouring paru being
affected by  the eruption.)  Ignis sacer.  The rose, or
St. Anthony's fire.  A genus of disease in the class
Pyrexia, and order Exanthemata of Cullen.  It is
known by synocha of two or three days' continuance,
with drowsiness, and sometimes with delirium; pulse
commonly full and hard;  then erythema of the face,
or  some  other part, with continuance of synocha,
tending either to abscess or gangrene.  There are two
species of this disease, according to Cullen: 1. Erysi-
pelas vesiculosum, with large blisters:  2. Erysipelas
phlydenodes, the shingles  or an erysipelas with phlyc-
tsntE, or small blisters.
   This disease  is an inflammatory affection, princi
pally of the  skin, when it makes iu appearance ex-
ternally, and of the  mucous  membrane when it is
seated internally;  and is more liable to attack women
and children, and  those of an irritable  habit, than
those of a plethoric and robust constitution.
   It is remarkable that erysipelas sometimes returns
periodically, attacking the patient once or twice a year,
or  even once every month, and then by iu repeated
attacks it often gradually  exhausts the strength, espe-
cially if he be old and of a bad habit.
   When  the inflammation is principally confined to
the slcin, and is unattended by any affection of the sys-
 tem, it is then called erythema; but when the system
 is affected, it is named erysipelas.
   Every part of the .body  is equally liable to it, but it
 more  frequently appears on the face, legs, and feet,
 than any where else, when seated externally; and it
 occurs oftener in  warm climates  than phlegmonous
 inflammation
   It is brought on by all the causes that are apt to ex-
 cite inflammation, such as injuries of all kinds, the
 external application of stimulants, exposure to cold,
 and obstructed perspiration; and  it may likewise  be
 occasioned  by a certain matter generated within the
 body,  and thrown out on its surface.  A particular
 state of the atmosphere seems sometimes to render it
 epidemical.
   In slight  cases, where it attacks the  extremities, it
 makes iu appearance with a roughness, heat, pain, and
 redness of the skin, which  becomes pale when the fin-
ger is pressed upon il, and again returns to ite former
colour, when it is removed.  There prevails  likewise
 a small febrile disposition,  and tbe  patient is rather hot
 and thirsty.  If the attack is mild, these symptoms
 will continue only for a few days, the surface of the
 part affected will become yellow, the cuticle  or scarf-
skin will fall off in scales, and no further inconve-
nience will  perhaps be experienced; but if the attack
 has been severe, and the inflammatory symptoms have
 run high, then there will ensue pains in the head and
 back,  great  beat, thirst, and  restlessness; tiie pan
 affected will slightly swell:  the  pulse will  become
small and frequent; and about tbe fourth day, a num
 ber of little vesicles, containing a limpid, and, in some
 cases, a yellowish fluid, will arise.  In some instances,
 the fluid is viscid, and instead of running out, as gene-
rally happens when the blister is broken, it adheres to
 and dries upon tbe skin.
   In unfavourable cases, these blisters sometimes de-
generate  into obstinate ulcers, wbich now and then
                                        337 
ERf
ESS
become gangrenous.  This, however, does not happen
frequently; for although it is not uncommon for the
surface ofthe skin and the blistered places to appear
livid, or even blackish, yet this usually disappears with
the other symptoms.
  The period at which the  vesicles show themselves is
very uncertain.  The same may be said of the dura-
tion of the eruption.  In mild cases, it often disappears
 fradually, or U carried oft' by spontaneous sweating.
 a some cases  it continues, without showing any dis-
position to decline, for twelve or  fourteen days, or
longer.
  The trunk of the body is sometimes attacked  with
erysipelatous inflammation, but less frequently so than
the extremities.  It  is not uncommon, however, for
infante to be attacked in this manner a few days after
birth;  and in these it makes iu appearance about the
genitals.  The inflamed skin is hard, and apparently
very painful to  the touch.  The belly often becomes
uniformly tense,  and sphacelated spoU sometimes are
to be observed.  From dissections made by Dr. Un-
derwood, it appears, that in  this form of the disease
the inflammation frequently spreads to the abdominal
viscera.
  Another  species  of erysipelatous inflammation,
which most usually attacks the trunk of the body, is
that vulgarly known by the name of shingles, being a
corruption of the Frencii word cringle, which implies
a belt.  Instead of  appearing a  uniform  inflamed
surface, it consists of  a number of little pimples ex-
tending round  tlie body a  little above the umbilicus,
which have vesicles formed on them in a short time.
Little or no danger ever attends this species of erysi-
pelas.
  When erysipelas attacks the face, it comes on with
chilliness, succeeded by heat, restlessness, thirst, and
other febrile symptoms, with a drowsiness or tendency
to coma or  delirium, and  the pulse is very frequent
and full.  At the end of two or three days, a fiery red-
ness appears on some part of the face, and this extends
at length to the scalp, and then  gradually down the
neck, leaving a tumefaction in every part the redness
has occupied.  The whole face at length becomes tur-
 Sid, and tbe eyelids are so much swelled as to deprive
 le patient of sight  When the redness and swelling
have continued  for some  time,  blisters of different
sizes, containing a thin colourless acrid liquor, arise on
different paru of the face, and the skin puu on a  livid
appearance in  the blistered places; but in those not
affected with blisters, the cuticle, towards the close of
the disease, falls off in  scales.
  No remission of the fever takes place on the appear-
ance of the inflammation on the face;  but, on the con-
trary, it is increased as the  latter  extends, and both
will continue probably for the space of eight or ten
days.  In the course of the inflammation, the disposi-
tion to coma and delirir.in are sometimes so increased
as to destroy the patient  between the seventh and
eleventh days of  the disease.  When the complaint is
mild, and not leading to a  fatal event, the inflamma-
tion and fever generally cease gradually without any
evident crisis.
  If the disease arises in a bad habit of body, occupies
a part possessed of great  sensibility,  is accompanied
wilh much  inflammation, fever, and delirium, and
these take place at an early period, we may suppose
the patient  exposed  to  imminent  danger.   Where
translations of the morbid matter take place, and the
inflammation falls on either the brain, lungs, or abdo-
minal viscera, we may entertain the same unfavoura-
ble opinion.  Erysipelas never terminates in suppura-
tion, unless combined  with a considerable degree of
phlegmonous inflammation, which is, however, some-
times tbe case; but in a bad habit, it is apt to termi-
nate in gangrene, in  which case there will  be also
great danger.  When the febrile symptoms are mild,
and unaccompanied by delirium or  coma, and the in-
flammation does  not run high, we need not be appre-
hensive of danger.
  Where the disease has occupied the  face, and proves
fatal, inflammation ofthe brain, and iu consequences,
arc in some cases met with on dissection.
  The treatment of erysipelas must  proceed on the
antiphlogistic plan, varied  however in iu activity ac-
coiding to the type of the disease.  When it occurs in
robust plethoric constitutions, partaking of the phleg-
monous character, with severe synocha! fever, it will
      338
be proper to begin by taking a  moderate quantity of
blood, then direct cooling saline purgatives, antimonial
diaphoretics, a light vegetable  diet, Sec  When tbe
disorder attacks the face, it may be better to use cup-
ping behind the neck, and keep the  head  somewhat
raised.  But if the disease exhlbiu rather the typhoid
type, and particularly where there Is a tendency  to
gangrene, the  patient's strength must be lupporlcd:
after clearing out the prima} via;, and endeavouring  to
promote the other secretions by mild evacuanu, when
the pulse begins to fail, a more nutritious diet, with a
moderate quantity of wine, and  the decoction of bark
with sulphuric acid, or  other tonic medicine, may  be
resorted to; nay, even the bark  in substance, and the
more powerful stimulants, as ammonia, Sec. ought  to
be tried, if the preceding fall. Should the  inflamma-
tion, quitting the skin, attack an internal part, a blis-
ter, or some rubefacient, may help to relieve  the pa-
tient; and stimulants to the lower extremities will
likewise be proper, where the head is severely affected.
To the inflamed part of the skin,  applications must not
be too freely made:  where there is  much pain and
heat, cooling it occasionally, with plain water, is per-
haps best; and where an acrid discharge occurs, wash-
ing it away from time  to time with warm milk and
water.  Should suppuration happen, it  is  important
to make an early opening for the escape of tiie matter,
to obviate the extensive slough ings otherwise  apt to
follow, and where gangrene occurs, the fermenting ca-
taplasm may be applied.
  ERYTHEMA.  (From tpvBpos, red.)   Inflamma-
tory  blush.  A morbid  redness  of  ihe skin, as is ob-
served upon the checks of hectic patients alter eating. -
and the skin covering bubo, phlegmon, &c.        1*\
  Erythro'danum.  (From tpvBpos,  red: so caned
from the colour of iu  juice.)  See Rubia  tinctorum^^
  Erythroei'des.  (From tpvBpos, red, and eioac,!
likeness: so called from iu colour.)  A name given to
the tunica vaginalis testis.
  Erythro'nium.  (From tpvBpos, red : so called from
the red colour of its juice.)  A species of satyrion.   '
  [" Erythronium Americamum.  TheErythronium
Americanum is an emetic in its recent state; producing
vomiting in the dose of thirty or forty grains.   That
property is impaired by drying.   The affinity of tbfc
plant to Colchicum, and some others of known activlt'
renders it deserving  of further investigation.   Tj
bulbs should be dug when  the leaves  first appear,
fore flowering.  A pure fecula may be obtained t
them."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  Erythro xylum.  (From tpvBpos, red, and  tyXij,
wood: so named from iu colour.)  Logwood. See
Hamatoxylum.                               '  "•'
  E'rythrus.  (From  tpvBpos,  red:  so  named from
the red colour of iu juice.)  The sumach.  See Rhus
coriaria.
  E'saphe.  (From toadtato, to feel.)   The touch;  01
feeling the mouth of tiie womb, to ascertain iu con-
dition.
  E'SCHAR.   CKoxapa; from toxapota, to scab over.)
Eschara.  The portion of flesh  that  is destroyed by
the application of a caustic, and which sloughs away,
  ESCHARO'TIC.   (Escharoticus ; from toxapoia, It
scab  over.)  Caustic;  corrosive.  A  terra given by
surgeons  to those substances which possess a power of
destroying the texture of the various solid parts of the
animal body to which they are directly applied.  Tbe
articles of thU class of substances may be arranged
under two orders:
  1.  Eroding  escharotics;  as  blue vitriol,  alumen
ustum, Sec.
  2. Caustic escharotics; as lapis infernalis, argenti
nitras, acidum sulphuricum, nitricum, Sec
  ESCULENT. Esculentus.  An appellation  given
to such animals, fishes, and plants,  or any part of
them, that may be eaten for food.
  E'SOX.  The name of a genus of fishes.  Class,
Pisces; Order, Abdominales..
  Esox lucius.  The systematic name  of tbe pike
fish, from the liver of which in oil  is separated s|K>u-
taneousiy, which is termed, in some pharmacopoeias,
oleum  lucii piscis.  It it UNM) in some countries, by
surgeons, to destroy spoU ofthe transparent  cornea.
  ESSENCE.   Several of the  volatile or essential
oils are called by this name.
  ESSENTIAL.  Essentialis.   Something that Is ne
cessary to constitute a thing, or thai has  such  a con
 
ETH
ETM
Mxion with the nature of a thing, that is found wher-
ever tho tiling iUelf U; thus the heart, brain, spinal
marrow, lungs, stomach, &c. are parts essential to life.
  Iu natural  history, it is applied to those  circum-
stances which mark or dUtinguish an animal or plant
from all others in the same order or genus.
  Essk'ntial oil.   See Oil.
  E'SSERA.  (Easera, from Eshera,  an Arabian
word literally meaning papula.)  A species of cuta-
neous  eruption,  distinguished   by  broad,  shining,
smooth, red spots, mostly without fever, and differing
from the nettle-rash in not being elevated.  It generally
attacks the face and hands.
  Estiuomknos.  (From toBiia, to eat.)  A term for-
merly applied to any disease which rapidly destroyed,
or, as  ii were, ate away the Hesh, as some forma of
herpes, lupus, cancer.
  E'SULA.  (From esus,  eaten, because it  is eaten
by some as a medicine.) Spurge.
  EsuLA major.  See Euphorbia palustris.
  I'mila minor.  See Euphorbia cyparissias.
  ETHER.  See JEther.
  Ether, acetic. Acetic  naphtha. An ethereal fluid,
drawn  over from an equal admixture of alkohol and
acetic acid, distilled with a gentle heat from a glass
retort in a sand-bath  It has a grateful smell, is ex-
tremely light, volatile, and inflammable.
  Ether muriatic  Marine either.   Muriatic either
U obtained by fixing and  distilling alkohol with ex-
tremely concentrated muriate of tin.  It U stimulant,
antiseptic, and diuretic.
  Etuer, nitrous.   Nitric naphtha.  This is only a
stronger preparation than the spiritus retheris nitrici of
the London Pharmacopoeia; it is produced by the dis-
tillation of two parts of alkohol to one part and  a half
of fuming nitric  acid.
  Ether, sulphuric. See JEther sulphuricus.
  Ether, vitriolic  See JEther sulphuricus.
  ETHEREAL.  A term applied to  any highly rec-
tified essential oil, or spirit.  See Oleum athereum.
  Ethiops, antimonia.  See JEthiops antimonialis.
  Ethiops, martial.  The  black oxide of iron.
  Ethiops mineral.  See Hydrargyri sulphuretum ni-
grum.
   Ethiops per se.  Sec Hydrargyri oxydum cinereum.
  ETHMOID.  (Ethmoides; from cipuos, a sieve, and
uSos,  form: because it is  perforated  like a sieve.)
Sieve-like.
   Ethmoid bone. Os ethmoideum; os athmoides. Cri-
 briform bone.  A bone ofthe head.  This is, perhaps,
oneofthemostcurlousbonesofthe human body. Ilap-
pears almost a cube, not of solid bone, but exceedingly
light, spongy, and consisting of many convoluted plates,
which form  a net-work, like honey-comb.  It is  cu-
riously enclosed in the os frontis, between the orbitary
processes of that bone.  One horizonUil plate receives
the olfactory nerves, which perforate that plate with
such a number of small holes, that it resembles a sieve;
whence tbe  bone is named cribriform, or  ethmoid
bone.   Other plates dropping perpendicularly from this
 one, receive the divided nerves, and gave them an op-
 portunity of expanding into the organ of smelling; and
 these  bones, upon  which the olfactory nerves  are
 spread out, are  so much  convoluted as to extend  the
surface of this  sense very greatly,  and are named
spongy bones.  Another flat plate lies in the orbit of
the eye ; and being  very smooth, by the rolling of the
eye, it is named the os planum, or smooth bone.  So
that the ethmoid bone supporu the forepart ofthe brain,
receives the olfactory nerves, forms the organ of smell-
ing, and makes the chief part of the orbit of the eye;
and the spongy bones, and the os planum, are neither
of them distinct bones, but parts of this ethmoid bone.
   The cribriform plate  is exceedingly delicate and
thin;  lies horizontally over the root of the nose; and
 tills up neatly the space  between the two  orbitary
 plates of the frontal-bone.  Tbe olfactory nerves, like
 two small flat lobes, lie out upon this plate, and,  ad-
 hering to it, shoot down like many roou through this
 bone, so as to perforate it  with numerous small holes,
 as if it had been dotted with the point of a pin,  or like
 a nutmeg-grater.  This plate is horizontal; but iu
 processes are perpendicular,  one above, and  three
 below.
   1. The first perpendicular process is what is called
 arista galli; a small perpendicular projection, some-
 what like a cock's comb, but exceedingly small, stand-
ing directly upwards from the middle ofthe cribriform
plate, and dividing that plate into two; so that one ol-
factory nerve lies upon each side of the crista galli;
and the root of the falx, or septum, between the two
hemispheres of the brain, begins from tbis process.
The foramen ctecum, or blind hole of the frontal bone,
is formed partly by the root of the crista galli, which
is very smooth, and sometimes, it is said, hollow, or
cellular.
  3.  Exactly opposite this, and  in the same direction
with it, i. e. perpendicular to the ethmoid plate, stands
out the nasal plate of the ethmoid bone.  It is some-
times called azygous, or single process of the ethmoid,
and  forms the beginning of that septum, or partition,
which  divides the two nostrils.  This process is thin
but firm, and composed of solid bone; it is commonly
inclined a little to one side, so as to make the nostrils
of unequal size.  The azygous process is united with
the vomer, which forms the chief part of the partition:
so that the septum, or partition of the nose, consiste of
the azygous process of the ethmoid bone above, of the
vomer below, and of the cartilage in the fore or pro-
jecting part of the nose; but the cartilage roU away,
so that whatever is seen of the septum in the skull
must be part either ofthe ethmoid bone or vomer.
  2. Upon either side of the septum, there hangs down
a spongy bone, one hanging in each nostril.  They are
each rolled up like a scroll of parchment;  they are
very spongy; are covered with  a delicate and sensible
membrane; and when  the  olfactory nerves depart
from the clibriform plate of the ethmoid bone, they
attach themselves to the septum, and to these upper
spongy bones, and expand upon them so that the con-
volutions of these bones are of material use in expand-
ing the organ of swelling, and  detaining the odorous
effluvia till the impression be perfect.  Their convolu-
tions are more numerous in the lower animals, in pro-
portion as they need a more acute sense.  They are
named spongy or turbinated bones, from their convolu-
tions resembling the many folds of a turban.
   The spongy bones have a great many honey-comb-
like cells connected with them, which  belong also to
the organ of smell, and which  are useful perhaps by
detaining the effluvia of odorous bodies, and also by
reverberating the voice.  Thus, in a  common cold,
while the voice is hurt by an affection of these cells,
the sense of smelling is almost lost.
   4. The orbitary plate, of the ethmoid bone, is a
large surface; consisting of a very firm plate of bone,
of a regular square form: exceedingly smooth and
polished; it forms a great part of  the socket for the
eye, lying on iu inner  side.  When we see it in the
detached bone, we know it to be just the flat side of
the ethmoid bone;  but while it is incased in the socket
of the eye, we should believe it to be a small square
bone:  and from this, and from  its smoothness, it has
got  the distinct name of os planum.
   The cells of the ethmoid bone, which form so im-
portant  a share of the organ of smell, are arranged
in great numbers along the spongy bone.  They are
small  neat  cells, much like a honey-comb, and regu-
larly arranged in two rows, parted from each other by
a thin partition; so that the os planum seems to have
one set of cells attached to It, while another regular set
of cells belongs In like manner to  the spongy bones.
There are thus twelve in number opening into  each
other,  and into the nose.
   These cells are frequently the seat of venereal ulcers;
and the spongy bones are tbe surface where polypi
often sprout up.  And from the general connexions and'
forms  of the bone, we can easily understand how the
venereal ulcer, when deep in the nose, having got to
these cells, cannot be cured, but undermines all the
face; how the venereal  disease, having affected the
nose, soon spreads to the eye: and how even the brain
iuelf is  not safe.  We see the danger of a blow upon
the nose, which, by a force upon tbe septum, or middle
partition, may depress the delicate cribriform plate, so
as to oppress the brain with all the effecu of a  frac-
tured  skull, and without any operation  which  can
give relief.  And we also see  the danger of pulling
away polypi, which  are firmly attached to the upper
spongy bone.
   ETHMOIDES.  See Ethmoid bone.
   ETMULLER, Michael,  was born at Leipsic, in
1644.  He graduated  there at the age of twenty-four,
aftergolng through the requisite studies, and much im- 
EUD
EUD
 proving himself by travelling through different parts of
 Europe.  Eight years after he was appointed professor
 of botany in that University, as well as extraordinary
 professor of surgery and anatomy.  He fulfilled those
 offices with great applause, and his death, wlrch hap-
 pened in 16c)3, was generally regretted  by the faculty
 Of Leipsic.  He was * very voluminous writer, and
 his works were considered to have sufficient merit to
 be translated into most European languages.
  E'tron.  (From tSta, to eat, as containing the re-
 ceptacles of the food.)  The  hypogastrium.
  Eua'nthemum.   (From tv,  well, and avBtuos,  a
 flower: so named from  tbe beauty of iu flowers.)
 The chamomile.
  Eua'phium.   (From cv, well, and adm, the touch, so
 called because its touch was supposed  to give ease.)
 A medicine for the piles.
  EUCHLORINE.  See Chlorous oxide.
  Euclase.  The prismatic  emerald.
  Eudialite.   A brownish red-coloured mineral, be-
 longing to the tessular system of Molis.
  EUDIO'METER.   An  instrument by which the
 quantity of oxygen and nitrogen in atmospherical air
 can be ascertained.  Several methods have been em-
 ployed, all founded upon the  principle of decomposing
 common air by means of a body which has a greater
 affinity for the oxygen. See  Eudiometry.
  EUDIOMETRY.   The  method of ascertaining the
 purity of atmospheric air.
  No sooner was the composition of the atmosphere
 known, than it  became an inquiry of importance  to
 find  out a method of ascertaining, wilh facility and
 precision, the relative quantity of oxygen gas contained
 in a given bulk of atmospheric air.
  The instruments in which the oxygen gas of a de-
 termined quantity of air was  ascertained, received the
 name of Eudiometers, because they were considered
 as measures of the purity of air.  They are, however,
 more properly called Oximeters.
  The eudiometers proposed  by different chemisU, are
the following.
  1. Priestley's Eudiometer.—The first eudiometer was
 made in consequence of Dr. Priestley's discovery, that
 when nitrous gas is mixed with atmospheric air over
 water, the bulk of the mixture diminishes rapidly, in
consequence of the combination of the gus with the
oxygen ofthe air, and the absorption ofthe nitric acid
 thus formed by tlie water.
  When nitrous gas is mixed with nitrogen gas, no
 diminution takes place; but when it is  mixed with
oxygen  gas, in proper proportions, the  absorption  is
 complete.   Hence it is evident, tbat in all cases of a
 mixture of these two gases, the diminution will be pro-
 portional to tbe quantity of the  oxygen.  Of course it
 will  indicate the proportion of oxygen in air; and, by
 mixing it with different portions of air, it will indicate
 the different quantities of oxygen which they contain,
 provided the component paru of air be susceptible of
variation.
  Dr. Priestley's method was to mix together equal
bulks of air and nitrous gas in a low jar, and then
transfer the mixture into a narrow graduated glass tube
about tbree feet long, in order to measure the diminu-
tion of bulk.   He expressed this diminution by the
number of hundredth parts remaining.  Thus, suppose
 pe bad mixed  together equal  paru of nitrous gas and
 air, and that the sum total was 200 (or 2.00): suppose
 the residuum, when  measured in the graduated tube,
to amount to 104 (or 1.04),  and of course that 96 paru
of the whole had disappeared,  he denoted the purity
of the air thus tried by 104.
  This method of analyzing  air by means of nitrous
 gas is liable to many errors.  For the water over which
 the experiment is made may  contain more or less car-
 bonic acid, atmospheric air, or other heterogeneous
 substance.  The nitrous gas is not always of the same
 verity, and is partly absorbed by the nitrous  acid
 which is formed; the figure of the vessel, and many
 other circumstances are capable of occasioning con-
 siderable differences in the results.
  Fontana, Cavendish, Ladriani, Magellan, Von Hum-
 boldt, and Dr. Falconer, have made series of laborious
 experiments to bring the test of nitrous gas to a state
 of complete accuracy; but, notwithstanding the exer-
 tions of these  philosophers,  the methods of analyz-
 ing air by means of nitrous gas are Uable  to so many
 anomalies, tbat it is  unnecessary to give a particu-
 lar description of the different instruments Invented
 by them.
   2. Scheele's Eudiometer.—This is  merely a gradu
 ated glass cylinder, containing a given quantity of air,
 exposed to a mixture of iron filings and sulphur, formed
 into a paste with water. The .substances may be made
 use of in the following manner:
   Make a  quantity of sulphur in powder, and iron
 filings, into a paste with water, and place the mixture
 in a saucer,  or  plate, over water, on a stand raised
 above the fluid; then invert over ita graduated bell-
 glass, and allow  this to stand for a few days.  The
 air contained in the bell-glass will gradually diminish,
 as will appear from the ascent of the  water.
   When no further diminution takes place, the ves-
 sel containing the sulphuret must be removed, and tbe
 remaining air will be found to be nitrogen gas, which
 was contained in that quantity of atmospheric air.
  In this process, the moistened sulphuret of iron has
 a great affinity to oxygen; it attracts and separates It
 from the atmospheric  air, and  the nitrogen gas is left
 behind; the sulphur, during tbe experiment, Is con-
 verted into sulphuric acid, and the iron oxidized, and
 sulphate of iron results.
  The air which is exposed to moistened iron and sul-
 phur, gradually becomes diminished, on account of its
 oxygen  combining with a portion of the sulphur and
 iron, while iu nitrogen remains behind.  The quantity
 of oxygen contained in tbe air examined becomes thus
 obvious, by the diminution of bulk, which the volume
 of air submitted to examination has undergone.
  A material error to which this method is liable, Is
 that the sulphuric acid which is formed, acU partly on
 the iron, and  produces hydrogen gas, which joins to
 some of tiie  nitrogen forming ammonia; and hence it
 is that the absorption amounts in general to 0.27 parts,
 although the true  quantity of oxygen  is no more than
 from 0.21 to 0.22.
  3. De MartCs Eudiometer.—De Marti obviated the
errors to which the method of Scheele was liable.   He
availed himself, for that purpose, of an hydroguretted
sulphuret, formed by boiling sulphur and liquid potassa,
or lime water, together.   These substances, when
newly prepared, have the property of  absorbing a mi-
nute  portion of nitrogen gas; but they  lose this pro-
perty when saturated with that gas,  which is easily
effected  by agitating them for a few minutes in contact
with a small portion of atmospheric air.
  The apparatus  is merely a glass tube, ten  inches
long, and rather less than half an inch in diameter.
open at one end, and hermetically sealed at the other.
The close end is divided into one hundred equal parte
having an interval of one line between each division
The use of this tube is to measure the portion of ail
to be employed in the experiment.  The tube is filled
 wilh water; and  by allowing  the water to run out
gradually, while the tube is inverted, and the open end
kept shut with the finger, the graduated part is exactly
filled with air. These  hundredth parts of air are in-
troduced into a glass bottle, filled with  liquid sulphuret
of lime  previously saturated with nitrogen gas, and
capable of holding from two to four times the bulk of
ihe air  introduced.  The bottle is then to be closed
with a ground glass stopper, and agitated for fire mi-
 nutes.   After  this, tbe stopper is lo be withdrawn,
 while the mouth of the phial is under watert and, for
 the greater accuracy, it may be closed and agitated
 again.   Lastly, the air is to be again tranasamaVIo the
 graduated glass tube, in order to ascertain the diminu-
 tion of iu bulk.
  4.  Humboldt's  Eudiometer  consists  in decompos-
 ing a definite quantity of atmospheric  air, by means
 of the combustion of phosphorus, after whieb, the por-
 tion of gas which remains must be measured.
  Take a glass cylinder, closed at the top, and whose
 capacity must be measured into sufficiently small por-
 tions by a graduated scale fixed-on it   If tbe instru-
 ment be destined solely for examining atmospheric air,
 it will be sufficient to apply the scale from the orifice
 of the  cylinder down  to about half iu leagth, or to
 sketch that scale on a slip of paper pasted m the out-
 side of the tube, and to varnish it over wilh a trans-
 parent varnish.
  This half of the eudiometrical tube is divided imo
 fifty equidistant  parts, which In this case Indicate
 hundredth parts of the whole capacity of the  lnstra
 ment. 
EUD
EUG
  Into this vessel, full of atmospheric air, put a piece
of dry phosphorus (one grain to every twelve cubic
Inches), close it air-tight, and heat it gradually, first the
aides near the bottom, and afterward tbe bottom itself.
The phosphorus will take fire and burn rapidly.  After
every thing is cold, invert the mouth of the eudiometer-
tube into a basin of water, and withdraw the cork.
The water  will ascend in proportion to the loss of
oxygen gas the air has sustained, and thus iu quantity
may be ascertained.
  Analogous to this is,
  5. Seguin's Eudiometer, which consists of a glass
tube, of about one inch  in diameter, and eight  or ten
inches high, closed at the upper extremity.   It is filled
with mercury,  and kept inverted  in this fluid  in the
mercurial trough. A small bit of phosphorus is  in-
troduced into it, which, on account of its specific gravity-
being lesa than that of mercury, will rise up in it to
the top.  The phosphorus is then  melted by means of
a red-hot poker, or burning coal applied to the outside
of the tube.  When the phosphorus is liquefied, small
portions of air destined to be examined, and  which
have been previously measured in a vessel graduated
to the cubic inch, or Into  grains, are introduced into
the tube. As soon as the air which is sent up reaches
the phosphorus, a combustion will take place, and the
mercury will rise again.   The combustion  continues
till the end of the operation; but, for the greater exact-
ness, Seguin direcu the residuum to be healed strongly.
When cold, it is introduced into the graduated vessel
to ascertain its volume.  The difference of the two
volumes gives the quantity of the oxygen gas contained
in the air subjected to examination.
  6. Berthollet's Eudiometer.—Instead  of  the  rapid
combustion of phosphorus, Berthollet has substituted
iu spontaneous combustion, which absorbs the oxygen
of atmospheric air completely; and, when the quan-
tity of air operated on is small, the process is accom-
plished in a short time.
  Berthollel's apparatus consisu of a narrow graduated
glass tube,  containing the air  to be examined, into
which is introduced a cylinder, or stick of phosphorus,
supported upon a glass rod, while the tube stands in-
verted in water.  The phosphorus should be nearly as
long as the  tube.   Immediately after the introduction
of the phosphorus, white  vapours are formed  which
fill the tube; these vapours gradually descend, and  be-
come absorbed by the water.  When no more white
vapours appear, tbe process  Is at an end, for all the
oxygen gas wbich was present in the confined quantity
of air, has united with the phosphorus: the residuum
is the quantity of nitrogen of the  air submitted to ex-
amination.
  This eudiometer, though excellent of the kind, is
nevertheless not absolutely to be depended  upon; for,
as soon as the absorption of oxygen is completed, the
nitrogen gas exercises an action upon the phosphorus,
and thus iu bulk becomes increased. It has been  as-
certained, that the volume of nitrogen gas is increased
by l-40th part; consequently the bulk ofthe residuum,
diminished by l-40th, gives us the bulk of the nitrogen
gas of the air examined; which bulk, subtracted from
the original mass of air, gives us the proportion  of
oxygen gas contained in it.  The same allowance must
be made in the eudiometer of Seguin.
  7. Davy's Eudiometer.—Until very lately, the pre-
ceding processes were the methods of determining the
relative  proportions of the  two gases which compose
our atmosphere.
  Some of these methods, though very ingenious, are
bo extremely slow in their action,  that it is difficult
to ascertain the precise time at which the operation
ceases.   Others have frequently  involved inaccura-
cies, not  easily  removed.
  The eudiometer of Davy is not only free from these
objections, but  the result it offers  is always constant;
it requires little address, and is very expeditious; the
apparatus is portable, simple, and convenient
  Take a small glass tube, graduated into one hundred
equidistant parte; fill this  tube with the air to be ex-
amined, and plunge it into a bottle, or any other con-
venient vessel, containing a concentrated solution  of
green muriate or sulphate of iron,  strongly impreg-
nated with nitrous gas.  All that is necessary to  be
done, is to move the tube in the solution a little back-
wards and forwards;  under these  circumstances, the
•xygeii gas contained in the air will be rapidly ab-
sorbed, and condensed by the nitrous gas in the eola-
tion, in the form of nitrous acid.
  N. B. The state of the greatest absorption should
be marked, as the mixture afterward emiu a little gas
which would alter the result.
  This circumstance depends upon the slow decompo-
sition of the  nitrous acid (formed during the experi-
ment,) by the  oxide of iron, and  the consequent pro-
duction of a small quantity of aeriform fluid (chiefly
nitrous gas); which, having no  affinity with tbe red
muriate, or sulphate of iron, produced by the combi-
nation of oxygen,  is gradually evolved and mingled
with the residual nitrogen gas.  However, the nitrous
gas evolved might  be abstracted  by exposing the resi-
duum to a fresh solution of green sulphate  or muriate
of iron.
  The impregnated solution with green muriate, is
more  rapid in iu  operation than the solution with
green sulphate.  In cases when these salu cannot be
obtained in a state of absolute purity, the common sul-
phate of iron of commerce may  be employed. One
cubic  inch of moderately impregnated solution,  is
capable of absorbing five or six  cubic inches of oxy-
gen,  in  common processes;  but the  same  quantity
must never be employed for more  than one experi-
ment.
  In all these different methods of analyzing air, it is
necessary to operate on air of a  determinate density,
and to take  care that the residuum be neither more
condensed nor dilated than tbe air was when first ope-
rated on. If these things are not attended to, no de-
pendence whatever can be placed upon the result of
the experimente, how carefully soever they may have
been performed.  It is, therefore, necessary  to place
the  air,  before and after the examination, into water
of the same temperature.  If this, and several other
little circumstances, have been  attended  to, for  in-
stance, a change in the height of the  barometer, Sec
we  find that air is composed of about 0.21 of oxygen
gas, and 0.7!) of nitrogen gas by bulk.  But as the
weight of these two gases is not exactly the same, the
proportion of  the component parts by weight will dif-
fer a little; for as the specific gravity of oxygen gas is
to that of nitrogen gas  as 8 to 7 nearly, it follows that
100  parts of air are composed by weight of about 76
nitrogen gas, and 24 oxygen gas.
  The air of this metropolis, examined by means of
Davy's eudiometer, was found, in all the different sea-
sons of the year, to contain 0.21 of oxygen : and the
same  was the case with air taken at Islington and
Highgatc; in the solitary cells In Cold-Bath-Fields pri-
son, and on Ihe river Thames.  But the quantity of
water contained in a given bulk of  air from these
places, differed considerably.
  El'GALENUS, Severisus, b physician of Doccum,
in Friesland, known chiefly as the author of a Trea-
tise on the Scurvy, in 1604, which once maintained a
considerable  character:  but tiie  publication  of  Dr.
Lind, pointing  out his numerous errors, has entirely
superseded it.
  EUGENIA.  (So named by  Micheli, in compli-
,ment to  Prince Eugene of Savoy, who sent him from
Germany almost all the  planU described by Clusius.)
The name of a genus of planU in the Linnean sys-
tem.  Class, Icosandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  Eugenia caryophyllata.  The  systematic name
of the tree which affords the clove.   Caryophyllus
aromaticus.   It grows in the East Indies, the Moluc-
cas,  Sec.  The clove is  the unexpanded  flower,  or
rather the calyx; it has  a strong agreeable smell, and
a bitterish, hot, not very  pungent, taste. The oil of
cloves, commonly met wilh in the shops, and received
from  the  Dutcb, is highly acrimonious and sophisti-
cated.  Clove is accounted the hottest and most acrid
of the aromatics; and, by acting as a powerful stimu-
lant to the muscular fibres, may, in some cases of ato-
nic gout, paralysis, &c. supersede most others of the
aromatic class; and the foreign oil, by iu great acri-
mony, is also well adapted for several external pur
poses ; it is directed by several pharmacopoeias, and
the clove itself enters many officinal  preparations.
  Eugenia jambos.  The systematic name of  the
Malabar plum-tree.  The fruit smells, when ripe, like
roses.  On the coast of Malabar, where the trees grow
plentifully, these plums  are  in great esteem.  They
are not only eaten fresh off the trees, but ere preserved
in sugar, in order to have them eatable all the year.
    6                                   341 
                      EUP

 Of the flowers, a conserve is prepared, which is used
 medicinally as a mild adstringent.
  Euoe'us.  (From  cv, well, and yn, the earth: so
 called because of iu fertility.)  The uterus.
  EUKAIR1TE. A new mineral, composed of silver,
 selenium, copper, and alumina, found in the copper
 mine of Shrickerum, in Switzerland.
  Eu'le.   (From tvXa^io, to putrefy.)   A worm bred
 in foul and putrid ulcers.
  Eunu'chium.  (From twovxps, a eunuch :  so  call-
 ed because  it was formerly said to  render those who
 eat it impotent, like a eunuch.)   The lettuce.  See
 Lactuca.
  Eupatoriofha'lacrox    (From tvna"]iapiov,  agri-
 mony, and tfaXaxpos, bald.)  A species of agrimony
 with naked heads.
  EUPATO'RIUM.  (From Eupator,  iu discoverer:
 or quasi hepatorium, from nnap, the liver; because it
 was said to be useful in diseases of tbe liver.)  1. The
 name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean  system.
 Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the Eupatorium,
 See Eupatorium cannabinum.
  Eupatorium Arabicum.  See Eupatorium canna-
 binum.
  Eupatorium cannabinum.  The systematic name
ofthe  hemp  agrimony.  Eupatorium; Eupatorium
 arabicum.  The juice of this very  bitter and strong-
 smelling plant,  Eupatorium—foliis digitalis  of Lin-
nxus, proves-violently emetic and purgative, if taken
 in sufficient quantity,  and promotes the secretions
generally.   It is  recommended in dropsies, jaundices,
agues, Sec. and  is in common use in Holland among
 the loner orders, as a purifier of the blood in old ul-
cers, scurvy, and anasarca.
  Eupatorium mesues.  See Achillea ageratum.
  ["Eupatorium perfoliatum. Thoroughworl.  The
 Eupatorium perfoliatum is an indigenous vegetable,
growing in wet meadows throughout the United States.
 The whole plant is medicinal, but the leaves  and
flowers are  most active.  Tbe taste is  intensely bit-
ter, accompanied by a  flavour peculiar to the plant,
 but without astrmgency or acrimony.   A kind of ex-
tractive matter appears to contain iu  sensible  and
 medicinal properties, and of this water is an adequate
solvent.
  " The medicinal powers of this plant are, such as
 iu aensible  qualities would seem to  indicate, those of
 a tonic stimulant. Given in moderate quantities,either
 in substance, in cold infusion or decoction, it promotes
digestion, strengthens the viscera, and restores tone to
the system.   Like other vegetable bitters, if given in
large quantities, especially in warm infusion or decoc-
tion, it proves emetic, cathartic, and sudorific.  Evert
in cold infusion, it brings on diaphoresis more  readily
than most tonics.  It is an efficacious article in tbe
cure of intermittent^, and is  much  employed  for this
use in districts where fever and ague prevail.   Cures
effected by it appear to have been as speedy as those
from any ofthe medicines in common use.  Thorough-
wort has been/employed in small doses with benefit io
other febrile complaints attended with prostration of
strength in their advanced stages. Its action upon the
skin has acquired for it some confidence in the treat-
ment of cutaneous diseases.
  "As a tonic, twenty or thirty grains of the  powder
may be given in milk or wine, or two fluid ounces of
 the infusion.  When intended to act as an emetic, a
 strong decoction may be made from an ounce of the
plant in a quart of water boiled to a pint.  The decoc-
tion is a disagreeable, but popular and effectual medi-
cine in catarrhs, rheumatism,  and febrile attacks.  It
is powerfully emetic, cathartic, and  sudorific."—Big.
 Mat. Med.  A.]
  ["Eupatorium purpurecm. Gravelroot.  This  ia
 a taller plant than the species already cited. Its taste
Is bitter, astringent, and aromatic.  I am informed that
 it operates as a  diuretic, and is employed by different
country physicians as a palliative in dysury and calcu-
lous diseases."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  t" Eupatorium teucrium.  Wild hoarhound. Many
of the species of Eupatorium, which nearly resemble
Eupatorium perfoliatum, in botanical habit, are like-
wise similar to it in medicinal properties. The present
species is one of this kind.   It  is tonic, diaphoretic,
 and cathartic, and in small doses siu well on  the sto-
 mach.  It is extensively used in the southern states in
                      RUP

 the cure of fever and agu*."—Bigehv's .Valeria Ms-
 dica.  A.]              )
   [" Euphorbia ipecacuAnha.  Ipecacuanha spurge.
 This is a low tufted  plant, growing  native in sandy
 soils in the middle and fbulhern parts of the United
 States.  It was at one tiino supposed to be the plaol
 from which the officinal Ipecacuanha is derived.
   "The root is very larpa in  proportion to the plsnt,
 fleshy, irregular, and  broached.  When dried, It ii of
 a grayish colour outsideiand  white within.  It is light
 and brittle, without a ligneous  centre, and baa about
 the hardness of cork.   To the taste it is sweetish, and
 not particularly unpleasant.  It contains a tubstanco
 ofthe nature of caoutchouc, which is soluble in ether,
 and precipitated by alkohol; likewise resin, mucus,
 and probably fiecula.
   " Most of the species of the extensive genus Euphor-
 bia, are violent emetics and cathartics.  The lactescent
 juice, which  they exude when wounded, is acrid and
 virulent, so as to blister and  ulcerate the skin when
 externally applied.  Taken internally in large doses,
 they produce the violent symptoms which are common
 to other acrid narcotics.  The  Euphorbia ipecacuanha
 is milder in iu operation than many of the other spe-
 cies, and lias lately been  revived in practice as an
 effectual emetic.   With a view of becoming acquaint-
 ed with the mode of operation of this plant, I perform-
 ed u series of experimenU  on iu action, assisted by
 some medical gentlemen ofthe Boston Dispensary and
 Alms-house.   These trials have led to tbe conclusion,
 that this root, in doses of from ten to twenty grains, la
 both an emetic and cathartic; thai it Is more active
 than ipecacuanha,  in proportion  to the number of
 grains  administered; that in  small doses it operates
 with as much case as most emetics in a majority of
 instances.  If it fails, however, at first, it is not so safely
 repeated as many of the emetics in common use.  If
 accumulated  in the stomach to the amount of two or
 three scruples, it finally excites  active and long con-
 tinued vomiting, attended with a sense of heat, vertigo,
 indistinct vision, and  great prostration of strength.
 Iu operation seems exactly proportionate to the quan
 tity taken, and vomiting is not checked by Ihe powder
 being thrown off in the first efforts of the stomach.
  " From ten to twenty grains constitute  an emetic,
 to be given at once.  If this quantity fails to vomit, it
 generally purges.  It may be quickened by a Uttie tar-
 tarized antimony, but ought not  to be repealed to the
 amount of more than  twenty-five or thirty grains."—
 Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  EUPE'PSIA.  (From e«, well,  and jr«r7», to con-
 coct)  A good digestion.
  EUPEPTIC.   (Eupcpticus;  from cv,  good,  and
 jreir7<i>, to digest)  That which is of easy digestion.
  EUPHODITE.  A  species  of rock, composed  of
 felspar and diallage.
  EUPHORBIA.  The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnsan system.   Class, Dodecandria; Order,
 Trigynia.
  Euphorbia antiquorum.  The systematic name
 of a plant supposed to  produce the Euphorbium.
  Euphorbia canariensis.  In the Canary islands
 this species of spurge affords tbe gum euphorbium.
  Euphorbia cyparibbias.  Tbe systematic name of
 the cypress spurge.   Esula minor; Tithymalus cy-
parissius.  This, like most of tbe spurges, u very acri-
 monious, inflaming tlie eyes and oesophagus after
 touching them.  It is now fallen into disuse, whatever
 were its virtues formerly, which, no doubt, among
 some others,  was  that of opening tbe bowels, for
 among rustics, it was called poor man's rhubarb.
  [" Euphorbia corollata.  Large flowering spurge.
 The Euphorbia corollata is a  tall species with a five-
 rayed  umbel, and white flowers.   It grows iponta
 neously in dry fields from Pennsylvania to Carolina.
  " The soft brittle texture of the root, and iu sweetish
 taste, are similar to those of Euphorbia ipecacuanha
 Its chemical  constitution is nearly the same, except
 that the quantity  of  resin is apparently somewhat
 greater.
  " This is a very active medicine, of the evacuating
 class, operating in small doses  as a cathartic, and in
 large ones as  an emetic.  It has  been  thought to pos-
 sess about  twice the  strength of jalap.  It cxeru its
 cathartic efficacy in doses of less than ten grains, and
 if given to the amount of fifteen or twenty, it is as suie
 to vomit as  other common emetics  in their propei 
EUS
EVA
 3uantities.  The only inconveniences attending these
 nBes, which  have come to  my knowledge, are, that
when given in small quantities, for  a cathartic, it is
liable to produce nausea; and  in large ones, suitable
for an emetic, it has sometimes induced a degree of
hypcrcatharsis.  But similar inconveniences may oc-
cur from Jalap and tartarized antimony.  The effecu
which large doses of this root may produce on the ner-
vous system,  I have not had occasion to witness.  The
Euphorbia corollata, like many others of its genus, if
applied in a contused state to the skin, excites inflam-
mation and vesication.   Its volatile particles possess a
certain degree of virulence,  so that  inflammation of
the face  has been brought on by handling the root.  It
remains  to  be  ascertained whether the vesicating
powers of this and the other species are equally defi-
nite and  manageable, with those of the more common
epispastic substances."—Big-- Mat. Med.  A.]
   Euphorbia lathyris.    The systematic  name of
the plant which affords the less cataputia seeds.  Ca-
taputia  minor;  Euphorbia—umbella quadrifida, di-
chotoma, foliis  oppositis  integerrimis  of Linnreus.
The seeds  possess purgative properties; but if exhi-
bited  in an over-dose, prove drastic  and poisonous: a
quality peculiar to all the Euphorbia.
   Ei'piicirbia officinarum.  The  systematic name
 of the plant which affords the euphorbium in the
 greatest abundance.   Euphorbium  is an  inodorous
 gum-resin, in yellow tears, which  have the appear-
 ance of  being worm-eaten; said to  be obtained from
 several species of euphorbias, but principally from the
 Euphorbia officinarum; aeulatea nuda multangularis,
 arukis germ mat is of Liumcus: it  is imported from
 Ethiopia,  Libya, and  Mauritania.  It contains an
 active resin, and is  very seldom employed internally,
 but, as an ingredient, it enters into many resolvent and
 discutient plasters.
   Euphorbia palustris.  The systematic name of
 the greater spurge.  The officinal plant ordered by the
 name, Esula major, in some pharmacopoeias, is the
 Euphorbia palustris; umbella multifida, bifida, invo-
 lucellis  ovatis, foliis lanceolatis, ramis sterilibus of
 Linnatus.  The juice is exhibited in Russia as a com-
 mon purge;  and the plant  is given, in some places, in
 the cure of intermittenU.
   Euphorbia paralias.   Tithymalus paralios.  Sea-
 purge.  Every part of this  plant is violently cathartic
 and irritating, inflaming the mouth and fauces.  Il is
 seldom employed in the practice of this country; but
 where it is used, vinegar is  recommended to correct its
 irritaline power.                      .,_,_•
    EUPHO RBIOl.  (From Euphorbus, the physician
 of king Juha,  in honour  of whom it was named.)
 See Euphorbia officinarum.
    EUPHRA'SIA.   (Corrupted from  Euphrosyne,
 tvibpoovvri, from tvqipiav, joyful: so called because it
 exhilarates the spiriu.)              .
    1  The name of a genus of planU in the Linntran
  system. Class, Didynamia; Order, Angiospermia.
    2. The pharmacopceial  name of eye-bright,  bee
  Euphrasia  officinalis.       __
    Euphrasia  officinalis. The systematic name of
  the eye-bright.  This beautiful little plant, Euphrasia
  —foliis ovatis, lineatis, argute dentatis of Linneus,
  has been greatly esteemed by the common people, as a
  remedy for all diseases of the eyes; yet, notwithstand-
  ing this, and the encomiums of some medical writers,
  it is now wholly fallen into disuse.  It is an ingredient
  in the ISriti8h herb-tobacco.
    Eustachian tube.  Tuba eusluchiana. 1 he tube
  so called was  discovered by the great Eustachius.  It
  begins, one in each ear, from the anterior extremity of
  the tympanum, and runs  forwards and inwards in a
   bony canal, which terminates with the petrous portion
  of the tempo! al  bone.  It then goes on, partly cartila-
  ginous, and partly membranous,  gradually becoming
   larger, and at length ends  behind the soft  palate.
  Tbroti-h this tube the air passes to the tympanum.
    Eustachian valve,  bee Valvula Eustachtu
    EUSTACHIUS,  Bartholomew,  one of the most
   celebrated anatomists of tiie 16th century, was born at
   San Severino, in  Italy.   He studied at Rome,  and
   made  himself such a proficient  in anatomy, that he
   was chosen  professor of tbat branch of medicine
   there,  where  he died in  1574.   He was author of
   several works, many of which are lost, especially his
   treatise "De Controversiis Anatomicorum,  which h
much regretted.  He made several discoveries in ana-
tomy ; having  first described the renal capsules, and
the thoracic duct; also the passage from the throat te
the internal ear, named after him the Eustachian tube.
A series of copperplates, to which he alludes in his
" Opuscula," were recovered  by Lancisi,  and pub-
lished in  the  beginning  of the 18th century.   He
edited the Lexicon of Erotian with a commentary.
  Euthypo'ria.  (From Eufluc, straight, and iropoc, a
passage.)   Euthiporos.  An extension  made in a
straight line, to put in place a fracture, or dislocation.
  EVAPORA'TION.   A chemical operation usually
performed by  applying heat to any  compound  sub-
stance, in order to dispel the volatile parts.  " It  dif-
fers from distillation  in its object, which chiefly con
Bists in  preserving ihe more fixed matters, while the
volatile substances ore  dissipated and lost.  And the
vessels  are accordingly different; evaporation being
commonly made In open shallow vessels, and distilla-
tion in  an apparatus nearly closed from the external
  The degree of heat must be duly regulated in eva-
poration.  When the fixed and more volatile matters
do not greatly differ in their tendency to  fly off, the
heat must be very carefully adjusted; but  in other
cases this is less necessary.
  As evaporation consists in the assumption of the
elastic form, iu rapidity will be in proportion to the
degree of heat, and the  diminution of the pressure of
the atmosphere.  A current of air is  likewise of ser-
vice in this process.
  Barry has lately obtained a patent for an apparatus,
by which  vegetable extracts for the apothecary may
be made at  a very gentle heat, and in vacuo. From
these two circumstances, extracts thus prepared differ
from those in common use, not only in their physical,
but medicinal properties.  The taste and smell of the
extract of hemlock  made  in this way are remarkably
different, as is the colour both of the soluble and fecu-
lent parte.  The form of apparatus is as follows:— _
  The evaporaling-pan, or still, is a hemispherical dish
of cast-iron, polished on  ils inner surface, and fur-
nished with an air-tight flat lid.  From the  centre of
this a pipe rises, and bending like the neck of a retort,
it forms a declining tube, which terminates in a copper
sphere of a  capacity three (four-!) times greater  than
that of the still. There U a  stop-cock on  that  pipe,
midway between the still  and  the globe, and another
at the under side ofthe latter.
  The manner of setting it to work is this:—The juice,
or infusion, is introduced through a large opening into
 the polished iron still, which is then closed, made air-
 tight, and covered with water.  The  stop-cock which
 leads to the sphere is also shut.  In order to produce
 the vacuum, steam from a separate apparatus is made
 to  rush by a pipe through the sphere, till it has expelled
 all the air, for which five minutes are commonly suffi-
 cient.  This  is known to be effected, by the steam
 issuing  uncondensed.  At that  instant, the copper
 sphere is closed, the steam shut off, and cold water ad-
 mitted on ite external surface. The vacuum thus pro-
 duced in the copper sphere, which contains four-fifths
 ofthe air ofthe  whole  apparatus,  is now partially
 transferred to the still, by opening tbe intermediate
 stop-cock.  Thus,  four-fitths  of the air in  the still
 rush into the sphere, and the stop-cock being shut
 again,  a second exhaustion  is  effected  by steam in
 the same manner as the first was; after which a mo-
 mentary communication is again allowed between the
 iron still and the  receiver; by this means, four-fifths
 of the air remaining after the former exhaustion, are
 expelled. These exhaustions, repeated five or six times,
  arc usually found sufficient to raise the mercurial co-
  lumn to  the height of 28 inches.  The water-bath, in
  which the iron still is immersed, is now to be heated,
  until the fluid that is to be inspissated begins to boo
  which is known by inspection through a  window in
  the apparatus, made by fastening on, air-tight, a piece
  of very strong  glass; and the temperature at  which
  the boiling ppint is kept up, is determined by a ther-
  mometer.  £ouMition is continued until  the fluid is
  inspissated to the proper  degree of consistence, which
  also is tolerably judged of by iu appearance through
  the glass window.  The temperature of  the boiling
  fluid is usually about 100° F., but it might be reduced
  to nearly 90°.
    In the Medico-chirurgical Transactions for 181^
                                          J49 
EXA                                           EXC
(Vol. x.) there is a paper by J. T. Barry on a new me-
thod of preparing Pharmaceutical Extracts.  It con-
sists in performing the evaporation in vacuo.  For this
purpose he employed apparatus which was found to
answer so well, that, contemplating its application to
other manufacturers, he was induced to take  out a
patent for it, that is to say, for the apparatus.  As it
has been erroneously supposed that the  patent is for
preparing extracts in vacuo, it may not be improper to
correct the statement  by a  short quotation from the
above paper.   ' On that account, I have been  induced
to take out a patent for it (the apparatus).  It is, how-
ever, to be recollected by this society, that I have de-
clined having a patent for iu  pharmaceutical products
ChemisU, desirous of inspissating extracU in vacuo,
are therefore at liberty  to do  it in  any apparatus dif-
fering from that which has been made the subject of
my patent; and  thus these substances may continue
the object of fair competition  as to quality and price.'
  The apparatus combines two striking improvemenu.
The first consisu in producing a vacuum by the agency
of steam only, so that the use of  air-pumps  and tiie
machinery requisite for working them, is superseded.
  The other improvement is  a contrivance for super-
seding ibe injection of water during the process of eva-
poration in vacuo."
  Evergreen leaf.  See Sempervirens.
  Everriculum. (From everro, to sweep away.)  A
sort of spoon, used to clear the bladder from gravel.
  EXACERBATION.  (Exacerbatio; from exacerbo,
to become violent.)  An increase of the force  or vio-
lence of the symptoms of a disease.  The term is ge-
nerally applied to an increase of febrile symptoms.
  EXjE'RESIS.   (From  t\atptia,  to  remove.)   One
of tbe divisions  of  surgery adopted by the old sur-
geons ;  the term implies the removal of parts.
  Exa'lma.  (From t\aXX.opat, to  leap out.)  Hippo-
crates applies it to the starting of the vertebra; out of
their places.
  EXAMBLO'MA.   (From  tlap6Xoia, to miscarry.)
An abortion.
  EXAMBLO'SIS.  An abortion.
  Exanastomo'sis.  (From t\avaalop.oia, to relax, or
open.)  The opening of the mouths of vessels, to dis-
charge their contenu.
  EXANGIA.   (Exangia;  from  tl,  and avytiov, a
vessel.)  The  name of a genus;  class,  Hamatica;
order, Dysthetica, in Good's  Nosology.  It embraces
three species, Exangia  aneurisma, varix, cyania.
  EXANTHEMA.   (Exanthema, atis. n.; from t\-
avOtia, effioresco,  to effloresce, or break forth on a sur-
face-)  Exanthisma.  An eruption of the skin, called
a rasb.  It consisu of red patches on the skin, vari-
ously figured; in general confluent, and diffused irre-
gularly over tbe body, leaving interstices of a  natural
colour.  Portions of the cuticle are often elevated in
a rash, but the elevations are not  acuminated.  The
eruption is usually accompanied with a general disor-
der of the constitution, and terminates in a few days
by cuticular exfoliations.
  EXANTHEMATA.   (The plural  of  exanthema.)
The name of an order of diseases of the class Pyrexie
in Cullen's Nosology.  It  includes diseases, beginning
With foyer, and followed by an eruption on the skin.
  EXANTHEMATICA.  The name of  an order of
diseases, class, Hamatica, in Good's Nosology.  Erup-
tive fevers. It comprehends  four genera, viz. Exan-
thesis, Emphlyis, Empyesis, Anthracia.
  EXANTHESIS. (From el, extra, and avBtia, fioreo.)
The name of a genus of disease, class, Eccritica; or-
der, Acrotica, in Good's Nosology.  Cutaneous blush.
It affords only one species, Exanthesis roseola.
  Exanthi'sma.  See Exanthema.
  Exakthro'pia.  (From e!-, without, and avBptonos,
a man. i. e. having lost the faculties of a man.)  A spe-
cies of melancholy, in which the patient fancies him-
self some kind of brute.
  Exara'oma. (From tlpparjio, to break.) A fracture.
  Exa'rma.   (From i\aipta, to lift up.)  A tumour or
■welling.
  Exarte'ma.   (From t\ap7ata,  to  suspend.)  A
charm, hung round the neck.
  Exa&thre'ma.  (From tlapBpoio,  to  put  out of
oint.)  Exarthroma; Exarthrosis. A dislocation, or
uxation.
  Exarthro'ma. See  Exarthrema.
  Exaethko'sis. See  Exarthrema.
      344
  EXARTICULA'TIO.  (From ex, out of, and oric-
culus, a joint.)  A luxation, or  dislocation of a Inme
from iu socket.
  Exci'pulum.  (From excipio, to receive.)   A cliu-
mical receiver.
  EXCITABILITY.  Thatcondition of living bodies
wherein they can be made to exhibit the functions mid
phenomena which  distinguish  llicui from inanimate
mailer, or the  capacity of organized beings to be af-
fected by various  agents called exciting powers.
  Much confusion seems to have  arisen in  medical
controversies from tlie application of the word iiimuii,
to denote tiie means necessary to the support  of life:
and particularly by Brown,  in his celebrated attempt
to reduce the varied and complicated states of the sys-
tem lo ihe reciprocal action of the exciting  powers
upon the excitability.  By this hyjiothesis, instead of
regarding life  as a continued series of actions, which
cannot go on without certain agenu constantly minis-
tering  to  them, we arc to suppose a substance  or
quality, called exritability, which is superadded or as-
signed lo every being upon  tiie  commencement of iu
living state. The founder of the Brunonian school
considers that this substance or quality is expanded
by the incessant action of the exciting powers.  These
are—air} food, and drink, tbe blood and the secretions.
as well as muscular exertion, sensation, thought, and
passions, or emotion, or other functions of the system
iuelf; and  these powers, which exhaust the excitabi-
lity or produce excitement (according to  the language
of the school), are  strangely enough called  stimuli.
We are told, that it is in the due balance between the
exciting powers and the excitability that health con-
sists : for if the exciting powers  be in excess, indirect
debility is produced; and where, on the other hand,
the stimuli are deficient and the excitability accumu-
lated, there ensues a state of direct debility.
  EXCITATION.  (Excitotio;  from excito, to ex-
cite.)  The act of awakening, rousing, or producing
some power or action: thus  we say, the excitation of
motion, excitation of heat, excitation of  the passions,
&c.  In natural philosophy, it is principally  used in
the  subjects of action of living parts, and in electri
city and heat.
  EXCI'TKMENT.   According  to  the opinion of
Brown, excitement is the continual exhaustion of the
matter of life, or excitability by certain agenu, which
have received the name of stimuli or exciting powers
The due degree of this expension or excitement is the
condition necessary to health: the excessive action of
stimuli causing indirect debility and generating sthenic
diseases, while the opposite  state of deficient excite-
ment produces direct debility, and gives birth to asthe-
nic diseases: and death is said to result equally from
complete exhaustion of the excitability, and from total
absence of the exciting powers.   Excitement is in this
view equivalent to that forced state which is supposed
by tbe Brunonian school to constitute life.
  It has been objected to this hypothesis, that by sim-
plifying  too much the varied phenomena of  healthy
functions and of diseases, it necessarily classed toge-
ther conditions of the system which have been consi-
dered as widely different, and of opposite tendencies,
by the more patient observer.   And though gladly
caught at by many,  as pointing  out in a few  general
rules  tbe mode of cure in all diseases, namely, by re-
storing the proper equilibrium  between excitability
and the action of stimuli, the Brunonian  theories seem
now to be considered, by those who are  suspicious of
bold classifications, as an example of the observation,
" that the most ingenious way of becoming foolish ia
by a system ; and the surest way to prevent truth, u
to set up something in the room of it"
  EXCITING.  That which has the power  of im-
pressing the solids, so as to altar their action, and thus
produce disease.
  Exciting cause.   That  which,  when applied to
tbe body, excites a disease.
  EXCORIATION.  (Excoriatio; from exeorio, to
take off the skin.)   An abrasion of the skin.
  E'XCREMENT.  (Excrementurn; from excerno, to
separate from.) The alvine feces.
  EXCRESCENCE.  (Excrescentia; from excresco,
to grow from.)  Any preternatural formation of flesh,
or any part of the body, as wens, warts, Ac.
  EXCRETION.   (Excrdio; from excerno, to sepa-
rate from.)   This  term is applied to the separation ot 
EXP
EXP
those fluids from the blood of an animal, that are sup-
posed to be useless, as the urine, perspiration, and
alvine feces.  The process is  the same with that of
secretion, except with the alvine fasces;  but the term
excretion is applied to those substances which, when
separated from the blood, are not applied to any useful
purposes in the animal economy.
  EXCRETORY.   (Exeretorius;  from excerno, to
purge, sift, &.c.)  This name ia applied to certain little
ducu or vessels in the fabric of glands; thus tiie tubes
wbich convey the secretion out of the testicle into the
vesicula- seminoles are called the excretory ducts.
  EXERCISE.  See^ora.
  EXFOLIATION.  (Ezfoliatio ;  from exfolio, to
cast the leaf.)  The separation of a dead  piece of bone
from the living.
  Exfoliati'vum.  (From  exfolio, to shed tbe  leaf.)
A raspatory,  or instrument for scraping exfoliating
portions of bone.
  Exi'scmos.  (From t\, out  of, and toxtov, the is-
chium.) A luxation of the thigh-bone.
  Exitu'ra.  (From ezeo, to come from.)  A running
abscess.
  E'xitus.  (From ezeo, to come out.)  A prolapsus,
or falling down of a part of tiie womb or  bowel.
  E'xochas.  (From t\ta, without, and tx<a, to have.)
Exoche. A tubercle on the outside of the anus.
  E'xoche  See Exochas.
  Exocy'ste.  See Exocystis.
  Exocv'stis.  (From t\ia, without, and ittie-ic, the
bladder.)   Exocysle.  A prolapsus of  tbe inner mem-
brane of the bladder.
  EXO'MPHALUS.  (From e$, out, and opibaXos, the
navel.)   Exompkolos.   An umbilical hernia.   See
Hernia umbilicalis.
  Exoncho'ma.  (From t\, and oyx»S, a tumour.)  A
large prominent tumour.
  EXOPHTHA'LMIA.  (From e?, out, and ocbdaXpos,
the eye.)  A swelling or protrusion of the bulb of the
eye, to such n degree that the eyelids cannot cover it.
It may be caused  by inflammation, when it is termed
exophthalmia inflammatoria; or from a  collection of
pus in the globe of tbe eye, when it is termed the ex-
ophthalmia purulenta; or from a congestion of blood
within the  globe of the eye, exophthalmia sanguinea.
  EXORMIA.  (Etypiiia;  from  ctyppaw, to break
out) The name of a genus of disease, class, Eccri-
tica; order, Acrotica, in Good's Nosology. Papulous
akin. It has  four species,  viz. Exormia strophalus,
lichen, prurigo, milium.
  EXOSTOSIS.   (From  e?, and oaltov, a bone.)
Hyperostosis.  A morbid enlargement, or hard tumour
of a bone.  A genus of disease arranged by Cullen in
the class Locales,  and order  Tumores.  The bones
most frequently affected with exostosis, are those of
the cranium, the lower jaw, sternum, humerus, radius,
ulna, bones ofthe carpus, the femur, and tibia. There
is, however, no bone of the body which may not be-
come the seal of this disease.  It is not uncommon to
find the bones of the cranium affected with exostosis,
in their whole extent.  The ossa porietalia sometimes
become an inch thick.
  The exostosis, however, mostly rises from the sur-
face ofthe bone, in the form of a hard round tumour;
and venereal exostoses, or nodes, are observed to arise
chiefly on  compact bones,  and such of  these as are
only superficially covered with soft parts; as, for in-
stance, the bones ofthe cranium, and the front surface
ofthe tibia.
  EXPANSION.  The inctease of surface, or of bulk,
to which natural bodies are susceptible.
  EXPE'CTORANT.   (Expectorans;  from expec-
toro, to  discharge from the  breast.)  Those medicines
which increase the discharge of mucus from the lungs.
The different articles referred to ibis class may be di-
vided into the  following orders:
  1. .Vauscating expectorants;  as squill, ammonia-
cum, and garlic, which are to be preferred for the aged
and phlegmatic.
  2.  Stimulating expectorants; as marrubium, which
is adapted to the young and irritable, and those easily
affected  by expectorants.
  3. Antispasmodic expectorants; as vesicatories, pe-
diluviiuu, and  watery vapours: these  are best calcu-
lated for tiie plethoric and irritable, and those liable to
spasmodic affections.
  1. Iiritating expectorants; as fumes of tobacco and
acid vapours. The constitutions to which these are
chiefly adapted,  are those past the period of youth,
and those in whom there are evident marks of torpor,
either in the system generally, or in the lungs in par-
ticular.
  (These are remedies which promote, or are adminis-
tered to facilitate the discbarge from the lungs both by
secretion or expectoration.
  This secretion is of two kinds, first the Halitus or
watery vapour, and secondly the Muscus or slime.  In
cases of disease there are other secretions, or rather
fluids to be excreted; such as,
  1. Blood or sanguineous mixtures.
  2. Pus or purulent mixtures.
  3. Lymphatic or coagulated films, as in croup
  4. Stony or calculous concretions.
  5. Hydatids.
  There may be too little vascular or grandular action
in consequence of which the organ of respiration may
be too dry, or secrete less than it ought; and also there
may be too little power to throw out the secreted mat-
ter!.  Under the title  therefore of Expectorants, are
comprehended all the remedies which promote secre-
tion or excretion  in the lungs.
  Respiration may be considered as a  perspiratory
function, and acting in conjunction with,or vicarious to,
the skin, and as  having also a  somewhat to perforin
analogous to the alimentary canal.  For which pur-
pose the lungs and intestines may be strictly and prd
perly considered  as external surfaces.
  When the pulmonary and bronchial vessels are con-
sidered as to the  amount of blood they convey, the im-
portance of the function, the proximity of the heart,
the frequency and seriousness of the diseases to which
the lungs are subjected, it will be evident tbat this class
of remedies is worthy of being well understood.
  The function of respiration in my view has an ana-
logy to respiration.
  Remedies therefore  which determine tbe fluids to
the skin, or excite the cuticular surface to secretory
action, may be considered as almost pari passu en-
couraging pulmonary exhalation.  This argument de-
rives force from the common remark of the suppressed
perspiration falling upon the lungs.  There is no doubt
that the pulmonic  surface and  the cuticular surface
(both of which are to be considered as external) are
frequently  both disordered at once.   But the true in-
terpretation probably is, that tbe lungs do not suffer in
consequence of the fluids repelled from the skin, but
from the same cause which disturbs tiie skin:  the
cold, for example, which acts injuriously  upon  the
former, produces a like mischief in tiie latter.  They
are cutaneous disorders, and are to be removed as far
as  the restoration of  their respective secretions  are
concerned by corresponding means.
  1 therefore class Sudorific* among the expectorants.
  Emetics are to be placed in the same class, and for a
very good reason.  Tbeir action in inverting the mo-
tion of the stomach is favourable to the excretion of
fluids from the trachea and  bronchia;, as weU as from
the stomach and  fauces.   This may be explained from
tbe action  of the belly, tbe diaphragm, and intercos-
tals, and the compression they  make upon the chest,
and forcing out iu contenu.   The same solution-seems
to apply, at least as far as secretion goes, to the opera-
tion of nauseating doses. Upon the same principle
that they relax tiie skin, they  relax the pulmonary
surfaces.
  Some expectoranU are directly applied to the lungs;
among which are,
  1. Warm air, of a thermometric temperature to suit
the patient's case.
  2. Respirable air, medicated by carbonic acid to dimi-
nish its too stimulant quality.
  3. Respirable air, quickened by a mixture of oxyge-
nous gas to excite tiie bronchia; and rouse them from
torpor.  The same may be done by ether.
  4. Airqualified and tempered by the vapour of water
and infused herbs, as in Mudges inhaler.
  5. Teas and medicated drinks, sipped slowly, and
swallowed gradually, so that a portion of their vapour
may enter the trachea with tlie breath.
  6. Dry fumes,  as those of tobacco, stramonium,
&c," a part of which undoubtedly  enters the trachea,
and cannot be excluded, as of cinnabar, frankincense,
Sec.
  7. A medicated atmosphere, into which the odours 
EXT
EXT
of planU and  flowers, as of geraniums and oranges,
or of gums and drugs, «uch as camphor and musk, may
be set loose and mingled.
  Other expectorants act upon the mouth and fauces
by virtue of the sympathy between those parts and the
lungs; such as,
  1 Saccharine  substances,  as honey,  Ryrups,  dry
sugars and their lozenges, liquorice, Sec.
  2. Mucilaginous substances,  as gum arabic, gum tra-
gacanth, Sec
  Others again act through the medium of the  sto-
mach, as any of the before-mentioned substances when
they are swallowed, and others bringing the lungs by
consent into a relaxed and expectorating state.
  The rules recommended  in the administration of
expectorants may be reduced to two.
  1. To keep the patient in a warm and  comfortable
temperature.
  2. To avoid the administration of such cathartics as
seem to act contrariwise to expectorants.  Can they
not however he so employed as to supersede expecto-
rants to a certain degree 1
  Excessive expectoration  will  frequently  require
your interposition, as,
  1. In catarrhal affections of  the chronic kind, where
the secreted mucus must be evacuated by hawking or
coughing; and the quantity of slime in chronic cases
is very considerable. The disease is troublesome,  and
sometimes ends in hemoptysis or phthisis.
  2. In phthisis pulmonalis; in  which the excretion
of mucus, pus, Sec is one of the most distressing
symptoms,  and thus often without vomica or ulcera-
tion.
  3. In occasional rushes or determination of fluids
to the trachea  and bronchia, where prodigious quan-
tities of slime are effused and excreted, with great ex-
ertion and straining.
  The course of proceeding in each case will depend
upon the particular state of the constitution, the idio-
syncrasy of the patient, the acquired habits of living
and physicking; and the connexion of this particular
symptom, with the  other symptoms of the  dominant
malady.
  The following are the principal of the expectoranU:
1. Lichen islandicus,  Iceland moss. 2.  Glycyrrhiza
glabra, Liquorice.   3.  Mimosa nilotica, Gum arabic.
I. Ulmus aspera, Slippery elm.  5. Heracleum gum-
mosiferum, Gum ammoniac.   6.  Scilla  maritiina, the
Squill.  7. Allium sativum, Garlic.  8.  Ferula, Assa-
rbjtida.  9.  Arum tryphillum, March turnip.  10. Poly-
gala Senega, Seneca  snakeroot.  11.  Carbonate of
ammonia.  12. Carbonate of  potash.  13. Carbonate
of soda.  14. Colchicum-autumnale or meadow  saf-
fron.  15. Balsams of  Tolu, Capivi, &c.  16.  Inhala-
tions of water, vinegar, medicated infusions.  1W Sy-
rups and saccharine compositions, as honey  and vine-
gar, molasses  and  vinegar,  Sec.—Notes from  Dr.
Mitchill's Led. on Mat. Med.  A ]
  EXPERIENCE.  A kind of knowledge acqu ired by
long use, without any teacher.  Experience consists in
the ideas of things we have seen or read, which the
judgment has reflected on, to form for itself a rule or
method.
  EXl'ERS.  Wanting; destitute. The trivial name
of some  diseases;  as  dipsosis expers,  in which the
thirst is wanting.
  EXPIRATION.  (Expiratio;  from expiro, to
breathe.)  That part of respiration in which the air is
thrust out from the lungs.  See Respiration.
  Expressed oil.  Such oils as are obtained by press-
ing the substance containing them; as olives, which
give out olive oil, almonds, &c.
  Exsucca'tto.  (From ex, out  of, and  succus,  hu-
mour.)  An ecchymosis, or extravasation of humours,
under the integuments.
  EXTENSOR.  (From extendo, to stretch out.)  A
term given to  those muscles, the office of which
is to  extend any  part;  the term is  in opposition to
flexor.
  Extensor brevis dioitorum  pedis.  A  muscle
of the toes, situated on  the foot  Extensor brevis, of
Douglas.  Calcano phalanginien commune, of Dumas.
It arises fleshy and'tendinous from the fore and upper
pari ofthe os calcis, and soon forms a fleshy belly, di-
visible into four portions,  which send off an equal
number of tendons that pass over the upper part ofthe
foot, under the tendons of the  extensor  longus digito-
      346
rum pedis, to be inserted into iu tendinous expansion.
Iu office is to extend the toes.
  Extensor carpi radialis brevior.  An extensor
muscle of the wrist, situated on the forearm.  Radialis
externus brevior, of  Albinus.   Radialis secundus, of
Winslow.   It arises tendinous from the external con-
dvle of the humerus, and from the ligament that con-
ntcu the radius to it, and runs along the ouuideof the
radius.  It is inserted by a long tendon into the upper
and back part of the metacarpal bone of  the middle
finger.   It assists in extending and bringing the  hand
backward.
  Extensor carpi radialis lonoior.  An extensor
muscle of tbe carpus, situated on the forearm, that acu
in conjunction wilh  the  former.  Radialis externus
longior, of Albinus.   Radialis externus  primus, of
Winslow.   It arises thin,  broad, and fleshy, from the
lower part of the external ridge of the os humeri, above
iu external condyle, and is inserted by a round tendon
into the posterior and upper part of  tlie  metacarpal
bone that sustains the forefingers.
  Extensor carpi ulnaris.   Ulnaris externus, ot
Albinus and Winslow.   It arises from the outer con-
dyle ofthe os humeri, and then receives an  origin from
the edge ofthe ulna: iu tendon passes in a groove be-
hind the styloid process of the ulna, to be inserted into
the inside of the basis of the metacarpal bone of the
little finger.
  Extensor digitorum communis.   A muscle situ-
ated on the forearm, that extends all tlie joints of the
lingers.  Extensor digitorum  communis  manus, of
Douglas and Winslow.   £i(ewsor digitorum commu-
nis, seu digitorum tensor, of Cowper, and Epichon-
dylo-suspha-langettien commune, of Dumas.  Cum ex-
tensors proprio  auricularis,  of  Albinus. It arises
from the external protuberance of the humerus: and
at the wrist it divides  into three flat  tendons, which
pass under  the annular ligament, to be  inserted into
all the bones ofthe fore, middle, and ring fingers.
  Extensor dioitorum  lonous.  See Extensor Ion
gus digitorum pedis.
  Extensor indicis.   See Indicator.
  Extensor lonous dioitorum pedis.  A muscle
situated on  the leg, that extends all the joinU of the
four small toes.  Extensor digitorum longus.  Pcro-
neo-tibisus-phalangitlien  commune, of  Dumas.   It
arises from the upper part of the tibia and fibula, and
tiie interosseous ligament; iu tendon passes under the
annular ligament, and  then divides into five, four of
which are  inserted  into  the  second  and third pha
langes of the toes, and the fifth goes to the  basis of the
metatarsal  bone.  This last, Winslow reckons a dis-
tinct muscle, and calls it Peroneus brevis.
  Extensor lonous pollicis pedis.  See Extensor
proprius pollicis pedis.
  Extensor magnus.  See Gastrocnemius internus.
  Extensor major pollicis manus.  See Extensor
secundi internodii.
  Extensor minor pollicis manus.  See Extensor
primi internodii.
  Extensor ossis metacarpi  pollicis manus. An
extensor muscle of the wrist, situated  on the forearm.
Abductor longus pollicis manus, of Albinus. Extensor
primi internodii, of Douglas.   Extensor primus polli-
cis, of Winslow.   Extensor primi internodii pollicis,
of Cowper.  Cubito-radisus metacarpien du pouce, of
Dumas.  It arises fleshy from the middle and posterior
part of the ulna, from the posterior part of the middle
ofthe radius, and from the interosseous ligament, and
is inserted into the os trapezium, and upper part ofthe
metacarpal bone of the thumb.
  Extensor pollicis primus.  See Extensor primi
internodii.
  Extensor pollicis secundus.  See Extensor se-
cundi internodii^
  Extensor primi  internodii.   A  muscle of the
thumb situated on the hand, that extends the first bone
of the  thumb obliquely  outwards.   Ertensor minor
pollicis manus of Albinus. This muscle, and the Ex-
tensor ossis metacarpi pollicis manus, are  called Ex-
tensor pollicis primus by Winslow; Extensor secundi
internodii by Douglas; Extensor secundi internodii oa-
sis pollicis of Cowper. Cubito-susphalangien dupoucs
of Dumas.  It arises fleshy from the posterior pan of
the ulna, and  from the interosseous ligament, and U
inserted tendinous into the posterior part of the first
bone of tbe thumb. 
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  Extensor proprius pollicis pedis.  An exterior
muscle of the great toe, situated on the foot.  Extensor
longus  of  Douglas.   Extensor pollicis longus  of
Winsiow and Cowper.  Peronco  susphalangien  du
pouce of Dumas.  It arises by an acute, tendinous, and
fleshy beginning, some way below the head,  and ante-
rior part of the fibula, along which it runs to near iu
lower extremity, connected to it by a number of fleshy
fibres, which descend  obliquely, and form a tendon,
which is inserted into the posterior part of the first and
last joint of the great toe.
  Extensor secundi internodii.   A muscle of the
thumb, situated on the hand, that extends the lost joint
of the thumb obliquely backwards.  Extensor  major
pollicis manus of Albinus.  Extensor pollicis secundus
of Winslow.   Extensor tertii  internodii  of Douglas.
Extensor internodii ossis pollicis of Cowper.  Cubito
susphalangdtien du pouce of Dumas.  It arises tendi-
nous  and fleshy from the middle part of the ulna, and
interosseous ligament; it then forms a tendon, which
runs through a small groove at the inner and back part
of the radius, to be  inserted into the last  bone of the
thumb.   Iu use is to  extend the last phalanx of the
thumb obliquely backwards.
  Extensor secundi internodii indicis proprius.
See Indicator.
  Extensor  tarsi minor.  See Plantaris.
  Extensor  tarsi buralis.   See Gastrocnemius
internus.
  Extensor tertii internodii indicis.  See Prior
indicis.
  Extensor tertii internodii minimi dioiti. See
Abductor minimi digiti manus.
  Externus  mallei.   See Laxator tympani.
  EXTIPULATUS.  Without stipulas.  A  botanical
term.  Applied to stems.
  EXTIRPATION.   (Exlirpatio; from extirpo, to
eradicate.)  The complete  removal or destruction of
any part, either by cutting instrumenu, or the action of
caustics.
  E'XTRACT.  Extractum.  1. When chemiste use
this term, they generaUy mean the product of an aque-
ous decoction.
  2. In pharmacy it includes all those preparations from
vegetables which are separated by the agency of various
liquids, and afterward obtained from such solutions, in
a solid state, by evaporation of the menstruum.   It
also includes those substances which are held in solution
by the natural juices of fresh plants, as well as those
to which some menstruum is added at Ihe time of pre-
paration.  Now, such soluble matters are various, and
mostly complicated; so that chemical accuracy is not
to be  looked for in the application of the term.  Some
chemisu, however, have affixed this name  to  one pecu-
liar modification of  vegetable matter, which  has been
called extractive, or extract, or extractive principle;
and, as  this forms one constituent part of  common ex-
tracu, and possesses certain characters, it will be proper
to mention  such of them as may influence its pharma-
ceutical  relations.  The extractive  principle  has a
strong taste, differing in different planU: it  is soluble in
water, and  ite solution speedily runs into a state of pu-
trefaction, by which it is destroyed.  Repeated evapo-
rations and solutions render it at last insoluble,  in con-
sequence of  iu  combination with oxygen  from the
atmosphere.  It is soluble in alkohol, but  insoluble in
tether.   It unites with alumine, and  if  boiled with
neutral salu thereof, precipitates them.  It precipitates
with strong acids, and with the oxides from solutions
of most metallic salu, especially muriate of tin.  It
readily unites with' alkalies, and forms compounds with
them, which are soluble in  water.  No part, however,
of this subject has been hitherto sufficiently examined.
  In  the preparation of all the extracu, the London
Pharmacopoeia requires that the water be evaporated
as speedily as possible, in  a broad, shallow dish,  by
means of a water-bath, until they have acquired a con-
sistence proper for making pills: and, towards the end
ofthe inspissation, that they should be constantly stirred
with a wooden  rod. These general rules require mi-
nute  and accurate attention, more particularly in the
immediate  evaporation of the  solution, whether pre-
pared by expression  or decoction, in tbe manner as well
as the degree of heat by which it is performed, and the
promotion  of it by  changing the surface by constant
stirring, when the liquor begins to thicken,  and even by
directing a strong current of air over iu surface, if it
can conveniently be done.  It is impossible to regulate
the temperature over a naked fire, or, if it be used, to
prevent the extract from burning; the use of a water-
bath is, therefore, absolutely necessary, and not to  be
dispensed withjUnd the beauty and precision of extractt
so prepared, will demonstrate their superiority.
  EXTRACTION.    (Extraclio;  from extraho,  to
draw out.)  The taking extraneous substances out of
the body.   Thus bullets and splinters are said  to  be
extracted from wounds; stones from the urethra,  or
bladder.   Surgeons  also sometimes apply the  term
extraction to the removal of tumours out of cavities,
as, for  instance, to the taking of cartilaginous tumours
out of the joints.  They seldom speak of extracting
any diseased original part of tlie body; though they do
bo in one example, viz. the cataract.
  EXTRACTIVE.     See Extract.
  EXTRA'CTUM.   (From extraho, to draw out.)
An extract.  See Extract.
  Extractum aconiti.  Extract of aconite.   Take
of aconite leaves, fresh, a pound;  bruise them in a
stone mortar, sprinkling on a little water; then  press
out the juice,  and, without any separation of the sedi-
ment, evaporate it to a proper consistence.  The dose
is from one grain to  five grains.  For iu virtues, see
Aconitum.
  Extractum aloes purificatum.  Purified extract
of aloes.   Take of extract of spike aloe, powdered,
half a pound; boiling water, four pinu.  Macerate for
three days in  a gentle heat, then strain the solution, and
set it by, that the dregs may subside.   Pour off the clear
solution, and evaporate it to a proper consistence.  The
dose, from five to fifteen grains.  See Aloes.
  Extractum antremidis.  Extract of chamomile,
formerly called extractum chamEemeli. Take of cha
momiic flowers, dried, a pound; water, a gallon; boil
down to four pinu, and strata the solution while it is
hot,  then evaporate it to a proper  consistence.  The
dose is ten grains to  a  scruple.   For iu virtues, see
Anthemis nobilis.
  Extractum belladonna.  Extract of belladonna.
Take of  deadly night-shade leaves, fresh, a pound.
Bruise  them  in a stone mortar, sprinkling on a little
water; then press out the juice, and without any pre-
vious separation of  the sediment,  evaporate it to a
proper consistence.  The dose is from one to five grains.
For iu virtues, see Atropa belladonna.
  Extractum cinchonje.  Extract of bark.  Take of
lance-leaved cinchona bark, bruised, a pound; water
a gallon;  boil down to six pinu, and strain the liquor,
while hot.  In the same mann*:r, with an equal quan-
tity of water,  four times boil down, and strain. Lastly,
consume  all the liquors, mixed together, to a proper
consistence.  This extract should  be kept soft,  for
making pills,  and hard to be reduced to powder.
  Extractum cinchonje  resinosum.   Resinous  ex-
tract of bark. Take of lance-leaved cinchona bark,
bruised, a pound;  rectified spirit, four pinte; macerate
for four days and strain.  Distil the tincture in the heat
of a water-bath, until the extract has acquired a proper
consistence.  This is considered by many as much more
grateful to  the stomach, and,  at the same time, pro-
ducing all the effects of bark in substance, and by the
distillation  of it, it is intended that the spirit which
passes over shall be collected and preserved.  The dose
is from ten grains to half a drachm.   See Cinchona.
  Extractum coltjcynthidis.  Extract of colocynth.
Take of  colocynth pulp, a pound; water, a gallon;
boil down to four pinte,  and strain the solution while it
is hot,  and evaporate it to a proper  consistence.  The
dose is from five to thirty grains.  For iu virtues, see
Cucumis colocynthis.
  Extractum colocvnthidib compositum.    Com-
pound extract of colocynth. Take of colocynth pulp,
sliced, six  drachms; extract of spike aloe, powdered,
an ounce and half; scammony gum-resin, powdered,
half an ounce; cardamom seeds, powdered, a drachm;
proof spirit, a pint  Macerate the colocynth pulp in the
spirit, for four days, in  a gentle  heat: strain the solu-
tion, and  add it to the aloes and scammony; then,  by
means of a water-bath, evaporate it to a proper con-
sistence, constantly stirring, and about the end of the
inspissation, mix in the cardamom-seeds.  The dose
from five to thirty grains.
  Extractum conh.   Extract of hemlock, formerly
called succus cicuttB spissatus.   Take of fresh  hem-
lock, a  pound. Bruise it in a stone mortar, sprinkling 
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 on a little water; then press out the juice, and, with-
 out  any separation to the sediment, evaporate it to a
 proper consistence.   The dose, from five giains to a
 scruple.
   Extractum elaterii.  Extract of elaterium.  Cut
 the ripe, wild cucumbers into slices, and pass the juice,
 very gently expressed, through a very fine hair sieve,
 into a glass vessel;  then set it by for some hours, until
 the thicker part has subsided. Pour off, and throw away
 the  thinner part, which swims at the top.   Dry the
 thicker part which remains in a gentle heat.  The dose,
 from half a grain to three grains.  For iu virtues, see
 Momordica elaterium,
   Extractum oentian*.  Extract of gentian.  Take
 of gentian root, sliced, a pound; boiling water, a gallon;
 macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four
 pinu; suain the hot  liquor, and evaporate it to a proper
 consistence.   Dose, from ten to thirty grains.  See
 Gentiana.
   Extractum glycvrrhiz«.   Extract of liquorice.
 Take of liquorice root, sliced, a pound; boiling water,
 a gallon; macerate for twenty-four hours,  then boil
 do wn to four pinU; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate
 it to a proper consistence.  Dose, from  one drachm to
 half an ounce.  See Glycyrrhiza.
   Extractum h,ematoxyli.   Extract  of  logwood,
 formerly called extractum ligni campechensis.  Take
 of logwood,  powdered, a  pound; boiling  water,  a
 gallon;  macerate for twenty-four hours;  then boil
 down to four pinu; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate
 it to a proper consistence.  Dose, from ten grains to half
 a drachm.   For  iu virtues, see Hematoxylon cam-
 pechianum.
   Extractum humuli.  Extract of hops.   Take of
 hops, four ounces; boiling water, a gallon; boil down
 to four pinu; strain the hot liquor, and evaporate it to
 a proper consistence.  This extract is said to  produce
 a tonic and sedative power combined; the dose is from
 five grams to one scruple.  See Humulus lupulus.
   Extractum hyoscyami.   Extract  of henbane.
 Take of fresh henbane leaves, a pound; bruise them
 in a stone mortar, sprinkling on a little water; then
 press out the juice, and, without separating the fecu-
 lencies, evaporate it to a proper consistence. Dose,
 from five to thirty grains.  For iu virtues, see Hyos-
 cyamus.
  Extractum jalapa.  Extract of jalap.   Take of
jalap-root powdered, a pound; rectified spirit,  four
 pinu; water, ten pinu; macerate the jalap-root in the
 spiriu  for four days, and pour off the tincture; boil
 the remaining powder in the water, until it be reduced
 to two pinu;  then  strain the tincture and decoction
 separately, and let the former be distilled and the latter
 evaporated, until each begins to grow thick.   Lastly,
 mix the extract with tbe resin, and reduce it to a pro-
 per consistence.   Let this  extract be kept in a soft
 state, fit for forming pills, and in a hard one, so that it
 it may be reduced  to powder.  The dose, from ten
 to twenty grains.   For its virtues, see Convolvulus
 jalapa.
  Extractum opii.   Extract of opium,  formerly
 called extractum  thebaicura.  Opium colatum. Take
 of opium, sliced, half a pound;  water,  three pinu;
 pour a small quantity of the water upon tbe opium,
 and macerate it for twelve hours, that it may become
 BOft; then, adding the remaining water gradually, rub
 them together  until  the mixture be complete. Set it
 by, that the feculencies may subside; then strain the
 liquor, and evaporate it to a proper consistence. Dose,
 from half a grain to five grains.
  Extractum papaveris.   Extract of white poppy.
 Take of white poppy capsules bruised, and freed from
 the seeds, a pound; boiling water a gallon.  Macerate
 for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pinu;
strain the hot liquor, and evaporate it to a proper con-
sistence.   Six grains are about equivalent to one of
opium.  For its virtues, see Papaver album.
  Extractum rhei.  Extract of rhubarb.  Take of
rhubarb root, powdered, a pourd; proof spirit, a pint;
water, seven pinu.  Maceratefor four days in a gentle
heat; then strain and set it by, that the feculencies may
subside.  Pour off the clear liquor, and evaporate to a
proper consistence.  This extract  possesses the purga-
tive properties  of the root, and the fibrous and earthy
paru are separated; it is therefore, a useful basis for
pills, as well as given separately.  Dose, from ten to
thirty grains.   See Rheum.
      348
  Extractum sarsaparilla.  Extract of senapa
 rilla.  Take of sarsaparilla root, sliced, a pound; boil
 ing water, a gallon;  macerate for twenty-four hours,
 then boil down to four pints; strain  the hot liquor,
 and evaporate it to a proper consistence.  In practice
 this is much used, to render tbe common di coclion of
 the same  root stronger and more efficacious.  Dose,
 from ten grams to a drachm.  For iu virtues, see Smi-
 lax sarsaparilla.                    *
  Extractum saturni.  See Plumbi acetatis liquor
  Extractum taraxaci.  Take of dandelion  root,
 fresh and bruised, a pound; boiling water, a gallon;
 macerate for twenty-four  hours; boil down to four
 pinu, and strain the hot liquor;  then evaporate it to a
 proper consistence.  Dose, from ten grains to a drachm.
 For iu virtues, see Leontodon taraxacum.
  [The Pharmacopoeia of  tbe  United States admiu
 the  following extracts.
        Extractum aconiti.
                  belladonna:.
                  conii.
                  hyoscyami.
                 . stramonii.
                  anthemidis.
                  gentiana-.
                  hsematoxyli.
                  hellebori nigri.
                  juglandis.
                  quassix.
                  cinchona;.
                  colocynthidis compositum.
                  jalapa;.
                  podophylli.
                  sambuci.  A.]
  EXTRAFOLIACEUS.   Applied to stipule?, which
 are below the  footstalk, and external with respect to
 the leaf; as in Astragalus onobrichis.
  EXTRA VASA'TION.  (Extravasatio ; from extra,
 without, and  vas, a  vessel.)  A term  applied by sur-
 geons to fluids, which are  out of their proper vessels,
 or receptacles.   Thus, when blood is  effused on the
 surface, o%in the ventricles of the brain, it is said that
 there is an extravasation.  When blood is poured from
 the  vessels into the cavity of the peritonreum,  in
 wounds of the abdomen, surgeons call this accident
 extravasation.  The urine  is  also said to be extrava-
 sated, when, in consequence of a wound, or of slough
 ing,  or ulceration, it  makes its  way into the cellular
 substance or  among the abdominal viscera.  When
 the bile spreads among the convolutions of the bowels.
 in wounds of the gall-bladder, it is also a species of
 extravasation.
  EXTREMITIES.  This term is applied to the limbs,
 as distinguishing them from the  other divisions of the
 animal, the head and trunk.  The extremities are four
 in number, divided in man  into upper and lower; in
 other animals into anterior and posterior.   Each ex-
 tremity is divided into four paru; the  upper into the
 shoulder,  the  arm, the forearm and  the hand: the
 lower into the hip, the thigh, the leg, and the foot.
  EVE.   Oculus.    The parts which constitute the
 eye are divided into external and internal.  The exler-
 nal paru are:
  1.  The eyebrows, or supercilia, which form arches
 of hair above the orbit, at the lower part of the  fore-
 head.  Their use is to prevent the sweat falling into
 the eyes, and for moderating the light above.
  2.  The eyelashes, or cilia, are the short hairs that
gww on the  margin of the eyelids;  they  keep ex-
 ternal bodies out of the eyes and moderate the influx
of light.
  3.  The eyelids, or palpebra, of which, one is supe-
rior or upper, and the other Inferior, or under; where
they join outwardly, it is called the external  canthus;
inwardly, towards the nose, the internal canthus ;  they
cover and  defend the eyes.
  The  margin of the eyelids, which is cartilaginous,
is called tarsus.
  In tbe  tarsus, and internal surface of the eyelids,
small glands are situated, called glandula Mribomiane,
 because Meibomius discovered them; they secrete an
oily  or mucilaginous fluid, which prevenu  the at
triiion  of  the eyes and eyelids, and facilitates their
motions.
  4.  The lachrymal glands, or glandula lachrymoles
which  are placed near the external canthus, or cornel
of the eyes, in a little depression of the  os frontia. 
FAB
FAB
  Prom these glands six or more canals issue, which
are called lachrymal ducts,  or ductus ladirymales,
and they open on the internal surface of the  upper
eyelid.
  5. The lachrymal caruncle, or caruncula lachryma-
lis, which is situated in the internal angle, or canthus
of tlie eyelids.
  6. Puncta lachrymalia,  are two  callous orifices or
openings, which appear at the  internal  angle of the
tarsus of the eyelids; the one iu the superior, the other
in the inferior eyelid.
  7. The canales lachrymales, ox lachrymal ducts, are
two small canals, which proceed from the lachrymal
points into the lachrymal sac.
  6. Tbe saccus lachrymalis, or lachrymal sac, is a
membraneous sac, which is situated in tiie internal can-
thus of the eye.
  9. The ductus nasalis, or nasal duct, is a membra-
neous canal, which goes from the inferior part  of the
lachrymal sac  through the bony canal below, and a
little  behind, into  the cavity of the  nose, and opens
under the inferior spongy bone into the nostril.
  IU.  The membrana conjunctiva, or conjunctive mem-
brane, which, from iu white colour is called also albu-
ginea, or white of the eye, is a membrane which lines
the internal superficies of the eyelids, and covers the
whole forepart of the globe of the eye: it is very vas-
cular, as may be seen in inflammations.
  The bulb, or globe of the eye, is composed of eight
membranes, or coverings, two chambers, or camera,
and three humours, improperly so called.
  The membranes of the globe of the eye, are, four
in the hinder or posterior  part of  the bulb, or  globe,
viz. sclerotica, choroidea, retina,  and  hyaloidea,  ot
arachnoidea; four in the  fore or anterior part  of the
bulb, viz. cornea transparens, iris,  uvea, and capsule
of the crystalline lens.
  The membrana sclerotica, or the  sclerotic or  horny
membrane, is the outermost.  It begins from the optic
nerve, forms the spherical or globular cavity, and ter-
minates in  the circular margin of  the transparent
cornea.
  The membrana choroidea, or choroides, is the middle
tonic of the  bulb, of a black colour, beginning from
the optic nerve, and covering the internal superficies
of the sclerotica, to the margin of the transparent cor-
nea.  In this place it secedes from the cornea, and
deflects transversely and inwardly,  and in the middle
forms a round foramen.  This circular continuation of
the choroidea in the anterior surface is  called iris, in
the posterior superficies, uvea.
  The round opening in the centre ie called the pupil,
orpupilla.   This foramen, or round opening, can  he
dilated, or contracted by the moving powers of almost
invisible muscular fibres.
  The membrana retina, is the  innermost tunic of a
white colour, and similar to mucus, being an expansion
of the optic  nerve, chiefly composed of iu  medullary
part.  It covers the inward surface of the  choroides,
      For ft.  In a prescription these letters are abbre-
   *  viations of fiat, or fiant, let it, or them, be made;
thus/, bolus, let the substance or substances prescribed
be made into a bolus.
  FA'13A.   A bean.  See Bean.
  Faba crassa.   See Sedum tdephium.
  Faba JEGYrTlACA.  See Nymphea nelumbo.
  Faba febrifuqa.  See Ignatia amara.
  Faba indica.  See Ignatia amara.
  Faba major.  The garden-bean.  See Bean.
  Faba minor.  The horse-bean. It differs no other-
wise from the garden-bean than in being less.
  Faba pechurim.  Faba pichurim; Faba  pechuris.
Brazilian bean.   An oblong oval, brown, and  pon-
derous seed, supposed to be the produce of a Laurus,
brought from the Brazils.  Their smell is like that of
musk, between it and the scent of sassafras.  They are
exliibited as carminatives in flatulent colics, diarrhoeas,
and dysenteries.
to the margin of the crystalline lens, and there terml«
nates.
   The chambers, or camera of the eyes are:
   1. Camera anterior, or fore-chamber; an open space.
which is formed anteriorly, by the hollow surface of
the cornea transparens, and posteriorly, by the surface
of the iria.
   2. Camera posterior,  that  small space which is
bounded anteriorly by the  tunica uvea,  and pupilla,
or pupil; posteriorly by the anterior surface of the
crystalline lens.
   Both these chambers are filled with an  aqueous hu-
mour.   The humours of the eye, as  they are called,
are in  number three:
   1. The aqueous humour, which fills both chambers.
   2. Tbe crystalline lens, or  humour, is  a pellu-
cid  body, about the size of a  lentil, which is in-
cluded in an exceedingly fine membrane, or capsula,
and lodged  in a concave depression of the  vitreous
humour.
   3. The vitreous humour,  is a  pellucid, beautifully
transparent  substance, which fills the whole bulb of
the eye behind the crystalline  lens. Its external sur-
face is surrounded with a  most pellucid membrane,
which is called membrana hyaloidea,  or  arachnoidea.
In the  anterior part is a fovea, or bed, for the crystal-
line lens.
   The connexion of the  bulb is  made anteriorly, by
means of the conjunctive membrane, with tbe inner
surface of the eyelids, or palpebral; posteriorly, by the
adhesion of six muscles ofthe bulb and tbe optic nerve
with the orbit.
   The optic nerve, or neroti* opticus, perforates the
sclerotica and choroides, and then constitutes the re-
tina, by spreading itself on the whole posterior part of
the internal globe of the eye.
   The  muscles by which the eye is moved in the orbit,
are six;  much fat surrounds  them, and fills up the
cavities in which the eyes  are seated.  The arteries
are the internal orbital, the central, and the ciliary ar-
teries.  The veins empty themselves into the external
jugulars.  The nerves are the  optic, and  branches
from the third, fourth, fifth,  and six pair.
  The  use of the eye is  to form the organ of vision.
See Vision.
  Externally, the globe of the eye and the transparent
cornea are moistened with a most limpid fluid, called
lachryma, or tears; the same pellucid subtile fluid ex-
actly fills all the pores of the transparent  cornea ; for,
deprived of  this  fluid, and being exposed to the air,
that coat of the  eye  becomes dry,  shrivelled,  and
cloudy, impeding the rays of light.
  EYE-BRIGHT.  See Euphrasia.
  EYE-BROW.   Supercilium. See Eye.
  EYE-LID.  Palpebra.  See Eye.
   Eye-tooth.  The fangs  of the two upper cuspidatl
are very much larger than those on each side, and ex-
tend up near to the orbit, on which account they have
have been called eye-teeth.  See Teeth.
  Faba puroatrix.  See Ricinxs.
  Faba sancti ignatii.  See Ignatia amara.
  Faba suilla.  See Hyoscyamus.
  Faba'ria. (From faba, a bean, which it resembles.)
See Sedum tdephium.
  FABRICIUS, Mieronymus, born at Aquapendente
in Italy, 1537.  He studied  at Padua under Fallopius,
whom he succeeded as  professor of anatomy and sur-
gery there; which office he held for nearly half a cen-
tury wilh great credit, and died at the advanced age of
eighty-two, universally regretted.  The republic of
Venice also conferred many honours upon  hirn.  He
is thought to have been  the first to notice the valves of
the veins, which he demonstrated in 1574.  But hia
surgical works obtained him most reputation ; indeed
he has been called the father of modern surgery.  His
first publication in 1592 contained five Dissertations on
Tumours, Wounds, Ulcers, Fractures,  and Disloca
lions.   He afterward added another part, treating.of
F 
FAG
FAL
 all the diseases which are curable by manual opera-
 tion.  This work passed through seventeen editions in
 different languages.
   FABR1C1US, James, was born  at Rostock, in 1577.
 After travelling through different paru of Europe, he
 graduated at Jena, and soon gained extensive practice.
 He was professor of medicine and the mathematics at
 Rostock during forty years,  and first physician to the
 Duke of  Mecklenburgh; afterward went  to  Copen-
 hagen, and was made physician to the kings of Nor-
 way and  Denmark, and died there, in 1C52.  He  has
 left several tracU on medical subjects.
   FABRIC1US, Philip Conrad, professor of medi-
 cine at Helmstadt, was author of several useful works
 in anatomy  and surgery.   His first  treatise, "Idea
 Anatomes Practical," 1741, contained some new di-
 rections in the Art of Injection, and described several
 branches ofthe Portio Dura, Sec.  In another work he
 has some  good observations on the Abuse of Trepan-
 ning.
   FABRIC1US, William, better known by the name
 of Hildanus, from Hilden, in Switzerland, where he
 was born in 1560. Herepaired to Lausanne, to complete
 his knowledge of surgery, at the age of twenty-six; and
 distinguished himself there by his assiduity, and  the
 successful treatment of many difficult cases.  He stu-
 died medicine also, and went to practise both  arts at
 Payenne,  in 1605; but ten years after was  invited to
 Berne by the senate, who granted him  a pension.  In
 the latter  part of his life, severe illness prevented  his
 professional exertions, which had procured him general
 esteem and high  reputation.   His death occurred in
 1634.  His works were written in  German, but have
 been mostly translated into Latin.  He published five
 " Centuries  of Observations,"  which present many
 curious facu, as also several instruments invented by
 him.
   FACE.   Fades.  The  lower and anterior part of
 the cranium, or skull.
   FA'CIAL.  Facialis.  Belonging to the face; as
 facial nerve, Sec
   Facial nerve.  JVerou* facialis.  Portio dura of
 the auditory nerve.  These nerves  are two in number,
 and are properly the eighth pair:  but are commonly
 called the seventh, being  reckoned with the auditory,
 which is the portio mollis of  the seventh pair.   They
 arise from the fourth ventricle of the brain, pass
 through the petrous portion ofthe temporal bone to the
 face, where they form the pes  anserinus, which sup-
 plies the integumenU ofthe face and forehead.
   FA'CIES.  The face.  See Face.
   Facies  hippocratica.  That particular disposition
 ofthe features which immediately  precedes  the stroke
 of death is so called, because it  has been so admirably
 described by Hippocrates.
   Facies  rubra.  See Gutta rosacea.
   FACTITIOUS. A term applied to any thing which
 is made by art, in opposition to that which  is native,
 or found already made in nature.
   FACULTY.  Facultas.  The power or  ability by
 wbich any action is performed.
   Fje'ces.  (The plural of fex.)   The alvine excre-
 tions.
   FiE'CULA.  (Diminutive offax.) A substance ob-
 tained by bruising or grinding certain vegetables in
 water.  It is that part which, after a little, falls to  the
 bottom.  The fecula of plants differs principally from
 gum or mucus  in being  insoluble  in  cold  water, in
 which it fails with wonderful quickness.  There are
 few plants which do not contain fecula ; but the seeds
 of gramineous and leguminous vegetables, and all tu-
 berose rooU contain it most plentifully.
  FjEX.  (Fax, ecis, f.  an excretion.)  The  alvine
 excretions are called feces.
  FAGA'RA.  (From fagus, the breech, which it re-
 sembles.)  The name of a genus of planU in the Lin-
 nean system. Class, Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Faqara major.  See Fagara plerota.
  Faqara octandra.  The systematic name  of the
 plant which affords Tacamahaca, which is a resinous
 substance that exudes both spontaneously, and when
 incisions are made into the stem of this tree: Fagara
foliolis tomentosis, of Linneus, and not, as was for-
 merly supposed, from the Populus balsamifera.   Two
 kinds of a tacamahaca are met with in the shops. The
 best, called, from iu being collected  in a kind of gourd-
 shell, tacamahaca in shells, is somewhat unctuous and
      350
 soft, of a pale yellowish or greenish colour, a bitterish
 aromatic taste,  and a fragrant delightful  smell, ap-
 proaching  lo that of lavender and ambergris.  The
 more common sort is in semi-transparent grains,of a
 whitish, yellowish, brownish, or greenish colour, and
 of a less grateful smell than the former.  Tacamahaca
 was formerly in  high estimation as nn ingredient in
 warm stimulating plasters;  and although seldom used
 internally,  it may be given with advantage as a corro-
 borant and astringent balsamic.
   Faqara  plerota.   Fagara major; Castana Lu-
 zonis;  Cubebis.  This plant  is found in the  Philip-
 pine islands. The berries arc aromatic, and, accord-
 ing to Avicenna, heating, drying, good for cold, weak
 stomachs, and astringent to the bowels.
   FAGOPYRUM.   (From tbayos,  the beech, and
 irvpoc, wheat;  because its seeds were supposed to re-
 semble tlie mast, i. e. fruit of beech.) See Polygonum
fagopyrum.
   Faqotri'ticum.  See Polygonum fagopyrum.
   FA'GUS.  (From q>ayia, to eat; iu nut being one of
 the first fruits used by man.)
   1. The name of a genus of planU in the  Linnican
 system.  Class, Monecia ; Order, Polyandria.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the beech  See
 Fagus sylvatica.
   Fagus castanea.  The  systematic  name  of the
 chesnut-tree.   Castanea;  Lopima; Mota;  Glans
 Jovis Theophrasti.  Jupiter's acorn; Sardinian acorn;
 tlie common chesnut.  The fruit of this plant, Fagus
—foliis lanceolatis, acuminato-serratis, subtus nudis,
of Linna-us, are much esteemed as an article of luxury
 after dinner. Toasting renders them more easy of di-
 gestion; but, notwithstanding, they must be considered
 as improper for weak stomachs.  They are moderately
 nourishing, as containing sugar, and much farinaceous
substance.
   Fagus sylvatica. The systematic  name  of the
beech-tree.    Fagus;  Oxya;  Balanda;  Valanida.
The fruil and interior bark of this tree, Fagus—foliis
ovatis, obsolete serratis, of Linneus, are occasionally
used medicinally, the former in obstinate headache, and
the latter in the cure of hectic fever.   The oil  ex-
pressed from beech-nuts is supposed to destroy worms;
a child may take two drachms of it night and morn-
ing ; an adult an ounce.   The poor people of Silesia
use this oil  instead of butler.
   FA H LUMITE.  A sub-species of octohedral corun-
dum.
   FAINTING.   See Syncope.
   FAIRBURN.  The name of a village in the county
of Ross, in  the north of Britain, where there is a sul-
phureous spring.
   FA'LCIFORM. (Falciformis; from falx, a scythe,
and forma, resemblance.) Resembling a scythe.
   Falciform process.  The falx.  A  process of the
dura mater, that arises from the crista galli, separates
the hemispheres of the  brain, and terminates in the
tentorium.
   Falde'lla.  Lint, used as a compress.
   Falling-sickness.  See Epilepsia.
   Fallopian tube.  See Tuba Fallopiana.
   Fallopian ligament. See Poupart's ligament.
   FALLOPIUS, Gabriel,  a physician of  Modena,
was born  about the year 1523.   He  showed early
great zeal  in anatomy, botany, chemistry, and other
branches of knowledge; and after studying in Italy,
travelled to other countries  for his improvement  In
1548, he was appointed professor of anatomy at Pisa,
and three years after at Padua; where he also taught,
botany, but with  less celebrity. His death happened
in 1563  He distinguished himself, not only  as an
anatomist, but also iu medicine and surgery.  Douglas
has characterized him as highly systematic in teach-
ing,, successful in treating diseases, and expeditious in
operating.  Some of the discoveries, to which be laid
claim, appear  to have been anticipated; as, for in-
stance, the  tubes proceeding from the uterus, though
generally called after  him Fallopian. However,  he
has the merit of recovering many of the observations
ofthe ancients, which had  fallen into oblivion.  His
" Observationes Anatomies;,"  published in 1561, was
one of the  best works of the  16th  century; io  this
some  of tlie errors, which bad escaped  his master,
Vesalius, are modestly pointed  out.  Many other pub-
lications, ascribed to him, were printed after hi* death;
some of which are evidently spurious. 
FAT
FAT
  FALX.  See Falciform process.
  FA'MES.  Hunger.
  Fames canina.  See Bulimia.
  Famigerati'ssimum emplastrum.  (From fami-
geratus, renowned; from fama, fame,  and gero, to
bear: so named from itt excellence.)  A plaster used
in intermittent fever, made of aromatic, irritating sub-
stances, and applied to'the wrists.
  FAMILY.  Familia.  A term used by naturalists to
express a certain order of natural productions, agree-
ing in the principal  characters, and containing  nume-
rous individuals  not only distinct from one another,
but in whole sets, several members  being  to be col-
lected out of the same family, all of which have the
family character, and all some subordinate distinction
peculiar to  that  whole number, or, though found in
every individual of it, not found in those of any others.
  It has been too common to confound the words, class,
family, order, &c. in natural history; but the determi-
nate meaning of the word  family seems  to be tbat
larger order of creatures under which classes and or-
ders are subordinate distinctions.
  FA'RFARA.   (From farfarus, the white poplar:
so called because iu leaves resemble those of the white
poplar.)  See Tussilago farfara.
  FARI'NA.  (From far, corn, of which it is made.)
Meal, or flour.  A term given to the pulverulent and
glutinous part of wheat, and  other seeds, which is ob-
tained by grinding and sifting.  It is highly nutritious,
and  consists of gluten, starch,  and  mucilage.  See
Triticum.
  FARINA'CEA.  (From farina, flour.) This term
includes all those substances, employed as aliment,
called cerealia, legumina, and nuces oleose.
  FARINACEOUS.  (Farinaceus; from farina,
flour.)   A term given to all articles of food which con-
tain farina.  See Farina.
  Farina'rium.  See Alica.
  Fa'rreus. (From far, corn.)  Scurfy. An epithet
of urine, where it deposites a branny sediment.
  FA'SCIA.  (From fascis,  a bundle; because, by
means of a band, materials are  collected into a bun-
dle.)  1. A bandage, fillet or roller.
  2. The  tendinous  expansions of  muscles,  which
bind parts together, are  termed fascia.  See Aponeu-
rosis.
  Fascia lata.  A thick and strong tendinous expan-
sion, sent off from  the back, and from the tendons of
the glutei and adjacent muscles, to surround tiie mus-
cles of the thigh.  It is the thickest on the outside of
the thigh and  leg, but towards the inside of both be-
comes gradually thinner.  A little below the trochanter
major, it U firmly fixed to the linea aspera; and, fur-
ther down, to that part of the head of the tibia  that is
next the fibula, where it sends  off the tendinous ex-
pansion along tbe ouuide of the leg.  It serves to
strengthen the action of tlie muscles, by keeping them
firm in their proper places when in action, particularly
the tendons that pass over the joints where this mem-
brane is thickest.
  FASCIA'LIS.  (From fascia, a fillet.)  See Tensor
vagine femoris.
  Fascia'tio.  (From fasda, a  fillet.)   The binding
up any diseased or wounded part with bandages.
  FASCICULARIS.  (From fascis, a bundle.) Ap-
plied to roou which are sessile al their base, and con-
sist of bundles of finger-like processes ; as the root of
the Ophris nidus avis.
  FASCICULATUS.  Fasciculate.  Bundled or clus-
tered.  Applied to nerves, stems of planu, leaves, Sec
See Leaf and Caulis.
  FASCICULUS.   (From fascis, a bundle.  1. In
pharmacy, a handful.
  2. In botany, a fascicule is applied to flowers  on lit-
tle stalks, variously inserted and  subdivided, collected
into a close bundle, level at the top ; as in Sweet-wil-
iiam.  It differs from,
  1. A corymb, in the little stalks coming only from
about the apex of the peduncle, and not fromiu whole
length.
  2. An umbel, from the stalks  not  coming from  a
common point.
  3. A cyme, in  not  having iu principal division um-
bellate.
  FAT.  Adeps.  A concrete oily matter  contained
in the  cellular membrane of animals, of a white, or
yellowish  colour, with little or no smell, or taste.  It
differs in different animals in solidity, colour, taste, Sec
and likewise in the same animal at different ages.  In
infancy it is white, insipid, and not very solid; in tbe
adult it is firm and yellowish, and in animals of an ad-
vanced age, iu colour is deeper, its consistence various,
and its taste in general stronger.
  The fat appears  to be useful  in tiie animal economy
principally by iu physical properties; it forms a sort of
elastic cushion in the orbit upon which the eye moves
with  facility; in the soles of the feet, and in the hips,
it forms a sort of layer, which renders the pressure ex-
erted by the body upon the skin and other soft parts less
severe ; its presence beneath the skin concurs in round-
ing the outlines, in diminishing  the bony and  muscu-
lar projections, and in beautifying the form ;  and as all
fat  bodies are bad conductors of caloric, it contributes
to the preservation of that of the body.  Full persons
in general suffer little in winter by the cold.
  Age, and the various modes of life, have  much in-
fluence upon the  developement of this  fluid: very
young children are generally fat  Fat is rarely abun-
dant in the young man ; but the quantity of it increases
much towards the age of thirty years, particularly if
the nourishment is succulent, and the life sedentary;
the abdomen projects, the hips increase in size, as well
as the breasu in  women.   The  fat becomes more yel-
low in proportion as the  age is more advanced.  Fat
meat  is nourishing to those that have strong digestive
powers.  It is used externally, as a softening remedy,
and enters into the composition of ointmenu and plas-
ters.
  " Concerning the nature of tbu important product
of animalization,  nothing  definite was known, till
Chevreuil devoted  himself with meritorious zeal and
perseverance to iu  investigation. He has already pub-
lished in the Annates de Chimie, seven successive me-
moirs on the subject, each of them surpassing its pre-
decessor in interest.  We shall in this article give a
brief  abstract of the whole.
  By dissolving fat in a large quantity of alkohol, and
observing the manner in which iu different portions
were  acted upon by this substance,and again separated
from  it, it is concluded that tiie fat is composed of an
oily substance, which remains  fluid at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere; and of another fatty
substance which is much  less fusible.  Hence it fol-
lows, that fat is not to be regarded as a simple principle,
but as  a combination  of the  above two  principles,
which may be separated without alteration.  One of
these substances melte at about 45°. the other at IOTP -
the same quantity of alkohol which dissolves 3.2 parU
of the oily substance, dissolves  1.8 only of the fatty
substance: the first is separated from the alkohol in
the form of an oil; tbe second in that of small silky
needles.
  Each of the constituents of natural fat was then sa-
ponified by the addition of potassa;  and an accurate
description given of the compounds which were form-
ed,  and of the proportions of their constituents.  The
oily substance became saponified more readily than the
fatty substance; the residual fluids in both cases con-
tained the sweet oily principle; but  the quantity that
proceeded from the soap formed of the oily substance,
was four or Ave times as much as that from tiie fatty
substance.  The latter soap was found to contain a
much greater proportion of the pearly matter than the
former, in the proportion  of 7.5 to 2.9; the proportion
of the fluid fat was the reverse, a greater quantity of
this being found  in the soap formed from the oily sub-
stance of the fat.
  When the principles which constitute fat unite with
potassa, it is probable that they experience a change in
the  proportion of their elements.  This change deve-
lopes at least three bodies, margarine, fluid fat, and
the sweet principle; and it is remarkable, that it takes
place  without the absorption of  any foreign substance,
or the disengagement of any of the elements which
are  separated  from each other. As this  change is
effected by the  intermedium of the alkali, we may
conclude that the newly formed principles must have
a strong affinity for salifiable bases, and will in many
respecu resemble the acids; and, in fact, they exhibit
the leading characters of acids, in reddening litmus, in
decomposing the alkaline carbonates to unite to their
bases, and in neutralizing the specific properties ofthe
alkalies.
  Having already poiuted out the analogy between the 
FAT
FAT
 properties of acids and the principles into which fat is
 converted by means of the  alkalies, the neit object
 was to examine the action  which other bases have
 upon fat, and to observe flic effect of water, and of the
 cohesive  force of the bases upon the process of saponi-
 fication.  The substances which the author subjected to
 experiment, were  soda, the four  alkaline earths, alu-
 mina, and the oxides of zinc, copper, and lead.  After
 giving a  detail  of the  processes  which he employed
 with these substances respectively, he draws the fol-
 lowing general conclusions:—Soda, barytes, strontian,
 lime, the  oxide of zinc, and the protoxide of lead, con-
 vert fat into margarine, fluid fat, the sweet principle,
 the yellow colouring principle, and the odorous princi-
 ple, precisely in  the same manner as potassa.  What-
 ever be the base that has been employed, the producu
 of saponification always exist in the same relative pro-
 portion.  As the above mentioned bases form with
 margarine and the fluid fat compounds which are in-
 soluble in water,  il follows, that the action of this li-
 quid, as a solvent  of soap, is not essential to the pro-
 cess of saponification.  It is  remarkable that the ox-
 ides of zinc and of lead, which are insoluble in water,
 and which  produce  compounds equally insoluble,
 should give the  same resulu with potassa and soda,—
 a circumstance which proves that those oxides have a
 strong alkaline power.   Although the analogy of mag-
 nesia to  the alkalies is, in other respects, so striking,
 yet we find that it cannot convert fat into soap under
 the same circumstances with*the oxides of zinc and
 lead.
   It was  found  that 100 parts of hog's-lard were  re-
 duced to the completely saponified state by 16.36 parts
 of potassa.
   The properties of spermaceti were next examined:
 it melU at about 112°; it is not much altered by distil-
 lation ; it dissolves readily in hot alkohol, but separates
 as the fluid cools; the  solution bas no effect in chang-
 ing the colour of the tincture of litmus, a circumstance,
 as it is observed, in which  it  differs from margarine,
 a substance which, in  many  respecU, it  resembles.—
 Spermaceti is capable of being saponified by potassa,
 with nearly the  same phenomena as when we submit
 hogs-lard to the action  of potassa, although the opera-
 tion is effected with more difficulty
   The author's general conclusion respecting the fatty
 matter of dead bodies is, that even after the lactic acid,
 the lactates, and other ingredients which are less es-
 sential, are removed from it, it is not a simple, ammo-
 niacal soap, but a combination of various fatty sub-
 stances with ammonia, potassa, and lime. The fatty
 substances which  were separated from alkohol, had
 different melting points,and different sensible properties.
 It follows, from  ChevreuiPs experimenu, that the sub-
 Btance which is the least fusible, has more affinity for
 bases than those which are more so.  It is observed,
 that adipocere possesses the characters of a saponified
 fat; it is soluble in boiling alkohol in  all proportions,
 reddens litmus, and unites readily to potassa, not only
 without losing iu  weight, but without having iu fu-
 sibility or other properties changed.
  Chevreuil has shown, that hog's-lard, in iu natural
 state, has not the property of combining with alkalies;
 but that it acquires it by experiencing some change  in
 the proportion of ite elemenu.  This change being in-
 duced by  the action ofthe alkali, it follows  that the
 bodies of  the new formation  must have a decided af-
 finity for the species of body which has determined  it.
 If we apply this  foundation of the theory of saponifi-
 cation to the change into fat which bodies buried in the
 earth experience, we shall find that it explains the pro-
 cess in a very satisfactory manner. In reality, the fatty
 matter is  the combination of the two  adipose sub-
 stances with ammonia, lime, and potassa: one of these
 substances has the same sensible properties with mar-
 garine procured from the soap of hog's-lard; tbe other,
 the orange-coloured oil, excepting iu colour, appears
 to have a strong analogy with the  fluid fat. From
these circumstances, it  is probable that the formation
ofthe fatty matter may be the result of a proper sapo-
nification  produced  by ammonia, proceeding from the
decomposition of the muscle, and by the potassa and
;ime, which proceed from the decomposition of certain
salts.
  The author remarks, that he bas hitherto made use
of periphrases when speaking of the different bodies
that he has been describing, as supposing that their
     352
 nature was not sufficiently determlnfd. He now, how-
 ever, conceives, that he may apply specific name* to
 them, which  will be more  commodious,  and,  at the
 same time, by being made appropriate, will point out
 the relation which these bodies bear to  each oilier.
 The following is the  nomenclature which he after-
 ward  adopted :—Thc  crystalline  matter of  human
 biliary calculi Is  named cholesterine, from the  Greek
 word  x°^V,  D''ei  and $tptos, solid; spermaceti is
 named cettne, from kvtos,  a whnle; the fattj- sub
 stance and the oily substance, are named respectively,
 atearine and  elaine, from the words $tap, and tXatov,
 oil; margarine, and the fluid fat obtstined after sapo
 nification, are named margarie  acid and oleic acid,
 while the term celic acid is applied to what was named
 saponified spermaciti.  The margarates, oleates, and
 cetates, will be the generic names of the soaps or com
 binations which these acids are capable of forming by
 their union with  salifiable bases.
   Two portions  of human  fat were examined, one
 taken from the kidney, the other from the thigh: after
 some time they both of them manifested a tendency to
 separate into  two distinct substances, one of a solid,
 and the other of a  fluid consistence:  the two portions
 differed in their fluidity and their melting point.  These
 variations depend  upon the different proportions of
 stearine and elaine; for the concrete part of fat Is a
 combination of the two with an excess of stearine, and
 the fluid part  is a combination with an excess of elaine.
 The fat from the other animals was then examined,
 principally with respect to their  melting point and
 their solubility in alkohol; the melting point was not
 always the same  iu  the fat of the same species of
 animal.
   Chevreuil next examines  the change which is pro-
 duced in the different kinds of fat respectively by the
 action of potassa.  All the kinds of fat are capable of
 being perfectly saponified, when excluded from the
 contact ofthe air, in all of them there was the production
 of the saponified fat and the  sweet principle;  no car-
 bonic acid was produced, and the  soaps formed con-
 tained no acetic acid, or only slight traces of it.  The
 saponified fats had more tendency to crystallize in
 needles than the fats in their natural state; they were
 soluble in  all proportions in  boiling  alkohol of the
 specific gravity of 821.  The solution, like that of the
 saponified fat  of the hog, contained both the margarie
 and the oleic acids.  They were less fusible than the
 fats from which  they were formed: thus,  when
 human fat, after being saponified, was  melted, the
 thermometer became stationary at 95°, when the fluid
 began to congeal, in that of the sheep, the thermometer
 fell to 118.5°, and rose  to 122°; in that of the ox it re-
 mained stationary at 118.5°; and in that ofthe jaguar
 at 96.5°.
   The method of analysis employed was to expose the
 different kinds of fat to boiling alkohol, and to suffer
 the mixture to cool: a portion ofthe fat that had been
 dissolved was then separated in two states of combi-
 nation ; one with  an excess of stearine was deposited,
 the other with  an excess of elaine remained in solution.
 The first was separated by filtration,  and by distilling
 the filtered fluid, and adding a little water towards the
 end of the operation, we obtain the second in the re-
 tort, under the form of an alkohoiic aqueous fluid.  The
 distilled alkohol which bad  been employed  in the
 analysis of human fat, had  no  sensible odour; the
 same was the case with that  which had served for the
 analysis of the fat of the ox, of the  hog, and of the
 goose.  The alkohol which had been employed in tlie
 analysis of the fat ofthe sheep, had u slight odour of
 candlegrease.
  All the snaps of stearine were analyzed by the same
 process as the soap of the fat from which tbey had been
 extracted: there was procured from them the pearly
 super-margarate of potassa  and the  oleate; but the
 first was much more abundant than the second.   The
 margarie acid of the stearines had precisely the same
 capacity  for saturation as that wbich was extracted
 from the soaps formed  of fat  The margarie acid of
 the stearine of the sheep was fusible at 144°, and that
of tbe  stearine of the ox at  143.5°; while the mar-
garie acids of the hog and the goose had nearly the
same fusibility with the margarie acid of the  fat of
these animals.
  Chevreuil technically calls spermaceti, cdtne.  In the
fifth memoir, in which we have an account of many 
FEB
FEB
of the properties of this substance, it was stated, that it
is not easily saponified by potassa, but that it is con-
verted by this reagent into asubstance which is soluble
in water, but has not the saccharine flavour ofthe sweet
principle of oils; into an acid analogous to the mar-
garie, to which the name of cetic  was applied; and
into another acid, which was conceived to be analo-
gous to tlie oleic.  Since he wrote the fifth memoir,
the author has made the following observations on
this subject:—1. That the portion of tlie soap of cetine
which is insoluble in water, or the  cetate of potassa,
is in part gelatinous, and in part pearly: 2. The two
kinds of crystals  were produced from the cetate of
potassa which had been dissolved in alkohol:  3. That
the cetate of potassa exposed, under a bell glass, to the
heat of  a stove, produced a sublimate of a fatty mat-
ter which was not acid.  From this circumstance Chev-
reuil was led to suspect, that the supposed cetic acid
might be a combination, or a mixture of margarie acid,
and of a fatty body which was  not  acid. He accord-
ingly treated a small quantity of it with barytic water,
and boiled the soap which was formed in alkohol; the
greatest part of it was not dissolved, and the alkohoiic
solution, when cooled, filtered, and distilled, produced
a residuum of fatty matter which was not acid.   The
suspicion being thus confirmed, Chevreuil determined
to subject cetiue to a new train of experimenu.  Be-
ing treated with boiling alkohol, a cetine was  pro-
cured which was fusible at 120°, and a yellow fatty
■natter which began to become solid at89.5°, and which
at 73.5° contained a fluid oil, which was separated by
filtration.— Ure's Chem. Die.
  FATUI'TAS.  (From fatuus, silly.)  Fatuity or
foolishness.
  FAU'CES.  (Faux, pi. fauces.)  A cavity behind
the tongue, palatine arch,  uvula,  and tonsils; from
which the pharynx and larynx proceed.
  Fau'fel.  Terra japonica, or catechu.
  [Fausse  avoine.   False oaU.  Indian  rice.  See
Zizania aquatica.  A.]
  FAUX.  (Faux, cis.  C)   1. The  gorge, or  mouth,
or opening ofthe gullet.
  2.  Applied by botanists to the opening of the  tube
of monopetalous corals.  See Corolla.
  Fava'go australis.  (Fromfavus, a honey-comb;
from iu resemblance to a honey-comb.)  A species of
bastard sponge.
  FAVOSUS. (From favus, a honey-comb.)  Honey-
coinb-likc.   1. Applied to some eruptive diseases; as
Lichen faeosus, the secretion in which is cellular and
honcy-comb-like.
  J.  To paru of plants, as the receptacle of the  ono-
pordium which has cells like a honey-comb.
  FAVUS.  1. A honey-comb.
  2.  A species of achor, or foul ulcer.
  FE'BRES.  (The plural  of febris.)  An order in
the  class  Pyrexia, of  Cullen,   characterized by
the  presence  of  pyrexia, without  primary  local
affection.
  FEBRI'CULA.   (Dim. of febris, a fever.)  A term
employed to express a  slight degree of symptomatic
fever.
  FEBRIFUG-A.   (From  febrem  fugare, to drive
away a fever.)  The plant feverfew; less centaury.
  FE'BRIFUGE.  (Febrifugus; from febris, a fever,
and fugo, to drive away.)   That which possesses the
property of abating the violence of any fever.
  Febrifugum crknii.  Regulus of antimony.
  Febrifugum oleum.  Febrifuge oil.  The  flowers
of antimony, made with sal-ammoniac and antimony
sublimed together, and  exposed to tiie air, when  tbey
deliquesce.
  Febrifugus pulvis.  Febrifuge powder.  The Ger-
mans give this name to the pulvis stypticus Helvetii.
In England, a mixture of oculi cancrorum and emetic
tartar,  in  the proportion of half a drachm and two
grains, has obtained the same name; in fevers  it is
given in doses of gr. iii. to iv.
  Febrifugus sal.  Regenerated marine salt.
  FEBRIS.   (Febris, is. f.; from ferveo, to burn.) A
fever.  A disease characterized  by an increase of heat,
an accelerated pulse, a  foul tongue, and an impaired
state of several functions of the body.
  Febris alba.  See Chlorosis.
  Febris ami-himerina.   A quotidian fever.
  Febris anoivisa.  S«-e Scarlatina anginosa.
  Fkbhis aputuosa.  See Aphtha.
  Febris ardens . Fever attended by a very hot or burn-
ing state of the  skin. A burning inflammatory fever.
  Febris assodks.  A  tertian fever, with extreme
restlessness.
  Febris bullosa.  See Pemphigus.
  Febris cacatoria.   An intermittent fever, with
diarrhcea.
  Febris carcerum.  The prison fever.
  Febris castrensis.   A  camp  fever, generally
typhus.
  Febris catarrhalis.   A  fever,  either typhoid,
nervous, or synochal, attended with symptoms of ca-
tarrh.
  Febris cholerica.  A fever, attended throughout
with bilious diarrhoea.
  Febris continua.  A continued fever.  A division
of the order Febres, in the class Pyrexia, of Cullen.
Continued fevers have no intermission, but exacerba-
tions come on usually twice in one day.  The genera
of continued fever are:
  1. Synocha, or inflammatory fever, known by in-
creased heat; pulse frequent, strong, and hard;  urine
high-coloured; senses not much impaired.  See Sy-
nocha.
  2.  Typhus, or putrid-tending fever, wbich is con-
tagious, and is characterized by moderate heat; quick,
weak, and small pulse; senses much impaired, and
great  prostration of  strength.  This genus has two
species; Typhus pelechialis, attended with  petechia:;
and  Typhus icterodes, or yellow fever; and of tiie
former there are iwo varieties: Typhus mitior, or
nervous fever; and Typhus gravior, or putrid fever.
See Febris nervosa, and Typhus.
  3.  Synochus, or mixed fever.  See Synochus.
  Febris elopes.  A fever with continual and pro
fuse sweating.
  Febris epiala.  A fever with a continual sense of
coldness.  See Epialus.
  Febris erysipelatosa.  See Erysipelas.
  Febris exanthematica.  A fever with an erup-
tion.  See Exanthema.
  Febris flava.  See Typhus.
  Febris hectica.  A genus of disease in the  class
Pyrexia, and order Febris, of Cullen.  It is known by
exacerbations at noon, but greater in the evening, with
slight remissions in the morning,  after  nocturnal
sweats; the urine depositing a fuifuraceo-lateritious
sediment; appetite good; thirst moderate.  Hectic
fever  is symptomatic of chlorosis, scrofula, phthisis,
diseased viscera, Sec.
  Febris hungarica.  A species of tertian intermit-
tent fever.
  Febris hvdrodes. A fever with profuse sweaU.
  Febris inflammatoria.  See Synocha.
  Febris intermittens.  An intermittent fever, or
ague.  A division of the order Febres, of Cullen, in
the class Pyrexie.  Intermittent fevers are known by
cold, hot, and sweating stages, in succession, attending
each  paroxysm,  and followed by an intermission or
remission.   There are three genera of intermitting
fevers, and several varieties.
  1.  Quotidiana.  A quotidian.ague. The paroxysms
return in the morning, at an interval of about twenty-
four hours.
  2. Tertiana.   A tertian ague.  The paroxysms com-
monly come on  at mid-day, at an interval of about
forty-eight hours.
  3.  Quartana.  A quartan ague.   The paroxysms
come  on in  the afternoon, with an  interval of about
seventy-two  hours.   The tertian ague is most apt to
prevail in the spring, and the quartan in autumn.
  Of the quotidian, tertian, and quartan intermittents,
there  are several varieties and forms; as the double
tertian, having a paroxysm every day, with the alter-
nate paroxysms, similar  to one another.   The double
tertian, with two paroxysms  every other day.  The
triple  tertian, with two  paroxysms on one day, and
another on the next. The double quartan, with two
paroxysms on the  first day, none on the second and
third,  and two again  on  the fourth day.   The double
quartan, with a paroxysm on the first day, another on
the second, but none ou the third.  The triple quartan,
with three  paroxysms every fourth day.  The triple
quartan, with  a paroxysm  every day, every fourth
paroxysm being similar.
  When these fevers arise in the spring  of the year,
they are called vernal; and when in the autumn, they
                                       353 
FEB
FEB
are known by the name of autumnal.  Intermittenls
often prove obstinate, and are  of long  duration in
warm climates; and they not unfrequently resist every
mode of cure, so as to become very distressing to the
 Salient; and by the extreme debility which theythere-
 y induce, often give rise to other chronic complaints.
  It seems to be pretty generally acknowledged, that
marsh miasmata, or the effluvia arising from stagnant
water, or marshy ground, when acted  upon by heat,
are the most frequent exciting causes of this fever. In
marshes, the  putrefaction of both vegetable and ani-
mal matter is always going forward, it  is to be pre-
sumed ; and hence it  has been generally  conjectured,
that vegetable and animal putrefaction imparted a pe-
culiar quality to the effluvia arising from thence.  We
are not yet acquainted with all the  circumstances,
which are  requisite  to render  marsh miasma  pro-
ductive of the intermittents; but it  may be presumed
that a moist atmosphere has a considerable influence
in promoting its  action.  A watery poor diet, great
fatigue, long watching, grief, much  anxiety, exposure
to cold,  lying  in damp rooms or beds, wearing damp
linen, the suppression of some long-accustomed evacua-
tion, or the recession of eruptions, have been ranked
among the exciting causes of intermittenU; but it is
more reasonable to suppose that these  circumstances
act only by inducing that state ofthe body, which pre-
disposes to these complainU.   By some  it  has been
imagined that an intermittent fever may be communi-
cated by contagion;  but this supposition  is  by no
means consistent with general observation.
  One peculiarity of this fever is, its great susceptibi-
lity of a renewal  from very slight causes, as from the
prevalence of an easterly wind,  even without the re-
petition of the original exciting cause.  It would ap-
pear that a predisposition is left in the habit, which
favours the recurrence of the complaint.  In this cir-
cumstance, intermittents differ from most other fevers,
as it is well known, that after a continued  fever has
once occurred,and been removed, the person so affect-
ed is by no means so liable to a fresh attack ofthe dis-
order, as one in whom it had never taken place.
  We have not yet attained a certain  knowledge of
tiie proximate cause of an intermittent fever, but a de-
ranged state  of the stomach  and prime vie is that
which is most generally ascribed.
  Each  paroxysm of an intermittent fever is divided
into three different stages, which are called tiie cold,
the hot,  and the sweating stages or fits.
  The cold stage commences with languor, a sense of
debility and sluggishness in motion, frequent yawning
and stretching, and an aversion to food.  The face and
extremities become pale, the features shrink, the bulk
of every external part is diminished, and the skin over
the whole body appears constricted, as if cold had been
applied  to it.  At length the patient feels very cold,
and universal rigors come on, with pains  in the head,
back, loins, and joints, nausea, and vomiting of bilious
matter; the respiration is small, frequent, and anxious;
the urine is almost colourless; sensibility is greatly
impaired; the thoughts are somewhat confused;  and
the pulse is small, frequent, and often irregular.  In a
few instances, drowsiness and stupour have prevailed
in so high a degree as to resemble coma or apoplexy;
but this is by  no means usual.
  These symptoms abating after a short time, the se-
cond stage commences with an increase of heat over
the whole body, redness of the face, dryness  of the
skin, thirst, pain in the head, throbbing in  the temples,
anxiety and restlessness; the respiration is fuller  and
more free, but still frequent; the tongue is furred, and
the pulse has become regular, hard, and full.   If the
attack has been very severe, then perhaps delirium
will arise.
  When these symptoms have continued for some
time, a moisture breaks out on the  forehead, and by
degrees becomes a sweat, and this, at length, extends
over the whole body.   As this sweat continues to
flow, the heat ofthe body abates, the thirst ceases, and
most of the functions are restored to  their ordinary
state.  This constitutes the third stage.
  It must, however, be observed, that In different eases
these phenomena may prevail in different degrees, and
their mode of succession vary; that the series of tiiem
may be  more or less complete; and that  the several
stages, in the time they occupy, may be  in different
proportions to one another.
      3S4
  Such a depression of strength has been known lo
 take place on the attack  ot' an  intermittent, as to cut
 off the patient at once; but an occurrence of this kind
 is very uncommon.
  Patients are seldom destroyed in Intermittents from
 general inflammation, or from a fulness of the vessels
 either of  the brain or of tiie thoracic viscera, as hap-
 pens sometimes in  a continued fever; but when they
 continue for any length of time, they are apt to induce
 other complainU, such as a loss of appetite, flatulency,
 schirrhus of the liver, dropsical  swellings, and general
 debility, which in the end now and then prove  fatal.
 In warm climates, particularly, intermittenU are very
 apt  to  terminate in this manner, if not speedily re-
 moved ; and in some cases, they degenerate into con-
 tinued fevers.  When the paroxysms are of short du-
 ration, and leave the intervals quite free, we may ex
 pect a speedy recovery ; but when they are long, vio-
 lent, and attended  with much  anxiety and delirium,
 the event may be doubtful.  Relapses  are very com-
 mon to this fever at the distance of five or six months,
 or even a year;  autumnal intermittents are more diffi-
 cult  to  remove than vernal ones, and quartans  more
 so than the other types.
  Dissections of those who  have died of on intermit-
 tent, show a morbid state of many of the viscera ofthe
 thorax and abdomen; but tlie liver, and organs con-
 cerned in the formation of bile, as likewise the mesen-
 tery, are those which are usually most affected.
  The treatment of an intermittent fever resolves itself
 into  those means, which may be employed during a
 paroxysm, to arrest its progress, or to mitigate iu vio-
 lence ;  and those, which may prevent any return, and
 effect a permauent cure: this forms of course Ihe more
 important part of the plan; but it is sometimes necessary
 to palliate urgent symptoms; and it is always desirable
 to suspend a paroxysm, if possible, not only to  prevent
 mischief, but also that there may be more time for  the
 use ofthe most effectual remedies. When therefore a tit
 is commencing,  or shortly expected, we  may try to
obviate it by some of those means, which excite move-
ments of  an opposite description iu the system; an
emetic will generally answer ihe purpose, determinmg
the blood powerfully to the surface of the body; or a
full dose of opium, assisted by  the pediluvium, &c;
ether also, and various stimulant remedies, will  often
succeed, but these may perhaps aggravate, should they
not prevent the fit; the cold bath, violent exercise, strong
impressions on the mind, &c. have likewise been occa-
sionally employed with effect  Should  the paroxysm
 have already come on, and  the cold  stage be very se-
 vere, the warm  bath, and cordial diaphoretics in  re-
 peated moderate doses, may assist in bringing Warmth
 to the surface: when, on  the contrary, great heat pre-
 vails, the antiphlogistic plan is to be pursued; and it
 may be sometimes advisable, when  an  organ of im-
 portance is  much pressed upon, to  take some blood
 locally, or even from the general system, if the patient
 is plethoric and robust: and where profuse perspirations
occur, acidulated drink may be exhibited, with a little
 wine to support the strength, keeping tiie surface cool
at the same time. In the  intermissions, in conjunction
with a  generous diet, moderate exercise,  and other
means calculated to improve the vigour of tlie system;
tonics are the remedies especially relied upon.  At the
head of these  we must certainly place  the cinchona,
which, taken largely in substance, will seldom fail lo
cure  the disease, where it is not complicated with vis-
ceral affection: in a quotidian an ounce at least should
be given between the fits, in a  tertian  half as much
more, and in a quartan two ounces.  It will be gene-
rally better to clear  out the prime vie before this  re-
medy is begun with; and various additions may often
be required,  to make it agree  better with the stomach
and bowels, particularly aromatics and other stimulanu,
aperienu or small doses of opium, according to circum-
stances. We must  not be content with  the omission
of a single paroxysm, but continue it till the health ap-
pears fully established.   In failure of the cinchona,
other vegetable tonics may be tried, as the  salix, gen-
tian, calumba, and other bitters; or the astringents, ns
tormentil, galls, &c.; or these variously combined with
each other, or with aromatics.  The mineral acids are
often powerfully tonic, and the sulphuric has been of
late stated to have proved very successful in the removal
of this disease.  Some metallic  preparations are also
highly  efficacious, particularly the liquor arsvuicsJis, 
FEM
FEM
which, however, is too hazardous a  remedy to  be
employed indiscriminately; it must be  given in small
doses two or three times a day, and iu effecu assidu
ously watched.  The sulphate of zinc, and chalybeates,
may be used more freely alone, or preferably joined with
bitters.  Where visceral disease attends, we can hardly
succeed in curing the ague, till this be removed; a state
of congestion, or inflammatory tendency, may require
local bleeding, blistering, purging,  &c.; and when there
is a more fixed obstruction, particularly in the liver, the
cautious use of mercury will be most likely to avail.
  Febris lactea.  Milk fever, which  is mostly of the
synoclms-type attended with much irregularity of mind,
and nervousness.
  Febris lenta.  See Febris nervosa
  Febris lenticularis.  A fever, either  typhus or
synochus, attended by an eruption like  small lentils.
  Febris maligna.  See Typhus.
  Febris miliaris.  See Miliaria
  Febris morbillosa.  See Rubeola
  Febris  nervosa.  Febris lenta nervosa.   The ner-
vous fever.  A variety of the typhus mitior of Cullen,
but by many considered as a distinct disease.   It mostly
begins with loss of appetite,  increased heat and ver-
tigo; to which succeed nausea,  vomiting,  great lan-
guor, and pain in the head, which is variously described,
by some like cold water pouring over the top, by others
a sense of weight.  The pulse, before little  increased,
now becomes quick, febrile, and tremulous; the tongue
is covered with a white crust, and  there  is great anxiety
about the prrccordia.  Towards the seventh or eighth
day, the vertigo is increased, and tinnitus  aurium,
cophosis, delirium, and a dry and  tremulous tongue,
take place.  The disease mostly terminates about the
fourteenth or twentieth day.  See Typhus.
  Febris nosocomiorum.   The fever of hospitals,
mostly the typhus gravior.
  Febris  palustris.  The marsh fever
  Febris pestilens.  See Peslis.
  Febris petechialis.  See Typhus.
  Febris putrida.   See Typhus.
  Febris remittens.  A remittent fever: a feverwith
strong exacerbations, which approach in some cases to
the nature of a paroxysm of an intermittent, and which
follow each other so closely as to  leave very little time
between.  In some, there is a great secretion of bile,
when it is called a bilious remittent; in others, there is
great putrescency, when it U termed aputrid remittent,
and so on.
  Febris scarlatina.  See Scarlatina.
  Febris synocha.  See Synocha.
  Febris typhodes.  See Typhus.
  Febris urticaria. See  Urticaria.
  Febris variolosa.  See Variola.
  Febris vesiculosa.  See Erysipelas.
  FE'CULA.  See Fecula.
  FECUNDATION.  See Generation.
  FEL.  See Bile.
  Fel natur*.  See Aloes.
  FEL-WORT.   So called from iu bitter taste, like
bile.  See Gentiana.
  Felli'culus.  The gall-bladder.
  Felli'flua passio.  See Cholera.
  Felon.  See Paronychia.
  FELSPAR. An important mineral genus, distributed
by Jameson into four species: prismatic felspar; pyra-
midal felspar; prismato-pyramidal felspar; rhomboidal
felspar.
  1.  The prismatic felspar has nine Bub-species,
  a. Adularia.
  b.  Glassy felspar.
  c.  Ice spar.
  d. Common felspar. ,
  e.  Labradore felspar.
  /.  Compact felspar.
  g. Clink-stone.
  h.  Earthy common spar.
  i.  Porcelain earth.
  2.  Pyramidal felspar.  This embraces  the scapolite
and claolite.
  3.  Prismato-pvramidal felspar.   See Mdonite.
  4.  Rhomboidal felspar.   See Nepheline. Chiastolite
and sodalitc have also been annexed to this species.
  [Fesite.  Blue felspar of Stiria.  A.]
  Fe'men.  (Quasi fcrimen; from fero, to bear: so
railed because  it is the  chief support of the body.)
The thigh.                              v„
  FEMINEUS.  A flower is termed a female, which Is
furnished with the pistillum, and not with the stamina;
the pistil being considered as the female generative
organ.
  FEMORAL.   (Femoralis; from femur, the thigh.)
Of or belonging to the thigh.
  Femora'lis arteria.  A continuation of the ex-
ternal iliac along the thigh, from Poupart's ligament to
the ham.
  FEMORIS OS. The thigh-bone.  A long cylindri-
cal bone, situated between the pelvis  and tibia.  IU
upper extremity affords three considerable processes;
these are, the head, the trochanter major, and trochan-
ter minor.  The head, which forms  about two-thirds
of a sphere, is turned inwards, and is received into the
acetabulum of the os innorninatum, with which it is
articulated by enarthrosis.  It is covered by a cartilage,
which  is thick in ite middle part, and thin at  its edges,
but which is wanting in its lower internal part, where a
round spongy fossa is observable, to which the strong
ligament, usually, though improperly, called the round
one, is  attached.  This  ligament is about an inch in
length,  flattish, and of a triangular shape, having  its
narrow extremity attached to the fossa just described,
while its broader end is fixed obliquely to the rough
surface near  the inner and anterior edge of the ace-
tabulum of the  os innorninatum,  so that it appears
shorter internally and anteriorly, than it does externally
and posteriorly.
  The  head  of the os femoris is supported obliquely,
with respect to the rest of the bone, by a smaller part,
called the cervix, or neck, which, in the generality of
subjects, is about an  inch in length.  At its basis we
observe two oblique ridges, which extend from the tro-
chanter major to  the trochanter  minor.   Of these
ridges, the posterior one is the  most prominent.  Around
thu neck is attached the capsular ligament of the joint,
which likewise adheres to the edge of the cotyloid ca-
vity, and is  strengthened anteriorly by many strong
ligamentous fibres, which begin from the lower and an-
terior part of the ilium, and spreading broader as they
descend,  adhere  to the  capsular  ligament,  and  are
attached to the anterior oblique ridge at the bottom of
the neck of the femur.  Posteriorly and externally, from
the basis of the neck of the bone, a large unequal pro-
tuberance stands out, which  is the trochanter major.
i he upper edge  of this process is  sharp and pointed
posteriorly, but is more obtuse anteriorly.  A part of it
is rough and unequal, for the  insertion of the muscles;
the rest is smooth, and covered with a thin cartilaginous
crust, between which and the tendon of the gluteus
maximus that slides over it,  a large bursa mucosa is
interposed.   Anteriorly, at the root of this process, and
immediately below the bottom of tlie neck, is a small
process called trochanter minor.   IU basis  is nearly
triangular, having iu two upper angles turned towards
the head of the femur and the great trochanter, while
iu lower angle is placed towards the body of the bone.
Ite summit is rough  and rounded.   These  two pro
cesses  have gotten the name of trochanters, from the
muscles that  are inserted into them being the principal
instruments of the rotatory motion of the thigh.  Im
mediately below these two processes the body of the
bone may be said to begin.  It is smooth and convex
before, but is  made hollow behind  by the action of the
muscles.  In  the middle of this posterior concave sur-
face is observed a rough ridge, called linea aspera,
which seems to originate from the trochanters, and ex-
tending downwards, divides at length into two branches,
which terminate in the tuberosities near tbe  condyles.
At the upper part of it, blood-vessels pass to the internal
substance of  the bone by a  hole  that runs  obliquely
upwards.
  The lower extremity ofthe os femoris is larger than
the upper one, and somewhat flattened, so as to form
two surfaces, of which the anterior one is broad and
convex, and   the posterior one narrower and slightly
concave. Thisend ofthe bone terminates in two large
protuberances, called condyles, which  are united be-
fore so as to form a pulley, but are separated behind
by a considerable cavity, in  which the crural vessels
and nerves are placed secure  from  the compression to
which they would otherwise  be exposed in the action
of bending the leg.  Of these two condyles, the ex-
ternal one is  the lamest;  and when the bone is sepa-
rated from the rest ofthe skeleton, and placed perpen
dicularly, the internal condyle projects less forward^ 
FER
FER
and  descends nearly three-tenths of an  inch  lower
than the external one ; but in its natural situation, the
bone  is placed obliquely, so that both condyles are
then nearly on a level with each other.  At the Bide
of each condyle, externally, there is a tuberosity, the
situation of which is similar to  that of tlie condyles
of the os humeri.   The two branches of the linea as-
pera terminate in these tuberosities, which are rough,
and serve for attachment of ligaments and muscles.
  FE'MUR.  (Femur, maris, n.)   The thigh.
  FENE'STRA.  (Fromtfiaivta, quasi phenestra.) A
window, entry, or hole.
  Fenestra ovalis.  An oblong or elliptical foramen,
between the cavity of the tympanum and the vestibu-
lum of the ear.  It is shut by the stapes.
  Fenestra  rotunda.   A round  foramen, leading
from the tympanum to the cochlea of the car.  It is co-
vered by a membrane in the fresh subject
  FE'NNEL.  See Anethumfeniculum.'
  Fennel, hog's.  See Peucedanum.
  FE'NUGREEK.  See Trigonella fenum gracum.
  FE'RINE.   (Ferinus, savage or  brutal.)  A term
occasionally applied to any malignant or noxious dis-
ease.
  FERMENTA'TION.  (Fcrmentatio, onis.f.; from
fermento, to ferment.) When aqueous combinations
of vegetable or animal substances are exposed to ordi-
nary atmospherical temperatures, they speedily under-
go spontaneous changes, to which the generic term of
iermentation has been given.  There arc several cir-
cumstances required in  order that fermentation may
proceed: such are, 1. A certain degree of fluidity:
thus, dry substances do not ferment  at  all.  2. A cer-
tain degree of heat  3. The contact of air.  Chem ists,
after  Boerhaave,  have distinguished three kinds of
fermentation.
  1. The vinous or spirituous, which affords ardent
spirit.
  2.  The acetous, which affords vinegar, or acetic acid.
  3.  The putrid fermentation, or putrefaction, which
produces volatile alkali.
  I. The conditions necessary for vinous fermentation
are: 1. A saccharine mucilage.  2. A degree of flu-
idity slightly viscid.  3.  A degree of heat between 55
and 65 of Fahrenheit.  4. A  large mass,  in which a
rapid commotion may be excited.  When these four
conditions  are united, the vinous fermentation takes
place,  and is  known by the following  characteristic
phenomena:  1. An  intestine motion takes place.  2.
The bulk of the mixture then becomes augmented.  3.
The transparency ofthe fluid is diminished by opaque
filaments.  4. Heat is generated. 5. The solid parts
mixed with the liquor rise and float in consequence of
the disengagement of elastic fluid.  6. A  large quan-
tity of carbonic acid gas is disengaged in bubbles.  All
these phenomena gradually cease in proportion, as the
liquor loses iu sweet and mild taste, and it  becomes
brisk, penetrating, and capable of producing intoxica-
tion.  In this manner, wine, beer, cider, ice. are made.
All bodies which  have undergone the spirituous fer-
mentation are capable of passing on to the acid fer-
mentation; but although it is probable that the acid
fermentation  never takes place before the body has
gone through the spirituous fermentation, yet the du-
ration of the first is frequently so short and impercep-
tible, that it cannot be ascertained.  Besides the  bodies
which are proper for spirituous fermentation, this class
includes all sorts of fiecula boiled in water.
  II.  The conditions required for the acid fcrmenta-
tii hi are, 1. A heat from 70 to 85 degrees of Fahren-
heit.  2. A certain  degree of liquidity.  3. The pre-
sence of atmospheric air.  4. A moderate quantity of
fermentable matter.  Tbe phenomena which accom-
|«ny this fermentation, are an intestine motion, and a
considerable absorption of air.  The transparent liquor
becomes turbid, but regains ite limpidity when fermen-
tation is over. The fermented liquor now consists, in
a great measure, of a peculiar acid, called the acetic
acid, or vinegar.   Not a vestige of spirit remains, it be-
ing entirely decomposed, but the greater ihe quantity
of spirit in the liquor, previous  to  the fermentation,
the greater will be the  quantity of true  vinegar ob-
tained. As the ultimate constituenu of vegetable mat-
ter are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon:  and of animal
matter, the same" three principles with azote, we can
readily understand  that all the producuof fermenta-
tion must be merely new compounds of these three or
       JJO
four ultimate constituents.  Aecordinrffy, 100 parts of
real vinegar, or acetic acid,  are  resolvable, by  Gay
Lussac and Thenard's analysis, into 50.221 carbon -f>
46.911 hydrogen and oxygen, as they exist in  water,
+ 2.863 oxygen in excess.  In like  manner, wines are
all resolvable into the same ultimate components, iu
proportions somewhat different.  The aeriform rtsulu
of putrefactive fermentation are in like manner found
to be, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and azote, variously
combined, and associated with minute quantities of
sulphur and phosphorus.  The residuary matter  con-
sisu of the same principles, mixed with the saline and
earthy paru of animal bodies.
  Lavoisier was the first philosopher who Instituted,
on right principles, a series of experimenu to investi-
gate the  phenomena of fermentation, and they were
so judiciously contrived, and so accurately conducted,
as to give resulu comparable to those derived from tile
more rigid  methods of the present day.  Since then,
Thenard and Gay Lussac have each contributed  most
important researches.  By the labours of these three
illustrious chemists, those  material metamorphoses,
formerly quite mysterious, seem susceptible of a satis-
factory explanation.
  As sugar is a substance of uniform and determinate
composition, it has been made choice of for determining
the changes which arise when  iu solution is fermented
into wine or alkohol.  Lavoisier justly regarded  it as
a true vegetable oxide,  and stated iu constituents to
be, 8 hydrogen, 28 carbon, and 64 oxygen, in 100 parts.
By two different analyses of .Berzelius, we have,
      Hydrogen............  6.802   6.891
      Carbon...............  44.115   42.704
      Oxygen...............  49.083   50.405
100.000  100.000
Gay Lussac and Thenard's analysis gives,
    o^™::v::.v.v::.v.v.»:"I nja water-
    Carbon..................42.47  42.47
                             100.00 100.00

  It has been said, that sugar requires to be dissolved
in at least 4 parts of water, and to be mixed with some
yest, to cause its fermentation to commence.   But this
is a mistake.  Syrup stronger than the above will fer-
ment in warm weather, without addition.  If the tem-
perature be low, the syrup weak, and no yest added,
acetous fermentation alone will  take place.  To de-
termine the vinous, therefore, we  must mix certain
proportions of saccharine matter, water, and yest, and
place them in a proper temperature.
  To observe the chemical changes which occur, we
must dissolve 4 or 5 parts of pure sugar in 20 parts of
water, put the solution into a matrass, and add 1 part
of yest  Into the mouth of  the  matrass a glass tube
must be luted, which is recurved, so as to dip into the
mercury of a pneumatic trough.   If the apparatus  be
now placed in a temperature  of from  70° to 80°, we
shall speedily observe the syrup to become muddy, and
a multitude of air bubbles to  form all around tbe for
ment.  These unite, and attaching themselves to par'
tides of the yest, rise along with  it to the surface,
forming a stratum of froth.   The yesty matter will
then disengage itself from the air, fall to tbe bottom  of
the vessel, to reacquire buoyancy a second time by  at
tached air bubbles, and thus in succession.  If we ope
rate  on 3 or 4 ounces  of sugar, the fermentation will
be very rapid during  the first ten or twelve boors; it
will  then slacken, and terminate in the course of a lew
days.  At this period the matter being deposited wbich
disturbed the transparency of the liquor, this will be-
come clear.
  The  following changes have now taken place:  1.
The sugar  is wholly, and tlie yest partially, decom-
posed.   2. A quantity of alkohol and carbonic acid,
together nearly in weight to the  sugar, is  produced.
3. A white matter is formed, composed of hydrogen,
oxygen, and carbon, equivalent to about half the weight
of the decomposed ferment   The carbonic acid passes
over into the pneumatic apparatus; the alkohol may
be separated from the vinous liquid by  distillation, and
the white matter falls  down to the bottom of tiie ma-
trass with the remainder ofthe yest
  The quantity of yest decomposed is very small. 100 
FER
FER
parts  of sugar require, for  complete decomposition,
only two and a half of that substance, supposed to be
in a dry state.  It is hence very probable, that the fer-
ment, which has a strong affinity for oxygen, takes a
little of it from the saccharine particles, by a part of
iu hydrogen and carbon, and thus the equilibrium be-
ing broken between the constituent principles of tlie
sugur, these so react on each  oilier, as to be transform-
ed into alkohol and  carbonic acid.  If we consider
the composition of alkohol, we shall find no difficulty
in tracing the steps of this transformation.
  Neglecting the minute products which the yest fur-
nishes, in the act of fermentation, let us regard only
the alkohol and carbonic acid. We shall then see, on
comparing the composition of sugar to that of alkohol,
that to transform sugar  into alkohol, we  must with-
draw from it one  volume of vapour of carbon, and
one volume of oxygen, which form by their union one
volume of carbonic acid gas.  Finally, let us reduce
the volumes into weights, we shall find, that 100 parts
of sugar ought  to  be  conyerted,  during fermentation,
into 51.55 of alkohol, and 48.45 of carbonic acid.
  When it is required to preserve fermented liquors in
the state produced by the first stage of fermentation, it
is usual to put them into casks before tiie vinous pro-
cess is completely ended; and in these closed vessels a
change  veiy slowly continues to be made for many
uionlhs, and perhaps for some years.
  But if the fermentative process be suffered to proceed
in open vessels, more especially if the  temperature be
raised  to 90 degrees, the acetous fermentation comes
on.  In this, the oxygen of the atmosphere is absorbed;
and the more speedily in proportion as the surfaces of
the liquor are often changed  by lading it from one ves-
sel to another.  The usual method consisu in exposing
the fermented liquor to the air in  open casks, the bung-
hole of which is covered with a tile to prevent the en-
trance of the rain.  By the absorption of oxygen which
takes place, the inflammable spirit becomes converted
into an acid.  If the liquid be then exposed to distilla-
tion, pure vinegar comes over instead of ardent spirit.
  III. When the spontaneous decomposition is suffered
to proceed beyond the acetous process, the vinegar be-
comes viscid and foul; air is emitted with an offensive
smell; volatile  alkali flies off; an earthy sediment is
deposited; and the remaining liquid, if any, is mere
water.  This is the putrefactive process.  See also
Putrefaction.
   FERME'NTUM. (Quasi fervimentum, from ferveo,
to work.)  Yest.
   Fermentum cerrvisi2e.   Yest; Barm; the scum
which collecu on beer while fermenting, and has the
property of exciting that process in various other sub-
stances.  Medicinally it is antiseptic and tonic; and
has been found useful internally in the cure of typhus
fever attended  with  an obvious tendency to putrefac-
tion in the system with petechia;, vibices, and the like:
the best way to administer  it, is to mix a fluid ounce
with seven of strong beer, and live three  table spoon-
fuls to an adult every three or four hours.  Externally,
it is used In Ihe fermenting cataplasm.
   FERN.  See Filix and Poiypodium.
   Fern, male.  See Poly dodium filix mas.
   Fern, female. See Pteris aquilina.
   KERNEL, John, was born at Claremont, near the
end of the 15th century.  He went at the age of 19 to
prosecute his studies at Paris, and distinguished him-
self so  much, that, after taking  the degree of master
of arts, he was chosen professor of dialectics in his
college.   His application  then became intense, till  a
quartan ague obliged him to seek his native  air: and
on his  return to Paris, he determined on the medical
profession, and taught  philosophy for his support, till
iu 15150, he took his doctor's degree. Soon after he
married, and speedily got into extensive practice; and
at length was made physician  to the Dauphin, who
afterward became Henry II.  He was obliged  to ac-
company that monarch  in his campaigns, yet be still,
though at the age of sixty, seldom passed a day with-
out writing.  But  in  1558, having lost his wife of  a
fever, he did not long survive her. His works are nu-
merous on philosophical, as  well as medical  subjects:
of the latter, tlie most esteemed were his " Medicina,"
dedicated to Henry II.,  and  a posthumous treatise on
fevers.
   Flru om ntiim.  An instrument made of iron.
   FLRRO-CHYAZIO  ACID.   Acidum forro-chyazi-
cum,' chyazicum, from the initial  letters of carbon,
hydrogen, and azote.)  An acid obtained by Porrett by
adding to a  solution of ferro-cyanite of batyt.es, sul-
phuric acid just enough to precipitate the barytes.  It
has a pale yellow colour, no smell, and is decomposed
by genlle heat or strong  light, in which  case hydrocy-
anic acid is formed, and white hydrocyanite of iron is
deposited, which becomes blue by exposure.
  FERRO-CYANATE.    A compound  of ferro-prus-
sic acid with salifiable bases.
  FERRO-CYANIC ACID.  See Ferro-prussit acid.
  FERRO-PRUSSIC ACID.   Acidum ferro-prussi-
cum.  Acidum ferro-cyanicum.  Into a solution of the
amber-coloured crystals, usually called prussiates of
potassa, pour hydro-sulphuret of barytes, as  long as
any precipitate  falls.  Throw the whole on a filter,
and wash the precipitate with cold water.  Dry it; and
having dissolved 100 paru in cold water, add gradually
thirty of  concentrated sulphuric acid; agitate the mix-
ture, and set it aside to repose.  The supernatant li-
quid is ferro-prussic acid, called by Porrett, who had
the merit of discovering it, ferruretted chyazic acid.
  It has a pale lemou-yellow colour,  but no smell.
Heat and light decompose it. Hydrocyanic acid is then
formed, and white ferro-prussiate of iron, which soon
becomes blue.  Its affinity for  the bases enables it lo
displace  acetic  acid, without  heat, from the  acetates,
and to form ferro-prussiates.
  FE'RRUM.  (Ferrum, i. neut; the etymology un-
certain.)  Iron.  See Iron.
  Ferrum  ammoniatum.  Ammoniated  iron;  for-
merly known by the names of flores martiales ; flores
salis ammoniaci martiales ; ens  martis; ens veneris
Boylei;  sal martis muriaticum  sublimatum,  and
lately by the title of ferrum ammoniacale.  Take of
subcarbonate of iron, muriate of ammonia, of each a
pound.   Mix them  intimately, and sublime by imme-
diate exposure  to a strong fire; lastly, reduce the sub-
limed ammoniated iron to powder.  This  prepara-
tion is astringent and deobstruent, in doses from three
to fifteen grains, or more,  in the form of bolus or pills,
prepared with some gum.  It is exhibited in mostcases
of debility, in chlorosis, asthenia, menorrhagia, inter-
mittent fevers, Sec.  This  or some other strong prepa-
ration of iron, as the Tinct ferri muriatis, Mr. Cline is
wont to recommend in schirrhous affections of  the
breast.   See Tinctura ferri ammoniati.
   Ferrum tartarizatum.  Tartarized iron.  A tar-
trate of potassa and iron; formerly called  tartarus
clialybeatus ; mars solubilis ; ferrum potabile. Take
of iron, a pound); supertartrate of potassa, powdered,
two pounds; water, a pint.  Rub them together; and
expose them to the air in a broad glass vessel for eight
days, then dry the residue in a sand bath, and reduce it
to a very fine powder.   Add  to this powder a pint
more water, and expose  it for  eight days longer, then
dry it, and reduce it to a very fine powder.  Its virtues
are astringent  and tonic, and it forms in solution an
excellent tonic fomentation to contusions, lacerations,
distortions, &c.   Dose  from ten  grains to half a
drachm.
   Ferri alkalini liquor.  Solution of alkaline iron.
Take of iron, two drachms and a half; nitric acid,
two fluid ounces; disilled water, six fluid ounces ; so-
lution of subcarbonate  of potassa, six  fluid ounces.
Having mixed the acid and water, pour them upon the
iron, and when the effervescence has ceased, pour off
the clear acid solution ;  add this gradually, and at in-
tervals,  to the solution of subcarbonate of potassa,
occasionally shaking it, until it has assumed a deep
brown-red colour, and  no further  effervescence lakes
place.  Lastly, set it by  for six hours, and pour off' the
clear solution.   This preparation was  first described
by Stael, and called tinctura martis alkalina, and is
now introduced in the London Pharmacopoeia as afford-
ing a combination of iron distinct from  any other, and
often applicable to  practice.  The dose is from half a
drachm to a drachm.
   Ferri carbonas.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
   Ferri limatura purificata.  Purified iron filings.
These possess tonic, astringent, and deobstruent vir-
tues, and are calculated to relieve chlorosis and other
diseases  in  which steel is indicated, where acidity in
the prima: vice abounds.
   Ferri rubigo.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
   Fkrri subcarbonas.   Ferri carbonas;  Ferrum
precipitalum, formerly called chalybis rubigo prapa- 
FER
FIB
 rata and ferri rubigo.  Subcarbonate of iron.  Take
 of sulphate of iron, eight ounces; subcarbonate of soda,
 six ounces; boiling water, a gallon.   Dissolve the sul-
 phate of iron and subcarbonate of  soda separately,
 each in four pints of water; then mix the solutions
 together  and set it by, that the precipitated  powder
 may subside; then having poured off the supernatant
 liquor, wash the subcarbonate of iron with hot water,
 and dry it upon bibulous paper in a gentle heat.  It
 possesses mild corroborant and stimulating properties,
 and is exhibited with  success iu leticotrhoea, ataxia,
 asthenia, chlorosis, dyspepsia, rachitis,  &c.   Dose
 from two to ten grains.
   Ferri sulphas.  Sulphate of iron; formerly called
 sal martis, vitriolum martis, vitriolum ferri, and fer-
 rum vitriolatum.  Green vitriol.  Take of iron, sulphu-
 ric acid, of each by weight, eight ounces; water, four
 pinU.   Mix together the sulphuric acid and water in a
 glass vessel, and add thereto the iron; then after the
 effervescence has  ceased, filter the solution through
 paper, and evaporate it until crystals form as it cools.
 Having poured away the  water, dry these upon  bibu-
 lous paper.   This is an excellent preparation of iron,
 and is exhibited, in mar.y diseases, as a styptic, tonic,
 astringent, aud anthelmintic.  Dotie from one grain  to
 five grains.
   [Ferrilite.   Common trap of Kirwan.  Amor-
 phous basalt of Cleaveland.  The Ferrilite, arid per-
 haps the Mullen stone of Kirwan, may be referred to
 this variety of basalt.   A.]
   FERRURETTED CHYAZIC ACID.  See Ferro-
 prussic acid.
   Fers.e.  The measles.
   Fertileflower.  See Flos.
   FE'RULA.  The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
   Ferula africana  oalbanifera.  The galbanum
 plant   See Bubon galbanum.
   Ferula assafcctida.  The systematic name of the
 assafcetida plant.  Assafatida. Hingiseh of the Per-
 sians.   Altiht of the Arabians.  By some thought  to
 be the oiXibtov,  vel oxoc aiXipiov of Dioscorides, Theo-
 phrastus,  and Hippocrates.  Laser et laserpitium of
 the Latins.   Ferula assafatida—foliis alternatim si-
 nuatis, oblusis, of Linnaius. This plant, which affords
 us the assafcetida ofthe shops, grows plentifully on the
 mountains in the provinces of Chorassan and Laar,in
 Persia.
   The process of obtaining it is as follows: the earth
 U cleared away  from the top of the rooU of the oldest
 plants; the leaves and stalks are then twisted away,
 and made iuto a covering, to screen the root from the
 sun; iu this state the root is left for forty days, when
 the covering is removed, and tlie top of tlie  root cut
 off transversely; it is then screened again from tbe
 sun for forty-eight  hours, when the juice it exudes  is
 scraped off, and exposed to tlie sun to harden.  A se-
 cond transverse  section of tiie root is made, and the
 exudation suffered to continue for forty-eight hours,
 mid then scraped off.  In this manner it is eight times
 repeatedly collected in  a  period of six  weeks.  The
juice thus obtained has a  bitter, acrid, pungent taste,
 and is well known by its peculiar nauseous smell, the
 strength of which is the  surest test of its goodness.
 This odour is extremely  volatile, and of course the
 drug loses much of iu efficacy by  keeping.   It is
 brought to us in large irregular masses, composed of
 various little shining lumps, or grains, which are partly
 of a whitish  colour, partly reddish, and partly  of  a
 violet hue. Those masses are accounted the best which
 are clear, of a   pale reddish  colour,  and variegated
 with a great number of elegant white tears.  This
 concrete juice consisu of two-thirds of gum, and one-
 third of resiu and volatile oil, in which iu taste and
 smell reside.  It yields all iu  virtues to alkohol.  Tri-
 turated with water, it forms a  milk-like mixture, the
 resin being diffused by the medium of the gum.  Dis-
 tilled with water, it affords a small quantity of essen-
 tial oil. It is the most powerful of all the fcetid gums,
 and is a most valuable remedy.  It is most commonly
 employed  in  hysteria, hypochondriasis, some symp-
 toms of dyspepsia, flatulent  colics,  and in most of
 those diseases termed nervous, but iu chief use is de-
 rived from iu antispasmodic effects; and it is thought
 lo be the most powerful remedy we passess, for those
 peculiar convulsive and spasmodic affections, which
 often recur in the first of these diseases, both taken
      358
 into the stomach and in the way of enema.  It is also
 recommended as an emmenagogue, anthelmintic, anil
 asthmatic, and anodyne.  Dr. Cullen prefers It as aa
 expectorant to gum ammoniacum.  Where we wish it
 to act immediately as an  antispasmodic, it should be
 used in a fluid form, as that of tincture, from half  a
 drachm to two drachms.  When given in tbe form of a
 pill, or triturated with water, iu usual dose ia from five
 to twenty grains.  When in the form of enema, one or
 two drachms are to be diffused in eight ounces of warm
 milk or water.   It is sometimes applied externally as a
 plaster and stimulating remedy, in  hysteria, ate.
  Ferula minor.   All-heal of  ./Esculapius.  This
 plant is said to be detergent
  Ferula'cca.  See Bubon galbanum.
  FEVER.  See Febris.
  FEVERFEW.  See Matricaria.
  FIBER.  (From fiber, extreme, because it resides
 in the extremities  of lakes and rivers.)   The beaver.
 See Castor fiber.
  FIBRE.  Fibra.  A very simple filament.   It is
 owing to the difference in the nature and arrangemenu
 of the fibres that the structure of the several parts of
 animals and vegetables differ: hence the  barks, woods.
 leaves, &c. of vegetables, and the cellular structure,
 membranes, muscles, vessels, nerves, and, iu short
 every part of the  body, has its fibres variously consti-
 tuted and arranged, so as to form these different parts.
  Fibre muscular.  See Muscular fibre.
  FIBRIL.  (Fibrila, diminutive  of fibra.)   A small
 thread-like  fibre:  applied to the little rooU which  are
 given off' from radicles.
  FI'BRIN. "  A peculiar organic compound found
 both in vegetables and animals.  Vauquelin discovered
 it in the juice of the papaw-tree.   It is a soft solid, of
 a greasy appearance, insoluble in water,  which softens
 in the air, becoming viscid, brown, and  semi-transpa-
 rent.  On hot coals it melu, throws out  greasy drops,
 crackles, and evolves the smoke and odour of  roasting
 meat.  Fibrin is procured, however, in  IU most cha-
 racteristic state from animal matter. It exists in chyle;
 it enters into the composition of blood; of it, the chief
 part of muscular flesh is formed ; and hence it may be
 regarded as the most abundant constituent of the soft
 solids of animals.
  To obtain it, we may beat  blood as it issues from
 the veins with a bundle of twigs.  Fibrin soon attaches
 itself to each stem, under the form of long reddish fila-
 ments, which become colourless by washing them with
 cold water.  It is  solid, white, insipid, without smell,
 denser than water, and incapable of affecting the hue
 of litmus or violets. Wheu moist it possesses u spe-
 cies of elasticity; by desiccation it becomes yellowish,
 hard, and brittle.  By distillation we can extract from
 it much carbonate of ammonia, some acetate, a fcetid
 brown oil, and gaseous products; while there remains
 in ihe retort a very luminous charcoal,  very brilliant,
 difficult of incineration, which leaves, after combus-
 tion, phosphate of lime, a little phosphate of magnesia,
 carbonate of lime, and carbonate of soda.
  Cold water has no action  on fibrin.   Treated with
 boiling water, it is so changed as to lose the property
 of softening and  dissolving in acetic acid. The liquor
 filtered from it,  yields precipitates with infusion of
 galls, and the residue is white, dry, hard, and of an
 agreeable taste.
  When kept for some time in alkohol of 0.810, it gives
 rise to an adipocerous  matter, having  a strong and
 disagreeable odour.  This matter remains dissolved in
 tbe alkohol, and  may be precipitated by water. ./Ether
 makes it undergo a similar alteration, but  more slowly.
 When digested in weak muriatic acid, il evolves a lit-
tle azote, and a compound is formed, hard, horny, and
 which, washed repeatedly with water, is transformed
into another gelatinoos compound.  Tfiis seems to be
 a neutral muriate, soluble in hot water; while the first
is an acid muriate, insoluble even in boiling water.
Sulphuric  acid, diluted wilh six  times iu weight  of
water, has similar effecu. When not too concentrated,
nitric acid  has a very different action on fibrin.  For
example, when iu sp. gr. is 1.25, there results from it
at first a disengagement of azote, while the fibrin be-
comes covered with fat, and i lie liquid turns yellow.
 By digestion of twenty-four hours, the whole fibrin is
attacked, and converted  into a pulverulent mam of
 lemon yellow colour, which seems to be composed of u
uiixture of fat and fibrin, altered and intimately coin 
FIB
FIL
bined with the malic and nitric or nitrous acids.  In
fact, if we put this mass on a filter, and wash it copi-
ously with water, it will  part with a portion  of  ite
acid, will  preserve the property of reddening litmus,
and will take an orange hue.  On treating it  after-
ward with boiling alkohol, we dissolve tbe fatty mat-
ter ;  and putting the remainder in contact with  chalk
and water, an effervescence will be occasioned  by the
escape of  carbonic acid, and malate or nitrate of lime
will remain in solution.
  Concentrated acetic acid renders fibrin soft at ordi-
nary temperatures, and converu it by the aid of heat
into a jelly, which is soluble in hoi water, with tiie dis-
engagement of a small quantity of azote.  This solu-
tion  U colourless, and possesses  little taste.  Evapo-
rated to dryness, it leaves a transparent residue,  which
reddens litmus paper, and  which cannot be dissolved
even  in boiling water,  but by the medium of more
acetic acid.  Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, pre-
cipitate the animal matter, and form acid combina-
tions.  Potassa,  soda, ammonia,  effect  likewise the
precipitation of this matter, provided we do not use too
great nn excess  of alkali; for then the  precipitated
matter would be redissolved.  Aqueous potassa and
soda gradually dissolve  fibrin in the cold, without oc-
casioning  any perceptible  change in  iu  nature; but
with heat they decompose it, giving birth to a quantity
of ammoniacal gas, and other usual animal products,
Fibrin does not putrefy speedily when kept in  water.
It shrinks on exposure lo a considerable heat, and
emiu the smell of burning horn.  It is composed, ac-
cording to the analysis  of  Gay Lussac, and Thenard,
of
      Carbon,         53.360
      Azote,           19.934
      Oxygen,         19.685 ) 22.14 water.
      Hydrogen,        7.021 (  4.56 hydrogen.
  FIBROLITE.  A crystallized mineral harder than
quartz, of a white or gray colour, found in the Car-
nalic, and composed of alumina, silica, and iron.
  FIBROSUS.  (From  fibre, a  fibre.)   Fibrous.   A
term frequently used in anatomy to express the texture
of parts.  In botany, iu meaning is the  same, and is
applied to roots and other paru, as those of grasses,
&x.
   FI'BULA.  (Quasi figilula;  from figo, to fasten:
bo named because it joins together the tibia  and the
muscles.) A long bone of the leg, situated on the outer
side of the tibia, and which  forms, at iu lower end,
the outer ankle.  Its upper extremity is formed into an
irregular head, on the inside of which is a slightly con-
cave articulating surface, which,in the recent subjecu,
is covered with cartilage, and receives the circular flat
surface under the edge of the  external  cavity of the
tibia.  This articulation is surrounded  by a capsular
ligament, which is farther strengthened by other strong
ligamentous fibres, so as to allow only a small  motion
backwards and forwards.—Externally, the head ofthe
fibula is rough and protuberant, serving for the  attach-
ment of ligaments, and  for the insertion of the  biceps
cruris muscle.—Immediately below it, on its inner side,
is a tubercle, from which a part of the gastrocnemius
internus has iu origin.  Immediately below this head
the body of the bone begins. It is of a triangular shape,
and appears as if it were slightly twisted at each end,
in a different direction.  It is likewise a little  curved
inwards and forwards.  This  curvature is in part
owing to the action of muscles;  and in part perhaps to
the carelessness of nurses.—Of the three angles of* the
bone, that which  is turned towards the tibia is the
most prominent, and serves for the attachment  of the
interosseous ligament, which, in ite structure and uses,
resembles that ofthe forearm, and, like that, is  a little
interrupted above and below.  The three surfaces of
the bone are variously impressed by different muscles.
About the middle of the posterior surface is observed
a passage for the medullary vessels, slanting  down-
wards. The lower end of the fibula is formed into  a
Bpongy, oblong head, externally rough and convex, in-
ternally smooth and covered with a thin cartilage,
where it is received by the external triangular depres-
sion at the lower end of the tibia. This articulation,
which resembles that  of  its  upper extremity,  is fur-
nished with a capsular ligament, and farther strength-
ened by ligamentous fibres,  which are  stronger and
more considerable than those before described.   They
extend from tiie tibia to the fibula, in an oblique direc-
tion, and are more easily discernible before than be-
hind.  Below this the fibula is  lengthened out, so as
to form a considerable process, called malleolus exter
nus, or the outer ankle.  It is  smooth and covered
with cartilage on the inside, where it is contiguous to
the astragalus, or first bone of the foot.  At the lower
and inner part of this process, there is a spongy cavity,
filled with fat; and a little beyond this, posteriorly, is
a cartilaginous groove, for the tendons ofthe peroneus
longus and  peroneus  brevis, which are here  bound
down by tho ligamentous fibres that are extended over
them.
  The principal uses of this bone seem to be, to afford
origin and insertion to muscles, and to contribute to
the articulation ofthe leg with the foot.
  FICA'RIA.  (From ficus,  a fig; so called from its
likeness.)  See Ranunculus ficaria.
  Fica'tio.   (From ficus, a fig.)   A tuberculous  dis-
ease, near the anus and pudenda.
  FICOIDE'A.  Ficoides.   Resembling  a  fig.   A
name of the house-leek.   See Sempcrvivum tectorium.
  FI'CUS.  1. A fleshy substance about the anus, in
figure resembling a fig.
  2. The  name  of a genus of plants in the Linnsean
system.  Class, Polygamia ;  Order, Diecia.  The fig-
tree.
  Ficus carica. The systematic name of the fig-
tree.   Carica;  Ficus;  Ficus vulgaris;  Ficus com-
munis.  EvKr/ of the Greeks.  French figs are, when
completely ripe, soft,  succulent, and  easily digested,
unless eaten in immoderate quantities, when they are
apt to occasion  flatulency, pain of the bowels,  and
diarrhoea.  The dried fruit, which is sold in our shops,
is pleasanter to  tbe taste, and more wholesome  and
nutritive.  They are directed in the decoctum hordd
compositum, and in the confectio senna.  Applied ex-
ternally, they promote the suppuration of tumours;
hence they have a place in maturating cataplasms;
and are very convenient to apply to the gums, and,
when boiled with milk, to the throat
  Ficus indica.  See Lacea.
  Fiddle-shaped. See Leaf.
  Fidicina'les.  (Fidicinalis, sc. musculus.)  See
Lumbricales.
  FIENUS, Thomas, was son of a physician of Ant-
werp, and bom in 1567.  After studying at Leyden and
Bologna, he was invited, at the age of 36, to be one of
the medical professors at Louvaine, where he took his
degrees. With the exception of one year, during which
he  attended the Duke of Bavaria, he remained in  that
office till his death in 1631.  Besides his great abilities
in  medicine and surgery, he  was distinguished for his
knowledge of natural history, the learned languages,
and the mathematics.  He has left several works: the
chief of which  is termed " Libri Chirurgici  XII.,"
treating of the principal operations; it passed through
many editions. His father, John, was author of a well-
received treatise," De Flatibus."
  FIG.  See Ficus carica.
  FIGURESTONE.  Bildstein.  Agalmatolite.  A
massive mineral of a gray colour, or brown flesh-red,
and sometimes spotted, or with blue veins; unctuous
to the touch, and yielding to the nail.  It  comes from
China, cut into grotesque figures.  It differs from stea-
tite in wanting the magnesia. It is also found in Tran-
sylvania, and in Wales.
  FIGWORT.  See Ranunculus ficaria,
  FILA'GO.  (From filum, a thread, and ago, to  pro-
duce or have to do with, in allusion to the cottony  web
connected with every part of the plant.)  Cud or cot-
ton-weed ; formerly used as  an astringent.
  FILA'MENT. (Filamentum;  from filum, a thread.)
1. A term applied in anatomy to a small thread-like
portion adhering to any part, and frequently synony
mous with fibre. See Fibre.
  2. The stamen of a flower consisu of the filament,
anther, and pollen.  The filament is the column which
supporu the anther.
  From its figure it is called,
  1. Capillary; as in Plantago.
  2. Filiform; as iu Scilla maritima.
  3. Flat; as in Allium cepa.
  4. Dilatate, spreading laterally; as in Ornithogalum
umbellatum.
  5. Pedicellate, affixed  transversely to a  little stalk;
as  in Salvia.
  6. Bifid, having two; as in Stemodia.
                                         359 
FIL
FIS
     7. Bifurced; as in Prunella.
     8. Multifid; as in Carolina princeps.
     9. Dentate ; as in Rosmarinus officinalis.
     10. Nicked; as in Allium cepa.
     11. Lanceolate; as in Ornithogalum pyrenaicum.
     13. Castrate, the anther naturally wanting; as in
    Gratiola officinalis.
     13. Subulate; as in Tuiipa gcsneriani.
     From the pubescence,
     1. Barbate, bearded;  as in Lycinm.
     2. Lanate, woolly; as in Verbascum thapsus.
     3. Pilose; aa in Anthericum frulescens.
     4. Gland-bearing;  as in Laurus and Rheum.
     From iu direction,
     1. .Erect;  as in Tuiipa gesneriana.
     2. Incurved; curved inward, and a little bent.
     3. Declinate; as in Hcinerocalis fulva.
     4. Connivent; us in Physalis alkekengi.
     From iu concretion,
     1. Liberate,  free, nowhere  adhering; as in JVico-
   tiana tabacum.
     2. Connate, adhering at their base; as in  Malva syl-
   vestris, and  Alcea rosea.
     From iu insertion,
     I. Receptaculine, inserted into the receptaculum; as
   in Papaver somniferum.
     2. Corolline, as in Verbascum thapsus, and Ncrium
   oleander.
     3. Calicine;  as in Pyrus malus, and Mespilus ger-
   manica.
     4. Styline; as in the  Orchides.
     5. Nectarine; as in Pancratium declinatum.
     From iu length, it is said to be very long; as in
   Plantago major:  very short in Jasminum and Vinca:
   and unequal, some long, some short; as in Cheiranthus
   cheiri.
     F1LARIA.  The name of a genus  of intestinal
   worms.
     File'llum.   (From  filum, a thread;  because  it
   resembles  a  string.)  The framum of the penU and
   tongue.
     File'tum.   (From filum, a thread;  named from its
   string-like appearance.)   The frsenum of the tongue
   and penis.
     FILICES.   (Filix, as. f.; from filum,  a threadA
   Ferns. One of the families, or natural tribe into which
   the whole vegetable kingdom is divided.   They arc
   defined planU which bear their flower and fruit on the
   back of the leaf or stalk, which is termed frons.
     FILI'CULA.   (Dim. of filix, fern;  a  small sort of
   fern: or from  filum,  a thread, which it resembles.)
   Common maiden-hair.   See Adianthum capillus ve-
   neris.
     FILIFORMIS.   Filiform, thread-like:  applied to
   many paru of  animals  and vegetables from their re-
   semblance.
     FILIPE'NDULA.  (From filum, a thread, and pen-
   deo, to hang; so named because the numerous bulbs
   of ite roote hang, as  it were, by small threads.)  See
   Spiraa filipendula.
     Filipendula aquatica.    Water-dropwort; the
    CEnanthe fislulosa of Linnanis.
     Filius ante patrem.   Any plant, the flower of
   which comes out before the leaf; as coltsfoot
     FILIX.  (From filum, a thread; so called from iu
   being cut, as it were, in slender portions, like threads.)
    Fern.  See Polypsdium.
     Filix aculeata.  See Polypodium aculeatum.
/    Filix Florida.  See Osmunda regalis.
     Filix fcemina.  See Pteris aquilina.
     Filix mas.   See Polypodium filix mas.
     FILTRATION.    (Filtratio;  from filtrum,  a
    strainer.)  An operation, by means of which a fluid is
    mechanically separated from consistent particles mere-
    ly mixed with  it.  It does not differ from straining.
     An apparatus fitted up for this  purpose is called a
    filter.  The  form of this is various, according to the
    intention of the operator.  A piece of tow, or  wool,
    or cotton, stuffed into the pipe of a funnel, will prevent
    the passage of grosser particles, and by that  means
    render the fluid clearer which comes through.  Sponge
    is still more effectual.   A strip of linen rag wetted and
    hung over the  side of a vessel containing a fluid, in
    such a manner as that one end of the rag may be im-
    mersed in the fluid,  and tiie other end may remain
    without, below the surface, will act as a syphon, and
    cany over the clearer portion. Liueu or woolleu stutii
i may eltner be fastened over the mouths of proper ves-
 sels, or fixed to a frame, like a sieve, for the purpose of
 filtering.  All these are more commonly used by cooks
 and apothecaries than by philosophical chemists, who,
 for the most part, use the paper called cap paper, made
 up without si/e.
   As the filtration of considerable quantities of fluid
 could  not be  effected  M. once without breaking the
 filter of paper, it is found requisite to use a linen cloth,
 upon which the paper is applied and supported.
   Precipitates and other  pulverulent  matters are col-
 lected more speedily by filtration than  by subsidence.
 But there are many chemists who disclaim the use of
 this method, and avail themselves of the latter only,
 which is certainly more accurate, and liable to no ob-
 jection, where the powders are such  as will admit of
 edulcoration and drying in the open air.
   Some fluids, as turbid water, may be purified by
 filtering through sand.   A large earthen funnel, or
 stone bottle with the bottom beaten out, may have its
 neck loosely stopped with  small  stones, over which
 smaller may be placed, supporting layers of gravel In-
 creasing in fineness, and lastly covered to the depth
 of a few incites with fine sand all thoroughly cleansed
 by washing.   This apparatus is superior to a filtering
 stone, as it will cleanse water in large quantities, and
 may readily be renewed when the passage  is ob-
 structed, by taking out and washing the upper stratum
 of sand.
   A filter for corrosive liquors may be constructed, on
 the  same principles, of broken and pounded glass.—
  Ure's Chem. Diet.
   FILTRUM.  A filter, straining or filtering instru-
 ment
   FILUM. A thread or  filament.
   Filum arsenicale.  Corrosive sublimate.
   FI'MBRIA.  (A fringe, quasi finibria; from finis,
 the extremity.)  A fringe.  1. A term used  by anato-
 mists to curled membraneous productions.  See Fim-
 bria.
   2. In botany, it is applied to the dentate or fringe-
 like ring of the operculum of mosses, by the  elastic
 power of which the operculum is displaced.  See Ps-
 ristomiwm.
   FiMBRiiE.    (Fimbria, a fringe.   Quasi finibria;
 from finis, the extremity.)   The extremities  of the
 Fallopian tubes.  See  Uterus.
   FINCKLE.  See Anethum faniculum.
   Fingered leaf.  See  Leaf.
   FIORITE.   See Pearl sinter.
   FIR.  See Pinus.
   Fir balsam.  See Pinus balsamea.
   Fir, Canada.  See Pinus balsamea. _
   Fir, Norway spruce. See Pinus obits.
   Fir, Scotch.  See Pinus sylvestris.
   Fir, silver.  See Pinus picea.
   FIRE.   Ignis.  A very simple and active element,
 the principal agent in nature to balance the power and
 natural effect of attraction.  The most useful accepta-
 tion of  the word fire comprehends heat and light.
 There have been several  theories proposed respecting
 fire, but no one as yet is fully established.  See Caloric
 and Light.
   [FFIRTH,  Dr. S. of Salem, in New-Jersey, pub-
 lished a dissertation on malignant fever in 1805, with
 an attempt to prove  that yellow fever is not conta-
 gious.  The  experiments he tried with the matter of
 blaek-vomit are bold and decisive.   He proves by his
 experimenu, that neither the black-vomit, serum, nor
 saliva of persons  labouring under yellow  fever, are
 capable of communicating that disease.  He dropped the
 matter of black-vomit  in his eye, inoculated himself
 with, and even swallowed  it.  For the particulars of
 these and other experimenu, see Black-vomit.  A.]
   Firmi'sium mineralium.  Antimony.
   FISCHER, John  Andrew, son of nn apothecary
 at Erfurt, was born in  1667.  He graduated there, and
 was appointed in succession to several professorships;
 but that of pathology and the practice of medicine he
 did not receive till the age of 48.  He acquired con-
 siderable reputation in  his profession; and  he had
 been ten years phvsician to the court of Mayence when
 he died in 1729.  Among several minor works he was
 author of some of greater importance; as the "Con-
 siiia Medica," in three volumes;  the " Responsa Prac-
 tica," and a Synopsis of  Medicine, facetiously termed
 "Uliaa m Nuce." 
FIS                                            FLE
  [FISHERY, SEAL. Vessels belonging to the United
 States, employed in voyages for catching seals, usually
 pass round Cape-Horn, and visit the islands of Juan
 Fernandez and  Massafuero.  At the latter of these,
 seals were formerly  very numerous. They are  also
 taken at Falkland's Islands, Southern Georgia, Tristan
 d'Acunha, St. Paul's, and Amsterdam islands.  But of
 late years they have been found to be much more rare.
 Even at  Massafuero, and the islands in  iu vicinity,
 they are no longer found in that abundance which pre-
 vailed when these voyages were first undertaken.
  The sea-elephant belongs to the same family with
 the seal.  He is found  on many of the uninhabited
 islands  of the great southern ocean, particularly at
 Kerguelan's Land, which they frequent in great herds.
  They make little resistance, and of course are easily
 killed.  Several  of our vessels  are said  to have been
 engaged in their destruction. Their oil is  found to be
 of  an  excellent  quality;  and  not  only answers  for
 home consumption, but  makes a valuable article of
 exportation.  A.]
  [" Fishery, whale. This branch of business seems
 to be less inviting and profitable than it formerly was.
 Whether this is  owing  to  a scarcity of whales, to
greater exertions  of other nations, or to the inferiority
of the market at home, and high duties  abroad, we
need not examine particularly here.  The decline*of
 the whale-fishery  among  the people of  the United
 States, is probably to be ascribed to the operation of
 all these causes, as well as to bounties and immunities
 granted by some of the European powers so generously
 as to tempt many of our most enterprising whalemen
 to engage  themselves and their capitals in foreign ser-
 vice."—Med, Repos.
  These observations were made in 1805, since which
there has been a  great increase in the amount of capi-
tal, number of ships, and seamen engaged in the whale
fishery from the United States.  The greatest number
of ships in this business are fitted out at  New-Bedford
in Massachusetts, the island of Nantucket, and Sag-
Harbour, on the east end of Long-Island, of the state
of New-York. Some few are fitted out from this city,
and some from ports in Connecticut.  Few or none of
our vessels pursue tills business in the Arctic seas.
 Some take the right whale on the coast  of Brazil, but
 most of those engaged in this  employment from  the
 United States resort to the Pacific ocean,  where they
 take both the spermaceti and the right whale.
  Vessels are fitted out on shares; the owners, master,
 and seamen, dividing the proceeds of the  voyage  ac-
 cording to a certain  ratio agreed  upon  before  the
 voyage commences, and which generally  lasu about
 two years. The success depends  upon the skill and
 enterprise of the  officers and crew, which generally
 consUts of hardy and active young men.  The greater
 their success the greater their share of the profiu.
 The spermaceti-whale  is the great object of their
 search in  the Pacific, as from this animal is derived
 the pharmacopceial  substance called  sperma  ceti.
 Ambergris is also occasionally found in  tiie intestines
 of this whale.  A.]
  [Fishery, cod.  "This employment appears to be
 on  the increase.   Notwithstanding  the abundance of
 business which might be followed on shore, in a coun-
 try having so many millions of unappropriated acres,
 there are found plenty of people who prefer the catching
 of fish along the  coasU of the United States, and on the
 Banks  of Newfoundland.   Government allows a
 bounty on the tonnage of the vessels engaged in the cod-
 fishery, in lieu of a drawback upon the salt used in
 curing the fish."—Med. Rep.
  The cod taken along our shores and on the Banks
 of Newfoundland is the Gadus morhua, though some
 of the other species are  also taken.   On the rocky
 shores of  Maine, the  hake (Gadus merlucdus) is
 abundantly taken.  The  fish  is not so good as the
 Gadus morhua,  but  it has a very large  sound from
 which icthyocolla, or fish glue, of a good quality, may
 be prepared in any quantity.  A.]
  Fish-glue. See Ichthyocolla.
  FISSURA.   A fissure.  1. That species  of frac-
 ture in which the bone is slit, but  not completely di-
 vider!
  2. A name given to a deep and long depression in a
 part
  Fissira magna sylvii.  The anterior and middle
 lobes of the cerebrum ou each side are parted by a
 deep  narrow sulcus, which ascends obliquely back-
 wards from the temporal ala of the os sphenoides, to
 near the middle of the os parietale, and this sulcus is
 thus called.
   FISSUS.  Cleft, cloven.  Applied to leaves,  and
 poAs,foliafissa, that are, as it were, cut into fissures
 or straight segmenu.  See Leaf.
   FISTIC-NUT.   See Pistachio vera.
   FI'STULA.  (Quasi fusula: from fundo, to pour
 out; or from iU similarity to a pipe, or reed.)  Eligii
 morbus.  A term in surgery,  applied to a long  and
 sinuous ulcer that has  a narrow opening, and which
 sometimes leads to a larger cavity, and has no disposi-
 tion to heal.
   FISTULA'RIA.  (From fistula, a pipe, so called
 because its  stock is hollow.)   Stavesacre.   See  Del-
 phinium staphisagria.
   FIXED.   In chemistry, the  term fixed bodies is ap
 plied to those substances which cannot be caused to
 pass by a  strong rarefaction  from the solid or liquid
 state of an elastic fluid.
   Fixed air.  See Carbonic acid.
   FIXITY. The property by which bodies resist the
 action of heat, so as not to rise in vapour.
   FLAG.   See Acorus and Iris.
   [FLAGG, Dr. John, was son of the Rev. Ebenezer
 Flagg, the first  minister of Chester, in New-Hamp-
 shire.  He  was graduated at Harvard  University in
 1761, and studied medicine under the direction of Dr.
 Osgood, of Andover.  He commenced practice at Wo-
 burn, but in 1769  removed to Lynn, where  he enjoyed
 the full confidence of his fellow-citizens, and acquired
 a high standing in his profession.
   When, in 1775, the dark cloud overspread our politi-
 cal hemisphere, Dr. Flagg was prepared to  unite in the
 strong measures of resistance against every encroach-
 ment upon the rights and freedom of his countiy.   He
 was an active and useful member of the committee of
 safety, and contributed largely to the promotion of the
 military preparations to  meet the exigencies which
 soon after happened.  From a native modesty, he de-
, clined any  appointment in the councils of the state,
| but was prevailed upon to accept the commission of
 lieutenant-colonel of militia, under the venerable Col.
 Timothy Pickering, which, however, he soon after re-
 signed, that he might devote bis whole attention to
 the practice of medicine, which he preferred to mili
 tary pursuits.
   He  was elected  a  member of  the  Massachusetti
 Medical Society immediately after its  incorporation,
 when the number of fellows was restricted to seventy
 in the whole commonwealth.   He held a commission
 of justice of the peace before the revolution and after
 the adoption of our state constitution,  till his death.
 The fatigues of  an extensive circle of practice, and
 the exposures incident to a professional life, impaired
 ai3 constitution, and he fell a victim  to  pulmonary
 consumption in 1793, in the 50th year of his age.  A.]
   FLAGELLIFORMIS.  Whip-like.   A term  ap-
 plied to a stem that is long and pliant, whip-like; as
; that of jasmine and blue boxthorn.  See Caulis.
   Flake-white.  Oxide of bismuth.
;   FLA'MMULA.  (Dim. of flamma, a fire: named
 from the burning pungency of its taste.) See Ranun-
 culus flammula.
   Flammula jovist.  See Clematis recta.
   FLATULENT. Windy.
   FLAX.   See Linum.
   Flax-leaved daphne.  See Daphne gnidium.
   Flax, purging.  See Linum  eaiharticum.
   Flax,,spurge.  See Daphne gnidium.
   FLEA-WORT.  See Plantago psyllium.
   Fle'men.  (From flecto, to incline downwards.)
 Flegma.  A tumour about the ankles.
   Flere'sin.  Gout.
   FLESH.   1. The muscles of animals.
   2. A vulgar term for nil the soft parte of  an animal
   3. It is also applied to leaves, fruit, <fcc. which have
 the appearance or consistence of flesh.
   FLE'XOR. The name of several muscles, the of-
 fice of which is to bend  parts into which they are in-
 serted.
   Flexor  accbssorics  dioitorum  pedis.    See
 Flexor longus digitorum pedis.
   Flexor  brevis digitorum pedis, perforatus,
 sublimis.   A flexor muscle of the toes, situated on
I the foot.  Flexor brevis digitorum pedis, perforutus of 
FLE
FLE
Albinus.  Flexor brevis of Douglas. Flexor digitorum
brevis, sive perforatuspedis of Winslow. Perforatus,
scu flexor secundi internodii digitorum pedis of Cow-
per; and Calca.no sus-phalangettien commun of Du-
mas.  It arises by a narrow, tendinous, and fleshy be-
ginning, from tiie inferior  protuberance of the os cal-
cis.  It likewise derives many of iu fleshy fibres from
the adjacent aponeurosis, and soon forms a thick belly,
which divides into four portions.  Each of these por-
tions  terminates in a flat tendon, the fibres of which
decussate, to afford a passage to a tendon of the long
flexor, and  afterward reuniting, are inserted into the
second phalanx of each of the four less  toes.  This
muscle serves to bend the second joint of the toes.
  Flexor brevis minimi  dioiti pedis.  Parathenar
minor of Winslow.  This  little muscle is situated
along the inferior surface and outer edge of the meta-
tarsal bone of the little toe. It arises tendinous from
the basis of that bone, and  from the  ligameuu that
connect it to the os cuboides.  It soon becomes fleshy,
and adheres almost the whole length of the metatarsal
bone, at the anterior extremity of which it forms a
small tendon,  that  is inserted  into the root  of the
first joint of the little toe.   Iu use is to bend the little
toe.
  Flexor  brevis pollicis manus.  Flexor secundi
internodii of Douglas.  Thenar of Winslow.   Flexor
primi et secundi ossis pollicis of Cowper;  and  Carpo-
phalangien  du pouce of Dumas.  This muscle is di-
vided into two  portions by the tendon of the flexor
longus pollicis.  The outermost portion arises tendi-
nous from the anterior part of the os trapezoides and
internal annular ligament   The second, or innermost,
and thickest portion, arises from the same bone, and
likewise from the  os magnum, and ns  cuneiforme.
Both  these portions are inserted tendinous into these
sesamoid bones of the thumb.  The use of this muscle
is to bend the second joint of the thumb.
  Flexor  brevis pollicis pedis.  A muscle of the
great toe, that bends the first joint of that part.  Flexor
brevis of Douglas.  Flexor brevis pollicis of Cowper;
and Tarsophalangien du pouce of Dumas.  It  is situ-
ated upon the metatarsal bone of the great toe, arises
tendinous from the under and anterior part of the os
calcis, and from  the under part of the os cuneiforme
externum.  It soon becomes fleshy and divisible into
two portions, which do not separate from each other
till they  have reached the anterior extremity of the
metatarsal bone of the great toe, where they become
tendinous, and then the innermost portion unites with
the tendon of the abductor .and the outermost with that
of  the abductor pollicis.  They  adhere to the externa
os  sesamoideum, and  are  finally  inserted into the
root of the first joint of  the great toe.  These  two
portions, by their separation, form a groove, in whick
passes the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis.
  Flexor carpi radialis. A long thin muscle, situ-
ated  obliquely  at the inner and anterior part of the
forearm, between the palmaris longus  and the pro-
nator teres. Radialis internus  of Albinus and Wins-
low ; and Epitrochlo metacarpien of Dumas.  It arises
tendinous from  the inner condyle of the os humeri,
and,  by many fleshy fibres, from the adjacent tendi-
nous  fascia.  It descends  along the  inferior edge of
the pronator teres,  and  terminates in a long, flat, and
thin tendon, which afterward becomes narrower  and
thicker, and, after  passing under the internal annular
ligament, in a groove distinct from the other tendons
of the wrist, it spreads wider again, and is inserted into
tbe fore and upper part of the  metacarpal bone  that
sustains the fore-finger.  It serves to bend the hand,
and iu oblique direction may likewise enable it to assist
in  iu pronation.                    ,   .
   Flexor  carpi  ulnaris.   Ulnaris  internus of
 Winslow and Albinus.  Epitrochli cubito carpien of
Dumas.  A muscle situated on the cubit or forearm,
that  assisu in bending the arm.  It arises tendinous
from the inner  condyle of the os humeri, and, by a
small fleshy origin, from the anterior edge of the ole-
cranon.   Between these  two portions, we find the
 ulnar nerve passing to the forearm.  Some  of iu
 fibres arise likewise from the tendinous fascia that co-
 vers  the muscles of the forearm.  In  iu descent, it
 soon becomes  tendinous, but its fleshy fibres do not
 entirely disappear till it has reached the lower extre-
 mity of the ulna, where  iu tendon spreads a little,
 and after sending off a  few fibres to the external and
       3C2
internal and annular ligaments, Is inserted into the 00
pisiforme.
  Flexor   lonous  dioitorum  pedis  paoruNDus
perforans.  A flexor muscle of  Ihe toes, situated
along the posterior part and inner side of the lug. Per.
forans seu flexor profundus of Douglas.  Flexor digi
torum longus, sive perforans pedis, and perforans seu
flexor tertii  internodii digitorum pedis of Cowper; Itnd
Tibio phalangctien of Dumas.  Il arises fleshy from
the back part of the tibia, and, after running down to
Che internal ankle, iu tendon passus under  a kind of
annular ligament, and then through a sinuosity at the
inside of tbe os calcis.)  Soon  after this it receives a
small tendon from the flexor longus pollicis pedis, nnd
about the middle of the  foot it divides into four ten-
dons, which pass  through thesliuof the flexor brevis
digitorum pedis, and are inserted  into the upper psrt
of the last  bone of all the less toes.  About the mid-
dle of the foot, this muscle unites with a  fleshy por-
tion, which, from the name of iu first describer, haa
been usually called massa cornea Jacobi Sylvii: it is
also termed Flexor accessorius digitorum pedis.  This
appendage  arises by a thin  fleshy origin,  from  most
part of the sinuosity of the os calcis, and likewise by
a thin tendinous beginning  from the anterior part of
the external tubercle of that bone; it soon becomes all
fleshy, and unites to the long flexor just before it di-
vides into its four tendons.  The use of this muscle is
to bend the last joint of the  toes.
  Flexor  longus pollicis manus.  Flexor longus
pollicis of Albinus.  Flexor tertii internodii of Doug-
las ; Flexor tertii internodii sive longissimus  pollicis
of  Cowper; and radio-phalangetien du pouce of Du-
mas.   A muscle of the thumb placed at the side of the
flexor longus digitorum, profundus, perforans,  and co-
 vered by the extensores carpi radiales.  It arises fleshy
 from the anterior surface of the radius,  immediately
 below the insertion of tbe biceps, and is continued
down along tiie oblique ridge, which serves for the in-
sertion of the supinator brevis, as far as the pronator
quadratus.  Some of iu fibres spring likewise from the
neighbouring edge of the interosseous ligament  Its
tendon passes under the internal annular ligament of
the wrist, and, after running along the inner surface of
the first bone of the thumb, between the two portions
of  the flexor brevis pollicis, goes to be inserted into the
last joint of the thumb, being bound down in its way
by the ligamentous expansion that is spread over the
second bone.  In some subjects we find a tendinous
portion arising  from the inner condyle of the os hu-
meri, and  forming a fleshy slip that commonly termi-
nates near the upper part of the origin of  this muscle
from the radius.  The use of this muscle is  to bend the
last joint of the thumb.
   Flexor  longus pollicis pedis.  A muscle of the
great toe, situated along the posterior part of the leg.
It arises tendinous and fleshy a little below the head
of the fibula, and IU fibres  continue to adhere to that
bone almost to iu extremity.  A little above the heel
it terminates in a round tendon, which, after passing
in a groove formed at the posterior edge of the astra-
galus, and  internal and lateral part of theos calcis, in
which it is secured by an annular ligament, goes to be
inserted into the last bone  of the great toe, which it
serves to bend.
   Flexor   ossis  metacarpi pollicis.    Opponens
pollicis of  Innes.  Opponent  pollicis  manus of Albi-
nus.  Flexor primi internodii of Douglas.  Antithenar
sive semi-interosseus pollicis ofWinslow;  and Carpo
phalangien du pouce of Dumas.  A muscle of the
thumb, situated  under the abductor brevis  pollicis,
 which it resembles in  iu shape.  It  arises tendinous
 and fleshy  from the os scaphoides, and from the ante-
 rior and inner partof the internal annular ligament.
 It is inserted tendinous and fleshy into tlie under and
 anterior part of the first bone of tbe thumb.  It serves
 to turn the first bone of the thumb upon iu axis, and
 at  the same time to bring it inwards opposite to the
 other fingers.
   Flexor parvus minimi dioiti.  Abductor minimi
 digiti, Hypolhcnar Riolani of Douglas.  Hypollienar
 minimi digiti of Winslow ; and second carpo-phalan-
  fi'en  du petit doigt of Dumas.  A muscle of the little
  nger, situated along the inner  surface of the meta-
 carpal bone of the little finger. It arises tendinous and
 fleshv from the hook-like process of the unciform bone,
 and likewise from the anterior surface of the udj.-iceni 
FLO
FLO
part of the annular ligament  It terminates in a flat
tendon, which is connected with that of the abductor
minimi digiti, and inserted into the inner and anterior
part of the  upper end of the first bone of the little
finger.  It serves to bend the little finger, and likewise
to assist the abductor.
  Flexor  profundus perforans.   'Profundus, of
Albinus.  Perforans, of Douglas.  Perforans vulgo
profundus, of  Winslow; Flexor tertii internodii digi-
torum manus, vel perforatus manus, of Cowper; and
Cubito phalangetien  commun, of Dumas.   A muscle
of the fingers  situated on  the forearm, immediately
under the perforatus,  which it greatly resembles in
iu shape. It arises fleshy from the external side, and
upper part of the ulna, for some way downwards, and
from a large portion of the interrosseous ligament It
spliu into fonr tendons a little before it passes under
the annular ligament of the  wrist,  and  these  pass
through the  slit iu  the tendons of  the flexor sublimis,
to be  inserted into the fore and upper part of the third
or last bone of all the fore-fingers, the joint of which
they bend.
  Flexor  sublimis perforatus.    This muscle,
which is  the  perforatus of Cowper, Douglas,  and
Winslow, is, by Albinus and others, named sublimis.
It has gotten the name of perforatus, from its tendons
being perforated by those of another flexor muscle of
the finger, called the perforans.  They who give  it
the appellation of sublimis, consider iu situation with
respect to the latter, and which, instead  of perforans,
they name profundus.  It is  a  long muscle, situated
most  commonly at the anterior and inner  part of the
forearm, between the palmaris  longus and tiie flexor
carpi ulnaris;  but, in some subjects, we find it placed
under the former of these muscles, between tbe flexor
carpi ulnaris and the flexor carpi  radialis.  It arises,
tendinous and  fleshy, from the inner condyle of the os
humeri, from the inner edge of the coronoid process of
the ulna, and from the upper and forepart of the radius,
down to near the insertion of the pronator teres. A
little below the middle of the forearm, its  fleshy belly
divides into four portions, which degenerate into as
many round tendons, that pass all together under the
internal annular ligament of the wrist, after which
they separate from each other,  become thinner and
flatter, and running along the palm ofthe hand, under
the aponeurosis palmaris, are inserted into the upper
part of ihe second bone of  each finger.  Previous to
this insertion, however, the fibres of each tendon de-
cussate near the extremity of the first bone, so as to
afford a passage to a tendon of the perforans. Of these
four tendons, that of the middle finger  is the largest,
that of the forefinger the next in size, and that of the
little finger the smallest. The use of this muscle is to
bend  the second joint of the fingers.
  Flexor tertii  internodii.   See Flexor longus
pollicis manus.
  FLEXUOSUS.  Flexuous;  full  of turnings or
windings.  A stein is so named which is zigzag, form-
ing angles alternately from right to left, and from left
to right; as in Smilax aspera.
   FLINT.  A hard stone, found in beds of chalk, and
in primitive, transition, secondary, and alluvial moun-
tains. IU constituents are silica, lime, alumina, and
oxide of iron.
   FLINTY SLATE. Basanite.  A mineral, of which
there are two kinds.
   1.  Common flinty slate, of an ash-gray colour, with
other colours, in flamed, striped, and  spotted delinea-
tions. It is found in different parts of the great tract
of clay-slate and gray-wacke which extends from St
Abb's head to Portpatrick.
  2. Lydian stone, of a grayish-black and velvet-black
colour.  It is  found frequently along with common
flinty slate,  in beds  of clay-slate. It occurs in Bohe-
mia  and tbe  Pentland hills, near Edinburgh.  It is
sometimes used  as  a touchstone for  ascertaining the
purity of gold  and silver.
   FLOATSTONE.  The spongiform quartz of
Jameson.
   FLOCCILATION.  (Floccilatio; from floccus, the
nap of clothes.)  Picking the bedclothes.  A symptom
of great danger in acute diseases.
   FLORAL.  (Floralis;  from flos, a flower.)   Be-
longing to a flower;  as floral leaf. See Bractea,
   [FLORA OF NORTH AMERICA.  " Before the
revolutionary struggle began in France, Louis 16th had
patronized a botanical inquiry into the vegetable pro-
ductions of North America.  In the sixth volume of
our Medical Repository, we gave an account of the
establishmenU formed for that purpose, and of the
history of the  oaks of North America,  published by
Mr. Michaux, the botanist employed by that monarch.
Since that work on the Quercus family was published,
the great performance of Mr. Michaux on the vegeta-
bles of that extensive country generally, has  made its
appearance."
  " The industrious author of this work had spent six
years in  Persia  before his mission to America.  He
afterward passed twelve years in exploring the regions
between Hudson's Bay and  Carolina.  In the course
of the numerous excursions he made during that time
through the diversified states, provinces, and territo-
ries, he collected the materials of this new and more
complete synopsis  of North American plants.  This,
he hopes, will be found to be the case, notwithstanding
the prior descriptions of the planU of Canada by Comu-
ti; of Virginia by Clayton, aided by Gronovius; of Ca-
rolina by Catesby, with plates,  as well as by Walther
and  Bartram;  and of the more northern parts, by
Marshall and Forster.
  " This  work is published  by the author's  son, the
father having  left  it in  his hands rather unfinished,
when he set off on his voyage of discovery to the
islands lying in the Great South Sea.  We  mention
with concern the death of this indefatigable naturalist
in 1802.   He fell a victim to the zeal with which he
urged his physical inquiries on the  coast of Mada-
gascar.
  " The  author follows  the  Linnaean or sexual sys-
tem.  In addition to the  vegetables, which are indige-
nous in America,  he has also noted the European
plants growing  there.   The generic characters are
chiefly taken from Murray's last edition of the system
of vegetables.   Mr. Michaux seems to have confirmed
as many of tiie Limuean species as  he could; though,
for the sake of perspicuity, he  has described some of
them over again.  It is affirmed that the work contains
no species that have not either been seen or gathered by
Michaux himself.  This must  give to this Flora great
value, and  render it peculiarly interesting to the lovers
of botany in the United States.   Genuine descriptions
recently made ofthe plants ofthe country by an actual
observer, possessing remarkable skill and discernment
in the practical as well as the theoretical parts of the
science, cannot fail to increase the  facility of iu ac-
quirement  among  our studious youth.   To  them, in
particular, it will shorten the way to knowledge, and
at the same time, render it  much more easy and de-
lightful.
  "Particular  labour  has  been bestowed  upon the
Cyperacea  and Gramineae; and all  the Cryptogamia
have been  sedulously attended to, except the fungi.
As respects the Filices,  he adopts the arrangement of
J.E.Smith; on the Musci, the  system of  Hedwig;
and he follows the method of Acharius on the Lichens.
Care has been taken that the genera of the same order
should be assembled under the banner of affinities, and
thrown into sections as  far as the laws  of the system
would permit; so  that they may be found by tie in-
quirer  and  student with the  greater readiness and
ease.
  " We consider this Flora boreali Americana as  a
most desirable  addition  to the  natural history of our
country.  With this work in  his hand, the botanist
will be enabled to pursue his studies on tbe vegetables
of Fredon (U. S.) and the adjoining regions, with ad-
ditional ease and success.   Though we cannot dis-
miss it from our notice, without expressing our regret
that tlie author had not enriched his book with some
of the synonyms from other writers, with some of the
popular and trivial names, and with some little sketch
of the dietetic, medicinal, and economical uses of the
more distinguished species."—Med. Repos. vol.8.  A.]
  Flores  benzoes.  See Benzoic acid.
   Flores martiales.  See Ferrum ammoniatum.
   Flores  salis ammoniaci.   See  Ammonia sub-
carbonas.
   Flores  sulphuris.  See Sulphur.
   Flores  sulphuris LOTi. See Sulphur lotum.
   FLORESCENTIA.   (From  floresco, to flourish or
bloom.)  The act of flowering, which Linnauis com-
pares to the act of generation in animals.
   FLORET.  A liule flower. 
FLO
FLU
'  FLOS.   (Flos, ris. f.;  a flower.)   1. A flower.
That part of a plant, for the most part beautifully co-
loured, and protecting the internal organs.
  Every flower has paru, which are
  1. Essential, constituting properly tiie flower; as the
pistil, stamen, and receptacle.
  2. Less essential, without which the flower is in
some instances formed; as the calyx, corolla, and pe-
dunculus.
  3. Accidental, noticed in a few only; as the bractea
and nectarium.
  A flower is said to be,
  1. Complete, when furnished with calyx and corolla;
as Nicotiana tabacum.
  2. Incomplete, when the calyx or corolla is wanting.
  3. Naked, devoid of the calyx; as in Lilium candi-
dum, and  Tuiipa gesneriana.
  4. Apetaloid, without tbe corolla;  as in  Galena
Africana, and Saururus cernuus.
  When the stamens and pistils are both, as usual, in
one flower, that flower is  called perfect, or united;
when they are situated in different flowers of the same
species, they are called separated flowers; that which
has the stamens being named tlie barren flower, as
producing no fruit in itself, and that with tlie pistils
the fertile one, as bearing the seed.
  The flower contains the internal or genital  parte of
a plant:
  1. The stamen or male genital organ.
  2. The pistUlum or female genital organ.
  From their diversity, flowers are called,
  1. Male, which have the stamina only.
  2. Female, in which are the pistils only.
  3. Hermaphrodite, which contain both stamens and
pistils.
  4. Neuter, naturally deficient of stamens and pistils;
us the marginal flowers of the Centaurea cyanus, and
Jacobea.
  5. Castrate, when the anthers  or the pistils are na-
turally wanting.  The pistils, for example, are want-
ing in the  Calendula officinalis, and in the Viola mira-
bilis, there are no anthers.
  6. Abortive, the fecundated germens of which wither
before the maturity ofthe fruit; as happens to the flo-
reU in the radius ofthe Helianthus annuus.
  7. Monstrous, when tlie internal organs become pe-
tals, as is the cose with full or double flowers.
  Besides  these distinctions, Linnaeus's favourite divi-
sion is into,
  1- Aggregate.
  2. Compound.
  3. Amentaceous
  4. Glumose, or chaffy, peculiar to the grasses.
  5. The  sheathed flower, the common receptacle of
which springs from a sheath; as in Arum.
  6. The  Umbellate.
  7. The Cymose.  See also Inflorescence.
  II. A  term used by former chemists to whatever had
a flower-like appearar.ee, especially if obtained by sub-
limation, as flowers of sulphur, benjamin, zinc, &c.
  Flos  ferri.  A radiated variety of carbonate  of
lime.
  FLOSCULUS.  A little flower.  A term applied in
botany to  the small and numerous floreu of a com-
pound flower, which are all  sessile on a common undi
vided receptacle, and enclosed in one contiguous ca-
lyx, or perianth.
  FLOUR.  The powder of the gramineous seeds.
  FLOWER.  See Flos.
  FLOWER-DE-LUCE.  See Iris germanica.
  Flowers of benjamin.   See Benzoic acid.
  FLOYER, Sir John, was born at Hinters, in Staf-
fordshire,  about  the year 1649, and graduated at Ox-
ford.  He  then settled at Litchfield, where his atten-
tion and skill procured him extensive reputation, inso-
much that he was honoured  with knighthood,  as a
reward for his talenU.  He strongly advocated the use
of cold  bathing,  particularly in  chronic rheumatism,
and nervous disorders: and  he ascribed the increasing
prevalence of consumption to the discontinuance of
the practice of baptizing children by immersion.  He
published several works on this  and other subjecU;
particularly an excellent treatise  on the  asthma, un-
der which he himself laboured from tiie time of pu-
berty, notwithstanding which he lived to be an old
man.  He is said lo have been one of the first who
reckoned the number of pulsations by a time-piece.
      au4
  FLUATE.  Fluas.  A compound of the fluoric acid
with salifiable bases: thus, fluate of lime, fcc.
  FLUCTUATION.  Fluctuatio.  A term used by
surgeons, to express  the undulation of a  fluid;  tfiui
when pus is formed in nn abscess, or when water ac-
cumulates in tiie abdomen, if the abscess or  abdomen
be lightly pressed with the fingers,  the motion of flue
tuation may be distinctly felt.
  FLUELLIN.  See Antirrhinum elatine.
  FLUID.   Fluidus.   A fluid is that, the  particles of
which so little attract each other, that when poured
out, it drops guttatim, and  adapts itself  in  every
respect to tlie form ofthe vessel containing it.
  The fluids of animal bodies, and particularly thoso
of the human body, are something very considerable
in proportion to tiie solids; tiie ratio in the  adult being
as nine to one.  Chaussier put a  dead body of 120
pounds into an oven, and found it, after many days'
successive desiccation, reduced to 12 pounds. Bodies
found, after being buried for a long  time in  the burning
sands of the Arabian deserU, present an extraordinary
diminution of weight.
  The animal fluids are sometimes contained in ves-
sels, wherein they move with more or less  rapidity;
sometimes  in little areola: or spaces, where they seem
to be kept in reserve; and at other times they ure
placed in  the  great cavities where they make only a
temporary stay of longer or shorter duration.
  The fluids of the human body are,
  1. The blood.
  2. The lymph.
 ' 3. The perspiratory  or  perspirable  fluids, which
comprise the liquids of cutaneous  transpiration : the
transpiration or exhalation of mucous membranes, as
also of the synovial, serous, and cellular;  of the adi-
pose cells, tlie medullary membranes, tbe thyroid and
thymus glands, &c.
  4. The follicular fluid; the sebaceous secretion ot
the skin, the cerumen, the ropy matter from the eye-
lids, the mucus from tiie glands and follicles of that
name from the tonsils, the cardiac glands, the prostate,
tlie vicinity of the anus, and some other parts.
  5. The glandular fluids; the tears, the  saliva, the
pancreatic fluid, the bile, the urine, the secretion from
Cowper's glands, the  semen, the milk, ihe liquid con-
tained in the supra-renal capsules, that ofthe testicles,
and of the mamms of new-born infants.
  6. The chyme and the chyle.
  The properties of fluids, both chemical and physical,
are exceedingly various. Many have some analogy to
each other under these two relations; but none exhibit
a perfect resemblance.  The writers of all ages have
attached a considerable degree of importance to their
methodical arrangement; and according to the doctrine
then flourishing in the schools, tbey have created dif
ferent systems of classification. Thus, the  ancients,
who attributed much importance to the four elements,
said that there were four principal humours, the blood,
the lymph, or pituita, the yellow bile, tlie  black bile,
or atra bilis; and these four humours correspond to
the four elemenU, to  the four seasons of the year, to
the four divisions of the day, and to the four tempera-
ments. Afterward,  at  different periods, other divi-     t
sions have been substituted to this classification ofthe
ancients.    Thus, some have  made three classes of
liquids:—1. the chyme and chyle; 2. the blood;  3. the
humours  emanating  from the  blood. Some authors
have been content with forming two classes:—1. pri-
mary, alimentary, or useless fluids; 2. secondary, or
useful. Consequently, they distinguished them into—
  1.  Recrcmentitious, or humours destined from their
formation to the nourishment of the body.
  2.  Eecrementitious, or fluids  destined to be thrown
off from the system;
  3.  Humours, which at times porticipatc  in the cha-
racters of tiie two former classes, and are therefore
named excremento-recrementitious.
  In later limes, chemisU have endeavoured to class
the humours according to their intimate or component
nature, and  thus  they  have established albuminous,
fibrinous, saponaeocus, watery, Sec. fluids.
  FLUOBORATE.    A compound of the fluoboric
acid with a salifiable basis.
  FLUOBORIC ACID. Acidum fluoboricum.   Pro-
bably a compound of  fluorine with boron.  It is a
traseous acid, and may be  obtained by heating in a
glass retort twelve parU of sulphuric acid with a mix 
FLU
FLU
tnrc of one part of fused boracic acid, and two of fluor-
spar, reduced to a very fine powder.  It must be re-
ceived over mercury.   It  combines with salifiable
bases, and forms salu called ./iuosorife*.
  FLU'OR.  Octohedral fluor of Jameson.  It is di-
vided into three sub-spocies, compact fluor, foliated
fluor, and earthy fluor.  This genus of mineral abounds
iu nature, formed by the combination of the fluoric
acid with  lime.  It is called spar, because it has the
sparry form and fracture: fluor, because it melu very
readily; and  vitreous, because it has the appearance
of glass, and may be fused Into glass of no contempti-
ble appearance.
  Fluor albus.  See Leucorrhea.
  FLUO'RIC  ACID.   (Acidum fluoricum, because
obtained from the fluor-spar.)  Hydro-fluoric acid.
  " The fusible spar which is generally distinguished
by the name of Derbyshire spar, consists of calcareous
earth in combination with this acid.  If the pure fluor,
or spar, be placed in a retort of lead or silver, with a
receiver of the same metal adapted, and iu weight of
sulphuric acid be then poured upon it, the fluoric acid
will be disengaged  by the application of a moderate
heat.  This acid gas readily combines with water; for
which purpose it is  necessary that the receiver should
previously be half filled with that fluid.
  If the receiver be cooled with ice, and no water put
in it, then the condensed acid is an intensely active
liquid.  It has the  appearance of sulphuric acid, but
is much more volatile, and sends off white fumes when
exposed to air.  Its  specific gravity is only 1.0609.   It
must  be examined  with  great caution, for when ap-
plied to the skin it instantly disorganizes itj and  pro-
duces very painful wounds.  When potassium is in-
troduced into it, it acU with intense energy, and pro-
duces hydrogen gas and a neutral salt; when lime is
made to act upon it, there is a violent heat excited,
water is formed, and the same substance as fluor-spar
is produced.  With  water in a certain proportion, iu
density increases to 1.25. When it is dropped  into
water, a hissing noise is produced, with  much hnat,
and an acid fluid not disagreeable to the taste is formed
if the water be in  sufficient quantity.   It instantly
corrodes and dissolves glass.
  It appears  extremely probable, from all the facte
known respecting the fluoric combinations, that fluor-
spar contains a  peculiar acid  matter; and that this
acid matter is united to lime in the spar, seems evident
from the circumstance, that gypsum or sulphate of time
is the residuum of the distillation of fluor-spar and
sulphuric  acid.  The results of experimenu on fluor-
spar have been differently stated by chemisU.
  Some have considered fluoric acid as a compound of
fluorine with hydrogen, but it seems on the whole to be
the analogy of chlorine.   But the  analogy is incom-
plete.  Certainly it  is consonant to the  true logic of
chemical science to regard chlorine as a simple body,
since  every attempt to resolve it into simpler forms of
matter has failed.  But fluorine has not been exhibited
in an insulated state like chlorine;  and here  therefore
the analogy does not hold.
  The marvellous activity of fluoric acid  may be in-
ferred from the following  remarks of Sir H. Davy,
from which also ma^be estimated in some measure
the prodigious difficulty attending refined investigations
on this extraordinary substance.
   ' I undertook the experiment of electrising pure liquid
fluoric acid with considerable interest, as it seemed to
offer the most probable method of ascertaining iu real
nature: but considerable difficulties occurred in exe-
cuting tiie process. The liquid fluoric acid immediately
destroys glass, and all animal and vegetable substances;
it acu on  all bodies containing metallic oxides; and  I
know of no substances which are not rapidly dissolved
or decomposed by it, except metals, charcoal, phospho-
rus, sulphur, and certain combinations of chlorine.  I
attempted to make tubes of sulphur, of muriates of
lead, and of copper containing metallic wires, by which
it might be electrised, but  without success.   I suc-
ceeded, however, in boring a piece of horn silver in
such a manner that I was able to cement a platina wire
into it by means of a spirit lamp; and by  inverting
ibis in a tray of platina, tilled with liquid fluoric acid,
I contrived to submit the fluid to the agency of elec-
tricity iu  such a manner, that, in successive experi-
ments, it was  possible to collect any elastic fluid that
might be produced.   Operating in this way with a very
 weak voltaic power, and keeping the apparatus cool
 by a freezing mixture, I ascertained tbat tiie platina
 wire at the positive pole rapidly corroded, and became
 covered with a chocolate powder; gaseous matter sepa
 rated at the negative pole, which I could never obtain
 in sufficient quantities to analyze with accuracy, but it
 inflamed like hydrogen.  No other inflammable matter
 was produced when the acid was pure.'
   If instead of being distilled in metallic vessels, the
 mixture of fluor-spar and  oil of vitriol be distilled in
 glass vessels, little of the  corrosive liquid will be ob-
 tained ; but the glass will be acted upon, and a peculiar
 gaseous substance will be produced, which must  be
 collected over mercury.   The best mode of procuring
 this gaseous body is to mix the fluor-spar with pounded
 glass or quartz; and in this case the glass retort may
 be preserved from corrosion, and the gas obtained in
 greater quantities. This gas, which is called silicated
fluoric gas, is possessed of very  extraordinary pro-
 perties.
   It is very heavy; about 48 times denser than hydro-
 gen.  When brought into contact with water, it in-
 stantly deposites a white gelatinous substance, which is
 hydrate of silica; it produces white fumes when suf-
 fered to  pass into the atmosphere.  It is not affected
 by any of the common combustible bodies; but when
 potassium is strongly heated in il, it takes fire and bums
 with a deep red light; the gas is absorbed, and a fawn-
 coloured substance is formed, which yields alkali to
 water with slight effervescence, and contains  a com-
 bustible body.   The washings afford potassa, and a
 salt, from  which the strong acid  fluid  previously
 described, may be separated by sulphuric acid.
   If, instead  of glass or silica, tlie fluor spar be mixed
 with dry vitreous boracic acid, and distilled in a glass
 vessel with sulphuric acid, the proportions being one
 part boracic acid, two fluor-spar,  and  twelve oil of
 vitriol, the gaseous substance formed is of a different
 kind, and is called the fluoboric gas.  It is colourless;
 its smell is  pungent, and  resembles that of muriatic
 acid; it cannot be breathed without suffocation; it ex-
 tinguishes combustion; and reddens strongly the tinc-
 ture of turnsol.  It has no manner of action on glass,
 but  a very powerful one on  vegetable and  animal
 matter.   It attacks them with  as  much force as con-
 centrated sulphuric acid, and appears to operate on these
 bodies by the production  of water; for while it car-
 bonizes them, or evolves carbon, they may be touched
 without  any risk of burning.  Exposed  to a high tem-
 perature, it is not decomposed; it is condensed  by cold
 without changing iu form.   When it is put in contact
 with oxygen, or air, either at a high or low temperature,
 it experiences no change, except  seizing, at ordinary
 temperatures, the moisture which these gases contain
 It becomes in consequence a liquid which  emiu ex-
 tremely dense vapours.  It operates  in  the same way
 with all the gases which contain  hygrometric water.
 However little they may contain, it occasions iu them
 very perceptible vapours.  It may hence be employed
 with advantage to show whether or not a gas contains
 moisture.
   No combustible body, simple or compound, attacks
 fluoboric gas, if we except tire alkaline metals.  Potas-
 sium and sodium, with the aid of heat, burn in this
 gas, almost  as  brilliantly as in oxygen.  Boron and
 fluate of potassa are the  products of this decomposi-
 tion.  It might hence be inferred, that the metal seizes
 tlie oxygen of the boracic acid, sets the boron at liberty,
 and is  iuelf oxidized and combined with  the fluoric
 acid.  According to Sir H. Davy's views, the fluoboric
 gas being a compound of fluorine and boron, the potas-
 sium unites to tlie former, giving rise to the fluoride of
 potassium, while the boron remains disengaged.
   Fluoboric gas is very soluble in water.  Dr. John
 Davy says, water can combine with 700 times its own
 volume, or twice its weight, at the ordinary temperature
 and pressure of the  air.    The liquid  foa3  a  specific
 gravity of 1.770. If a bottle containing this gas be un-
 corked  under water, the liquid will rush In and fill it
 with explosive violence.    Water saturated with this
 gas is limpid, fuming, and very caustic.   By heat about
 one-fifth of the absorbed gas may be expelled; but it
 is impossible to abstract more.  It then resembles con-
 centrated sulphuric acid,  and boils at a temperature
 considerably above 2120.  it afterward condenses al-
 together, in stria, although it contains still a very larg
 quantity of gas.   It unites with tlie bases forming salt 
FOE
FON
 called fluoborates. none of which has been applied to
 any use.
  The 2d part of the Phil. Transactions, for 1812, con-
 tains an excellent paper by Dr. John Davy on fluosili-
 cic and  fluoboric gases, mid the combinations of  the
 latter with ammoniacal gas.  When united in equal
 volumes, a pulverulent salt is formed; a  second  vo-
 lume of ammonia, however, gives a liquid compound;
 and a third of ammonia, which is the limit of combina-
 tion,  affords  still a  liquid;  both  of them  curious on
 many accounu.  * They are,' says he, ' the first salts
 that have been observed liquid at the common temper-
 ature of the atmosphere.   And  they are  additional
 facU in support of the doctrine of definite pro;iortions,
 and of tiie relation of volumes.'   The fluosilicic acid
 also unites to bases forming fluosilicates.
  From the remarkable property fluoric acid possesses
 of corroding glass, it has been employed for etching on
 it, both in the gaseous state, and combined with water;
 and an ingenious apparatus for this purpose is given
 by Mr. Richard Knight in the  Philosophical Maga-
 zine, vol. xvii. p. 357.
  Of the combinations of this acid with most of  the
 bases, little is known.
  Beside the fluor spar  and cryolite, in which it is
 abundant, fluoric acid has been detected in the topaz;
 in wavelite, in which, however, it is not rendered sen-
 sible  by sulphuric acid;  and in fossil  teeth and fossil
 ivory,  though it is not  found in either of these  in
 their natural state."—Ure's  Chem. Did.
  Fluoric acid, silicated.  See Fluoric  acid.
  FLUORIDE.  A  combination of fluorine  with a
 salifiable basis.
  FLUORINE.   The imaginary radical of fluoric
 acid.
  FLUOSILICIC ACID.  See Fluoric acid.
  FLUX.  L This word is often employed for dysen-
 teria.
  2. A general term made  use of to denote any sub-
 stance or mixture added to assist the fusion of metals.
  FLUXION.  Fluxio.   A term mostly applied  by
 chemisU, to signify the change of njetals, or other  bo-
 dies, from the solid into the fluid state, by the applica-
 tion of heat.  See Fusion.
  FLY.  Musca.
  Fly, Spanish.  See Cantharis.
  FO'CLLE.  .The ulna and the radius are occasion-
 ally denominated by  the barbarous appellations  of
focile majus  and minus; the tibia and fibula in  the
 leg are also so called.
  Fo'cus.  A lobe of the liver.
  Fodi'na.   (From fodio, to dig.)  A quarry.  The
 labyrinth of the ear.
  Fienicula'tum  lignum.  A name for sassafras.
  FffiNI'CULUM.   (Quasi fenum  oculorum,  the
 hay or herb good for the sight; so called because it is
 thought good for the  eyes.) Fennel.  See Anethum.
  Fceniculum alpinum.   The   herb  spignel.   See
 JEthusa meum.
  Fceniculum annuum.  Royal cummin.
  Fceniculum aquaticum.  See Phcllandrium aqua-
 ticum.
  Fceniculum dulce.  See Anethum feniculum.
  1'ckniculum  obrmanicum.  See Anethum feni-
 culum,
  Fceniculum marinum.  Samphire.
  Fceniculum orientals.   See  Cuminum.
  Fceniculum porcinum.  See Peucedanum officinale.
  Fceniculum sinense.  Aniseed.
  Fceniculum sylvestre.   Bastard  spignel.  See
 Scseli montanum, of Linnaeus.
  Fceniculum tortuosum.  French hartwort.  See
 Seseli tortuosum.
  Fceniculum vulgare.   See Anethum feniculum.
  FOS'NUM.  (Fenum,  i.  n.hay.)  Hay.
  Fcenum camelorum.  See Juncus odoratus.
  Fcenum 6R.ECUM.  See Trigonella fenum gracum.
  Fcenum svlvestre. Wild fenugreek.
  FOESIUS, Anutius, was born at Mentz, in 1528,
 and received his education at Paris, where he imbibed
 a strong predilection for the Greek language, and par-
 ticularly the works of Hippocrates.  Returning to his
 native place about the  age of 28, his talents soon pro-
 cured him such extensive  reputation, that several
 princes endeavoured to allure him to their  respective
 couru, but without success.   The practice of his pro-
 fession, instead of weakening his attachment to Hip-1
      368
 pocrates, only stimulated him to  a more  profound
 study of his writings; where  lie found Hie morn cor-
 rect deliuontions of diseases, and  tiie most important
 observations concerning them, made about two thou-
 sand years before.  He first  published an excellent
 Latin translation and commentary on his second bonk
 of Epidemics: then an explanation of the terms used
 by him, under the title  of " OEconotnia  Hippocratis;"
 and, lastly, at the solicitation  of the chief physicians
 of Europe, he undertook a complete correct edition of
 his works, with an interpretation and notes, which he
 accomplished in six years, in such a manner as to rank
 him among the ablest interpreters of the ancients.  He
 was also author of a  Pharmacopoeia for his native
 city; and died in 1595.
   Fceta'bulum.  (From /<i:teo, to become putrid.)  1.
 An encysted abscess.
   2. A foul ulcer.
   FGS'TUS.  (From feo, to bring forth, according to
 Vossius.)   Epicyema;  Epigonion.  The child  en-
 closed in the uterus of iu mother, is called a fcetus
 from the fifth month after pregnancy until  the lime of
 iu birth.  See Ovum.
   FOLIATA  TERRA.  1. Sulphur.
   2. An old name ofthe acetate of  potassa.
   FOLIATIO.  (From folium, a leaf.)  The manner
 in which leaves are folded up in their buds.  Sec Ver
 natio.
   FOLIA'TUS.  (From its resemblance to folium,  a
 leaf.)  Foliate, leafy.
   FOL1CULUS.   (Diminutive of foliis, a leather
 bag.)  A small follicle.
   FOLIOLUM. A leaflet or little leaf.
   FO'LIUM.  (Folium, i. n.;  from q)vXXov, the leaf
 of a tree.)  See Leaf.
   Folium orientals.  See Cassia senna.
   FOLLICLE.  (Folliculus; diminutive  of foliis,  a
 bag.)  A small bag;  applied to glands.  See Folli-
 culose.
   FOLLICULOSE.  (Folliculosus; from folliculus,
 a little bag.)  A term applied to a simple gland or  fol-
 licle. One of the most simple species of  gland, con-
 sisting merely of a hollow vascular membrane or  fol-
 licle, and an excretory duct; %uch are the muciparous
 glands, the sebaceous, &c.
   FOLLI'CULUS.   (Diminutive of foliis,  a bag.)
 1. A little bag. See Folliculose.
   2. In botany, a follicle is a one-valved  pericarp, or
 seed-vessel.  It has  one cell,  and  bursU  lengthwise,
 and bears the seeds on or near  iu edges, or on a recep-
 tacle parallel therewith.
   From  the adhesion of tbe seeds  it is distinguished
 into,
   1. Follicle, with a partition,  when the seeds adhere
 to an intermediate dissepiment.
   2. Follicle, without a partition, when  the seeds  ad-
 here to the internal sides only.
   From the number of seeds,
   1. Monosperm follicle ; as in Orontium.
   2. Polysperm; as in Asdepias syriaca.
   From the direction into,
   1. Erect; as in Vinca and JVerium.
   2. Reflected; as in  Plumeria.
   3. Horizontal; as in Corner a-rW.
   Folliculis pellis.  The gall-bladder
   FOMENTA'TION.  Fomentatio. A sort of partial
 bathing,  by  applying  hot flannels to any part, dipped
 in medicated decoctions, whereby steams are commu-
 nicated to the parts, their vessels are relaxed, and their
 morbid action sometimes removed,
   Fomes ventriculi.  Hypochondriacism.
   FO'MITES.  A term mostly applied to substances
 imbued with contagion.
   FONS.  A fountain.
   Fons  pulsatihs.  See Fontanella.
   FONTANE'LLA.    (Diminutive of fons, a foun-
 tain.)  .Fens pulsatilis. The parietal bones and the
 frontal do not coalesce  until the third year after birth,
 so that, before this period, there hi  an obvious inter
 slice, commonly called mould,  and scientifically the
fontanel,  or  fons pulsatilis.   There is also a less
 space, occasionally, between the occipital and purietal
 bones, termed the posterior fontanel. These spaces
 between  the bones are filled up by the dura mater, pe-
 ricranium, and external inteaurnenu, so Hint, during
 birth, the size of the  head may be  lessened;  for,  ai
 that lime, the bones  of the head, upon  the superior 
FOR
FOR
part,  are not only pressed nearer to each  other, but
they frequently lap over one another, in order to dimi-
nish the size during the passage of the head through
Ihe pelvis.
  FONTI'CULUS.  (Diminutiveoffons.)  An issue.
An artificial ulcer formed in  airy part, and kept dU-
cbarging, by introducing daily a pea, covered with any
digestive ointment
  FORAMEN.  (From foro, to pierce.)    A little
opening.
  Foramen ccecum.  1. A single opening in the basis
of the cranium between the ethmoid and the frontal
bone, that gives exit to a small vein.
  2. The name of a hole in the middle  of the tongue.
  Foramen lacerum in basi cranii.  A foramina
in the basis of the cranium, through which the internal
jugular vein, and the eighth pair and accessary nerves
pass.
  Foramen lacerum orbitale superius.  A large
opening between the greater and less wing ofthe sphe-
noid  bone  on each side, through which  the  third,
fourth, first branch of the fifth, and the sixth pair of
nerves, and the ophthalmic artery pass.
  Foramen opticum.  The  hole  transmitting the
optic nerve.
  Foramen ovale.  The opening between the two
auricles of the heart of the fcetus.  See also Innornina-
tum os.
  Foramen of Winslow.   An  opening in tiie omen-
tum. See Omentum.
  Forami'nulum os.  The ethmoid bone.
   Force, vital.   See  Vis vita.
  FO'RCEPS.   (Forceps,  cipis. f.;  quasi  ferriceps,
as being the  iron with which we seize any thing hot,
from ferrum,  iron, and capio, to take.)  Pincers.  A
surgical instrument with which extraneous bodies, or
other substances, are extracted.  Also an Instrument
occasionally used by men midwives to bring tlie head
of the fcetus through the pelvis.
  FORDYCE,  George, was  born  at Aberdeen,  in
1736, after the death of  his  father, and his mother
having married again, he was sent to  Fouran, when
about two years old, where he  received  his school edu-
cation ;  and thence returned  to Aberdeen,  where he
was made master of arts, when only fourteen. Having
evinced an inclination io medicine, he  was  soon after
sent to his uncle, Dr. John Fordyce, who practised at
Uppingham, with whom  he remained several  years.
 He then studied at Edinburgh, where he graduated  in
1758, having defended a thesis on catarrh: after which
he went to Leyden, principally to improve himself in
anatomy under Albinus.  The following year he set-
tled in London, and began to  give lectures on chemis-
try ; and, in 1764, he undertook also to teach the prac-
tice of physic, and the materia medica: these subjecu
occupied him nearly three hours every  morning, ex-
cept on Sunday, for about thirty years  successively.
In 1770, he was chosen physician to St. Thomas's hos-
 pital, and,  six  years after, a Fellow of the Royal  So-
 ciety: also, in 1787, he was admitted a Fellow  of the
 College of Physicians; having been a licentiate for
 twenty-two years before.   In 1793,  he assisted  in
 forming a small Society for the improvement of Medi-
 cal and Chirurgical Knowledge, which has since pub-
 lished three volumes  of their Transactions.  He died
 in 1802.  The countenance of Dr. Fordyce was by no
 means expressive of his powers of mind: he was ra-
 ther negligent of his dress, and not sufficiently pleasing
 in his manners, to enable him to get into very  exten-
 sive practice:  besides, he was too fond of the plea-
 sures of society, to which he often sacrificed the hours
 that should have been dedicated to sleep.  The  vigour
 of his constitution long resisted these irregularities;
 but at length they brought on  the gout, which was fol-
 lowed by dropsy, and this terminated his existence.
 He possessed a remarkably strong memory, which ena-
 bled him to lecture without any notes, and to compose
 his works for publication without referring to authors,
 which he  had before read; and his having relied too
 much on this faculty may help to explain the want of
 method  and  elegance, and  the  many  inaccuracies,
 which appear in his writings.   He was author of seve-
 ral publications on medical and philosophical subjecu;
 many of which are to be found in the transactions of
 the societies to which he belonged.  The most esteem-
 ed, aid that on which he employed most labour, was
 a scries of " Dissertations on Fever;" four of them ap-
peared during his life, and another was left in manu-
script, which has since been printed.  His Treatise on
Digestion, was read  originally as the Gulstonian Lec-
ture before the College of Physicians.  He was tiie pro-
jector of the Experiments  in heated rooms, of which
Sir Charles Blagden  gave an account.
  FORDYCE, Sir William, was born at Aberdeen ire
1724.   At the age of eighteen, having acquired a com-
petent knowledge of physic and surgery, he went into
the army.  The support of the friends, whom he there
procured, together with his own merit, soon  broughl
him into great practice, when he afterward settled in
London.  The wealth, which he thus acquired, was
liberally employed in acts of friendship, and  in  sup-
porting useful projecU; though he had  some very
severe losses. He wrote a Treatise on Fevers, and on
the Ulcerated Sore Throat; on his entering into prac-
tice, he likewise published on the Venereal Disease.
He died after a long  illness in 1792.
  FORENSIC.   Forensis.  Belonging  to  the forum,
or courts of law: hence forensic medicine is that which
is connected with a legal inquiry as to the cause of de-
fect, disease, or death.
  FORESKIN.  See Prepuce
  FORESTUS, or Van Forest, Peter, was bom at
Alcmaer, in 1522. He was sent to Louvain to study
the law, but soon showed a strong inclination to medi-
cine.  He therefore cultivated  this science at different
universities in Italy, and afterward at Paris; but  he
graduated at Bologna.  After being twelve years set-
tled in his native town, he was invited to Delft, which
was ravaged by a contagious epidemic; and being ex-
tremely successful in the treatment of this, he received
a considerable pension, and was retained as the public
physician for nearly thirty years.  In 1575, he was pre-
vailed upon to give the first lecture on Medicine at the
opening of the University of Leyden.  He spent the
latter part of his life in his native city, where he died
in 1597.  He was a very diligent observer of diseases,
and showed often great judgment  in anticipating the
result, or in treating them successfully.   He published
at different  periods  six volumes of Medical and Sur-
gical  Cases; to one of which was added a Disserta-
tion, exposing the fallacy and absurdity of pretending
to judge of every thing by the urine.  Boerhaave has
highly commended his writings, which have been often
reprinted.                                     ■*
  [Formations, mineral.   "The word Formation
may signify a single mass of one kind of  rock, more
or less extensive, or a collection of mineral substances,
formed by the same agent, under the same or similar
circumstances;  or it may convey the idea, that certain
masses or collections of minerols were formed not only
by the same agent, but also at the same time.   In this
latter sense, indeed, the term  is almost always em-
ployed.  The agent and time are to be determined by
a careful examination of the external and  internal
relations of the whole formation."—Cleav. Min.   A.]
   FO'RMIATE.  Formias.   A compound produced
by the union of the  formic acid with a salifiable basis:
thus, formiate of ammonia, Sec.
   Formic  acid.  See Formica rufa.
   FORMI'CA.   (Formica, a. f.; quod ferat micas,
because of his diligence in collecting small particles or
provision together.)
   1. The name of a genus of insects.  The ant or pis-
mire.   See Formica rufa.
   2. The name of a black wart with a broad base, and
cleft superficies, because the pain  attending it resem-
bles the biting of an ant.
   3. A varicose tumour on the anus and elans penis.
   Formica miliaris.  Any herpetic eruption.
   Formica rufa.  The ant or pismire.   This indus-
trious little insect contains an acid juice, and gross oil,
which were supposed to possess aphrodisiac virtues.
The chrysalides of this animal are said to be diuretic
and carminative, and by some  recommended in the
cure of dropsy.  «•
   The ant also  furnishes  an acid called  the formic,
which it has been long  known  to contain, and occa-
sionally to emit.  It may be obtained, either by simple
distillation,  or by infusion of them in boiling water,
and subsequent  distillation of as  much of the water
as can be brought over without burning the  residue.
After thU it may be  purified by repeated rectifications,
or by boiling to separate the impurities; or after recti
ficatiou it may be concentrated by frost. 
FOT
FRA
  This acid has a very sour taste, and continues liquid
even at very low temperatures.  Iu specific gravity is
1.111)8 at 68°, which is much denser than acetic acid
ever is.
  Dobereiner has recently succeeded  in forming this
acid artificially.  When a mixture of tartaric acid, or
of cream of tartar, black oxide of magnesia and water
is heated, a tumultuous action ensues, carbonic acid
is evolved, and a liquid  acid distils over, which, on
superficial examination, was mistaken for acetic acid,
but which now proves to  be formic acid.  This acid,
mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid, is at common
temperatures converted into water and carbonic oxide;
nitrate of silver or of mercury converts it, when gently
heated, into carbonic acid, the oxides being at the same
time reduced to the metallic state.  With barytes, ox-
ide of lead, and oxide of copper, it produces compounds,
having all tlie properties of the  genuine formiates of
these metals.  If a portion of sulphuric acid be em-
ployed in the above process, the tartaric acid is resolved
entirely into carbonic  acid, water, and formic acid;
and tlie product of the latter is much increased. The
best proportions are, two parts tartaric acid, five per-
oxide of manganese, and  five  sulphuric acid diluted
with about twice iu weight in water.
  Fo'rmix.  See Herpes extdens.
  FO'RMULA.  (Diminutive of forma, a form.)  A
little form of prescriptions, such as physicians direct in
extemporaneous practice, in distinction from the greater
forms in pharmacopoeias, Sec
  Fo'rnax.  A furnace.
  FORNICIFORMIS.  Vaulted.  Applied to the nec-
tary of some planU; as the Sj/mphytum officinale, Sec
See Nectarium.
  FO'RNIX.   (Fornix, an arch  or vault')   A part of
the corpus callosum in the brain is so called, because,
if viewed in a particular direction, it has some resem-
blance to the arch of an ancient vault  It is tiie me-
dullary body, composed of two anterior and  two pos-
terior crura, situated at the bottom and inside  of the
lateral ventricle  over the third  ventricle, and  below
the septum lucidum.
  FO'SSA.   (From fodio, to dig.)  Fovea.  A little
depression or sinus.  The pudendum muliebre.
  Fossa amynt.*;.  A double-headed  roller for the

  Fossa magna.  1. The great groove of the ear.
  2. The pudendum muliebre.
  Fossa navicularis.  1. The cavity at the bottom
of tlie entrance of the pudendum muliebre.
  2. The great groove of the ear.
  Fossa ovalis.  The depression in the right auricle
of the human  heart, which in the fcetus opened into
the other auricle, forming  the foramen ovale.
  Fossa pituitaria.   The depression in the sella
turcica of the sphenoid bone.
  FOSSIL.    (Fossilis;  from fodio,  to dig.)   Any
thing dug out of the earth.
  Fossil copal.  Highgate resin.  A semi-transpa-
rent, brittle, resinous substance, of a yellowish-brown
colour; found in Ihe bed of blue clay at Highgate, near
London.
  Fo'ssilus.   The bone of the leg.
  FOTHERGILL, John, was born in Yorkshire, in
1712, of a respectable Ouakcr family.  After passing
through an apprenticeship to an apothecary, he went
to Edinburgh, where he graduated at the age of twen-
ty-four, taking for his inaugural thesis the use of
emetics.  He then studied for two years at St. Thomas's
Hospital, and after an excursion  to the continent, set-
tled in London in 1740, and six years  after became a
licentiate. His practice was for some time chiefly gra-
tuitous; but his "Account of tbe Putrid Sore Throat,"
published in 1748, brought him  speedily into reputa-
tion   He was successively elected a Fellow  of the
College of Physicians at Edinburgh, of the Royal So-
ciety of London, and of some other societies abroad.
His early partiality to botany induced him, as hu prac-
tice increased, to purchase a large piece of ground for
the cultivation of rare and valuable planU, m  which
he snared no expense; neither did he neglect other de-
 nartuieiiU of natural  history.  He was also an active
 and liberal promoter of many successful schemes for
 the Dublic benefit; and particularly in  instituting tiie
 school at Ackworth in Yorkshire.  He was of a rather
 delicate constitution, but a steady temperance pre-
 served his health, till iu  1778 he had an  attack of a
       368
 suppression of urine, occasioned by a disease of tlie
 prostate gland; which, returning two years after, soon
 put a period to his existence,  lie  had a quick and
 comprehensive understanding; and his pleasing ad-
 dress procured him general confidence, which  his dis-
 cretion was not apt to forfeit afterwurd. Besides ihe
 works already noticed, several ptipcrs of Dr. Fothergitl
 were printed  in  the Philosophical Transactions, and
 in the  Medical Observations and Inquiries:  lie idso
 sent several communications to the Gentleman's Maga-
 zine, and other periodical publications.
   FO'TI'S.  (Fotus, As. m.)  Sec J-'cmentation.
   FOVEA.   (From fodio, to dig.)   LA little do
 preBsion.
   2. The pudendum muliebre.
   3. A partial sweating-bath.
   FOVEATUS.  Having a little depression, or pit.
 Applied to the nectary of planU. See Nectarium.
   FOX-GLOVE.   See Digitalis.
   Fox-glove, Eastern.   See Sesamum orientate.
   FRACASTORIUS, Hieronvmus, was born at Ve-
 rona, in 1483. He made  a rapid  progress in his studies,
 and attained early considerable excellence as a  poet,
 philosopher,  and  astronomer.   He  was also much
 valued as a physician, particularly by the general of
 the Venetian army, whom he attended dunng several
 campaigns: but on his dying,  in 1515, Frncaslorius
 returned to his native place.  He corresponded with
 most of the great men of his age, especially with Car-
 dinal Bembo, to whom  he dedicated his poem, " Sy-
 philis ;"  wbich was thought worthy of comparison
 with the G eorgics of Virgil by some of the best judges.
 He died in 1553;  and a statue  was erected to him by
 the town of Verona. He published also on Contagious
 Diseases, and several other Medical and Philosophical
 Subjects.
   FRA'CTURE. (Fraclura; from frango, lo break.)
 Catagma; Clasis ;  Clasma; Agme.  A solution of a
 bone into two or  more fragmeuu.  A simple fracture
 is when tlie bone only  is divided.  A compound frac-
 ture is a division of the bone, with a laceration of the
 integuments, the bone mostly protruding.  A fracture
 is also termed transverse, oblique, sic. according to iu
 direction.
   FRENULUM.   (Diminutive of frenum, a bridle.)
 The cutaneous fold under the apex of the tongue, that
 connects the tongue to the iufralingual  cavity.  It  is
 sometimes, in  infancy,  so  short as io prevent the
 child from sucking, when it is necessary to cut it,
 in order to give more room for the motion of the tongue.
   FR^'NUM.  The membraneous  fold which con-
 lecU  the prepuce  lo the  inferior part of  the glana
 penis.
   FRA'GARIA.  (From fragro, to smell sweet.) The
 strawberry.  1. The name of  a genus of planU in
 the Linnsan system. Class, Icosandria; Order, Poly-
I gynia.
'   3. The pharmacopceial name of the strawberry. See
 Fragaria vesca.
   Fragaria stkrilis.   Barren strawberry.  Astrin
 gent, seldom used.
   Fragaria vesca.  The systematic  name of the
 strawberry plant.  Fragaria.  The  mature fruit of
 the Fragaria, fragellis reptaniibus of Linnxus, was
 formerly recommended  in gouty and calculous affec-
 tions, iu consequence, it would appear, of its efficacy
 in removing tartar from tlie teeth, which it is said to
 do very effectually.
   Fragile vitreum.   An obsolete name for the fra
 gilitas ossium.
   FRAGIL1S.  Brittle.
   FRAGI'LITAS.   Brittleness.
   Fragilitas  ossium.   Brittleness of the bones.
   Fra'smbn.   Fragmtntum.  A splinter of a bone.
   FRA'GUM.   (From fragro, to smell sweet.)  The
 strawberry.  See Fragaria.
   FRAMBCJS'SIA.  (From framboise, Fr. for a rasp-
 berry.)  The yaws. A genus of disease, arranged by
 Cullen in the class Cachexia, and order Impttigme.-:
 It is somewhat similar  in iu nature to the lues vene-
 rea, and is endemial to the Antilles islands, as well as
 Africa.   It appears with excrescences like mulberries
 growing out of the  skin in various parts of the body,
 which discharge an ichorous fluid.
   FRA'NGULA.  (From frango, to break: so called
 because  of the  brittleness ot its  branches.)   See
 Rhamnus frangula. 
FRE                                            FRU
  FRANKINCENSE. See Juniperus lycia, and Pinus
ubies.
  [Frasera WaLteri. See American Columbo.  A.]
  FRAXINE'LLA.   (From  fraxinus, the ash : so
called  because its leaves resemble thoBe of the ash.)
See Dictamnus albus.
  Fraxinella, white.  Sec Dictamnus albus.
  FRA'XINUS.  (A fragore, from the noise itsseeds
make  when shaken by tbe  wind; or from Qpafys,
a hedge, because of iu use in forming hedges.)  T he
ash.
  1. The name of a genus of planU in the Linnean
system.  Class, Polygamia ; Order, Dieria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the ash-tree.   See
Fraxinus excelrior.
  Fraxinus excelsior.   Thesystematic name of the
ash-tree.  Fraxinus.  Called  also brumelli  and bume-
lia.  The bark of tins tree, Fraxinus—foliis serratis
floribus apetalis of Linnams, when fresh, has a mode-
rately strong bitterish taste.  It possesses resolvent and
diuretic qualities, and has been successfully exhibited
in the  cure of  intermittents.   The seeds are occasion-
ally exhibited medicinally as diuretics, in the dose of a
drachm.  In warm climates,  a sort of manna exudes
from this species of fraxinus.
  Fraxinus ornus.  The systematic name of the
tree from which manna flows.  This substance is also
termed Manna Caldbrina; Ros calabrinus ;  Acromeli;
Alusar; Drysomeli.  That species which is of a rosy
colour, is called nuba.  Mel aSrium, from the supposi-
tion that it descended from  heaven. Manna is the
condensed juice of the  flowering ash, or Fraxinus or-
nus—foliis ovato oblongis serratis petiolatis, floribus
corollatis, Hort. Kew. which  is a native ofthe south-
ern parts of Europe, particularly Sicily and Calabria.
Many  other trees and  shrubs have likewise been ob-
served to emit a sweet juice, which concretes upon ex-
posure to the air, and may be considered of the manna
kind, especially the Fraxinus rotundifolia,  and excel-
sior.   In Sicily these  three  species of fraxinus are
regularly cultivated for the purpose of procuring man-
na, and with this view are planted on the declivity of
a hill with an eastern aspect  After ten years' growth,
the trees first begin' to yield the manna, but they require
to be much older before they afford it in any consider-
able quantity.  Although the manna exudes sponta-
neously upon the trees, yet, in order to obtain it more
copiously, incisions are made through the bark, by
means of a sharp crooked Instrument; and the season
thought to be most favourable for instituting this pro-
cess, is a little before the dog days commence, when
the weather is dry and serene.  Manna is generally dis-
tinguished into different kinds, viz. the manna in tear,
the canulated and flaky  manna, and the common
brown or fat manna.  All these varieties seem rather
to depend upon their respective purity, and the manner
in which they are obtained from the plant,  than upon
any essential difference of the drug.  The best manna
is in oblong pieces or flakes,  moderately dry, friable,
very light, of a whitish or pale yellow colour,  and in
some degree transparent: the  inferior kinds are moist,
unctuous, and brown.  Manna  is well known  as a
gentle purgative, so mild in its operation, that it may
be given with safety to children and pregnant women,
to the delicacy of whose  frames and  situations it is
particularly adapted.  It is esteemed a good and plea-
sant  auxiliary  to  the purgative neutral salu.  It
sheathes acrimony, and is useful in coughs, disorders
of the breast,  and such as are attended with fever and
inflammation, as in pleuritis. Sec.  It U particularly
efficacious in  bilious complaints, and helps the  dis-
charge of mineral waters, when they are notof them-
selves sufficiently active.  It  is apt,  in large doses, to
create flatulencies and gripes; both of which are pre-
vented by  a small addition of some warm carmina-
tives.  It purges in  doses of from 5jto 5 ij; but iu
purgative quality is much  increased, and iu flatulent
effecu prevented, by a small addition of cassia.  The
dose for children is from one scruple to three.  It is
best dissolved in whey.
   Fraxinus  ROTUNDiroLiA.  The systematic name
of a tree which affords manna.  See Fraxinus ornus.
   FREIND,  John, was born in 1675, at  Croton, in
Northamptonshire,  of which his father was rector.
 After being educated at Westminster he went to Ox-
 ford, where he distinguished himself greatly by his
 classical attainments.  Having for some time studied
medicine, he communicated to the Royal Society some
singular cases: but a  work, which  he published in
1703, entitled  " Emmenologia," explaining the pheno-
mena of menstruation, both natural and morbid, on
mechanical principles, first brought him into notice as
a physiologist and physician.  In  the following year,
he was appointed professor of Chemistry at Oxford,
but soon after went to Spain as physician lo the Eng-
lish forces; and he took this  opportunity of visiting
Italy.  On his return, in 1707, he was created a Doctor
by diploma, and published his Chemical Lectures in
Latin.   In 1712, he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal
Society; but soon went abroad again with the troops
into Flanders.  On the conclusion of the peace in the
following year he settled in London, and rose to  high
professional reputation. In 1716,  he was received as
Fellow of the College of Physicians, and published the
first  and third books of Hippocrates  on Epidemics,
with a Commentary on Fevers, in nine parte; a work
of great erudition and judgment. Some of his  opi-
nions having been severely attacked, he was led to de-
fend them in a letter to Dr. Mead, entitled " De pur-
gantibus in secundo Variolarum  confluentium Febre
adhibendis," 1719.  A few  years after this he got into
parliament, and having warmly sided with the oppo-
sition, he was, in common with several  persons of
consequence, imprisoned on suspicion of high treason i
but the minister, Sir  Robert  Walpole, having fallen
sick, Dr. Mead refused to attend him till his friend was
liberated; when he  made  over to him 5000 guineas,
which he had received from  his patients during his
confinement of a few months only.  While in the
Tower, Dr. Freind formed the plan of his great work,
"The History of Physic from Galen  to the beginning
of the Sixteenth Century, chiefly with regard to Prac-
tice;" which came out in two volumes within three
years after.  This was intended as a continuation of
Le Clerc, and met with a very favourable reception.;
indeed it still continues to be a standard book. On the
accession of George H. he was appointed physician to
the Queen ; and having died in July 1728, his widow
and son experienced the royal protection.
  Fre'na.  The sockeu of the teeth.
  Frigera'na.  A putrid fever.      *)
  FRIGIDA'RITJM.  (From frigidus, cold.)   The
cold bath.
  FRINGE.  See .Ftmoria.
  Fringed leaf.   See Leaf.
  FRONS.   (Frons,  tis. f. or m.)  1. The forehead.
The part between the eyebrows and the hairy scalp.
  2.  (Frons, dis, f.)  The frond, or leaf; a tree:  now
used by botanists to the cryptogamious plants only.
  FRONTAL.   (Frontalis;  from frons, the fore-
head.)   Belonging to the forehead.
  Frontal bone.  See Frontis os.
  Frontal sinus.  See Frontis os.
  FRONTA'LIS.  See Occipito frontalis.
  Frontalis verus.  See Corrugator supercilii.
  FRO'NTIS OS. The frontal bone.  Os coronals;
 Os inverecundum ; Metopon.  The external surface of
this bone is smooth at its upper convex part, but below
several cavities and processes are observed.  At each
angle of the orbiu the bone juts out to from two inter-
nal and two external processes; and  the ridge under
the eyebrow on each side is called the superciliary pro-
cess ; from which the  orbitar processes extend back-
wards, forming the upper  part of the orbiu; and be-
tween these the ethmoid bone  is received.   The nasal
process is situated between the two internal angular
processes.  At the internal angular process is a cavity
for the  caruncula lachrymalis ; and at the external,
another for the pulley of the major oblique muscle.
The foramina are three on each  side; one in each
superciliary ridge, through which  a nerve, artery, and
vein, pass to the integuments ofthe forehead; a second
near the middle of the internal side of the orbit, called
internal orbitar; the third is smaller,  and lies about an
inch deeper in tbe  orbit.   On the  inside  of the os
frontis there is a  ridge which is hardly perceptible at
the upper part, but grows  more prominent at the bot-
tom, where the foramen ccecum appears; to this ridge
the falx is attached.   The frontal sinus is placed over
the orbit on each side, except at this port the frontal
bone is of mean  thickness between  the parietal and
occipital; but the orbitar process is so thin as to be
almost transparent.
  FRUCTIFICATION.  (Fructificatio; fromfructus, 
FRU
FRU
fruit, and facio, to make.)  Under this term arc com-
prehended the flowers and the fruit of a plant.  It  is a
temporary  part of planu  appropriated to  generation,
terminating the old vegetable and beginning the new.
By the parte of  fructification,  Sir  James Smith  ob-
serve*,  each species is  perpetually  renewed without
limits, while all other modes of propagation are  but
the extension of an individual, and sooner or later  ter-
minate  in iu total extinction.    The  fructification is
therefore essential to vegetables.  A plant may be des-
titute of stem, leaves, or even roou, because if one of
these paru  be wanting, the others  may  perform   its
functions, but it can never be destitute of those organs
by which iu species is propagated.
  Linuxus distinguishes seven paru of fructification,
some of which are essential to the  very  nature of a
flower or fruit; others not so indispensably necessary,
and therefore are  not universal.
  1. The calyx, or flower-cup, not essential and often
absent.  See Calyx.
  2. The corolla, or petals, likewise not essential.  See
Corolla.
  3. The stamen  or  stamina.   These are essential.
See Stamen.
  4. The pistillum, or pistilla, in the centre of  the
flower,  consisting of the rudiments of the fruit, with
one or more organs attached lo them, and therefore
essential.  See Pistillum.
  5. The pericarpium, or seed-vessel, wanting in many
planU.  See Pericarpium.
  6. The semen, or seed,  the perfecting of which is
the sole end of all  the other parts.
  7. The receptaculum, which must necessarily be pre-
sent in some form  or other.  See Receptaculum.
  FRU'CTUS.    (Fmctus, tus. m.; a fruor.)  The
fruit of a tree or plant.  By this term is understood in
botany,  the produce of the germen,  consisting of  the
seed-vessel  and seed.
  Fructus hor.ei.   Summer fruits.  Under this term
are comprehended strawberries, cherries, curranu, mul-
berries,  raspberries, and the like.   They possess a
sweet subacid taste, and are exhibited as dietetic auxi-
liaries,  as  refrigerants,  antiseptics,  attenuanu, and
aperients.   Fotauerly they were exhibited  medicinally
in the cure of putrid affections, and lo promote  the
alvine and  urinary excretions.  The acid  which they
contain  is either the tartaric, oxalic, citric, or mallic, or
a mixture of two or more of them with sugar and
gluten, starch, and a gelatinous substance. Considering
them as an article of diet, they afford little nourish-
ment, and are liable to produce  flatulencies.  To per-
sons of  a bilious constitution  and  rigid fibres, and
where the habit is disposed naturally, or from extrinsic
causes, to an inflammatory or  putrescent state, their
moderate and even  plentiful use, is salubrious;  by
those of a cold inactive disposition, where the vessels
are lax, the circulation languid, and the digestion weak,
they should be used very sparingly.  The juices  ex-
tracted  from these fruits by expression, contain their
active qualities freed from their grosser  indigestible
matter.  On standing, the juice ferments and changes to
a vinous or  acetous state.   By proper addition of sugar,
and by boiling, their fermentative power is suppressed,
and their medicinal qualities preserved.  The juices
of these fruits, when purified from their faeculencies by
settling  and straining, may be made into syrups, with a
due proportion of  sugar in the usual way.
  FRUIT.   See Fmctus.
  Fruits, summer. See Fructus horai.
  [Fruits affording  spirit.  "I shall  class only  the
several  productions which afford ardent  spiriu, and
which may be worked to advantage at  this day in  the
form of resulu of late experimenu in some, and a slight
knowledge of others, for the benefit of future improve-
ment and research, beginning with
  " The Apple.   The juice of this fruit (which is
called cider, when expressed and  fermented,) affords,
by distillation, one-tenth of iu weight of spirit of  the
first proof on Dlca's hydrometer.
  " The Pear.  This fruit, when expressed as the  ap-
ple, affords nearly the same result; the qualities differ-
ing, as the quality ofthe fruit differs, in the same ratio
as the apple.  Process, the same as the apple.
  " The Peach.  This fruit U cultivated in abundance
throughout the United States, though in greater abun
dance"to the southward  of Pennsylvania.  It affords,
by distillation, about one-eighth by clear expression.
      370
 Although this  is seldom  done, it is nevertheless the
 best method to procure a fine flavour, which fixes the
 principal value.
  " Peaches intended  for  distilling  are thrown into
 bins;  when the  ripest should be assorted out, and
 thrown into a trough or vat, into which persons enter
 and  mash  them with their feet.   In  the southern
 states, wooden  stampers are used, as they cannot con-
 veniently be ground in a mill, owing to tiie danger of
 the stone.   This is a  practice which might well be
 remedied, by supplying their mills with stones after tho
 manner of a tanner's bark-mill.   It would also be at
 tended  with the  advantage of breaking the  peach-
 stones, which would impart that rich aromatic bitter
 which iu kernel  possesses, and which is  so highly
 prized in that celebrated cordial called noyeau.  Alter
 being well macerated, it is thrown into vau or casks,
 and  diluted with water,  so as to prevent an empy-
 reuma.   In this state it is called mobby, and, after  a
 thorough fermentation, it is in that state committed to
 the still, together with  the mass.  Others press it in
 cider-presses.
  "The Plum.  This is a fruit which is more used in
 culinary purposes, and for the table.  But  there is  a
 kind of plum which grows plentifully in most parts of
 the United States, called the red plum.  It is of a beau-
 tiful saffron colour, inclining to red.  This fruit affords
 nearly the same product as the peach, and  should be
 treated in ihe same manner.
  " The Cherry.  There is a variety of this fruit: that
 which affords  the greatest  quantity of spirit is tiie
 black-heart cherry, which  should be treated precisely
 as the peach.   This fruit  is more valued for the aro-
 matic  flavour which  it imparu  to spirit,  and from
 which is made the exhilarating water called  cherry-
 bounce.
  " The Papaw is a fruit  resembling  seed cucumber.
 Its pulp is of a saffron colour, nearly of the consistence
 of a melon, and its flavour much like custard. It is
 too luscious, when ripe, to be agreeable to the palate,
 but when boiled, green, is  pleasant   It ripens about
 the middle of September; is a native of Kentucky,
 Maryland, and  Pennsylvania.  The tree grows from
twelve to twenty-six feet high.  The fruit affords, by
distillation, a spirit by some highly prized, and in con-
siderable quantities.  The  process is well  known to
the inhabitants where the  fruit grows in abundance.
  " The  Blackberry, Whortleberry, Sec. afford spirit
in tolerable quantities, by expression, fermentation,
and distillation.
  " The Sugar-maple  is a tree which  abounds in the
northern and western parts of the United  States: it
grows from forty to sixty feet in height.  The sap is
drawn in February and March:  of this sap the inha-
 bitanu make largequantitiesof sugar.  This sap, duly
 fermented and distilled, produces a spirit of a very su-
 perior quality, and highly  esteemed.  The process is
simply a fermentation of the sap, and distillation in
 the common way.
  " The Persimmon is a fruit so well known through-
out the United States, that a description is unneces-
sary.  This  fruit is fit for  distillation only  after a
severe frost, which instantly ripens it, when it is ga-
thered and thrown into a  cistern or  cask, in which
state it is easily  crushed and diluted with warm water,
 fermented, and  the whole mass committed to the still.
 Some strain the mass  through a  coarse catgut, which
 takes out the seeds, that are of a powerful  astringent
 quality.  This spirit is not highly esteemed.
  "The Potato.  There are two kinds of the potato;
 one of which is commonly called the Irish potato, and
 the other the sweet potato; the latter of which affords
 the greatest quantity  by distillation.   The  process is
 the same in both, yet the sweet potato works more
 kindly.   After  being well boiled in water,  (steam is
 the best,) they are macerated by various means (a
 heavy roller is the best): they are then diluted  with a
 sufficient quantity of water, and strained through a
 coarse canvass, to separate the  skins (this is a pro-
 cess, however,  which  may be dispensed with); they
 are then thrown into casks, fermented, and committed
 to tbe still.  The distillation of potatoes may, in a
 short time, become a matter worthy of attention.  At
 present, the negroes of Georgia and the Carolinas are
 the only manufacturers. The spirit Is of an inferioi
 quality, and is used by the poorer class of iuhabitanu
 but a vast field for improvement lies open. 
FUL
FUL
  " Turnips, Parsnips, Carrots, Pumpions, Cashaws,
lee afford spirit of an inferior quality, and in tolerable
quantities.   They are to  be  treated similar to  tlie
potato.
  " Grain, of every description, affords spirits of dif-
ferent qualities, according to weight.
Wheat, weighing 601bs. per bush, affords 8 to 12 quarts.
Rye,            60        do.        10-14  ..
Indian corn,     60        do.        10-14
Buckwheat,     —        do.        6-  8  ..
Oats,           32        do.        5-  7  ..
Barley,         45        do.        7-  9  ..
Speltz,          60        do.        9- 13  ..
Rice,           70        do.        13-16  ..
  " The spirit afforded by the  distillation of rice is
what is usually termed rack, or arrack.  This article
is imported chiefly from Bengal, and is distilled from
rice, although the real and genuine arrack is distilled
in the island of Goa, from the sap of a tree, drawn in
the same manner as our sugar-maple.
  " The Grape.  In the United States, the cultivation
of the domestic grape has  but just commenced:  the
numerous species, however, of our wild  grape, with
which our forests abound, make it a matter  of consi-
deration.  These being collected in sufficient quanti-
ties, when ripe, they  may  be  treated with  success,
after the  process of the apple, and  afford  a  beautiful
spirit, not unlike cogniac.
  " Indian Corn (the stalk). The  young stalk of the
Indian corn,  (which should be used about the time of
earing,) like the sugar-cane ofthe West Indies, affords
a large quantity of juice or sap by expression, which,
when  fermented  and distilled, yields abundantly of
spirit of a very superior quality. This should be broken
and worked  in the same manner as the  sugar-cane,
which is by nut-mills of iron, after the manner of  our
cider-mills.—Krafft's Amer. Distiller. A.]
  FRUMENTA'CEOUS.   A term  applied to all such
plants as  have a  conformity with wheat, either with
respect to their fruit, leaves, or ears.
  FRUTESCENTIA.  (From  fructus, fruit.)  The
time at which the fruit arrives at maturity.
  FRUTEX.  A shrub or plant, which rises with a
woody durable stem, but never arrives at the height, or
has the appearance of an arbor, or tree.
  FU'CUS.  The name of  a genus of planU in  the
Linna-an system.  Class, Cryptogamia ; Order, Alga.
  Fucus  digitatus.  This fucus grows upon stones
and rocks in the  sea  near the shore.  It  has several
plain, long leaves or sinuses springing from a round
Btalk, in  the manner of fingers when extended.   It
affords soda.
  Fuccs  esculentus.  Edible fucus.  Hudson  has
made this a  distinct species, but  Linnsus included it
under his saccharinus.  It grows plentifully in the sea
near the shores of Scotland, and also those of Cum-
berland.   It has a broad, plain, simple, sword-shaped
leaf, springing from a pinnated stalk.
  Fucus helminthocorton. See Corallina corsicana.
  Fucus palmatus.  Handed  fucus.  This grows in
the sea, and consisu of a thin-lobed  leaf like a hand.
  Fucus saccharinus.  Sea-belu; so called from the
supposed  resemblance of iu leaves to  a belt or girdle.
It grows upon rocks and stones by the sea-shore. The
leaves are very sweet, and when washed and hung up
to dry, will exude a substance like sugar, from whence
it was named.
  Fucus  vesiculosus. The systematic  name of the
sea-oak.  Sea wreck.  Quercus  marina.  This sea-
weed, the Fucus—fronde plana dichotoma costata in-
tegerrima, vesiculis axUlaribus geminis, terminalibus
tuberculatis, of Linnaeus, is said to be a useful  as-
sistant to sea-water, in the cur.e of disorders of  the
glands.  Burnt in the open air, and reduced to a black
powder, it forms the atthiops vegetabilis, which, as an
internal medicine, is similar to burnt sponge.
  FULCRUM.   A prop or  support This term is ap-
plied by Linna:us, not only to those organs of vegeta-
bles correctly so denominated, such as tendrils, but also
to various other appendages to the herbage of a plant,
none of which are universal or essential, nor is there
any one plant furnished with  them  all.  Sir James
Smith prefers the English term appendage, for these
organs in general, to props, because the latter applies
only to one of them.
  The greater props, or fulcra of vegetables,  are the
roou, trunks, and branches.
  To the less are referred,
  1.  The pdiolus, or petiole, which is the fulcrum of
tlie leaf.
  2.  Cirrus, the tendril.  See Cirrus.
  3.  The stolo,  or sucker;  a filament, or  under-
ground bud, protruded from the root, and sending oft"
radicles into the earth, pushes up a stem resembling
the parent plant; as in the strawberry, and Syringa
vulgaris.
  4.  Sarmentum, the runner, which gives off from the
stem, and radicates on that which is nearest to it; as
does the Hedera helix, or ivy.
  The fulcra of a flower are the peduncle, scape, and
receptacle.
  FULI'GO.   (Quasifumiligo; from/am«.s, smoke.)
Araxos; Asoper; Asuoli.  Soot  Wood-soot, fuligo
ligni, or the condensed smoke from burning wood, has
a pungent, bitter,  and nauseous taste, and is resolved
by chemical analysis into a volatile alkaline salt, an
empyreumatic oil, a fixed alkali, and an insipid earth.
The tincture prepared from this substance, tinctura
fuliginis, is recommended as a powerful antispasmodic
in hysterical affections.
  [FULLER,  Dr. Samuel, one of the memorable
planters  of Plymouth, who came over with the first
settlers, in 1620.  He was the first regularly-educated
physician that visited New-England.  He did not con-
fine his benevolent offices to the inhabitants of New-
Plymouth, and to the aboriginals of the country, but
readily gave his assistance to the people of Naumkeak
(Salem)  and Charlestown, after Mr. Endicott came to
that part of Massachusetu Bay.  Several of the peo-
ple died  of the 'scurvy, and other distempers,' and
many were subjected to diseases arising from unwhole-
some  diet,  and  want of  proper accommodations.
Having no physician  among themselves, it was for-
tunate for those planters that Plymouth could supply
them with one so  well qualified as Dr. Fuller, who
visited them at the request of Governor Endicott, and
met  with great success in  his practice.  He visited
Salem  first in 1628, and again in 1629, on account of
the sickness  introduced there by the newly-arrived
ships.  When he arrived at  Plymouth, from  Salem,
Governor Endicott wrote to Governor Bradford a letter
of thanks, speaking highly in  praise of the physician,
and also expressing  his hearty concurrence with their
church at Plymouth,  its form and discipline: from
which  it is evident that the conversation of Dr. Fuller
had some effect upon his religious opinions, for there
was a difference  of sentiment before  this interview,
and  a jealousy, lest  the Plymouth church should exer
cise  a jurisdiction over the church in Salem.
  In his medical character, and for his Christian vir-
tues and unfeigned piety, Dr. Fuller was held in the
highest estimation, and was resorted to as a father and
wise counsellor during the perils of his day.  He was
finally one of several heads of families who died of a
fever, which prevailed in Plymouth in  the summer of
1633, and was most deeply lamented by all the colo-
nisu."—Thatch. Med. Biog.  A.]
  FULLERS' EARTH.  An earth found in large beds
in Buckinghamshire and Surrey, composed of silica,
alumine, magnesia,  lime, muriate of soda, a trace of
potassa, and oxide of iron.  See Earth, Fuller's.
  [" FULTON, Robert. Notwithstanding the various
unsuccessful  projecte of propelling boats by means of
steam-enginery, Mr. Robert Fulton  has had the  cou-
rage to undertake and construct one  at New-York,
upon a plan of his own, and his success is undoubted.
His boat is upwards of 140 feet long, and about 15 feet
wide, resembling  a batteau of large dimensions.  The
engine is upon the plan  of Watt Se Boulton's latest
improvement, and is a most complete piece  of ma-
chinery.   The power is applied to ihe water in which
the boat moves, by means of wheels, with only eight
arms, revolving on their axis.  When the piston makes
20 strokes in a minute, these are turned with a motion
brisk enough  to stem the currents both  ofthe East and
North rivers,  at the  rate of four miles and more in  an
hour.  She draws but a few inches of water.  She
actually made a voyage to Albany and back again in
100 hours, or a little more than four days, and she pro-
mises to be of tbe greatest service in working her way
against the streams of rivers, such as the Mississippi,
and others that have no tides."—Med. Repos. vol. xi.
  The  preceding  notice of Fulton's first experiment
with his rough-constructed  steamboat, was published
                                        371 
FUM                                           FUN
In the summer of 1807, in tbe New-York Medical Re-
pository.  The  writer of this  article was on board
during the first trial, and observed the anxiety and joy
of Mr. Fulton at the prospect before him.   The vessel
moved from the dock iu the eastern part of the city of
New-York, and was steered into the North or Hudson
river, opposite  Hoboken, where  she was anchored,
and  after remaining  there a while,  returned to the
place of starting.  On the next day, Mr.  Fulton pro-
ceeded  to ascend the Hudson river, and, as stated
above, was 100 hours in going to Albany and returning
thence lo New-York, a distance of 300 miles, or nearly
that, being on an average less than four miles an hour.
Tins boat was afterward fitted up as a packet-boat for
passengers, and called the Car of Neptune.  The next
summer (1806) another boat was  constructed upon a
better model, and herspecd surpassed the first.  Some
alteration or improvement was made In  every sub-
sequent boat constructed under the  directiou of Mr.
Fulton, until the time of his death, (in Feb. 1815),
when his boats went from  New-York to Albany in
about 20 hours, making an average of more than seven
miles an hour.  Since his death further improvements
have  been made in the construction of  steamboats
and their machinery, so.that some of them make the
trip from New-York to Albany by daylight, and some
have made the passage down the river from Albany to
New-York, in the  extremely short period of twelve
hours, making mi average speed of more than twelve
miles an hour.  It is the opinion of some that further
improvemenu will take place, and that the same dis-
tance will be run in nine or ten hours.
  Mr. Fulton has the  merit of being the first engineer
who made a practical and successful application of
steam-power to  the propulsion of  vessels through the
water.  He claimed no more.  He used Watt Se Boul-
ton's steam engine,  and modified it to suit  his wishes,
and the object he had in view;  and having succeeded
beyond his own most sanguine expectations, and to the
astonishmentof all his countrymen, he has died and left
a legacy of incalculable value to  his country and the
whole civilized world.  Others had indeed engaged in
similar experimenu, but without success,  lie was the
master spirit who pointed out  the true method,  and
succeeding engineers have profited by his experience ;
and  steamboats now navigate  the rivers, bays,  and
lakes of the United States, in greater numbers than in
any other country.
  Robert Fulton was a native of Pennsylvania, and
by profession a portrait-painter.  He became acquaint-
ed with  Robert Livingston  in  Paris, while residing
there as Minister of tiie United States near the French
government.  Their views corresponding on the feasi-
bility of constructing a  steamboat,  Mr. Fulton was
patronized by the minister, whose wealth enabled him
to make  all the necessary advances  towards accom-
plishing this object.  He was so  far successful as to
put a boat in rapid motion  on the  river Seine;  and
after this prelude to his future success, he returned to
his native country, and  constructed  his first boat in
lbu7, as above  stated, from which has emanated all
the steamboats  now in use in this country and Eu-
rope.  A.l
  FULMINA'TION.  Fulminatio.   Detonation.  A
quick and lively explosion of bodies, such  as takes
place with fulminating gold, fulminating powder, and
in the combustion of a mixture of inflammable gas and
vital air.
  FUMA'RIA.  (From fumus, smoke, from iu juice,
when dropped into tbe eye, producing the same sensa-
tions as smoke.)
  1.  The name of a genus of plante  in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.  Fu-
mitory.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the common fumi-
tory  See Fumaria officinalis.
  Fumaria bulbosa.  Aristolochia  fabacea.   The
root of this  plant, Fumaria—caule simplici, bracteis
longitudineflorum, of Linnaeus, was formerly given to
restore suppressed menses, and as an anthelmintic.
  Fumaria officinalis.  The systematic name of the
fumitory. Fumaria; Fumus terra ;  Capnos; Herba
vidancholifuga.  The leaves of this indigenous plant,
Fumaria—pericarpiis monospermis racrmosis, caule
diffusa, of Linnteus, are directed for medicinal use by
the Edinburgh college; they are extremely succulent,
and have no remarkable smell, but a bitter, somewhat
      372
saline taste.  The infusion of the dried leaves, or tiie
expressed juice of the fresh plant, Is esteemed  for Iu
property of clearing the skin of many disorders of the
leprous kind.
  FUMIGATION. (Fumigatio;fromfumus,smoke.)
The application of fumes, to destroy con tan ions mias-
mata or effluvia.  The most efficacious substance  lor
this purpose is chlorine; next to it the vapour of nitric
acid; and, lastly, that of the muriatic.  The fumes of
heated  vinegar, burning sulphur, or  tiie smoke of ex-
ploded gunpowder, deserve little confidence as anliloi-
mics.  The air of dissecting rooms  should be nightly
fumigated with chlorine, whereby  their  atmosphere
would be more  wholesome and agreeable during tiie
day.
  FUMITORY.  See Fumaria.
  FUMUS.  Smoke.
  FUNCTION.  See Action.
  FUNGI.   (The plural of fungus.)  An order ofthe
class Cryptogamia of Linna-us's system.  They cannot
probably be said to have any herbage; their substance
is fleshy; their parts of fructification are in form of very
small capsules buried in their fleshy substance.  These
seminiferous capsules are on tbe surface, or in plates,
and are called lamella, or gills, pores, or prickles, and
they burst, ns in the algffi.
  A fungus or mushroom affords the following parts.
  1. Pileus, tbe hat, which is the round upper part, or
head.
  2. The Umbo, the knob, or boss, or more prominent
part in the centre of the hat.
  3. Lamella, the gills, or membraneous  parts on the
under side.   These are peculiar to the Agarici.
  4. The pores, or small punctures on the under sur-
face, observed only in the genus Boletus.
  5. Echini, or Aculei, elevated points on the upper
surface of the pileus, noticed in the genus  Hydra only.
  6. Verruca, waru, observed on the inferior surface.
  7. Stipes, the stem supporting the hat.
  8. Volva, the wrapper, or covering, of a membra
neous texture, surrounding the stem, and concealing
the parts of fructification, and in due time bursting all
around, forming a ring upon the stalk; as  in Agaricus
campestris.  Linnxus also uses this  term  for the more
fleshy external covering of some other fungi, which is
scarcely raised out of the ground, and enfolds the whole
plant when young.
  9. Annulus,  the ring, or  slender membrane sur-
rounding the stem.
  The varieties of the pileus, or hat, are,
  1. Planus, flat
  2. Convexus; as in Boletus bovinus.
  3. Concavus; as in Octospora.
  4. Umbonatus, umbo or navel-like; as in Agaricus
conspurcatus.
  5. Campanulatus ; as in Agaricus fimilarius
  6. Viscidus, viscid.
  7. Dimidiatus, half round; as in Agaricus niveus.
  8. Squamosus, covered with  coloured scales; as in
Agaricus procerus.
  9. Squarrosus, having stiff elevated scales; as in
Agaricus conspurcatus.
  The varieties of the lamella are,
  1. Equal; as in Agaricus crinitus.
  2. Unequal.
  3. Branched, when several run into one; as in Ment-
lius cantharellus.
  4. Decurrent, proceeding down the stem.
  5. Venous, so small that they appear like elevated
veins.
  6. Dimidiate, half  round; as in  Agaricus musca-
rius.
  7. Labyrinth-like ;  as in Agaricus quercinus
  The varieties of the volva are,
  1. Simple.
  2. Double.
  3. Stellate, cut several times: as  in  Lycopodium
stellatum.
  The varieties of the annulus are,
  1. Erect, loose above, and fixed below;  as In Agari
cus conspurcatus.
  2. Inverse, fixed above, free, and bell-like below; aa
In Agaricus Mappa.
  3. Sessile, fixed only laterally
  4. Mobile; as In Agaricus antiquatns.
  5. Persistent, remaining after the perfect formation
of tiie plant 
GAD
GAD
  8.  Evanescent, disappearing after the complete evo-
lution of the fungus.
  7.  Arachnoid, resembling a slender white web.
  The varieties of the stipes or stem.                 i
  1.  Annulate, having a ring.
  2.  Naked, without any.
  3.  Sqvamose, scaly.
  4.  Bulbous; as in Agaricus separatus.
  5.  Filiform ; as in Agaricus crinitus.               t
  FUNGIC  ACID.   Acidum fungicum.  The  ex-
pressed juice of the boletus juglandis, boletus pseudo-  I
igniarius, the phallus impuylicus, merulius cantharel-  s
lus, or the peziza nigra, being boiled to coagulate the al-
bumen, then filtered,  evaporated to the consistence of  (
an extract, and acted on by pure alkohol, leaves a sub-
stance which is called Fungic acid.                   l
  It is a colourless, uncrystallizablc, and deliquescent  i
mass, of a very sour taste.  The fungates of potassa  i
and soda are uncrystallizable; that of ammonia forms
regular six-sided  prisms;  that of lime  is moderately  <
soluble, and is not affected by the air; that of barytes  I
is soluble in fifteen  times  its weight  of water, and
crystallizes with difficulty ; that of magnesia appears  i
in soluble granular crystals.  This acid precipitates
from  the  acetate of  lead a white flocculent fungate,
which is soluble in distilled vinegar.   When insolated,  i
it does not affect solution of nitrate of silver; but the
fungates decompose this salt.                        I
  FUNGIN.  The fleshy part of mushrooms deprived  .
by alkohol and water of every thing soluble.            i
  FU'NGUS.  1. Proud-flesh.  A term  in surgery to  i
express any luxuriant formation of flesh on an ulcer.    ]
  2.  In morbid anatomy it is applied to a disease ofthe
structure of a part  which enlarges, is soft, and excres-  1
cential.
  3.  The name of an order  of plants in the Linnrean
system, belonging to the Cryptogamia class.           i
  Fungus h.ematodes.   See Hamatoma.
  Fungus igniarius.  See Boletus igniarius.         \
  Fungis laricis.  See Boletus laricis.             \
  Fungus mblitensis.  See Cynomorium.            ]
  Funous rosaceus.  See Bedeguar.
  Fungus salicis.  The willow fungus.  See Boletus  t
suaveolens.                                        I
  Fungus sambucinus.   See Peziza auricula.        t
  Funous vinosus.  The dark  cobweb-like  fungus,  <
which vegetates  in dry cellars, where  wine, ale, and  I
the like are kept.                                   t
  FUNI'CULUS.  (Funiculus ; diminutive of funis,  i
a cord.)  A little cord.                              i
  Funiculus umbilicalis.  See Umbilical cord.
  The funiculus of a seed is a little filament by which
the immature seed adheres to the receptacle, seen in
Pisum sativum and Lunaria annua.                 I,
  FUNIS  A rope or cord.                        I
#2J.abia'num oleum.  See Petroleum rubrum.
**   Gabi'rea.  A fatty kind of myrrh, mentioned
by Dioscorides.
  GADOLINATE.  A hard black-coloured semitrans-
parcnt mineral from  Sweden, composed  of  silica,
yttria, oxide of cerura, and oxide of iron.
  GADUS.  The name  of  a genus of fishes,  of the
i'ngular tribe.  The following speciesare brought to the
 European markeU for the use of the table.
  Gadus ciliaris.  The Baltic torsk.  The Iceland-
ers prepare it by salting  and drying, when it becomes
an article of commerce, under the name of Tetteling.
Iu flesh is white, tender, and well flavoured.
  Gadus morhua.  The cod-fish.   This well-known
fish in our markets, abounds in the northern seas.  Its
flesh is white, tender, and delicious.  When salted, it
is also well flavoured, and in general esteem.
  Gadus jf.gi.efinus.  The haddock.  An inhabitant
of the northern seas of Europe.  The larger ones are
much esteemed during the winter; the smaller ones for
summer use.  They are of easy digestion.  Salted and
dried they are eaten at breakfast as a delicacy.
  Gadus minutus.  Very small, never exceeding  six
  Funis umbilicalis.  See Umbilical cord.
  FUNNEL-SHAPED.  See Infundibuliformis.
  FURCA.  A fork or  species of armature of plants.
See Aculeus.
  Furce'lla inferior. The ensiform cartilage
  Fu'rcula.  The clavicle.
  FU'RFUR.  1. Bran.
  2. A disease of the  skin, in which the  cuticle keeps
falling off in small scales like bran.
  FURFURA'CEOUS.   (Furfuraceus;  from furfur,
bran.)  A term applied  to tiie bran-like sediment occa-
sionally deposited in the urine.
  FURNACE.  Fumus.  The furnaces employed in
chemical operations are of three kinds:
  1. The evaporatory furnace, which has received its
name from its use; it  is employed to reduce substances
into vapour by means of heat, in order to separate the
more fixed principles from those which are more volatile.
  2. The reverberatory furnace, which name  it has re-
ceived from its construction, the flame being prevented
from rising;  it is appropriated to dUtillation.
  3. The forge furnace, in which the current of air
is determined by bellows.
  FUROR.   Fury, rage.
  Furor uterinus.   (From furo, to be mad, and
uterus, the womb.)  See Nymphomania.
  FURU'NCULUS.  (From furo, to rage: so named
from its heat and inflammation before it suppurates.)
Dothein of Paracelsus.  Chiadus ; Chioli.  A bile. An-
inflammation of a subcutaneous gland, known by an
inflammatory tumour that does not exceed the size of a
pigeon's egg.
  Fusible metal.  A  combination of  three  parts of
lead, with two of tin, and five of bismuth.  It melts at
197° Fahr.
  FUSIBILITY.  The  property by which metals and
minerals assume the fluid state.
  FUS1FORMIS.  Fusiform.  Spindleshaped or tit
pering.  Applied to parts of planU, as roots, Sec which
penetrate perpendicularly into the earth; as the carrot,
parsnip, radish, &c.
  FUSION.  (Fusio;  from  fundo, to pour out.) A che-
mical process, by which bodies are made to pass from
the solid to'the fluid state, in consequence of the appli-
cation of heat.  The  chief objecu susceptible of this
operation are salts, sulphhr, and metals.  Salts are lia-
ble to two kinds of fusion; the one, which is peculiar
to saline matters, is owing to water contained in them,
and is called aqueous  fusion; the other, wbich arises
from the heat alone, is known by the name of igneous
fusion.
  1FUSUS.  (From fundo,  to pour out.)   Poured out.
Applied by Dr. Good  to  a species of purging,  diarrhea
fusa, in which the feces are loose, copious, and of a
bright yellow colour.
or seven inches in length.  It is found in the Mediter-
ranean in great abundance, where it is called a capelau,
or officier.
  Gadus merlangus.   The  whiting.  A delicate
white fish in  great abundance in the  Irish seas and
German Ocean.
  Gadus pollaciup.  The whiting pollack, found on
the rocky coasuof Britain, and other parte of Europe,
and is in great esteem for the table.
  Gadus carbonarius.  The coal-fish.  Very abun-
dant on the  rocky coasU of the northern parts of this
island, about the Orkneys, and the coast of Yorkshire,
where they become two and three feet  long, and con
stitute the chief support of the poor.
  Gadus merluccius. The hake.  A native of the
North and Mediterranean seas, not much eaten, ex-
cept by the  poor when dried, when it  is called poor
John, or stock-fish.
  Gadus molva. The ling.  This grows to the length
of five or six feet.  It is not so good ps the morhua,
when fresh;  but dried and salted, is much  esteemed,
and is tbe common food of the poor in Cornwall, where
it is prepared for exportation.
a 
GAL
GAL
  Gadus lota.  The burbot.   The  flesh of this Is
considered delicious and of easy digestion.
  Gadus  brosme.  The torsk.  This swarms in the
seas about the Shetland islands, and forms a consider-
able article of commerce, cither dried, or salted,  or
packed in barrels.
  [Most of the fishes belonging  to the genus Gadus,
are edible.  Ofthe preceding enumerated species three
of them are common to the waters ofthe United States,
as the Gadus morhua, Gadus  aglefinus, and Gadus
merlucciue.   Besides these, there  arc found on tiie
stalls of the fishermen in the markeu of New-York
the following species,  viz. Gadus callarias,  Gadus
tomcodus, Gadus blennoides, Gadus purpureus, Ga-
dus tenuis, Gadus longipes, and  Gadus pundatus.
Of these  different  species, all of which are  used as
food, the Gadus morhua, or bank cod, and the Gadus
callarias, are the most abundant, and  most esteemed.
The Gadus merluccius, or  hake, is remarkable for  its
large sound, or swimming-bladder, which is prepared
and dried for sale, and forms excellent icthyocolla;
(which see.)  A.]
  GALA'CTIA.  (From yaAa, lac, milk;  or yaXaKn-
vos, ladeus, milky.)  Galadirrhaa.  1.  An excess  or
overflowing of the milk.
  2. The name of a genus of diseases, Class Genetica;
Order, Cenotica, of Good's Nosology.   Mislactation.
It comprehends five species, viz. Galactia pramatura ;
defedura; depravata ; crrolica ; virorum.
  Galactina.  (From yaXa, milk.)    Aliment  pre-
pared of milk.
  GALACTIRRHCEA. (From yaXa, milk, and ptta,
to flow.)   See Galactia.
  Galacto'des. (From yaXa, milk.)  In Hippocrates
It signifies both milk-warm and a milky colour.
  GALACTO'PHORUS.   (From  yaXa, milk,  and
q)epia, to bring or carry.)  1. That which has the  pro-
perty of increasing the secretion of the milk.
  2. The  excretory ducu of the glands of the breasU
of women, which terminate in the papilla, or nipple,
are so called, because they bring the milk to the nipple.
  GALACTOPOIE'TIC.   (Galadopoieticus;  from
yaXa, milk, and nottia, to make.)   Milk-making, tiie
faculty of making  milk: applied to particular foods,
planU, Sec.
  GALACTOPO'SIA.   (From yaXa, milk, and mvia,
to drink.)  The method of curing diseases by a  milk
diet.
  AALA'NGA.   (Perhaps its Indian name.)   See
Maranta and Kempferia.
  Galanga major.  See Kempferia galanga.
  Galanqa minor.  See Maranta Galanga.
  GALANGAL.  See Maranta Galanga.
  Galangnl, English.   See Cyperas longus.
  GALBANUM.   (From ckalbanah, Heb.)  See Bu-
bon galbanum.
  Ga'lbeum. A medical bracelet worn by the Romans.
  GA'LBULUS.   (The .name  of the  nut, or  little
round ball of the cypress-tree.)  Gartner applies this
term, the classical name of the cypress fruit, which is
a true strobilus, to a  globular spurious  berry with
three or more seeds formed by the coalescing of a few
scales, of a fertile catkin  become succulent, which
happens in the Juniper.—Smith.
  Galbulus.   (From galbus, yellow.)   When the
skin of tiie body is naturally yellow.
  GA'LDA.   A gum-resin, mentioned by old writers,
but totally forgot in the present day, and  not to be ob-
tained.  Externally, it is of a brown colour, but white
within, of a hard lamellated structure, and smells and
tastes somewhat like elemi.  When burnt it gives out
an agreeable odour.  It was formerly used  as a warm
stimulating medicine,  and applied in plasters as a
strengthener.
  GA'LEA.   (From yaXn, a cat, ofthe skin of which
it was formerly made.)   A helmet  1.  In anatomy,
the amnios is so called, because it surrounds the fcetus
like a helmet.
  2. In surgery; a bandage for the bead.
  3. A species of headache is  ao called, when it  sur-
rounds the head like a helmet
  4. In botany it is applied  to upper arched lip of rin-
gent and personate corols.  See Corolla.
  GALEANTHRO'PIA.   (This term  seems to be
from yaAi7, a cat, and avBptanos, a man.)   It is  a  spe-
cies of madness, in  which a person imagines himself
to be a cat, and imitates its manners.
      274
  GA'LEGA.  (From yaXa, milk: so named because
it increases the milk of animals which eat it.)  1. The
name of a genus of planu in tlie Linnaan system.
Class, Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the Ruta capraria.
See Galega officinalis.
  Gai.kga officinalis.  The systematic name of the
goat's rue.  Galega.  Ruta capraria.  From the little
smell and taste of  this plant, Galega  leguminibua
strictis, erectis; foliolis lanceolatis, striatis, nudis,
of Linnaius, it may be supposed to possess little virt
tues.  In Italy, the leaves are eaten among salads.
  Galega.   A species of senna from the East Indies.
Tbe cassia tora of Linnajus.
  GALENA.  (From yaXttv, to shine.)  The  name
of an ore formed by the combination of lead with sul-
phur.  A native sulphuret of lead ore.
  GALE'NIC. That practice of medicine which con-
forms to the rules of Galen, and runs much upon mul-
tiplying herbs and roots in the same composition, was
long called Galenical medicine, after the manner of
Galen.  It is opposed to chemical medicine, which, by
the force of fire, and a great  deal of art, fetches out
the virtues of bodies, chiefly mineral, into  a  small
compass.
  Gale'nium.  (From yaXnvn,galena.) A cataplasm;
in the composition of which was the galena.  In Pau-
lus ^Egiiieta it is considered as anodyne.
  GALENUS, Claudius, was born  at  Pergamus, in
Asia  Minor,  in 131.  His  father, Nicon, having in-
structed him in the rudiments of knowledge, sent him
to attend the  best  schools of philosophy.  Galen soon
displayed his judgment by selecting  what appeared
most rational from the different sects; but he totally
rejected  the  Epicurean  system, which  was  then in
fashion.  About tlie age of 17,  he began his attach-
ment to  the science of medicine, over which he was
destined  to preside for many centuries with oracular
authority.  During his youth,  he travelled much, that
he might converse with the most intelligent physicians
of the age, and inform himself concerning the  drugs
brought from  other countries.  He resided  several
years at Alexandria, which was then the great  resort
of men of science, and the best school of medicine in
the world.  At the age of 28,  returning  to his native
place, he met  with distinguished  success in practice;
but four years after he attempted to establish himself
at Rome.  Here he encountered much opposition from
his professional brethren, who stigmatized him as a
theorist, and even as a dealer in  magic; and though
he gained the esteem of several  men of learning and
rank, yet wanting temper and experience sufficient to
maintain a successful contest with a numerous and
popular party, he was obliged to return to Pergamus
within five years, under the pretence of avoiding the
plague, which then raged at Rome.  He was, however,
soon after sent for to attend the emperors Marcus Au
relius and Lucius Verus, of whom the latter died; and
the former conceived so high an opinion of Galen, that
subsequently, during his German expedition, he com
mined his two sons to the care of that physician.
These princes were seized with fevers, in which  Galen
having prognosticated a favourable issue, contrary to
the opinion of all  his colleagues, and having accord-
ingly restored them to health, he attained an eminence
of reputation, which enabled him to defy the power,
and finally to ruin the credit, of his former opponenU.
It is not certain whether he continued  at Rome till
his death, nor at what precise period this occurred;
but Fabricius asseru that he  attained the age  of 70,
which corresponds to the  7th year of Severus; and
his writings appear to indicate, that he was still in
that city in the early part of this emperor's reign.   The
greatest part of Galen's life was spent in the  zealous
pursuit of knowledge, and  especially of every  thing
which might have the least connexion with medicine;
and he is said to have composed about 750 different
essays on such subjects.  He appears, however, to have
been too much elated with the  consciousness of his
superior endowments, and  to have  behaved rather
contemptuously towards his  brethren;  which   may
have inflamed their opposition to him.  The chief ob-
ject in his writing appears to be to illustrate those of
Hippocrates, which he thought succeeding physicians
had misunderstood or misrepresented: in this he has
displayed great acuteness and learning, though he has
not much increased the stock of practical information. 
GAL
GAL
His example, too, had the  unfortunate effect of intro-
ducing a  taste for minute distinctions  and abstract
speculations ; while the diligent observation of nature,
which distinguished the father of medicine, fell into ne-
glect.  We must therefore regret that the splendour of
Galen's talents so  completely dazzled his successors,
that, uutil about the middle of the 17th century, his
opinion bore almost undivided sway. Numerous edi-
tions of his works,  in the original Greek, or translated
into Latin, have been printed in modern times.
  GALEO'BDOLON.  (From yaXtn, felis, and BSo-
Xos, crepitus.)  See Galeopsis.
  GALEO'PSIS.  (From koXos, good, andou^ic, vision:
so called because it was thouglit good for the sight, or
from yaXn, a cat,  and oipts, aspect; the  flowers gap-
ing like the open mouth of that animal.)   Galeobdo-
lon.  See Lamium  album.
  Ualeri'culum aponeuroticum.   A  name in old
writings for the tendinous expansion which lies over
the pericranium.
  Galipot.  See Barras.
  GA'LIUM. (FromyaXa, milk; some species having
the property of coagulating milk.)  1. The name of a
genus of  planU in the Linntean system.  Class, Tc-
trandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the herb cheese-
rennet, or  ladies' bedstraw. See Galium verum.
  3. A name for madder.
  Galium album.  The greater ladies' bedstraw. See
Galium mollugo.
  Galium  aparine.  The systematic name of the
goose-grass, and cleavers' bees.   Cleavers;  Goose-
share;  Hayriff.    Aparine; Philanthropies; Ampelo-
carpus;   Omphalocarpus; Ixus;  Asparine;  Aspe-
rula. This plant is common in our hedges and ditches:
Galium—-foliis octonis lanceolatis carinatis scabris
retrorsum aculeatis, geniculis venosis, fructu hispido,
of Linnaeus.  The expressed juice has been given with
advantage as an  aperient and diuretic in incipient
dropsies; but the character in which it has of late been
chiefly noticed, is that of a remedy against cancer. A
tea-cupful, internally,  gradually increased  to half a
pint, two or three times a day, and the herb applied, in
cataplasm, externally, has been said to cure cancers.
Such beneficial resulu are not confirmed by the  expe-
rience of others.
   Galium mollugo. The systematic  name of the
greater ladies' bedstraw.   Galium album.   Galium—
foliis octonis, ovato-linearibus,  subserratis, paten-
tissimis, mucronatis; caule fiaccido, ramis patentibus
of Linnaeus. This herb,  with  iu flowers, is used me-
dicinally.   Five ounces or more of the expressed juice,
taken every evening upon an empty stomach, is said to
cure epilepsy.
  Galium verum.  The systematic name of the true
ladies' bed-straw,  or cheese-rennet.   Galium  of the
pharmacopoeias.   The tops of this plant,  Galium—
foliis octonis, linearibus, sulcatis; ramis  floriferis,
brevibus, of Linnaeus, were long used as an efficacious
medicine  in the cure of epilepsy;  but, in the practice
of the present day, they are abandoned.  Indeed, from
the sensible qualities of the plant, little can  be expect-
ed.  The leaves and flowers possess the property of
curdling milk;  it  is on that account styled cheese-
rennet.
   GALL.  See Bile.
   GALL  SICKNESS.   (See  Febris remittens.)  A
popular name for the remitting fever occasioned by
marsh miasmata, in the Netherlands, and which proved
so fatal to thousands of the English soldiers after the
capture of Walcheren in the year 1809.  Dr. Lind in-
forms us, that at Middleburg, the capital of Walcheren,
a sickness generally  reigns towards the  latter end of
August or the beginning of September, which is always
most violent after  hot summers.   It commences after
the rains which  fall in the end of July ; the sooner it
begins the longer it continues,  and it is  only checked
by the coldness of the weather.  Towards the end of
August and  the beginning of September, it is a con-
tinual burning fever, attended with a vomiting of bile,
which is the gall-sickness.  This fever, after continu-
ing three or four days, intermits and assumes the form
of  a double tertian;  leaving the patient in a fortnight
or  perhaps sooner.   Strangers, that have been accus-
tomed to  breathe  a  dry,  pure air, do not recover so
quickly.   Foreigners in indigent circumstances, such
aa the Scots and German soldiers, who were garrisoned
in the adjacent places, were apt, after those fevers,
to have a swelling in the legs, and a dropsy; of which
many died.
  These diseases are the same with tlie double tertians
common within the tropics.  Such as are seized with
the gall sickness, have at first some flushes of heat
over the body, a loss of appetite, a while, foul tongue,
a yellow tinge in the eyes, and a pale colour of the lips.
Such as live well, drink wine, and have warm clothes
and a good lodging, do not suffer  so much during the
sickly season as the poor  people; however, these dis-
eases are not infectious, and seldom prove mortal to
the natives.
  Sir John Pringle observes, that the prevailing epi-
demic of autumn, in  all  marshy countries, is a fever
of an intermitting nature, commonly of a tertian form,
but of a bad kind; which, in the dampest places and
worst seasons, appears as a double tertian, a remitting,
or even an ardent fever.  But, however these may vary
in their appearance, according to the constitution  of
the patient and other circumstances, they are all of a
similar nature.   For though, in the beginning of the
epidemic, when the heat, or rather the putrefaction in
the  air, is the greatest, they assume a continued or a
remitting form; yet, by the end of autumn, they usually
terminate in regular intermittents.
  But  although in the gall sickness  there is  both  a
redundance and a depravation of  the bile, still the dis-
ease cannot, with justice, be said to originate wholly
from that cause.  It is certain, however, that the dis-
ease may be continued, and the symptoms aggravated
by an increased secretion and putrefaction of the bile,
occasioned by the fever.   In proportion to the coolness
ofthe season, or the height and dryness ofthe ground,
this disease is milder, rcmiu and intermite more freely,
and  removes further  from the nature of a continued
fever.  The higher ranks of people in general are the
least liable to the diseases of the marshes; for such
countries require dry houses, apartments raised above
the ground, moderate exercise, without labour, in the
sun, or evening damps; a just quantity of fermented
liquors, plenty of vegetables and fresh meau.  With-
out such helps, not only strangers but the natives them-
selves are sickly, especially after hot and close  sum-
mers.  The hardiest constitutions  are very little ex-
cepted more than others; and hence the British in the
Netherlands have always been subject to this fever.
  By this disease, the British troops were  harassed
throughout the war, from 1743 to 1747.  It appeared
in the month of August, 1743: the paroxysms came
on in  the evening, with  great heat,  thirst,  a violent
headache, and  often  a  delirium.  These symptoms
lasted most of the night, but abated  in the morning,
with an imperfect sweat; sometimes  with an haemor-
rhage of the nose, or  looseness.  The stomach, from
the beginning, was disordered with a nausea and sense
of oppression; frequently with a bilious and offensive
vomiting.  If evacuations were either neglected or too
sparingly used, the patient fell into a continued fever,
and sometimes grew  yellow, as in jaundice.  When
the season was further  advanced,  this fever was  at-
tended with a cough, rheumatic pains, and sizy blood.
The officers, being better accommodated than the com-
mon men, and  the cavalry, who had cloaks  to keep
them warm, were not so subject to it; and others, who
belonged to the army, but lay in quarters, were least
of all affected;  and the less in proportion to their be-
ing exposed to  heats, night  damps, and the other fa-
tigues of the service.   In this manner did the remitting
fever infest the army for the remaining years of the
war: and that exactly in proportion  to their distance
from the marshy places, of which we have  several
notable instances in Pringle's observations.
  GALL-BLADDER.  Vesicula fellis.  An oblong
membraneous receptacle, situated under the liver, to
which it is  attached in the right  hypochondrium.   It
is composed of  three membranes, a common,  fibrous,
and  villous.  Its use is to retain the bile which regur-
gitates from the hepatic duct, there  to become thicker,
more  acrid,  and  bitter, and  to  send  it through the
cystic  duct, which  proceeds from  ils neck into the
ductus communis choledochus, to  be sent on to the
duodenum.
  GALL-STONE.   Calculus biliosus.  Biliary con-
cretion.  Hard concrete  bodies,  formed in the gall
bladder of animals.   Of these there are four different
kinds.
                                        375 
GAL                                            GAL
  1. The first has a white colour, and when broken
presents crystalline plates, or stria;, brilliant and white
like mica, and having a soft, greasy feel.   Sometimes
its colour is yellow or greenish; and  it has constantly
a nucleus of inspissated bile.  Its specific gravity is in-
ferior to that of water: Grcn found tbe specific gravity
of one 0.803.   When exposed to  a heat considerably
greater than that of boiling water,  this crystallized
calculus softens and nielu, and crystallizes again when
the temperature is lowered.  It is  altogether insoluble
in water; but hot alkohol dissolves it with facility.
Alkohol, of the temperature of 1670, dissolves  one-
twentieth of iu weight of this substance; but alkohol,
at the temperature of 60°, scarcely dissolves any of
it.  As the alkohol cools, the matter is deposited in
brilliant plates, resembling talc or boracic  acid.   It is
soluble in oil of turpentine.  When melted, it has tiie
appearance of oil, and exhales the  smell of melted
wax; when suddenly heated, it evaporates altogether
in a thick smoke,  it is soluble in pure alkalies, and
the solution has all the properties of a soap.   Nitric
acid also dissolves it;  but it is precipitated unaltered
by water.
  This matter, which is evidently the same with the
crystals Cadet obtained  from bile, and which he con-
sidered as analogous to sugar of milk, bos a strong re-
semblance to  spermaceti.  Like that substance, it is
of an oily nature, and inflammable; but it differs from
it in a variety  of particulars.  Since it is contained in
bile, it is not difficult to see how it may crystallize in
tlie gall-bladder if it happen to be more abundant than
usual; and tbe consequence must be a  gall-stone of
this species.  Fourcroy found a quantity of the same
substance in   the dried human liver.   He called it
adipocere.
  2. The second species of biliary calculus is  of a
round or polygonal shape, often of a gray colour exter-
nally, and brown within.  It is formed of concentric
layers of a matter, which seems to be inspissated  bile;
and there is usually a nucleus of the while crystalline
matter at the  centre.   For the most part, there are
many of this  species  of calculus in  the gall-bladder
together; indeed, it is frequently filled with them.   The
calculi belonging to  this species  are often light and
friable, and of a brownish-red colour.   The gall-stones
of oxen, used by painters, belong to this species. These
are also adipocere.
  3.  The third species of calculi are most numerous
of all.  Their colour is often deep brown or green; and
when broken,  a number of crystals of the substance
resembling spermaceti are observable, mixed with in-
spissated bile.   Tbe calculi belonging to  these three
species are soluble in alkalies,  in soap ley,  in alkohol,
and in oils.
  4. Concerning the fourth species of gall-stone, very
little is known with accuracy.  Dr. Saunders tells us,
that he has met with some gall-stones insoluble  both
in alkohol and oil of turpentine;  some of which do
not flame, but  become red, and consume to ashes like
charcoal.  Haller quotes several  examples of similar
calculi.  Gall-stones often occur  in the inferior ani-
mals, particularly in  cows and hogs; but  the biliary
concretions of these animals have not hitherto been
examined with much attention.
  Gall-stones often  lie quiet; so tbat until dissection
after death, some arc never known to exist; but when
they are prevented from passing through the gall-ducts,
they obstruct the passageof the bile into the intestines,
and produce also many inconvenient symptoms, parti-
cularly the jaundice.
  The diagnostics of this disorder are generally very
obscure and uncertain: for other causes  produce the
same kind of symptoms as those which occur in this
disease.  The  usual symptoms are a loss of appetite,
a sense of fulness in the stomach, sickness, and vo-
miting, languor, inactivity, sleepiness; and, if the ob-
struction continues for  a time, there is wasting of the
flesh; yellowness ofthe eyes, skin, and urine; whitish
stools; a pain  in  the  pit of the stomach; while the
 Sulse remains in iu natural  state.  The pain excited
 y an obstruction of the gall-ducts, in consequence of
gall-stones passing through them, and this not affecting
the pulse, is considered as the leading pathognomonic
symptom.  This pain, in some, is  extremely acute, in
others there is only a slight uneasiness felt about the
region of the liver; but iu  particular seat u the uall-
      376
 duct, just where it enters the duodenum.  In some pa-
 tients there is no yellowness of the skin: in others It
 exisU for several months.  There is no disease more
 painful than this, in some instances; it l» as frequent
 as any other affection of the liver; it admits of much
 relief from medicine, and is not  immediately danger-
 ous to tbe patient.  See Icterus.
  GA'LLA.  (From Galius, a river in Bithynia.)   A
 gall.  See  Quercus cerris.
  Galla turcica.  See Quercus cerris.
  [" Gal'l*.   Galls.  Most species of the oak, when
 stimulated by the  puncture of an insect, and the de-
 position of iu egg, produce a  kind of spherical ex-
 crescence, which serves as the habitation and food  of
 the young larva when hatched.  These  excrescences
 are known by the general name of galls, and are pro-
 duced on various parts of the trees by different insecu
 ofthe genera Cynips, and Diplolepsis.  The best galls,
 and   those  which  predominate  in commerce,  are
 brought from  Smyrna, Aleppo,  and the neighbouring
 countries.  The Edinburgh College considers them as
 produced on the Quercus Cerris, a  tree growing ia
 the south of Europe.  The French traveller, Olivier,
 informs us, that the Asiatic galls are the product of a
 species  of  oak, which he names Quercus infectoria,
 and that the puncturing insect is the Diplolepsis gal-
 la tinctoria of Geoffroy.  Both the insect and the gafl
 have been  observed in France.
  Good galls are round, of a dark colour, and studded
 with  tubercles.  They are of various sizes, under that
 of a  cherry.  They are hard, brittle, and exhibit  an
 irregular and partly resinous fracture.  Their taste  is
 highly astringent,and somewhat bitter and acrid. Those
 which have been perforated by the insect are  of an
 inferior quality, their central portion being consumed
 The  chemical  constituents, which give  to galls their
 chief value, are tannin and gallic acid.  Besides these,
 they contain, according to Davy, extractive mucilage;
 according to Bronchi, a concrete, volatile oil; and ac-
 cording to Braconnot, another acid, wbich he calls
 ellagic  acid.  Chemists, however, are not agreed  aa
 to their  entire composition.  It is obvious, that the
 presence or absence of the larva, as well as iu stage
 of growth,  must materially affect the analysis.
  Most  metallic salu produce precipitates with infu-
 sion of galls, consisting of the metallic oxides, tannin,
 and gallic acid.  It is questionable how far the astrin-
 gency of the galls is affected by such  combinations.
 The'sulphuric and muriatic acids, lime water, and the
 alkaline carbonates, also, occasion precipitates.   Gela-
 tin and starch  combine immediately with the tannin
 of the galls.
  Galls are among the most powerful vegetable astrin-
 gents.  They are sometimes given internally, in doses
 of a scruple; but their chief medical use Is as a local
 remedy in  the form  of gargles,  and in  the ointment ;
 which st-e.   On account of the purple or black colour,
 which they strike with salts of iron, they are  exten-
 sively consumed in dying.and  ink-making.  For the
 latter purpose, no substitute can  be safely used instead
 of them."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.l
  GALLIC ACID.  Acidum gallicum. An acid  found
 in vegetable substances possessing astringent proper-
 ties,  but most abundantly in the excrescences termed
 galls,  whence it derives its name.  It may be obtained
 by macerating  galls in water, filtering, and  suffering
 tiie liquor to stand  exposed  to the air.  It will  grow
 mouldy, be covered with a thick glutinous pellicle,
 abundance of glutinous  flocks will fall down, and, in
 the course  of  two or three  months, the sides of the
 vessel will appear covered with  small yellowish crys-
tals,  abundance of which will  likewise  be  found on
the under surface of the supernatant pellicle.  These
crystals may be purified by solution  in  alkohol, and
evaporation to dryness.
  Or muriate of tin may be added to the infusion of
galls,  till no more precipilate falls down ; the excess of
oxide of tin remaining in  the solution, may then be
 precipitated by sulphuretted hydrogen  gas,  and the
liquor will  yield crystals of gallic acid by evaporation.
  A more simple process, however, is to boil an ounce
of powdered galls in sixteen ounces of water to eight,
 and strain.  Dissolve two ounces of alum in water-
 precipitate  the alumina by carbonate of potassa; and
 after edulcorating it completely by repeated ablutions,
 add it to the decoction, frequently stirring the mixture 
GAL
GAL
with a  glass rod.  The next day  filter the mixture,
wash the precipitate with warm water, till this will no
longer blacken sulphate of iron; mix the washings
with the filtered liquor, evaporate, and the gallic acid
will be obtained in fine needled crystals.
  These crystals obtained in any of these ways, how-
ever, are  contaminated with  a small portion of ex-
tractive matter; and  to purify  them they  may be
placed in a  glass capsule in  a sand-heat, and sub-
limed into another capsule inverted over this, and kept
cool.
  The gallic  acid placed on a red-hot iron, burns with
flame, and emiu an aromatic smell, not unlike that of
benzoic acid.  It is soluble in 20 parts of cold water,
and in three parts at a boiling heat.  It is more soluble
in alkohol, which takes up an equal weight if heated,
and one-fourth of iu weight cold.
  It has an  acido-astringent taste, and reddens tinc-
ture of litmus. It does not attract humidity from the
air.
  This  acid, in its combinations  with the salifiable
bases, presents some remarkable phenomena.   If we
pour its aqueous solution by slow degrees into lime,
barytes, or strontites water, there will first be formed a
greenish-white precipitate.  As the quantity of acid is
increased, the precipitate changes to a violet hue, and
eventually disappears.  The liquid has then acquired
a reddish tint.  Among  the  salu, those only of black
oxide and red oxide of iron, are decomposed by the
pure gallic acid. It forms a blue  precipitate with tlie
first, and a brown  with the second.  But when this
acid is united with tannin, it decomposes aimost all the
salts of the permanent metals.
  Concentrated sulphuric acid  decomposes and carbo-
nizes ii; and the nitric acid converts it into malic and
oxalic acids.
  United with  barytes, strontian, lime, and magnesia,
it forms salu of a dull yellow  colour, which are little
soluble, but more so if their base be in excess.  With
alkalies it  forms salts  that are not very soluble  in
general.
  IU most distinguishing characteristic is  iu great
affinity for metallic oxides, so as, when combined with
tannin, to take them from powerful acids.  The more
readily  the metallic oxides part with their oxygen, the
more they are alterable by the gallic acid.  To a solu-
tion of gold, it imparts a green hue; and a brown pre-
cipitate is formed, which readily passes to the metallic
state, and  covers the solution with a shining golden
pellicle. With nitric solution  of silver, it  produces a
similar effect  Mercury it precipitates of an orange-
vellow; copper, brown ; bismuth, of a lemon colour;
lead, white; iron, black.  Platina, zinc,  tin, cobalt,
and manganese, are not precipitated by it.
  The gallic acid is of extensive use in tiie art of dy-
ing, as it constitutes one of the principal ingredients in
all the shades of black,  and is employed to fix or im-
prove several  other colours.  It is well known as an
ingredient In ink.
  GA'LLICUS.  Belonging to the French: applied to
the venereal  disease.  See Lues venerea.
  GALLINA'GO.  (Diminutive of gallus,  a cock.)
1. The  woodcock.
  2. An eminence within the  prostate gland is called
caput callinaginis, from iu fancied resemblance to a
woodcock's head.
  Galli'trichis. Corrupted from callitrichis, or cal-
litrichum.  See Callitriche.
  Ga'llium.   See Galium.
  GA'LVANISM.  A professor of anatomy, in the
university  of Bologna, named Galvani, was one day
making experimenu on electricity in his elaboratory :
near the machine were some frogs that had been flay-
ed, the limbs of which became convulsed every time a
epark was drawn from  the  apparatus.  Galvani, sur-
prised at this phenomenon, made it a subject of inves-
tigation, and discovered that metals, applied to tbe
nerves and muscles of these animals, occasioned power-
ful and sudden contractions, when disposed in a cer-
tain manner.   He gave the name of animal electricity
lo this order of new phenomena, from the analogy that
he considered existing between these effecu and those
produced by  electricity.
  The name animal electricity has been superseded,
notwithstanding the great analogy that exists between
the effecu of electricity and those of Galvanism,  in
favour  of the  latter term; which is not  only more
 applicable to the generality of the phenomena, but
 likewise serves to perpetuate the memory of the dis-
 coverer.
   In order to give rise to Galvanic effecu  in animal
 bodies, it is  necessary to establish a communication
 between two pointt of one series of nervous and mus-
 cular organs. In this manner a circle is formed, one
 arch of which consisu  of the animal parts, rendered
 the subject  of experiment,  while the other arch is
 composed of excitatory  instrumenu, which generally
 consist of several pieces,  some placed under the ani-
 mal parts called supporters, others destined to establish
 a communication between the latter, are called con-
 ductors.  To form a complete Galvanic circle,'take
 the thigh of a frog, deprived of its skin; detach the
 crural nerve, as far as  the  knee; put it on a piece of
 zinc;  put the muscles of the leg on a piece of silver;
 then finish the excitatory arch, and complete the Gal-
 vanic circle by establishing a communication by means
 of the  two  supporters; by  means of iron or copper-
 wire, pewter or lead.   The  instant that the communi-
 cators touch the  two  supporters, a part of the animal
 arch formed by the two supporters will be convulsed.
 Although this disposition of the  animal parte, and of
 Galvanic instruments, be most favourable to the deve-
 lopement of the phenomena, yet the composition of the
 animal and  excitatory arch may be much varied.
 Thus  contractions are  obtained, by placing  the two
 supporters under the nerve,  and leaving the muscle out
 of the  circle, which proves that nerves essentially con-
 stitute  the animal arch.
   It is  not necessary for nerves to be entire in order to
 produce contractions.  They take place whether the
 organs be tied or cut through, provided there exists a
 simple contiguity  between the divided  ends.   This
 proves that we cannot strictly conclude what happens
 in muscular action, from that which takes  place in
 Galvanic phenomena;  since, if a nerve be tied or di-
 vided,  the muscles on which this is distributed lose the
 power of action.
   The cuticle is an obstacle to  Galvanic effects; they
 are always feebly manifested in parts covered by it
 When it is moist, fine, and delicate, the effect is not
 entirely interrupted.  Humboldt, after having detach-
 ed the  cuticle from the  posterior part of the neck and
 back,   by means of two blisters, applied plates of
 metal to  the bare cutis, and, at the moment of estab-
 lishing a communication, he experienced shaip prick-
 ings, accompanied with a sero-sanguineous discharge.
   If a plate of zinc be placed under the tongue, and a
 flat piece of silver on its superior surface, on making
 them touch  each other, an acerb taste will be perceiv-
 ed, accompanied with a slight trembling.
   The excitatory arch may  be constructed with three,
 two, or even one metal only, with alloys, amalgams,
 or other metallic or mineral combinations, carbonated
 substances, &c.  It is observed that metals which are
 in general the most powerful exciters, induce contrac-
 tions so much the more as they have an extent of sur
 face.   Metals are all more or less excitants; and it
 is observed  that zinc,  gold, silver,  pewter, are  of
 the highest rank; then copper,  lead, nickel, anti-
 mony, &c.
   Galvanic susceptibility, like  muscular irritability, is
 exhausted by too long continued exercise, and is re-
 cruited by repose.  Immersion of nerves  and muscles
 in alkohol and opiate solutions diminishes, and even
 destroys,  this susceptibility,  in  tne  same  manner,
 doubtless, as the immoderate use of these substances
 in the living man blunts, and induces paralysis in mus-
 cular action. Immersion in oxymuriatic acid restores
 the fatigued parts, to be again acted on by the stimulus.
 Animals killed by the repeated discharge of an electric
 battery, acquire an increase  of Galvanic susceptibility;
 and this property subsists unchanged in animals de
 stroyed by  submersion in  mercury, pure hydrogen
 gas, azote,  and ammonia; and finally,  it is totally
 annihilated in animals  suffocated by the vapour  of
 charcoal.
   Galvanic susceptibility  is extinct in the muscles of
 animals of warm blood, in proportion as vital heat is
 dissipated; sometimes even  when life is terminated in
 convulsions, contractility cannot be put into action,
j although warmth be  not completely gone, as though
 the vital property were  consumed by  the convulsion,
 amidst which the animals  had expired.   In  those of
I cold blood, on the contrary, it is more durable.  Tire 
GAL                                            GAL
thlgns of frogs, long after being separated from every
thing, and even to the instant of incipient putrefaction,
are influenced by Galvanic stimuli; doubtless, because
irritability, in these animals, is less intimately connect-
ed with respiration, and life more divided among the
different organs, which have  less occasion to acl on
each other for the execution of iu phenomena.  The
Galvanic chain does not produce sensible actions (that
is, contractions,) until the  moment it is completed, by
establishing  a communication with the  paru consti-
tuting it.  During the time it is complete, that is,
throughout the whole space of time that the commu-
nication  remains established,  every  thing remains
tranquil; nevertheless, Galvanic influence is not sus-
pended : in fact, excitability is evidently increased, or
diminished, hi muscles that have been long continued
in the Galvanic chain, according to the difference of
the reciprocal situation of the connecting metals.
  If silver has been  applied  to  nerves, and  zinc to
muscles,  the irritability of the latter increases in pro-
portion to the  time tbey have  remained in the chain.
By this method, the thighs of frogs have been revivi-
fied in some  degree, and afterward become sensible to
stimuli, that  before had ceased to act on them. By dis-
tributing the metals  in an inverse manner, applying
zinc to uerves and 'Silver  to  muscles, an effect abso-
lutely contrary is observed; and the muscles that pos-
sess  the  most lively  irritability  when placed in the
chain, seem  to be rendered entirely paralytic if they
remain long in this situation.
  ThU difference evidently depends on the direction of
the Galvanic fluid, determined towards the muscles or
nerves, according to the manner in which these metals
ore disposed,  and this is  of some importance  to be
known for tbe application of Galvanic means to the
cure of diseases.
  Galvanic  Pile.—Volta's apparatus is as follows:—
  Raise a pile, by placing a plate of zinc, a flat  piece
of wet card, and a plate of silver, successively; then a
second piece of zinc, &.c. until the elevation is several
feet high; for the ettecte arc greater in proportion to its
height; then touch both extremities of the pile, at the
Bame instant, with one piece of iron wire;  at the mo-
ment of contact, a spark is excited from  the extremi-
ties ofthe pile, and luminous points are often perceived
at different  heights, where  the zinc and silver come
into mutual contact  The zinc end of this pile appears
to be negatively electrified;  that formed by the silver,
on tbe contrary, indicates marks of positive electricity.
  If we touch both extremities ofthe pile, after having
dipped our hands into water, or, what is better, a sa-
line solution, a commotion, followed by a disagreeable
prickling in the fingers and elbow, is felt.
  If we place  in a tube filled with water, and herme-
tically  closed  by two corks,  the extremities of two
wires of the same metal which are  in contact at the
other extremity, one  with the summit, the other with
the base of the pile; these ends, even when separated
only by the  space of a few Hues, experience evident
changes at the instant the extremities of the pile are
touched; the wire in contact with that  part of the pile
composed of silver becomes covered with bullae of hy-
drogen gas;  that which touches the extremity formed
by zinc, becomes oxidized, or gives off oxygen gas.
Fourcroy attributes this phenomenon to the decompo-
sition of water by the Galvanic fluid, which abandons
the oxygen to the metal that touches  the positive ex-
tremity of the pile; then conducu the other gas invisi-
bly lo the end of the  other wire  there to be disen-
gaged.
   Galvanic  Trough.—This is a much more  conve-
nient  apparatus.   Plates of two metals,  commonly
zinc and copper, are fastened together, and cemented
into a wooden trough, so as to form a number of cells;
or earthenware troughs with partitions being procured,
tiie metals connected  by  a slip, are suspended over
these, so that in each cell, except at the ends, there is a
plate of each metal; then  a diluted acid, (usually the
sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic mixed with from twelve
to twenty paru of water,)  is poured into the trough.
It is necessary that the metals be placed in the  same
order throughout, or one series will counteract another.
The ziHc end  becomes negative, the copper positive;
and the power U in  proportion to the number of the
Beries: and  several such troughs may be connected
together, go as to form a most powerful apparatus.
  From the number of experimenu of  Davy, many
      37cl
new and important facte  have bc-rn established, and
Galvanism has been  found one of the ino.-t powerful
agents in chemistry: by its influence, platina wire has
been melted ; gold, silver, copper, and most of the me-
tals, have easily been  burnt; the fixed alkaliox, and
many of the earths, have been made to appear as con
sisting of a metallic base, and oxygen; compound sub-
stances, which were before extremely difficult to decom-
pose, are now, by the aid of Galvanism, easily resolved
into their constituents.
  The Galvanic influence has beon considered by some
practitioners as likely to increase the nervous influence
in paralyzed and debilitated states of the muscular sys-
tem, and many ingenious ways of applying it have
been resorted to; but  it  does not  seem to have been
useful.  Dr.  Ure's observations and experimenu on
this subject and on Galvanism are highly interesting
The following account of them is extracted from his
Chemical Dictionary.   " Many experimenu,"  he  ob-
serves, "have oeen performed, in  this  country and
abroad,  on  the  bodies of criminals, soon after their
execution.  Vassali, Julio, and Rossi, made  an ample
set, on  several  bodies decapitated  at Turin.  They
paid particular attention  to the effect of  Galvanic
electricity on the heart, and other involuntary muscles:
a subject of  much  previous controversy. Volta  as-
serted, that these muscles are not at all sensible  to this
electric power.  Fowler maintained,  that they were
affected; but with difficulty and  in  a slight degree.
This opinion was confirmed by Vassali; who  further
showed, that  the  muscles of the stomach and intes-
tines might thus also be excited.  Aldini, on the con-
trary, declared, that he could not affect the heart by his
most powerful Galvanic arrangemenu."
  Most of tiie above experiments were however made,
either without a voltaic battery, or with piles, feeble
in comparison with those now employed.  Those  in-
deed performed on the body of a criminal, at Newgate,
in which the limbs were violently agitated; the eyes
opened and shut; the mouth and jaws worked  about,
and the  whole face thrown into frightful convulsions,
were made by Aldini, with, I believe  a  considerable
series of voltaic plates.
  A circumstance of the first moment, in my opinion,
has been too  much overlooked in experiments  of this
kind,—that a muscular mass through which the Gal-
vanic energy is directly transmitted, exhibits very
weak contractile movements, in comparison with those
which can be excited  by  passing llie influence along
the principal  nerve of the muscle.  Inattention to this
important distinction, I conceive to  be the principal
source of the  slender effecu hitherto produced in such
experiments on the heart, and other muscles, indepen-
dent of  the will.  It ought also to be observed, that too
little distinction  has been  made between the positive
and negative poles of the  battery; though  there are
good reasons  for supposing, that their powers on mus-
cular contraction are by no means the same.-
  According  to Ritter, the  electricity of the positive
pole augments, while the negative diminishes, the  ac-
tions of life.  Tumefaction of paru is produced by the
former; depression by the latter.  The pulse  of the
hand, he says, held a few minutes in contact with the
positive pole, is strengthened; that of the one in con-
tact with the negative is enfeebled: the former is  ac-
companied  with a sense  of heat; the latter  with a
feeling of coldness.  Objecu appear  to a positively
electrified eye, larger, brighter, and  red;  while  to one
negatively electrified, they seem smaller, less distinct,
and bluish,—colours indicating opposite extremities of
tbe prismatic  spectrum. The acid arid alkalines tastes,
when the tongue is acted on in succession by the two
electricities,  are well  known, and have been inge-
niously accounted for by Sir H. Davy, in his admirable
Bakerian lectures.  The smell of oxymuriatic acid, and
of ammonia,  are  said by Riiter to be the opposite
odours, excited by  the two opposite poles;  as  a full
body of  sound and a sharp tone are the corresponding
effecu on the  ears.  These experimenu require verifi-
cation.
  Consonant  in some respecU, though not in all, with
these statements, are the doctrines taught by a London
practitioner, experienced in the administration of me-
dical electricity.  He affirms, that the influence of the
electrical fluid of our common machines, in the cure
of diseases, may be referred to three distinct heads;
first- the form of radii, when projected  from a point 
GAL
GAL
positively electrified; secondly, that of a star, or the
negative fire, concentrated on a brass ball; thirdly, the
Leyden explosion.  To each of these forms he assigns
a specific action.  The first acU as a sedative, allaying
morbid  activity; the second as a stimulant; and the
last has a deobstruent operation, in dispersing chronic
tumours.  An ample narrative of cases is given in
confirmation of these general propositions.   My own
experience leads me to suppose, that the negative pole
of a Voltaic battery gives more  poignant sensations
than the positive.
  The most precise and interesting researches on the
relation between Voltaic electricity and the phenomena
of life, are those contained in Dr. Wilson Philip's Dis-
sertations in the  Philosophical Transactions, as well
as in  his experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the
Vital  Functions, more recently published.
  In  his earlier researches he endeavoured to prove,
that the circulation of tbe blood, and the action of the
involuntary muscles, were independent of tlie nervous
influence.  In  a late paper, read in January, 1816, he
showed the immediate dependence of the secretory
functions on the nervous influence.
  The eighth pair of nerves distributed  to the stomach,
and subservient to digestion, were divided by incisions
in tiie necks of several living rabbits.  After the ope-
ration, the parsley  which they ate  remained without
alteration in their stomachs;  and the  animals,  after
evincing much difficulty of breathing, seemed to die of
suffocation.   But  when  in other  rabbits, similarly
treated, the Galvanic power was transmitted along the
nerve, below  iu  section, to  a disc of silver, placed
closely in contact with the skin of the animal, oppo-
site to ite stomach, no difficulty of breathing occurred.
The Voltaic action being kept  up for twenty-six hours,
the rahbiu were then killed, and the parsley was found
in as  perfectly  digested a state, as that  in healthy rab-
biu fed at the same time; and their stomachs evolved
the smell peculiar to that of a rabbit during digestion.
These experimenu were several times repealed with
similar resulu.
  Hence it appears that the Galvanic energy is capable
of supplying the place of the nervous influence, so
that, while under it, the stomach, otherwise inactive,
digests food as usual.  I am not, however, wi.nng to
adopt the conclusion drawn by iu ingenious author,
that the identity of Galvanic electricity and nervous
influence is established by these experimenu.'  They
clearly show a remarkable analogy between these two
powers, since the one may serve as  a substitute for the
other.  It might possibly be urged by tbe anatomist,
that as the stomach is supplied by twigs of other
nerves,  which communicate under the place of Dr.
Philip's section of the par vagum, the  Galvanic fluid
may operate merely as a powerful stimulus, exciting
those slender twigs to perforin such an increase of ac-
tion, as may compensate for the want of the principal
nerve.  The above experimenu were repeated on dogs,
with like resulu; the  battery never being so strong as
to occasion painful shocks.
  The removal of dyspnoea, as stated above, led him
to try  Galvanism as a remedy in asthma.  By transmit-
ting ite  influence from the nape of the  neck to the  pit
of tbe stomach, he gave decided relief  in every one of
twenty-two cases, of which four were in private prac-
tice, and eighteen in the Worcester Infirmary.  The
power employed varied from ten to twenty-five pairs.
  The general  inferences deduced by him from his mul-
tiplied experiments,  are,  that Voltaic electricity is
capable of effecting the formation of the secreted fluids,
when applied  to the blood in the same way in which
the nervous influence is applied  to it; and that it is
capable of occasioning an evolution of caloric  from
arterial  blood.  When the  lungs are deprived of the
nervous influence, by which their function is impeded,
and even destroyed, when digestion is  interrupted, by
withdrawing this influence from the  stomach, these
two vital functions  are renewed by exposing them to
the influence of a Galvanic trough.  ' Hence,' says he,
1 Galvanism seems capable of  performuig all the func-
tions fo  the nervous influence in the animal economy;
but obviously it cannot excite the functions of animal
life, unless  when  acting  on parts endowed wilh the
living principle.'
  These results of Dr. Philip have been recently con-
firmed by Dr. Clarke Abel, of Brighton, who employed,
in one ot the repetitions of the experimenu, a com-
paratively weak,  and in the other  a considerable
powerof Galvanism.  In the former, although the Gal-
vanism was not of*hifficient power to occasion evi-
dent digestion of the food, yet the efforts to vomit, and
tiie difficulty of breathing, constant effecu of dividing
the eighth pair of nerves, were prevented by it.  These
symptoms recurred when it was discontinued, and va-
nished on  iu reapplication.   'The respiration of the
animal,' he observes,' continued quite free during the
experiment, excepkwhen the disengagement of the
nerves from the tfPfoil rendered a short  suspension
of the Galvanism necessary during their readjustment.'
The  nongalvanized rabbit  breathed  wilh difficulty,
wheezed audibly, and made frequent attempts to vo-
mit'  In the latter experiment,  in which  the greater
powerof Galvanism was employed^ digestion went on
as in Dr. Philip's experimenu.—Jour.  Sc. ix.
  Gallois,  an eminent French physiologist,  had endea-
voured to prove, that the motion of the heart depends
entirely upon  the  spinal  marrow, and immediately
ceases when  the spinal marrow is removed or de^
stroyed.  Dr. Philip appears to have refuted this no-
tion by the following experiments.  Rabbits were ren
dered insensible by a blow on the occiput; the spinal
marrow and brain were then removed, and the respira
tion  kept  up by artificial  means; the motion of the
heart,  and the  circulation, were carried on as usual.
When spirit of wine or opium was applied to the spi-
nal marrow or  brain, the rate of tbe circulation was
accelerated.
  A  middle-sized,  athletic,  and extremely muscular
man, about thirty years of age, was the subject of the
following  highly interesting experiments.  He  was
suspended  from the gallows nearly an  hour, and
made no convulsive struggle after he  dropped ; while
a thief, executed along with him, was violently agi-|
tated for a considerable time.  He was brought to the
anatomical theatre of our university in about ten mi-,
nutes after he was cut down.  His face  had a per-
fectly natural aspect, being neither livid nor tumefied;
and there was  no dislocation of his neck.           j
  Dr. Jeffray, the distinguished professor of anatomy,
having on the preceding day requested  me (says Dr.
Ure) to perform the Galvanic experimenu,  I sent  to
his theatre, with this view, next morning, my minor
Vollaic battery, consisting of 270 pairs of four-inch
plates, with wires of communication, and pointed me-
tallic rods with insulating handles, for the more com-
modious application of the electric power.  About five
minutes before the police  officers arrived with the
body, the battery was charged with a dilute nitro-sul-
phuric acid, which speedily brought it into a state of
intense action.  The dissections were  skilfully exe-1
cuted by Mr. Marshal, under the superintendence of
the professor.
  Exp. 1.  A large incision was made into the nape of
the neck, close below the occiput.  The posterior half
of the atlas vertebra was then removed by bone for-
ceps, when the spinal marrow was brought into  view.
A profuse flow of liquid blood gushed from the wound,
inundating the floor.  A considerable incision was at
the same time  made in the left hip, through the great
gluteal muscle, so as to bring the sciatic nerve into
sight;  and a small cut was made in the heel.  From
neither of these did any blood flow.  The  pointed rod
connected with  one end of  the battery, was  now
placed in  contact with the  spinal marrow, while the
other rod was applied to the sciatic nerve.  Every
muscle of the  body was  immediately agitated with
convulsive movemcnU, resembling a violent shudder-
ing from cold.   The left side was  most powerfully
convulsed at each renewal of the electric contact.  On
moving the second rod from the hip to the heel, the
knee being previously bent, the leg  was  thrown out
with such violence as nearly to overturn one of the
assistants, who in vain attempted to prevent its ex
tension.
  Exp. 2.  Tlie  left phrenic nerve was  now laid bare
at the outer edge  of the stemo-thyroideus  muscle,
from three to four inches above the clavicle;  the cuta-
neous incision  having been made by the  side of the
sterno-cleido mastoideus.  Since this nerve is dislri
buted to the diaphragm, and since it communicates
with the heart through the eighth pair, it was expected,
by transmitting the Galvanic power along with it, that
the respiratory  process  would be renewed. Accord-
ingly, a small  incision having been  made under the
  • ■"                                   via 
GAL
GAL
cartilage of the seventh rib, the point of the one insu-
lating  rod was brought into contact with the great
head of the diaphragm, while the other point was ap-
plied to the phrenic nerve in the  neck.  This muscle,
the main agent of respiration, was instantly contracted,
but with less force than was expected.  Satisfied, from
ample experience on the living body, that more power-
ful effecu can be produced in Galvanic excitation, by
leaving the extreme communicating rods in close con-
tact with the paru to be operated  on, while the electric
chain or circuit is  completed by'running tbe end of
the wires along the top of the plates in the lost trough
of either pole, the other wire being  steadily immersed
in the last cell of the opposite pole, I had  immediate
recourse to this method. The success of it was truly
wonderful. Full, nay, laborious breathing, instantly
commenced.  The chest heaved, and fell; the belly
was protruded, and again collapsed, with the relaxing
and retiring diaphragm. This process was continued,
without interruption, as long as I continued the elec-
tric discharges.
  In the judgment of many scientific  gentlemen who
witnessed the scene, this respiratory  experiment was
perhaps the most striking ever made with a philoso-
phical apparatus.  Let it also be remembered, that for
full half an hour before this period, the body had been
well nigh drained of iu blood, and the spinal marrow
severely lacerated.  No pulsation could be perceived
meanwhile at the heart or wrist; but it may be sup-
posed, that but  for the evacuation of the blood,—the
essential stimulus of that organ,—this  phenomenon
might also have occurred.
  Exp. 3. The supra-orbital nerve was laid bare in the
forehead, as it issues through the supra-ciliary fora-
men, in the eyebrow: the one conducting rod being
applied  to it, and the other to the heel, most extraor-
dinary grimaces were exhibited  every time that the
electric discbarges were made, by running the wiro in
my hand along the edges of the last trough, from the
220th  to the 370th  pair of plates: thus fifty shocks,
each greater than the  preceding  one, were given in
two seconds.  Every muscle in his countenance was
simultaneously thrown into fearful  action; rage, hor-
ror, despair, anguish, and ghastly smiles, united their
hideous expression in  the murderer's  face, surpassing
far the wildest representations of a Fuseli or a Kean.
At this period several of the spectators were forced to
leave the apartment from terror or sickness, and one
gentleman fainted.
   Exp. 4. The last Galvanic experiment consisted in
transmitting the electric power from the spinal mar-
row to the ulnar nerve, as it passes by the internal
condyle at the elbow:  the fingers now moved nimbly,
Bke those of a violin  performer;  an assistant, who
tried to close the fist, found the hand to open forcibly,
in spite of his efforts.  When the one rod was applied
to a slight incision in the tip of the forefinger, the fist
being  previously  clenched, tbat  finger extended in-
stantly ; and from the  convulsive agitation ofthe arm,
he seemed to point to the different spectators, some of
whom thought he had come to life.
  About an hour was spent in these operations.
  In deliberating on the above Galvanic phenomena,
we are almost willing to imagine, that if, without cut-
ting into and wounding the spinal marrow and blood-
vessels in the neck, the pulmonary organs had been
set a-playing m first,  (as I proposed,) by electrifying
the phrenic nerve,  (which may be done without any
dangerous  incision,) there  is a  probability that life
might have been restored.  This  event, however little
desirable with a  murderer, and  perhaps contrary to
law, would yet have been pardonable  in one instance,
as it would have been highly honourable and useful to
science.  From the accurate experimenu of Dr. Philip
it appears, that the action of the diaphragm and lungs'
is indispensable towards restoring the suspended action
ofthe heart and great vessels, subservient to the circu-
lation of the blood.
  It is known, that cases of deathlike  lethargy, or sus-
pended  animation, from disease  and  accidents, have
occurred, where life has returned,  after longer inter-
ruption of iu functions than in the subject of tbe pre-
ceding experimenu. It U probable,  when  apparent
death supervenes from suffocation with noxious gases,
Sec and win n there is no organic laesion, that a judi-
ciously directed Galvanic experiment will, if any thing
will, restore the activity of the vital  functions   The
      380
 plans of administering Voltaic electricity, hitherto pur
 sued  hi such cases, are, In my humble apprehension,
 very defective.  No advantage, we perceive, is likely
 to accrue from passing electric discharges across the
 chest, directly througb the  heart and  lungs.   On tho
 principles so well  developed by Dr. Philip, and now
 illustrated  on Clydesdale's body, we should  transmit
 along the channel of the nerves, that suliatitutc  for
 nervous influence, or that power which may perchance
 awaken iu dormant faculties. Then, indeed, lair hopes
 maybe  formed of deriving extensive benefit from Gal-
 vanism; and of raising this wonderful agent to its ex
 pected rank among the ministersof health and life to man.
  I would,  however,  beg leave to suggest  another
 nervous channel, which I conceive to be a still readier
 and more powerful one, to the action of the heart and
 lungs, than the phrenic nerve.  If a longitudinal inci-
 sion be made, as U  frequently  done for aneurism,
 through the integumenu ofthe neck at tiie outer edge
 of the  sterno-mastoideus muscle, about half way be-
 tween the clavicle and angle of the lower jaw;  then,
 on turning over the edge of this muscle, we bring into
 view the throbbing carotid, on the ouuide of which,
 the par vagum, and great sympathetic nerve, lie to-
 gether in one sheath.   Here, therefore, they may both
 be directly touched and pressed  by a blunt  metallic
 conductor.   These nerves communicate  directly,  or
 indirectly, with tbe phrenic; and the superficial nerve
 of the heart is sent off from the sympathetic.
  Should, however, the phrenic nerve be taken, that
 of the left side U the preferable of the two. From the
 position of the heart, the left phrenic differs a little in
 iu course  from the right  It passes over the pericar
 dium, covering the apex of the heart.
  While the point of one metallic conductor is applied
 to the nervous cords above described, the other knob
 ought to be firmly pressed against the side of the per-
 son, immediately  under the cartilage of the seventh
 rib.  The skin should  be moistened with a solution of
 common salt, or, what is better, a hot saturated  solu-
 tion of  sal-ammoniac, by  which means, the  elec-
 tric energy will be  more effectually  conveyed through
 the cuticle so as to complete the Voltaic chain.
  To lay bare tbe nerves above described, requires, as
 I have stated,  no  formidable  incision, nor does it de-
 mand more anatomical skill, or surgical dexterity, than
 every practitioner  of the  heading art ought to possess.
 We should always bear in mind, that the subject  of
 experiment is at least insensible to pain;  and that life
 is at stake, perhaps irrecoverably gone. And assured-
 ly, if we place the  risk and difficulty of the operations
 in competition with the blessings and glory consequent
 on success, they will weigh as nothing, with the intel-
 ligent and humane. It is possible, Indeed, that two
 small brass knobs,  covered with cloth moistened with
 solution of sal ammoniac, pressed above and below, on
 the place of the nerve, and the diaphragmatic region,
 may suffice, without any surgical operation: it may
 first be tried.
  Immersion of the body  in  cold  water accelerates
 greatly the extinction of life arising from suffocation ;
 and hence  less hopes need be entertained of recover-
 ing drowned persons after a considerable interval, than
 when the vital heat has been suffered to continue with
 little abatement  None of the ordinary practices judi-
 ciously enjoined by the Humane Society, should ever
on such occasions be  neglected.  For it is surely cul-
 pable to spare any pains which may contribute, in the
slightest degree, to recall the fleeting breath of man to
iu cherished mansion.
  My attention has been again particularly directed to
this interesting subject, by a very flattering letter which
I lately  received from the learned  Secretary of the
Royal Humane Society.
  In the preceding account, I had accidentally omiued
to state a veiy essential circumstance  relative to the
electrization of Clydesdale.  The paper indeed  was
very rapidly written, at the busiest period of my public
prelections, to be presented to the society, as a substi-
tute for the essay of an absent friend, and was sent off
to London the morning after it was read.
  The positive pole or wire connected with the zinc
end of the  battery, was that which I applied to the
nerve; and  the negative, or that connected with the
copper end,  was that which I applied to the muscle*.
This is a matter of primary importance, as the follow-
ing experimenu will prove. 
GAR
GAS
  Prepare the posterior limbs of a frog for Voltaic elcc
trization, leaving the crural nerves connected, as usual,
to a detached portion of the spine.   When the excita-
bility has become nearly  exhausted, plunge the limbs
into the water of one wine-glass, and the crural nerves
with their pendent portion of spine, into  that of the
other.  The edges of the two glasses should be almost
in contact  Then  taking  a  rod of zinc in one hand,
and a rod of silver (or a silver tea-spoon) in the other,
plunge the  former  into the water of the limbs'  glass,
and  the  latter into that of the nerves' glass, without
touching the frog iuelf, and gently strike the dry parts
of the  bright metals together.  Feeble  convulsive
movements, or mere twitching of the fibres, will be
perceived at every contact.  Reverse now the position
of the metallic rods, that  is,  plunge the zinc into the
nerves' glass, and the silver into the other.  On renew-
ing the  contact of  the dry surfaces of the metal now,
very lively convulsions will take place; and if the
limbs are skilfully disposed in a narrowish conical
glass, they will probably spring out to some distance.
This interesting experiment may be agreeably varied
in the following way, with an  assistant operator: let
that person seize, in the moist fingers of his left hand,
the spine and nervous cords of the prepared frog; and
in those of the right hand, a silver rod; and let the
other person lay hold of one of the limbs with his right
hand, while he holds a zinc rod in the moist fingers of
the left.  On making the metallic contact, feeble con-
vulsive twitchings will be perceived as before.   Hold-
ing still the frog as above, let  them merely exchange
the pieces of metal.  On renewing the contacts now,
lively movements will take place, which become very
conspicuous, if one limb  be  held nearly horizontal,
while the other hangs'freely down.  At each touch of
the Voltaic pair, the drooping limb will slart up, and
strike the hand of the experimenter.
  It is evident, therefore,  that for the  purposes of re-
suscitating dormant irritability of nerves, or contrac-
tility of their subordinate  muscles,  the positive pole
must be applied to the former, and the negative  to tbe
latter."—Ure's Chemical Dictionary.
  GaMa'ndra.  See Stalagmitis.
  Gambi'ense oummi. See Kino.
  GAMBOGE. See Stalagmitis.
{ GAMBO'GIA.   See Cambogia and Stalagmitis.
  Gambo'gium.  See Stalagmitis.
  Gamboi'dea.  See Stalagmitis.
  GA'MMA.  (From the  letter r, gamma, which it
resembles.)  A surgical instrument for cauterizing a
hernia.
  Gamphe'le.  (From yau^/os, crooked.)  The cheek.
The jaw.
  Ga'ngamon.  (From yayyauin, a fishing-net, which
it was said to resemble.)   1.  A name of the omentum.
  2.  Some call the contexture of  nerves  about the
navel by this name.
  GA'NGLION.   (TayyXiov,  a knot.1   A knot.  1.
In anatomy it is applied to a natural knot-like enlarge-
ment in the course of a nerve.
  2. In surgery it  is an encysted tumour,  formed in
 Ihe sheath of a tendon, and containing a fluid like the
 white  of an  egg.  It most frequently occurs on the
 back of the band or foot.
   GA'NGRENE.   (Tayypaiva;  from  ypata, to feed
 upon: so  named  from its  eating  away  the  flesh.)
 Gangrena.  See Mortification.
   Garab.  An Arabic name for the disorder of the
 eyes.  See JEgylops.
   GARCI'NIA.   (So called  in honour of Dr. Garcin,
 who accurately described it.) The name of a genus
 of planU in the Linnaean system.  Class Dodecamdria;
 Order, Monogynia.
   Garcinia mangostana.  The systematic name of
 the mangosteen tree.  The mangosteen  is a fruit about
 the size of an orange, which grows in great abundance
 on this  tree in  Java and the Molucca islands. Ac-
 cording to the concurring  testimonies of all travellers,
 it is the most exquisitely flavoured, and the most salu-
 brious of all fruits, it being such a delicious mixture of
 the tart and sweet.  The flesh is juicy, white, almost
 transparent, and of a more delicate arid agreeable fla-
 vour than the richest grape.  It is eaten in almost
 every disorder, and the dried bark is used medicinally
 in dysenteries and tenesmus, and a strong decoction
 of it is much esteemed as a gargle in ulcerated sore
 throau.
  Ga'rqale.   YapyaXn.   Gargalos;  Gargalismoi.
Irritation, or stimulation.
  Garoa'reon.  (Hebrew.)  The uvula, or glandu-
lous body, which hangs down into the throat
  GA'RGARISM.  See Gargarisma.
  GARGARI'SMA.   (Gargarisma,  atis. n.;  and
Gargarismus, i. m. ; and  Gargarismum, i. n.; from
yapyapiita,  to gargle.)  A gargle,  or  wash  for the
throat.
  Gargarismum.  See Gargarisma.
  Ga'rgathum. A bed on which lunatics, &c. were
formerly confined.
  GARGLE.  See Gargarisma.
  GARLIC.  See Allium.
  GARNET.  Professor Jameson divides this mineral
genus into three species: the pyramidal garnet, dode-
cahedral garnet, and prismatic garnet
  1. The Pyramidal contains three sub-species; Vesu
vian, Egeran, Gehlenite.
  2. The  Dodecahedral contains   nine sub-species;
Pyreneite, Grossulare, Melanite, Pyrope, Garnet, Allo-
chroite, Colophonite, Cinnamon-stone, Helvin.
  3. The Prismatic;  the  grenatite.  Of the garnet
proper, there are two species:
  1. The precious or noble garnet
  2. The common garnet.
  GARNET, Thomas, was born in 1766,  at Casterton
in Westmoreland.  After serving his time  to a surgeon
and apothecary, he went to study at Edinburgh, where
he took his degree at twenty-two, and  then attended
the London hospitals  for two years.  In 1790 he set-
tled at Bradford, and began to give private lectures on
Philosophy and Chemistry; and here he wrote his
Treatise on the Horley Green Spa.   But in the follow-
ing year he removed toKnaresborough, and soon after
published an Analysis of the different Waters of Har-
rowgate, which  place  be visited during  the summer
season.  About this period  he formed the design of
going to America;  but while waiting to take his pas
sage at Liverpool, he was solicited to deliver some lec-
tures there, which were so favourably received, that he
was induced to repeat his course at  various  other
places; and at length  the professorship at Anderson's
Institution  in  Glasgow was offered him, where he
began lecturing in 1796. Two years after he made a
tour to the  Highlands, of which he subsequently pub-
lished an account.  On the formation of the Royal In-
stitution in London, he was invited by Count Rumford
to become the lecturer there; he accepted the appoint-
ment, and the room was crowded with persons of the
first distinction and  fashion.   He then turned his
thoughts more seriously to the practice of his profes-
sion, as likely to afford the most permanent support;
but his prospects  were cut short by death about the
middle of the year 1802. A  posthumous  volume, en-
titled " Zoonomia," was published for the benefit of his
family.
  Ga'ron.   Tapov.  A  kind of pickle  prepared of
fish:  at first it was made from a fish, which the Greeks
call Garos; but the best was made from mackarel.
Among  the modems, garum signifies the liquor in
which fish  is pickled.
' GAROU.  See Daphne gnidium.
  Garrophy'llus. See Eugenia caryophyllata.
  Garroti'llo.   (From  garottar, to bind  closely.
Spanish.)  A name of tbe cynanehe maligna, from its
sense of strangulation, as if the throat were bound with
a cord.
  GAS. (From Gaseht, German, an eruption of wind.)
 Gaz.  Elastic fluid; Aeriform fluid. This term is ap-
plied to all permanently elastic fluids,  simple or com-
pound, except the atmosphere, lo which the term air
is appropriated.
  Some of the gases exist in nature without the aid ot
art, and may therefore be collected:  others, on the
contrary, are only producible by artificial  means.
  All  gases are combinations of  certain substances,
reduced to thegaseous form by the addition of caloric.
It is, therefore, necessary to  distinguish in every gas,
the matter of heat which acted the part  of a solvent,
and the substance which forms the basis of the gas.
  Gases are not contained in those substances from
which we  obtain  them in the state of gas,  but owe
their formation to the expansive property of caloric.
   Formation of Gases.—The different  forms  under
which bodies appear,  depend upon a certain quantity
of caloric, chemically combined with them. The very 
GAS                                             GAS
formation of gases corroborates this truth.   Their pro-
duction totally depends upon the combination of the
particular substances with caloric;  and though called
permanently elastic, they arc only so because we can-
not so far reduce their temperature, as to dispose them
to part with it; otherwise they would undoubtedly be-
come fluid or solid.
  Water, for  instance, is a solid substance in all de-
grees below 32° of Fahrenheit's scale;  above this tem-
perature it combines with caloric, and becomes a fluid.
ft retains iu liquid state under tbe ordinary pressure
of the  atmosphere, till iu temperature is augmented
to 212°.  It then combines with a larger portion of
caloric, and is converted, apparently, into gas, or at
least into elastic vapour; in which state it would con-
tinue, if the temperature of our atmosphere was above
212°.  Gases are therefore solid substances, between
the particles of which a repulsion is established by the
quantity of caloric.
  But as in the gaseous water or steam, the caloric is
retained  wilh but little force, on account of its quitting
the water when the vapour is merely exposed to a
lower  temperature, we do not admit steam among
the class of  gases, or  permanently elastic aeriform
fluids.   In gases,  caloric united  by a very forcible
affinity, and no diminution of temperature, or increase
of pressure, that has  ever yet been effected, can sepa-
rate it  from them.  Thus the air of our  atmosphere,
in the  most intense cold, or when very strongly com-
pressed, still remains in the aeriform slate; and hence
is derived the essential character of gases, namely, that
they shall remain  aeriform, under all variations of
pressure and temperature.
  In the modern nomenclature, the name of every
substance existing in the aeriform state, is derived
from its supposed solid base; and the term gas is used
to denote iu existence in this state.
  In order to illustrate the  formation of gases, or to
Bhow in what manner caloric is combined with them,
the following experiment may serve.  Put  into a retort,
capable  of holding half a pint of water, two ounces
of muriate of soda (common salt): pour on It half iu
weight of sulphuric acid, and apply the heat of a lamp;
a great quantity of gas is produced, which might be
collected and retained over mercury.  But to serve
the purpose of this experiment let it pass through a
glass receiver, having two openings, into one of which
the neck of the retort passes, while, from  the other, a
bent tube proceeds, which ends in  a vessel of water.
Before closing the  apparatus, let a thermometer be in-
cluded in tlie receiver, to show tbe temperature of the
gas.   Il will be found that the mercury  in the ther-
mometer wilLrise only a few dcgiees: whereas the wa-
ter in the vessel which receives the bent tube, will soon
become boiling hot.
   Explanation.—Common  salt consists  of muriatic
acid, united to soda; on presenting sulphuric acid to
thU union, a  decomposition  takes place, especially
when  assisted by heat.  Tbe sulphuric acid unites by
virtue of its greater affinity to the soda, and forms sul-
phate  of soda, or Glauber's salt; the muriatic acid be-
comes therefore disengaged, and  takes  tiie gaseous
form in which it is capable of  existing at the common
 temperature.   To trace the caloric during this experi-
 ment, as was our object, we must remark, that it first
 flows  from the lamp to the disengaged muriatic acid,
 and converts it into  gas; but the heat thus expended
 in  chemically  united,  and therefore  not appreciable
 by the thermometer.  The caloric, however, is again
 evolved, when the  muriatic  acid  gas is condensed
 by the water, with which it forms  liquid muriatic
 acid.
   In this experiment we therefore trace  caloric in a
 chemical combination producing gas; and from this
 union we again trace it in tbe condensation of tbe gas,
 producing sensible heat
   Such, in general, is the cause of tbe formation and
 fixation of gases.   It  may be further observed, that
 each of these fluids loses or suffers the disengage-
 ment  of different quantities of heat, as it becomes
 more or less solid in iu new combination, or as that
 combination is capable of retaining more or less spe-
 cific heat.
   The discovery of adi iform gaseous fluids has occa-
 sioned the necessity  ot some peculiar iDslrumenU, by
 means of wbich those substances may be conveniently
 collected and  submitted to examination.  The prin-
       362
cipal ones for that purpose are styled the pneumatic
apparatus.
  The pneumatic trough is made either of wood or
strong sheet iron, tinned, japanned, or painted.  A
trough of about two feet  long, sixteen inches wide,
and fifteen high, has been found to be sufficient for
most experimenu.  Two or  three inches below its
brim, a horizontal shelf is fastened, in dimension about
half or one-third part of the width of the trough.  In
this shelf are several holes: these holes must be made
in the  centre of a  small  excavation, shaped like  a
funnel, wbich is formed in the lower part of the shelf.
  This trough is filled with water sufficient to cover
the shelf to tbe height of an inch.
  The use of this shelf is to support receivers, jars, or
bell-glasses, which, being previously filled with water,
are placed invertedly, their open end  turned down
upon the above-mentioned holes, through which the
gases, conveyed  there and directed  by means ol the
funnel-shaped excavations, rise in the form  of  atr-
bubbles into the receiver.
  When the gaseous fluids are capable of being ab-
sorbed by water, as is the case with some of  them, the
trough  must be filled with mercury.  Tbe price and
gravity of this fluid  moke it an object of convenience
and economy, that the trough should be smaller  than
when water is used.
  A mercurial trough is best cut in marble, free-stone,
or a solid block of wood.  A trough  about twelve
inches  long, three inches wide, and four deep, is suffi-
cient for all private experimenu.
  Method of collecting gases, and transferring them
from one vessel to another.—It we  are desirous of
transmitting air from one vessel (o another, il is neces-
sary that the vessel destined to receive it be full of
water,  or some fluid heavier then air.  For that pur-
pose, take a wide-mouthed  bell-glass,  or  receiver;
plunge it under the water in the trough, in order to fill
it;  then raise it with the mouth downwards,  and place
it on the shelf of the trough, so  as  to cover one or
more of the holes in it.
  It will now be full of water, and continue so as long
as the mouth remains below Ihe Burface of the fluid  in
the cistern;  for, in this case, the water is sustained  in
the vessel by the pressure of the atmosphere, in the
same manner as the mercury is sustained in the ba-
rometer.   It may without difficulty be imagined, that
if common air (or any other fluid resembling common
air in lightness and  elasticity) be suffered to enter the
inverted vessel filled  with water, it will rise to the
upper part, on account of its levity, and the surface of
the water will subside.  To exemplify this, take a glass,
or any other vessel, in that state which is usually called
empty, and  plunge  it into the water with its mouth
downwards: scarce any of it will enter the glass, be-
cause  its  entrance is opposed by the elasticity of thn
included air; but if ihe vessel be turned with iu mouth
upwards, it immediately fills, and the air rises in bub
bles to the  surface.  Suppose this operation be  per-
formed under one of the jars or receivers, which are
filled with water, and placed upon the perforated shelf.
tbe air will  ascend  iu bubbles as before, but, instead
of escaping, it will be caught in  the upper part of the
jar, and expel part of the water il contains.
  In this manner we see that air may be emptied out
of one vessel into another by a kind of inverted pour-
ing, by which means  it is made to  ascend from the
lower to the upper vessel.  When the receiving vessel
has a narrow neck, the air may be poured, in a similar
manner, through an inverted funnel, inserted in iu
mouth.
  If the air is to be transferred from a vessel that  is
stopped like a bottle, the bottle must be unstopped, with
iu orifice downwards in the water; and then inclined
in such a  manner that iu neck  may come  under the
perforated excavation of the shelf.   The gas will es
cape from the bottle, and passing into the vessel destined
to receive it, will ascend in it in the form of bubbles.
  In whatever manner this operation  is perl'ormrd,
the necessity of the excavation in the lower part of the
shelf may be readily conceived.   It is, as mentioned
before, destined lo collect the gas  which escapes from
the vessel, and direct it in ite passage towards the ves-
sel adapted to receive it.  Without this excavation, the
gas, instead of proceeding to  the place of its destina-
tion, would be dispersed and lost, unless the  mouth of
the receiving vessel were large 
GAS
GAS
  The vessels, or receivers, for  collecting the disen-
gaged  gases, should be glass cylinders, jars, or bell-
glasses of various sizes; some of them should be open
at both ends, others should be fitted with necks at the
top,  ground perfectly level, in order that they may be
stopped by ground  flat pieces of metal,  glass, slate,
Sec.; others should be furnished with ground stoppers.
Some should be graduated into cubic inches, and sub-
divided into decimal or other equidistant parts.  Be-
sides these, common glass-bottles, tumblers, &c. may
be used.
  Classification  of  Gases.—All  the elastic aeriform
fluids wilh  which we are hitherto acquainted, are
generally  divided, by  systematic writers, into two
classes, namely:  those that are respirable and capable
of maintaining combustion, and those  that are not re-
spirable and incapable  of  maintaining  combustion.
This division, indeed, has its advantage, but  the term
respirable, in its physiological application, has been
very differently employed by different writers. Some-
times by the respirability of a gas has been meant its
power  of supporting life, when repeatedly applied to
the blood in the lungs.  At other  times all gases have
been considered respirable which were capable of in-
troduction into the lungs by voluntary efl'orts, without
any  relation to their vitality.  In  the last case, the
word respirable seems to us most properly employed,
and in this sense it is here used.
  Non-respirable gases are those which, when applied
to tlie external organs of  respiration, stimulate the
muscles of the epiglottis in  such a manner as to keep
it perfectly close on the glottis;  thus  preventing the
smallest particle of gas from entering into the bronchia,
in spite of voluntary exertions.
  Of respirable gases, 'or those which  are capable of
being taken iato the lungs by voluntary efforts, only
one has tlie power of uniformly supporting life, namely,
atmospheric air; other gases, when respired, sooner or
later impair the health of the human constitution, or
perhaps occasion death; but in different modes.
  Some gases effect  no positive change in  the blood;
animals immersed in it die  of a disease  produced by
the privation  of  atmospheric air, analogous to that
occasioned by their submersion in water.
  Others again produce some positive change in the
blood,  as appears from the experimenu  of  Dr. Bed-
does and Sir Humphrey Davy.  They  seem to render
it incapable of supplying the nervous and muscular
fibres with principles essential to  sensibility and irrita-
bility.  These gases, therefore, destroy animal life on
a different principle.
  It is obvious, therefore, that the above classification
is not very precise, but capable of misleading the stu-
dent without proper explanation.
  Gas, azotic.  See Nitrogen.
  Gas, carbonic acid.  See Carbonic acid.
  Gas, heavy carbonated hydrogen.  See  Carburetted
hydrogen gas.
  Gas, hepatic.  See Hydrogen gas, sulphuretted.
  Gas, hydrogen.  See Hydrogen.
  Gas, light carbonated hydrogen  See  Carburetted
hydrogen gas.
  Gaseous oxide of carbon.  See Carbon, gaseous ox-
ide of.
  GA'STRIC.   (Gastricus;  from  yasmp,  the sto-
mach.) Appertaining to the stomach.
  Gastric artery.  Arteria gastrica.  The right or
greater gastric artery, is a branch of the hepatic; the
left, or smaller, a branch of the splenic.
  Gastric juice.  Succus gastricus.  A fluid sepa-
rated by the stomach.  See Digestion.
  Gastrinum. Potassa.
  GASTRITIS.   (From  yari;p, the  stomach.)  In-
flammation of the  stomach.  A genus of disease in
the class  Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia of Cullen.
It is known by pyrexia, anxiety,  heat,  and pain in the
epigastrium, increased when  any thing is taken into
tbe stomach, vomiting, hiccup, pulse small and hard,
and prostration of strength.  There are two species:
  1. Gastritis phlegmonodea, with acute pain and se-
vere fever.
  2. Gastritis erythematica, when the pain and fever
are slighter, with an erysipelatous redness appearing
in the  fauces.
  Gastritis is produced by acrid substances of various
kinds, such as arsenic, corrosive  sublimate, &c. taken
into the stomach, as likewise by food  of an  improper
nature ;  by taking large draughts of any cold liquor
when the body is much heated by exercise, or dancing,
and by repelled exanthemata and gout. Besides these, it
may arise from an inflammation of some of the neigh
bouring  parts being communicated to the stomach.
  The erysipelatous gastritis arises chiefly towards the
close of other diseases, marking the certain approach
to dissolution, and  being  unaccompanied with any
marks of  general inflammation, or by  any burning
pain in the stomach.
  The symptoms of phlegmonous gastritis, as observed
above, are a violent burning pain in the stomach, with
great soreness,  distention, and flatulency;  a severe
vomiting,  especially  after any thing is swallowed,
whether it be liquid or solid;  most distressing thirst;
restlessness, anxiety, and a continual tossing of the
body, with great  debility, constant watching, and a
frequent, hard, and contracted  pulse. In some cases,
severe purging attends.
  If the disease increases in violence, symptoms  of
irritation then ensue ; there is a great loss of strength,
with faintings; a short and interrupted respiration;
cold, clammy sweats, hiccups, coldness ofthe extremi-
ties, an intermittent pulse, and tbe patient is soon cut
off.
  The event of gastritis is seldom favourable, as the
person is usually either  suddenly destroyed by the vi-
olence of  the inflammation, or else it  terminates in
suppuration, ulceration, or gangrene.
  if the symptoms are very mild, and proper remedies
have been employed at an early period of the disease,
it may,  however, terminate in resolution, and that in
the course of the first, or, at farthest, the second week
  Iu  termination in  suppuration may be known  by
the symptoms, although moderate, exceeding the con-
tinuance of this period, and a remission of pain oc-
curring, while a sense of weight and anxiety still  re-
main ; and, on  the formation of an abscess, cold shi-
verings ensue, with marked exacerbations in the eve-
ning, which arc followed by night  sweats, and other
symptoms of hectic fever; and these at length prove
fatal, unless the pus is  thrown up by vomiting, and
the ulcer heals.
  IU tendency to gangrene may be  dreaded, from the
violence of iu symptoms not yielding to proper reme-
dies early in the disease; and, when begun, it may be
known by the sudden cessation of the pain; by the
pulse continuing its frequency, but becoming weaker;
and by delirium, with other marks of increasing  debi-
lity ensuing.
  Fatal  cases  of  this disease  show, on dissection, a
considerable redness of the inner coat of the stomach,
having a layer of coagulable lymph lining its surface.
They likewise show a partial thickening of the sub-
stance of the organ,  at the inflamed part, the inflam-
mation seldom extending over the whole of it. Where
ulceration has taken place, the ulcers sometimes are
found to penetrate through all its coats, and sometimes
only through one or two of them.
  The cure is to be attempted by copious and repeated
bleedings, employed at an early period of tbe disease,
not regarding the smallness of the pulse, as it usually
becomes softer and fuller after the operation: also  se-
veral leeches should be applied to the  epigastrium,
followed by fomentations, or the hot bath; after which
a large  blister will  be  proper.  The large intestines
may be iu some measure evacuated by a laxative clys-
ter ; but scarcely any internal  medicine can be borne
by the stomach, till the violence of the disease is much
abated;  we may then try magnesia, or other mild ca-
thartic, to clear out the canal effectually.   Where  acrid
substances have been taken, mucilaginous drinks may
be freely exhibited,  to assist   their evacuation and
sheathe  the stomach; otherwise only in small quan
tity: and, in the former case, according to the nature
of the poison, other  chemical  remedies may come in
aid, but ought never to be too much relied upon.
Should suppuration occur, little can be done beyond
avoiding irritation, and supporting strength by a mild
farinaceous diet,  and giving  opium occasionally  to
relieve pain.
  GASTRO.  Names  compounded  with this word
have some connexion with the stomach.
  GASTROCE'LE.  (From yawp, the stomach, an
tcnXv, a tumour.)  A hernia of tlie stomach, occasioned
by a protrusion of that viscus through the abdominal
parietes.  See Hernia ventriculi. 
GAY
FRU
  GASTROCNEMIUS.  (From yanp, the stomach,
and Kvnun, the leg.)  The calf or belly of the leg.
  Gastrocnemius  externus.  Gemellus.   An ex-
tensor muscle of the foot, situated immediately under
the integumenu at the back part of the  leg ; some-
times called gemellus : this latter name  is adopted  by
Albinus.  Winslow describes it as two m uscles, which
he  calls gastrocnemii; and Douglas considers this
and tbe following as a quadriceps, or muscle with four
heads, to which he gives the name of extensor tarsi
suralis.   It is  called bi femora colconien by Dumas.
The gastrocnemius externus arises  by two distinct
heads.  The first, which is the thickest and longest of
the two, springs by a strong thick  tendon  from the
upper and back part  of the inner condyle of the os
femoris, adhering strongly to the capsular ligament  of
the joint, between which and the tendon is a consider-
able bursa mucosa.   The second head arises by a thin-
ner and shorter  tendon from the back part of the outer
condyle of the  os femoris.  A  little below the joint,
their fleshy bellies unite in a middle  tendon, and be-
low the middle  ofthe tibia they cease to  be fleshy, and
terminate in a  broad tendon, which, a little above tbe
lower  extremity of the tibia, unite  with that of the
gastrocnemius  internus, to form one round tendon,
sometimes called chorda magna, but commonly tendo
Achillis.
  Gastrocnemius internus. Tibioperoneicolconien
of Dumas.  This, wbich is situated immediately under
the last described muscle, is sometimes named  soleas,
on  account of iu shape, which resembles that of the
sole-fish.  It arises by two heads.  The first springs  by
tendinous and fleshy fibres from the posterior part of
the head of the fibula, and for some way below it. The
second arises from  an oblique ridge at the upper and
posterior part of the tibia, which affords origin to the
inferior edge of the  popliteus, continuing to receive
fleshy fibres from the inner edge of the tibia for some
way down.  This muscle, which is narrow at ite ori-
gin, spreads wider, as it descends, as far as  iu middle;
after which it becomes narrower again, and begins to
grow  tendinous, but iu fleshy  fibres  do not entirely
disappear till it  has almost reached  the extremity of
the tibia, a little above which it unites with the lost
described muscle, to form the tendo Achillis.   This
thick round chord is inserted into the lower and pos-
terior part of the os calcis, after sliding over a cartila-
ginous surface on that  bone,  to which it is connected
by a tendinous  sheath tbat is furnished wilh a large
bursa mucosa.
  Both the gastrocnemii have the same  use, viz. that
of extending the foot, by drawing it  backwards and
downwards.
  GASTROCO'LIC.   \.Gastrocolicus;  from  ya^np,
the stomach, and xiaXov, the colon.)  A term applied to
a vein  which proceeds from the stomach to the colon.
  GASTRODY'NIA.  (From ya<pip,  the stomach,
and oSvvn, pain.)  Pain in the stomach.
  Gastro-epiploIC artert.   Arteria  gastrico-epi-
ploica.  The branch of the greater gastric artery that
runs to the epiploon.                      ,
  GASTRORAPHY.   (Gastroraphe;  from  yae-r/p,
the stomach, and paqhj, a suture.)  The sewing of
wounds of the abdomen.
  GASTROTO'MIA.   (From  ya^na, the belly, and
rtuvio, to cut)   The  operation of cutting open the
belly.
  GAU'BIUS, Jerome David, a celebrated  Dutch
 £hysician, was a pupil of tbe  illustrious Boerhaave  at
 ieyden, where  he graduated in 1725, and  about ten
years after be became professor there, and taught with
great applause for a period of forty years.   His repu-
tation was extended all over Europe by several valu-
able publications, particularly  by  his " Institutiones
Pathologic Medicinalis," and his "Adversaria;" which
contributed not a little to the improvement both of the
theory and practice of medicine. In another work, he
treated ably of  tbe medical regulation of the  mind:
and he printed also a very elegant little book " De Me-
thodo  concinnandi formulas  Medicamentorum."  He
died in 1760, in  the seventy-sixth year of his age.
  GAULE.   See Myrica gale.
  ["GaULTHERIA.  Partridge berry.  The gaultheria
procumbens is a well known creeping evergreen, found
in woody and  mountainous  tracts throughout the
United States.  Iu taste is astrigent and aromatic, and
bas been compared to that of orange flowers. It exactly
      384
 resembles that of black birch (betula  lenta).   The
 medical properties of this plant are not unlike those of
 cinnamon, being a warm, aromatic, astringent, parti-
 cularly useful in the secondary stage of diarrhoea.  It
 U popularly considered an emmenugogue.   The dote
 may be one or two scruples, but a tincture and infusion
 are more convenient forms.  The volatile oil of this
 article is officinal."—Bigel.Mat. Med.  A.]
   [" Gaylussacite.   This name has  recently been
  ?iven to a new metal obtained from a species of pyrites
 bund in South America, of which  tiie following ac-
 count has been received by Dr. MitchiU, together with
 « specimen of the substance in a crystalline form.
   "The pyrites is obtained from a small lake in the
 province of Merida de Columbia, being the upper coat
 of a substratum of strong mineral alkali, called urao,
 much used by the lower class of tbe natives of Colom-
 bia, mixed with au extract of tobacco, aud then called
 chimoo.  The alkali produce's to the government a
 rental of from 50,000 to 60,000 dollars per annum.  The
 mineral is at the bottom ofthe lake, about three fathoms
 under water.  Several Indians are  employed by the
 government  to dive and  extract it, which tbey do by
 means of small crowbars.  They are paid  about two
 reales per pound for it aud the government  afterward
 sell it at one dollar.  The situation of the lake is about
 ten leagues west of the city of Merida, called Lagunil-
 las.   The pyrites are there called espejuelas, and have
 been analyzed in Paris, and found to contain a metal
 hitherto unknown, and now called Gaylussacite, from
 the celebrated Frencii chemist of that name."—A.]
  GAZ.  (From gascht, a German word which means
 an eruption of wind.)  See Gas.
  GEHLENITE.  A mineral substance allied to Ve-
 suvian,  found along with calcareous spar in the Tyrol.
  Geiso'ma.  (From yuoov, the eaves of the house.)
 Geison.  The prominent parts of the eyebrows, which
 hang over the eyes like the eaves of a house.
  Gei'son.   See Geisoma.
  Gela'sinos.  (From  ytXaia, to laugh.) An epithet
 for the  middle fore-teeth, because they  are shown in
 laughter.
  Gela'smus.  (From ytXaia, to laugh.)  The Sar-
donic laugh.   See Sardonic laugh.
  GE'LATIN.  Gully, or jelly. An animal substance
 soluble in  water, but not in alkohol: capable  of as-
 suming a well-known elastic or tremulous consistence,
 by cooling, when the water is not too abundant, and
 Iiquifiable again, by increasing iu temperature. This
last property remarkably distinguishes it from albumen,
 which becomes consistent by heat   It is precipitated
 in an insoluble form by tannin, and it is this action of
 tannin on gelatin  that is  the foundation of the art of
 tanning leather.
  Jellies are very common in our kitchens; they may be
 extracted from all the parts of animals, by boiling them
 in water.  Hot water dissolves a large quantity of this
substance.  Acids likewise dissolve them, as do like-
 wise more particularly the alkalies.  Jelly, which has
 been extracted without long decoction, possesses most
of the characters of vegetable mucilage; but it is sel
dom obtained without a mixture of albumen.
  Jellies, In a pure state, have scarcely any smell or
remarkable taste.   By distillation, they afford an insi-
pid and inodorous phlegm, which easily putrefies.  A
stronger heat causes them to swell up, become black.
and emit a fcetid odour, accompanied with white acrid
fumes.  An impure volatile alkali, together with empy-
reumatic oil,  then passes over, leaving a spongy coal,
not easily burned, and containing common salt and
phosphate of lime.
  The jelly of various  animal substances is prepared
for the  use of seafaring  persons under the name of
portable soup. The whole art of performing this one-
ration consisu in boiling the meat, and taking the scum
off, as usual, until the soup possesses the requisite fla-
 vour.  It is then suffered to cool, in  order that the fat
 may be separated.  In the next place, it U mixed with
 five or six whites  of eggs, and slightly  boiled.  This
 operation serves to clarify the liquid, by the removal of
 opaque particles, which unite with the white of egg at
 the time it becomes  solid by the heat, and are conse-
 quently  removed  along with it  The liquor is then lo
 be strained  through  flannel, and evaporated on the
 water-bath, to the  consistence of a very thick paste;
 after which it is spread, rather thin, upon  a smooth
stone, then cut into cakes, and, lastly, dried in a stone, 
GEM                                          GEM
antll it becomes brittle. These cakes may be kept four
or five years, if defended from  moisture.  When in-
tended to be used, nothing more is required to be done
tiian to dissolve a sufficient quantity in boiling water,
which by that means becomes converted into soup.
  Jelly is also found  in vegetables, as ripe currants,
and other berries mixed with an acid.
  GELA'TIO.  (From gelo, to freeze.)
  1. Freezing.
  2. That rigidity  of  the body which happens ia  a
catalepsy, as if the person were frozen.
  GEM.  ThU word is used to denote a stone which
is considered  as precious; as the diamond, ruby, sap-
phire, topaz, chrysolite, beryl, emerald, Sec
  GEME'LLUS.   (From geminus, double, having  a
fellow.)  See Gastrocnemius and Gemini.
  GEMINI. Gemclli of Winslow.  Part  of the  mar-
supiaiis  of Cowper.  Ischio spini  trochantcrien of
Dumas.  A muscle of tbe thigh, wbich has  been  a
Bubject of dispute among anatomists since the days of
Vesalius.  Somo  describe  it as two distinct muscles;
and hence  the name it has gotten of gemini.  Others
contend that it ought to be considered as a single mus-
cle.  The truth is, that it  consists of two portions,
which are  united  together by a tendinous and fleshy
membrane, and afford a passage between them to the
tendon of the obdurator internus, which  they enclose
as it were in a purse.  These two portions are placed
under the gluteus maximus, between the ischium and
the great trochanter.
  The superior portion, which  is the shortest and
thickest of the two, rises fleshy from the external sur-
face of the spine of the ischium; aud the inferior, from
the tuberosity of that bone, and likewise from the pos-
terior sacro-ischiatic ligament.  They are inserted, ten-
dinous and fleshy, into the  cavity at  the  root of the
great trochanter.   Between  the two portions of this
muscle, and the termination of the obturator internus,
there is a small bursa mucosa, connected to both, and
to that part of the capsular ligament of the joint which
lies under the gemini.
i  This muscle  assiste in rolling the os femoris out-
wards, and prevenu the tendon of tbe obturator inter-
nus from slipping out of its place while that muscle  is
in action.
  GEMMA.  1. A precious stone or"gem.
  2. In botany this term is now applied exclusively to
the buds on the stems of planU.  The ancients used
the  terms  germen and oculus  to  denote  those buds
which contain the rudimenU of branches and leaves,
and gemma those in which flowers only are contained;
but by the modems, germen has been applied to denote
the rudiment of the fruit, or as a generic term for all
buds.—Thompson.
  A gemma or bud contains  the rudimenU of a plant,
or of part of a plant, for a while in a latent state, till
the time of the year, and other circumstances, favour
their evolution.  In the bud, therefore, the vital princi-
ple is dormant.  Buds of trees or shrubs, destined for
cold countries, are formed in the course of the summer
in the bosoms of their leaves, and  are generally soli-
tary; but  in the Lonieera cerulea, or blue-berried
honey-suckle, they grow one under another for three
successive  seasons.
  The buds of the plane-tree, Platanus, are concealed
in the footetalk, which must be removed  before they
can be  seen, and which they  force off by  their in-
crease ;  so that no plant can have more truly and
necessarily deciduous leaves.
  Shrubs in general  have  no buds, neither have tiie
riees of  hot climates.
  Buds are various in their forms, but very uniform in
the same  species, or even  genus.  They consist of
scales closely enveloping each other, and enfolding the
embryo  plant or branch.  Externally they have often
an additional  guard of gum,  resin, or  woolliness,
against wet or cold.  The horse-chesnut affords a fine
example of large and well-formed buds.
  The contents of buds are different, even in differ-
ent species of the  same genus, as willows.  The buds
of  some produce leaves only, others flowers, while in
other species the same bud bears both leaves and flow-
ers.  Different  causes, depending on the soil or situa-
 tion, seem  in one case to generate leaf-buds, in another
 flower-buds.  In general, whatever checks the  luxu-
 riant production of leaf-buds, favours tbe formation of
 flowers and seeds.—Smith.
  Gems are found in all trees and shrubs in temperate
climates.  In the majority of instances they are visible
from the first, in which case they are axillary, that is,
sealed in the axillae of the leaves, or the angle which
the upper  part of the footstalk of the leaf makes with
the surface of the stem; but in some instances, as the
sumachs and planes, they are latent, being hid within
the base of the footstalk, and never seen until the fall
of the leaf.  Gems  are however sometimes protruded
from  the trunk,  long after  it has ceased to  produce
leaves, as in tbe case of adventitious buds; they are
also situated on roou, and on tubers, but in these cases
they are usually denominated oculi, or eyes.
  Annual  plants are supposed to be furnished with
gems; but although they are devoid of covered gems,
yet their lateral shoou proceed from naked buds which
immediately spread into foliage.
  The relative position of axillary gems is necessarily
regulated by that ofthe leaf, and therefore we find them,
  1. Opposite, or placed exactly on the  same line on
opposite sides of the stem or the branch.
  2. Alternate, at placed alternately, although on op-
posite sides; and,
  3. Spiral, that is, placed round the stem or branch in
such a manner that a cord wound in a spiral manner
round it would touch  each gem.   They are said to bo
simple or solitary, when one  gem only is seen in the
axilla of each leaf,  as in the greater number of in-
stances; and aggregate, when, as in some planU, two,
three, or even more are  protruded at the same time :
thus we find two in the Sambucus nigra, or common
elder; three in the Aristolochia sipho, or broad-leaved
birth-wort; and  many in the Zanthoxylum fraxine-
urn, or toothache tree.
  Du Hamel first  noticed  the fact, that stems and
branches furnished with alternate axillary gems have
generally one terminal gem only; and those with oppo-
site have generally three terminal gems.
  The gems on most  trees and shrubs rise with a
broad base from the surface where they are protruded,
and consequently being in  close contact with it, are
said to be sessile; but they are distant or stalked on
some, as the common alder, on which  they  are sup-
ported on a short footstalk, and are termed pedicillata,
or stalked.
  Gems differ  very considerably in the  number  and
characters  of the enclosing scales, their contenu, the
folding  up of the leaves within them, and tiie manner
in which they are evolved in the spring.
  a. The scales differ in size and texture, even in the
same gem: in the gems of different planU, they differ
also in number and in the nature of  their coverings;
some gems are entirely destitute of scales; as those of
annual planu, and many perennials of tropical cli-
mates.  The scales in some instances are besmeared
with a resinous matter; in others they are entirely
free from any moist  exudation, but are smooth and
polished, being covered with a dry gummy varnish: or
they  are externally hairy or enveloped  in a velvety
down.
  Gems are arranged into three species:
  1. Gemma foliifera, leaf gems.
  2. Gemma florifera, flower gems.
  3. Gemma mixta, mixed gems.
  The Amygdalus persica, or peach-tree, the Daphne
mezereum, and many other  planU, afford examples of
distinct leaf and flower gems; the Syringa vulgaris
and JEsculus hippocastanum, of mixed gems; and the
pear and apple trees of both leaf and mixed gems.
  The  leaves, as has already  been  mentioned, are
variously folded up so as to occupy the smallest possi-
ble space in the gem.   This regulates the expansion
of the leaves when the gem opens in spring, and it is
invariably the same in individual planU of the same
species.  This process is termed foliation, and the
figures  which the leaves assume at the time have re-
ceived different appellations.—Thompson.
  1. Foliutio involuta, involute, in which each inter-
nal margin of the leaf is rolled inwards;  as in Hamu-
lus lupulus and Nymphea lutea.
  2. F. revoluta, revolute, in which the lateral margins
are rolled outwards; as in willows,  and Rumex pa-
tientia.
  3. F. obvoluta, obvolnte, in which one leaf, doubled
lengthways, embraces within  iu doubling one half of
the other leaf, folded in the same manner; as in Suhjia
officinalis, and Dipsacus communis. 
G*.a
OE.A
  4. F. convoluta, convolute, in which the leaf Is rolled
lengthwise in a spiral manner, one margin forming the
axis round which the other turns; as in Prunus domes-
tica, and Prunus anneniaca, tlie cabbage, grasses, Sec
  5. F. equitans, equitant, in which the  leaf is so
folded that the two sides deeply embrace the opposite
leaf, which in iu turn encloses the one opposed to it,
and so on to the centre of the  bud: this is beautifully
exemplified in tile Hemarocallis, or day-lily, and Sy-
ringa vulgaris.
  6. F. conduplicala, in which the two sides of the
leaf lie parallel to each other; as  in Fagus sylvatica
and Quercus robur.
  7. P. plicata, plaited, the leaf being folded up Uke a
fan; as in Betula alba, and Alchemilla vulgaris.^
  8. F. reclinata, reclinate, turned down, the leaf
hanging down and wrapped round the footstalk; as in
Aconitum and Arum.
  9. F. drcinata,  circinal, in which the leaf is rolled
from tlie apex to the base; as in all ferns.
  As the gehis open, the leaves gradually unfold them-
selves, and assume their natural forms; but the open-
ing of the bud does not, in every instance, immedi-
ately set free the leaves, for in some gems each leaf is
separately enclosed in a membraneous cover.
  GEMMACEUS.  A term used by botanists to a
flower-stalk which grows out of a  leaf-bud,  as is seen
in the Berberis vulgaris.
  GEMMATIO.   (From gemma, a bud.)   A term
used by Linnaius expressive of the origin, form, &c. of
buds.
  Gk.mu'rsa.  (From gcmo, to groan:  so called from
the pain  it was said to  occasion  in walking.)  The
name of an excrescence between the toos.
  Genei'as.   (From ytvvs, the cheek.)
  1. The downy hairs which first cover the cheek.
  2. The name of a bandage mentioned by  Galen,
which  covers the cheek, and comes under the chin.
  GENERATION.   (Generatio;  from yttvouat,  to
beget.)  Many ingenious hypotheses have been insti-
tuted by physiologisu to explain tbe mystery of gene-
ration ; but the whole of our knowledge concerning it
appears to be built upon the phenomena it affords, and
may be seen  in the works of Haller, Buffon, Cruick-
shanks, and Haighton. It is a sexual action, performed
in different ways in most animals;  many of them have
different sexes and require conjunction: such are the
human species, quadrupeds, and others.  The females
of quadrupeds have a matrix, separated into two cavi-
ties, uterus bieornis, and a considerable number of
teate; they have no menstrual flux; most of them bear
several young at a time, and the period of  their ges-
tation is generally short  The generation of birds is
very different. The males havea strong genital organ,
which  is often double.   The vulva in the females is
placed behind the anus; the ovaries have no matrices,
and there is  a duct for the purpose of conveying the
egg from  the ovarium into the intestines: this passage
is called the oviduct.  The eggs of pulleu have exhi-
bited unexpected facw to physiologisu, who examined
tbe phenomena of incubation. The most  important
discoveries arc  those of  the  immortal Haller, who
found  the chicken  perfectly  formed  in eggs  which
were not fecundated.  There is  no determinate con-
junction between fishes; the female deposites her eggs
on the sands, over which the male passes, and emiu iu
seminal fluid, doubtless for the purpose of fecundating
them;  these eggs  are hatched after a certain time.
The males of several oviparous  quadrupeds have a
double or forked organ.  InsecU exhibit all  the varie-
ties which are observed in other  animals:  there are
some, indeed  the  greater number, which  have the
sexes in two separate individuals; among others, the
reproduction  is made either with or without conjunc-
tion, as in the vine-fretter; one of these insecu, con-
fined alone beneath a glass, produces a great number
of others.  The organ ofthe male in insecu  is usually
armed with  two books to seize the female: the place
of  these  organs is greatly varied; with some, it is at
the upper part of the belly, near the chest,  as in the
female dragon-fly; in others, it is  at the extremity of
the antenna, as In the male spider.  Most worms are
hermaphrodite; each individual has both sexes.  Po-
lypi, with respect to generation, are singular animals,
they are reproduced by buds or ofisete: a bud is sepa-
rated from each \ morons polypus, which is fixed  to
some neighbouring body, and grows: polypi are like
      386
 wise found on their surface, in the tame manner as
 branches issue from plants.  These are the principal
 modes of generation in annuals.  In the human spe-
 cies, which engages  our attention  more particularly,
 the phenomena arc as follow:
  The part of the male, in the act of reproduction, is
 to deposite the  semen in the vagina, at a greater or
 less distance from the orifice ofthe uterus.
  The function which the. female discharges is much
 more obscure; some feel, at  this moment, very strong
 voluptuous sensations; others appear entirely Insen-
 sible;  while   othere,  again, experience a  sensation
 which is very painful.  Some of them pour out a mu-
 cous substance in considerable  abundance, at the in-
 stant ofthe most vivid pleasure :  while, in the greater
 part, this phenomenon is entirely wanting.  In  nil
 these respecu, there is, perhaps, no exact resemblance
 between any two females.
  These different phenomena are common to the  most
 frequent acts of copulation, that is, to those which do
 not produce impregnation, as well as those which are
 effective.
  The most recent opinion U, that the  uterus during
 impregnation opens a  little, draws  in the  semen  by
 aspiration, and directs it to the ovarium by means of
 the Fallopian tubes, the fimbriated extremity of which
 closely embraces that organ.
  The contact of the semen determines the rupture of
 one ofthe vesicles, and the fluid that passes from  it, or
 the vesicle itself, passes into the uterus, where the new
 individual is to lie developed.
  However satisfactory this explanation may appear,
 it is  purely hypothetical, and even contrary to the ex-
 periments of the most exact observers.
  In the numerous attempts made upon animals, by
dlarvey, DeGraaf, Valisneri, &c. the semen has never
 been perceived in the cavity of the uterus;  much less
 has it been seen in the Fallopian tube at the surface of
 tl>e ovarium.   It is quite the same with the motion
 which the Fallopian  tube is  supposed to have in em-
 bracing the circumference of  Ihe ovarium:  it  has
 never been proved by experiment  Even if one should
suppose that the semen penetrates into the uterus at
 the moment of coition, which is not impossible, though
 it has not been observed, it would still be very difficult
 to comprehend how the fluid could pass into the Fallo-
 pian tubes, and arrive at the ovarium.  The uterus in
 the empty state is not contractible; the uterine orifice
 of the Fallopian tubes is extremely narrow, and these
 canals have no known sensible motion.
  On accountof the difficulty of conceiving the passage
of the semen to the ovarium, some authors have  ima-
 gined that this matter is not carried there, but only the
 vapour which exhales from It, or the aura seminalis.
 Others think that the semen is absorbed in the vagina,
 passes into ihe venous syatem, and arrives at the  ova-
 ria by the arteries.   The phenomena which accom-
 pany the fecundation of women are,'then, nearly un-
 known.  An equal obscurity rests on the fecundation
 of other  mamraiferous females.   Nevertheless,  it
 would  be more caay to conceive a passage of the se-
 men to the ovaria in these, since the uterus and the
 Fallopian tubes possess a peristaltic jfaotion like that
 of the intestines.  Fecundation, however, taking place
 by the  contact of the semen  with  the ova, In  Ashes,
 reptiles, and birds, it is not very likely that nature em-
ploys any other mode for the mammifera;  if is neces-
sary, then, to consider it as very probable, that/either
 at the instant of coition, or at a greater or a less  time
 afterward, the  semen arrives at the ovarium, where It
 exerts more especially iu action upon the vessels most
 developed.
  But,  even should it be out  of doubt that the semen
 arrives at the  vesicles of the ovarium,  it would  still
 remain to be known how ite contact animates the
 germ contained in it Now, this phenomenon is one
 of those on which our senses, and even our mind, have
' o hold:  it is one of those impenetrable mysteries of
 vbich  we are,  and, perhaps, shall ever remain ig-
 norant
  We have, however, on this subject, some very inge-
 nious expernnenuof Spallanzani, which have removed
 the difficulty as far as it seems possible.
  This philosopher bas proved, by a great number of
 trials, 1st, that threegrains of scttKm, dissolved in  two
 pounds of water, are sufficient to give to rt th<- fecun
 lating virtue;  2d, that the spermatic animalcula are 
GEN
OE1N
irot necessary to fecundation, as Buffon and other au-
thors have thought; 3d, that  the aura seminalis, or
seminal vapour, has no fecundating property; 4th, that
a bitch can be impregnated by the mechanical injec-
tion of semen into her vagina, Sec. Sec.
  It is thus necessary to consider as conjectural what
authors say about the general signs of fecundation.
At the instance of conception, the woman feels, it is
said, a universal tremor, continued for some time, ac-
companied by a  voluptuous sensation; the features
are discomposed, the eyes lose  their brilliancy, the pu-
pils are dilated, the visage pale, Sec  No doubt, im-
 regnation is sometimes accompanied by these signs;
 ut many mothers have never  felt them, aud reach
even the third month of their pregnancy without sus-
pecting their situation."—Magendie's Physiology.
  Fecundation having thus  taken  place,  a  motion is
induced in the vivified ovum, which ruptures the ten-
der vesicle that contains it; the fimbria; of the Fallo-
pian tube then  grasp  and convey  it into  the  tube,
which, by iu peristaltic motion, conducts it into the
cavity of the uterus, there to be evolved and brought
to maturity, and, at the expiration of nine months, to
be sent into tiie world.
  Generation, oroans of.   The  parts subservient
to generation in a woman are divided into external
and internal.  The external paru are the mons veneris,
the labia, the perineum, the clitoris, and the nympha.
To these may be  added the meatus urinarius, or ori-
fice of the urethra. The hymen may be esteemed  the
barrier between the external and internal paru.  The
internal paru of generation are the vagina and uterus,
and iu appendages.
  The parts  which constitute the organs of genera-
tion in men, are the penis, testes,  aud vesicula semi-
nales.
  GENICULATUS.  Geniculate; bent like the knee:
applied to the culm or straw of grasses; as in Alopecu-
risgcniculatus.
  GENIO.  (From ytvtiov, the chin.)  Names com-
pounded of this  word belong to muscles which are
attached to the chin.
  Gbnio-hyo-olossus.   (From yevaov,  the  chin,
votiSts,  the os  hyoides, and yXiaacra, the tongue; so
called from iu origin  and insertion.)   Genioglossus
of some authors.  The muscle which forms the fourth
layer between the lower jaw and os hyoides.  It arises
from a rough protuberance in the inside of the middle
of the lower jaw; its  fibres run like a fan, forwards,
upwards, and backwards, and are inserted into the tip,
middle,  and  root of the tongue, and base of the os
hyoides, near iu corner.  Iu use is to draw the tip of
the tongue backwards into the mouth, the middle
downwards, and to render its back concave.  It also
draws iu root and the os hyoides forwards, and thrusts
the tongue out of the mouth.
  Genio-hyoideus.   (From ytvtiov, the chin,  and
votiSts, the os hyoides; so called from iu  origin in the
chin, and iu insertion in the os hyoides.)  The muscle
which comitates  the  third  layer between  tbe lower
jaw and os hyoides.  It is a long, thin, and fleshy
muscle,  arising tendinous from a rough protuberance
at the inside of the  chin, and growing somewhat
broader and thicker as it descends backward to be in-
serted by  very  short  tendinous fibres into  both  the
edges of the base of the os byoides.  It draws ihe os
hyoides forwards  to the chin.
  Geniopharynge'us.  See  Constrictor pharyngis
superior.
  Genipi album.  See Artemisia rupestris.
  Genipi  verum. The plant directed for medicinal
purposes under this title, is the Achillea—foliis pinna-
tis, pinnis simplicibus, glabris, pundatis,  of Haller.
It has a very grateful smell, and a very bitter taste, and
is exhibited in Switzerland, in epilepsy, diarrhcea, and
debility of tbe stomach.
  GENI'STA.  (From genu,a knee; so called from
the inflection and angularity of its twigs.)  1. The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaian system.
Class, Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of tiie common broom.
See Spartium scoparium.
  Genista canariensis.   This tree was supposed
to afford the lignum Rhodium, which is  now known
to be an aepalathus. See Aspalathus canariensis.
  Genista spinosa indica.   Bahel schulli.  An In-
dian tree, a decoction of tiie roots of which is diuretic.
The leaves, boiled and sprinkled in vinegar, have the
same effect, according to Ray.
  Genista *in<.toria.  The  systematic  name of
Chamapartmm, or Dyer's broom.
  GEN ITA LE.  (From gigno, to beget)  The mem-
brum virile  See Penis.
  Genita'u.um. (From genitale, the membrum virile.) *
A disease of the genital parts.
  GENITICA.  (From ytivopai, gignor.) The name
of a class of diseases, in Good's Nosology, embracing
diseases of the sexual function. It has three orders,
viz. Cenotica,  Orgastica; Carpotica.
  Genitu'ra.  (From gigno.)  1. The male seed.
  2. The membrum virile.
  Ge'non.  (From ytvv, the knee.)  A moveable ar-
ticulation like that of the knee.
  ["Genesee  oil.  This  is a variety of petroleum
found in various parte ofthe United States, sometimes
abundantly, as in Kentucky, Ohio, the western  paru
of Pennsylvania, and in New- York, at Seneca lake,
&c.  It  usually floau on the surface of springs, which,
in many cases, are known to be in tlie vicinity of coal.
It is  sometimes called  Seneca or  Genesee oil."—
Cleat). Min.  A.]
  GENSING.  See Panax.
  GENTIA'NA.  (From Gentius, king of Illyria, who
first used it.)  1. The  name of a genus of plants in
the Liimaian  system.   Class,  Pentandria; Order,
Digynia.  Gentian.
  2. The  pharmacopceial  name of the gentian root.
See Gentiana lutea.
  Gentiana alba.  See Laserpitium latifolium.
  Gentiana centaurium.  Less centaury was so
called in the Linncean system; but it is now Chironia
oentaurium.
  Gentiana lutea.   The systematic name of the
officinal gentian.   Gentiana rubra.   Felwort   The
gentian met with in the shops is the root of tbe gen-
tiana—corollis  aubquinquefidis  rotatis verticillatis,
calycibus  spathaeds, of Linnams; and  is  imported
from Switzerland and Germany.   It is tlie only medi-
cinal part of the plant, has little or no smell, but to tiie
taste manifests great bitterness, on which account it is
in general use as a tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, an-
tiseptic, enunenagogue, and febrifuge. The officinal
preparations of this root are the  infusum gentiana
compositum, and tinctura gentiana composita, of the
London Pharmacopoeia; and tiie  infusum amarum,
vinum amarum, tinctura  amara,  of  the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia; and the extractum gentiana is order-
ed by both.
  Gentiana rubra.   See  Gentiana lutea.
  ["Gentiana catesbcei.  Blue gentian. Of various
native species of gentian, which our country affords;
this approaches most nearly to the officinal plant in
bitterness.  Iu virtue appears to reside chiefly in an
extractive principle, soluble in water and alkohol.  It
has also a little resin.  Like the imported gentian, it
is an active tonic, invigorating the stomach, and giving
relief in complaints arising from indigestion.  It ap-
pears to possess much reputaiion in the Southern States,
to which iu growth is principally  confined."— Bigel.
Mat. Med. A.]
  Gentianine.   The bitter principle of the Gentian
root.
  [" The discovery of this immediate principle, pre-
senU a circumstance so singular as to merit being re-
lated.
  " M. Henry, chief of central pharmacy, and M. Ca-
venlou, were occupied at the same time, and without
tbe knowledge of each other, on the analysis of gen-
tian.   They arrived at  resulu so  much alike, that
having communicated their labours to each other, they
perceived that  they seemed to have acted in concert,
and resolved to publish them in common.
  " Preparation of gentianine. The  powder of gen-
tian is treated with cold ether.  After forty-eight hours,
a tincture is obtained of a greenish yellow;—this tinc-
ture filtered, poured into an open vase, and exposed to
heat, will become, by cooling, if the liquor is sufficiently
concentrated, a yellow crystalline moss, with a very
perceptible taste and smell of gentian.
  "This mass  is treated wilh alkohol until it ceases
taking a citron tinge.   The washings are reunited and
exposed to a mild  heat; the yellow crystalline  mass
reappears, which,  upon  evaporation,  becomes con-
centrated, and of a very 6Uong bitterness.
                                        387 
GEO                                             GEO
   11 Returned  by feeble alkohol, it is redlssolved in
 part, wilh the exception of a certain quantity of oily
 matter
  " This last alkohoiic solution, besides the bitter prin-
 ciple of the gentian, contains an acid substance, and
 tlie odorous matter of gentian.
  " By evaporating this liquor to dryness, soaking the
 matter in water, adding a little washed  and calcined
 magnesia, boiling and evaporating with a vapour bath,
 the greatest part of the odorous matter of the gentian
 is expelled; the acidity disappears by means of the
 magnesia, and the yellow bitter principle remains in
 part free and in part combined with the  magnesia, to
 which it communicates a beautiful yellow colour.
 Then by boiling this magnesia with ether, the greater
 part of this bitter principle is taken  up, which is ob-
 tained pure and alone by evaporation.  If it be w ished
 to separate the greatest part of the  bitter  principle,
 which remains fixed in the magnesia, and which the
 ether could not take up, it must be treated with oxalic
 acid, in a quantity sufficient to produce acidity.   This
 acid unites with  the magnesia, and seU  free the bit-
 ter principle, which is retaken by the means already
 pointed out.
  " Properties of gentianine.  The gentianine is yel-
 low, inodorous,  wilh the  aromatic bitterness of rhe
 gentian very strong, and which is increased very much
 when it is dissolved in an acid.
  "It is very soluble in ether and alkohol, and is sepa-
 rated by spontaneous evaporation, in the  form of very
 small yellow crystalline needles.  It is much less solu-
 ble in cold water,which it renders, however,very bitter;
 boiling water dissolves more.
  " The dilute alkalies deepen very much iu colour,
 and dissolve it a little more than water alone.
  " Acids lighten iu yellow colour in a  very evident
 manner.   Iu solutions are almost colourless  with sul-
 phuric and phosphoric acid, and yellowish with acids
 more  feeble, such as the acetic arid.  Concentrated
 sulphuric acid carbonizes it and destroys  iu bitterness.
  "Gentianine, exposed in a glass tube to the heat of
 boiling mercury, is sublimed in tlie  form  of small yel-
 low crystalline needles.  One part is decomposed.
  ".Action of gentianine on man and other animals.
 Some which I made, taught me that gentianine has no
 poisonous qualities.  Several  grains of this substance
 injected into the veins, produce no apparent  effect.   I
 myself swallowed two grains dissolved in alkohol, and
 only experienced  an extreme bitterness,  and a slight
 feeling of warmth at the stomach
  " Mode of employing gentianine.   The tincture is
 the preparation which should be most frequently used.
 It may be prepared from the following formula:
  Tt nctare of gentianine.  B% Alkohol at  24°, 1 ounce.
                           Gentianine, 5 grains.
  "This tincture replaces with success  the elixir  of
 gentian, and is employed in the same circumstances:
  Syrup of gentianine.  &• syrup of sugar, 1 pound.
                          Gentianine, 16 grains.
  "This is one ofthe best bitters which can be used in
 scrofulous affections."—Magendie's Formulary.  A.]
  GE'NU.  The knee.
  GENU'GRA.   (From ytw, the  knee, and aypa,
 a seizure.)  A name in Paracelsus for the gout in the
 knee.
  GENUS. (From yams, a family.)  By this term is
 understood, in natural history, a certain  analogy of a
 number of species, making them agree together in the
 number, figure, and situation of then- paru;  in such a
 manner, that they are  easily distinguished  from the
 species of any other genus, at least  by some  one  arti-
 cle.  This is the proper and determinate sense of tbe
 word genus, whereby it forms a subdivision of any
 class,  or order of natural beings, whether of the ani-
 mal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, all agreeing in
 certain common and distinct characters.
  GEODES. A kind of artites, the hollow of wliich
 contains only loose earth, instead of a nodule.
  GEOFFRJEA. (Named in honour of Dr. Geoffroy.)
 Geoffroya.  1. The name of a genus  of  planU in the
 Linnsan system.  Class, Diaddphia ; Order, Decan-
 dria.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of tbe cabbage bark-
 tree.  See Geoffraa inermis.
  Geoffrjea inermis.   The systematic  name of the
 cabbage bark-tree, or worm  bark-tree.    Geoffraa—
foliis  lanceolatis  of Swanz.  It has a mucilaginous
      388
and sweetish taste, and a disagreeable smell.  Accord-
ing to Dr. Wright of Jamaica, il is powerfully modicl
tial as an anthelmintic.                            t
  Geoffraa jamaicensis.  The systematic name of,
tlie bastard cabbage-tree, or bulgewater-treu. Geoffroya
—inermis folic lis lanceolatis, of Sworlz.  The bark ii
principally used in Jamaica, and with great success, as
a vermifuge.
  Geoffrjea surinamensis.  The  systematic namo
of a tree, the bark of which is esteemed as an anthel-
mintic.
  GEOFFROY,  Stephen  Francis,  was  born at
Paris, in 1672.  After giving him an excellent general
education, his father, who was  an apothecary, sent
him to study his own profession at Monlpelier; wheie
he  attended the several  lectures.  On his return io
Paris, having already acquired considerable reputation,
be was appointed to attend the Dukcde Tallard, on his
embassy to England, in 1698. Here he was very favour-
ably received, and elected a member of the Royal So-
ciety: and he afterward visited Holland and Italy.  His
attention was chiefly directed to natural  history  and
the materia medica, his father wishing him to succeed
to his establishment at Paris: however, he became am-
bitious of the higher branch of the profession, and at
length graduated in  1704.  His reputation rapidly in-
creased ; and he was called in consultation even by
the most distinguished  practitioners.   In 1709 he was
appointed to the professorship of medicine on  the
death of Tournefort He then undertook to deliver to
his pupils a complete History  of  the Materia Medica,
divided  into mineral,  vegetable, and animal  sub-
stances ; the first part of which he finished, and about
half of the second: this was afterward published from
his papers, in Latin, in three octavo volumes.  In 1712
he was made professor of chemistry in the king's gar-
den ; and 14 years after, dean of  the faculty. In this
office he was  led into some active disputes; wlience
bis health, naturally delicate, began to decline; and he
died in the beginning of 1731.   Nothwithstanding  his
illness, however,  he completed a work,  which had
been deemed necessary  by preceding deans, but never
accomplished; namely, a Pharmacopoeia, which was
published under the name of " Code Medicamentairo
de la Faculte de Paris."
  GEOGNOSY.   The same as geology.
  GEOLOGY.  (Geologia; from yn,  the earth, and
Xoyoc, a discourse.)  A description of the structure of
the earth.   This  study may  be divided, like most
others, into two  parts; observation  and theory.  By
the first  we learn the relative positions of the great
rocky or mineral aggregates that compose the crust of
our globe; through tbe second, we endeavour to pene-
trate into the causes of these collocations.  A valuable
work was some time since published, comprehending
a view of both paru of  the subject, by Mr. Greenough,
to which the reader is  referred for much instruction,
communicated in a very lively manner. -
  Very recently the world has been favoured with  the
first part of an excellent view of this seieme by Messrs.
Conybeare  and  Phillips, in their "Outlines of  the
Geology of England and Wales-;" from which work,
the following brief sketch of the subject at taken: The
Traits' de  Geognosie of D'Aubuissot) bears a high
character on the continent.
Werner's Table of the different Mountain Rocks,
                 from Jameson.
            Class  L—Primitwt rocks.-   •%" ■
  1. Granite.                8. Porphyry.
  2. Gneiss.                 9. Syenite.
  3. Mica-slate.            10. Topaz rock.
  4. Clay-slate.             11. Quartz-rock.
  5. Primitive limestone.    12. Primitive flinty-slate.
  6. Primitive trap.         13. Primitive gypsum.
  7. Serpentine.            14. White stone.
           Class II.—Transition rocks.
  l.Transltionlime-stone.   4. Transition flinty-slate.
  2. Transition trap.        5. Transition gypsum.
  3. Grey wacke                                 i
            Class III.—Floeti rocks.
  1. Old red sandstone, or first sandstone formation.
  2. First or oldest floetz limestone.
  3. First or oldest floetz gypsum.
  4. Second or variegated sandstone formation.
  S. Second floetz gypsum.
  6. Second floetz limestone.
  7. Third floetz limestone. 
GEO
GEO
  8- Rocksak formation.
  9. Chalk formation.
 10. Floetz-trap formation.
 11. Independent coal formation.
 12. Newest floetz-trap formation.
            Class IV.—Alluvial rocks.
  1. Peat.                  5. Nagelfluh.
  2. Sand and gravel.        6. Calc-tuff.
  3. Loam.            :    7. Calc-sinter.
  4. Bog-iron ore.
            Class V.—Volcanic rocks.
              Pseudo-volcanic rocks.
  1. Burnt clay.
  2. Porcelain jasper.
  3. Earth slag.
  4. Columnar clay ironstone.
  5. Poller, or polishing slate.
               True volcanic rocks.
  1. Ejected stones and ashes.
  2. Different kinds of lava.
  3. The matter of muddy eruptions.
  The primitive  rocks lie undermost, and never con-
tain any traces of organized beings imbedded in them.
The transition rocks contain comparatively few or-
ganic  remains,  and approach  more  nearly  to  the
chemical structure ofthe primitive, than the mechani-
cal of the secondary rocks.  As these tradition rocks
were taken by Werner from among those which, in
his  general arrangement, were called secondary, the
formation of that class made it necessary to abandon
the  latter term.  To  denote  the  mineral masses re-
posing in his transition series, he accordingly employed
the  term floetz rocks, from the idea that they were
generally stratified in planes nearly horizontal, while
those of  the older strata were inclined to tlie horizon
at considerable angles.  But this holds good with re-
gard to the  structure of those countries which  are
comparatively low;  in the Jura chain, and on  the
borders of the  Alps and Pyrenees, Werner's  floetz
formations are highly inclined.  Should we therefore
persist in tbe use of this term, says Mr. Conybeare, we
must prepare ourselves  to speak of vertical beds of
floetz,  (i. e. horizontal), limestone,  &c.  As the in-
quiries of geologists  extended the knowledge of the
various formations, Werner, or his disciples, found it
necessary to subdivide the bulky  class of floetz rocks
into floetz and newest floetz, thus completing a fourfold
enumeration.  Some writers hare bestowed the term
tertiary on the newest floetz rocks  of Werner.  The
following synoptical  view of geological arrangement
is given by the Rev. Mr. Conybeare.
ES.	Wernerian names-	Other Writers.
	Newest floetz class.	Tertiary class.
er.	Floetz class.	Secondary class.
	Sometimes referred to the preceding, some-times to the succeeding class, by writers of these schools; very often the coal measures are refer-red to the former, the subjacent limestone and sandstone to the latter.	
r.	Transition class.	Intermediate class.
	Primitive class.	Primitive class.
above the chalk.  In all these instances  a regular
diminution in the degree  of consolidation may be per-
ceived in ascending the series.
 [UA Geological Nomenclature for North America,
   founded upon Geological Surveys, by Amos Eaton,
   Professor in the Rensellaer School at Troy, N. x.
                 Classes of Rock*.
   Class 1. Primitive Rocks; being those which contain
 no organic relics nor coal See Fig. 1, 2,3, 4,5, and 6.
   Class 2.  Transition Rocks ; being those which con-
 tain no animal remains, but radiated and moUuscous—
 the latter more than one valved, or one  valved and
 chambered.  See Fig. 7,8,9,10,11, and 12.
   Class 3.  Secondary Rocks ; being those which con-
 tain in some localities, one valved molluscous animal
 remains, not chambered.  They embrace most of those
 remains found in  transition rocks also; and the upper
 secondary rocks contain oviparous vertebral remains.
 See Fig. 13,14,15,16,17,18, and 19.
   Class  4.  Superincumbent Rocks ; being those horn-
 blende rocks, which overlay others without any regular
 order of superposition,  supposed to be  of volcanic
 origin.   See Fig.  20.
               Classes  of Detritus.
   Class  5.  Alluvial DUritus; being those masses
 of detritus, which have been washed into their present
 situation.  See Fig. 21, 22,23, and 24.
   Class 6. Analluvial Detritus; being those masses
 of detritus,  which have not been washed from places
 where they were  first formed by the disintegration of
i rocks.  Sec Fig. 25 and 26.
                                         389
Character.	Proposed Names.
1. Formations (chiefly of sand and clay) above the chalk.	Superior order.
2. Comprising, a. Chalk. b. Sands and clay, beneath the chalk. C Calcareous freestones (ooli-tes) and argillaceous beds. d. New red sandstone, conglo-merate, and magnesian limestone.	Supermedial order.
3. Carboniferous rocks, comprising, a. Coal measures. b. Carboniferous limestone. C. Old red sandstone.	Medial order.
4. Roofing slate, Sec. Sec	Submedial order.
5. Mica slate, gneiss, granite, Sec.	Inferior order.
  In all these formations, from the lowest to the high-
est, we find a repetition of rocks and beds  of similar
chemical composition; i. e. siliceous, argillaceous, and
calcareous, but with a considerable difference in  tex-
ture; those in the lowest formations being compact
and often crystalline, while those in tbe highest and
most recent are loose and earthy.  These  repetitions
form what the Wemerians call formation suites.  We
may mention,
  1st. TJae limestone suite.   This exhibiu, in the in-
ferior or primitive order, crystalline marbles; in the
two next, or transition and carboniferous orders, com-
pact and subcrystalline limestones (Derbyshire lime-
stone) ; in the supermedial or floetz order, less compact
limestone (lias), calcareous  freestone  (Portland  and
Bath stone),' and chalk; in the superior  or newest
floetz order, loose earthy limestones.
  id. The  argillaceous suite presenU the following
gradations; clay-slate, shale ofthe coal-measures, shale
of the lias, clays alternating in the oolite  series, and
that of the sand beneath the chalk; and, lastly, clays
above the chalk.
  3d. The siliceous suite may (since many of the sand-
stones of which it consisu present evident traces of
felspar and abundance  of mica,  as well as grains of
quartz, and since mica is more or less present in every
bed of sand) perhaps deserves to have granite placed at
its head, as its several members may possibly have been
derived from the detritus of that rock: it may he  con-
tinued thus; quartz rock and transition sandstone, old
red sandstone, millstone-grit,  and coal-grits,  new red
sandstone, sand and sandstone beneath the chalk, and
Wernerian names-	Other Writers.
Newest floetz class.	Tertiary class.
Floetz class.	Secondary class.
 
GEOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
Case or SPF.CIMENS. Classes 2 & 1.	GENERAL STRATA and SUBDIVISIONS.	VARIETIES.	IMBEDDED and DISSEMINATED.
gp	Second Gray-Wacke. B. Rubble. A. Compact.	Red sandy, (old red sand 1) Horne-slate. Grind-stone.	Manganese. Anthracite.
-"'——>___	Metalliferous Limerock. B. Shelly. A. Compact.	Blrdseye marble.	
JO	Calciferoos Sandrock. B. Geodiferous A. Compact.	Quartzose. Sparry. Oolitic	Semi-opal. An-thracite. Barytes. Concentric con-cretions.
*8SB'	Sparry Limerock. B. Slaty. A. Compact.	Checkered rock.	Chlorite. Calc spar.
'Hi	First Gray-Wacke.* B. Rubble. A. Compact.	Chloritic.	Milky quartz. Calc spar. Anthracite.
1§1§	Argillite. B. Wacke Slate. A. Clay Slate.	Chloritic. Glazed. Roof-slate. Red. Purple.	Flinty slate. An-thracite. Striated quartz. Milky quartz. Chlorite.
'#51	Granular Lime-rock. B. Sandy. A. Compact.	Verd-antique. Dolomite. Statuary marble.	TremdUte. Serpentine. Chromate of iron.
1^81	Granular Quartz. B. Sandy. A. Compact.	Ferruginous. Yellowish. Translucent.	Manganese. Hematite.
*m	Talcose Slate. B. Fissile. ' A. Compact.	Chloritic.	Octahedral crys-tals of iron ore. Chlorite.
'®§	Hornblende Rock. B. Slaty. A. Granitia	Greenstone. Gneissoid. Porphyritic. Sienitic.	Granite. Actynolite. Augite.
in	Mica-Slate. B. Fissile. A. Compact.		Staurotide. Sappare. Garnet.
im	Granite. B. Slaty (gneiss). A. Crystalline.	Sandy. Porphyritic. Graphic	Shorl. Plumbago. Steatite. Diallage.
  • No. 8. (Second Gray-W»cke) is a KCondarT rock, and embraces tbe Anthracite coal of the Lebigh rUer, in
Penoqrlnni*.
     390 
or rocks m  place.
   CASE OF
 SPECIMENS.
Classes 4 & 3.
GENERAL STRATA
      and
  SUBDIVISIONS.
  IMBEDDED
     and
DISSEMINATED.
     Basalt.

B. Greenstone trap
   (columnar).


A. Amygdaloid
  (cellular).
Granular
Compact
Toadsione.
Amethyst.
Calcedony.
Prehnite.
Zeolite.
Opal.
Third Gray-
   wacke.*
B. Pyritiferous grit.

A. Pyritiferous .-late
 c0rnit1fer0us
   Limerock.

B. Shelly.
A. Compact.
 Geodiferous
   Limerock.

B. Sandy.
A. Swinestone.
      Lias.



B. Caldferous grit.

A. Caldferous slate.
  Conglomerate
(breccia).
  Calcareous grit
  Red sandstone,
(old red sandstone 1)
  Red-wacke.
  Argillaceous.
Fcetid.
Shell grit.
Argillaceous.
Conchoidal.
  Grindstone.
  Hornstone?
  Honeslate.
  Bituminous shale
and coal.
  Fibrous barytes.
Hornstone.
Snow-gypsum.
Strontian.
Zinc.
Fluor spar.
Shell limestone.
Vermicular.
Water cement.
Gypsum.
 Ferriferous
     Rock.
B. Sandy.
A. Slaty.
Conglomerate.
Green.  Blue.
Saliferous
   Rock.
B. Sandy.


A. Marl-slate.
 Conglomerate.
 Gray-band.
i Red-sandy.
 Gray slate.
 Red slate.
Millstone Grit.


B. Conglomerate.
A. Sandy.
  Argillaceoui iron
ore (reddle).
Salt, or salt springs
Coal?
No 19.  (Third Graywicke) ii overlaid by Oolile, in the State of Ohio.  It is the upper tecondarjr of BAke 
NOMENCLATURE OF DETRITUS
    CASE OF
 SPECIMENS.
Classes 6 St 5.
GENERAL depo-
  sites AMD
 SUBDIVISIONS.
Superficial Anal-
      luvion.

 B.  Granulated
 (from graywacke).

 A.  Clay-loam
 (from argillite).
Stratified Anal-
     luvion.
C. Lias.
B. Ferriferous.
A. Saliferous.
varieties.
IMBEDDED AND
D1SSMHHATBD
 SUBSTANCES.
Various boulders.
Pebbles.
Gypsum.
Shell limestone.
Reddle.
 POST-DILOVION.


B. Sediment.
 A. Pebbles (in tbe
rocky bed of a river).
 Ultimate  Dilu-
       viom
(on crag in  old fo-
rests).
Diluvion
(in  an antediluvial
trough).
Yellowish gray.
Grayish yellow.
Quicksand.
Gravel.
Vegetable mould.
 Various boulders.
 Trees and herbs.
 Fish  bones   and
shells.
 Works of art. ■
Boulders.
Trees and leaves.
Bones and shells.
No works of art.
Antbdiluviok, or
Upper Tertiary.*
 C. Marine, or Bag-
shot, sand, and crag.
B. Marly clay.
A. Plastic day.
Quicksand.
Yellow sand.
Hardpan.
Brick earth.
Pudding-stone.
Buhrstone.
Bog ore.
Shell-marl.
Indurated marl
Septarial
  • No. II.  (Antedihwion) ii the genuine tertiary formation In New Jeraey, along (he bay ot haboj.
  Frotanr Eaton hat recenUy renewed most of the territory upon which h» synopsA mi founded.  He now
Bvattatall strata may be arranged under)!.* nria. each compruing ttrw /ornioltonfjthe to* f*».•«?""«
3u> the irtmttiTe dai, the wechU with the trantito, the third with the lower fmstaj^ fourth with ft.
Zr~r Mmndarr. and thefifth wilh the tertiary: that the lower formation of every aeries is nerbmlforna, the middle
SJ^SSwe? the upper one calearaona.  In die conne of a year, thU view of the wibject wfflptobaMy be puM „h«l
Stotanrtby i^eSo^ map of the Statool New York. A prodeonrat of the*. it«t« irttfappev in Sdlmanl
392 
GEO
GEO
    DEFINITIONS* OF NAMES ARRANGED

               IN THE SYNOPSIS.

          Names under the Primitive Class.
   1. Granite, is an aggregate of angular masses of
 quartz, felspar, and mica.   Subdivisions.—It is called
 chrystalline (granite proper) when the  felspar and
 quartz present a crystalline, not a slaty, form.  It is
 called slaty (gneiss) when tbe mica is so interposed in
 layers as to present a  slaty form.  Varieties.—It is
 graphic when the felspar is in a large proportion, and
 the quartz is arranged in oblong masses, so as to pre-
 sent an appearance resembling Chinese letters.  It is
 porphyritic when spotted with cuboid  blocks  of fel-
 spar.  This variety is peculiar to the slaty division.
   2. Mica-Slate, is an aggregate of grains of  quartz
 and scales of mica.  Subdivisions.—Compact, when
 the slaty lamina: are so closely united, that it will pre-
 sent a uniform  smooth  face when cut transversely.
 Fissile, when the laminee separate readily by  a blow
 upon its surface.
   3. Hornblende  Rock,!  is an aggregate, not basal-
 tic, consisting wholly, or in part, of hornblende and
 felspar.   Subdivisions.—Granitic, when it  presents
 the appearance of crystalline granite with hornblende
substituted for mica.  Slaty, when of arifty or tabular
structure.  Varieties.—Gneisseoid, when it resembles
slaty-granite (gneiss) with scales of hornblende substi-
 tuted for mica. Greenstone, when of a pretty uniform
 green colour, and containing but a small proportion of
 felspar, generally of a  slaty structure.  Porphyritic,
 When spotted with cuboid blocks of felspar.  Sienitic,
 when speckled with small irregular masses of felspar.
   4. TalCOSB Slate, is an aggregate of grains of
quartz and scales of mica and talc.J  Subdivisions.—
 Compact, having the lamina; so  closely united that a
transverse section may be wrought into a smooth face.
When the quartzose particles are very minute and in
 a large proportion, it is manufactured into scythe-whet-
atones, called Quinnebog stones.   Fissile, when the
lamina) separate readily by  a blow upon the surface.
Varieties.—Chloritic, when  coloured green by chlorite.
 In some localities the chlorite seems to  form beds; or
 rather the rock passes into an aggregate consisting of
 quartz, mica, talc, and a large proportion of chlorite.
 Vast beds of pure chlorite are embraced in this rock on
 Deerfield river, in Florida, Mass.
   5. Granular Quartz, consists of grains of quartz
 united without cement. Subdivisions.—Compact, when
 it  consists of fine grains, so  as to appear almost homo-
geneous; generally in large rhomboidal blocks.  Sandy,
when tbe grains are so slightly attached  as to be some-
what friable.  Varieties.— Translucent, when  it is so
compact and homogeneous as to transmit light.  Yel-
low, when slightly tinged with iron (probably a carbo-
nate).   Ferruginous, when an aggregate of minute
crystals, strongly coloured yellow or red with the car-
bonate or peroxyde of iron.  There is  a  remarkable
locality two miles north of Bennington village, in Ver-
mont  Large masses may be found consisting  of six-
sided crystals, with six-sided pyramids on both ends.
  6. Granular Limestone, consists  of glimmering
grains of carbonate of lime united without  cement.
Subdivisions.—Compact, when it consists of grains of
nearly pure carbonate of lime, so closely united that it
will take a polish.  Sandy, when grains of quartz are
aggregated with the grains  of carbonate of lime, but
so loosely as to be somewhat friable. Varieties.—Do-
lomite, when it consists in  part of magnesia, and is
friable.  Verd-antique, when it is variegated in  colour
by the presence of serpentine, giving it more or less of
a clouded green.
        Names under the Transition Class.
  7. Asoillite,  is a slate rock  of an  aluminous

 • Every rock consists, aientiatly, of one, two, or three, of the fol-
 owtng nine homogeneous minerals. These are called the geological
alphabet; and every student must  procure and familiarize  himself
With a specimen of each, before he commences the study of geology—
 2uartz, felspar, mica, talc, hornblende, argillite, limestone, gypsum,
 hlorite.  He should procure also a specimen of iron pyrites, born-
etone, calc spar, reddle-ore, bog-ore, glance coal, bituminous coal.
 t I believe M'Clure first applied this general  name, to all the
varieties of primitive hornblende rock.
 J That a small proportion of talc scales should serve to distinguish
 Ibis rock from mica-slate, would scarcely satisfy a mere cabinet
student  But the travelling geologist  will acknowledge its importance.
fee Tacheonnuc and Saddle mountains, and the same range along the
 wast side of tbe Green mountains lo Canada.
 character and nearly homogeneous, always consisting
 of tables or lamina; whose direction forms a large angle
 with the general direction of the rock. Subdivisions —
 Clay Slate, when the argillite is nearly destitute of all
 grittiness,  and  contains  no scales of  mica or  talc.
 Wacke Slate, when it is somewhat gritty and contains
 glimmering scales of mica or talc.  Varieties.—Roof
 Slate, when the slate is  susceptible of division  into
 pieces  suitable  for roofing  houses and for ciphering
 slate.  Glazed Slate, when  the natural cleavages are
 lined with  a black glazing.   This variety contains
 anthracite coal and marine organic relics.
   8. First Graywacke, is an aggregate  of angular
 grains  of quartzose sand, united by an argillaceous
 cement, apparently disintegrated clay slate, and ia
 never above the calciferous sandrock.  Subdivisions.
 —Compact, when the grains are so fine and united so
 compactly,  as to be suitable for quarrying. Rubble,
 when the grains, or a part  of them, are too large for
 quarrying.  This division is often very hard, and some-
 times contains  felspar,  and has the appearance of
 coarse granite; though some of the largest  pebbles are
 generally rounded.  It is often coloured  green  with
 chlorite.  Every kind of first graywacke  is  almost
 horizontal—being a little elevated at the edge next to
 the primitive rocks only.
   9. Sparry Limerock, consists of carbonate of lime
 intermediate in texture between granular and compact;
 and is traversed by veins of calcareous spar.   Subdi-
 visions.—Compact, when the masses or blocks, between
 the  veins of spar, are sufficiently homogeneous  and
 uniform to receive a polish.  Slaty, when the  rock
 is in slaty tables or lamina;, with transverse veins of
 calcareous spar.  This rock is often cut into very small
 irregular blocks by the spar, which gives it the name
 of checkered rock.
   10. Calciferous Sandrock, consists of fine grains
 of quartzose sand and of carbonate of lime,  united
 without cement, or with an exceeding small proportion.
 Subdivisions.—Compact, when the rock is uniform, or
 nearly so,  without cells or cavities.   Geodiferous
 when it contains numerous geodes, or curvilinear cav
 ties; which are empty or filled with calc spar,  quait
 crystals, barytes, anthracite, or other mineral substan-
 ces different from the rock.  Varieties.—-Oolitic, when
 it consists in part of oolite, of a dark colour, arid  harder
 than tbe kind  which is common in die lias or oolitic
 formation of Europe.
   11. Metalliferous Limerock, consists of carbo-
 nate of lime in  a homogeneous state, or in a state of
 petrifactions. Subdivisions.—Compact, when  it  con-
 tarns but few petrifactions, and is susceptible of a polish.
 Shelly, when it consists  of petrifactions,  mostly  of
 bivalve molluscous animals., Variety.—Birdseye mar ■
 ble, when the natural layers are pierced transversely
 with cylindrical petrifactions, so  as to give the birds-
 eye appearance when polished.
   12.  Second  Graywacke,  scarcely  distinguished
 from first graywacke, excepting by its relative position,
 being always  above  calciferous sandrock.   Subdi-
 visions.—Compact, when  in blocks or slaty, consisting
 of fine grains.  Rubble, when it consists of, or contains
 large rounded pebbles. The rubble of second graywacke
 is in a  much smaller proportion than in  first gray-
 wacke.  Varieties.—Rid  sandy, when it passes  into
 red sandstone, which formation occurs in a  lew  locali-
 ties.  Hone-slate, when soft, and suitable for setting a
 fine edge.  Grind-stone, when the quartzose particles
 are sharp-angular.
         Names under the Secondary Class.
  13. Millstone Grit, is a coarse, hard aggregate of
 sharp-angular quartzose sand or pebbles; mostly with
 out any cement, always gray or rusty gray. Subd1
 visions.—Sandy, when it contains few or no pebbles.
 Conglomerate, when it consists  chiefly of rounded
 pebbles.
  14. Saliferous Rock, consists of red,  or bluish-
gray, sand or clay-marie, or both.   The grains of sand
are mostly somewhat rounded, and all the varieties of
this  rock, in some localities, form the  floor of  salt
mines and salt springs.  Subdivisions.—Marie-slate,
when the rock is soft, slaty, and contains minute  grains
of carbonate of lime.  Sandy, when it is in solid
blocks or layers, consisting of red or bluish-gray quart-
zose  sand.   Varieties.—Gray-band,  the  uppermost
layers of bluish-gray sandrock.  Conglomerate,  (brec-
cia) consisting chiefly of rounded pebbles, red, gray, o 
Onti
OER
rust-colour, as  under the  superincumbent rocks  at
Mount Holyoke, the Palisades, on the Hudson river, ace.
  15. Ferriferous Rock, is a soft, slaty, argillaceous,
or a hard, sandy, siliceous rock, embracing red  argil-
laceous iron  ore.  Subdivisions.—Slaty, consists of
green, or bluish-green, smooth soft slate, generally im-
mediately under the layer of red argillaceous iron ore.
Sandy, consists of a gray, or rusty-gray, aggregate of
quartzose sandrock, in compact blocks or layers, over-
laying or embracing red argillaceous iron ore.  Variety.
—Conglomerate, consists of rounded pebbles, cemented
together  by carbonate or oxide of iron, or  adhering
without cement.
  16. Lias, consists of  rounded grains  of quartzose
sand, clay-slate, and sometimes partly of other alumi-
nous compounds, of a dark or light-gray colour, aggre-
gated with fine grains of carbonate  of lime. Subdi-
visions.—Calciferous slate, when it is of a slaty texture,
and the  argillaceous and calcareous constituents pre-
dominate.  Calciferous  grit, when it is in blocks or
thick layers,  and the quartzose sand, or sharp grit,
predominates.  Varieties.—Conchoidal, when the slaty
kind is separated into small divisions, somewhat of a
lenticular form,  by  natural  conchoidal cleavages.
Shell grit, when the gritty variety consists, in part, of
petrifactions of quartzose sand.
  17. Geodiferous Limerock, (lowest  of the oolitic
formation of Europe,) consists  of carbonate of lime,
combined with a small proportion of argillite or quartz,
in a compact state, mostly fcetid, and always contain-
ing numerous  geodes.   Subdivisions.— Swinestone,
when it  contains very little or no quartzose sand, is
Irregular in structure, fcetid and abounds in geodes.
Sandy, when it contains quartzose sand, is stratified,
scarcely fcetid, and contains but few geodes.
  18. Cornitiferous Limerock, (included in the
oolitic  formation  of Europe,)  consists of carbonate
of lime,  embracing  hornstone.  Subdivisions.—Com7
pad, when the rock is close-grained; and it generally
contains  hornstone in layers.  Shelly, when it consists
of shells,  and contains hornstone in nodules or irregular
masses.
  19. Third  Graywackb, (well-known  to be em-
braced in the oolitic formation of Europe;  but con-
tains no oolite,) having the character of first and second
graywacke in  general; but differing in containing
much iron pyrites, fine grains of carbonate of lime, in
larger or  smaller proportion, and in having the quart-
zose grains  mostly rounded.—Subdivisions.—Pyriti-
ferous slate, when the rock has a slaty structure, and
is in thin lamina; or in blocks or thick layers.  Pyriti-
ferous grit, when  the rock has a  siliceous  or  gritty
structure, containing a large proportion  of quartzose
sand or pebbles.  Varieties.—Red sandstone, and red
toacke,vrhen the gray rock passes into a dirty orange,
and' thence into a red siliceous sandrock.  This has
been called old red sandstone; but I do not believe that
Buch a general stratum is admissible.  Conglomerate,
(breccia)  when the rock consists chiefly of rounded
pebbles, of a light-red, grayish red, or rust colour.
       Names under the  Superincumbent  Class.
  20. Basalt, is a hornblende rock, not primitive, pro-
bably of volcanic origin.   Subdivisions.—Amygdaloid,
when amorphous, of a compact  texture, but containing
cellules, empty or filled.  Greenstone trap, when of a
columnar structure, or in angular blocks, often coarse-
grained.   Variety.—Toadstone, when the amygdaloid
has a warty appearance, and resembles slag.
          Names under the Alluvial Class.
  21. Antbdiluvion, or upper tertians, when the
detritus is in layers, so situated that it must have been
deposited from water, while standing over it at a great
depth, in nearly  a quiescent state.  As we have no
chalk in  North America, and as no tertiary rocks have
hitherto  been ascertained, this  grand division may all
be referred to  detritus.   Subdivisions.—Plastic clay,
when it will not effervesce with acids; being destitute
of  carbonate of lime.  Jlfar'y da*, when  the  clay
contains  fine grains of carbonate or lime, sufficient to
effervesce strongly with acids.   Jlfarins, or Bogshot,
sand and crag, when it consists of qaartzose  sand,
nearly pure, or combined with a little loam, It is called
marine sand; when it passes  into a gravelly forma-
tion, often containing pudding-stone, beds of clay, Ate,
It is called crag.  Variety.—Hard pan, when the crag
consists of gravel, strongly cemented by clay.
  22.  Dili'vion,  consists of a umfu«)d mixture of '
      3&1
gravel, sand, clay, loam, plants, ibr-ll animals, Jte. so
situated, tbat It muBt have been deposited from water
in a slate of forcible and violent action.  To make Its
character perfectly evident, it must he so situated, that
the elevation of the water, sufficient for  making tho
deposite, could not have been effected by any existing
cause.
  23.  Ultimate Diluvion, a thin deposite of yellow-
ish-gray loam, reposing on crag or some other sub-
stance in ancient uncultivated forest grounds.  It is so
situated, that it could  not  have been produced by the
disintegration of any  stratum  in  the vicinity, nor by
water when running with much velocity.  It appears
to have been deposited from waters greatly elevated,
and which had been rendered turbid by violent action,
but had  become almost quiescent.   It may be consi-
dered as the last settlings of a deluge.
  24.  Post-diluvion, when the detritus is so arranged
that coarse  pebbles appear towards  the source of the
waters which deposited theni, and fine sediment, more
remote.
         Names under the Analluvial Class.
  25.  Stratified Analluvion, is the detritus formed
by the disintegration  of rock strata, which remains
in the situation formerly occupied by tho rocks, retain-
ing tbe same order of superposition.  Subdivisions.—
These take the names, and retain the essential charac-
ters, of the original rocks; as saliferous, ferriferous,
lias, &rc
  26.  Superficial Analluvion, is the detritus formed
by the disintegration of the exposed surfaces of all
rocks, and remains on or near the place of disintegra-
tion.  Subdivisions.—Clay-loam, when the detritus is
fine and  adhesive.  Granulated, when In coarse grains,
or friable.  The character of the  soil  depends on the
character of the rock  disintegrated.
                     Remarks.
  1. The upper part of every general rock-stratum, is
either more fissile or more loose and siliceous, than the
under part.   This affords a natural character for
making the  two-fold divisions adopted in this nomen-
clature.
  2. The upper surface of every general rock-stratum
in our district, is destitute of a superimposed  rocky
covering, for a great  distance. This affords a very
natural guide for the limit of general strata.
  3. By  general strata is meant, those deposites of
rocks  and detritus, which constitute the exterior visibls
rind of the earth, of nearly equal importance.  Tbey
may be  distinguished from each other by  essential
characters.  The most conclusive is relative position
—the  next in importance is the contents—tbe last is the
constituents. For example,  we know the third gray-
wacke as the uppermost rock in the regular series of
superposition—we  know  the  ferriferous  rock  from
its embracing the argillaceous  peroxyde of iron—we
know the granite from its consisting of quartz, feld-
spar, and mica.
  4. The words upper and lower are applied, without
reference to degree of devotion. A stratum is said to
be geologically tbe lowest, or oldest, when it is nearest
to the centre of the range of granite towards wbich it
inclines.
  5. General strata may he very naturally subdivided,
are subject to variations incharacter, and containbeds.
Numerous minerals not essential to their respective
characters, are found in them in the state of veins and
of dissemination.  They appear to have become hard,
while the strata containing them were in a soft statu;
for their forms are always impressed in them.
  6. All strata have their peculiar associates and con-
tents.  Therefore a knowledge of strata enables us
to foretell the probable discovery of useful minerals.
Geology, then, embraces the  "Science of Mining."
  7. The bassetting, or out-cropping sides of transition
and secondary rocks, at and  near the edges approach-
ing primitive rocks, present more of a primitive aspect.
and contain fewer  petrifactions, than other parts of
the same rocks.  A.]
  Gera'nis.  (From ytpavos, a crane: so called from
its  supposed resemblance to  an extended crane.) A
bandage for a fractured clavicle.
  GERA'NIUM.  (From ytpavos, a crane: so calk-d
because  its  pistil is long like  the bill of a crane.)
Class, Monadelphia; Order,  Decandria.  The name
of a genus  of plants  in tile Linuaan system.  Gera-
nium or ciuiut's-bill. 
GES                                             GIL
   Geranium batrachioidbs.  Bee  Geranium pra-
'tense.
   Geranium columbinum.  See  Geranium rotundi-
folium.
   Geranium moschatum.  The adstringent property
of this plant has induced practitioners to exhibit it in
cases of debility and profluvia.
   Geranium  pratense.   The systematic name of
the  crow foot crane's-bill.  Geranium batrachioides.
A plant which possesses adstringent virtues, but in a
slight degree.
   Geranium  robertianum.  Stinking  crane's-bill.
Herb Robert.  This common plant has been much es-
teemed as an external application in erysipelatous
inflammations, cancer, mastodynia, and old ulcers, but
is now  deservedly fallen into disuse.
   Geranium rotundifolium.  The systematic name
of the  dove's-foot.   Geranium  columbinum.   This
plant is slightly astringent.
   Geranium sanguinarium. See Geranium sangui-
neum.
   Geranium sanouineum.  The systematic name of
the  Geranium sanguinarium.   Bloody  crane's-bill.
The adstringent virtues ascribed  to this plant do not
appear  to be considerable.
   ["Geranium  maculatum.   Crane's-bill.   The
' Geranium maculatum is a native (American) plant,
connnon about woods and fences, and conspicuous for
its large purple flowers in May and June.
   "The root is horizontal, nearly  as large as the little
finger, tortuous, and full of knobs.  To the taste it is a
pure and powerful astringent.  It abounds with tan-
nin, which is imparted in great quantities both to the
tincture and watery solution, and appears to be the
basis of its medicinal efficacy.
-  " It is applicable  to all the purposes of vegetable
astringents,  being surpassed by very few articles of
that class.  In various debilitating discharges, particu-
larly from the bowels, it has afforded relief, when the
disease has been of a nature to require astringent me-
dicines. In apthous eruptions, and ulcerations of the
mouth  and throat, a strong decoction  has been found
'beneficial as a gargle. A dose of the powder is twenty
tor thirty grains, and of a saturated tincture from one
to two  fluid drachms. The  extract of this root is a
very powerful astringent, and may be substituted for
kino and catechu."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   GERM.  See Corculum.
   GERMANDER.   See Teucrium chamadrys.
   Germander water.  See Teucrium Scordium.
   GERMEN.  This is the rudiment of the young fruit
and seed, and is found at the bottom of the pistil.  See
Pistillum.  It appears under a variety of shapes and
sizes.
   From its figure it is called,
   1.  Globose; as in Rosa  eglantaria,  and  cinna-
momea.
   2. Oblong;  as in Stellar ia biflora.
   3. Ovate;  as in Rosa canina, and alba.
   From its situation, it is distinguished into,
   1. Superior, when internal between the corolla; as
In Prunus.
   2. Inferior, below and  without the corolla; as in
Galanthus nivalis.
   3.  Pedicellate, upon a footstalk;  as  in  the Eu-
phorbia.
   It is of gieat moment, for botanical distinctions, to
observe whether it be superior, above the bases of the
calyx, or below.
   GERMINATION.  Germinatio.  The  vital dcve-
lopement of a seed, when it first begins to grow.
   GEROCO'MIA.  (From ytpiav,  an aged person, and
xoutia, to be concerned about.) That part of medicine
wnich regards the regimen and treatment of old age.
   Gerontopo'oon.  (From ytpiav, an old man, and
rtiayiav, a beard; so called  because its downy seed,
while enclosed in the calyx, resembles the beard of an
aged man.)   The herb old man's beard, a species of
tragopogon.
   Gbronto'xon.  t,From ytpiav,  an old  person, and
ro\ov, a dart.)  1 A small ulcer, like the head of a
dart, appearing sometimes in the cornea of old persons.
   2. The socket of a tooth.
   GERoro'oo.v.  See Geronlopogon.
   GE9NER, Conrad, was  bom  at Zurich, In 1516.
His father was killed in the civil war, and left hiin in
such poverty, that he was obliged to become a tenant,
at fttrasburg.  His master allowed him to devote some
time to study, in which he made great progress;  and
having acquired a little  money, he  went to Paris,
where he improved rapidly in the classics and rheto-
ric, and then turned  his attention to  philosophy and
medicine.   But he was soon compelled to return to
his native country, and teach the languages, &c. for a
livelihood.  This enabled  him afterward  to resume
his medical studies at Moutpelier, and  he graduated at
Basil in 1540.  He then  settled in his native city,
where he was appointed professor  of philosophy,
which office he discharged with great reputation for
twenty-four years.  He had  an early  predilection for
botany, which led him to cultivate other parts of na
tural history; he was the first collector of a museum,
and acquired the character of being tlie greatest na-
turalist since Aristotle.  He also founded and sup-
ported a botanic garden, had  numerous drawings and
wood engravings made of plants, and appears to have
meditated  a general work on that subject.  He like-
wise discovered the  only true principles of botanical
arrangement in the  flower and  fruit.  Though of a
feeble and sickly constitution, he traversed the Alps,
and even sometimes plunged into the waters in search
of plants:  he also carefully studied their medical pro-
perties, and frequently hazarded his life  by experi-
ments on himself; indeed he was at one  time reported
to have been killed by the root of doronicum.  His
other occupations prevented  his entering very exten-
sively into practice, but his enlarged views rendered
him  successful; and the profits of his profession ena-
bled him to support tbe great expense of his favourite
pursuits.   He gave also many proofs of liberal  and
active friendship.  He died  of the plague, in 1565.
His chief works are his  " Historian Animalium," in
three folio volumes, with wood cuts;  and  a pharma-
copoeia, entitled " De  Secretis Remediis Thesaurus,"
which passed through many editions.
  Gestation, uterine.  See Pregnancy.
  GE'UM.  1. The name of a genus of plants In the
Linnaean system.  Class, Icosanana;  Order, Poly-
gynia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the two following
species of this genus.
  Geum rivale.  The root  is the part directed  for
medicinal uses.  It is inodorous, and imparts an aus-
tere taste.   In America it is in high estimation in tbe
cure of intermittents, and is said to be more efficacious
than  the Peruvian bark.  Diarrhoeas  and  haemor-
rhages are also stopped by its  exhibition.
  Geum urbanum.  The systematic name of the herb
bennet, or avens.  Caryophyllata; Herba  benedicta;
Caryophyllus vulgaris; Garyophylla;  Janamunda;
Geum—floribus erectis, frudibus globosis villosis,
aristis uncinatis  nudis, foliis lyratis, of Linnaeus.
The root of this plant  bas been employed as a gentle
styptic, corroborant, and stomachic.  It has a mildly
austere, somewhat aromatic taste, and a very pleasant
smell, of the clove kind.   It is also esteemed on the
Continent as a febrifuge.
  GIBBUS.  Gibbous; swelled;  applied  to leaves
when swelled on one  side or both,  from  excessive
abundance of pulp; as in Die Aloe retusa.
  GIDDINESS.  See  Vertigo.
  GILBERT, William, was born at Colchester, in
1540.  After studying at Cambridge, he went abroad for
improvement, and graduated at some foreign univer-
sity.   He returned with a high character for philoso-
phical and chemical knowledge, and was admitted
into the college of physicians in London, where he set-
tled about the year 1573.  He was so successful in his
practice, that he was at length made first physician to
Queen Elizabeth, wbo allowed him a  pension to pro-
secute philosophical  experiments.  He died  in 1603,
leaving his books, apparatus, and minerals, to the  col
lege of physicians. His capital work  on the magnet
was published three  years before his death; it is not
only the earliest complete system on that subject, but
also one of the first specimens of philosophy founded
upon  experiments; which method the great Lord
Bacon afterward so strenuously recommended.
  Gilead, balsam. See Amyris gileadensis.
  GILLIFLOWER.  See Dianthus caryophyllus.
  [" Gillenia trifoliata.  The Gillenia trifoliaia is
a native, perennial plant,  more  generally  known to
cultivators  of the Aint-tican  Materia  Medica  by the
Luiintan name of Spirtta trifoliata.   It grows in and 
GLA
OLA
 about woods, in light soil, throughout most parts ofthe
 Union, excepting the eastern states.
  "The root is much branched and knobby.  It con-
 sists  of a woody portion, invested with a thick bark,
 which, when dry, is brittle, and very bitter to the taste.
 Tbe  predominant soluble ingredients appear to be, a
 bitter extractive matter and resin.  When boiled in
 water, it imparts to it a beautiful red wine-colour, and
 an intensely bitter  taste.  The tincture deposites  an
 abundant resinous  precipitate on  the  addition  of
 water.
  " This article is one of the most  prominent  indige-
 nous emetics, resembling ipecacuanha in its operation,
 but requiring a large dose.  It sometimes fails to pro-
 duce vomiting, especially if the portion used has be-
 come old.  Thirty grains of the hark of the root,  re-
 cently dried and powdered, are a suitable dose for an
 emetic  In doses so small as not  to excite nausea, it
 has been thought useful as a tonic   The Gillenia sti-
 pula.cea, of tbe  western states, possesses properties
 similar to those  of this species."—Bigelow's Mat.
 Med.  A.]
  GIN.  Spiritus Juniperi. Geneva.  Hollands. The
 name of a spirit distilled from malt or rye, which after-
 ward undergoes the same process, a second time, with
 juniper-berries. This is the original and most whole-
 some state of the spirit; but it is now prepared without
 juniper-berries, and is distilled from turpentine, which
  S'tves it something of a similar flavour.  The consump-
  on of this  article, especially in the metropolis, Is im-
 mense,  and the consequences  are  pernicious to the
 health of the inhabitants.
  GINGER.  See Zingiber.
  GI'NGIBER.  See Zingiber.
  Ginoibra'chium.  (From gingiva, the gums, and
 brachium, the armj   A name for the scurvy, because
 the gums, arms, and legs, are affected with it.
  Ginoi'dium.  A species of Daucus.
  Gi'noibil.  See Zingiber.
  Ginoipb'dium.  (From gingiva, the gums, and pes,
 the foot.)  A name for the scurvy, because the gums,
 arms, and legs are affected.
  GINGI'VjE.  (From gigno, to beget; because the
 teeth  are, as it were, born in them.)  The gums.  See
 Gums.
  GI'NGLYMUS.   (TiyyXvuos, a hinge.)   The hinge-
 like Joint.  A species or diarthrosis or moveable con-
 nexion of bones, which admits of flexion and extension,
 ae the knee-joint, &c.
  GI'NSENG. An Indian word. See Panax quinquc-
folium,
  Gir.  Quick-lime.
  Gi'rmir.  Tartar.
  GITHAGO.  A name used by Pliny, for the Loliun,
 or darnel-grass.
  GIZZARD.  The stomach of poultry.  Those from
 white flesh, have  long been considered in France  as
 medicinal.  They have been recommended in obstruc-
 tions  of the  urinary passages, complaints of the blad-
 der, and nephritic pains; but particularly as a febri-
 fuge.  Bouillon Lagrange considers ils principal sub-
 stance as  oxygenated gelatine, with a  small quantity
 of extractive matter.
  Glabe'lla. (From glaber, smooth;  because it is
 without hair.) The space between the eyebrows.
  GLABER.  Glabrous;  Smooth;  applied to stems,
 leaves, seeds, &c. of plants, and opposed to all kinds of
 hairiness  and pubescence; as in the stem of the Eu-
 phorbia peplus, and the seeds of Galium montanum.
  GLACIES.  Ice.
  GLADI'OLUS.  (Diminutive of gladius, a sword;
 so named from the sword-like shape of ils leaf.) The
 name of a genus  of plants in the  Liuntean system.
 Class, Triandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Gladiolus lutbus.  See Iris pseudacorus.
  Gla'ka.  TXaua.  The sordes of the eye.
  GLAND.   Glans.  Glandula.  I. In anatomy, an
 organic part of the body, composed of blood-vessels,
 nerves, and absorbents, and destined for tbe secretion
 or  alteration of some peculiar  fluid.  Tne glands of
 the human body are divided, by anatomists, into dif-
 ferent clauses, either according  to  their structure,  or
 the fluid they contain. According to their fabric, they
 are diatrnrtished into four classes:
  1. Simple glands.
  2. Compounds of simple glands.
  3.  Conglobate glands.
  4. Conglomerate glands.
  According to then- fluid contents, they are more pro-
 perly divided into,
  1. Mucous glands.
  2. Sebaceous glands.
  3. Lymphatic glands.
  4. Salival glands.
  5. Lachrymal glands.
  1. Simple glands are small hollow follicles, covered
 wilh a peculiar membrane, and having a proper ex-
 cretory duct, through wbich they evacuate the liquor
 contained  in  their cavity.   Such  are the  mucous
 glands of the nose, tongue, fauces, trachea, stomach,
 intestine, and urinary bladder,  the sebaceous glands
 about the anus, and those of the ear.  These simple
 glands are either dispersed here  and there, or are con-
 tiguous to one another, forming a heap in such a man-
 ner that they  are not covered  by a common mem-
 brane, but each hath its own excretory duct, which is
 never joined to the excretory duct of another gland.
 The former are termed solitary simple glands, the lat-
 ter aggregate or congregate simple glands.
  2. The compound glands consist of  many simple
 glands, the excretory ducts of wbich are joined In one
 common excretory duct;  as the sebaceous glands of
 tbe face, lips, palate, and various parts of the skin,
 especially about the pubes.
  3. Conglobate, or, as they ore  also called, lympAatt'c
 glands, are  those into which lymphatic vessels enter,
 and from which they go out again: as the mesenteric,
 lumbar, Sec. They have no excretory  duct,  but are
 composed of a texture of lymphatic vessels connected
 together by cellular membrane:  they are  the largest
 in the fcetus.
  4. Conglomerate glands are composed of a congeries
 of many simple glands, the  excretory ducts of which
 open into one common trunk: as the parotid gland,
 thyroid gland, pancreas, and  all the salival  glands.
 Conglomerate glands differ  but  little from the com-
 pound glands, yet they are composed of more simple
 glands than the compound.
  The excretory duct of a gland is the duct  through
 which the fluid of the gland is excreted.  Tbe vessels
 and nerves of glands always come from the neighbour-
 ing parts, and the arteries appear to possess a high de-
 gree of irritability.  The use of  the glands is  to sepa-
 rate a peculiar liquor, or to change it.  The use ofthe
 conglobate glands is unknown.
  IL In botany, Linnaeus defines it,  a  little  tumour
 discharging a fluid;
  From their situation they are said fo be,
  1. Foliares, when on the surface ot the leaf; as in
 the Gossypium rdigiosum, which has one gland on
 tbe leaf; and Gossypium barbadense, the leaves of
 which have three.
  2. Petiolares, when in the footstalk; as) tn Prunus
 cerasus.
  3. Corollares.  The claw of the corolla of the Ber-
 beris vulgaris has two glands.
  4. Filumentares, in the filaments; as in Dictamnus
 albus.
  From their adhesion,
  1. Glandula sessilis, without  any peduncle; as in
Prunus cerasus.
  2. Glandula pedicillata, furnished with a peduncle;
as in Drosera.
  Glands are abundant on the stalk and calyx of the
moss-rose, and between the serratures of the  leaf of
the  Salix pentandria; on the footstalks of the Vibur-
num opulus, and  various species of  passion-flower.
The liquor discharged is resinous and fragrant
  GLANDORP, Matthias Louis, was born at Co-
logne, in 1595.  Soon after commencing his medical
 pursuits, he went  to Padua, which had at that time
great reputation.  He improved  so much in anatomy
 under Spigelius, that he was deemed competent to give
 public demonstrations: and be took his degree  in 1618.
 He  settled in Bremen, whence his family originated ;
 and he was so successful in practice,  that he was
 raised to the most honourable offices.  He was physi-
 cian to the archbishop, and to the republic, when he
 died in 1640.  He left several works, with plates, con-
 taining many important observations on anatomy, tec.
 Tbe principal are his "Speculum Chirurgorum,"  and
 a Treatise on Issues, and Setons.  He was very paitla.
 to the use of the actual cautery, even in the most com-
 mon disorders. 
GLE
GLO
  GLA'NDULA.   (A diminutive of glans, a gland.)
A small gland.  See Gland.
  Glandula lacbrymalis.  See Lachrymal gland.
  Glandul* myrtiformes.  See Caruncula myr-
tiformes.
  Glandulje pacchionls.  A number of small, oval,
fatty substances, not yet ascertained to be glandular,
situated under the  dura maten, about the sides of the
longitudinal sinus.  Their use is not known.
  Glandulosoca'rneus. An epithet given byRuysch
to some excrescences,  which he  observed  in  the
bladder.
  GLANDULOSUS.  Glandular. 1. In anatomy,
having  the appearance,  structure, or function of  a
gland.
  2.  In  botany, applied  to  leaves wbich  have  little
glandiform  elevations; as the bay-leaved willow, and
Hypericum montanvm.
  GLANS.  A gland, or nut.  See Gland.
  Glans penis.  The very vascular body that forms
the apex of the penis.  The posterior circle is termed
the corona glandis.  See Corpus spongiosum urethra.
  Glaus ukguentaria.  See Guilandina moringa.
  GLASS.  This substance was  formerly  employed
by surgeons, when  roughly powdered, to destroy opa-
cities of the cornea.
  Glass of antimony.  See Antimony.
  Glass-wort, snail-seeded.  See Salsola kali.
  Gla'stuh.  (Quasi callastum; from Callia, who
first used it)  The herb woad. See Isatis tinctoria.
  Glauber's salt.  A sulphate of soda.   It is found
native in Bohemia, and is the produce of art.  See
Soda sulphas.
  GLAUBERITE.  A native crystallized  salt,  com-
posed of dry sulphate of lime, and dry sulphate of soda,
(bund in rock salt at Villarubra in Spain.
  GLAUCEDO.  (From yXavKos, bluish, or greenish
tint.)  See Glaucoma.
  GL AU'CIUM.  (So named from its glaucous or sea-
green colour.  The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.   Class, Polyandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.)  The horned poppy.
  GLAUCO'MA.   (From yXavxos, blue;  because of
the  eye becoming of a blue, or sea-green colour.)
 Glaucedo ; Glaucosis ; Apoglaucosis.  1. An opacity
of the vitreous humour.  It is difficult to ascertain, and
is only to be known by a very attentive examination of
the eye.
  2. A species of cataract.  See Cataract.
  GLAUCO'SIS.   See Glaucoma.
  GLAUCUS.   (rAaiMcoj,  sea-green.)   Stems are
called glaucous which are clothed with a fine sea-green
mealiness, which  easily rubs off; as in Chlora  per-
foliata.
  GLECO'MA.  (From yXrjxioy,  the name of a plant
in Dioscorides.) Class, Didynamia; Order, Gymno-
epermia.  The name of  a genus  of plants  in the Lin-
naean system.  Ground-ivy.
  Glecoma hederacea. The systematic name of the
ground-ivy, or gill.  Hedera terrestris.   Glecoma—
foliistreniformibus crenatis, of Linnaeus.   This indi-
genous plant has a peculiar strong smell, and a bitterish
somewhat  aromatic taste.   It is one of those plants
which was formerly much esteemed for possessing vir-
tues that, iu the present age, cannot be detected.   In
 obstinate coughs,  it  is  a favourite  remedy with the
 poor.
   Gle'chon.  (VXtrxtav.)  Pennyroyal.
   Glkchoni'tes.  (From yXirx?av,pennyroyal.) Wine
impregnated with pennyroyal.
  GLEET.  In consequence of the repeated attacks
of gonorrhoea, and the debility of the part  occasioned
thereby, it not unfrequently happens, that  a gleet, or
constant small discharge takes place, or remains be.
hind, after all danger of infection is removed.  Mr.
Hunter remarks, that it differs from gonorrhoea in be-
ing  uninfectious, and in the discharge consisting  of
globular particles, contained in a slimy mucus, instead
of serum.   It  is  unattended with  pain,  scalding in
 making of water, &c
   CLE'NE.  rXnvi-   Strictly signifies tbe cavity or
 socket of the eye;  but by some anatomists is also used
 for tbat cavity of a bone wbich receives another with-
 in it.
   GLENOID.   (Glenoidea; from yXirw?, a tavity,
 and ti&os, resemblance.)  The name of articulate ca-
 vities of bones.
  Gleu'cinum.   (From yXcvkos, must.)   An oint-
ment, in the preparation or which was must
  Gleu'xis.   (From yXtvxvs, sweet.)  A sweet wine.
  GLIADINE.  See Gluten.
  Gliscere. To increase gradually, properly as fire
does; but, by physical writers, is sometimes applied
to the natural heat  and increase of spirits; and by
others to the exacerbation of fevers which return pe-
riodically.
  GLISCHRO'CHOLOS.  (From  yXiaxpos,  viscid,
and voX>7, the bile.)  Viscid bilious excrement.
  GLISCRA'SMA.   (From yXtcxpaivia, to  become
glutinous.)   Viscidity.
  Glisoma'roo.  White chalk.
  GLISSON, Francis, was bom in Dorsetshire, 1597.
He studied at both the English universities; but look
his degree  of doctor in Cambridge, where he was
made Regius professor  of  Physic,  which office he
held about forty years.  He settled, however, to prac-
tise in London, and became a Fellow of the College in
1635; four years after which he was chosen reader of
Anatomy, and distinguished himself much by his lec-
tures " De Morbis Partium," which he was requested
to publish.   During  the  civil wars he  retired to Col-
chester, where he practised with great credit; and was
there during the siege of that town by the Parliament-
ary forces.   He was one ofthe members of the society,
which, about the  year 1645, held weekly meetings in
London to  promote Natural Philosophy: and which
having  removed to Oxford during the troubles, was
augmented after the  Restoration, and became  ulti-
mately the present Royal Society. He was afterward
several  years president of the College of Physicians,
and died at the advanced age of eighty.  He left the
following valuable works: 1. A Treatise on the Rick-
ets.  2. The Anatomy of the Liver, which he described
much more accurately than any one before, and par-
ticularly the capsule ofthe Vena Portarum, which has
since been named after him.  3.  A large metaphysical
treatise " De Natura Substantial Energetica," after the
manner of Aristotle.  4. A Treatise on the Stomach,
Intestines, &c, a well-arranged and comprehensive
work, with various new observations, which came out
the year before his death.
   Glisson's  Capsule.  See Capsule of Glisson.
   GLOBATE.  See Gland.
   GLOBOSUS.  Globose. A root is so called wbich
is rounded, and gives off radicles in every direction;
as that ofthe Cyclamen europeum.  The receptacle of
the  Cephalanthus and Nauclea, are so  called  from
their form.
   GLOBULA'RIA.   (From globus,  a globe:  so
called from the shape of its flower.)   The  French
daisy.
   Globula'ria alypum. The leaves of this plant are
used in some parts of Spain in the cure of the venereal
disease. Il  is said to act also as a powerful  but safe
cathartic.
   GLOBUS.  A ball.
   Globus hystericus.  The air rising  in tbe  oeso-
phagus, and prevented by spasm from reaching the
mouth, is so called  by authors, because it mostly at-
tends hysteria, and  gives the sensation of a ball as-
cending in the throat.
   GLOCHIS.  (rXta%ts, cuspis teli.)  A pointed hair.
A sharp point:  used in botany to a  bristle-like pubes-
cence, which is turned  backwards  at its point into
many straight teeth.
   GLO'MER.  A clue of thread. A term mostly ap-
plied to glands.
   GLOMERATE.  A gland is so  called  which  is
formed of a elomer  of sanguineous vessels, having no
cavity,  but furnished with an excretory duct; as the
lachrymal and mammary glands
   GLOMERULUS.  In botany, a smal tuft, or eapi-
tulum, mostly in the axilla ofthe peduncle.
   GLOSSA'GRA.   (From yXtocoa, the tongue, and
aypa, a seizure.)  A violent pain in the tongue.
   GLO'SSO.   (From yXuxrca, the tongue.)  Names
compounded with this word belong to muscles, nerves,
or vessels, from their being attached, or going to the
tongue.
   Glossopharyngeal nerves. The ninth pair  of
nerves.  They arise from the processes  of the cere-
bellum, which run to the medulla spinalis, and termi-
nate by numerous  branches in the muscles of the
tongue  and pharynx.
                                       397 
GLU
GLU
   Glosso-pharyhoeus.  See Constrictor pharyngeus
 superior.
   Globso-staphylinus.  See Constrictor isthmi fau-
 cium.
   Glossoca'tochos.  (From yXoaaa, tongue, and xa-
 rt%ia, to hold.)  An instrument in P. vEgineta for de-
"pressing the tongue.  A spatula lingua).  Tbe ancient
 glossocatochus was a sort of forceps, one of the blades
 of which served to depress the tongue, while the other
 was applied under the chin.
   GLOSSOCE'LE.  (From yXiaooa, the tongue, and
 KnXri, a tumour.)  An extrusion of the tongue.
   Glossocoma.  A retraction of the tongue.
   Glossocomi'on.  (From yXiaaoa, a tongue, and xo-
 ptia, to guard.)  By this was formerly meant a case
 tor the tongue, for a hautboy; but the old surgeons, by
 metaphor, use it to signify an instrument, or case, for
 containing a fractured limb.
   GLO'TTA.   (rXo»r7a, the tongue.)  The tongue.
   GLOTTIS.  (From yW7a, the tongue.) The su-
 perior opemng of the  larynx  at  the bottom of the
 tongue.
   GLUCINA.  (From yXuxuc, which signifies sweet,
 because it gives that taste to the salts in forms.)  The
 name of an earth, for the discovery of which we are
 indebted  to Vauquelin, who found  it, in 1795, in the
 Aigue-marine or beryl, a transparent stone,  of a green
 colour, and in the emerald of Peru.  It exists com-
 bined with silex, alumine, lime, and oxide of iron, iu
 tlie one;  and with  the  same earths, and oxide  of
 chrome, in the other. It has lately been discovered in
 the gadolinite by Mr. Ekeberg.
   Glucina is white, light, and soft to the touch. It is
 insipid, and adheres to the tongue; and is inlusible by
 itself in the fire.  Its specific gravity is 2.967.  It is so-
 luble in alkalies and their carbonates, and in  all the
 acids except the carbonic and phosphoric,  and  forms
 with them saccharine and slightly astringent salts.  It
 is exceedingly soluble in sulphuric acid used to excess.
 It is fusible with borax, and forms with it  a transpa-
 rent glass.  It absorbs one-fourth of its weight of car-
 bonic acid.  It decomposes sulphate of alumine.  It is
 not precipitated by the hydro-sulphurets nor by prus-
 Biate of potassa, but by all the succinates.   Its affinity
 for the acids  is intermediate between magnesia and
 alumine.
   To obtain this earth, reduce some beryl to an impal-
 pable powder, fuse it with three times its weight of
 potassa, and dissolve the mass  in muriatic  acid. Se-
 parate the silex by evaporation and filtration, and de-
 compose the remaining fluid by adding carbonate of
 potassa; redissolve the deposite when washed in sul-
 phuric acid, and by mingling this solution with sul-
 phate of potassa, alum will  be obtained, wbich crys-
 tallizes.
   Then mix the fluid with a solution of carbonate of
 ammonia, which must  be  used in excess ; filter and
 boil it, and a  white powder will gradually fall down,
 which is glucine.
   GLUE. An inspissated jelly made from the parings
 of hides and other offals, by boiling them in  water,
 straining  through a wicker basket, suffering the impu-
 rities to subside, and then boiling it a second time. The
 articles  should first be digested  in lime  water,  to
 cleanse them from grease  and dirt; then steeped  in
 water, stirring them well from time to time; and, last-
 ly, laid in a heap, to have the water pressed out, be-
 fore they  are put into the boiler.  Some  recommend,
 that the water should be kept as nearly as possible to a
 boiling heat, without suffering it to enter into ebulli-
 tion.  In this state it is poured into flat  frames  or
 moulds, then  cut  into square pieces when congealed,
 and afterward dried in a coarse net.  It is said to im-
 prove by  age; and that glue is reckoned the best,
 which swells considerably without dissolving by three
 or four days' infusion in cold water,  and recovers its
 former dimensions and properties by drying.  Shreds
 or parings  of vellum, parchment,  or  white leather,
 make a clear and almost colourless glue.
   GLUMA.  (Gluma, a glubendo,  a husk of corn.)
 The husk.  The peculiar calyx of grasses and grass-
 like plants, of a chaffy texture, formed of  little con-
 cave leaflets  which are called valves.  To the husk
 belongs the arista, the beard or aicn    See Arista.
   Tlie gluma is,
   1.  Univalve, in Loilum perenns.
   il.  Bivalve, in most grasses.
       3!'3
  3. Trivalvsi in Panicum miliaceum.
  4. Many-valved, in Uniola paniculata:
  5. Coloured,  otherwise than  green;  aa in Hsltus
bicolor.
  From the number of flowers the husk contains, it ii
called,
  1. Gluma unifibra, one-flowered; as in Panicum.
  2. G. biftora, with two ; as in  Airo.
  3. G. multiflora,  having  many; as in  Poa  aud
Avena.
  From the external appearance, the gluma is termed,
  1. Glabrous, smooth; as in Holcus laxus.
  2. Hispid, briskly; as in Secale orientals,
  3. Striate; as in Holcus striatus.
  4. Villose; as in  Holcus sorghum, Holcus saccha-
ratus, mid Bromus purgans.
  5. Ciliate, fringed; as in Bromus ciliatus.
  6. Beardless; as in Briza and Poa.
  7. Awned; as in Hordeum.
  GLUMOSUS.  A flower is so called, which is ag
gregate, and has a glumous or husky calyx.
  GLUTEAL.   Belonging to the buttocks.
  Gluteal artery.   A branch of the internal iliac
artery.
  GLUTEN.  (Quasigeluten;  from gelo, to congeal.)
See Glue.
  Gluten, animal.  This  substance constitutes the
basis of the fibres of all the solid parts.  Il resembles
iu its properties the gluten of vegetables.
  Gluten,  vegetable.  If wheat-flower  be made
into a paste, and washed in a large quantity of water,
it is separated into three distinct substances: a muci-
laginous saccharine matter, which is readily dissolved
in the liquor, and may be separated from it by evapo-
ration ;  starch, which is suspended in  the fluid,  and
subsides to the bottom by repose; and  gluten, which
remains in  the hand, and is  tenacious, very ductile,
somewhat elastic, and  of a brown-gray colour.  The
first of these substances does not essentially differ from
other saccharine mucilages.   The second, namely, the
starch, forms a gluey fluid by boiling in water, though
it is scarcely, if at all, acted  upon by that fluid  when
cold.  Its habitudes and products with the fire, or wilh
nitric acid, are nearly  the same as those of gum  and
of sugar.  It apiiears to be as much more remote from
the  saline state than gum, as gum is more remote from
that state than sugar.
  The vegetable gluten, though it  existed before tbe
washing in the pulverulent form, and has acquired its
tenacity and adhesive qualities from the water  it bas
imbibed, is nevertheless totally  insoluble-in this fluid.
It has scarcely  any  taste.  When dry, it ia semitrans
parent, and  resembles glue  m its colour and appear
ance.  If it be drawn out thin, when first obtained, il
may be dried by exposure to the air: but if it be ex
posed to warmth and moisture while wet, it putrefies
like an animal substance. The dried glaten applied to
the  flame of a candle, crackles, swells, and burns, ex-
actly like a feather, or  piece of  horn.  It affords the
same products  by destructive distillation as animal
matters do; is not soluble  in alkohol,  oils,  or ether;
and is acted upon by acids and alkalies, when heated.
According to Rouelle, it is the same with the caseous
substance of milk.
  Gluten of Wheat.—Ta&Aey, an Italian chemist, has
lately ascertained that the gluten of wheat may be de-
composed  into two  principles,  which he has distin-
guished by the names, gliadine (from  yXia, gluten,)
and zimome (from Cvur/, ferment.)  They are obtained
in a separate state by kneading the fresh gluten in suc-
cessive portions of alkohol, as long as that liquid con-
tinues  to become milky, when diluted with water
The alkohol solutions being set aside, gradually depo
site a whitish matter, consisting  of small filaments of
gluten, and become perfectly transparent. Being now
left  to slow evaporation, the gliadine remains huhind,
of the consistence of honey, and mixed with a little
yellow resinous matter, from which it may be freed by
digestion in sulphuric ether, in  which gliadine  is not
sensibly soluble. The portion of the gluten not dissolved
by tbe alkohol is the zimome.
  Properties of Gliadine.—When dry, it has a straw-
yellow colour, slightly traBsparoiit, and in thin platen,
brittle,having a slight smell, similar lo that of honey-
comb, and, when sllglslly heated, giving out  an odour
similar  to that of boiled applet.   In the mouth, h be-
comes adhesive, and has  a sweetish  and  baUaimu 
GLU
GNA
taste.  It is pretty soluble in boiling alkohol, which
loses its  transparency in proportion as it cools, and
then retains only a small quantity in solution. It forms
a kind of varnish in those bodies to which it is applied.
It softens, but does not dissolve in cold distilled water.
At a boiling heat it is converted into froth, and the li-
quid remains slightly milky.  It is specifically heavier
than water.
  The alkohoiic solution of gliadine becomes milky
when mixed with water, and is precipitated in white
flocks  by the alkaline carbonates.  It is scarcely af-
fected  by the mineral and vegetable acids.   Dry gli-
adine  dissolves in caustic alkalies and in acids.  It
swells  upon red-hot coals, and then contracts in  the
manner of animal substances.  It burns with a pretty
lively flame, and leaves behind it a light spongy char-
coal, difficult to  incinerate.  Gliadine,  in  6ome  re-
spects, approaches the properties of resins; but differs
from them in being insoluble in sulphuric ether.  It is
very sensibly affected  by the infusion of nut-galls.  It
is capable of itself of undergoing a slow fermentation,
and produces fermentation in saccharine substances.
  From the flour of barley, rye, or oats, no gluten can
be extracted as  from that of wheat, probably because
they contain too small a quantity.
  The residue of  wheat which is not  dissolved in al-
kohol, is called zimome. If this be boiled repeatedly in
alkohol, it is obtained pure.
  Zimome thus  purified has tiie form of small globules,
or constitutes a shapeless mass, which is hard, tough,
destitute  of cohesion, and of  an  ash-white colour.
When washed  in water, it recovers part of its visco-
sity, and  becomes quickly brown, when left in contact
with the  air. It is specifically heavier than water. Its
mode of fermenting is no longer that of gluten; for
when  it  purifies  it exhales  a fcetid  urinous odour.
It dissolves completely in vinegar, and in the mineral
acids at a boiling temperature.  With caustic potassa,
i l combines and forms a kind of soap.  When put into
lime water, or into the solutions of the alkaline carbo-
uates, it becomes harder, and assumes a new appear-
ance without dissolving.  When thrown upon red-hot
coals, it exhales an  odour similar to  tbat of burning
bair or hoofs, and  burns with flame.
  Zimome is to be found in several parts of vegetables.
It produces  various kinds of fermentation, according
to the nature of tiie substance with which it comes in
contact.
  GLUTE'US.   (From vXodtoc, the buttocks.)  The
name of  some muscles of the buttocks.
  Gluteus maximus. Gluteus magnus of Albinus.
Glutaus major of Cowper; and Ilio sacro femoral of
Dumas.  A broad radiated muscle, on which we sit,
is divided into a number of strong fasciculi, is covered
by a pretty thick aponeurosis derived  from the fascia
lata, and is situated  immediately  under the integu-
ments.  It arises fleshy from the outer lip of somewhat
more than the posterior half of tlie spine of the ilium,
from the ligaments that cover the two posterior spinous
processes; from the posterior sacro-ischiatic ligament;
and from the outer sides of the os sacrum and os coc-
cygis.  From these origins the fibres of the muscle run
towards tbe great trochanter  of the os femoris, where
they form a broad and thick tendon, between which
and the  trochanter there is a considerable bursa mu-
cosa.   This tendon  is inserted into the upper part of
the linea aspera, for the space of two or three inches
downwards; and sends off fibres to the fascia lata, and
to the  upper extremity of the vastus externus.  This
muscle serves to extend the thigh, by pulling it directly
backwards ; at the same time it draws it a little out-
wards, and thus  assists in its  rotatory motion.  Its
origin from the coccyx seems to prevent that bone from
being forced too far backwards.
  Gluteus  medius.  Ilio troclianlerien of  Dumas.
Tbe posterior half of this muscle is  covered by  the
gluteus maximus,  which it greatly resembles in shape;
but tbe anterior and upper part of it is covered only by
the integuments, and by a tendinous membrane which
belongs to  tbe  fascia lata.   It arises fleshy from  the
outer lip of the anterior part of the spine of the ilium,
from part of the posterior surface of that  bone, and
likewise  from the fascia that covers it.  From these
origins its fibres run towards the great trochanter, into
the outer and posterior part of which it is inserted by
a broad tendon  Uelweeu this tendon and the trochan-
ter there is a small thin bursa mucosa.  The uses of
 this muscle are nearly the same as those of the glu -
 tcus maximus; but it is not confined, like that muscle,
 to rolling the os femoris outwards, its anterior portion
 being  capable of turning that bone a little inwards.
 As it has no origin from the coccyx, it can have no
 effect on that bone..
  Gluteus minimus.   Glutaus  minor of Albinus
 and Cowper; and Ilio  isckii trochanterien of Dumas.
 A radiated muscle, is situated under the gluteus me-
 dius.  In  adults,  and  especially in old subjects, its
 outer  surface is  usually tendinous.  It arises fleshy
 between the two semicircular ridges we observe on tbe
 outer surface of the ilium, and likewise from the edge
 of its great niche.  Its  fibres-  run, in  different direc-
 tions, towards a thick flat tendon, which adheres lo a
 capsular ligament of the joint, and is inserted into the
 fore and upper part of the great trochanter.  A small
 bursa  mucosa may be observed between the tendon of
 this muscle and the trochanter. This  muscle assists
 the two former in drawing the thigh backwards and
 outwards, and in  rolling it.  It may likewise serve to
 prevent the capsular ligament from being pinched in
 the motions of the joint.
  GLUTIA.   (From  yXouroc, the buttocks.)   The
 buttocks.  See Nates
  Gluttu'patens.  (From glultus, the  throat, and
 pateo,  to extend.)   The stomach, which is an exten-
 sion of the throat.
  GLUTUS.   (rXouroc; from  yXotoj,  filthy.)   The
 buttock. See Nates.
  Glyca'sma.  (From yXvxvs, sweet.)  A sweet me-
 dicated wine.
  Glycypi'cros.   (From yXvxvs, sweet, and  7r(Acpoc,
 bitter: so called from its bitterish-sweet taste.)  See
 Solanum dulcamara.
  GLYCYRRHIZA.   (From yXwcuc, sweet,  and
 pi^a, a root.)  1. The name of a genus of planis in the
 Linntean system.   Class,  Diadelphia;  Order,  De-
 candria.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of liquorice.  See
 Glycyrrhiza glabra.
  Glycyrrhiza echinata.  This species of liquorice
 is substituted in some places for the root of the glabra.
  Glycyrrhiza glabra.  The systematic  name of
 the  officinal liquorice.  Glycyrrhiza; leguminibus
 glabris, slipulis nullis, foliolo  imparl petiolata.   A
 native of the south of Europe, but cultivated in Bri-
 tain.   The root contains a great quantity of saccha-
 rine matter, joined with some proportion of mucilage,
 and hence it has a viscid sweet taste.  It is in common
 use as a pectoral  or emollient, in catarrhal defluxiona
 on  the breast, coughs, hoarsenesses, Sec.  Infusions,
 or the  extract made from it, which is called Spanish
 liquorice, afford likewise very commodious vehicles
 for the exhibition of other medicines;  the  liquorice
 taste concealing that of unpalatable drugs  more effec-
 tually  than syrups or any of the sweets of  the saccha-
 rine kind.
  Glycysa'ncon.  (From yXvxvs, sweet, and ayxiav,
 the elbow: so called from its sweetish taste, and its in-
 flections, or elbows at the joints.)  A species of south-
 ern wood.
  GNAPHA'LIUM.    (From  ymtbaXov, cotton:  so
 named from its soft downy surface.)  i.  The name
 of a genus  of plants in the Linnean system.  Class,
 Syngcnesia; Order, Polygamia superfiua.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of ihe herb  cotton
 weed.   See Gnaphalium dioicum.
  Gnaphalium arenarium.   The flowers  of this
 plant, as well as those ofthe gnaphalium stcechas, are
 called, in the pharmacopoeias, fiores  elichrysi.  See
 Gnaphalium stachas.
  Gnaphalium dioicum.  Tbe systematic name of
 the pes cati.  Gnaphalium albinum.   Cotton weed.
 The flores gnaphalii of the pharmacopoeias, called also
flores hispidula, seu pedis cati, are the produce of this
 plant.  They are  now  quite obsolete,  but were for
 inerly  used as  astringents, and recommended  in the
 cure of hooping-cough, phthisis pulmonalis, and he-
 moptysis.
  Gnaphalium stcechas.  The systematic  name of
 Goldilocks.  Eliehrysum; Stachas cilrina.  The flow-
 ers of this small downy plant are warm, pungent, and
 bitter,  and  said to possess aperient and corroborant
 virtues.
  Gna'tiius.  (From yvanjia, to bend; so called from
 their curvature.)  1. The jaw, or jaw-hones.
                                       399 
GOM
GON
  2. Tbe check.
  GNEISS.   A compound rock, consisting of felspar,
quartz, and mica, disposed in slates, from the prepon-
derance ofthe mica scales.
  Gni'dius.   A  term  applied by Hippocrates, and
others since, to some medicinal precepts wrote in the
island of Gnidos.
  Goat's-rue.  See Galega.
  Goat's-thorn.  See Astragalus verus
  GOAT-WEED.  See (Egopodium.
  GOUT-WEED.  See OXgopodium podagraria.
  GODDARD, Jonathan, was born at Greenwich, in
1617.  After studying at Oxford, and travelling for im-
provement, he graduated at Cambridge, and settled to
practise in London. He was elected a Fellow of the
College of Physicians in 1646, andj the following year,
appointed Lecturer on Anatomy. He formed a So-
ciety for Experimental Inquiry,  which met  at his
bouse; and he was very assiduous in promoting its
objects.   Having gained considerable reputation, and
sided with the popular party, he was appointed by
Cromwell chief physician to the army, and attended
him in some of his expeditions.  Cromwell then made
him warden of Merton College, Oxford, afterward sole
representative of that university in the short parlia-
ment, in 1653, and in the same year one of the Coun-
cil of State.   On the Restoration, being driven from
Oxford, he removed to Gresham College, where he had
been chosen Professor of Physic.  Here he continued
to frequent those meetings, which gave birth to the
Royal Society, and he was nominated one of the first
council of that institution. He was an able and con-
scientious practitioner; and was induced, partly from
the love of experimental chemistry, but principally
from doubting the competency of apothecaries, to pre-
pare his own medicines:  in which, however, finding
numerous obstacles, he published " A Discourse, set-
ting forth the unhappy Condition of the Practice of
Physic in London;" but this was of no avail.  Two
papers of his appeared in the Philosophical Transac-
tions, and many others in Birch's History of the Royal
Society.  He died in 1674, of an apoplectic stroke.
  GOELICKE,  Andrew Offon, a  German  physi-
cian, acquired considerable reputation in the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, as a medical professor,
and especially as an advocate ofthe doctrines of Stahl.
He left  several works which relate principally to the
History  of Anatomy, &c, particularly the " Historia
Medicine Universalis," which was published in six
different portions, between the years 1717 and 1720.
  Goitre. See Bronchocele.
  GOLD. Aurum.   A metal found in nature only in
a metallic state; most commonly in grains, ramifica-
tions,  leaves, or crystals, rhomboidal, octahedral, or
pyramidal. Its matrix is generally quartz, sandstone,
siliceous schistus, &c.  It is found also in  the sands
of many rivers, particularly in Africa, Hungary, and
France, in minute irregular grains, called gold dust.
Native gold, found  in compact masses, is never com-
pletely pure;  it is alloyed with silver, or copper, and
sometimes with iron and tellurium. The largest piece
of native gold that has been hitherto discovered in
Europe, was found in the county of Wicklow, in Ire-
had.  Ite weipht was said to be  twenty-two ounces,
and the quantity of alloy it contained was very small.
Several other pieces, exceeding one ounce, have also
been discovered  at the same place, in sand, covered
with turf, and adjacent to a rivulet
  OrM is also met with in a particular sort of argenti-
ferous copper pyrites, called, in Hungary, Gelf.  This
ore is found either massive, or crystallized  in rhom-
boids, or other irregular  quadrangular or polygonal
masses.  It exists likewise in the sulphurated ores of
Nteaya m Transylvania.  These all contain the metal
eaBed tellurinm.   Berthollet, and other French che-
mists, bave obtained gold out of the  ashes of Vega-
tabs'!!.
  GOLD-CUP.   See Ranunculus.
  GOLDEN-ROD.  See Solidago virga aurea.
   Golden maidenhair.   See Polylrichum commune.
  GOLDILOCKS.   See Gnaphalium stachas
  [Goldthread.  See Coptis trifolia.  A.]
  GOMPHPASIS.   (From youtbos, a nail.)   G-omphi-
asmus.   A disease of the teeth, when they are loosened
from the sockets, like nails drawn out of the wood.
  Gomphia'smus.  Sec (lomphiasis.
  Go'mphioi.   :r'rom  yopios, a nail: so called be-
      400
cause they ai e aa nailsfMvenrinto tasiT wsjuns l The)
denies molares, or grUfHrtf teeth.
  Goxpho'ma.  See Gsmphosits
  GOMPHO'SIS.  (From yop$ov, to drive In a usjl.)
Gomphoma.  A species of immoveable connexion of
bones, in which one bone is fixed in another, like a nail
in a board, as the teeth in the alveon of the jaws.
  GONA LGIA.  See Gonyalgia.
  GONA'GRA.  (From yew, the knee,, and ay pa, a
seizure.)  The gout in tbe knee.
  GO'NE.   (yovn.)  1. The seed.
  2. In Hippocrates it is the uterus.
  GONG.  Tam-tam.  A species of cymbal which
produces a very loud  sound  when struck.  It is an
alloy of about eighty parts  of copper with twenty of
tin.
  GONGRO'NA.  (From yoyypos, a hard knot.)  1.
The cramp.
  2. A knot in the trunk of a tree.
  3. A hard round tumour of the nervous parts; but
particularly.a bronchocele, or other hard tumour of the
neck.
  Gonoy'lion.   (From yoyyvXos, round.)  A pill.
  GONIOMETER.  An instrument for measuring tlie
angles of crystals.
  GONOI'DES.  (From yovn, seed, and n joe,  form.)
Resembling  seed.  Hippocrates often uses it  as an
epithet for the excrements of the belly, and for the con-
tents of the urine, when there is something in them
which resembles the seminal matter.
  GONORRHOEA.   (From  yovn,  the semen,  and
ptia, to flow; from  a supposition of the aacients, that
it was a seminal flux.)  A genus of disease ia the class
Locales,  and order Apocenoses, of  Dr. Oullen's ar-
rangement, who defines it a preternatural dux of fluid
from the urethra in males,  with or without libidinous
desires.   Females,  however, are subject to the same
complaint in some forms.  He makes four species, viz.
  1. Gonorrhaa pura or benigna;  a purifortn  dis-
charge from the urethra, without dysuria, or lascivious
inclination, and not following an impure connexion.
  2. Gonorrhaa  impura, maligna, syphilitica, viru-
lenta; a discharge  resembling pus, from the urethra,
with heat of urine, Sec, after impure  coition,  to whicli
often succeeds a discharge of mucus from the urethra,
with little or no dysury, called a gleet.  This disease
is also called Fluor albus malignus  Bleniiorrhagia,
by Swediaur.  In English, a clap, from the old French
word clapises, which were  public shops, kept and in-
habited  by single prostitutes, and  generally confined
to a particular quarter ofthe town, as is even now the
case in several of the  great towns in Italy.  In Ger-
many, the disorder is named tripper, from dripping;
and in French, chaudpisse, from the heat and scalding
in making water.
  No certain rule can be laid down with regard to tiie
time that a clap will take before it makes  its appear-
ance, after infection has been conveyed.  With some
persons It will show itself in thecourseofthreeorfour
days, while,  with others, there will  not be  the least
appearance of it  before the  expiration of some weeks.
It most  usually is perceptible, however, in the space
of from six  to fourteen days, and in a male, begins
with an uneasiness about the parts of generation, such
as an itching in the glaus penis, and a soreness and
tingling  sensation along the whole eourse of the  ure-
thra; soon after  which, the person  perceives  un ap-
pearance of whitish matter at its orifice, and also some
degree of pungency upon making water.
  In the course of a few days, the discbarge of matter
will increase considerably;  will assume, most  proba
bly, a greenish or yellowish hue, and will become thin-
ner, and  lose its adhesiveness; the parts will also be
occupied with some degree of redness and inflamma-
tion, in consequence of which the glaus will put on the
appearance of a  ripe cherry, the stream of urine wit
be smaller than usual, owing to the canal being made
narrower by the inflamed state of ils internal mem-
brane, and a considerable  degree of pain, and scald-
ing heat will be experienced on every attempt to make
water.
  Where the inflammation prevails in a very high de-
gree, it prevents  the extension of the urethra, on tile
taking place of any erection, so that the penis ia,  at
that tune, curved downwards, with great pain, which
is much increased,  if attempted to b» raised towards
tbe belly, and the etimulu* occasions it often to be 
GON
GOS
     it






^»W TJ
 erected, particularly when the patient is warm in bed,
 and bo deprives him of sleep, producing, in some cases,
 an involuntary emission of semen.
   In consequence of the inflammation, it sometimes
 happens that, at the lime of making water, owing to
 tlie rupture of some small blood-vessel, a slight hemor-
 rhage ensues, and a small quantity of blood is voided.
 In consequence of inflammation, the prepuce likewise
 becomes often so swelled at  the end, tbat it cannot be
 drawn back, which symptom is called a phimosis; or,
 that  being drawn behind tho  glans, it cannot be re-
 turned, wluch is known by the  name of paraphimosis.
 Now and then, from the same cause, little hard swell-
 ings  arise on the lower surface of the penis, along the
 course of the urethra, and these perhaps suppurate and
 form into fistulous sores.
   The adjacent parts sympathizing with those already
 affected, the bladder becomes irritable, and incapable
 of retaining the urine for any  length of time, which
 gives the patient a frequent inclination to mako water,
 and he feels an uneasiness  about the scrotum, peri-
 neum, and fundament   Moreover, the glands of the
 groins grow indurated  and enlarged, or perhaps the
 testicles become swelled and  inflamed, in consequence
 of which he experiences excruciating pains, extending
 from the sea' ofthe complaint up into the small of the
 back; he gets hot and restless, and a small sympto-
 matic fever arises.
   Where the parts are not occupied by much  inflam-
 mation, few or none of the last-mentioned symptoms
 will arise, and only a discharge with a slight heat or
 scalding in making water will prevail.
   If a gonorrhoea  be neither irritated by any irregu-
 larity of the  patient, nor prolonged by the want  of
 timely and proper assistance, then,  in the course  of
 about a fortnight, or three weeks, the discharge, from
 having been thin and discoloured at first, will become
 thick, white, and  of a ropy consistence; and from
 having gradually begun to diminish in  quantity, will
 at last cease entirely, together with every inflammatory
 symptom whatever; whereas, on the contrary, if the
 patient has led a life of intemperance and sensuality,
 has partaken freely  of the bottle and high-seasoned
 meals, and has, at the same time, neglected to pursue
 the necessary means, it may  then continue for many
 weeks or months;  and,  on  going off,  may  leave a
 weakness or gleet behind it, besides being accompa-
 nied with the risk of giving rise, at some distant period,
 to  a  constitutional affection, especially if there has
 been a neglect of proper cleanliness; for where vene-
 real matter has been suffered to lodge between the
 prepuce and glans penis for any time, so as to have oc-
 casioned either excoriation  or ulceration, there will
 always be danger of  its having been absorbed.
  Another risk, arising from the long continuance of
 a  gonorrhoea, especially if it has been attended with
 inflammatory symptoms, or has been of frequent re-
 currence, is the taking place of one or more strictures
 in the urethra.  These are sure to occasion a consider-
 able degree of difficulty,  as well as pain, in  making
 water, and, instead of ita being discharged in a free
 and uninterruD6jj%tream, it splits into two, or perhaps
 is voided dropTjjBrc-p.  Such affections become, from
 neglect, of a n^H serious a'tfiT.dangerous nature,  as
 they not  unfrequently block  up" tile urethra, so as to
 "nduce a total suppression of urine.
   Where the gonorrhoea has been of long standing,
'warty excrescences are likewise apt to arise about the
 parts of generation, owing to the matter  falling and
 lodging thereOn; and they not unfrequently prove both
 numerous and troublesome.
  Having noticed every symptom which  usually at-
 tends on gonorrhoea, in tiie male sex, it will only be
 necessary to observe, that the same heat and soreness
 in making water, and the same discharge of discolour-
 ed mucus, together with a slight pain in walking, and
 an uneasiness in sitting, take place in females as in the
 former; but as the parts in women, which are most
 apt to be affected by the venereal poison, are less com-
 plex  in their  nature, and fewer in number, than  in
 men, so of course the former are not liable to many of
 the symptoms which the latter are; and, from the
 urinary canal being much shorter, and of a more sim-
 ple form, in  them than in men, they are seldom, if
 ever. Incommoded by the taking place of strictures.
   With women, it indeed often happens, that all the
 symptoms of a gonorrhoea are  so very slight, they ex-
                                       Cc
pcrience no other inconvenience than the discharge
except  perhaps  immediately  after menstruation,  at
which period, it is no uncommon occurrence for them
to perceive some degree of aggravation iu the synip
toms.             /
   Women of a relaxed habit, and such as have had
frequent miscarriages, are apt to be afflicted  with a
disease known by the name of fluor albus, which it is
often difficult to distinguish from gonorrhoea virulenta,
as the matter discharged in both is, in many cases, of
the same colour and consistence.  The surest way of
forming a just conclusion, in instances  of this nature,
will be to draw it from an accurate investigation, both
of the symptoms which are present  and those which
have preceded  the  discharge; as likewise from the
concurring circumstances, such as the character and
mode of life of the  person, and the  probability there
may be of  her  having  had venereal  infection con-
veyed to her by any connexion  in which she may be
engaged.
   Not long ago, It was generally supposed  that gonor-
rhoea depended always upon ulcers in the urethra, pro-
ducing a discharge of purulent matter; and such ulcers
do, indeed, occur in consequence of  a high degree of
inflammation and suppuration;  but  many dissections
of persons, who have died while labouring under a
gonorrhoea, have clearly shown that the disease may,
and often does,  exist without any ulceration  in the
urethra, so that the discharge which appears is usually
of a vitiated mucus, thrown out from the mucous folli
cles of the urethra.  On opening this canal, in recent
cases, it usually appears red and inflamed; its mucous
glands are somewhat enlarged, and its cavity is filled
with matter to within a small distance from  its ex-
tremity.  Where the disease  has been of long con-
tinuance, its surface all along, even to the bladder, is
generally found pale and relaxed, without any erosion.
   3. Gonorrhaa laxorum, libidinosa; a pellucid dis-
charge from the urethra, without erection of the penis,
but with venereal thoughts while awake.
  4. Gonorrhaa dormientium.  Oneirogonos.  When,
during sleep, but dreaming of venereal engagements,
there is an  erection of the penis, and  a seminal dis-
charge.
   Gonorrhoea balani.  A species of gonorrhoea af-
fecting the glans penis only.
  GONYAFLGIA.  (From yovu, the  knee, and aXyoc,
pain.)   Gonialgia;  Gonalgia.  Gout in the knee.
   GOOSE.  Anser.   The Anser domesticus, or tame
goose.
   GOOSE-FOOT.  See Chenopodium.
   GOOSE-GRASS.   See Galium aparine.
   GO'RDIUS.  1. The name of a genus of the Order
Vermes, of animals.
  2. The gordius, or hair-tail worm, of old writers.
which is the seta equina found  in stagnant marshes
and ditches in Lapland, and other places.
   Gordius medinensis.  The systematic name of a
curious animal.  See Medinensis vena.
   GORGONI A.  The name of a genus of corals.
   Goroonia nobilis.   The red coral.
   GOSSY'PIUM.  (From gotne, whence  gottipium,
Egyptian.)   1. The  name of a genus of plants in the
Linnean system.  Class, Monaddphia ; Order, Poly-
andria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the cotton-tree.  See
Gossypium Iterbaceum.
  Gossypium herbacbum.   The systematic  name
of the cotton-plant.   Gossypium ; Bomb ax.  Gossy-
pium—foliis quinqudobis subtus eglandulosis, cauls
herbaceo, of Linneus.   The  seeds  are directed for
medicinal use in some foreign pharmacopoeias; and
are administered in  coughs, on account of the  muci-
lage they contain.   The cotton, the  produce of this
tree, is well known for domestic purposes.
  [Besides the Gossypium herbaceum, there are other
species, producing cotton-wool, some of which is of a
fawn-colour, found in Peru, and used  by the natives
ofthe country.  Which of the following species it is,
we have not been able to ascertain.  Persoon, in his
Synopsis Plantarum, gives the ten following species
of Gossypium, viz.
            1. Gossypium herbaceum.
            2.     ..     indicum.
            3.     ..     micranthura.
            4.      ..     arboreum.
            5.      ..     vitifoliuni.
                                       401 
GRA
GRA
t of a
            6. Gossypium  hirsutum.
            7.      ..      religiosum.
            8.      ..      latifolium.
            0.      ..      barbadense.
           10.      ..      peruvianum.  A
  GoularcTs Extract.   A saturated solution of acetate
•f lead.  See Plumbi acetatis liquor.
  GOULSTON, Theodore, was born in Northamp-
tonshire.  After studying medicine at Oxford, he prac-
tised  for a time with considerable reputation at Wy-
mondham, of which hia father was  rector.  Having
taken his doctor's degree in  1610, he  removed to Lon-
don, and became a fellow ofthe College of Physicians.
He was much esteemed for classical  and theological
learning, as well as in. his profession.   He died in 1632,
and bequeathed  £200 to purchase a rent-charge for
maintaining an annual Pathological Lecture, to be read
at the college by one of the  four junior doctors.  He
translated and wrote learned notes  on some  of the
works of Aristotle and Galen; of which the latter were
not published till after his death.
  GOURD.   See Cucurbita.
  Gourd, bitter.   See Cucumis colocynthis.
  GOUT.  See Arthritis, and Podagra.
  Gout stone. See Chalk stone.
  GRAAF, Reinier de, was born at Schoonhove, in
Holland, 1641.  He studied physic at Leyden, where
he made great progress, and at the age of twenty-two
published his treatise " De Succo Pancrealico," which
gained him considerable reputation.  Two years after
he went to France, and graduated at Angers; he then
returned to  his  native  country,  and  settled  at  Delft,
where he was very successful in practice; but he died
at the early age of thirty-two.   He published three
dissertations relative to the organs of generation in
both sexes; upon which  he had a controversy with
Swammerdam.
  GRA'CILIS.   (So named from its smallness.)  Rec-
tus interior femoris, sive gracilis interior of Winslow.
Sous pubio  creti tibial of Dumas.  A long, straight,
and tender  muscle, situated immediately under  the
integuments, at the inner part of the thigh.  It arises
by  a  broad  and  thin tendon, from the anterior part
of the ischium and pubis, and soon becoming fleshy,
descends nearly in a straight direction along the in-
side of the  thigh. A little  above the knee,  it termi-
nates  in a slender and roundish  tendon, which after-
ward  becomes flatter, and is inserted into the middle
of the tibia, behind and under the sartorius.   Under
the tendons of this and  the rectus, there is a consider-
able bursa mucosa, which on one side adheres to them
and to the tendon of the semitendinosus, and on  the
other to the capsular ligament of the knee.  This mus-
 ic assists in bending the thigh and leg inwards.
  GRiECUS. The trivial name of some herbs found
in or brought from Greece.
  GRAFTING.   Budding and inoculating is the pro-
cess of uniting the branches or buds of two or more
separate trees. The bud or branch of one tree, accom-
panied by a  portion of  its bark,  is inserted into  the
bark of another,  and the tree which is thus engrafted
upon is called the stock.  By this mode different kinds
of fruits, pears, apples,  plums, Sec, each of which is
only a variety accidentally  raised from seed, but no
further perpetuated in the  same manner, are  multi-
plied; buds of  tbe  kind wanted to  be propagated,
being engrafted on so many stalks of a wild nature.
  GRA'MEN. (Gramen,inis. n.) Grass.  Any kind
of grass-like herb.
  Gram en arundinaceum.   See Calamagrostis.
  Gramen caminum.  See Triticum repens.
  Gramen  crucis cyferioidis.   Gramen agyptia-
cum.  Egyptian cock's-foot grass, or grass of the cross.
The roots and plants possess the same virtues as  the
dog's grass, and are serviceable in tbe earlier stages of
dropsy.   They are supposed  to correct the bad smell of
the breath, and  to relieve nephritic disorders, colics,
tec, although now neglected.
  Gramia.   The sordes of the eyes.
  GRAMMATITE.  See TremdiU.
  Gramme.  (From yaaum, » line: so called from lis
linear appearance.)  The ins ofthe eye.
  Granadi'lla.   (Diminutive of granado, a pome-
granate, Spanish: so called because at the top of  the
flower there are points, like the grains ot the pomegra-
nate.)  The passion-flower, the fruit of wbich Is said
to possess refrigerating qualities.
      403
   GRANATITE.  Sec Grenatitt.
   Gran atri'stum.  A bile or carbuncle.
   GRANATUM.  (From granum, a grain, because il
 Is full of seed.)  The pomegranate.   See Punica gra-
 nalum.
   Grande'bal.c.  (Quod in grandioribus atate nas-
 cantur, because they appear in those who are advanced
 in years.)  The hair? under the arm-pits.
   Grandinosum os.  The os cuboides.
   GRA'NDO.  (Grando,inis.f.  Quod similitudinrm
 granorum habcat, because it is in shape and size like
 a grain of seed.)
   1. Hail.
   2. A moveable tumour on the margin of the eyelid
 is so called, from its likeness to a hail-stone.
   GRANITE.  A compound rock consisting of quartz,
 felspar, and mica,  each crystallized, and cohering by
 mutual affinity without any basis or cement.
   GRANULATION.  (Granulatio;  from granum,
 a grain.)   1.  In surgery: The little grainlike fleshy
 bodies which form on the surfaces of ulcers and sup-
 purating wounds, and serve both for filling up the cavi-
 ties, and bringing  nearer together  and uniting their
 sides, are called granulations.
   Nature is supposed to be active in bringing parts as
 nearly as possible to their  original slate, whose dispo-
 sition, action, arid structure, have been altered by acci-
 dent, or  disease; and after having,in  her operations
 for this  purpose, formed pus, she  immediately  sets
 about forming a new matter upon surfaces, in which
 there bas been a breach of continuity.  This process
 is called granulating or incarnation;  and the sub-
 stance formed is called granulations.  The colour of
 healthy granulations is a deep florid red.  When livid,
 they are  unhealthy, and have only a languid circula-
 tion.   Healthy granulations,  on an exposed or flat
 surface, rise nearly even with the surface of the sur-
 rounding skin, and often a little higher; but when they
 exceed this, and take on a  growing disposition, they are
 unhealthy,  become soft, spongy, and without any dis-
 position  to  form  skin.    Healthy  granulations  are
 always prone to unite to each other, so as to be the
 means of uniting parts.
  2. In chemistry:  The method of dividing metallic
substances  into grains or small particles, iu order to
facilitate their combination with other substances, and
Bometimes for the purpose of readily subdividing them
by weight.
  GRANULATUS.  Granulated.  Applied to ulcers
and to parts of plants.  A root is so called which is
jointed; as  that of the Oxalis acetocclla.
  GRA'NUM.  (Granum, i. n.)  A grain or kernel.
  Granum  cnidium.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Granum  infectorivm.  Kermes berries.
  Granum  kermes.  Kermes berries.
  Granum  moschi. See Hibiscus abelmoschus
  Granum  paradibi.  See Amomum.
  Granum  regium.  The castor-oil seed.
  Granum  tiglii.  See Croton tiglium.
  Granum  tinctori*.  Kermes berries.
  GRAPHIC ORE.  An ore of tellurium.
  GRAPHIOI'DES.   (From  ypircne,  a pencil, and
tiSos, a form.)  1. The styliform process  of the os
temporis.
  2. A process of the ulna.       »
  3. The digastricus \\ as formerly so called from ita£>
supposed origin from the above-mentioned process  of*?
the temporal bone
  GRAPHITE.  Rhomboidal graphite of Jameson, or
plumbago, or black-lead,  of which he gives two sub-
species, the scaly and compact.
  Gra'ssa.  Borax.
  GRATI'OLA.   (Diminutive of gratia, so named
from its supposed admirable qualities.)  Hyssop.
  1. The name of  a genus of plants in the Linnean
system.  Class, Diandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the  hedge-hyssop.
See Gratiola officinalis.
  Gratiola officinalis.  The systematic  name of
the hedge-hyssop.  Digitalis minima; Gratia dei;
 Gratiola centauriodes.  This exotic plant, the  Gra-
tiola ;—-foliis  lanceolatis, serratis, floribus  peduncu-
latis, of Linneus, is a native ofthe south of Europe;
but is raised in our gardens.  The leaves have a nau-
seous bitter taste, hut no remarkable smell; they purge
and vomit briskly in the dose of half a drachm of the
dry herb, or of a drachm  infused in wine  or water 
GRE
GRE
      This  plant, in small doses, has been  commonly em-
      ployed as a cathartic and diuretic in  hydropical dis-
      eases; and instances of its good uffects in ascites and
      anasarca  are recorded by many respectable practi-
      tioners.  Gesncr and Bergius found a scruple of the
      powder a  sufficient dose, as in this quantity it fre-
      ejuently excited nausea or vomiting; others have given
      it to half a drachm, two scruples, a drachm, and even
      more.
        An extract of the  root of this plant is said to be
      more efficacious than the plant itself, and exhibited in
      the dose of half  a drachm, or drachm, in dysenteries,
      produces the best effect.   We are also told by Kostr-
      zewski that in the hospitals at Vienna, three maniacal
      patients  were perfectly recovered by its use;  and in
      the most  confirmed cases of lues venerea, it effected a
      complete cure; it usually acted by increasing the uri-
      nary, cutaneous, or salivary discbarges.
        GRAVE'DO.  (From gravis, heavy.)  A catarrh,
      or cold, with a sense of heaviness in the head.
        GRAVEL.  See Calculus.
        [Gravel root.  See Eupatorium purpureum.  A.]
        GRAVITY.   A term used by physical writers to
      denote the cause by which all bodies move  toward
      each other, unless prevented by some other force or
      obstacle.
        Gravity, specific   The density of the matter of
      which any body is composed, compared to the destiny
      of another body,  assumed as the standard.   This
      standard  is pure distilled water, at the  temperature of
      60° F. To determine the specific gravity of a solid, we
      weigh it, first in air, and then in water,  in the latter
      case, it loses of its weight a quantity precisely equal to
      the weight of its own bulk of water; and  hence, by
      comparing  this weight, wilh its total weight, we find
      its specific gravity.  The rule, therefore, is, Divide the
      total weight by the loss of weight in water, the quo-
      tient is the specific gravity.  If it be a liquid or a gas.
      we weigh it in a  glass or other vessel of known capa-
      city; and dividing that weight by the weight  of, the
      same bulk of water, the quotient is, as before, the spe-
      cific eravitv.
        ["GREEN, Thomas.  The family of Green has
      made itself remarkable, in the medical profession, by
       jg humble and  singular origin.  The subject of this
      notice, the medical ancestor of the family,  was bom
      In Maiden, and was one of the first settlers of Leices-
      ter, county of Worcester, Massachusetts.   He received
      his first  medical impressions, and  impulse, from a
      book, given him by a surgeon of a British  ship, who
      resided a few months at his father's, and took an in-
      terest in his vigorous and opening intellect.   His outfit,
      for the wilderness, consisted of his gun,  his axe, his
      book, his sack, and his cow.  His first habitation was
      built  by nature,  its roof composed of a shelving rock.
      Here he passed  the night in  sound repose, after the
      labour of the day, in felling and clearing the  forest.
      Soon after he began his settlement, he was attacked
      by  a fever.  Foreseeing the  difficulties  which  must
      attend his situation, without a friendly hand to admi-
      nister  even the scanty necessaries of life,  he had the
      precaution to tie a young  calf to his cabin, formed
      under the rock.  By this stratagem he was enabled to
,v-   obtain sustenance from the cow, as often as she re-
<**'   turned to give nourishment to her young.  In this man-
      ner he derived his support for some weeks.  By the
      aid of his book, and the knowledge of simples, a profi-
      ciency in which he early acquired by an intercourse
      with  the Indians,  he was  soon enabled to prescribe
      successfully for the simple maladies of his fellow-set-
      tlers.  By practice, from the necessity of the case, as
      well as from choice, he acquired theory and skill, and
      soon rose to great reputation. Thus,  from  fortuitous
      circumstances, and an humble beginning, the name of
      Green has attained its present eminence in the medical
      profession "—Thach. Med.  Biog.  A.]
        ["GREEN, Dr. John, (senior,) son of the above
      mentioned, was  born  at Leicester, in  the year 1736.
      By the aid of his father, he early became a physician,
      and settled at Worcester.  He married a daughter of
      Brigadier Ruggles, of Hardvvick, and became the father
      of a large family.  Not satisfied, as  too many are,
      with the limited  means of knowledge which necessa-
      rily fell to his lot, he afforded his children the best edu-
      cation in his power.  He was extensively employed,
      and distinguished himself for his tenderness and fide-
      lity.  He inherited a taste  and skill  in botany, with
his professirin, fcom his father.  In his garden were to
be found Ilv **eful plant, the  kealing herb, and the
grateful rVuit; which  either his humanity bestowed
on the sick, or his hospitality on his friends.  He died,
November  29th, 1799, aged 63 years.— Thach. Med.
Biog.  A.]
  ["GREEN, Dr.  John,  (junior,) son  of the  pre-
ceding, was born A. D. 1763.   Descended from an-
cestors who made the art of healing  their study, Dr.
Green was easily initiated in the school of physic;  and,
from his childhood, the natural bias of his mind led
him to tbat profession, which,  through life, was the
sole object of his drdent pursuit. To be distinguished
as a physician, was not his chief incentive.   To as-
suage the sufferings of humanity,  by his skill, was a
higher motive of his  benevolent mind.  Every  duty
was  performed with delicacy and tenderness.  With
these propensities,  aided by a strorsjj inquisitive, and
discriminating mind, he attained to a pre-eininent  rank
among the physicians and  surgeons of our country
To this sentiment of his worth, correctly derived  from
witnessing his practice on others, a more feeling tribute
is added by those who have experienced his skill; for
so mild was his deportment, so soothing were his
manners, and so indefatigable was his attention, that
he gained the unbounded confidence  of his patients,
and the cure was in a good measure performed before
medicine was administered. To those who were ac-
quainted wilh Dr.  Green, the idea, tbat " some  men
are  born  physicians," was not absurd; for be not
only possessed an innate mental fitness for the  profes
sion,  but was constitutionally  formed to bear its fa-
tigues and  privations.  Few men, of his  age, have
had  such extensive practice, or endured a greater va
riety of fatigue, or have been so often  deprived of
stated rest and  refreshment. It is worthy of remark,
that  in all the variety  of duty,  incident to his calling,
he was never known  to yield to the well-intended
proffer of that  kind  of momentary refreshment,  so
ready at command, and so often successfully pressed
upon the weary, exhausted, and incautious physician.
  " The firmness and equanimity of his mind, which
were conspicuous in all the exigencies of life, forsook
him not in death.  With Christian resignation, he "set
his house in  order"  knowing  he  " must die and not
live."  In perfect possession of his intellectual facul-
ties, with a mind calm and collected, he spent the last
moments of life performing its last  duties, with the
sublime feelings of a philosopher and Christian.  And
when, by an  examination of his pulse, he found the
cole1  hand of death pressing hard upon him, he bade u
cam  adieu to  his attending physicians,  whom  ho
wished should  be  the sole witnesses  of nature's last
conflict.  Placing himself in  the most favourable pos-
ture  for an  easy exit, he expressed a hope that his for-
titude would save his afflicted family and friends from
the distress of bearing a dying  groan.  His hope was
accomplished!  He died, August 11th, 1808,  aged 45
years.  At  his request, his body was examined.  The
cause of death was found in  the enlargement,  and
consequent flaccidity, of the aorta."—Thachtr's Med.
Biog.  A.J
  GREEN EARTH.   Mountain green.   A  mineral
of a celandine green colour, found in Saxony, Verona,
and Hungary.
  GREEN  SICKNESS.  See Chlorosis.
  Green vitriol. Sulphate of iron.
  GREENSTONE. A rock of the  trap formation,
consisting of a hornblend, and felspar,  both  in the
state of grains or small crystals. Sec  Diabase.
  GREGORY,  John, was  born in  1725, his  father
being professor of medicine at  King's College, Aber-
deen : after studying  under whom, he went to Edin-
burgh, Leyden, and Paris.  At the age of 20, he was
elected professor of philosophy at Aberdeen, and was
made doctor of medicine.  In  the year 1756 he was
chosen professor of medicine on the death of his bro
ther James, who had succeeded his father in that chair
But about nine years after he went to Edinburgh; and
was  appointed  professor of  the practice of mediciue
there, Dr. Rutherford having resigned in  his  favour
The year following, on the death of Dr. White, he was
nominated first physician to the  king for Scotland.  He
also enjoyed very extensive practice, prior to his death
in 1773. He published, in 1765," A Comparative View
of the State and Faculties of Man with those of tbe
Animal World," which contains many Just and origi- 
GRY
GUA
 nal remarks, and was very favouraDly received.  Five
 years after his " Observations on tlie Duties and Of-
 fices  of a Physician, Sec," given in his introductory
 lectures, were made public surreptitiously; which in-
 duced him to print them in a more correct form.  Tbe
 work has been greatly admired.   His last publication,
 " Elements of the Practice of Physic " was intended
 as  a  syllabus to his lectures; but he did not live to
 complete it
  GRENATITE.  Prismatoidal garnet
  Gressu'ra.  (From gradior, to proceed.)  The pe-
 rineum which goes from the pudendum to the anus.
  GREW, Nehemiah, was born at Coventry ; where,
 after  graduating at some foreign university, he settled
 in practice.  He there formed the idea of studying the
 anatomy of plants.  His first essay on this subject was
 communicated to the Royal Society in 1670, and met
 with  great appftbation: whence  he was. induced to
 settle in London, and two years after became a fellow
 of that  society; of which he was also at one period
 secretary.  In 1680 he was made  an honorary fellow
 of the College of Physicians. He is said to have at-
 tained considerable practice, and  died in 1711.  His
 " Anatomy of Vegetable Roots and Trunks," is a large
 collection of original and useful facts; though  his
 theories have been invalidated by subsequent disco-
 veries.  He had no correct ideas of the propulsion or
 direction  of  the sap; but he was owe of  the first
 who adopted the doctrine of the sexes of plants; nor
 did even the principles  of methodical arrangement
 entirely escape his notice.  In 1681, he published a de-
 scriptive catalogue of the  Museum of the Royal So-
 ciety ; to which were added some lectures on the com-
 parative anatomy of the stomach and  intestines.
 Another publication was entitled " Cosmographia Sa-
 cra, or a Discourse of the Universe; as it is the Crea-
 ture and Kingdom of God."  His works were soon
 translated into French and Latin;  but the latter very
 incorrectly
  GREYWACKE.  A mountain  formation, consist-
 ing of two similar rocks, which  alternate with, and
 pass into each other, called grey wacke, and grey wacke-
 slate.
  GRIAS.  (A name mentioned by Apuleius.)  The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class, Polyandria; Order,
 Monogynia.
  Grias  cauliflora.  The  systematic name of the
 tree, the fruit of which is the anchovy pear.  The in-
 habitants of Jamaica esteem it as a pleasant and cool-
 ing fruit
  Grib'lum.   A name formerly applied to parsley and
 smallage.
  Gripho'menos.  (From ypafios, a net; because it
 surrounds the body as with a net.)  Applied to pains
 which surround the body at the loins.
  GROMWELL.  See Lithospermum.
  GROSSULARE.  A mineral of an asparagus-green
 colour, of the garnet genua
  GROSSULA'RIA.   (Diminutive of grossus, an un-
 ripe fig;  so named because its fruit resembles an unripe
 fig.)   The gooseberry, or gooseberry-bush.  See Ribes.
  Grotto del cane.   (The Italian for  the dogs'
 grotto.)  A grotto near Naples, in wbich dogs are suf-
 focated.   The carbonic acid  gas rises about eighteen
 inches.  A man therefore  is not  affected, but a dog
 forcibly held in, or that cannot rise above it, is soon
 killed, unless taken out  He is recovered by plunging
 him in an adjoining lake.
  Ground ivy.  See Glecoma hederacea.
  Ground liverwort.  See Lichen caninus.
  Ground-nut.  See Bunium bulbocastanum.
  Ground-pine.  See Teucrium chamapitys.
  GROUNDSEL.  See Senecio vulgaris.
  GRUINALES.  (From eras, a crane.)   The name
of an  order of plants  in Linnaeus's Fragments of a
Natural  Method, consisting of geranium, or crane's-
 bill  genus principally.
  GRU'TUM.  A hard, white tubercle of the skin, re-
 sembliug in size and appearance a millet-seed.
  GRYLLUS.  Tbe name of an extensive genus of
 insects, including the grasshoppers, and the locust  of
 the Scriptures.
  Gryllus vbrrucivorus.  The wart-eating grass-
 hopper.   It has green wings, spotted with brown, and
 is taught by the common people in Sweden to destroy
 warts, which they do, by biting off the excrescence and
 discharging a corrosive liquor on the wound.
      404
   GRYPHO'SIS.  (From ypu-Kwo, io incurvnle.)  A
 disease of the nails, which turn Inwards, and Irritate
 tiie soft parts below.
   GUAI'ACUM.   (From the Spanish  Guayaenn,
 which is formed from the Indian Hoazacum.)  1. The
 name of a  genus of plants in the Linnean system
 Class, Decandria ; Order, Monogynia,
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the officinal guaia
 cum.  See Guaiacum officinale.
   Guaiacum  officinale. _ This  tree,  Guaiacum—
 foliis bijugis, obtusis of Linneus, is a native of the
 West Indian  islands.  The wood, gum, bark, fruit,
 and even the flowers, have been found to possess medi-
 cinal qualities. The wood, which is called Guaiacum
 Americanum; Lignum vita; Lignum sanctum; Lie
 nun benedictum; Palus sanctus, is brought principally
 from Jamaica, in large pieces of four or five hundred
 weight each, and from its hardness and beauty is used
 for various  articles of turnery-ware.  It scarcely dis-
 covers any smell, unless heated, or while rasping, in
 which circumstances it yields a light aromatic one :
 chewed, it  impresses a slight acrimony, biting the
 palate and fauces. The gum, or  rather resin, is ob-
 tained by wounding the bark in different parts of the
 body of the  tree, or by what has been called jagging.
 It exudes copiously from the wounds, though  gradu-
 ally;  and when a quantity is found accumulated' upon
 the several wounded  trees, hardened by exposure to
 the sun, it is gathered and packed up in small kegs for
 exportation: it is of a friable texture, of a deep green-
 ish colour, and sometimes  of a reddish hue; it has a
 pungent acrid taste, but little or no smell, unless heat-
 ed.  The bark contains less  resinous matter than the
 wood, and is consequently a less powerful medicine,
 though in a recent state it is strongly cathartic.  " The
 fruit," says  a late author, "is purgative, and, for
 medicinal use, far excels the bark.  A decoction of it
 has been known to cure the venereal disease, and even
 the yaws in its advanced stage, without the use of
 mercury."   The flowers, or blossoms,  are laxative,
 and in Jamaica are commonly given to the children in
 the form of syrup.  It is only the  wood and resin of
 guaiacum which'are now in general medicinal  use in
 Europe; and as the efficacy of the former is supposed
 to be derived  merely  from  the quantity of resinous
 matter which it contains, they may be considered in-
 discriminately as the same medicine.  Guafacum was
 first introduced into the materia medica soon after the
 discovery of America; and previous to the use of
 mercury in the lues venerea, it was the principal reme-
 dy employed in the cure of that disease: its great suc-
 cess brought it into such repute, that it is said to have
 been sold for seven gold crowns a pound: but notwith-
 standing the  very numerous testimonies  in its favour,
 it often failed in curing the patient, and was at length
 entirely superseded by mercury ; and though it be still
 occasionally  employed in syphilis,  it is rather with a
 view to correct other diseases in the habit, than for its
 effects as an  anti-venereal.   It is now more generally
 employed for its virtues in curing gouty and rheumatic
 pains, and some cutaneous diseases.  Dr. Woodville
 and others frequently conjoined il  with  mercury and
 soap, and in  some cases with bark  or steel, and found
 it eminently  useful as an alterative.  In the pharma-
copoeia it is directed in the form of mixture and tinc-
 ture :  the latter is ordered to be prepared in two ways,
viz. with rectified spirit, and the aromatic spiri^of
ammonia. Of these latter  compounds, the doee may
be from two scruples to two drachma; the gum is gene-
rally given from six grains to twenty, or even more, for
a dose, either in pills or in a fluid form, by means of
mucilage or the yelk of an egg.  The decoctum ligno-
rum (Pharm. Edinb.) of which  guaiacum is the chief
ingredient, is commonly taken in  the quantity of a
pint a day.
  As many writers of the sixteenth century contended
that guaiacum was a true specific for tbe venereal dig-
 ease,  and the celebrated Boerhaave maintained the
same opinion, the following observations are inserted:
 Mr. Pearson mentions, that when be was first intrust-
 ed with the care ofthe Lock Hospital, 1781, Mr. Brom-
field and Mr. Williams were in the habit of renowns,
great confidence in the efficacy of a decoction of guaia-
cum wood.   This was administered to such patients
 as had already employed the usual  quantity of mer-
cury ;  but who complained of nocturnal pains, or had
gummata, nodes, ozena, and other effects of the vene- 
GUI
GUM
real virus, connected with secondary symptoms, as did
not yield to a course of mercurial frictions.  The diet
consisted  of  raisins, and hard biscuit; from two to
four pints of the decoction were taken every day; the
hot bath was used twice a week; and a dose of anti-
monial wine and laudanum, or Dover's powder, was
commonly taken  every  evening.   Constant  confine-
ment to bed was not deemed necessary; neither was
exposure to the vapour of burning spirit, with a view
of exciting perspiration, often practised;  as only  a
moist state of the skin was desired.  This treatment
was sometimes of singular advantage to those whose
health had sustained injury from the disease, long con-
finement, and mercury.  The strength increased; bad
ulcers healed; exfoliations were completed; and these
anomalous symptoms which would have  been exas-
perated by mercury, soon yielded to guaiacum.
  Besides such cases, in which the good effects of
guaiacum made it be erroneously regarded as a specific
for the lues venerea, the medicine was  also formerly
given, by some, on the first attack of the venereal dis-
ease.   The disorder being thus  benefited, a radical
cure was considered to  be accomplished:  and though
frequent relapses followed, yet, as these partly yielded
to the same remedy, its reputation was still kept up.
Many diseases also, which  got well,  were probably
not venereal cases.  Pearson seems to  allow, that in
syphilitic affections, it may indeed operate like a true
antidote, suspending, for a time, the progress of certain
venereal symptoms, and removing  other appearances
altogether; but he observes that experience lias evinced,
that the unsubdued virus yet remains active in the
constitution.
  Pearson has found guaiacum of little use in pains
of the bones, except when it proved sudorific; but that
it was  then inferior to antimony or volatile alkali.
When the constitution has been impaired  by mercury
and long confinement, and there is a thickened state
of the ligaments, or periosteum, or foul ulcers still re-
maining, Pearson says, these effects will often subside
during the exhibition  of the decoction;  and it will
often suspend, for a short time, the progress of certain
secondary symptoms of the lues venera; for instance,
ulcers of  the  tonsils,  venereal eruptions, and even
nodes.  Pearson, however, never knew one instance
in which guaiacum eradicated the virus; and he con-
tends, that its being conjoined with mercury neither
increases the virtue of this mineral, lessens its  bad
effects, nor diminishes the necessity of giving a certain
quantity of it   Pearson remarks that he has seen
guaiacum produce good effects in many patients, having
cutaneous diseases, the ozena, and scrofulous affec-
tions of the membranes and ligaments.
  GUILA'NDINA. (Named after Guilandus, a Prus-
sian, who travelled in  Palestine,  Egypt,  Africa,  and
Greece, and succeeded Fallopius in the botanical chair
at Padua.  He died in 1589.)  The name of a genus
of plants.  Class, Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Guilandina bonduc.  The systematic.name of the
plant, the fruit of which is called  Bonduch indorum.
Molucca or bezoar nut.  It possesses warm, bitter, and
carminative virtues.
  Guilandina morinoa.  This plant,  Guilandina—
inermis, foliis subpinnatis, foliolis inferioribus terna-
tis of Linneus, affords the  ben-nut and the lignum
nephriticum.
  1. Ben nux ; Glans unguentaria ; Balanus myrep-
sica; Coatis.  The oily aconi, or ben-nut  A whitish
nut, about the size of a small filberd, of a roundish
triangular shape, including a kernel of the same figure,
covered with a white skin.  They were formerly em-
ployed to remove obstructions of the prime vie.  The
oil afforded by simple  pressure, is remarkable for its
not growing rancid in  keeping, or, at least, not until
it has stood for a number of years; and on this ac-
count, it is used in extricating the aromatic principles
of such odoriferous flowers as yield little  or no essen-
tial oil in distillation.   The unallerability of this oil
would render it the most valuable substance  for ce-
rates, or liniments,  were it sufficiently common.   It is
actually employed  for this purpose in  many parts of
Italy.
   2. Lignum  nephriticum.  Nephritic wood.   It  is
brought from America in large, compact, ponderous
pieces, without knots, the outer part of a whitish, or
pale  yellowish colour, the inner of a dark brown or
red.  When rasped, it gives out a faint aromatic smell.
It is never used medicinally in this country, but stands
high in reputation abroad, against difficulties of making
urine, nephritic complaints, and most disorders of the
kidneys and urinary passages.
  GUINEA PEPPER.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Guinea-worm.  See Medinensis vena.
  GUINTERIUS, John, was born in  1487. at Ander-
nach, in Germany.  He was of obscure birth, and his
real name was said to have been Wintlier.  He showed
very early a great zeal for knowledge, and at the age
of 12 went to Utrecht to study; but he had to struggle
with great hardships, supported partly by his own in-
dustry, partly by the bounty of those who commiserated
his situation.   At length, having  given striking proofs
of his talents, he was appointed professor of  Greek  at
Louvain.  But his inclination being to medicine, he
went to Paris in 1525; where  he was made doctor five
years after.  He was appointed physician to  the king,
and practised there during several years;  giving also
lectures  on anatomy.   His reputation had reached the
north  of Europe;  and he received the most  advanta-
geous offers to repair to the court of  Denmark.  But
in 1537 he was compelled by the religious disturbances
to  retire into Germany. At Strasburgh he was received
with honour by the magistrates, and had a  chair as-
signed him by the faculty;  he  also practised very
extensively and successfully; and at length  letters of
nobility were  conferred upon  him by the emperor. He
lived, however, only twelve years  to  enjoy these
honours, having died in  1574. His works are  nume ■
rous,  consisting partly  of translations  of  the best
ancient  physicians, but  principally of commentaries
and illustrations of them.
  GUM.  I. Gummi.  The mucilage of vegetables.  It
is usually transparent, more or less brittle when dry,
though difficultly pulverable; of an insipid, or slightly
saccharine taste; soluble in,  or capable of combining
with, water in all proportions,  to which it gives  a
gluey adhesive consistence, in proportioa as  its  quan-
tity is greater.  It is separable,  or congulates  by the
action of weak acids; it is insoluble in alkohol, and in
oil; and capable of the acid fermentation, when diluted
with water.  The destructive action of fire  causes  it
to emit much carbonic acid, and converts it  into coal
without  exhibiting  any flame.  Distillation  affords
water, acid, a small quantity of  oil, a small quantity
of ammonia, and much coal.
  These are the leading  properties of gums,  rightly so
called; but the inaccurate custom of former  times ap-
plied the term gum to all concrete vegetable  juices, so
that in common we hear of gum copal, gum sandarach,
and other gums, which are either pure resins, or mix-
tures of resins with the vegetable mucilage.
  The principal gums are, 1. The common gums, ob-
tained from the plum, the peach, the  cherry-tree, Stc
2. Gum Arabic, which flows naturally from the acacia
in Egypt, Arabia, and elsewhere.  This forms a clear
transparent mucilage with water.  3.  Gum Seneca, or
Senegal.  It does  not greatly differ from gum Arabic:
the pieces are larger and clearer; and it seems to com-
municate a higher degree of the adhesive quality to
water.  It is much used by calico-printers and  others
The first sort  of gums are frequently sold by this name,
but may be known  bt their darker  colour.  4. Gum
adragant, or  tragacantn. It  is obtained from a small
plant, a species of astragalus, growing in Syria, and
other eastern parts.  It comes to us in small white con-
torted pieces, resembling worms.  It is usually dearer
than other gums, and forms a thicker jelly with water.
   Willis has found, that the root of the common blue-
bell, Hyacinthus  non scriptus,  dried and powdered,
affords a mucilage possessing all the  qualities of that
from gum Arabic. The roots of tbe vernal squill, white
lily, and orchis, equally yield mucilage.  Lord Dun-
donald has extracted a mucilage also from lichens.
   Gums treated with nitric acid afford  the  saclactic,
malic, and oxalic acids.
   II.  Gingiva.  The very  vascular and elastic sub-
stance that covers the alveolar arches ofthe upper and
under jaws, and embraces the necks ofthe teeth.
   Gum acacia.  See Acacia  vera.
   Gum arabic.  See Acacia vera.
   Gum, elastic.  See Caoutchouc.
   GUM-BILE. SeeParulis.
   GU'MMA.  A strumous tumour on the periosteum
of a bone.
   GUMMI.  (Gummi, n. indeclin.)  See Gum. 
GUT
GYP
  Gummi acaclc.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi acanthinum.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi arabicum.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi carann.e.  See Caranna.
  Gummi cerasorum.  The juices which exude from
the bark of cherry-trees.  It  is very similar to gum
Arabic, for which it may be substituted.
  Gummi chibou. A spurious kind of gum elemi, but
little used.
  Gummi courbaril.  An epithet sometimes applied
to the juice of the Hymenaa courbaril.  See Ani me.
  Gummi euphorbii.  See Euphorbia.
  Gummi oalda.  See Galda.
  Gummi oambiense.  See Kino.
  Gummi gutt.«. See Stalagmitis.
  Gummi hkdkr.e.  See Hedera helix.
  Gummi juniperinu.m. See Juniperus communis.
  Gummi kikekunemalo.  See Kikekunemalo.
  Gummi kino.   See Kino*
  Gummi lacca.  See Lacca.
  Gummi lamac  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi lutea.  See Botany Bay.
  Gummi myrrha.  See Myrrha.
  Gummi rubrum astringensgambiense. See Kino.
  Gummi sagapenum.  See Sagapenum.
  Gummi scorpio.nts.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi senega.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi senegalensk.  See Mimosa Senegal.
  Gummi senica.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi thebaicum.  See Acacia vera.
  Gummi tragacantha.  See Astragalus.
  GUM-RE'SIN.  Gummi resina.  Gum-resins are
the juices of plants that are mixed with resin, and an
extractive matter, which has  been taken for  a  gum-
my substance.   They seldom  flow  naturally  from
plants, but are mostly extracted by incision in the form
of white, yellow, or red fluids, which dry more or less
quickly.  Water, spirit of wine, wine, or vinegar, dis-
solve them only in part according to the proportion
they contain of resin or extract.  Gum-resins may also
be  formed by art, by digesting the parts of vegetables
containing the gum-resin in diluted alkohol, and then
evaporating the solution.  For this reason most tinc-
tures contain gum-resin.  The  principal gum-resins
employed medicinally are aloes, ammoniacum,assafceti-
da, galbanum, cambogia, guaiacum, myrrha, olibanum,
opoponax, sagapenum, sarcocolla, scammonium, and
styrax.
  GUNDELIA.  (The name given by Tournefort in
honour of his companion and friend, Andrew Gundel-
scheiiner, its discoverer, in the mountains of Armenia.)
A genus of plants.  Class, Syngenesia ;  Order,  Poly-
gamia segregata.
  Gundelia tournifortii.  The young shoots of
this plant are eaten by the Indians but the roots are
emetic.
  GUTTA.  (Gutta, a. f.)  1. A  drop.  Drops are
uncertain forms of administering  medicines,  and
should never be  trusted to.  The shape of the bottle
or of its mouth, from whence the drops fall, as well as
the consistence of the fluid, occasion a  considerable
difference in the quantity administered.  See Minimum.
  2. A name of apoplexy, from a supposition that ils
cause was a drop of blood falling from the brain upon
the heart                  •»
  Gutta oamba. See Stalagmitis.
  Gutta nigra. The black drop, occasionally called
the Lancashire, or the Cheshire drop.  A secret pre-
preparation of opium said to be more active than the
common tincture, and supposed to be less injurious, as
seldom followed by headache.
  Gutta opaca.  A name for the cataract.
  Gutta serena.  (So called by the Arabians.)   See
Amaurosis.
      406
  GuTTi rosace*.  Red spots upon  the face and
nose.
  G CJ'TTURAL.  Belonging to the throat.
  Guttural artery. The superior thyroideal artery.
The first branch ofthe external carotid.
  GYMNASTIC.  (Gymnasticus; from vvuvof, ue-
ked, performed by naked  men in the public game*.)
This term is applied to a method of curing diseases by
exercise, or  that part of physic  which treats  of the
rules that are to be observed in all sorts of exercises,
for the preservation  of health.  This is said to have
been invented by one Herodicus,  bom at Salymltrn, a
city of Thrace ; or, as some say, at Leutini, in Sicily.
He was first master of an academy where young gen-
tlemen came to learn warlike and manly exerciser;
and observing them  to  be very healthful on that ac-
count, ho made exercise  become an art in reference lo
the recovering of men out of diseases, as well as pre-
serving thern from them,  and called  it Gymnastic,
which  he made a great part of his practice.  But Hip-
pocrates, who was his scholar, blames him sometimes
for his excesses with this view.  And Plato exclaims
against hiin with some warmth, for  enjoining his
patients to walk  from Athens to Megara, wbich is
about 25 miles, and to come home on foot as they went,
as soon as ever they had but touched the walls of the
city.
  GYMNOCARPI.  The second division in Persoon's
arrangement of mushrooms, such os bear seeds em-
bedded in an appropriate, dilated, exposed membrane,
denominated hymenium, like helvella,  in wbich that
part is smooth and even; boletus, in which it is porous;
and the vast genus agaricus, in which it consists  of
gills.
  GYMNOSPERMIA.  (From yvuvos, naked, and
mttpua, a seed.)  The name of an order of the class
Didynamia, of the sexual system of plants, embracing
such as have added to the didynamial character, four
naked seeds.
  Gyns'cia.  (From ywn, a woman.)   The menses,
and also the lochia.
  GYNjE'CIUM.  (From yvvn., a woman.)
  1. A seraglio.
  2. The pudendum muliebre.
  3. A name for antimony.
  GYNECOMANIA.  (From yvvn, a woman, and
pavta, madness.)  Tiiat species of insanity that arises
from love.
  Gynjecomy'stax.  (From ywn, a  woman, and
pvs-raX, a beard.)  The hairs on the female pudendum.
  Gynxcoma'ston.  (From  yvvy, a  woman, and
pa^-os, a breast.)  An enormous increase of the breasts
of women.
  GYNANDRIA.  (From yvvn, a woman, and avnp,
a man, or husband.) The name of a class  in the
sexual system of plants.  It contains those hermaphro-
dite flowers, the stamina of which grow upon the pistil,
bo that the male and female organs are united, and do
not stand separate as in other hermaphrodite flowers.
  GYPSATA.   (From gypsum, a saline body consist-
ingof sulphuric acid and lime.)  Dr. Good denominates
a species of  purging diarrhaa gypsato, in which the
digestions are liquid, serous, and compounded of earth
of lime.
  GYPSUM.  A genus of minerals, composed of lime
and sulphuric acid, containing, according to Jameson,
two species:  the prismatic and the axifrangible.
  1. Prismatic gypsum, or anhydrite, bas five sub-spe
cies: sparry anhydrite, scaly anhydrite, fibrous anhy-
drite, convoluted anhydrite, compact anhydrite. Bee
Anhydrite.
  2. Axifrangible gypsum contains six sub-species:
sparry gypsum, foliated, compact, fibrous, scaly foliated,
and earthy gypsum. 
H
HMM                                           H.EM
      aarkies.   Werner's  name for  Ihe capillary
       pyrites of Jameson,  and the Nickel natif of
Hauy.  Native nickel.  A.]
  HABE'NA.  A bridle.  A bandage for keeping the
lips of wounds together, made in the form of a bridle.
  Hacub.  See Gunddia toumefortii.
  HiEMAGO'GA.  (From atpa, blood, and ayia, to
bring off)  Medicines wbich promote  the menstrual
and hemorrhoidal discbarges.
  HiEAlALO'PIA.  (From aip-a, blood, and oiclouai,
to see.)   A disease ofthe eyes, in which all things ap-
pear of a red colour. A variety of the Pseudoblepsis
imaginaria.
  HjE'MALOPS.  (From atpa, blood, and uu>,  the
face.)  1. A red or livid mark in the face or eye.
  2. A blood-shot eye.
  HEMA'NTHUS.  (From aiua, blood, and avOos, a
flower, so called from its colour.)  The  blood-flower.
  H.<EMATE'MESIS.  (From atpa, blood, and tucia,
to vomit.)  Vomitus cruentus.   A vomiting of blood is
readily to be distinguished from a discharge from the
lungs, by its being usually preceded by sense of weight,
pain,  or anxiety in tbe region of the stomach;  by its
being unaccompanied by any cough; by the blood being
discharged in a  very considerable quantity;  by its
being of a dark colour, and  somewhat  grumous; and
by its being mixed with the   other contents  of the
stomach.
  The disease may be  occasioned by any thing re-
ceived into the stomach, which stimulates it violently
or wounds it; or may proceed from  blows, bruises, or
any other cause capable of exciting inflammation in this
organ, or of determining too great a flow of blood to it;
but it arises more usually as  a symptom of some other
disease (such as  a suppression of tbe menstrual, or
hemorrhoidal flux, or obstructions in the liver, spleen,
and other viscera) than as a primary affection.   It is
seldom so profuse as to destroy the patient suddenly,
and the principal danger seems to arise, either from the
great debility which repeated attacks of the complaint
induce, or from the lodgment of blood in the intestines,
which by becoming putrid might occasion some other
disagreeable disorder.
  This hemorrhage, being usually rather of a passive
character, does not admit of large evacuations.  Where
it arises, on the suppression of tlie menses, in young
persons, and  returns periodically, it may be useful to
anticipate this by taking away a few ounces of blood;
not neglecting proper means to help the  function ofthe
uterus.  In moderate attacks, particularly where the
bowels have been confined, the  infusion of roses and
sulphate  of magnesia may be employed: if this should
not check the bleeding, the sulphuric acid may be ex-
hibited more  largely, or some of the more powerful
astringents and ionics, as alum, tincture of muriate of
iron, decoction of bark, or superacetate of lead.  Where
pain attends, opium should be given freely, taking care
that the bowels be not constipated;  and  a blister to the
epigastrium may be useful.   If depending on scirrhous
tumours, these must be attacked by mercury, hemlock,
Sec   In all cases the food should be light, and easy of
digestion; but more nourishing as the patient is more
exhausted.
  HiEMATICA.   The name of a class of diseases in
Good's Nosology, of the sanguineous system. Its orders
are, Pyretica, Phlegotica, Exanlhematica, Dysthetica.
  ILE'MATIN.   The colouring matter of logwood,
and according to Chevreuil, a distinct  vegetable sub-
stance.   See Hamatoxylon.
  HAEMATITES.   (From atpa, blood:  so named
from its property of stopping blood, or from its colour.)
Lapis hamatites.  An elegant  iron ore called blood-
stone.  Finely levigated, and freed  from the grosser
parts  by frequent washings with water, it has been
long recommended in  hemorrhages, fluxes, uterine
obstructions, &c. in doses of  from one scruple to three
or four.
  Hjjmati'tinus.  (From atpa^ijns, the bloodstone.)
An epithet of a collyrium, in which was the bloodstone.
  HEMATOCELE.  (From aipa, blood, and  KnXn,
atumour.)  Aswellingofthe scrotum, or spermatic (/Oirj
proceeding from  or caused by blood.  The distinction
of the different kinds of hematocele, though not usually
made,  is absolutely necessary towards rightly under-
standing the disease;  the general idea, or conception of
which, appears to Pott to be somewhat erroneous, and
to have produced a prognostic which is ill founded and
hasty.   According to this eminent surgeon, the disease,
properly called hematocele,  is of four kinds; two of
which have their seat within the tunica vaginalis testis;
one within the albuginea; and the fourth in the tunica
communis or common cellular membrane, investing the
spermatic vessels.
  In the passing  an instrument, in  order to let out the
water  from a hydrocele of the vaginal coat, a vessel
is sometimes wounded, which is  of such size, as to
tinge the fluid pretty  deeply at the time of its running
out: the orifice becoming close, when the water is all
discharged, and a plaster being applied, the blood ceases
to flow from  thence, but insinuates itself partly into
the cavity of the vaginal coat, and partly into the cells
of the scrotum ; making in the space of a few hours, a
tumour nearly equal in size to the original hydrocele.
This is one species.
  It  sometimes happens in tapping a hydrocele, that
although the fluid discharged by that operation be per-
fectly clear and limpid, yet in a very short space of time
(sometimes in a few hours,) the scrotum becomes as
large as it was before, and palpably as full of a fluid. If
a new  puncture be now made, the discharge, instead
of being limpid (as  before,) is either  pure blood or
very bloody.   This Is another species; and,  like Die
preceding, confined to the tunica vaginalis.
  The whole vascular  compages of the testicle is
sometimes very much enlarged, and at tbe same time
rendered so lax  and  loose, that the tumour produced
thereby has, to the fingers of an examiner, very much
the appearance of a swelling composed of a mere fluid,
supposed to be somewhat thick, or viscid.  This is in
some measure a deception; but  not totally so: the
greater part of  the  tumefaction is  caused  by the
loosened texture of the testes; but there is very fre-
quently a quantity of extravasated blood also. If this be
supposed to be a hydrocele, and pierced, the discharge
will be mere blood. This is a third kind of hematocele;
and very different, in all its  circumstances, from the
two preceding: the fluid is shed from the vessels of th'e
glandular part of the testicle, and contained within the
tunica albuginea.
  The fourth consists in a rupture of, and an effusion of
blood, from a branch  of the spermatic vein, in its  pas-
sage from the groin to the testicles.   In which case, tiie
extravasation is made  into  the tunica communis, or
cellular membrane, investing the spennatic vessels.
  Each of these  species, Pott says, he has seen so dis-
tinctly, and perfectly, that  he bas not the  smallest
doubt  concerning their existence,  and of their  differ-
ence from each other.
  HEMATO'CHYSIS.  (From atpa, blood, and Xtia,
to pour out.)  A hemorrhage or flux of blood.
  HjEMATO'DES.  (From atpa, blood, and tiSos, ap-
pearance : so called from the red colour.)  1. An old
name for the bloody .crane's-bill.  See Geranium san-
guineum.
  2.  A fungus, which has somewhat the appearance of
blood.  See Hamatoma.
  HjEMATO'LOGY.  (Hamalologia;  from  atpa,
blood,  and  Xovoc. a  discourse.)   The doctrine  of the
blood.
  ILEMATOMA. (From atpa, blood.)  Fungus ha-
matodes. The bleeding fungus.  Spongoid inflamma-
tion  of Burns.   This disease has been described  also
under the names of  soft cancer  and medullary  sar-
coma.  It assumesa variety of forms, and attacks most
parts of the body, but particularly the  testicle,  eye,
breast,  and the extremities.  It begins with a soft en-
largement or  tumour of the  part, which is extremely
elastic, and in some cases very painful; as it increases,
it often has the feel of an encysted tumour, and at length
becomes irregular, bulging out here and there, and in 
H£M
HJEM
sfnuates Itself  between the neighbouring parts, and
forms a large mass, if under an aponeurotic expansion.
When it ulcerates il bleeds, shoots up a mass of a bloody
fungus, and then shows its decided character if unknown
before.  Most of the  medicines which  have been em-
ployed against cancerous diseases have been unprofit-
ably exhibited against hematoma ; as alteratives, both
vegetable and mineral;  tonics and narcotics.  Extirpa-
tion, when practicable, is the only cure.
  Hxmatomphalooe'i.k.  (Fromaiua, blood,optbaXos,
the navel, and KnXti, a tumour.)  A tumour about tiie
•avel, from an extravasation of blood.  A species of
eccbymosis.
  Hcmatopedb'sis.  (From atpa, blood, and atSata, a
leap.)  The  leaping of  tlie blood from a wounded
artery.
  HiEMATO'SIS.  (From aiua, blood.)   A hemor-
rhage or flux of blood.
  HiEMATO'XYLON. (Fromaiua, blood, and \vXov,
wood: so called from  the red colour of its wood.)  The
name ofagenus of plants in the Linnean system. Class,
Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Hjkmatoxylon campechianum.  The  systematic
name of the  logwood-tree.  Acacia Zeyloniea.  The
part ordered in the Pharmacopoeia, is the wood, called
Hamataxyli lignum; Lignum campechense ;  Lignum
campechianum ; Lignum campescanum ; Lignum indi-
cum; Lignum  sappan. Logwood.  It is of a  solid
texture and of a dark red colour.   It is imported princi-
pally as a substance  for dying, cut into junks and logs
of about three feet in length;  of these pieces the largest
and thickest are preserved,  as being of  tbe deepest
colour.  Logwood has a sweetish sub-adstringent taste,
and no remarkable smell;  it gives a purplish red tinc-
ture both to watery and spirituous infusions, and tinges
the stools, and sometimes the urine, of tbe same colour.
It is employed medicinally as an adstringent  and cor-
roborant.  In diarrhoeas it has been found peculiarly
efficacious, and has the recommendation of some ofthe
first medical  authorities; also  in tbe latter stages of
dysentery, when the  obstructing causes are removed;
to obviate the extreme laxity of the intestines usually
superinduced by the repeated dejections.  In the  form
of a decoction the proportion is two ounces to 21b. of
fluid, reduced by boiling to  one.  An extract is ordered
in  tbe pharmacopoeias.  The dose  from ten to  forty
grains.   The colouring principle of this root  is called
hemetin.  On the watery  extract of  logwood, digest
alkohol for a day, filter the solution, evaporate, add a
little water, evaporate gently again, and then leave the
liquid at rest  Hematin is deposited in small crystals,
which, after washing  with alkohol, are brilliant, and of
a reddish-white colour.  Their taste is bitter, acrid, and
slightly astringent.
  Hematin forms an  orange-red solution with boiling
water,  becoming  yellow as it cools, but recovering,
with increase of heat, its  former hue.   Excess  of
alkali converts  it first  to  purple, then to violet, and,
lastly, to brown: in which state the hematin seems to
be decomposed.  Metallic oxides unite with hematin,
forming a blue-coloured compound.  Gelatin throws
down reddish flocculi.  Peroxide of tin,  and   acid,
merely redden it.
  H^MATO'XYLUM.  See Hamatoxylon.
  HEMATURIA.   (From  aiua,  blood, and ovpov,
urine.)  The voiding of blood with urine. This dis-
ease is sometimes occasioned by falls, blows, bruises,
or some violent exertion, such  as bard riding and
jumping;  but it more  usually arises,  from  a small
■tone lodged either in the  kidney or ureter, which by
its size or irregularity wounds the inner surface of the
part it comes in  contact  with; in which case the
blood discharged is  most  usually somewhat coagu-
lated, and  the  urine deposites a sediment of a  dark
brown colour, resembling the grounds of coffee.
  A discharge of blood by  urine,  when proceeding
from the kidney or ureter, is commonly attended  with
an acute pain in the back, and some difficulty of mak-
ing water, the urine  which  comes away first, being
muddy and high coloured, but towards the close of its
flowing, becoming transparent and of a natural ap-
pearance.   When the blood comes immediately  from
the bladder, it is usually accompanied with a sense of
heat and pain at the bottom of the belly.
  Tbe voiding of bloody urine is always attended  with
some dancer, particularly when mixed with purulent
matter  When it arites in  the course of any inalig-
      408
 nant disease," it  shows a highly putrid state of the
 blood, and always indicates a fatal termination.
   The appearances to be observed on dissection will
 accord with those usually met with In the disease which
 has given rise to the complaint.
   When the disease has resulted from a mechanical
 injury in a plethoric habit, it  may be proper to take
 blood, and pursue tbe general antiphlogistic plan, npen-
 *~2the bowels occasionally with castor oil, &c. When
 owing to calculi, which cannot be removed,  we must
 be chiefly content with palliative measures, giving al
 kalies or acids according to the quality of tlie urine;
 likewise  mucilaginous drinks and clysters; and opium,
 fomentations, Sec. to relieve pain; uva ursi  also has
 been  found useful  under  these  circumstances; but
 more decidedly where the  hemorrhage is purely pas-
 sive; in  which  case also some  of the tercbiutliate
 remedies may  be  cautiously  tried;  and means of
 strengthening the constitution must not be neglected.
   Hjemo'dia.  (From aipiaSeia, to stupefy.)  A painful
 stupor of the teeth, caused by acrid substances touch-
 ing them.
   H^EMO'PTOE.   (From  aiua,  blood,  and  njvta,
 to spit up.)  The spitting of blood.   See Hamoptysis.
   HjEMO'PTYSIS. (From aiua, blood, andirytiw, ui
 spit.)   Hamoptoc.   A spiuing  of blood.  A genus of
 disease arranged by Cullen  in the class Pyrexia, and
 order Hamqrrhagia.  It is characterized by coughing
 up florid  or trothy blood, preceded  usually by heat or
 pain in the chest, irritation in the larynx, and a saltish
 taste in the mouth.  There are five species of Ihis dis-
 ease.
   1. Hamoptysis plcthorica, from fulness of the vessels.
   2. Hamoptysis violenta,ftomsome external violence.
   3. Hamoptysis phthisica, from ulcers corroding the
 small vessels.
 -  4. Hamoptysis  calculosa,  from  calculous matter in
 the lungs.
   5. Hamoptysis  vicaria,  from  the suppression of
 some customary evacuation.
   It is readily to be distinguished  from hemateniesis
 as in this last, the blood is usually thrown out in consi-
 derable quantities; and is, moreover, of a darker co
 lour, more grumous, and mixed with  the other con
 tents of the stomach; whereas blood proceeding from
 tbe lungs is usually in small quantity, of a florid co-
 lour, and mixed with a little frothy mucus only.
   A spitting of blood arises most usually between the
 ages of sixteen and twenty-five, and may be occasioned
 by any violent exertion either in running, jumping,
 wrestling, singing loud, or blowing wind-instruments;
 as likewise by wounds, plethora, weak vessels, hectic
 fever, coughs, irregular living, excessive drinking, or a
 suppression of some accustomed discharge, such as the
 menstrual or hemorrhoidal.  It may likewise be occa-
 sioned by breathing air which is too much rarefied to
 be able properly to expand the lungs.
   Persons in whom there is a faulty proportion, either
 in the vessels of the lungs, or  in the capacity of the
 chest, being distinguished by a narrow thorax and pro-
 minent shoulders, or who are of a delicate matte and
 sanguine  temperament, seem much predisposed to this
 hemorrhage ; but in  these, the  complaint  is  often
 brought on by the concurrence of the various occa-
sional and exciting causes before mentioned.
  A spitting of blood is not, however, always to  he
considered as a  primary disease.   It is often only a
symptom, and in  some disorders, such as pleurisies,
peripneumonies, and many fevers, often arises, and is
tlie presage of a favourable termination.
  Sometimes it is preceded, as has already been ob-
served, by  a  sense of weight and oppression ut the
chest, a dry tickling cough, and some slight  difficulty
of breathing.  Sometimes it is ushered in with shiver-
ings, coldness at the extremities, pains in the back and
loins, flatulency, costiveness, and lassitude. The blood
which is  spit up is generally thin, and of a florid red
colour; but sometimes it is thick, and of a  dark or
blackish cast; nothing, however, can be inferred  from
this circumstance, bnt that  the Mood has lain a longer
or shorter time in the breast, before it was discharged
  An hemoptoe is not attended wfth danger, where no
symptoms of phthisis pulmonalis have preceded or
accompanied the hemorrhage, or where ii leaves be-
hind no  cough,  dyspncea, or other affection of the
lungs; nor is it dangerous io a strong healthy person,
of a sound constitution; but  when it attacks persona 
HJEM                                           HJEM
 of a weak lax fibre, and delicate habit, it may be diffi-
 cult to remove it.
   It seldom  takes place to such a degree as to prove
 fatal at once; but when it does, the  effusion is from
 some large vessel.  The danger, therefore, will be in
 proportion as the discharge of blood comes  from a
 large vessel, or a small one.
   When the disease  proves  fatal, in  consequence of
 the rupture of some  large vessels, there is found, on
 dissection, a considerable quantity of clotted blood in
 the lungs, and there is usually more or less of an in-
 flammatory appearance at the ruptured part.  Where
 the disease terminates in pulmonary consumption, the
 same morbid  appearances are to be met with as de-
 scribed under that particular head.
   In this hemorrhage, which is mostly of the active
 kind, the antiphlogistic regimen must be strictly  ob-
 served ; particularly  avoiding  heat, muscular exer-
 tion, and  agitation of the mind; and restricting  tbe
 patient to a light, cooling, vegetable diet. Acidulated
 drink will be useful  to quench  the thirst, without bo
 much liquid  being taken.  Where the blood is dis-
 charged copiously,  but no great quantity has been lost
already, it will be proper to  attempt .to check it by
bleeding freely, if the habit will allow: and sometimes,
where there is pain in the chest, local evacuations and
blisters may  be  useful.  The bowels  should  be well
cleared with some cooling saline cathartic, which may
be given in the infusion of roses. Digitalis is also a
 proper remedy,  particularly where  the  pulse is very
 quick, from its sedative influence on the heart and ar-
 teries.  Antimonials  in nauseating doses have some-
 times an excellent effect, as well by checking the force
 of the circulation, as  by promoting diaphoresis; calo-
 mel also might be added with advantage; and opium,
or other narcotic,  to  relieve  pain and  quiet cough,
which  may  perhaps  keep up the bleeding.  Emetics
have, on some occasions, been successful; but they
are not altogether free from danger.  In protracted
cases, internal astringents are given, as alum, kino, &c.
but their effects are very precarious: the superacetate
of lead, however, is perhaps the most powerful medi-
cine, especially  combined with opium, and should
 always be resorted to in alarming or obstinate cases,
 though as it is liable  to occasion colic and paralysis,
 its use should not be indiscriminate; but it acts proba-
 bly rather as a sedative  than astringent. Sometimes
 the application of cold water to  some sensible part of
 the body, producing a general refrigeration, will check
 the bleeding.  When the discharge is stopped, great
 attention to regimen is still required, to obviate its re-
 turn, with occasional evacuations: the exercise of
 swinging,  riding in  an easy carriage, or on a gentle
 horse, or especially sailing,  may keep up a salutary
 determination of the  blood to other parts: an  occa-
 sional blister  may  be applied, where there are marks
 of local disease,  or an issue or seton perhaps  answer
 better.  Should hemoptysis occasionally exhibit rather
 the passive character, evacuations must be sparingly
 used, and tonic medicines will be proper, with a more
 nutritious diet.
   HjEMORRHAGIA. (From aiua, blood, and fay-
 vvm, to break out.)  A hemorrhage, or flow of blood.
  HjEMORRHA'GLE.   Hemorrhages,  or  fluxes of
 blood.  The name of an order in the class Pyrexia of
 Cullen's Nosology  Is so called.  It is characterized by
 pyrexia with a discharge of blood, without any exter-
 nal injury; the  blood on venesection exhibiting  the
 buffy coat   The  order  Hamorrhagia contains  the
 following generaof diseases, viz. epistaxis, hemoptysis,
 (of which phthisis is represented as a sequel,) hemor-
 rhois, and menorrhagia.
   HEMORRHOIDAL.  (Hamorrhoidalis; the name
 of the vessels which are the seat of the hemorrhoids or
 piles.)   1. Of or  belonging to the hemorrhoidal vessels.
   2. The trivial name of some plants which were sup-
 posed to be efficacious against piles;  as Carduus ha-
 morrhoidales, Sec.          »
   Hemorrhoidal ARTERIES.   Arteria hamorrhoi-
 dales.  The arteries of the rectum are so called: they
 are sometimes two, and at other times three in number.
 1. The upper hemorrhoidal artery, which is the great
 branch  of the lower mesenteric continued into the
 pelvis   2  The middle  hemorrhoidal,  which  some-
 times conies off from the hypogastric artery, and very
 often from the pudical artery.  It is sometimes want-
 ing.  3 The lower or external hemorrhoidal is almost
always a branch of tbe pudical artery, or that artery
which goes to the penis.
  Hemorrhoidal veins.   Vena Hamorrhoidales.
These are two.  1. The external, which evacuates it-
self into the vena iliaca interna.
  2. The internal,  which conveys its blood  into the
vena porte.
  HrEMO'RRHOIS.  (From atpa, blood, and peta, to
flow.)  Aimorrhois.  The piles.   A genus of disease
in the class pyrexia, and order Hamorrhagia of Cul-
len.  They are certain excrescences or tumours arising
about the verge of the anus, or the inferior part ofthe
intestinum rectum;  when they discharge blood, parti-
cularly upon the patient's going to stool, the disease is
known by the name of bleeding piles; but when there
is no discharge, it is called blind piles.  Tbe rectum,
as well as tbe colon, is composed of several membranes
connected to each other by an intervening cellular sub-
stance ; and as the muscular fibres of this intestine
always tend, by their contraction, to lessen its cavity,
the internal membrane, which is very lax, forms itself
into several ruge, or folds.  In this construction nature
respects the use of the part, which occasionally gives
passage to, or allows the retention of, the excrements,
the hardness and bulk of wbich  might produce con-
siderable lacerations, if this intestine were not capable
of dilatation.  The arteries and veins subservient to
this part are called hemorrhoidal, and the blood that
returns from hence is carried to the meseraic veins.
The intestinum rectum is particularly subject to the
hemorrhoids, from  its situation, structure, and use;
for while the course of tbe blood is assisted in almost
all the other veins of the body, by the distention  of
the  adjacent muscles, and the pressure of the neigh-
bouring parts, the blood in the hemorrhoidal veins,
which is to ascend against the natural tendency of its
own weight, is not only destitute  of these assistances,
but is impeded in its passage:  for, first, the large ex-
crements which  lodge in this intestine dilate  its sides,
and the different resistances which they form there
are so many impediments obstructing the return ofthe
blood; not in the large veins, for they are placed along
the external surface of the intestine, but in all the ca-
pillaries which enter into its composition.  Secondly,
as often as these large excrements, protruded by others,
approached  near the  anus, their  successive  pressure
upon the  Internal coats of the intestine, which  they
dilate, drives back the blood into  the veins, and for so
long suspends  its course; the necessary consequence
of which is, a distention of the veins in proportion to
the quantity of blood that fills them.  Thirdly, in every
effort we make, either in going to stool, or upon any
other occasion, the contraction of the abdominal mus-
cles, and  tlie diaphragm pressing  the  contents of the
abdomen  downwards, and these pressing upon the
parts  contained in the pelvis, another obstruction is
thereby opposed, to  the return of the blood,  not only
in the large veins, but also in the capillaries, which,
being of too weak  a texture to resist  the impulse of
the blood that always tends to dilate them, may hereby
become varicose.
  The dilatation of all these vessels is the  primary
cause of the hemorrhoids; for the internal  coat  of
the intestine, and the  cellular membrane which con-
nects that to the muscular coat, are enlarged in propor-
tion to Ihe distention of the vessels of which they are
composed.   This distention, not being equal  in every
part, produces separate tumours in the gut, or at the
verge of the anus, which increases according as the
venal blood is obstructed  in them, or circulates there
more slowly.
  Whatever, then, is capable of retarding the course
of the blood in the hemorrhoidal veins, may  occasion
this disease.  Thus, persons that are generally costive,
who are accustomed  to sit long  at stool, and strain
hard; pregnant women, or such as have had difficult
labours; and likewise persons who have an obstruc-
tion in their liver, are for the most part afflicted wilh
the piles; yet every one has not the hemorrhoids, the
different causes which are mentioned above being not
common  to all, or at least not  having in all the same
effects.   When the hemorrhoids are once  formed,
they seldom disappear entirely, and we may  judge of
those within the rectum by those wbich, being at the
verge of the anus,  are plainly to be  seen.  A sma<l
pile, that has been painful for some days, may cease
to be so, and dry up ; but the skin docs not afterward 
h;em                                           HAL
retain its former firmness, being more lax and wrin-
kled, like the empty skin of a grape.  If this external
pile swells and sinks again several times, we may per-
ceive, after each return, tiie  remains  of each pile,
though shrivelled and decayed, yet still left larger than
before.  The case is the same with those that are situ-
ated  within the  rectum; tbey may happen  indeed
never to return again, if the cause that produced them
is removed; but it  is probable  that the excrements in
passing out occasion a return of the swelling!, to which
tlie external ones are less  liable: for tiie internal piles
make a son of knots or tumours in the intestine, which
straightening the passage, the  excrements in  passing
out, occasion irritations  there that are more or less
painful  in  proportion to the efforts which the person
makes in going to stool; and it is thus these tumours
become  gradually larger.   The hemorrhoids are sub-
ject to many variations;  they  may become inflamed
from the above irritations to which they are exposed,
and this inflammation cannot always be  removed by
art  In some, the inflammation terminates in an ab-
scess, which arises  in the middle of the tumour, and
degenerates into a fistula.   These piles are  very painful
till tbe abscess is formed.   hi others, tlie inflammation
terminates by induration ofthe hemorrhoid, which re-
mains iu a manner scirrhous.  These never lessen, but
often grow larger.  This scirrhus sometimes ulcerates,
and continually discharges a sanies, which tiie patient
perceives by stains on his shirt, and by iu  occasioning
a very troublesome itching about Ihe verge of the anus.
These kinds of hemorrhoids sometimes turn  cancer-
ous.   There are some hemorrhoids, and those of dif-
ferent sizes, which are covered with so fine a skin as
frequently to admit blood to pass through.  This tine
skin is only the internal coat of the  rectum, greatly  at-
tenuated by the varicose distention of its vessels.  The
hemorrhage may proceed from two causes,  namely,
either from an excoriation  produced by the hardness
of the excrements, or from the rupture of the tumefied
vessels, which break by their too great distention.  In
Boine of these, the patient voids blood  almost every
time he goes to stool; in others not so constantly.  We
sometimes meet with men who have a periodical bleed-
ing by the piles, not uidike the menses in women; and
as this evacuation, if moderate, does not weaken the
constitution, we may infer that it supplies  some other
evacuation which nature  either ceases lo carry on, or
does not furnish in due quantity; and hence also we
may explain why the suppression of this discharge, to
which nature bad been accustomed, is frequently at-
tended with dangerous diseases.   The hemorrhoids
are sometimes distended  to that degree as to fill the
rectum, so that if the excrements are  at all hard they
cannot pass.  In this case the excrements force the he-
morrhoids out of the anus to procure a free passage,
consequently the internal coat of the rectum, to which
they are connected, yields to extension, and upon ex-
amining these patients immediately after having been
al stool, a part of the internal coat of that gut is per-
ceived.  A difficulty will  occur in the return of these,
in proportion to their size, and as the verge ofthe anus
is more or less contracted.  If the bleeding piles come
out In the same manner upon going to stool, it is then
they void most blood, because the  verge of the anus
forms a kind of ligature above them.  The treatment
of this complaint will vary much, according to circum-
stances.  VVhen the loss of blood is considerable, we
should endeavour to stop it by applying cold water, or
ice; or some astringent, as a solution of alum, or sul-
phate of zinc: but a more certain way is making con-
tinued pressure on the part At the same  time inter-
nal astringents  may be given;  joined with opium, if
much pain  or irritation attend.  Care must be taken,
however, lo avoid constipation: and in all cases pa-
tients find  benefit from the steady use of some mild
cathartic, procuring regular loose motions.  Sulphur is
mostly resorted to for this purpose; and especially in
combination with supertartrate of potassa, tamarinds,
&c. in the form of electuary,  usually answers  very
well;  likewise castor oil is an excellent remedy in these
cases.   Should the  parts be much inflamed, leeches
may be applied near the anus, and cold saturnine lotions
used; sometimes, however, fomenting with the decoc-
tion of poppy will give more relief; where symptom-
atic fever attends, the antiphlogistic regimen must be
Btrictly observed, and besides clearing the  bowels, an-
(iinonials may be given to promote diaphoresis.  Where,
      410
 tne tumours  are considerate and flaccid, without In-*
 flammation,  powerful astringent or even  "tlmulmit
 applications will be  proper, together wilh similar in-
 ternal medicines; and tbe part should be supported l»y
 a compress kept on by a  proper bandage.  An oint
 ment of galls is often very useful, with opium, to re-
 lieve pain; and some of the liquor plumbi suliacetati*
 may be farther added, if there be a tendency to inflam-
 mation.  In these cases of relaxed piles of some stand-
 ing, the copaiba frequently does much good, both ap-
 plied locally and taken internally, usually keeping the
 bowels regular; also tbe celebrated Ward's paste, n
 medicine of which tiie active  ingredient is black pe\r
 per.  Sometimes where a large  tumour has been form-
 ed by extravasated blood, subsequently become organ-
 ized,  permanent relief can only be obtained by extir-
 pating this.
   HASMOSTA'SIA.  (From aiua, blood, and ttrnui, to
 stand.) A stagnation of hlood.
   HjEMOSTATICA. (From aiua, blood, and eviw,
 to stop.)  Medicines which stop hemorrhages.  See
 Styptics.
   HAEN, Anthony  de,  was horn in Leyden, in
 1704,  and became one of the distinguished pupils of the
 celebrated Boerhaave.  After graduating at his native
 place, he settled at the Hague, where he practised with
 considerable  reputation for nearly 20  years.   Huron
 Van Swieten, being acquainted with the extent of his
 talents, invited  him to Vienna,  to assist in tbe plan of
 reform, which the empress had  consented to support in
 the medical faculty of that capital.  De Haeu accord-
 ingly  repaired thither in 1754, was made professor of
 the practice of medicine, and fully answered the ex-
 pectation which had been  formed of him.  He under-
 took a system of clinical education, as the best method
 of forming good physicians: tlie result of this was the
 collection of a great number of valuable observations,
 which were  published in  successive  volumes of a
 work, entitled,  "Ratio Medendi in Nosocomio Practi
 co," amounting ultimately to 16.  He left also several
 other  works, as On  the Division of Fevers, &.c, and
 died at the age  of 72.  He was generaUy an enemy to
 new opinions and innovations  in pracUce, which led
 him into several controversies; particularly against
 variolous inoculation, and the use of poisonous plants
 in medicine: but he exhibited much learning and prac-
 tical knowledge.
  Hagiospe'rmum.  (From ayios, holy, and aittppar
 seed:  so called  from its reputed virtues.;  Worinseed-
  Haoio'xylum.  (From aytos,  holy, and \vXov, wood:
 so named because of its medical virtues.)  Guaiacum.
  HAIR.  See  Capillus.
  [Hair salt.   Tbe Haar salt, (or hair salt,) of
 Werner, formerly supposed to be a variety of alum, is,
 according to Klaproth, a mixture of the  sulphates of
 magnesia and iron.—Cleav. Min.  A.l
  Hala'tium.  (From aXs, salt.)  A clyster, composed
 chiefly of salt
  Halberd-shaped icaf. See Leaf.
  [Halb-opal.  This is the Semi-opal of Jameson, and
 Cleaveland.   The other synonymes are La dc mi-op ale
of Brochant; Silex resinite of Brogniart; Quartz ri-
sinite commune of Hatty: all these being the same as
the Halb-opal of Werner.  " This variety is a little
harder than the precious opal, and  is  easily broken.
Ils fracture is imperfectly conchoidal with large cavi-
ties, or nearly even,  usually more  or  less glistening
and a little resinous, but sometimes nearly dull.  The
edges  of the  conchoidal fracture, aud those  of the
fragments, arc usually very sharp.  It is  more or less
translucent, sometimes only in a slight degree  at the
edges,  and some specimens are serr.itransparenl."—
 Cleav. Min,  A.]
  Halche'mia.  (From aXs. salt, and %tia, to  pour
out.)  The art of fusing salts
  Halelc'um.  (From aXs, salt and tXaiov. oil.)  A
medicine composed of salt and  oU.
  Halica'cabum.  (From  aXs, tlie sea, and xaxafios,
night-shade:  so called because it  grows upon  the
banks of the sea.)  See Physalis alkekengi.
  Ha'limus.  (From aAiuoc", belonging  to the sea.)
The  Atriplex halimua of Linneus. or  sca-purslain,
Baid to be antispasmodic.
  Halini'trum.  (From aAs,  the sea,  and vt'Jpov.
 niire.)  Nitre, or rather rock salt.
  HA LITUS.   (From halito, to breathe  out)  A
 vapour 
HAM
HAR
  HALLER, Albert, was born at Beme, where his
father was an advocate, in 1709.  He displayed, at a
very  early age, extraordinary marks of industry and
talents.   He was intended for the church, but having
lost his father when only thirteen, he soon after deter-
mined upon the medical profession.  Having studied
a short time at Tubingen, he was attracted to Leyden
by the reputation of Boerhaave, to whom he has ex-
pressed his obligations in the most affectionate terms;
but be took his degree at the former place, when about
seventeen years of age.  He soon after visited Eng-
land and France; then returning to his native country,
first acquired  a taste  for botany, which he pursued
with great zeal, making  frequent excursions to  the
neighbouring mountains.  He also composed a " Poem
on the Alps,"  and  other pieces, which were received
with  much applause.  Having settled in his native
city, about 1730, he began to give lectures on anatomy,
but with  indifferent  success;  and some  detached
pieces on anatomy and botany having gained him con-
siderable reputation abroad, he was invited by George
II., in 1736, to become professor in the university,
which he had recently founded at Gottingen. He ac-
cepted this advantageous offer, and, though his arrival
was rendered melancholy by the loss of a beloved wife,
from some accident which occurred in the journey, he
commenced at once the duties of his office with great
zeal; he encouraged the most industrious of his pupils
to institute an experimental investigation on some part
of the animal economy, affording them his assistance
therein.   He was  likewise  himself indefatigable in
similar researches, during the seventeen  years which
lie spent there, having in view a grand reform in phy-
siology, which his writings ultimately effected, dissi-
pating the metaphysical and chemical jargon, whereby
it  was before obscured.   He procured  tiie establish-
ment of a botanic garden, an anatomical theatre, a
school for surgery and for  midwifery, with a lying-in
hospital, and other useful institutions at tbat univer-
sity.  He  received  also many honourable testimonies
of his fame, being chosen a member of the Royal So-
cieties of Stockholm and London, made physician and
counsellor to George IL, and tbe emperor conferred on
him the title of Baron; which, however, he declined,
as it would not have been esteemed in his native
country.  To this he returned in 1753, and during tbe
remainder of his  life discharged various important
public offices there.  He  ultimately received  every
testimony of the general estimation in which he  was
held; the learned societies of Europe, as well as seve-
ral sovereigns, vying with  each other in conferring
honours upon him.  His constitution was delicate, and
impatience of pain, or interruption  to his studies, led
him to use violent remedies when ill;  however, by
temperance and activity, he reached an advanced age,
having died towards tbe end of 1777. He was one of
the most universally informed men  in modern times.
He spoke with equal facility the German, French, and
Latin languages; and read all the other tongues of Eu-
rope, except the Sclavonic; and there was scarcely
any book of reputation, with which he was not ac-
quainted.  His own works were extremely numerous,
on anatomy, physiology,  pathology, surgery, botany,
Sec, besides his poems and political and religious pub-
lications.  The principal are, 1. His large work on the
Botany of Switzerland, in 3 vols, folio, with many
plates; 2.  Commentaries on Boerhaave's Lectures, 7
vols, octavo;  3.  Elements of Physiology, 8  vols.
quarto, a work of the greatest merit; 4. His " Biblio-
theca," or Chronological  Histories of Authors, with
brief Analyses; 2 vols, quarto on Botany, two on  Sur-
eery, two on  Anatomy, and four pn the Practice of
Medicine, displaying an immense body of research.
   HALLUCINATIO.   (From hallucinor, to err.)
An erroneous imagination.
   Halmyro'des.   (From  aAuvpoc,  salted.)  A term
applied to the humours; it means acrimonious.   It is
also  applied to fevers which communicate such an
itching sensation  as is perceived from  handling salt

   HA'LO.  (From aXos, an area or circle.)  The red
circle surrounding the nipple, wbich becomes some-
 what brown  in old  people, and is beset with many
 sebaceous glands.
   Hama'lgama.   See Amalgam.
   HAMOSUS.  Hooked.   Applied  to the bristly pu-
 bescence of seeds and plants; as the pericarpe of the
Arctium lappa; the seeds of Daucus muricalus, and
Alisma cordifolia.
  HAMPSTEAD.  A village near to London, where
there is an excellent chalybeate water, not inferior to
that of Tunbridge-wells in any respect, except being
nearer to the metropolis.
  HA'MULUS.  (Diminutive of hamus, a .look.)  A
term in anatomy, applied to any hook-like process, as
the hamulus of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid
bone.
  HA'MUS.  A  hook.   A species of pubescence of
plants formed of bristles,  bent  at their point into a
hook; as in Rumex tuberosus, Caucalis daucoides, and
Galium aparine, Sec
  HAND.   Manus.   The  hand is composed of the
carpus or wrist, metacarpus, and fingers. The arte
ries of tbe hand are the palmary arch, and the digital
arteries.  The veins are the digital, the cephalic of the
thumb, and the salvatella.  The nerves are the cuta-
neous, externus, and internus.
  Harde'sia.  See Lapis  Hibernicus.
  HARE.   See Lepus timidus.
  HARE-LIP.  Lagocheilus;  Lagostoma;  Labium
leporinum.  A fissure or longitudinal division of one
or both  lips.  Children are frequently born with this
kind of malformation, particularly of the upper lip.
Sometimes the portions of the lip whichought be united,
have a  considerable space between  them;  in other
instances they are not much apart. The cleft is occa-
sionally  double, there being a little lobe, or small  por-
tion of  the lip,  situated between the two fissures.
Every species of the deformity has the same appella-
tion of hare-lip, in  consequence of the  imagined re-
semblance which the part has, to tbe upper lip of a
hare.
  The fissure commonly affects only the lip itself.  In
many cases, however, it extends along the  bones of
the palate, even as far as the uvula.  Sometimes these
bones are totally wanting: sometimes they are  only
divided by a fissure.
  Such a malformation is always peculiarly afflicting.
In its least degree,  it constantly occasions  consider-
able deformity; and  when it  is more marked, it fre-
quently hinders infants  from sucking, and  makes it
indispensable to nourish them by other means. When
the lower lip alone  is affected, which is more rarely
the case, the child can  neither retain its saliva, nor
learn  to speak, except with the greatest  impediment.
But when the fissure pervades the palate, the patient
not only never articulates perfectly, but cannot masti
cate nor swallow, except with great difficulty, on ac-
count ofthe food readily getting up into the nose.
  HARMO'NIA. (From  aoia, to fit together.)   Har-
mony.  A species of synarthrosis, or  immoveable con-
nexion of bones, in which bones are connected together
by means of rough  margins, not dentiform: in this
manner most of the bones of the face are connected
together.
  HARMOTOME.   See Cross-stone.
  HARRIS, Walter, was born at  Gloucester about
the year 1651.  He took the degree of bachelor of phy-
sic at Oxford, but, having embraced the Roman Ca-
tholic religion, he was made doctor at some French
university.  He  settled in London in 1676, and two
years after, to evade the order tbat all Catholics should
quit the metropolis,  he publicly adopted the Protestant
Faith.  His practice rapidly augmented, and on the
accession of William III. he was appointed his physi-
cian in ordinary.  He  died in 1725.  His principal
work, " De Morbis Acutis Infantum," is said to  have
been published at the suggestion of the celebrated Sy-
denham : it passed  through several  editions. He left
also a Treatise on the Plague, and a collection of me-
dical and surgical papers, which had been read before
the College of Physicians.
  HARROGATE.   The villages of High and  Low
Harrogate  are situate in the centre  of the county of
York, adjoining the town of Knaresborough.   The
whole of Harrogate, in particular,  has long enjoyed
considerable reputation, by possessing  two kinds of
very valuable springs:  and, some years ago, the cha-
lybeate  was  the only one that was used internally,
while the sulphureous water was confined to external
use.  At  present,  however, the  latter  is employed
largely as an internal medicine.
  The sulphureous  springs of Harrogate are four  in
number  of the same quality, though different in the 
HAR
HEA
degree of their powers.  This water, when first taken
up, appears perfectly clear and transparent, and sends
forth a few air bubbles, but not in any quantity.  It
possesses a very strong sulphureous and fcetid smell,
precisely like that of a damp rusty gun barrel, or bilge-
water. To the taste it is bitter, nauseous, and strongly
saline, which is soon borne without any disgust.  In a
few hours of exposure this water loses ite transparen-
cy, and becomes somewhat pearly, and rather greenish
to the eye; its sulphureous  smell  abates, and  at last
the sulphur is deposited in the form of a thin film,  on
the bottom  and sides of the vessel in which it is kept
The volatile productions of this water show carbonic
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and azotic gas.
  The sensible effects which this water excites, are
often  a headache and giddiness on being first drunk,
followed  by a purgative operation, wbich is speedy and
mild,  wilhout  any attendant gripes: and this is the
only apparent effect the exhibition of this  water dis-
plays.
  The diseases in which this water is used are nume-
rous, particularly of the alimentary canal, and  irregu-
larity  of the bilious  secretions.  Under this water the
health, appetite, and  spirits improve; and, from  its
opening effects, it cannot fail to be useful in the costive
habit  of  hypochondriasis.  But the highest  recom-
mendation  of this water has been in cutaneous dis-
eases, and for this purpose it  is universally employed,
both as an internal medicine, and an external applica-
tion :  in this united  form, it is of particular service in
the most  obstinate and complicated forms of cutaneous
affections;  nor  is it less so  in states and  symptoms
supposed connected with worms, especially with tiie
round worm and ascarides, when taken in such a dose
as to prove a brisk purgative; and in the latter case
also,  when used  as a  clyster, the ascarides  being
chiefly confined to the rectum, and, therefore, within
the reach of this form of medicine.  From the union
of thesulpburcous and saline ingredients, the benefit
of its use has been  long established in hemorrhoidal
affections.
  A course of Harrogate waters should  be  conducted
so as to produce sensible effects on the bowels; half a
pint taken  in the morning, and repeated three or four
times, will  produce it, and its nauseating taste may be
corrected by taking a dry biscuit, or a bit  of coarse
bread after it   The course  must be continued, in ob-
stinate cases, a period of some months, before a cure
can be expected.
  HART FELL. The name of a place near Moffat, in
Scotland.  It has a mineral water which contains iron
dissolved by the sulphuric acid, and is much celebrated
iu scrofulous affections, and  cutaneous diseases.  It
is used no less as an external application, than drank
internally.  The effects of this water, at first, are some
degree of drowsiness, vertigo, and pain  in the head,
which soon go off,  and this may be hastened by a
slight purge.  It produces generally a flow of urine,
and an increase of appetite.   It has acquired much re-
putation  also in old and languid ulcers, where the tex-
ture of the diseased part is very lax, and the  discharge
profuse and ill conditioned.
  The dose of this water is more limited than that of
most of the mi nc ral springs which are used medicinally.
It is of importance in  all cases, and especially in deli-
cate and irritable habits, to begin with  a very small
quantity, for an over-dose is apt lo be very soon reject-
ed  by the  stomach, or to occasion griping and dis-
turbance in the intestinal canal;  and it is never as a
direct purgative that this water  is intended to be em-
ployed.  Few patients will bear more that an English
pint in the  course of the day; but this  quantity may
be long continued.   It is often advisable to warm the
water for  delicate stomachs, and this  may be done
without  occasioning any material change in its pro-
perties.
  HARTLEY,  David, was born in  1705,  son of a
clergyman  in Yorkshire.  He studied at Cambridge,
and was intended for the church, but scruples about
subscribing to the 39 Articles led him to change to the
medical profession;  for which his talents and benevo-
lent disposition well qualified him.  After practising in
different parts of the country, he settled for some time
in London, but finally went to Bath, where he died in
1757.   He published some tracts concerning the stone,
especially in commendation of Mrs. Stephens's medi-
cine,  and aiitioars to have been chiefly instrumental in
      412
procuring her a  reward from Parliament; yet ni» la
said to have died ofthe disease after taking about two
hundred pounds of soap, the principal ingredient In
that nostrum.  Some other  papers  were also written
by him ; but the principal work, upon which his fame
securely rests, is a metaphysical treatise, entitled * Ob-
servations on Man, his Frame, his  Duty, and  his
Expectations."  The doctrine of vibration, indeed, on
wbich he explained sensation, is merely gratuitous:
but his Disquisitions on the Power of Association, and
other  mental Phenomena, evince great subtlety and
accuracy of research.
  HARTSHORN.  See Cornu.
  Hartshorn shavings.  See Cornu.
  HART'S-TONGUE.  See Asplenium  scholoptn-
drium.
  HART-WORT.  See Lascrpitium  siler.
  Hart-wort of Marseilles.   See Seseli tortuosum.
  HARVEY,William, the illustrious discoverer ofthe
circulation  of the blood, was born at  Folkstone, In
Kent, in 1578. After studying four years at Cambridge.
he went abroad at the age  of 19, visited  France and
Germany, and then fixed himself at Padua, which was
the most celebrated niedical school  in Europe, where
he was created Doctor in 1602.   On returning to Eng-
land he repeated his  graduation at Cambridge, and
settled in London:  he  became a Fellow ofthe College
of Physicians in 1603, and soon after physician to St.
Bartholomew's hospital. In 1615 he was appointed Lec-
turer on Anatomy and Surgery to the College, which
was probably tbe more immediate cause of the publi-
cation of his grand discovery.  He appears  to have
withheld his opinions from the world, until reiterated
experiment had  confirmed them, and  enabled  him to
prove the whole in detail,  with every evidence  of
which the subject  will admit.   The promulgation of
this important doctrine brought on him the most unjust
opposition,  some condemning it as  an  Innovation,
others pretending that  it was known  before; and  he
complained that his practice materially declined after-
ward : however, he had the satisfaction of living to
see the  truth fully established.  He likewise received
considerable marks of royal favour from James and
Charles I., to whom he was  appointed physician; and
the latter particularly assisted his inquiries concerning
generation,  by the opportunity of dissecting numerous
females of the deer kind in different stages of pregnan-
cy. During the civil war, when lie retired  to Oxford,
his house in London was pillaged, and many valuable
papers, the  result of several years  labour, destroyed.
He published his first  work on the circulation in 1628,
at Frankfort, as the  best means of  circulating  his
opinions throughout Europe; after which  he found it
necessary to write two " Exercitations" In refutation
of his opponents.  In  1651 he allowed his other great
work, " De Generatione  Animalium," to bo  made
public, leading to the inference of the universal preva-
lence of oval generation.  In tho year following he had
the gratification  of seeing his bust in marble, with a
suitable inscription recording his discoveries, placed in
the hall of the College of Physicians,  by a vote of that
body, and he was soon after chosen President but de-
clined the office on account of his age and infirmities.
In return he presented  to the College an elegantly  fur-
nished convocation room, and a museum  filled with
choice books and surgical instruments.  He also gave
up his paternal estate of 56  pounds per annum for the
institution of an annual feast, at which a Latin oration
should be spoken in commemoration  of the benefac-
tors ofthe College, Sec He died in 1658.   A splendid
edition of his works was printed In 1766, by the College,
in quarto, to which a Latin  life of the author was pre-
fixed, written by Dr. Laurence.
  HASTATI'S.  Spear, or halberd-shaped.  Applied
to a triangular leaf, hollowed out at the base and sides,
but with spreading lobes; as in Rumex  acetocdla and
Solanum dulcamara.
  Hatchet-shaped.  See Dolabriformis.
  HAUYNE.  A blue-coloured mineral found imbed-
ded in the basalt rock  of Albaco and Frescate, which
Jameson thinks is allied to the azure stone.  So named
after Hauy, the celebrated French mineralogist.
  Hay, camel's.  See Juncus odoratus.
  HEAD.  See Caput.
  HEARING.  Audita:  " The hearing is a function
intending to make known to us the vibratory motion
of bodies. 
HEA
HEA
  Sound is  to the hearing what right is to the sight.
Bound is the result of an impression produced upon the
ear by the vibratory motion impressed upon the atoms
of the body by percussion, or any other cause.  This
word signifies also the vibratory motion itself.  When
the atoms of a body have been thus put in motion,
they communicate it to the surrounding elastic bodies:
these communicate it in the same manner, and so the
vibratory motion is often continued to a great distance.
In general, only elastic bodies are capable of producing
and  propagating sound; but for  the most part solid
bodies produce it, and the air is generally the medium
by which it reaches the ear.
  There a e three things distinguished in sound, in-
tensity, tone, and timbre, or expression. The intensity
of sound depends on tbe  extent of the vibrations.
  The tone depends on the number of vibrations
which are produced in a  given time, and, in this
respect, sound is distinguished into acute and grave.
  The grave sound arises from a small number of vi-
brations, the acute from  a great number.
  The gravest sound which the air is capable of per-
ceiving, is formed of thirty-two vibrations in  a second.
The most acute sound is formed of twelve  thousand
vibrations in a second.  Between these two limits are
contained all the distinguishable sounds: that is, those
sounds of which the ear can count the vibration. Noise
differs from distinguishable sound in so much as the
ear cannot distinguish  the number  of vibrations of
which it is composed.
  A  distinguishable sound, composed of double the
number of vibrations of another sound, is said to be its
octave. There are intermediate sounds, between these
two, which are seven in number, and which constitute
the diatonic scale, or gamut: they are distinguished
by the names, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si.
  When the sonorous body is put in motion by percus-
sion, there is at first heard a sound very distinct, more
or less intense, more or less acute, &c, according as  it
may happen; this is the fundamental sound; but with
a little attention other sounds can be perceived. These
are called harmonic sounds.  This can be easily per-
oeived in touching the strings of an instrument.
  The timbre, or expression of sound, depends on the
nature of the sonorous body.
  Sound is propagated through all elastic bodies.  Its
rapidity is variable according to the body  which pro-
pagates it.   The rapidity of sound in the air is a thou-
sand one hundred and thirty English feet  It is  still
more rapidly transmitted by water, stone, wood, &c.
Sound  loses its force in a  direct proportion to the
square of the distance; this happens at least in the air.
It may also  become more intense  as it proceeds; as
happens when it passes through very elastic bodies, such
as metals, wood, condensed air, &c. All sorts of sounds
are propagated with the  same rapidity, without being
confounded one with another.
  It is generally supposed that sound is propagated in
light lines, forming cones, analogous to those of light,
with this essential dXTereoce, however, that, in sono-
rous;cones, the atoms have only a motion of oscillation,
while those  ofthe cones of light have a real  transitive
motion.
  When sound meets a body that prevents its passage,
it is reflected in the same manner as light, its angle of
reflection being equal to the angle of incidence.  The
form of the body which reflects sound, has similar in-
fluence upon it.  The slowness with which sound  is
propagated, produces certain phenomena, for which
we can easily account.   Such is the phenomenon of
echo, of tbe mysterious chamber, &c.
  Apparatus of Hearing.—There are in the appara-
tus of hearing a number of organs, which  appear to
concur in that function  by their physical properties;
and behind them, a nerve for the purpose of receiving
and transmitting impressions.
  The apparatus of hearing is composed of the outer,
middle, and internal ear; and of the acoustic nerve.
  The auricle collects the sonorous radiations, and di-
rects  them towards the meatus externus; in proportion
as it  is large, elastic, prominent from the head,  and
directed forward.  Boerhaave supposed he had proved
by calculation, that all the sonorous radiations (or pul-
sations) which fall upon the external face of the pinna,
arc, ultimately, directed  to the auditory passage.  This
assertion is evidently erroneous, at least for those pinne
iu which the antihelix is more projecting than the helix.
How could those rays arrive at the concha, which fall
upon  the  posterior surface of the antihelix 1   The
pinna is not indispensable to the hearing; for, both in
men and in the  animals, it may be removed without
any inconvenience beyond a few days.
  The Meatus  auditorius transmits the sound in the
same manner as any other conduit, partly by the air it
contains, and partly by its parietes, until it arrives at
the membrane of the tympanum.   The hairs, and the
cerumen with which it is provided at the entrance,
are intended to prevent the introduction of sand, dust,
insects, &c.
  The Membrane of the Tympanum  receives the
sound wbich has been transmitted by the meatus au-
ditorius.  In what circumstances is it stretched by the
internal muscle  of the malleus 1 Or when is it relaxed
by the contraction of the anterior muscle of the  mal-
leus 1—All our  knowledge on this subject is merely
conjectural.  An opening made in tins membrane docs
not much impair the faculty of hearing.  As this mem-
brane is dry and elastic, it ought to transmit the sound
very well,  both  to the air contained in the tympanum,
and to the  chain of little-bones. The chorda tympani
cannot fail to participate in the vibrations of the mem-
brane, and transmit impressions  to the brain.  The
contact of any foreign body upon the  membrane is
very painful, and a violent noise also gives great pain.
The membrane  of the tympanum may  be torn, or even
totally destroyed, without deranging  the hearing in
any sensible degree.
  The Cavity of the Tympanum transmits the sounds
from the external to the internal ear.  The transmis-
sion of sound by the tympanum happens—1st, By the
chain of bones which has a particular action upon the
membrane of the fenestra  ovalis.   2d, By the air
which fills it, and which acts upon the whole petrous
portion, but particularly upon the membranum of the
fenestra ovalis. 3d, By its sides.
  The Eustachian Tube renews  the air in the  tym-
panum ; being destroyed, it is said to cause deafness.
  The notion of its being capable of carrying sound to
tiie internal ear is erroneous; there is nothing to sup-
port this assertion :  it permits the air  to pass in cases
when the tympanum is struck by violent sounds, and
it permits the renewal  of that which  fills the tympa-
num, and the mastoid cells.  The air in the tympanum
being much rarefied, is very suitable for diminishing
the intensity of the sounds it transmits.
  The use of the mastoid cells is not well known; it
is supposed that they help to augment the intensity of
the sound that  arises in the  cavity.  If they produce
this effect  it ought to be rather from the  vibrations of
the partitions which separate the cells than from the
air which  they contain.  Sound may  arrive in the
tympanum by another way than the external meatus;
the shocks received  by the bones of the head are di-
rected towards the temples, and perceived by the ear.
It is well known that the movement  of  a watch is
heard distinctly when it is placed in contact with the
teeth.
  We know little of the functions of the internal ear;
we can only imagine that the sonorous vibrationa are
propagated in different modes, but principally by the
membrane of tiie fenestra ovalis, by tbat of the fe-
nestra rotunda, and  by the internal  partition of the
tympanum; that the liquor of Cotunnius ought to suffer
vibrations which are transmitted to the acoustic nerve.
It may be conceived how necessary it is that this liquid
should give way to those vibrations which are too in-
tense, and which might injure this nerve.  Possibly, in
his case, it flows into  the aqueducts of the cochlea
and of the vestibule, which, in  this  respect, would
tube.
have  a great deal of  analogy with  the Eustachian
  The internal gyri of the cochlea ought to receive the
vibrations principally by the  membrane of the fenestra
ovalis; the vestibule, by the chain of bones; the semi-
circular canals, by the  sides of  the  tympanum, and
perhaps by the  mastoid cells, which frequently extend
beyond the canals.   But the  aid which is given to the
hearing by each separate part of the internal ear is
totally unknown.
  The osseo-membraneous partition, which separates
the cochlea into two  parts, has given rise to an hypo-
thesis which no one now admits.
  The impressions  are received and transmitted to
the brain  bv the acoustic nerve;  the  brain perceives
                                        413 
HEA
HEA
tiiem with more or less facility and exactness in differ-
ent  individuals.   Many  people  have  a  false ear,
which means  that  they  do not distinguish  sounds
perfectly.
  There Is no explanation given of the action of the
acoustic nerve and ofthe brain in hearing.
  In order to be heard, sounds must be within  certain
limits of intensity.  Too strong a sound hurts us, while
one  too weak produces  no sensation.  We can per-
ceive a great number of sounds at once.  Sounds, par-
ticularly appreciable sounds, combined, and succeed-
ing each other in a certain  manner, are a source  of
agreeable sensations.  It is in such combinations, for
the production of this effect, that music is  employed.
On the contrary, certain combinations of  sound pro-
duce a disagreeable  impression;  the ear  is hurt  by
very acute sounds.  Sounds which  are very  intense
and  very grave, hurt excessively the membrane ofthe
tympanum.  By the  absence of the liquor of Cotun-
nius, the hearing  is destroyed.  When a  sound has
been of long duration, we still think we hear it, though
it may have been some time discontinued.
  We  receive two impressions, though we perceive
only one.  It has been said that we use only one ear at
once, but this notion is erroneous.
  When the sound comes more directly to the one ear,
it is  iu reality distinguished with more facility by that
one,  than by the other:  therefore in this case we em-
ploy  only one ear;  and when we listen with attention
to a  sound which we do not hear exactly, we place
ourselves so that the rays may enter directly into the
concha; but when it is necessary to determine  the di-
rection of the sound, that is, the point whence it pro-
ceeds, we are obliged to employ both ears, for it is only
by comparing  the intensity of  the  two impressions,
that we are capable of deciding from whence the
sound  proceeds.  Should  we shut one ear perfectly
close, and  cause a slight noise  to be  made, in  a dark
place, at a short distance, it would be utterly impossi-
ble to determine its direction ; in using both ears this
could be determined.   In these cases tiie eye is of
great use, for even in using both ears it is frequently
impossible to tell in  the dark from wlience a sound
comes.  By the sound we may  also estimate the dis-
tance of the body from which it proceeds: but in order
to judge exactly in  this respect we ought to be perfectly
acquainted with the nature of the sound, for without
this condition the estimation is always erroneous.  The
principle upon which we judge is, that an intense sound
proceeds from  a body which is near, while a feeble
sound proceeds from a body at a distance:  if it happen
that  an intense sound comes from a distant  body while
a feeble sound proceeds from a body which is near,
we fall into acoustic errors.  We  are generally very
subject to deception with regard to the point whence a
sound comes: sight and reason are of great use in as-
sisting our judgment.
  The different degree of convergence, and divergence,
of the sonorous rays, do not seem to  have  auy influ-
ence on tlie hearing, neither are they modified in their
course, except for the purpose of making them enter
into  the ear in greater quantity:  it is to produce this
effect that speaking trumpet* are  used for those who
do not hear well.  Sometimes it is necessary to dimi-
nish  tiie intensity of sounds: in this  case  a soft and
scarcely elastic body is placed in the external meatus."
—Magendie's Physiology.
  HEART.  Cor.  A hollow muscular viscus,  situ-
ated in the cavity of the pericardium for the circula-
tion of the blood.   It is divided externally into a base,
or its broad part; a superior and an  inferior surface,
and an anterior and posterior margin. Internally, it
is divided into a right and left ventricle.   The situa-
tion  of the heart is oblique, not transverse; its base
being placed on the right of the bodies of the vertebra;,
and its apex obliquely to the sixth rib on the left side;
bo that the left ventricle is almost posterior, and the
right anterior.  Its inferior surface lies upon the dia-
pliragm.  There are two cavities adhering to the base
of the heart, from  their resemblance called auricles.
The right auricle is a muscular sac, in which are four
apertures, two of the vene cave, an  opening into the
right ventricle, and the  opening of the coronary vein.
The left is a similar sac, in which there are five aper-
tures, viz. those of the four  pulmonary veins, and an
opening into the left ventricle.   The cavities in the
heart are  called ventricles:  these aie divided by a
      414
fleshy septum, caUcdte^uwCTrWrjlBld S Ant'and
left.  Each ventricle hea twn orfjters; tiWiiSs auri-
cular, through which the blood enters, thd oiFer' irte-
rious, through which tire blood passes out.  Then four
orifices are supplied  w!lh'«arve», which ure named
from their  resemblance; those  at the arterior rrrtncea
are called  the semilunar; those at the orifice of the
right auricle, tricuspid; and those at the orifice of tho
left auricle, mitral.  The valve of Eustathius is  situ-
ated at the termination of the vena cava inferior, just
within the auricle.  The substance of tho heart is mus-
cular; its exterior fibres are longitudir.nl, its middle
transverse, and its interior oblique.   The internal su-
perfices of the ventricles and  auricles of the  heart are
invested with a strong and smooth membrane, which
is extremely Irritable.  The  vessels of the heart are
divided into common and proper.  The common are, 1.
The  aorta, which arises from  the left ventricle.  2.
The  pulmonary artery, which originates from  the
right ventricle.   3. The four  pulmonary veins, which
terminate in the left auricle.  4. The two vena cava,
which evacuate themselves into the right auricle.  The
proper vessels are, 1. The coronary arteries, which
arise from the aorta, and arc  distributed on the heart.
2. The coronary veins,  which return  the blood into
the right auricle.  The nerves of the heart are branches
of the eight and great intercostal pairs.  The heart of
the fcetus differs from that of the  adult. In having a
foramen ovale, through which the blood passes  from
the right auricle to the left.
  Heart-shaped.  See Cordatus.
  HEART'S EASE.  See Viola tricolor.        •  '«
  HEAT.  See Caloric.
  Heat, absolute.  Thistcrm is applied to the whole
quantity of caloric existing  in  a  body in  chemical
union.
  Heat, animal.   " An inert body which  does  not
change its  position, being placed among other bodies,
very soon  assumes the same  temperature, on account
of the tendency of caloric to an  equilibrium.   The
body of man is very different: surrounded by bodies
bolter than itself, it preserves its Inferior temperature
as long as life continues ; being surrounded with bodies
of a lower  temperature, it maintains its temperature
more elevated.  There are, then, in the animal econo-
my, two different and distinct properties, the one of pro-
ducing heat, the other of producing cold.   We will
examine these two properties.   Let us first see how
heat is produced.
  The respiration  appears to be  the principal,  or at
least the most evident source of  animal heat.  In fact,
experience demonstrates that the heat of the  blood
increases nearly a degree in traversing the lungs; and
as it is distributed to all  parts of the body from the
lungs, it carries tlie heat every where into the organs;
for we have also seen  that the heat of the veins is lest
than that of the arteries.
  This developement of heat in the respiration appears,
as we have already said, to proceed from the formation
of carbonic acid, whether it takes place directly in the
lungs, or happens afterward  in the arteries, or nyihe
parenchyma of the organs.   Some very good experi-
ments of Lavoisier, and De Laplace, lead to this con-
clusion: they placed  animals in a  calorimeter,  and
compared the quantity of acid formed by the respira-
tion, with the quantity of heat produced in a given
time:  except a  very  small  proportion,  the  heat
produced was that which would  have been  occa-
sioned by the quantity  of carbonic  acid which was
formed.
  It has also been  proved by the experiments of Bro-
die, Thillage, and Legallois, that if the  respiration of
an animal  is incommoded, either by putting it  in a
fatiguing position, or in making it respire  artificially,
its temperature lowers,  and the quantity of carbonic
acid that it forms becomes less.   In diseases when the
respiration  is accelerated, the heat increases, except in
particular circumstances.  The respiration is then a
focus in which caloric is developed.
  In considering for an instant only this source of heat
in the economy, we see that tlie caloric must be dis-
tributed to the different parts of the body in an unequal
manner; those farthest from the heart, those that re-
ceive least blood, or which cool more rapidly, mint
generally be colder than those  that are diflerently dis-
posed.
  This difference partly ejif-ts.  The extremities are 
HEA
HEB
colder  than the trunk;  sometimes they present only
89°or9±o F., and often much less, while the cavity.of the
thorax is  about 104« F.:  but  the extremities have a
considerable surface relative to their mass;  they are
farther from the heart, and  receive less  blood than
most of the organs of the trunk.
  On account of the extent of their  surface and dis-
tance from the heart, the feet and hands would proba-
bly have a temperature  still lower than that which is
peculiar to them, if these parts did not receive a greater
proportional quantity of blood.  The same disposition
exists for all tiie exterior organs that  have a very large
surface, as the nose, the pavilion of the ear, &.c.: their
temperature is also higher than their surface  and dis-
tance from the heart would seem to indicate.
  Notwithstanding the  providence of  nature, those
parts that have large surfaces lose their caloric with
greater facility; and they are  not only  habitually
colder  than the others, but their temperature often be-
comes  very low:  the  temperature  of the feet and
hands  in winter is often nearly as low as 32°  F.   It is
on this account we expose them so willingly to the
heat of our fires.
  Among other means that we instinctively employ to
remedy or prevent coldness, are motion, walking, run-
ning, leaping, which accelerate the circulation; press-
ure, shocks upon the skin, which attract a great quan-
tity of  blood into tiie tissue of this membrane. Ano-
ther equally effective means consists in diminishing
the surface in contact with the bodies that deprive us
of caloric.  Thus we bend the different parts of the
limbs upon each other, we apply them  forcibly to the
trunk  when  the exterior temperature is  very low.
Children and  weak persons often take this  position
when iu bed.   In this respect it would be very proper
that young children should not be confined too much in
their swathing clothes to prevent them from thus bend-
ing themselves.  Our clothes preserve the heat of our
bodies; for the substance of which they are formed
being bad conductors of caloric, they prevent that of the
body from passing off.
  According to what bas been said, the combination
of the  oxygen of the air with the carbon of the blood
is sufficient for  the explanation of most of the pheno-
mena presented by the production of animal heat; but
there are several which, if real, could not be explained
by  this means. Authors  worthy of credit have re-
marked, that, in certain local diseases, the temperature
of the diseased place rises several degrees above  that
of the  blood, taken at the left auricle.  If this is so, the
continual renewal of the arterial blood is not sufficient
to account for this increase of heat.
  This second source of heat must belong to the nutri-
tive phenomena which take place in the-diseased part.
  There is nothing forced in this supposition;  for most
of the chemical combinations produce elevations of
temperature, and it cannot be doubted that both in the
secretions and  in the nutrition, combinations of this
sort take place in the organs.
  By means of these two sources of heat, life can be
maintained though the  external temperature is very
low, as that of winter incountries near the pole, which
descends sometimes to — 42° F.  Generally  such an
excessive cold is not supported without great difficulty,
and it  often happens that  the parts most easily cooled
are mortified: many of the military suffered these ac-
cidents in the  wars of Russia.  Nevertheless, as we
easily  resist a temperature much lower than our own,
it is evident that we are possessed of tbe faculty of pro-
ducing heat to a great degree.
  The faculty of  producing cold, or,  in more exact
terms, of  resisting foreign heat, which has  a tendency
to enter our organs, is more  confined.   In the torrid
zone, It has happened that men have died suddenly,
when  the temperature has approached 122° F.
  But  this property is not less real, though  limited.
Banks, Blagden, and Fordyce, having exposed them-
selves  to a heat of nearly  260°, they found that their
bodies had preserved nearly their own temperature.
More recent experiments of Berger and Delaroche have
shown that by this cause tbe heat  of  the body may
rise several degrees: for this to take place it is only
necessary that the surrounding temperature should be
a tittle elevated.  Having  both placed themselves in a
stove of 120©,  their temperature rose  nearly 6.8° F.
Delaroche having remained sixteen minutes in a dry
stove at 176°, his temperature rose 9°F.
  Franklin, to whom the physical and  moral sciences
are indebted  for many important discoveries, and a
great many ingenious views, was the first who disco-
vered the reason why the  body thus  resists  such a
strong heat.   He showed that this effect was due to the
evaporation of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpira-
tion, and that hi this respect the bodies of animals re-
semble the porous vases called alcarrazas.  These ves-
sels, which are used in hot countries, allow the water
that they contain to sweat through them; their surface
is always humid, and a rapid evaporation takes place,
which  cools the liquid they contain.
  In order to prove this important result, Delaroche
placed animals in a hot atmosphere that was so satu-
rated with humidity that no evaporation could take
place.  These animals could not support a heat but a
little greater  than their  own without  perishing, and
they became  heated,  because they had no longer the
means of cooling  themselves.  Thus,  there is no
doubt that the cutaneous and pulmonary evaporation
are the causes which enable man and animals to resist
a strong  heat.  This explanation is also confirmed by
the considerable loss of weight that the body suffers
after having been exposed to a great heat.
  According  to these facts  it is evident that the au •
thors who have represented animal heat as fixed, have
been very far from the truth.  To judge exactly of it,
it would be  necessary to take into account the sur-
rounding temperature and  humidity;  the degree of
heat of different parts ought to be considered, and the
temperature of one part ought not to be determined by
that of another.
  We have few correct observations upon the temper-
ature proper to the body  of man; the latest are due to
Edwards and Gentil. These authors  observed that
the most suitable place for judging of the heat of the
body is the armpit.   They noticed nearly 2J degrees
of difference  between the heat of a young  man and
that of a young girl:  the heat of her  hand was a little
less than 97$°, that ofthe young man was 98.4°.  The
same person observed great  differences of heat in tbe
different temperaments.  There are also diurnal varia-
tions ;  the temperature may  change about two or three
degrees fr«4m  morning to evening.— Ure's Chem. Did.
  Heat,  free.   If the heat which exists in any sub-
stance  be from any cause forced in some degree to quit
that substance, and to combine with those  that sur-
round it,  then such heat  is said to be free, or sensible,
until the  equilibrium is restored.
  Heat,  latent. When any body is  in equilibrium
with the bodies which surround  it with respect to ita
heat, that quantity which it contains is not perceptible
by any external sign, or organ of sense, and  is  termed
combined caloric, or latent heat .
  Heat, sensible. See Heat, free.
  Heavy carbonated  hydrogen.   See Carburetted hy-
drogen.
  HEAVY SPAR.   Baryte.  A genus of  minerals,
divided by F.r ffessor Jameson into four species.
  1. Rhomboidal baryte,  or  Witherite.  This is a car-
bonate of barytes; and  is found in  Cumberland and
Durham.
  2. Prismatic baryte, or heavy spar, a sulphate; found
also in Cumberland and  Durham.
  3. Diprismalic baryte, or strontianite.  A carbonate
of barytes; found in Strontian, in Argyleshire.
  4. Axifrangible baryte, or Celestine.  A sulphate of
strontites, with  about iwo per cent, of sulphate of ba-
rytes :  found  near Edinburgh, in Inverness-shire, and
Bristol.                               *
  Heavy inflammable air.   See Carburetted hydrogen
gas.
  HEBERDEN, William, was bom in London in
1710, and graduated at Cambridge, where he afterward
practised during ten  years,  and gave lectures on the
Materia  Medica.  During this  period he  published a
little Tract, entitled  " Anlitheriaca," condemning the
complication  of  certain ancient Formula: of Medi-
cines.  In 1748,  he  removed to London, having pre-
viously been  elected  a fellow of the College of Phy-
sicians; and  he was shortly after admitted into the
Royal  Society.   He soon rose to considerable  reputa-
tion and  practice in his profession.  At his suggestion
"the Medical Transactions of the College  of Physi-
cians," first appeared in  1768; and four other volumes
have since been  published  at  different periods.  Dr.
Beberden contributed some valuable papers to this 
HEL
HEL
 work, especially on tlie Angina Pectoris, a disease not
 before described ; and on Chicken Pox, which he first
 a< curately disiiuguishcd from Small Pox.  Someother
 papers of his appeared in tiie Philosophical Transac-
 tions.  As he advanced to years he began to relax
 from tbe fatigue of practice: and in 1782 he drew up the
 result of his experience in a volume of " Commenta-
 ries," written in Latin, the great excellence of which is
 its style.  He reserved it for publication, however, till
 after his death, which did not happen till 1801.
   HECTIC.  (Hecticus ; from cjtc, habit.) See Febris
 Hectica.
   HEDERA.   (From hareo, to  stick, because it at-
 taches itself to trees and old walls.)  The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Pentan-
 dria ; Order, Monogynia.  The ivy.
   Hedera arborea.  See Hedera Helix.
   Hedera helix.  Hedera arborea.  The ivy.  The
 leaves of this  tree have Utile or no smell, but a very
 nauseous taste.  Haller  informs us, that they are re-
 commended in Germany against the atrophy of chil-
 dren. By the common people of this country they are
 sometimes applied to running sores, and to keep issues
 open.  The  berries were supposed by the ancients to
 have a purgative and emetic quality; and an extract
 was made from them by water, called by Quercetanus
 extractumpurgans.  Later writers have recommended
 them in small doses as alexipharmic and sudorific;
 it is said, that  in the plague at London, the powder of
 them was given in vinegar, or white wine, with good
 success.  It is from the stalk of this tree that a resinous
juice, called Gummi hedera, exudes very plentifully in
 warm climates.  It is imported from the East Indies,
 though it may be collected from trees in this country.
 It is brought over in hard compact masses, externally of
 a reddish brown colour, internally of a bright brownish
 yellow, with reddish specks or veins.  It has a strong,
 resinous, agreeable  smell, and an adstringent taste.
 Though never used in the practice of the present day,
 it possesses corroborant, astringent, and antispasmodic
 virtues.
   Hedera terrestris.  See Glecoma.
   HEDERACE-rE.  (From hedera,  the ivy.)   The
 name of an orderof plants in Linnaeus's Fragments of a
 Natural Method, consisting of the ivy and a few other
 genera which  iu  their form and appearance  resem-
 ble it.
   Hedge hyssop.  See Gratiola officinalis.
   Hedge mustard.  See .Erysimum officinale.
   Hedge mustard, stinking.  See Erysimum Alliaria.
   He'dra.  1. Tbe anus.
   2. Excrement.
   3. A fracture
   Hedyo'smos.  Mint.
   HEISTER,  Laurence, was bom at Frankfort on
 tie Maine in 1683. Afterstudying in different German
 universities, and serving sometime as an army-surgeon,
 he graduated at Leyden: and in 1709 was appointed
 physician general to the Dutch Military Hospital.  The
 next year he became professor of anatomy and surgery
 at Altorf: and having distinguished himself greatly by
 his lectures and writings, he received in 1720 a more
 advantageous  appointment  at  Helmstadt, under the
 Duke of Brunswick, as physician, Aulic  counsellor,
 and professor of medicine;  in which he continued,
 notwithstanding an invitation to Russia from the Czar
 Peter, till the period of his death in 1758. He was author
 of several esteemed works, particularly a Compendium
 of Anatomy, which  became very popular,  being re-
 markable for its conciseness and clearness.  " His In-
 stitutions of Surgery," also gained him great credit;
 being translated into Latin, and most of tbe modern
 languages of  Europe.   Another  valuable  practical
 work was entitled " Medical, Surgical, and Anatomi-
 cal Cases and Observations."  He had some taste for
 botany also, which he taught at Helmstadt, and con-
 siderably enriched the garden there; but he unfortu-
 nately became an antagonist of tbe celebrated Linna-us,
 not properly appreciating tbe excellence of the system
 of that eminent naturalist.
   HELCO'MA.  Ulceration.
   Helconia.  (From tXxos, an ulcer.)  Anulcerinthe
 external or internal superficies of the cornea, known by
 an excavation and oozing of purulent matter from the
 cornea.
   Hblcy'sriom.  (From tXxos, an ulcer, and vSua.
 water.)  Hdcydrium.  A moist ulcerous pustule.
      416
   Helcy'ster.  (From tXxia, to draw.)  An instro '
 ment for extracting the fcetus.
   Helenium.   (From  Helene, the island where il
 grew.)  See Inula helenium.
   HELIANTHUS.   (From nXtos, the sun ; and av9o(,
 a flower.  This name originated from tlie resemblance
 which its broad golden  disk and ray bear to  the sun,
 and is rendered further appropriate by its having the
 power of constantly presenting its flowers to that lumi-
 nary.) The name of a genus of plants.l Class, Syngenc-
 sia; Order, Polygamia frustranea.  The sun-flower.
   Helianthus annuus.  The systematic name of tiie
 Corona  soli's, and chimalatus.  The seeds have been
 made into a nutritious bread. The whole plant when
 young is boiled and eaten in some countries, as being
 aphrodisiac.
 .  Helianthus  tuberosus.  Jerusalem artichoke.
 Although formerly in estimation for  the table, this
 root is now neglected, it  being apt to produce flatulen-
 cy and dyspepsia.
   Helica'lis major.  See Helicis major.
   Helica'lis minor.  See Helicis minor.
  HE'LICIS  MAJOR.   A proper muscle  of the ear,
 which depresses the part of the cartilage of the ear into
 which it is inserted; it lies upon the upper or  sharp
 point of the helix, or outward ring, arising from the
 upper and acute part of the helix anteriorly, and pass-
 ing to be inserted into its  cartilage a little above the
 tragus.
  Helicis minor.  A proper muscle ofthe ear, which
 contracts the fissure of the ear; it is situated below the
 helicis major, upon part  of the helix.  It arises  from
 the inferior and anterior part of the helix, and is in-
 serted into the crus of the helix, near the fissure in the
 cartilage opposite to the concha.
  HELIOTROPE.   A  sub-species of   rhomboidal
 quartz.
  HELIOTROPIUM.  ('IIAiorpojnov ria utya, of Di-
 oscorides; from  nXtos, the sun, and rponn, a  turning
 or inclination : because, says that  ancient writer, it
 turns its leaves round with the  declining sun.)   The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria; Order,
 Monogynia.
  Heliotro'pii succus.  See Croton tinclorium.
  HELIX.  (EXii-,  from tiXia, to turn about.)   The
 external circle or border of the outer ear, that curls in-
 wards.
   HeLix hortensis. The garden snail.
  HELLEBORA'STER. (From tXXs6opos, hellebore.)
 See Helleborus fatidus.
   HELLEBORE.  See Helleborus.
   Hellebore, black.  See Helleborus niger.
   Hellebore, white.  See Veratrum  album.
  HELLE'BORUS.  (KXXtSopos: naparorvPopatXXttv,
 because it destroys, if eaten.)  The nameof a genus of
 plants in the Linnean  system.   Class Polyandria ;
 Order, Polygynia.  Hellebore.
  Helleborus albus.   See  Veratrum album.
  Hellebore fcetidus.  Stinking Hellebore, or bear's-
 foot.  Hellebor aster.   Helleborus—caule multifloro
folioao, foliis pedatis, of Linnams.   The leaves of this
 indigenous plant are recommended by many as possess-
 ing extraordinary anthelmintic powers.  The  smell of
 the recent plant is extremely fcetid, and the taste is bit-
 ter and remarkably acrid, insomuch that, when chewed,
 it excoriates the mouth  and fauces.  It commonly
 operates as a cathartic, sometimes as an emetic, and
 in large doses proves highly deleterious.
  Helleborus niger.  Black hellebore, or Christmas
 rose.  Melampodium.    Helleborus—scapo subbiflort
 subnude, foliis pedatis, of Linnaeus.  The root of this
 exotic plant is the part employed medicinally: its taste,
 when fresh, is bitterish, and somewhat acrid: it  also
 emits a nauseous acrid smell: but, being long  kept,
 both its sensible qualities and medicinal activity sutler
 very considerable diminution.  The ancients esteemed
 it as a powerful remedy in maniacal cases.  At present
 it is exhibited principally  as an alterative, or, when
 given in a large dose, as a purgative.  It often proves a
 very powerful emmenagogue in plethoric habits, where
 steel is  ineffectual,  or "improper.  It is also  recom-
 mended in dropsies, and some cutaneous diseases.
  HELMET-FLOWER.  HeeAnthora,
  HELMI'NTHAGOGUE.   (Helmmthagogus,  from
 tXpivs, a worm, and ayia, to drive out.)  Whatever de-
 stroys and expels worms.  See Anthdmintic.
   HELMINTHIA.  The name of a genus of diseases 
HEM
HEP
Class, Caliaca ; Order, Enterica, in Good's Nosology.
Invermination, worms,  it lias three species, viz. Hel-
minthia alvi, podicis, erratica.
  HELMINTHIASIS.   (EXuivdiaois;  from tXutvs,
which signifies any species of worm.)  A disease in
which worms, or the larva- of worms, are bred under
the skin, or some external part of the body. It is ende-
mial  to Martinique, Westphalia, Transylvania,  and
some other places.
  HELM I NTHOCO'RTON.  See Corallina corsicana.
  HELMONT, John Baptist Van, was born of  a
noble family  at Brussels in 1577.  He exhibited very
early  proofs  of superior abilities,  and soon became
convinced how much hypothesis was ranked under the
name of science and philosophy in books; he seems to
have perceived the necessity of experiment and  induc-
tion in the discovery pf real  knowledge; but did not
methodize  his ideas sufficiently,  to pursue that plan
with  its full  advantage.  After taking his degree at
Louvain he travelled during ten years,  and in  this
period acquired some practical knowledge of chemis-
try.  On his return in 1609 he married a noble lady of
large  fortune, which enabled him  to pursue his re-
searches into the three kingdoms of nature with little
interruption.   He declined visiting patients, but gave
gratuitous advice to those who went to consult him;
and he boasts of having cured several thousands an-
nually. He continued his investigations with astonish-
ing diligence during thirty years, and made several dis-
coveries  in chemistry; among which  were  certain
articles possessed of considerable activity on the human
body.  This confirmed his opposition to the Galenical
school, the absurd hypotheses, and inert practice of
wbich he attacked with great warmth and ability.  In-
deed he contributed greatly to overturn their influence;
but from a desire to expiain  every thing on chemical
principles, he substituted  doctrines equally gratuitous
or unintelligible.  He published various works from
time to time, which brought him  considerable reputa-
tion, and he  was  repeatedly  invited to  Wenna; but
he preferred continuing in his laboratoM» He died
in 1644.                               ~
  HELO'DES.  (From tXos,  a marsh.)  A term ap-
plied lo fevers generated from marsh miasma.
  HELO'SIS.  (From ttXia, to turn.)  An eversion or
turning up of the eyelids.
  HELVINE.  A sub-species of dodecahedral garnet.
  He'lxines.   (From tXxia, to draw: so called  be-
cause it sticks to whatever it touches.)   Pellitory of
the wall.
  Hemalo'pia.  Corruptly written for haemalopia.
  HEMATIN. The colouring principle of logwood.
See Hamatoxylon campechianum.
  HEMATURIA.  See Hamaturia.
  HEMERALO'PIA.   (From vptpa, the day, and iaif>,
the eye.) A defect in the sight, which consists in being
able to see  in  the daytime, but not in the evening.
The following is Scarpa's description of this curious
disorder.  Hemcralopia, or nocturnal blindness,  is pro-
perly nothing but a kind of imperfect periodical amau-
rosis, most  commonly sympathetic  with the stomach.
Its  paroxysms come on towards the evening, and dis-
appear in  the  morning.  The disease is endemic in
Bome countries, and epidemic, at certain seasons of the
year, in others.  At sunset, objects appear to persons
affected with this complaint as if covered with an ash-
coloured veil, which  gradually changes into a dense
cloud,  which  intervenes between  the eyes and sur-
rounding objects.   Patients with hemeralopia, have
the pupil, both in the day and nighttime, more dilated,
and less moveable than  it usually is in healthy eyes.
The majority of them, however, have the pupil more
Tjr less moveable in the daytime, and alwaysexpanded
and motionless at  night.   When brought into a room
faintly lighted by  a candle, where all tbe bystanders
can see tolerably well, they cannot discern at all, or in
a very feeble manner, scarcely any one object; or they
only find  themselves able to distinguish  light from
darkness, and at moonlight their sight is still worse.
At  daybreak  they recover their sight, which continues
perfect all the  rest of the day till sunset.
  ("According to  M. Dujardin, this  term is derived
from fipipa, the  day, dXaoc,  blind,  and to\p, the eye;
and in ils right signification is therefore inferred io be
diurna cacitudo, or day blindness.   In the same sense,
Dr. Hillary and Dr. Hcbeiden,  have  employed the
term
                                        Dd
  "Hemeralopia then, which is of  very rare occur-
 rence, stands in opposition to the nyctalopia of the an-
 cients, or night-blindness.  Numerous modern writers,
 however, have used these terms in the contrary sense;
 considering  the hemeralopia, as denoting sight during
 the day, and blindness in the night; and nyctalopia as
 expressing night-seeing, (owl-sight, as the French call
 it,) and  blindness during the daytime."—Cooper's
 Sur. Die.  A.]
  HEMERALOPS.  (From nutpa, the day, and taxf/,
 the eye.)  One who can see but in the daytime.
  Hsmicerau'nios.   (From npiovs, half, and xtipta,
 to cut: so called because it was cut half way down.)
 A bandage for the back and breast.
  HEMICRA'NIA.  (From nutovs, half,  and xpavtov,
 the head.)   A pain that affects only one side of the
 head.  It is  generally nervous or hysterical,sometimes
 bilious; and in both esses  sometimes comes at a regu-
 lar period, like an ague.  When it is accompanied by
 a strong pulsation like that of a nail piercing the part,
 it is denominated clavus.
  HEMIO'PSIA.   (From 17/1101;?, half,  and  wti/,  an
 eye.)  A defect of vision, in which the person sees the
 half, but not the whole of an object
  Hemipa'oia.  (From  ij/uctvc,  half,  and  iraytos,
 fixed.)  A fixed pain on one side of the head.  See
 Hemicrania.
  HE.VHPLE'GIA.  (From npiovs, half,  and nXnoeta,
 to strike.)  A paralytic affection of one side of the
 body.  See Paralysis.
  HEMLOCK.  See Conium maculatum.
  HEMLOCK-DROPWORT.   See CEnanthe crocata.
  Hemlock, water.   See Cicuta virosa.
  Hemorrhage from the lungs.   See Hamoptysis.
  Hemorrhage from the nose.  See F.pistaxis.
  Hemorrhage from the stomachs  See Hamaiemesis.
  Hemorrhage from the urinary organs.   See Hama-
 turia.
  Hemorrhage from the uterus.  See Menorrhagia.
  HEMP.  See Cannabis.
  HEMP-AGRIMONY.   See  Eupatorium  canniba-
 num.
  Hemp, water.  See Eupatorium.
  HENBANE.  See Hyoseyamus.
  HE'PAR.   (Hepar, atis. n.  Hirap, the liver.)  See
 Liver.
  Hepar sulphuris.  Liver of sulphur.  A  sulphu-
 ret made either with potassa or soda.  See Sulphure-
 tum polassa.
  Hepar uterinum.  The placenta.
  HEPATA'LGIA. (From r/irap, the liver, and aXyof,
 pain.)  Pain in the liver.
  HEPATIC.  (Hepaticus; from rptap, the liver.)
 Belonging to the liver.
  Hepatic air.  See Hydrogen sulphuretted.
  Hepatic artery.  Arteria  hepatica.   The artery
 which nourishes the substance of the liver.  It arises
 from the cceliac,  where it almost touches the point of
 the lobulus Spigelii.   Its root is covered by the pan-
 creas ; it then turns a little forwards, and  passes under
 ihe pylorus to the porta of the liver, and runs between
 the biliary ducts and the vena ports?, where it divides
 into two large branches, one of which enters the right,
 and the other the left  lobe of the liver.   In this place
 it is enclosed along with all the other vessels in  the
 capsule of Glisson.
  Hepatic duct.  Ductus hepaticus.  The trunk of
 the biliary pores.  It runs  from the sinus of the liver
 towards the  duodenum, and is joined by the cystic
 duct, to form the ductus communis choledochus.  See
 Biliary duct.
  Hepatic veins.   See Vein, and Vena porta.
  Hepatica.  (From  nirap, the liver: so called be-
 cause it was thought to be useful in diseases of the
 liver.)  See  Marchantia polymorpha.
  Hepatica  nobilis.  See Anemone hepatica.
  Hepatica  terrestris.   See Marchantia poly
 morpha.
  HEPATIRRHiE'A.   (From  uirap, the liver, and
 ptia, to flow.)  1. A purging with bilious  evacuations.
  2. A diarrhoea, in which portions of flesh, like liver
 are voided.
  HEPATITE. Foetid, straight, lamellar, heavy spar.
 A variety of lamellar barytes, containing a small quan-
 tity of sulphur,  in consequence of which, when it
is  heated or rubbed,  it emits  a  fcetid  sulphureous
 odour.
                                       417 
IILT
HER
  HEPATITIS.   (From qvap, the liver.)  Inflamma-
tie hepatis.  An inflammation of the liver.  A genus
of disease in the class Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia
ot Cullen, who defines it " febrile affection, attended
with tension and  pain of the right hypochondrium,
often pungent, like that of a pleurisy, but more fre-
quently dull, or obtuse, a pain at the clavicle and at the
lop of the shoulder of the right side;  much uneasiness
in lying down on the leftside:  difficulty of breathing;
a dry cough, vomiting, and hiccup."
  Besides the causes producing other inflammations,
such as the application of cold, external injuries from
contusions, stows, &c. this disease may be occasioned
by certain passions of the mind, by violent exercise,
by intense summer beats,  by long-continued intermit-
tent and remittent fevers, and by various solid concre-
tions in the substance of the liver.   In warm climates
this viscus is more apt to be affected with inflamma-
tion than  perhaps any other part of the body, proba-
bly  from the increased secretion of bile which takes
place when the blood is thrown on the internal parts,
by an  exposure to cold ; or from the bile becoming
acrid, and thereby exciting an irritation in the part.
Hepatitis has generally been considered of two kinds ;
one the acute, tiie other chronic.
  The  acute species of hepatitis comes on with a pain
in the  right hypochondrium, extending up to the cla
vicleand shoulder; which is much increased by press-
ing  upon tbe part, and  is accompanied with a cough,
oppression cf breathing, and difficulty of lying on the
leit side ; together with nausea and sickness, and often
wilh a vomiting of bilious matter.  The urine is of a
deep saffron colour,  aud  small in quantity ; there is
loss of appetite, great thirst, and  costiveness, with u
strong, hard, and  frequent  pulse; and when the dis-
ease lias  continued for some days, the skin and eyes
become tinged of a deep yellow.   When the inflam-
mation is in tlie cellular structure or substance of the
liver,, it is called by  some hepatitis parenchymatosa,
and when the gull-bladder  which is attached  to  this
organ,  is- tbe seat of the  inflammation, it has been
called hepatitis cystica.
  The  chronic species is usually accompanied with a
morbid complexion, loss of appetite and flesh, costive-
ness, indigestion, flatulency, pains in the stomach, a
yellow tinge of the skin and eyes, clay-coloured stools,
high-coloured  urine,  depositing  a red sediment  and
ropy mucus; an obtuse pain in ihe region of the liver,
extending to the shoulder, and not unfrequently with a
considerable degree of asthma.
  These  symptoms ate, however, often  so mild  and
insignificant as to pass almost unnoticed; as large ab-
scesses have been found in tiie liver upon dissection,
which  in the person's lifetime  had created little or no
inconvenience,  and which we may presume to have
been occasioned by some previous inflammation.
  Hepatitis, like other inflammations, may end in re-
solution,  suppuration, gangrene, or  scirrhus,  but its
termination in gangrene is a rare occurrence.
  The disease is  seldom  attended with fatal  conse-
quences of an immediate nature, and is often carried
ofl' by  hemorrhage from  the  nose, or ha-morrhoidal
vessels, and likewise by sweating, by a diarrhoea, or
by an evacuation of urine, depositing a copious sedi-
ment.  In a few instances, it has been observed to
cease on the appearance of erysipelas, in some external
part.
  When suppuration takes place, as it generally does,
before  litis forms an adhesion wilh some neighbouring
part, the  pus  is usually discharged  by  the different
outlets with which this part is connected, as by cough-
ing, vomiting,  purging, or by an abscess breaking out-
wardly ; but, iu some instances, the pus has been  dis-
charged into the cavity of the abdomen, where no such
adhesion bud been formed.
  On dissection, the liver is often found much enlarged,
and hard to tbe touch; its  colour is  more of  a deep
purple than what is  natural, and  its membranes are
more or  less affected by inflammation.   Dissections
Ukewise show thai adhesions to the neighbouring parts
often take place, and  large abscesses, containing a con-
siderable quantity of pus. are  often found  in its sub-
stance.
  The  treatment of this disease must be distinguished,
as it is of tlie acute, or of the chronic form. In acute
hepatitis, where the symptoms run high, and tiie con-
stitution will admit, we should, In the beginning, bleed
      413
freely from tiie arm; which it will seldom be neces
sary to repeat, If carried lo the proper extent :u first
iu milder cases, or where  there is less pnw^r in  the
system, Ihe "local  abstraction of blood, by cupping or
leeching, may be sufficient.  We should next give calo-
mel alone, or combined with opium, and  followed  up
by infusion of senna with neutral salts, jalap, or other
cathartic, to evacuate bile, and thoroughly clear out
the intestines.  When, by these means, the inflamma-
tion is materially abated, we should endeavour to pro-
mote diaphoresis  by suitable medicines, assisted  by
the warm bath; a  blister may be applied;  and the
antiphlogistic reeimen is to be duly enforced.  But tlie
dischaige of bile, by occasional doses of calomel, must
not be neglected: and where the alvine evacuations
are deficient in that secretion, it will be proper to posh
this, or other mercurial preparation, till  the mouth is
in some measure affected.  In India this is the  re-
medy chiefly relied upon, and exhibited often in much
larger doses than appear advisable in  more temperate
climates.  Should tiie disease proceed  to suppuration,
means must be used to support the strength; a nutri-
tious diet, with a moderate quantity of wine, and de-
coction of bark, or other tonic medicine: fomentations
or poultices will also be proper to promote the discharge
externally; but when any fluctuation is perceptible, it
is better  to make an opening, lest it  should  burst in-
wardly.  In the chronic form of the disease, mercury
is the remedy chiefly to  be relied upon;  but due cau-
tion must be observed in its use, especially in scrofu-
lous subjects.  It  appears more effectual in restoring
the healthy action of the liver, when taken internally:
but if the mildest forms, though guarded by opium, or
rather sedative, cannot so be borne, the ointment may
be rubbed in.   In  the meantime, calumba, or other
tonic, with antacids, and mild aperients, as rhubarb, to
regulate  the  state of the priuue vim, will be proper.
Where the system will not admit the adequate use  of
mercury, the nitric acid  is the most promising substi-
tute.  An occasional blister may be required to relieve
unusual pain;  or where  this  is very limited  and con-
tinued, an issue, or seton may answer better.  , The
strength must be supported by a light nutritious diet;
and gentle exercise  with warm clothing, to  maintain
the perspiration steadily, is important, in the convales-
cent state: more especially a sea voyage iu person*
long resident in India has  often appeared the  only
means of restoring perfect health.
  Hepatitis  parenchymatosa.   Inflammation  of
the substance of the liver.
  Hepatitis pkritonjealis.  Inflammation in the
peritonamm covering the liver.
  HEPATOCE'LE.  (From rprap, the liver, and xnXrj,
a tumour.)   A hernia, in which a portion of the liver
protrudes through the abdominal parieles.
  Hepato'rium.  The same as Eupatorium.
  Hepiije'stias.  (From H<f>ai%-os, Vulcan,  or fire.)
A drying plaster of burnt tiles.
  Hepi'alus.  (From nmos, gentle.)   A mild quoti-
dian fever.
  HEPTA'NDRIA.  (From trra, seven, and avnp, a
man, or husband.)   The name of a class in the sexual
system of plants, consisting of such  hermaphrodite
flowers as have seven stamens.
  Heptapha'rmacum.  (From nr7a, seven, and tf>appa-
kov, medicine.)  A  medicine composed of seven  in
gradients, the principal of which were cerusse, litharge,
wax, Sec.
  HEPTAPHY'LLUM.   (From  tula,  seven, and
ibvXXor, a leaf: so named because it consists of seven
leaves.)  See Tormentilla erecta.
  Heptaple'urum.  (From trr7a, seven, and -irXtvpa,
a rib: so named fiom its having seven ribB upon the
leaf.)   The herb plantain.  See Plantago major.
  HERACLEA.  1. Writer hoarhound.
  2. Tho common wild  marjoram received a trivial
name from its growing in abundance in Heraclea.  See
Origanum vulgare.
  HERA'CLEUM.   (From  Heraclea, the city near
which it grows; or from'HpaxXns, Hercules, being the
plant sacicd  to him.) The name of a genus of plants
in the  Linnxan system.  Class, Pentandria; Order,
Digynia.
  Heraclecm ocmmiferum.  This species Is  sup-
posed by Wildenow to afford the gum ammoniacum.
See Ammoniacum.
  llLRACLtuM sfondylium.  Branca ursina German 
HER                                            flfiR
mica; Spondylium.  Cow-parsnip.   All-heal.  Hera-
cleum—foliolis pinnatifidis, lavibus ; floribus unifor-
mibus of Linnatus.   The plant which is directed by
the name of Branca ursina in foreign pharmacopoeias.
In Siberia it grows extremely high, and appears to have
virtues in the cure of dysentery which the plants of
this country do not possess.
  ["The Heracleum Lanatum is one of our largest
native umbellate plants,  growing frequently to the
height of a man, with a stalk more than an inch in
thickness.  Ita taste is strong and acrid.  The bruised
root or leaves, externally applied, excite rubefaction.
Internally used, this article has been recommended in
epilepsy. It appears to nie to possess a virose charac-
ter, and should be used with caution, especially when
gathered from  a watery or damp situation."—Big.
Mat. Med.  A.l
  HERB BENNET.   See Geum urbanum.
  HERB-OF-GRACE.  See Gratiola.
  HERB- MASTICH.   See Thymus maslichina.
  Herb-trinity.  See Anemone hepatica.
  HERBA.  An herb.  A plant is  properly so called
which bears ils flower and fruit once only, and then
with its root wholly perishes.  .- There are two kinds:
annuals, which perish the same year; and biennials,
which have their leaves the first year, and Iheir flowers
and fruit the second, and then die away.
  By the term herba, Linnaeus denominates that por-
tion of every vegetable which  arises  from the  root,
and is terminated by tiie fructification.
  Herba britannica. See Rumex hydrolapathum.
  Herba militaris.  Sej Achillaa millefolium.
  Herba sacra.  See Verbena trifoliata.
  Herba trinitatis.  See Anemone hepatica.
  HERBACEUS.   Herbaceous.  Plants are so  con-
sidered which have succulent stems or stalks, and die
down to the root every year.
  HERBARIUM.  A  collection of dried or preserved
plants;  called also Hortus siccus
  HERCULES'S  ALL-HEAL.   See Lascrpiti'um
chironium.
  Hercules bovii.   Gold and mercury dissolved in
a distillation of copperas, nitre, and sea-salt.
  HERE'DITARY. (From hares, an heir.)  A disease,
or predisposition to a disease, which is transferred from
parents to their children.
   HERMA'PHRODITE.   (Hermaphroditus;  from
'Epuvs, Mercury, and h.<f>poSt]ri, Venus, i. e. partaking
of both sexes.)  1. The true hermaphrodite of the an-
cients was, the man with male organs of generation,
and tiie female stature of body, that is, narrow chest
and large pelvis; or the woman with female organs of
generation, and the male stature of body, that is, broad
chest and  narrow pelvis.  The term is now,  how-
ever, used  to express any lusus natura wherein the
parts of generation appear to be a mixture of  both
sexes
   2. In botany, an hermaphrodite flower is one which
contains both  the male and female organs, for the
production of the fruit,  within the same calyx and
petals.
   HERME'TIC.  (From 'Epuns, Mercury.)  In the
language of the ancient chemists, Hermes was the
 father of chemistry, and the hermetic seal was the
closing the end of a  glass vessel while iu  a state of
 fusion, according to the usage of chemists.
   HERMODACTYL.  See Hermoductylus.
   HERMODA'CTYLUS. ('Epuoiaic7iiAoj.  Etymolo-
gists have always derived this word from 'Epur/c,
Mercury, and SatfvXos, a finger.  It is, however, pro-
 bably named from Hermits, a river in Asia, upon whose
 banks it grows, and SokJvXos, a date, which it is like.)
Anima arliculorum.   The root of a species of col-
chicum, not yet ascertained, but supposed to be the
 Colchicum illvricum  of  Linnaeus, of  the  shape of  a
heart, flattened on one side, with a furrow on the other,
of a while colour, compact and solid, yet easy to cut
or powder.   This root, which has  a viscous, sweetish,
farinaceous taste, and no remarkable smell, is import-
ed from Turkey.   Its use is totally laid aside in the
practice of the present day.  Formerly the roots  were
esteemed as cathartics, which power is wanting in
 those that reach this country.
   HE'RNIA.  (From Ipvos,  a  branch;  from its pro-
 truding out of its place.)  A rupture.  Surgeons un-
 derstand, by the term hernia, a tumour formed hy the
 protrusion of some of the vittera of tiie abdomen out
of that cavity into a kind of sac, composed  of the
portion of peritoneum, which is pushed before them.
However, there are certainly some case3 which will
not be comprehended in this definition; either because
the parts arc not protruded at all, or have no hernial
sac.  The places  in which these swellings  most fre-
quently make their appearance, are the groin, the navel,
the labia pudendi, and  the upper and forepart of the
thigh; they do also occur at every point ofthe anterior
part of the abdomen; and there are several less com-
mon instances, in which hernial tumours present them-
selves at the foramen ovale, in the perinsum, in the
vagina, at the ischiatic notch, Sec  The parts which,
by being thrust forth from the cavity, in  which they
ought naturally to remain, mostly produce herniae, are
either a portion of the omentum, or a part of the in-
testinal canal, or both together.  But the stomach, the
liver, the spleen,  uterus, ovaries, bladder, &c. have
been known to form the contents of some hernia) tu-
mours.  From these two circumstances of situations
and contents, are derived all the different appellations
by which hernia;  are distinguished.   If a portion of
intestine only forms the contents of the tumour, it is
called enteroccle;  if a piece of omentum only,  epiplo-
cele; and if both intestine and omentum contribute to
the formation of a tumour, it is called entero-epiplp-
cele. When the contents of a hemia are protruded at
the abdominal ring, but only pass as low as the groin,
or labium pudendi, the case receives the name of bubo-
nocele,  or inguinal hernia;  when the parts descend
into the scrotum, it  is  called an oscheocele or scrotal
hernia.   The crural, or femoral  hernia, is the name
given to that which takes place  below Poupart's liga-
ment.  When the bowels  protrude at the navel, tbe
case is named  an exomphalos, or umbilical hernial
and ventral is the  epithet given to the swelling, when
it occurs at any other promiscuous part ofthe front of
the abdomen.  The congenital rupture is a very parti-
cular case, in which the protruded viscera are not
covered with a common hernial sac of peritoneum,
but are lodged in the cavity of the tunica vaginalis, in
contact with the testicle; and, as must be obvious, it
is not named, like  hernia in general, from its situation,
or contents, but from the circumstances of its existing
from the time of birth.
  When the hernial contents lie quietly in the sac, and
admit of being readily put back into the abdomen, it is
termed  a reducible hernia: and  when they suffer no
constriction, yet cannot be put back, owing to adhe-
sions, or their large  size in relation to the  aperture,
through which they have to pass, the hernia is  termed
irreducible.  An incarcerated, or strangulated hernia,
signifies  one which not only cannot be reduced, but
suffers constriction: so that, if a piece of intestine be
protruded, the pressure to which it is subjected stops
the passage of its contents onward towards the anus,
makes the bowel inflame, and brings on a train of most
alarming and often fatal consequences.
  The general symptoms of a hernia, which is  reduci-
ble and  free from strangulation, are—an  indolent tu-
mour at some point of the parietes of the abdomen j
most frequently descending out of tiie abdominal ring,
or from just below Poupart's ligament, or else out of
the navel; but occasionally from various  other situa-
tions.   The swelling mostly originates suddenly, ex-
cept in the circumstances above related; and it is sub-
ject to  a change of size, being smaller when the patient
lies down upon his back, and larger  when  he stands
up, or  draws in his breath.   The tumour frequently
diminishes when pressed, and grows large again when
the pressure is removed.  Its size and tension often
increase after a meal, or when the patient is flatulent.
Patients with hernia, arc apt to be troubled with colic,
constipation, and  vomiting  in consequence of  the un-
natural situation of the bowels.  Very often, however,
the functions of the viscera seem to suffer little or  no
interruption.
  If the case be an  cntcrocele, and the portion of thE
intestine be small, the tumour is small in proportion;
but though  small, yet, if the gut be distended  with
wind, inflamed, or have any degree of stricture made
on it, it will be tense, resist the impression  ofthe finger,
and give pain upon being handled.  On the contrary,
if there be no stricture,  and ihe intestine suffers no de-
gree of inflammation,  let the prolapsed  piece be of
what length it may, and the tumour of wnateiwr size.
yet 'ihe teiiFion will be little, and no  pain wi,i auend 
HER                                             HER
the handling of it; upon the patient's coughing, it will
feel as if it was blown into; and, in general, it will be
found very easily  returnable.   A guggling noise  is
often made when Ibe bowel is ascending.
  If the hernia be an epiplocde, or one of tlie omental
kind, ihe tumour  has a more flabby and a more un-
equal feel; it is in general perfectly indolent, is more
compressible, and (if in the  scrotum)  is more oblong
and less round than the swelling  occasioned in the
same situation by an intestinal hernia;  and, if the
quantity be large, and the patient an  adult,  it is, in
BOine measure, distinguishable by its greater weight.
  If the case be an entero-cpiptocele, that  is, one con-
sisting of both intestine and omentum, the character-
istic marks will be less clear than in either of the sim-
ple cases; but the disease may easily be distinguished
from every other one, by any  body iu the habit of
making the examination.
  Hernia cerebri.   Fungus cerebri.   This name is
given to a tumour which every now  and then rises
from the brain, through an  ulcerated  opening in the
dura mater, and protrudes through a  perforation in
the cranium,  made by the previous application of the
trephine.
  Hernia congenita.  (So called because it is, as  it
were, born with the person.)  This species of hernia
consists in the adhesion of a protruded portion of intes-
tine or omentum to the testicle, after its descent into
tbe scrotum.   This  adhesion takes place while the
testicle is  yet in the abdomen.   Upon  its  leaving the
abdomen, it draws the adhering intestine, or omentum,
along with it into the scrotum, where it forms the
hernia congenita.
  From the term  congenital, we might suppose that
this hernia always existed at the time of birth.  The
protrusion, however,  seldom  occurs till after this pe-
riod, on the operation of the  usual  exciting causes of
hernia in general.  The congenital hernia does not
usually happen  till some montlis after  birth; in some
instances not till a late period;   Hey relates a case, in
which a hernia congenita was first formed in a young
man, aged sixteen, whose right testis had, a little while
before the attack  of  the disease, descended into the
scrotum.  It seems probable that, in cases of hernia
congenita, which actually take place when tbe testicle
descends into the scrotum before birth, the event may
commonly be referred, as observed above, to tlie testi-
cle having contracted an adhesion to a piece of intes-
tine, or  of the omentum, in  its passage to the ring.
Wrisberg found one testicle which had  not passed the
ring, adhering, by means of a few slender filaments, to
the omentum, just above this  aperture, in an infant
that died a few days after birth.
  Excepting the impossibility of feeling the testicle in
hernia congenita, as we  can in most cases of bubono-
cele, (which criterion Mr. Samuel Cooper, in his Sur-
gical Dictionary, observes Mr. Pott should have men-
tioned,) the following account is very excellent.  "The
appearance of a hernia, in  very early infancy, will
always make it probable that it is of this kind;  but in
an adult, there Is no reason for  supposing his rupture
to be of this sort, but his having been afflicted with it
from his infancy; there is no externa)  mark, or cha-
racter, whereby it can be certainly distinguished from
the one contained in a common hernial sac;  neither
would it be of any material use in practice, if there
was."
  Hernia cruralis.   Femoral hernia.  The parts
composing  this kind of hernia are always protruded
under Poupart's ligament, and tbe swelling is situated
towards the inner part ofthe bend of the thigh.  The
rupture descends on the side ofthe femoral artery and
vein, between these vessels and the  os pubis.  Fe-
males are particularly subject to this kind of rupture
in consequence of the great breadth of their pelvis,
while in them the inguinal hernia is rare.  It has been
computed, that nineteen out of twenty married women,
afflicted with hernia,  have this kind; but that not one
out of a hundred unmarried females,  or out  of the
same iiit-nber of men, have this form  of tbe disease.
The situation of the tumour makes  it liable to be mis-
taRj-n for an enlarged  inguinal gland; and many fatal
events  are recorded to have  happened  from the sur-
geon's  ignorance of the existence of the disease.  A
gland can only become enlarged by the  gradual effects
of inflammation; the swelling of a crural hernia comes
on  in a momentary and sudden manner; and, when
      420
strangulated,occasions the tratnof symptoms described
in the account ot tiie hernia incarcerate, which symp-
toms an enlarged gland could never occasion.  Buch
circumstances seem  to be sufficiently discriminative-
thouuli  the feel  of the two kinds of swelling is otlesi
nol  in itself enough to make the surgeon derided In
his opinion.  A femoral hernia may be mistaken for a
bubonocele, when the expanded part of the swelling
lies over Poupart's ligament.   As the taxis and opera-
tion for the first case ought to be done differently from
those for the latter, the error may lead  to  very bad
consequences.   The femoral  hernia, however, may
always  be discriminated,  by the neck of the tumour
having  Poupart's ligament above it.  In the bubono-
cele, the angle of the pubes is behind and below this
part of the sac;  but  in the femora)  hernia, it is on the
same horizontal  level, a little on the inside of it
  Until very lately,  the stricture, in cases of femoral
hernia,  was always supposed to be produced by the
lower border of the external oblique muscle, or as it is
termed, Poupart's ligament.   A total change of surgi-
cal opinion on this subject has, however, latterly taken
place, in consequence of the accurate observations first
made in 1768, by Gimbernat, surgeon to the king of
Spain.  In the crural liernia, (says  he,) the  aperture
through  which  the  parts issue is not formed by two
bauds, (as iu the inguinal hernia,) but it Is a  foramen,
almost round, proceeding from the internal margin of
the crural arch, (Poupart's Ligament,) near its insertion
into the branch of the os pubis, between the  bone and
the iliac vein, so  that, in this hernia, the branch of the
os pubis is situated more internally than the  intestine,
and  a little behind; the vein  externally, and behind;
and  the internal  border of  the arch before.  Now it is
this  border which always forms tbe strangulation.
  Hernia  flatulenta.   A  swelling of  the side,
caused by air that has escaped through the pleura: an
obsolete term.
  Hernia gutturis.  Bronchocele, or tumour of the
bronchial gland.
  Hernia humoralis.   See Orchitis.
  Hernia incarcerata. Incarcerated hernia. Stran-
gulated hernia, or a hernia with stricture.  The symp-
toms are a swelling in the groin, Sec. resisting the im-
pression  of the fingers.   If the hernia be of the intes-
tinal kind, it is generally painful to the touch, and the
pain is  increased by coughing, sneezing, or  standing
upright.  These  are the very first  symptoms, and, if
they are not relieved, are soon followed by others;
viz. a sickness at the stomach, a frequent retching, or
inclination to vomit, a  stoppage  of all  discharge per
anum, attended with frequent hard pulse, and some
degree of fever.   These are the first symptoms;  and
if they are not appeased by the return of the intestine,
that  is, if tbe attempts made for this purpose do not
succeed, the sickness becomes more troublesome, the
vomiting more frequent, the  pain  more intense, the
tension  of the belly greater,  the fever higher, and a
general  restlessness comes on, which is very terrible
to bear.  When  this is the state of the  patient, no
time  is  to be lost;  a very little  delay  is now of the
utmost consequence; and if  the one single remedy,
which the disease is now capable of, be not admi-
nistered  immediately, it will generally baffle every
other attempt.  This remedy is the operation  whereby
the parts engaged in the stricture may be set  free.  If
this  be  not now performed, the vomiting is  soon ex-
changed for a convulsive hiccup, and a frequent gulp-
ing up of bilious  matter: the tension of the beBy, tbe
restlessness and  fever,  having been considerably In-
creased  for a few hours, tiie patient suddenly become*
perfectly easy, the  belly  subsides, the pulse, from
having  been  hard, full, and  frequent,  becomes low,
languid, and generally interrupted; and the skin, espe-
cially that of the limbs, cold and moist;  tbe eyes have
now a languor and glassiness, a lack lustre not easy to
be described: the tumour of the part disappears, and
the skin covering  it sometimes changes its natural co-
lour  for a livid hue;  but whether it keeps  or  loses its
colour, it has an emphysematous feel,  a crepitus to
the touch, wbich will easily be conceived by all who
have attended to it, but is not easy to convey an idea
of by words.  This crepitus is the too sure indicator
of gangrenous mischief within.   In this state,  the
gut either goes up spontaneously or is returned wilh
the smallest degree of pressure; a discharge  is made
by stool, and tbe  patient is generally much pleased at 
HER
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tiie ease he finds; but this pleasure is of short dura-
tion, for the hiccup and the cold sweats continuing
and increasing, with the addition of spasmodic rigours
and subtultus tendinum, the tragedy soon finishes.
  Hernia inguinalis.  Bubonocele.  Inguinal hernia.
The hernia inguinalis is so called because it appears in
both sexes at the groin.  It is one of the divisions of
hernia, and  includes  all those  hernias in which the
parts displaced pass out of  the abdomen through the
ring, that is, the  arch formed by the aponeurosis  of
the musculus obliquus externus in  the groin, for the
passage of the spermatic vessels in men, and the round
ligament in  women.  The parts  displaced that form
the hernia, the part inlo which they fall, the manner
of the hernia being produced, and the time it has con-
tinued, occasion, great differences in this  disorder.
There are  three different parts that may produce a
hernia in the groin, viz., one or more ofthe intestines,
the epiploon, and the bladder.  That which is formed
by one or more of the intestines, was called,  by the
ancients, enterocele.  The intestine which most fre-
quently produces  the  hernia, is the ilium: because,
being placed  in the iliac region, it is nearer the groin
than the rest: but notwithstanding the situation of tbe
other  intestines, which seems not to allow of their
coming near the groin, we often find the jejunum, and
frequently also a portion of tbe colon and caecum, in-
cluded iu the hernia.  It must be remembered, that the
mesentery and mesocolon are membranous substances,
capable of extension,  which, by little and little, are
sometimes so far stretched by the weight of the intes-
tines, as to escape with the ilium, in this species of
hernia. The hernia made by the epiploon, is called
•piplocele;  as that caused by the epiploon and any of
the intestines together, is called entero epiplocelc. The
hernia of the bladder is called crytocele. Hernia of
the bladder is uncommon, and has seldom been known
to happen but in conjunction with some of the other
viscera.  When the parts, having passed through the
abdominal rings, descend no lower than the groin, it is
called  an  incomplete  hernia; when tbey fall into the
scrotum in men, or inlo the labia pudendi in women, it
is then termed complete.
  The marks of discrimination between some other
diseases and inguinal hernia are these:—
  The disorders in which a  mistake may possibly be
made, are  the circocele, bubo, hydrocele, and  hernia
humoralis, or inflamed testicle.
  For  an account of the manner of distinguishing cir-
cocele from a bubonocele, see Circocele.
  The circumscribed incompressible hardness, the situ-
ation of the tumour, and its being free from all connex-
ion with the spermatic process, will sufficiently point
out its being a bubo, at  least while it is in  a recent
state;  and  when  it is in  any degree suppurated, he
must have a very small share of the taclus eruditus
who cannot fee  the  difference between matter, and
either a piece of intestine or omentum.
  The perfect equality of the whole tumour, and free-
dom and smallnese of the spermatic process above it,
the power of feeling tbe spermatic vessels, and the vas
deferens in that process; ils being void of pain upon
being  handled, tbe fluctuation of the water, the gra-
dual formation of the swelling, its having begun below
and proceeded upwards, its not  being affected by any
posture or action  of the patient, nor increased by  his
coughing or sneezing, together with the absolute im-
possibility of feeling the testicle at the bottom of the
scrotum, will always, to an intelligent person, prove
the disease to be hydrocele.
  Pott, however, allows that there are some exceptions
in which the testicle cannot be felt at the bottom of the
scrotum, in cases of hernia.  In  recent bubonoceles,
while  the hernial sac is thin,  has  not been long, or
very much distended,  and the scrotum still preserves a
regularity of figure, the testicle  may almost always be
easily  felt  at the inferior and  posterior part of the
tumour.  But in old ruptures, which  have been long,
down, in which the quantity of contents is large, the
sac considerably  thickened, and the scrotum of an
Irregular figure, the testicle frequently cannot be felt;
neither is it in general easily felt in the congenital her-
nia, for obvious reasons.
  In the Aernia humoralis, the pain  in the testicle, its
enlargement, the  hardened state of the epididymus,
and the exemption of  the spermatic cord from  all un-
natural fulness, are such  marks  as cannot easily be
mistaken; not to mention the generally preceding go-
norrhoea.  But if any doubt still remains of the true
nature of the  disease, the progress of it from above
downwards, its different state and size in different pos-
tures, particularly lying and standing, together with its
descent and ascent, will, if duly attended to, put it out
of all doubt that the tumour is a true hernia.
  When an inguinal hernia does  not descend through
the abdominal ring, but only into the canal for the
spermatic cord, it is covered by tbe aponeurosis of the
external oblique muscle, and tlie swelling is small and
undefined.
  Now and then,  the testicle does not descend into
the scrotum till a late period.  The first appearance of
this  body at tbe ring, in order to get  into its natural
situation, might be mistaken for that of a hernia, were
the surgeon not to  pay attention to tiie absence of the
testicle from tbe scrotum, and tiie peculiar sensation
occasioned by pressing tiie swelling.
  Hernia intestinalis.   A  rupture caused by the
protrusion of a portion of tiie intestine.  See Hernia
inguinalis.
  Hernia ischiatica.  A rupture at the ischiatic
notch.  This is very rare.   A case, however, which
was  strangulated, and  undiscovered till after death, is
related in Sir A. Cooper's second part of his work on
hernia. The disease happened in a young man aged
27.   On opening the abdomen, tbe ilium was found to
have descended on the right side of the rectum into
the pelvis; and a fold of it was protruded into a small
sac,  which passed out of the pelvis  at the ischiatic
notch.  The intestine was adherent to the sac at two
points; the strangulated part, and about three inches
on each side, were very black. The intestines towards
the stomach, were very much distended with air, and
here and there had a livid spot on ihem.  A dark spot
was  even found on the stomach  itself, just above the
pylorus.  The colon was exceedingly contracted, as
far as its sigmoid  flexure.  A small orifice was found
in the side ofthe pelvis, in front  of, but a little above
the sciatic  nerve, and on the forepart of the pyrifor-
mis muscle.  The  sac lay under the glutaeus maximus
muscle, and its orifice was before tiie internal iliac:
artery, below the obturator artery, but above the vein.
  Hernia lachrvmalis. When the tears passthrough
the puncta  lachrymalia, but stagnate  in the succulus
lachrymalis, the tumour is styled hernia lachrymalia
with little  propriety or precision. It is  wilh equal
impropriety called, by Anel, a dropsy of the lachrymal
sac.  If the inner angle of the eye is  pressed, and an
aqueous humour flows out, the disease is  the fistula
lachrymalis.
  Hernia mesknterica.  Mesenteric hernia. If one
of the  layers of the mesentery be torn by a blow, while
the other  remains in  its natural state, the intestines
may insinuate themselves into the aperture and form
a kind of'hernia.   The same consequences may result
from a natural deficiency in one  of these  layers.   Sir
A. Cooper relates a case, in which all the small intes-
tines, except the duodenum, were thus circumstanced.
The symptoms during life were unknown.
  Hernia mesocolica.  Mesocolic hernia.  So named
by Sir  A. Cooper, when the bowels glide between  the
layers  of the mesocolon.  Every surgeon  should be
aware  that the intestines may be strangulated from  the
following causes: 1. Apertures in the omentum, me-
sentery, or mesocolon, through  which the intestine
protrudes. 2. Adhesions, leaving an aperture, in which
a piece of intestine becomes confined.  3. Membra-
nous bands  at the mouth of hernial  sacs/which  be-
coming elongated by the frequent protrusion and return
of the  viscera, surround the intestine,  so as to strangu-
late  them within  the abdomen when returned  from
the sac.
  Hernia omentalis.  Epiplocele.  A rupture of the
omentum; or  a  protrusion of the omentum through
apertures in the integuments ofthe belly. Sometimes,
according to Sharpe, so large a quantity of the omen-
tum hath fallen into the scrotum, that its weight, draw-
ing the stomach and bowels downwards, hath excited
vomiting,  inflammation,  and  symptoms  similar  to
those ofthe incarcerated hernia.
  Hernia perinealis. Perineal hernia. In men, tbe
parts protrude between the bladder  and rectum; in
women, between the rectum and vagina.  The hernia
does not project so as to form an external tumour; and,
in men, its existence can only be distinguished by ex-
                                        421 
HER
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■mining in the rectum. In women, it maybe detected
both from this part and the vagina.
  Hernia purenica.  Phrenic hemia.  The abdomi-
nal viscera are occasionally protruded through the
diaphragm, either through some of the  natural  aper-
tures  in this muscle, or deficiencies, or wounds, and
lacerations in it.  The second kind of case is the most
frequent.  Morgagni furnishes an instance of the first.
Two  cases related  by Dr. Macauley, and two others
published by Sir A. Cooper,  are  instances of the se-
cond sort.  And another case has been lately recorded
by the latter gentleman, affording an example of the
third  kind.  Hildanus,  Pare, Petit, Schenck, &c. also
mention cases of phrenic hernia.
  Hernia  pudendalis.  Pudendal hernia.   This is
the name assigned by Sir A. Cooper,  to that which
descends between  the vagina and ramus ischii, and
forms an oblongtumour in the labium, traceable within
the pelvis, as far as the os uteri.   Sir A. C. thinks this
ease has sometimes been mistaken for a hernia of the
foramen ovale.
  Hernia scrotalis. Hernia Oschealis.  Oscheocele.
Paracelsus calto it Crepatura.  When the omentum,
the intestine, or both, descend into the scrotum, it has
these appellations; when the omentum only, it is called
spiploscheoode.  It is styled  a perfect rupture in con-
tradistinction to a bubonocele, which is the same dis-
order ; but the  descent  is not so  great.  The hernia
scrotalis is distinguished into the true and false; in the
former, the omentum or intestine, or both, fall into the
scrotum;  in the latter,  an inflammation, or  a  fluid,
causes a tumour in this part, as in hernia humoralis, or
hydrocele.  Sometimes sebaceous matter is collected
In the scrotum; and this hernia is called sleatocde.
  Hernia thtroidealis.  Hernia foraminis ovalis.
Thy roideal hernia. In the anterior and upper part of the
obturator ligament there is an opening, through which
the obturator artery, vein, and  nerve proceed, and
through which occasionally a piece of omentum or in-
testine is protruded, covered with  a part of the perito-
nssum, which constitutes the hernial sac.
  Hernia umbilicalis.  Epiploomphalinn ; Ompha-
locele ;  Exomphalos; Omphalos;  and when owing to
flatulency,  Pneumatomphalos.  The exomphalos, or
umbilical  rupture, is so called from its  situation, and
has, like other hernits, for its  general contents, a por-
tion of intestine, or omentum, or both.   In old umbi-
lical ruptures, the quantity of omentum is sometimes
very great.  Mr. Ranbysays, that he found two ells and
a half of intestine in one  of these, with about a  third
 Sari of  the stomach, all  adhering  together.  Gay and
 fourse found the liver in the sac of an umbilical hernia;
and Bohnius says that he did also.   But whatever are
the contents, they are originally contained in the sac,
formed  by the protrusion of the peritoneum.
  In recent and  small ruptures, this sac is very visible;
but in old and  large  ones, it is broken through at the
knot of the navel,  by the pressure and  weight of the
contents, and is not always to be distinguished; which
is the reason why it has by some been doubted whether
this kind of rupture has ahemial sac or  not
  Infants are very subject to this disease, in a small de-
gree, from the separation of the funiculus; but in gene-
ral  they either get rid of it as they gather strength, or
are easily cured by wearing a proper bandage.  It is of
still more consequence to get this disorder cured in fe-
males, than in males; that its return, when they are
become adult and pregnant, may be prevented as much
as possible;  for at this time it often happens, from the
too great distention of the  belly, or from unguarded
motion  when the parts are upon the stretch.
  Dr. Hamilton has met with about two cases aunually
for the space of seventeen years, of umbilical  hernia,
wbich strictly deserve the name of congenital  umbili-
cal hernia.  The funis ends in a sort of bag, containing
some of the viscera, which pass out of the abdomen
through an aperture in the situation of the navel.  The
swelling is not covered with skin, so tbat the contents
of the hernia can  be seen through  the then distended
covering of the  cord.  The disease is owing to a pre-
ternatural deficiency in the abdominal  muscles, and
the hope of cure must be regulated by the size of the
malformation and quantity of viscera protruded.
  Hernia uteri.  Hysteroeele.  Instances have oc-
curred of the uterus being thrust through tbe rings of
the muscles; but this is scarcely to be discovered, unless
in a pregnant state, when the strugglings of  a child
      423
would discover the nature of the disease.  In that state,
however, it could scarcely ever occur.  It is the ctrtxis
of Hippocrates.
  Hernia vaginalis.  Elytroeele. Vaginal hernia.  A
tumour occurs within the os externum of ihe vagina.
It is elastic,  but not painful.  When compressed, It
readily recedes, but is reproduced by coughing, or even
without this, when the pressure is removed.  The In-
conveniences produced are an inability to undergo much
exercise or exertion ; for every effort of this sort brings
on a sense of bearing down.  The vaginal hernia pro-
trudes in Ihe  space left between the uterus and rectum.
This space is bounded below by the peritoneum, which
membrane is forced downwards, towards the perina-um;
but being unable to protrude further in tbat direction, Is
pushed towards the back  part of the vagina.  These
cases probably are  always intestinal.  Some hernial
protrude at the anterior part of the vagina.
  Hernia  varicosa. See Circocele.
  Hernia ventosa.  See Pneumatocele.
  Hernia ventralis.   Hypugaslrocele.  The ventral
hernia may appear at almost any point of the anterior
part of the belly, but is most frequently found between
the recti muscles.  The portion of intestine, &c. tec. is
always contained in a sac made by the protrusion of the
peritonaeum.   Sir A. Cooper imputes its causes to the
dilatation ofthe natural foraminavfor the transmission
of vessels, to congenital deficiencies,  lacerations, and
wounds of the abdominal muscles,  or their tendons
In small ventral hernias, a second fascia Is found  be
neath the superficial one; but in large ones the latter is
the only one  covering the sac.
  Hernia  ventriculi.  Gaslrocele.  A ventral rup-
ture caused by the stomach  protruding through some
part of the abdominal parietes.  It rarely occurs, but it
docs it generally at or near the navel.
  Hernia  vesicalis.   Hernia  cystica; Cystocels.
The urinary bladder is liable to be thrust forth, from  its
proper situation, either through  the  openings in the
oblique muscle, like the inguinal hernia, or under Pou
part's ligament. In the same manner as the femoral.
  This is not  a very frequent species of hemia, but does
happen, and has as plain and determined a character
as any other.
  HERNLA'RIA.  (From hernia, a rupture : so called
from  its  supposed efficacy in curing ruptures.)  The
name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean  system.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.  Rupture-wort
  Hernia glabra.   The systematic name of the rup-
ture-wort  Herniaria.  This plant, though  formerly
esteemed as efficacious in the cure of hernias, appears
to be destitute, not only of such virtues, but of any other.
It has no smell nor taste.
  HERNIOTOMY.  (Herniotomia; ftomhernia, and
rtuvta, to cut.)  The operation to remove  the strangu
lated part in cases of incarcerated hernia;.
  HE'RPES.  From Ipma, to creep;  because  it creeps
and spreads about the skin.)   Tetter.  A genus of dis-
ease in the class Locales, and order Dialyses of Cullen,
distinguished  by an  assemblage  of numerous little
creeping ulcers,  in  clusters,  itching  very much,  and
difficult to heal, but terminating in furfuraceous scales.
  Bell, in his  Treatise on Ulcers, arranges the herpes
among the cutaneous ulcers, and says, that all  the
varieties of importance  may be comprehended in the
four following species:
  1. Herpes farinosus, or what may be termed the dry
tetter, is the most simple of all the species.  It appears
indiscriminately in different parte of the body, but most
commonly on the face, neck, arms and wrists, in pretty
broad spots and  small  pimples.  These are generally
very itchy, though  not  otherwise troublesome; and,
after continuing a certain  time, they at last fall off  in
the form of a white powder, similar to fine bran, leav-
ing the skin below perfectly sound; and again  return-
ing in the form of a red efflorescence, they fall off, and
are renewed as before.
  2. Herpes pustulosus.  This species  appears in the
form of pustules, which originally arc separate and dis-
tinct,  but which afterward run together  in  clusters.
At first, they seemed to contain nothing but a thin wa-
tery serum, which afterward turns yellow, and, exud-
ing over the whole surface ofthe part affected, it at last
dries into a thick crust, or scab; when this falls off, the
skin below frequently appears entire, with  only a
slightdegree of redness on its surface;  but on some oe-
caHiuos wh«u tbe matter has probably been more acrid, 
HEW
HIE
Upon the scab falling off, the skin is found slightly ex-
coriated.  Eruptions of this kind appear most frequently
on the face, behind the ears, and on other parts of the
head;  and they occur most commonly in children.
  3. Herpes miliaris.  The miliary tetter. This breaks
out  indiscriminately over  the whole body; hut more
frequently about the loins, breast, perimcum, scrotum,
and inguina, than in other parts.  It generally appears
In clusters, though sometimes in distinct rings, or cir-
cles, of very minute pimples, the resemblance of which
to the millei-seed  has given rise to the denomination of
the species. The pimples are  at first, though small,
perfectly separate, and  contain nothing but a clear
lymph, which, in  the course of this disease, is excreted
upon the surface, and there forms into small distinct
scales; these, at last, fall off,  and leave a considerable
degree of inflammation below, and still continues to
exude  fresh matter, which  likewise  forms into cakes,
and so falls off as before.  The itching, in this species
of complaint,  is  always very troublesome;  and the
matter discharged from the  pimples' is so tough and
viscid,  that every thing applied to the part adheres, so
as to occasion much trouble and uneasiness on its being
removed.
  4.  Herpes exedens, the eating and corroding tetter (so
called from its destroying or corroding the parts which
it attacks,) appears commonly, at first, in the form of
several small  painful ulcerations,  all collected into
larger spots, of different sizes and of various figures,
with always more or less of an erysipelatous inflamma-
tion.   These ulcers discharge large quantities of a thin,
sharp, serous matter, which sometimes forms into small
crusts,  that in  a short time fall off; but most frequently
the discharge is so thin and acrid as to spread along the
neighbouring parts, where it soon produces the same
kind of sores.  Though these ulcers do not, in general,
proceed farther than the cutis vera, yet sometimes the
discharge is so very penetrating and corrosive as to
destroy the skin, cellular substance, and, on some occa-
sions, even the muscles themselves.  It is this species
that should be termed the depascent, or phagedenic
ulcer, from the great destruction of parts which it fre-
quently occasions.  See Phagedana.
  Herpes  ambulativa.  A species of  erysipelas
which  moves from one part to another.
  Herpes depascens.   The  same as herpes exedens.
See Herpes.
  Herpes esthiomenos.  Herpes destroying the skin
by ulceration.
  Herpes  farinosus.  See Herpes.
  Herpes  ferus. An erysipelas.
  Herpes indica. A fiery, itchy herpes,  peculiar to
India.
  Herpes miliaris.   See Herpes.
  Herpes periscelis.  The shingles.  See Erysipe-
las phlyctanodes.
  Herpes pustulosus.  See Herpes.
  Herpes  serpigo.  The  ring-worm.
  Herpes siccus. The dry, mealy tetter.
  Herpes zoster.   Shingles encircling the  body.
See Erysipelas.
  HERPETIC.  Relating to Herpes
  He'rpkton.  (From iontia, to creep.,  A creeping
pustule, or ulcer.
  HESPERIDEjE.   (From  Hesperides, whose  or-
chards, according to the poets, produced golden  ap-
ples.)  Golden or precious  fruit.  The name of an
order of plants in Linnaeus's  Fragments of a  Natural
Method, consisting of  plants  which have rigid ever-
green  leaves;  odorous and polyandrous flowers;  as
the myrtle, clove, &c.
  [" The Heuchera Cortusa of Michaux, is a native
plant, growing in woods, from New-England to Caro-
lina.  The root  is one of the strongest vegetable as-
tringents.   As such, it has been employed  in various
complaints, to which astringents are adapted, and
favourable reports are made of its operation.  Hitherto
it has  been more known as an external application
than as an internal remedy."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  HEWSON,  William, was  born  at Hexham,  in
1739.   After serving an apprenticeship to his father, he
came to London  at the age of twenty, and resided
with Mr. John Hunter, attending also the lectures of
Dr. Hunter. His  assiduity and skill were so conspicu-
ous, that he was appointed to superintend the dissect
Ing room,  when  the former went  abroad with  the
army in 1760.  He then studied a i-ear at Edinburgh
and in 1762 he became associated with Dr. Hunter in
delivering the anatomical lectures, and he was after-
ward allowed an apartment in Windmill-street.  Here
he  pursued his  anatomical investigations, and  his
experimental inquiries into the properties of the blood,
of which he published  an account in 1771.   He also
communicated to the Royal Society several  papers
concerning the lymphatic system iu  birds aud fishes,
for which he received  the Copleyan medal, and was
soon after elected a fellow of that body.'  He began a
course of lectures alone  in 1772, having  quitted  P<-
Hunter two years before, and soon became very popu-
lar.   In 1774, he published his work on tlie Lymphatic
System.  But not long after, his life was  terminated
by a  fever, occasioned by a wound received  in dis-
secting a morbid body, in the thirty-fifth  year of his
age.
 "HEXAGY'NIA.  (From i\, six, and yovn, a woman,
or wife.)  The name of an order of plants in the' sex-
ual system, which, besides the classic character, have
six females or pistils.
  HEXA'NDRIA.  (From l\, six, and avnp, a man, or
husband.)  The name of a class of plants in the sexual
system, consisting of plants with  hermaphrodite flow-
ers that  are furnished with six stamens of an equal
length.
  Hexapha'rmacum.  (From i\, six, and tbapuaxov,
a medicine.)   Any medicine  in the composition of
which are six ingredients.
  Hibe'rnicus lapis.  See Lapis hibemicus.
  HIBISCUS.   (From i/3ic, a stork, who is said to
chew it, and inject it as a clyster.)  The  name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Mona-
delphia;  Order, Polyandria.
  Hibiscus abelmoschus.  The systematic name of
the plant, the seeds of which  are called musk-seed;
Abelmoschus;  Granum moschi; Moschus Arabum;
JEgyptia moschata;  Bamia moschata; Alcea; Alcea
Indica;  Alcea JEgypliaca villosa; Abrette ;  Abel-
mosch; Abelmusk.  The plant is indigenous in Egypt,
and in many parts of  both the Indies.  These seeds
have  the flavour of musk.  The best comes from Mar-
tinico. By the Arabians, they are esteemed cordial,
and are mixed with their coffee, to which they impart
their fragrance.   In this country they are  used-by  the
perfumers.
  HICCUP.  Singultus-   A spasmodic affection of,
the diaphragm, generally arising from  irritation pro-
duced by acidity in the stomach, error of diet, Sec.
  HIDRO'A. (From iSpias, sweat.)  A pustular dis-
ease,  produced by sweating in hot weather.
  HIDRO'CRISIS.   (From iSpias, sweat,  and xptvia,
to judge.)  A judgment formed from the sweat of  the
patient.
  HIDRO'NOSOS.   (From iSpias, sweat, and vocos,
z. disease )  The sweating sickness.
  HIDROPY'RETUS.    (From  iSpias, sweat, and
TTvptJos, a fever.)   Sweating fever.
  HIDRO'TICA.   (From iSpias, sweat.)  Medicines
which cause perspiration.
  HIDROTOPOIE TICA.  (From iSpias,  sweat, and
noieio, to make.)   Sudorifics.
  HI'ERA.  (From  ttpos, holy; and from  itpa\, a
hawk.)   Holy.   Also applied  to some plants which
hawks are said to be fond of.
  Hiera picra.  (From ttpos, holy, and mxpos, bitter.
Holy bitter.)  Pulvis aloeticus, formerly called hiera
logadii, made in the form of an electuary with honey.
It is now kept in the form of dry powder, prepared by
mixing Socotorine aloes, one pound, with three ounces
of white canella.
  Hierabo'tane.  (From ttpos, holy, and  fiolavtj, an
herb: so  called from  its supposed virtues.)  See Ver-
bena trifoliata.
  Hieraca'ntha.  (From itpal, a hawk, and avdos, a
flower:  so named because it seizes passengers as a
hawk does its prey.)  A sort of  thistle.
  HIERA'CIUM.  (From i£pa£, a hawk: so called be-
cause hawks feed upon  it, or because it was said that
hawks applied the juice of it to cleanse their eyes.)
The name of a  genus of plants in ihe  Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Syngenesia ; Order, Polygamia cqualts.
Hawk-weed.
  Hieracium pilosella.  The  systematic name of
the mouse-ear, Auricula muris; Pilosella ; Myosotis ;
Hicraculum.  This  common plant contains a bitter
lactescent juice, which has a slight degree of amir*. 
HIP
HIP
fency.  The roots an more powerful than the leaves.
They are very seldom used in this country.
  Hiera'culuMi  See Hiaracinm.
  HIERA'NOSOS.  (From icpoc, holy, and vooos, a
disease: so called because it was  supposed to be that
disorder which our Saviour cured in those who were
said to be possessed of devils.) The epilepsy.
  Hiera'ticum.  (From ttpos, holy.)   A poultice for
the stomach, so named from  its supposed divine vir-
tues.
Highgate resin.  See Fossil copal.
HIGHM  "
       1MORE, Nathaniel, was born at Fording-
bridge, in  Hampshire, in  1613.   After graduating at
Oxford, he  settled at Sherborne, where he obtained
considerable reputation in practice, and died in 1684.
He pursued the study of anatomy with zeal, though
with limited opportunities of dissection; and his name
has been attached to a part, though not originally dis-
covered by him, namely, the Antrum Maxillare, which
bad been  before mentioned by Casserius.   His prin-
cipal work  is  " Corporis humani Disquisitio  anato-
mica,"  printed at  the Hague in 1651,  with  figures,
chiefly from Vesalius.  He also published two disser-
tations on Hysteria and Hypochondriasis; and a his-
tory of Generation.
  Highmore's antrum. See Antrum of Highmore.
  Hique'ro. The calabash-tree, tbe fruit of which is
said to be  febrifuge.
  HILDA'NUS.  See Fabricius, William.
  HILUM.  Tbe scar, or  point by which the  seed is
attached to its seed-vessel or receptacle, and through
which alone life and nourishment are conveyed for the
perfecting of its internal parts.  Consequently all those
parts must be intimately connected with the inner sur-
face of this scar, and they  are all found to meet there,
and to divide or divaricate from that  point, more or
less immediately.  In describing the form or various
external portions of any seed, the hilum is always to be
considered as the base. When the seed  is quite ripe,
the communication through this channel is interrupted,
it  separates from the  parent plant without injury, a
scar being formed  on each. Yet the hilum is so  far
capable of resuming its former nature, that the moisture
Of the earth is imbibed through it, previous to germi-
nation.—Smith.
  Himanto'sis.  (From iuaf, a thong of leather.)  A
relaxation of the. uvula, when  it hangs  down like a
thong.
 ' Hi mas.  A relaxation of tbe uvula.
  HlN.  Hindisch.   Hing.  Assafcetida.
  HIP.   The ripe fruit of the dog-rose.  They are
chiefly used as a sweetmeat, or in a preserved state.
Bee Confectio rosa canina.
  HIPPOCAMPUS,   (IiriroKau7roc, the name of a sea
insect which bas a head like that ofthe horse, and tail
like the xaptrij, or eruca.)   1. The sea-horse.
  S.  Some parts are so called from their supposed re-
semblance.  See Cerebrum.
  HIPPOCA'STANUM.   (From  uriroc,  a  horse, and
xac-avov, a chesnut: so called from its size.)  See JEs-
cuius hippocastanum.
  HIPPOCRATES, usually called the father of phy-
sic, was born in the island  of Cos, about 460 years be-
fore Christ.  He is reckoned the 18th lineal descendant
from jEsculapius, the profession  of medicine  having
been hereditarily followed  in that family, under whose
direction the Coan  school  attained ils high degree of
eminence, and by the mother's side he  is said to have
descended from Hercules.  Born with these  advan-
tages, and stimulated by the fame of his ancestors, he
devoted himself zealously to the cultivation  of the
healing art  Not  content with  the empirical prac-
tice, which  was derived  from his  predecessors, he
studied  under Herodicus, who had invented the gym-
nastic medicine, as well as some other philosophers.
But  he  appears to have judged carefully for himself,
and  to  have adopted only those  principles,  which
seemed founded in sound  reason. He was thus ena-
bled to throw light on the deductions of experience, and
clear away the false theories with which medicine bad
been loaded by  those wbo had no practical knowledge j
of diseases, and bring it into tbe true path of observa- I
tion, under the guidance of reason. Hence the physi- ■
ciar.s of the rational or dogmatic sect always acknow- I
ledged him as their leader.   The events of his life are '
involved in much obscurity and fable.   But he appears i
to have travelled much, residing at different ulaces for j
      424
some time, and practising his profession titer*,  ne dies)
at Larissa, In Thessaly, at a very advanced age, which
is variously staled from 85  to 109 yearn.  He left two
sons, Thessalus and Draco, who followed -tho samn
profession, and a daughter, married lo his favourite
pupil Polybus. who arranged and published his works;
and he formed many other  disciples.  He acquired a
high reputation  among his countrymen, which  has
descended to modern times;  and his opinions have been
respected as oracles, not only in  the schools of medi-
cine, but even in the courts of law.  He has shared
with Plato the title of divine: statues and temples
have been erected to his memory, and his  altars  co-
vered with incense,  like those of Aesculapius himself.
Indeed, the qualifications and duties required in a phy-
sician, were never more fully exemplified than In  his
conduct, and more  eloquently described than by  his
pen.  He is said to  nave admitted  no one  to his  in-
structions without the solemnity of an oath, in which
the chief obligations  are,  the most religions atten-
tion to  the advantages of the sick, the strictest chas-
tity, and inviolable secrecy  concerning matters which
ought not to be divulged.  Besides these charac-
teristics, he displayed  great simplicity,  candour, and
benevolence,  with unwearied zeal, in investigating the
progress and nature of disease, and in administering to
their cure.  The books attributed to him amount to
72; of which, however, many are considered spurious,
and others have been much corrupted.  The most es-
teemed, and generally admitted genuine, are the essay
" On Air, Water,  and Situation," the first and  third
books of " Epidemics,"  that  on  " Prognostics," the
" Aphorisms," the treatise "On the Diet in acute Dis-
eases,"  and that  "On  Wounds  of the Head."  He
wrote in  the  Ionic dialect, in a pure but remarkably
concise  style.   He was necessarily deficient in the
knowledge of anatomy,  as  the dissection of human
bodies was not then  allowed;  whence his Physiology
also is, in many respects, erroneous:  but he, in a great
measure, compensated this  by unceasing observation
of diseases, whereby  he attained so much skill  in
pathology and therapeutics,  that he has been regarded
as the founder of medical science: and  his opinions
still influence the healing art in a considerable degree.
He diligently investigated the  several causes of dis-
eases, hut especially their symptoms, which enabled
him readily to distinguish them from each other: and
very few of those  noticed by him  are now unknown,
mostly retaining  even the  same names.  But he is
more remarkably distinguished  by his Prognostics,
which have been comparatively little improved since,
founded upon various appearances in tlie state of the
patient,  but  especially upon the  excretions.   His  at
tention seems to have been directed chiefly to these In
consequence  of  a particular  theory.  He  supposed
that there are four  humours in the body, blood,
phlegm, yellow and black  bile, having different de-
grees of heat or coldness,  moisture or dryness, and
that to  certain changes in  the quantity or quality of
these, nil diseases  might be  referred; and farther, that
in acute disorders a concoction of the morbid humours
took place, followed by a critical discharge, which be
believed to happen, especially on  certain days.  But
he seems to have paid little, if any, attention to the
state of the  pulse.  He  advanced another  opinion,
which has since very generally prevailed, that there is
a principle, or power in the system, which he called
Nature,  tending to tbe  preservation of health, and the
removal of disease.  He, therefore, advised practition-
ers carefully  to observe and  promote the efforts  of
nature, at the same time correcting morbid states by
their opposite?, and  endeavouring to bring  back the
fluids into their proper channels.   The  chief part  of
his treatment at first was a great restriction of the diet;
in very acute diseases merely allowing the mouth to be
moistened occasionally for three or four days, and only
a more  plentiful dilution during a fortnight, provided
the strength would bear it; afterward a more substan-
tial diet was directed, but hardly any medicines, except
gentle emetics, and  iaxatives, or clysters.  Where
these means  failed,  very active purgatives were em-
ployed, as hellebore, elaterium, Sec  or sometimes the
sudorific regimen, or garlic and other diuretics.  He
seems cautious in tbe UBe of narcotics, but occasionally
had recourse to some of the  preparations of lead, enp-
per,silver, andiron.  He bled freely in casesof extreme
pain or inflammation, sometimes opening two veins at 
HOD
HOL
once, so as to produce fainting; and also took blood
often by cupping, but preferably from a remote part,
with a view of producing a revulsion.  Where medi-
cines fail, he recommends the knife, or even fire, as a
last resource, and he advises trepanning, in cases of
violent headache. But he  wishes the more difficult
operations of surgery to be performed only by particular
persons, who might thereby acquire more expertness.
   HIPPOCRATIC.  Relating  to Hippocrates.  See
Fades hippocratica.
   Hippola'patuum.  (From l-mros, a horse, and  Aaira-
■6ov, the  lapathum.)  A species  of  lapatiium;  so
named from its size.   See Rumex patientia.
   Hippoma'ratiirum.  (From  hios,  a horse, and
papaOpov, fennel: so  nauied from its size.) See Peuce-
danum silaus.
   Hipposeli'num. (From Sinroc, a horse, and otXivov,
purslane; so named because il resembles a large kind
of purslane.)  See Smyrnaum olusatrum.
   HIPPU'RIS.  (From ijr7roc,a horse, and oupa, a tail.)
1. Some herbs are thus named  because they resemble
a horse's tail.
   2. The name of a  genus of plants in the Linnaean
system. Class, Monandria;  Order, Monogynia, Mare's
tail.
   Hippurus vulgaris.   The systematic name of the
horse's or mare's tail.  Equisetum; Cauda equina.  It
possesses  astringent  qualities, and is frequently used
by the common people as tea in diarrhoeas and haemor-
rhages.  The same virtues are also attributed  to the
Equisetum  arvense, fluviatile, limosum,  and other
species, which  are directed indiscriminately by the
term Equisetum.
   HIPPUS.  (From  Imroj, a horse; because the eyes
of those who labour under this affliction are continually
twinkling and trembling, as is usual with those who
ride on horseback.)  A repealed dilatation and alter-
nate constriction of  the pupil, arismg from  spasm, or
convulsion of tbe iris.
   Hir.   (From  %ttp,  tne  hand.)  The  palm of the
hand.
   Hira.  (From hir, the palm  of the hand; because
it is usually found empty.)  The intestinum jejunum.
   HIRCUS.   Tragus.  The goat.
   Hircus bezoarticus.  (Quasi hirt.us;  from  his
 shaggy hair.)  The  goat which affords  the oriental
 bezoar.
   Hi'rq.uus.   (From tpxos,  a hedge; because it is
 hedged in by the eyelash.)  The angle ofthe eye.
   H1RSUTIES.  A trivial name in Good's Nosology
 3ar a species of disease in  which hair grows in extra-
 neous parts, or superfluously in parts where il naturally
 grows.   Trichosis hirsnties.
   HLRSUTUS.   Hairy: applied to  leaves,  petals,
 seeds, Sec of plants; as the petals of the Menyanthes
 trifoliata and Asclcpias crispa: tbe seeds of the Scan-
 dix trichosperma.
   HI'RTUS.   (A contraction of hirsutus.)  Hairy:
 applied to stems of plants, as tbat cf the Cirastium al-
 pinum.
    HIRU'DO.  (Quasi haurudo; from haurio, to draw
 out: so named from its greediness to suck blood.) See
 Leech.
    Hirudo medicinalis.  See Leech.
    HIRUNDINA'RIA.   (From hirundo, the swallow:
 so called from  the resemblance of its pods to a swal-
 low.)  Swallow wort, or asclepias.  See Lysimachia
 numularia and Asclepias vincetoxf.cum.
    Hirc'ndo.  (Ab harendo; from its sticking its nest
 to the eaves of houses.)
    1. The swallow.
    2. The cavity in the bend ofthe arm.
    Hispi'dula.   (From  hispidus, rough:   so named
 from  the rough, woolly surface of its stalks.)  See
  Gnaphalium.
    HISPIDUS.   Bristly: applied to stems, seeds, Sec.
 of plants.  The Borago officinalis is a good example
 of the Caulus hispidus: the seeds ofthe Daucus carota,
 and Galium boreale.
    HOARHOUND.  See Marmbium.
   HODGES, Nathaniel, son of the Dean of Hereford,
  ft/as born at Kensington, and graduated at Oxford in
  1659.   He then settled in London, and continued there
  luring the plague, when mostotber physicians deserted
 (heir post. He was twice taken ill, but by timely reme-
 dies recovered.   He afterward published an authentic
 account of the disease, which appears to have  de-
stroyed 68,596 persons in the year 1665.  It is to be
regretted, that a person who had  performed such an
important and dangerous service to his fellow-citizens,
should have died in  prison, confined for debt, in 1684.
  HOFFMANN, Frederic, was  born at  Halle, in
Saxony, 1660.  Having  lost  his parents from an epi-
demic disease, he went to  study  medicine at Jena,
where he graduated in 1681.  The year following he
published an  excellent  tract,  " De Cinnabari Anti-
monii,"  which gained him great applause, a Ad nume-
rous pupils to attend a course of chemical lectures,
Which he delivered there.  He then practised his  pro-
fession for two  years at Minden with very good  suc-
cess;  and after travelling to Holland and  England,
where he received many marks of distinction, he  was
appointed, on his return in 1685, physician to the gar-
rison, and subsequently to Frederic William, Elector
of Brandenburgh, and the whole principality of Min-
den.  He was, however, induced to settle, in 1688, as
public physician at Halberstadt; where he published a
treatise,  " De Insufficiencia Acidi et Viscldi."  A
university being founded at Halle, by Frederic  III.,
afterward first  King of Prussia,  Hoffman was ap-
pointed, in 1693, primary Professor of Medicine, and
composed the Statutes of that institution, and recom-
mended Stahl as  his colleague.  He was most active
in his professional duties; and by the eloquence and
learning displayed in bis lectures and publications, he
extended his own reputation, and tbat of the new uni
versity.   He was admitted into tbe scientific societies
at  Berlin,  Petersburgh, and London; and had the
honour of attending many of the German courts aa
physician.   Haller  asserts  that  he  acquired  great
wealth by the sale of various chemical nostrums.   He
examined many of  the mineral waters in  Germany,
particularly those of Seidlitz, which he first introduced
to  public notice in  1717. The year  after he  com-
menced the publication of his " Medicina Rationalis
Systematica," which was received with great applause
by the faculty in various parts of Europe, and is said
to  have occupied him nearly twenty years. He also
published two volumes of "  Consultations," and thiee
books of select chemical observations.  In 1727, he
was created Count Palatine, by the Prince  of Swart-
zenburgti, whom he carried  through a dangerous dis-
ease. About seven  years after, be attended Frederic
William, King of Prussia,  and is said  by dignified
remonstrance to  have  secured himself against the
brutal ruedness shown by that monarch to those about
him; he  was  ultimately distinguished  with  great
honours, and invited strongly to settle at Berlin, but
declined it on account of his advanced age.  He con-
tinued to perform his duties at Halle till 1742, in which
year he died. Hoffman was a very voluminous writer;
His works  have been collected in six folio volumes,
printed at  Geneva.  Tbey  contain a great mass of
valuable practical matter, partly original, but  detailed
in a prolix manner,  and intermixed with much hypo-
thesis.  He has the merit, however, of first turning the
attention of practitioners to the morbid affections of
the nervous system, instead  of framing mere mechani-
cal or chemical theories: but he did not carry the doc-
trine to its fullest extent, and retained some of the
errors of the humoral pathology. He pursued the
study of chemistry  and pharmacy with  considerable
ardour ; but his practice was cautious, particularly in
advanced age, trusting much to vegetable simples.
   [Hopfman's anodyne liquor.   Formerly so called;
now known by the  name of compound spirit of Sul-
phuric ether.  A.l
   Hog's fennel.  See Peucedanum.
   [Hog-tooth spar.  A variety of calcareous spar. A.]
   Ho'lcimos.  (From tXxia, to draw.)  It sometimes
means a tumour ofthe liver.
   HO'LCUS.  1. The  name  of a genus of plants io
the Linnean system.  Class, Polygamia;  Order, Mo
nacia.
   2. The Indian millet-seed, which is said to be nutri
live.           »
   Holcus  sorgum.  Guinea corn.
   HOLERACEUS.  See Oleraceous.
   [HOLYOKE, Dr. Edward.   This beloved and
venerated  man was born  at Marblehead, Mass. in
1728. The house in which  he was born is still stand-
ing.  He was graduated at Harvard University in 1746,
and settled in  this place in 1749, where he has ever
Binee, for a period of 80 years, resided, useful, beloved, 
HOR
HOR
and honoured.  He was married, the first time in 1755,
and a second time in 1759.   He had by the second
marriage 12 children, of whom only two survive.  His
only child by his first wife died in infancy   He has
lived iu his mansion-house, in Essex-street, for the last
66 years, and at one period of his practice, ho has
stated that there was  not  a dwelling-house in Salem
which he had not visited  professionally.  For a long
period he nearly engrossed the medical practice of the
place, and is known  to have made a hundred profes-
sional visits in a day.  This was in  May or  June of
1783, at which  time  the measles prevailed  epidemi-
cally.   He passed his  long life in almost uninterrupted
health, without any  of those accidents and dangers
which  his skill  was exerted to remedy and remove in
others, and his old age has been almost without infir-
mity,  and literally without decrepitude.  Who that
saw him does not recollect his firm and elasticstep and
his cheerful  looks on tiie  day of his hundredth anni-
versary ?  To much exercise and great temperance he
was disposed to  attribute his health and advanced age.
And when to these causes we add those of pious opinions,
virtuous practices, and a calm, cheerful, and contented
spirit, we  shall  have disclosed much of the secret of
his corporeal advantages.   Of his temperance we are
induced to make one  remark, that it was not  a system
of rules in diet  and regimen, but a temperance of mo-
derate desires.  He enjoyed all  the bounties of Provi-
dence wilh remarkable appetency, but his well-regu-
lated mind always saved him from excessive indul-
gence.   Of his  exercise some idea may be formed by
a computation which he made a short time before his
decease, that he had walked in the course of  his prac-
tice, a distance  which would reach three times round
the globe.  He died iu 1829.  A.]
  Hollow leaf.  See Cuncavus.
  HOLLY.  See Ilex.
  Holly, knee.  See Ruscus.
  Holly, sea. See Eryngium.
  Holmi'scus.   (Dim. of oXuos, a mortar.)
  1. A small mortar.
  2. The cavity of the large teeth, because they pound
the food as in a  mortar.
  HOLMITE.  A new mineral composed  of  lime,
carbonic  acid,   alumina, silica, oxide  of iron, and
water.
  Holopiilv'ctides. (From oXoc, whole, and tbXuxlts,
a pustule.)   Little pimples all over the body.
•  Holo'stes.   See Holosteus.
  Holo'steum. Sec Holosteus.
  Holo'steus.  (From oXoc, whole, and o$tov, a bone.)
Glue-bone.  See Osteocolla.
  Holoto'nicus. (From oXoc,'whole,  and  rttvia,to
stretch.)  A term formerly applied to diseases accom-
panied with universal convulsion, or rigour.
  HOLT THISTLE.  See Centaurea benedicta.
  HOLYWELL. There is a mineral  water at this
place arranged under the class of simple cold waters,
remarkable for  its purity.   It possesses similar virtues
to tbat of Malvern.   See Malvern water.
  Ho'ma.  An anasarcous swelling.
  Homberg's phosphorus.  Ignited muriate of lime.
  Bamberg's salt. See Boracic acid.
  HOMOGENEOUS.  (Homogenous; from ouoc, like,
and ytvos, a kind.) Uniform, of a like kind or species,
of the same quality.   A term used in contradistinction
to heterogeneous, when the parts of the body are of
different qualities.
  HOMOPLA'TA.   (From tauos, the shoulder, and
nXa'Ja, the blade.)  See Scapula.
  HONEY.   See Mel.
  HONEY-STONE.  Mellite.  Crystalhartzof Mohs.
Pyramidal honey-atone of Jameson.   This is of  a
honey colour,  distinctly  crystallized, and occurs on
bituminous wood and earth coal, and is usually accom-
panied with sulphur at Artern, in Thuringia.
  HONEY-SUCKLE.  See Lonicera peridymenum.
  Hooded leaf.   Cucullatus.
  HOOPING-COUGH.  See Pertussis.
  HOP.  See Humulus lupulus.
  Hoplocbri'sma.   (From on-Xov,  a  weapon, and
xptspa, a salve.)  A  salve which was ridiculously said
to cure wounds by consent; that is, by anointing the
instrument with wbich the wound was made.
   HORDEOLUM.   (Diminutive of hordeum, barley.)
A little tumour on the eyelids, resembling  a barley-
corn,  A stye.   Scarpa remarks, the stye is strictly
       426
only a little bile, which projects from the edge of the
eyelids, mostly near the great angle of the eye.  This
Utile tumour, like the furunculus, Is of a dark red
colour, much inflamed, and  a groat deal more painful
than might be expected, considering its small size.  The
latter circumstance is partly owing to the vehemence
of the inflammation producing  the stye, and partly to
the exquisite sensibility and tension of the skin, which
covers the edge of the eyelids.   On this account, the
hordeolum very often excites lever and restlessness in
delicate, irritable constitutions; it suppurates  slowly
and imperfectly; mid, when suppurated, has no ten-
dency to burst
  The stye, like other furunculous inflammations, forms
an exception to the general rule, that the best mode in
which inflammatory swellings can end, is resolution;
for  whenever a furunculous inflammation extends so
deeply as to destroy any of  the  cellular substance, the
little tumour can never be resolved, or only imperfectly
so.  This event, indeed, would rather be hurttul, since
there would still  remain  behind a greater or smaller
portion of  dead cellular membrane; which, sooner or
later, might bring on a renewal  of tiie stye in the same
place  as  before,  or  else become converted  into a
hard indolent body, deforming ihe edge of the eyelid.
  HO'RDEUM.  (Ab  horrvre  arista; from the un-
pleasantness of its beard to  the touch.)  1. The name
of a genus of plants in the Liunatan system.  Class
Triandria;  Order, Digynia.  Barley.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common barley
See Hordeum vulgare.
  Hordeum causticum.  Sec  Cevadilla.
  Hordeum distichon. This plant affords the barley
in common use.  See Hordeum vulgare.
  Hordeum perlatum.  See Hordeum vulgare.
  Hordeum vulgare.  The systematic name of the
common barley.  The seed called barley, is obtained
from several species of hordeum, but principally from
the vulgare, or common or Scotch barley, and the
distichon,  or hordeum gallicum vel mundatum, or
French barley, of Linnatus.   It  is extremely nutritious
and mucilaginous, and in common  use  as a  drink,
when boiled, in  all inflammatory diseases  and affec-
tions of the  chest, especially where there is cough or
irritation about the fauces.  A decoction of barley  with
gum, is considered a useful diluent and demulcent in
dysury and strangury; the gurn  mixing wilh the urine,
sheaths  the urinary canal from the acrimony of the
urine.  Among the  ancients,  decoctions of  barley,
xpiBn, were the  principal medicine, as well as aliment,
in acute diseases.  Barley  is freed from its shells in
mills, and  in this state called Scotch and Frencii barley.
In Holland, they rub  barley into small tound grains,
somewhat like  pearls, which is therefore called pearl
barley, or  hordeum perlatum.
  HORIZONTALS.  Horizontal: applied to leaves,
roots, &c. which spread in the greatest possible degree;
as the leaves of Gentiana campestris, and roots of the
Laserpitium prutenicum.
  HO'RMINUM.   (From  opuaui, to incite:  named
from its supposed qualities of provoking venery.)  See
Salvia sclarea.
  HORN. An animal substance chiefly membraneous,
composed of coagulated albumen, wilh a little gelatin,
and about a half per cent, of phosphate of  lime.
The horns of the buck and hart are of a different
nature,  being intermediate  between  bone  and bora
See Cornu.
   Horn silver.  A chloride of silver.
  HORNBLENDE.   A sub-species of straight-edged
augite.  There are three varieties of it:
  1. Common hornblende, which is of a greenish black
colour:  is an  essential  ingredient of the mountain
rocks, syenite and green-stone,   and occurs frequently
iu granite, gneiss, Sec  It is found abundantly in the
British isles, and on the Continent.
  2. Hornblende, slate, of a colour intermediate be-
tween green and black.  It occurs in beds of gneiss
in many  parts  of Scotland, England, and  the Conti-
nent
   3. Basaltic hornblende, of a velvet black colour.  It
is found imbedded in  basalt, along with olivine and
augite, at Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh, an J in basal-
tic rocks of England, Ireland, and tiie Continent
   HORNSTONE.   Professor  Jameson's uinth sub
species of rhomboidal quartz.
   HORRLPILA'TIO.  Horripilation.  (From  horror 
HUM
HUM
and pilus, a hair.)   A shuddering or a sense of creep-
ing in different parts of tiie body.  A symptom of the
approach of fever.
   Horse-chesnut.  See JEsculus hippocastanum.
   Horse-radish.   See Codilearia armoracia.
   HORSE-TAIL.   See Hippurus vulgaris.
   HORSTIUS, Gregory,  was born at  Torgau, in
1578.  After studying in different parts of Germany
and Switzerland, he graduated at Basil in 1606,  and
was soon after appointed to a medical professorship at
Wittenhurg. But two years after he  received a simi-
lar appointment at Giessen, and was  made chief phy-
sician of Hesse; where he attained considerable repu-
tation iu his profession.  In 1722 he  went to Ulm, on
an invitation from the magistracy as  public physician
and president of the college; where his learning, skill,
and humanity, procured him general esteem.  He died
in 1636.  His works were collected by his sons in three
folio volumes.
  HO'RTUS.  (From orior, to rise, as being the place
where vegetables grow up.)  1.  A garden.
  2. The genitals of a woman,  which is the repository
of the human semen.
  Hortus  siccus.  A collection of dried plants
  HOUNDS-TONGUE.  See Cynoglossum.
  HOUSE-LEEK.  See Sempervivum tectorum.
  HUBER,  John James, was born  at Basle in 1707,
and graduated there at the age of 26, after studying
under the celebrated Haller and other  able teachers.
Two years  after he was  appointed  physician to the
Court of Baden  Dourlach.  He materially assisted
Haller in his work on the Botany of Switzerland, and
was consequently  invited by him iu 1738  to  be  dis-
sector at Goltingen.
  He speedily rose to considerable reputation there,
and  received different public appointments.   He had
likewise the honour of being  elected  into the most
celebrated ofthe learned societies iu Europe.  He died
in 1778.   The  chief objects of his research were the
spinal marrow, and the nerves originating from it: he
also inquired into the supposed  influence of the imagi-
nation of the mother on the fcetus, and into the cause
of miscarriages.
  [HULL, Dr. Amos G.  This gentleman is a living
practitioner of physic and surgery in  the city of New-
York.   He has paid particular attention to the cure of
Reducible Hernia, and has succeeded beyond all other
surgeons in the cure of this frequent complaint.  Prac-
titioners have most usually directed  their patients to
apply a truss.  Dr. Hull, however, in attending more
particularly and personally to the adaptation of trusses
to different kinds of Reducible Hernia, found that they
were all made upon erroneous principles.  He has ac-
cordingly invented a truss differing from all preceding
trusses,  and it has the general  approbation of practi-
tioners  in this country, for  its  simplicity and superior
Utility.  He has  improved  upon those  he first made,
and he  now calls it his improved hinge  and pivot
Truss, for an account of which see article, Truss.  A.]
   HULME, Nathaniel, was born at Halifax, in York-
shire, 1732, and bred to the profession of a  surgeon-
apothecary.  After serving some time in the navy, he
graduated at Edinburgh in 1765. He  then settled in
London, and was soon after appointed physician to the
General Dispensary, the first institution of that kind
established  in the metropolis.   About the year 1775 he
was elected physician to the Charter-house.   In 1807
he died, in consequence of a  severe -bruise by a fall.
He was author of several dissertations on scurvy,
puerperal fever, &c.  He also made  a series of expe-
riments on the light spontaneously emitted from vari-
ous bodies, published iu  the Philosophical  Transac-
tions : and  he was one of the editors of the Loudon
Practice of Physic.
   HUMECT A'NTIA. (From humecto, to make moist.)
Medicines which are supposed capable of softening by
making the solids of the body moist.
   HUMERAL.  Humeralis.   Belonging to the hume-
rus or arm.
   Humeral arterv.  Arteria humeralis.   Brachial
artery.   The axillary artery, having passed the tendon
of the great pectoral  muscle, changes its name to the
brachial or  humeral artery, which name it  retains in
its course down  the arm  to the bend, where it divides
Into the radial and ulnar  arteries.   In this course  it
gives' off several muscular branches, three of which
onlv deserve attention: 1.  The arteria profunda supe-
rior, which goes round the back of the arm to the ei-
terior muscle, and is often named the upper muscular
artery.  2. Another like it, called arteria profunda in-
ferior, ot the lower muscular artery.  3. Ramus anas-
tomoticus major, which anastomoses round the elbow
with the branches of the ulnar artery.
  Humeralis musculus.  See Deltoides.
  HU'MERUS.  (From wuoc, the shoulder.)
  1. The arm, as composed of hard and soft parts,
from the shoulder to the forearm.
  2.  The shoulder.
  3. The bone of the arm, or os humeri, os brachii.  A
long cylindrical bone, situated between the scapula and
forearm.  Its upper extremity »s formed somewhat
laterally and internally, into a large, round, and smooth
head, which is admitted into the glenoid cavity of the
scapula. Around the basis of this head is observed  a
circular fossa, deepest anteriorly and externally, which
forms what is called the  neck of the bone, and  from
the edge of which arises the capsular ligament, which
is further strengthened by a strong membraneous ex-
pansion, extending to the upper edge of the glenoid
cavity, and to the coracoid process of the scapula; and
likewise by the  tendinous expansions of the muscles,
inserted into the bead of the humerus.   This capsular
ligament is sometimes torn in luxation, and becomes
an obstacle to the easy reduction of the bone.  The
articulating surface of the head is covered  by a car-
tilage, which is thick in  its middle part, and thin to-
wards its edges; by which means it is more convex in
the recent subject than in the skeleton.  This upper
extremity, besides the round smooth head, affords two
other smaller protuberances.  One of these, which  is
the largest of the two, is of an irregular oblong shape,
and is placed at the back of the head of the bone, from
which it is separated by a kind of groove, that makes
a part of the neck.  This tuberosity is  divided, at its
upper part, into three surfaces; the first of these, which
is the smallest and uppermost, serves for the insertion
of the supraspinatus muscle; the second or middle-
most, for the insertion of the infraspinatus; and the
third, which is the lowest and hindmost, for the inser-
tion of the teres minor.   The other smaller tuberosity
is situated anteriorly, between the larger one and the
head of the humerus, and serves for the insertion of
the subscapulars muscle.  Between these  two tube-
rosities there is a deep groove for lodging the tendinous
head of the biceps brachii; the capsular ligament of
the joint affording here a prolongation, thinner  than
the capsule itself, which covers and accompanies this
muscle  to its fleshy portion, where it gradually disap-
pears in the adjacent cellular membrane.   Immedi-
ately below its neck, the os humeri begins to assume a
cylindrical shape, so that here the body of the  bone
may be said to commence.  At its upper part is ob-
served a continuation of the groove for the biceps,
which extends downward, about the fourth part of
the length of the bone in an oblique direction.   The
edges of this groove are continuations ofthe greater and
smaller tuberosities, and  serve for the  attachment of
the pectoralis, latissimus  dorsi, and teres major mus-
cles.  The groove itself is lined with a glistening sub-
stance like cartilage, but w hich seems to be nothing
more  than the remains of tendinous fibres.  A little
lower down, towards the  external and anterior 6ide of
the middle of the bone, it is seen rising into a rough
ridge for the insertion of the deltoid muscle.   On  each
side of  this ridge the bone is smooth and flat, for the
lodgment ofthe brachialis internus muscle; and be-
hind the middle part of the outermost side of the ridge
is a channel, for the transmission of vessels  into the
substance of the bone.  A little lower down, and near
the inner side of the ridge, there is sometimes  seen
such another channel, which is intended for the same
purpose. The os humeri, at its lower extremity, be-
comes gradually broader and flatter, so as to have this
end nearly of a triangular shape.  The bone, thus ex-
panded, affords two surfaces, of which the  anterior
one is the broadest, and somewhat convex;  and the
posterior one narrower and  smoother.  The bone ter-
minates in four large processes, the two outermost of
which are called condyles, though not designed for the
articulation of the bone.  These condyles, which are
placed at some distance from each other, on each side
of the bone, are rough and irregular protuberances.
formed for the insertion of muscles and ligaments, and
differ from each other in size and shape.  The external 
HUN                                            HUN
condyle, when the arm is in the most natural position,
is found to be placed somewhat forwarder than the
other.  The internal condyle is longer, and more pro-
tuberant, than the external.  From each of these pro-
cesses a ridge is continued  upwards, at tile side of the
bone.  In the interval between the two condyles are
placed the two articulating  processes, contiguous to
each other, and covered with cartilage.  One of these,
which is the smallest, is formed into  a small, obtuse,
smooth head, on which the radius plays.   This  little
head is placed near the external condyle, as a part of
which it has  been sometimes described.   The other,
and larger process, is composed of two lateral protu-
berances and a middle cavity, all of which are smooth
and covered  with cartilage.   From  the  manner in
which the ulna  moves upon this process, it has gotten
the name of trochlea, or pulley.   The sides of this pul-
ley are unequal; that which is towards the little head,
is the highest of the two; the other, which is contigu-
ous to the external  condyle, is more slanting, being
situated obliquely from within outwards, so that when
Ihe forearm is fully extended, it does not form a straight
line with ihe os humeri, and, for the same reason, when
we bend the elbow, the band comes not to the shoulder,
as it might be expected to do, but to the forepart ofthe
breast.  There is a cavity at  the root of these  pro-
cesses, on  each of the two  surfaces of the bone.  The
cavity on the anterior surface is divided by a ridge into
two, the external of which  receives  the  end  of the
radius, and the  internal one  lodges the coronoid pro-
cess of the ulna in the flexions of the forearm.   The
cavity on the  posterior surface, at the basis of the pul-
ley, is much larger, and lodges the olecranon when the
arm  is extended,   The internal structure of the os
humeri is  similar to that of other long bones. In  new-
eorn infants, both the ends of the  bone are cartilagi-
nous, and the large head, with the two tubercles above,
and the condyles,  with the two articulating processes
below, become epiphyses before they are entirely united
to the rest of the bone.
  HU'MILIS.  (From humi, on the ground: so named
because it turns the eye downwards, and is expressive
of humility.)  See Rectus inferior oculi.
  HUMITE.   A  mineral of a  reddish brown colour
found near Naples,  and named by Count Bournon in
nonour of Sir Abraham Hume, a distinguished culti-
vator of mineralogy.
  HU'MOR.   (Ab humo,  from the ground; because
moisture springs from the earth.)  Humour, a general
name for any fluid of the body except the blood.
  Humor  vitreus.   The vitreous humour of the eye,
Which takes its name from the  resemblance to melted
glass, is less dense than the crystalline but more  than
the aqueous humour; it is very considerable  in the
human eye, and seems to be formed by the small  arte-
ries that are  distributed in cells of the hyaloid mem-
brane ; it is heavier than common water, slightly  albu-
minous and saline.
  HUMOUR.   See Humor.
  Humour, aqueous.  See Aqueous humour.
  Humour, vitreous.  See Humor vitreus.
  Humours of the Eye.  See Eye.
  H U MULIN.  The narcotic principle of the fruit of
tbe hop.   See Humulus.
  HU'MULUS.   (From humus, the ground: so named
because, wilhout factitious support, it creeps along the
(round.)  The name of a  genus of plants in the  Lin-
naean system.  Class, Dicecia;  Order, Pentandria.
The hop.
  Humulus lupulus.   The systematic name of the
hop-plant.  Lupulus; Convolvulus perennis.   The
hop  is the floral  leaf or  bractea of  this  plant:  it is
dried and  used in  various kinds of strong beer.  Hops
have  a bitter taste,  less ungrateful than most of tbe
other strong bitters, accompanied with some degree of
warmth and  aromatic flavour, and are highly intoxi-
cating.   The hop-flower also  exhales a considerable
quantity of its narcotic power  in drying; hence those
who sleep in the hop-houses are with difficulty roused
from their slumber.   A pillow stuffed wilh these flow-
ers is said to have laid our  late monarch to sleep when
other remedies had failed.   The young sprouts, called
Imp-tops, if phKfcei when only a foot above the ground,
and boiled, are eaten, like asparagus, and arc a whole-
some delicacy.  The active or narcotic principle of the
hop, is called humulm.
   HUNGER.   Famts.  "  The want of solid aliments
      428
is characterized by a peculiar sensation In the retton
of the stomach, and by a general feebleness, more or
less marked.  This feeling is generally renewed after
the stomach has been for some time empty; it la varia-
ble in its intensity and its nature in different individu-
als, and even in the same individual.   In  some Its
violence is excessive, in others it is scarcely feK; some
never feel it, and eat only because the hour of repast
Is come.   Many persons perceive a  drawing, a pres-
sure more or less painful in the epigastric region, ac-
companied  by yawnings, and a particular noise, pro-
duced by tbe gases contained in  the stomach, which
becomes contracted.  When this want is not satisfied
it increases, and may become a severe pain:  the same
takes place with the sensation of weakness and gene-
ral fatigue, which  is felt, and which may  Increase,
so as to render the motions difficult,  or even  im-
possible.
  Authors distinguish in hunger, local phenomena, and
general phenomena.
  This distinction is good in itself, and may  be useful
for study; but have not mere gratuitous suppositions
been described as local or general phenomena of hun <
ger, the existence of which was rendered probable by
this theory 1  This point of physiology is one of those
in which the want of direct experiment is  the most
strongly felt.—The pressure and contraction of  the
stomach are considered among the local phenomena
of hunger: 'the  sides of that viscus,' it is said, 'be-
come thicker;  it changes its form and  situation, and
draws the duodenum a  little towards it;  its cavity con-
tains saliva mixed  with  air, mucosilies, bile, which
has  regurgitated in consequence of the dragging of
the duodenum;  the quantity of these  humours in
creases in the stomach in proportion as hunger is of
longer  continuation. The cystic  bile does  not flow
inlo the duodenum; it collects in the gall-bladder, and
it becomes  abundant and black according to the con-
tinuance of abstinence.  A change takes place in the
order of tbe circulation of the digestive organs;  the
stomach receives less blood, perhaps on account ofthe
flexion of these vessels, which is then greater; perhaps
by the compression of the nerves, in consequence of
this confinement, the influence of which upon the cir-
culation will then he diminished.   On the other hand,
the liver, the spleen, the epiploon, receive more, and
perform the office  of diverticula:  the  liver and the
spleen, because they are less  supported when the sto-
mach is empty, and then  present a more easy access
to the blood; and the epiploon, because the vessels are
then less flexuous,' Sec.   The most of these data  are
mere conjectures, and nearly devoid of  proof.  After
twenty-four, forty-eight, and even sixty hours of com-
plete abstinence. Dr. Magendie says he never saw the
contraction and  pressure of the stomach of which
some authors speak:  this organ bas always presented
to him very considerable dimensions, particularly in
its splenic extremity; it was only after the fourth and
fifth day that it appeared to icturn upon itself, to di-
minish much in size, and slightly in position ; even
these effects are not strongly marked unless fasting IrSs
been very strictly observed.
  BichAt thinks  that the pressure sustained by tne
empty stomach is equal  to that wbich it supports when
distended  by aliments, since, says he, tbe sides of the
abdomen are compressed in proportion as the volume
ofthe stomach diminishes. The contrary of this may
be easily proved by putting one or two fingers into the
abdominal cavity, after  having made an  incision in its
sides; it will then be easily seen that the pressure sus-
tained by the viscera, is, in a certain degree, in direct
proportion  to  the  distention of tbe stomach; if  the
stomach is  full, the finger will be stronger pressed, and
Ihe viscera will press outward to escape through the
opening; if it is empty, the pressure  will  be very
trifling,  and the viscera will have little tendency to
pass out  from the  abdominal cavity.  It must be un
derstood  that in this experiment  the prersure exerted
by tile abdominal muscle, when they are relaxed, ought
not to be confounded with that which ihey exert v* hen
contracted  with force.  Also, when the stomach ii
empty, all  tbe reservoirs contained  in  the abdomen
are more easily distended by the  matters which re-
main some time in them.  Perhaps this is the princi-
pal reason why bile then accumulates in  the gall-
bladder.  With regard  to the presence  of bile in the
stomach, that  some persons regard  as  the cause at 
HUN
HUN
hunger, unless in certain sickly cases bile does not
enter it, though it continues to flow into tho small in-
testine.
  The quantity of mucus that the cavity of the sto-
mach presents U so much greater in proportion to the
prolongation of abstinence.
  Relatively to the quantity of blood which goes to
the stomach when empty, in proportion to the volume
of ils vessels, and  tbe mode of circulation which then
exists, the general opinion is that  it receives less of
this  fluid than when it is full of aliments;  but, far
from being in this respect in opposition with the other
abdominal organs, this disposition  appears to be com-
mon lo all the organs contained in the abdomen.
  To the general phenomena of hunger is ascribed a
weakness and diminution of  the action of  all the
organs;  the circulation  and the respiration become
slow, the heat of the body lowers, the secretions dimi-
nish, the whole of the functions are exerted with more
difficulty. The  absorption alone  is  said to become
more active, but nothing is strictly demonstrated in
this respect.
  Hunger, appetite itself, which is only its first degree,
ought to  be distinguished from that feeling which in-
duces us to prefer one sort of food to another, from that
which causes  us,  during a repast,  to choose one dish
rather than another, Sec.
  These  feelings are very different from real hunger,
which expresses the true wants of the economy; they
in a great measure depend on civilization, on habits,
and certain ideas relative to the properties of aliments.
Some of them are in unison with the season, the cli-
mate,  and then they are equally  legitimate as hun-
ger itself; such is tbat which inclines us to a vegetable
regimen  in hot countries, or  during the heats of
summer.
  Certain circumstances render hunger more intense,
and  cause it to return at nearer intervals; such as a
cold and dry air,  winter, spring, cold baths, dry fric-
tions upon the skin, exercise on horseback, walking,
bodily fatigue, and generally all the causes that put
the action ofthe organs  in play, and accelerate the nu-
tritive process with which hunger is essentially con-
nected.  Some substances, being introduced into the
stomach, excite a feeling like hunger,  but which ought
not to be confounded with it.
  There are causes which diminish the intensity of
hunger, and which  prolong the periods at which it
habitually manifests itself; among this number are the
inhabiting of hot countries, and humid places,  rest of
the  body and mind, depressing passions, and  indeed
all the circumstances thai interrupt the action of the
organs, and diminish the activity of nutrition.  There
are also  substances which, being brought into the di-
gestive canals, prevent hunger, or cause it to cease, as
opium, hot drinks, &c.
  With respect to the cause of hunger, it has been, by
turns, attributed to the  providence of the vital princi-
ple,  to the frictions of the sides of the stomach against
each other, to the dragging of the liver upon  the dia-
phragm, to the action of bile upon the stomach, to the
acrimony and acidity ofthe gastric juice, to fatigue of
the contracted fibres of the stomach, to compression of
the nerves of this viscus, ace. ace.
   Hunger arises, like all other internal sensations, from
the action of the nervous system; it has no other seat
than this system Itself,  and no other causes than the
general laws of organization.  What very well proves
the  truth of this assertion is, tbat  it  sometimes conti-
nues though the stomach is filled wilh food;  that it
cannot he  produced though  the  stomach  has been
some  time empty; lastly, that it is so subject to habit
as to  cease spontaneously after the habitual hour of
repast is over.  This is true  not  only of the  feeling
which takes place in the region  of  the stomach, bul
also ofthe general weakness that accompanies it, and
which, consequently, cannot be considered as  real, at
least in the first instant in which it is manifested."
   HUNTER,  William, was born in 1718, at Kilbride
in Scotland.   He was educated for the church at Glas-
gow;  but feeling scruples against subscription, and
having become acquainted with the celebrated Cullen,
he determined to pursue the medical profession.  After
 living three years with that able teacher, who then
 practised as a surgeon-apothecary  at  Hamilton, he
 went to Edinburgh in November, 1740; and in the fol-
 lowing summer came to London with a recommenda-
tion to Dr. James Douglas, who engaged him to assist
in bis dissections, and superintend tbe education of
his son.   He was also enabled by that physician's libe-
rality to attend St. George's Hospital, and other teach-
ers ;  but death deprived  him of so  valuable a friend
within a year. However, he remained in the family,
and prosecuted his studies with great zeal.  In 1743,
he communicated to the Royal Society a paper on the
structure and diseases of articulating cartilages, which
was  much admired.   He now formed  the design of
teaching anatomy; and, after encountering some dif-
ficulties, commenced  by giving a course on the opera-
lions of surgery to a society of navy surgeons in lieu
of Mr. Samuel Sharpe.   At first he felt considerable
solicitude in  speaking  in public; but  gradually this
wore off, and he evinced  a  remarkable facility in ex-
pressing  himself with perspicuity and elegance.  He
gave so much satisfaction, that he was requested to ex-
tend the plan to anatomy, which he began accordingly
in 1746.   His success was considerable, but having
somewhat embarrassed himself at first by assisting his
friends,  he was  obliged to adopt proper caution in
lending money; which, with bis talents, industry, and
economy, enabled him to acquire an ample fortune.
In 1748, he accompanied his pupil, young Douglas, on
a tour, and having seen  the  admirable injections  of
Albinus  at Leyden,  he was  inspired with a strong
emulation to excel in that branch.  On his return, be
relinquished the  profession of surgery, and devoted
himself to midwifery, to  which his person and man-
ners well adapted him; and having been appointed to
the Middlesex and British lying-in hospitals, as well as
favoured by other circumstances, he  made a rapid ad-
vance  in practice.  In 1750 he obtained  a doctor's
degree from Glasgow, and was afterward  often con-
sulted as a physician, in cases which required peculiar
anatomical skill.  Six years after, he was admitted a
licentiate of the College in London; and also a mem-
ber of the society, by which the " Medical Observa
tions and Inquiries"  were published.   He enriched
that work with many valuable communications; par
ticularly an account of the disease, since called Aneut
rismal Varix, a case of emphysema, with practical re.
marks, wherein he showed  the fat to be deposited iq
distinct vesicles;  and some observations on the retro-
version ofthe uterus:  and, on the death of Dr. Fother-
gill, he was chosen president of that society.   In 1762
he published his  " Medical Commentaries," in which
he laid claim, with much asperity, to several anatomi-
cal discoveries,  especially relative to  the absorbent
system, in opposition  to  the second Monro, of Edin-
burgh.  He was  extremely tenacious of his rights in
this respect, and would not allow them to be infringed,
even by his own brother.  It must  be very difficult,
and of little importance, to decide such controversies;
especially as the principal points concerning  the ab-
sorbent system had been stated as early as 1726, in a
work printed at Paris by M. Noguez.  About the same
period, the queen being pregnant, Dr. Hunter was con-
sulted ;  and,  two years after, he was  appointed her
physician extraordinary.  In 1767 he was chosen a
Fellow of the Royal Society, to which he communi
cated some papers;  and, in the year following, he
was appointed, by tbe king, Professor of Anatomy to
the Royal Academy, on its first institution;  he was
also elected into the Society of Antiquaries, and some
respectable foreign associations.  In  1775 he published
a splendid work,  which had occupied him for 24 years
previously, "The Anatomy of the  Gravid Uterus,"
illustrated by plates,  admirable for their accuracy, as
well as elegance; among  other improvements, the
membrana decidua reflexa, discovered by himself, was
here first delineated.  He drew up a detailed descrip-
tion  of the  figures;  which  was published after  his
death by his nephew,  Dr. Baillie.  Another  posthu-
mous publication, deservedly much admired, was the
"Two  Introductory  Lectures"  to  his anatomical
course.   As his wealth increased, he formed the noble
design of establishing an anatomical school; and pro-
posed to government, on the grant of a piece of ground,
to build a proper edifice  and endow a perpetual pro-
fessorship : but this not being acceded to, he set about
the establishment in Great Windmill-street, where he
collected a most valuable museum of anatomical pre-
parations, subjects of natural history, scarce books,
coins, Sec. to which an easy access was always given.
He continued to lecture«and practise till near the pe- 
HIX
HYD
 rtod of his death, In 1783.  He bequeathed the use of
 his museum, for thirty years, to Dr. Baillie; after
 which it was to belong to the University of Glasgow.
   HUNTER, John, was born ten years alter bis bro-
 ther  William.   His early education was much  ne-
 glected, and bis temper injured, through his mother's
 indulgence.  At a proper age he was put under a rela-
 tion, a  carpenter and cabinet-maker,  who failed in his
 business.  Hearing, at this period, of his brother's suc-
 cess, he applied to become his assistant, and accord-
 ingly came to London in the autumn of 1748.  He
 made such proficiency in dissection, lhat he was capa-
 ble of undertaking the demonstrations in tbe following
 Jeason.  During the summer he attended the surgical
 practice at different hospitals; and, in 1756, he was
 appointed  house-surgeon at St. George's.   He had
 been admitted by his brother to a  partnership in  the
 lectures the year before.  After labouring about  ten
 years with unexampled ardour in the study of human
 anatomy, he turned  his attention to that of other ani-
 mals, with a view to elucidate physiology.  His health
 was so much impaired by these pursuits, that, in 1760,
 he went abroad as surgeon  on the staff, and  thus ac-
 quired  a knowledge of  gun-shot wounds.  On his re-
 turn, after three  years, he settled in London as a sur-
 geon, and gave instructions  in dissection and the per-
 formance of operations; and he continued, with great
 zeal, his researches into comparative anatomy and
 natural history.  Several papers were communicated
 by him to the Royal  Society, of which he was elected
 a member in 1767.  About this time, by his brother's
 interest, he was appointed one of the surgeons al St.
 George's Hospital; and his professional reputation was
 rapidly increasing.   In 1771 he published the first part
 of his work on tiie teeth, displaying great accuracy of
 research: and, two years after, he began a course of
 lectures on the principles of surgery.  He fell short of
 his brother in methodical arrangement, and facility of
 expressing his ideas, and indeed adopted a peculiar
 language, perhaps in part from the deficiency of his
 education; but he certainly brought forward many in-
 genious speculations  in physiology and pathology, and
 suggested some important  practical  improvements,
 particularly the operation for popliteal aneurism.  In
 1776 he was appointed surgeon-extraordinary to the
 king; and  soon after received marks of distinction
 from several foreign societies.  His emoluments  in-
 creasing, he took a large house in  Leicester-square,
 and built a spacious  mt.seum, which he continued to
 store with subjects in comparative anatomy, at a very
 great expense.  The post of Deputy-Sureeon General
 to the Army was conferred upon him in 1786; and, in
 the same year, his great work on the venereal disease
 appeared, wbich will ever remain a monument of his
 extraordinary sagacity and talent for observation. He
 also published, at this period, " Observations on the
 Animal  Economy,"  chiefly  composed   of  papers
 already printed in the Philosophical  Transactions.
 In  1790 he was appointed Inspector-General  of Hos-
 pitals, and Surgeon-General to the Army; when  he
 resigned his lectures to Mr. Home, whose sister he had
 married.  He had been for two years  before labouring
 under symptoms of  organic disease about the heart,
 which were aggravated by any sudden exertion or agi-
 tation of his mind; these increased progressively, and,
 in October 1793, while at the hospital, being vexed  by
 some untoward circumstance, he suddenly  expired.
 He left a valuable treatise on the blood, inflammation,
 and gun-shot wounds, which was published soon after,
 wilh a life prefixed,  by his brother-in-law.  His mu-
 seum was directed to be offered to the purchase of
 government: it was bought for 15,0002. and presented
 to the College of Surgeons, on condition of their open-
 ing it to public inspection, and giving a set of lectures
 annually, explanatory of its contents. The prepara-
 tions are arranged so as lo exhibit all tbe gradations of
 nature, from tlie simplest state of animated existence
 up  to man, according to the different functions.  It
 comprehends also a large series of entire animals, ske-
 letons of almost every genus, and other subjects of na-
 fural history.
  HURTSICKLE.  (So called because it is  trouble-
 some to cut down, and sometimes notches the sickle.)
 See Ontaurca cyanus.
  HUSK.  See Gluma.
  HUXHAM, Joun, was born about the end of the 17th
century, and practised as a physician, with consider-
 able reputation, at Plymouth,  where he died in  1760
 His writings display great learning and talent for ob-
 servation.   He kept a register of the weather arid pre-
 vailing diseases for ucurly  thirty years,  which  was
 published in Latin, in three volumes.  He was  early
 elected into the  Royal  Society, and  communicated
 several papers on pathology and morbid anatomy.   But
 his fame rests chiefly upon  liis " Essay  on Fevers,"
 which  went through several  editions; a dissertation
 being afterward added on the malignant sore throat.
   HYACINTH.  1. A sub-species of pyramidal zircon.
 It comes from Ceylon, and is much esteemed as a gem.
   2. :See Hyacinthus.
   HYACI NTI1CS.  (Said by the poets to be named
 from the friend of Apollo, who was turned  into this
 flower.)  The name of a  genus of  plants. Class,
 Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.
   Hyacinthus muscari.  Muscari.  The systematic
 name  of the musk-grape flower, which,  according lo
 Ray, possescs emetic and diuretic qualities.
   Hyacinthus non scairTus.  Hare-bells.  The sys-
 tematic name  of the blue-bells, so common in our
 hedges in spring.  The roots are bulbous; the flowers
 agreeably scented.   Galen considered Ihe root  as  a
 remedy in  jaundice.  It is ranked among the astrin-
 gents,  but of very inferior power.
   HYALITE.  A transparent siliceous stone, which
 is often cut into ring-stones, found near Frankfort on
 the Maine.
   HYALO'IDES.  (Membrana hyaloidea; from vaXos,
 glass,  and e«5oc,  likeness.)   Membrana  arachnoidea.
 Capsule of the vitreous humour.   The transparent
 membrane enclosing the vitreous humour of tlie eye.
   HYBERNACULUM.  Thi3 is defined by Linnanis
 to be a part of the plant which protects  the embryo
 herb from external injuries.
   An organic body which sprouts from the surface of
 different parts of a plant, enclosing the rudiments of the
 new shoot, and which is capable of evolving a new in-
 dividual perfectly similar to the parent.  This is a
 modification ofthe definition of Gtertner.— Thompson
  Hyboma. A gibbosity ofthe spine.
  HYBRID. (Hybrida, from tifcfyic, an injury; because
 its nature is tainted.)  A monstrous production of two
 different species of animals or plants.  In the former it
 is called mongrel, or mule.  Neither the animal nor the
 seeds of hybrid  plants propagate their species.
  HYDA'RTHRUS.  (From vSiap, water, and apBpov,
 a joint.)  Hydarlhron.   Hydarthros. Spina ventosa
 ofthe Arabian writers, Rhazesand Avicenna.  While-
 swelling.  The white-swelling, in this country,  is a
 peculiarly  common and  exceedingly terrible disease.
 The varieties of white-swelling are very numerous, and
 might usefully receive particular appellations.  Syste-
 matic writers have generally been content with a dis
 linction into two kinds, viz. rheumatic and scrofulous
 The last species of the disease they also distinguish
 into such tumours  as  primarily affect the  bones, and
 then the ligaments and soft parts; and into other cases,
 in which the ligaments and soft parts become diseased
 before  there is any morbid affection of the hones.
  These divisions, Mr. Samuel Cooper, in  his Treatise
 on the  Diseases of the Joints, proves to  be not suffi-
 ciently comprehensive; and the propriety of using the
 term rheumatic  bethinks to be very questionable.
  The  knee, ankle, wrist, and elbow, are Ihe joints
 most subject to white-swellings.  As the name of the
 disease  implies, the skin is not at all altered in colour.
 In some instances, the swelling yields, in a certain
 degree, to pressure; but it never pits, and Is almost
 always sufficiently firm to  make an uninformed ex-
 aminer believe that the bones contribute to  the tumour.
 The pain is sometimes vehement from the very first
 in other instances, there is hardly the least pain in th
 beginning of the disease.  In the majority of scrofu
Ions while-swellings, let the pain be trivial or violent
 it is particularly situated in one part of the joint,  viz
cither the centre of the articulation, or the  head of the
tibia, supposing the knee affected.   Sometimes the
 pain continues without interruption;-trimciiiues there
 are intermissions;  and in  other Instances the  pain
recurs  at regular times, so as to have been called by
some writers, periodical.  Almost all authors describe
tbe patient as suffering more uneasiness in the diseased
part, when he is warm, and particularly when he is in
this condition in bed.
  At tiie commencement ofthe disease in the majority 
HYD
HYD
 of instances, the swelling  is very inconsiderable, or
 there is even no visible enlargement whatever.  In the
 little depressions, naturally situated on each  side of
 the  patella, a fulness first shows itself, and gradually
 spreads all over the affected joint.
   The patient, unable to bear the weight of his body on
 tlie  disordered joint,  in consequence of the great in-
 crease of pain thus created, gets into the habit of only
 touching the ground with his toes:  and the knee being
 generally kept a little bent in this manner, soon  loses
 thecapacity of becoming extended again. When white-
 swellings have lasted a while, the knee is almost always
 found in a permanent sta'.e of flexion.  In scrofulous
 cases of this kind, pain constantly precedes any appear-
 ance of swelling; but the interval between the two
 symptoms differs very much in different subjects.
   The morbid joint, in the course of time, acquires  a
 vast magnitude.  Still the integuments retain  their
 natural colour, and remain unaffected. The enlarge-
 ment of  the  articulation,  however,  always  seems
 greater than it really is, in consequence ofthe emacia-
 tion ofthe limb both above and below the disease.
   An appearance of blue distended veins, and ashining
 smoothness, are the only alterations to be noticed in
 the  skin covering the enlarged joint.  The shining
 smoothness seems attributable to the distention, which
 obliterates the  natural furrows and  wrinkles of the
 cutis.  When the joint is thus swollen, the integuments
 cannot be pinched up into a fold, as they could in the
 state of health, and even in the beginning of the disease.
   As the distemper of the  articulation advances, col-
 lections of matter form about  the part, and at length
 burst.  The ulcerated openings sometimes heal up; but
 such abscesses are generally followed  by other collec-
 tions, which pursue the same course.  In some cases,
 these abscesses form a few months after the first affec-
 tion of the joint; on other occasions, several years
 elapse, and no suppuration of this kind makes its ap-
 pearance.
   Such terrible local mischief must necessarily produce
 constitutional disturbance.   The patient's health be-
 comes gradually impaired; he loses both  his appetite
 and  natural rest  and sleep;  his pulse is small and fre-
 quent; and obstinate debilitating diarrhoea and profuse
 nocturnal sweats ensue.  Such  complaints are sooner
 or later followed by dissolution, unless  the constitution
 be relieved in time, either by the amendment or remo-
 val  of the diseased part.   In different patients, how-
 ever, the course  ofthe disease, and its effects upon the
 system, vary very much in relation to the rapidity with
 which they occur.
   Rheumatic white-swellings are very distinct diseases
 from the scrofulous distemper of large joints.  In the
 first, the pain is  said never to occur without being at-
 tended with swelling.   Scrofulous white-swellings, on
 the other hand, are always preceded by a pain, which
 is particularly confined to one point of the articulation.
 In rheumatic cases, the pain is more general, and dif-
 fused over the whole joint.
   With respect  to the particular causes of all such
 white-swellings as come within the class of rheumatic
 ones, little is known.   External irritation, either by
 exposure to damp or cold, or by the application of vio-
 lence, is often concerned in bringing on the disease;
 but  very frequently no cause of this kind can be as-
 signed for the complaint.   As for scrofulous white-
 Bwellings, there  can be no  doubt that they are under
 the  influence  of a particular  kind of .constitution,
 termed  a scrofulous or strumous habit.  In this sort
 of temperament, every cause capable of exciting in-
 flammation, or any morbid and irritable state of a large
Joint, may bring  such disorder as may end in the severe
 disease of which we are now speaking.
   In a man of a sound constitution,  an irritation of
 tbe kind alluded to might only induce common healthy
 inflammation of the affected joint
   In scrofulous habits, it also seems probable that the
 irritation of a joint is much more easily produced than
 m the other constitutions; and no one can doubt that,
 •vhen once  excited in scrofulous  habits, it is much
 more dangerous  and difficult of removal than in other
 patients.
   HYDATID.   (Hydatis; from vStap, water.   1. A
 very singular animal,  formed like a bladder, and dis-
 tended with an  aqueous  fluid.   These animals are
sometimes formed in the natural cavities of the body,
as the abdomen ajid ventricles of the  brain, but more
 frequently in the liver, kidney, and lungs, where tbey
 produce diseased actions of those viscera.  Cullen
 arranges  these affections  in  the  class Locales,  and
 order Tumores.  If the vires  nature medicatrices are
 not sufficient to effect a cure, the patient mostly falls a
 sacrifice to their ravages.  Dr. Baillie gives the follow-
 ing  interesting account of the  hydatids, as tbey are
 sometimes found in the liver:—'There is no gland in
 the human body in which hydatids are so frequently
 found as the liver, except the kidneys, where they are
 still more common.   Hydatids of the liver are usually
 found in  a cyst, which is frequently of considerable
 size, and is formed of very firm materials, so as to give
 to the touch almost the feeling of cartilage.  This cyst,
 when cut into, is obviously laminated, and is much
 thicker in one liver than another.  In some livers it is
 not thicker than a shilling, and in others it is near a
 quarter of an inch in thickness.  The laminae which
 compose it are formed  of a white matter, and on the
 inside there is a lining of a pulpy substance, like the
 coagulable lymph.   The cavity of the cyst, I have
 seen, in one instance, subdivided by a partition of this
 pulpy substance.  In  a  cyst may be found one hydatid,
 or a greater number of them.  They lie  loose in tbe
 cavity,  swimming in a fluid; or some  of them are
 attached to ihe side  of the cyst.  They consist of a
 round bag, which is composed of a white, semi-opaque,
 pulpy matter, and contain a fluid capable of coagula-
 tion.  Although tlie common colour  of hydatids be
 white, yet I have occasionally  seen  some of a ligh'
 amber colour.  The bag of the hydatid consists of two
 lamina?, and possesses a good deal of contractile power
 In one hydatid this coat, or bag, is much thicker and
 more opaque than in another; and even in the same
 hydatid, different parts of il will often differ in thick
 ness.  On the inside of a hydatid, smaller ones are
 sometimes found, which are commonly not larger than
 the heads of pins, but sometimes Ihey are even larger
 in their size than a gooseberry.  These are attached to
 the larger hydatid, either al  scattered irregular  dis-
 tances,  or so as to form small clusters; and they are
 also found floating loose in the liquor of the larger
 hydatids.   Hydatids of the liver are often found un-
 connected with each other; but  sometimes they have
 been said to enclose  each other in a series, like pill-
 boxes.  The most common situation of hydatids of
 the liver is in its substance, and  enclosed in a cyst;
 but they are occasionally attached to the outer surface
 of the liver, hanging  from il, and occupying  more or
 less of the general cavity of the abdomen.   The origin
 and real nature of these hydatids  are not fully ascer-
 tained ; it is  extremely probable, however, that they
 are a sort of imperfect animalcules.  There is no doubt
 at all, that the hydatids in the livers of sheep are ani-
 malcules; they have  been often seen to move when
 taken out of the liver and put into warm water; and
 they retain this power of motion for a good many hours
 after a  sheep  has been killed.  The analogy is great
 between hydatids in the liver of a sheep and those of
 the human subject.  In  both, they  are contained in
 strong cysts, and in  both they  consist of the same
 white pulpy matter.  There is undoubtedly some dif-
 ference  between them  in simplicity of organization;
 the hydatid in the human liver being a simple uniform
 bag, and the hydatid in that of a sheep having a neck
 and  mouth appendant  to the bag.   This difference
 need be no considerable objection to the opinion above
 stated.  Life may be  conceived  to be attached to the
 most simple form of organization.  In proof of this,
 hydatids have been found in  the brains of sheep, re-
sembling almost exactly those in the human liver, and
 which have been seen to move and therefore are cer-
tainly known to be animalcules.   The hydatids ofthe
 human liver, indeed, have not, as far as I know, been
 found to move when taken out of the body and  put
into  warm water; were this  to have happened,  no
 uncertainty would remain.  It is not difficult to see a
good reason why there will hardly occur any proper
opportunity of making this experiment.  Hydatids are
not very often  found  in the liver, because  it is not a
very frequent disease there; and the body is allowed
to remain for  so long a time  after death before it ia
examined, that the hydatids must have lost their living
principle, even if they were animalcules, and it ap-
 pears even more difficult to account for their produc-
tion, according to the common  theory of generation.
than for that of intestinal won is  We do not get rid
                                        431 
HYD                                           HYD
nf the difficulty by asserting, that the hydatids in the
human liver are not living animals, because in sheep
they are certainly such, where the difficulty of account-
ing for tneir production is precisely the same."
  2. Tbe name of a tumour, the contents of which is
a water-like fluid.
  HYDERUS.  (From vSepos, ley-drops; from vSiap,
water.)   An increased flow of urine.
  HY'DRAGOGUE.  (Hydragogus; from vSiap, wa-
ter, and ayia, to drive out)    Medicines are so termed
which possess the  property of increasing the secre-
tions or  excretions of the bodv so as to cause the re-
moval of water from any of its cavities, such as ca-
thartics, &c.
  HYDRARGYRATUS.  Of or belonging to  mer-
cury.
  HYDRA'RGYRUM. <crcVapvw»e; from viwp, wa-
ter, and apyvpos, silver: so named from its having a
resemblance to fluid  silver.)  Hydrargyrua.  The
name in the London Pharmacopoeia, and other works,
for mercury.  See Mercury.
  Hydrargyrum prscipitatum album.  White pre-
cipitated mercury.   Calx hydrargyri alba.  Take of
oxymuriate  of mercury, half  a pound; muriate of
ammonia, four ounces;  solution of  subcarbonate of
potassa, half a pint; distilled water, four pints.  First
dissolve the muriate of ammonia, then the oxymuriate
of mercury, In tbe distilled water, and add thereto the
solution of subcarbonate of potassa.   Wash the pre-
cipitated powder until it becomes tasteless; then dry
it.  It is only used externally, in the form of ointment,
as an application in some cutaneous affections.
  Hydrargyrum purificatum.   Purified mercury.
Argentum vivum purificatum.  Take of mercury, by
weight,  six pounds; iron filings, a pound.  Rub them
together, and distil the mercury from an iron retort,
by the  application  of heat to it.  Purified quicksil-
ver is  sometimes administered  in its metallic state,
in doses of an ounce or more, in constipation of the
bowels.
  Hydrargyrus  acrtatus.  Mercurius  acetatus;
Pilula Keyseri.  By this preparation of mercury, the
celebrated  Keyser  acquired  an immense  fortune in
curing the venereal disease.  It is aa acetate of mer-
cury, and therefore termed hydrargyri acetas in the
new chemical nomenclature.  The dose is  from  three
to five grains.  Notwithstanding tiie encomium given
to it by  some, it does not appear to be so efficacious as
some other preparations of mercury.
  Hydrargyrum cum creta.  Mercury with chalk.
Mercurius alkalizstus.  Take of purified mercury,
by weight, three ounces; prepared chalk, five ounces.
Rub them  together, until tbe metallic globules disap-
pear.  This preparation is milder than any other mer-
curial, except the sulphuret, and does not so easily act
upon the bowels; it is therefore used  largely by many
practitioners, and  possesses  alterative properties in
cutaneous and venereal complaints, in obstructions of
the viscera, or of the prostate gland, given in the dose
of 3ss  to 3 ss, two or three times a day.
  Hydrargyrus phosphoratus. This remedy has
been observed to heal inveterate venereal ulcers in a
very short time, nay, in the course of  a very few days,
particularly those about the pudenda.  In venereal in-
flammations of the eyes, chancres, rheumatisms, and
chronic eruptions,  it has proved of eminent service.
Upon the whole, if used with necessary precaution,
and in the hands  of a judicious practitioner, it is a
medicine mild and  gentle in its operation.  The cases
in which it deserves the preference over other mer-
curial preparations, are these:  in an inveterate  stage
of syphilis, particularly in persons of torpid insensible
fibres;  in cases of exostosis, as well as obstructions in
tbe lymphatic system; in chronic complaints of the
Bkin.  The following  is the formula.  K. Hydrargyri
pbosphorati, gr. iv.  Corticis cinnamomi iu pulverem
triti, gr. xiv. Sacchari purif.  3 ss.  Misce.  The whole
to be divided Into eight equal parts, one of which is to
be taken every morning and evening, unless salivation
takes place, when  it ought to be discontinued.  Some
patients, however, will bear from one to two grains of
tbe phosphate of quicksilver, without inconvenience.
  Hydrargyrus prbcipitatus cinereus.  This pre-
paration is an oxide of mercury, and nearly the  same
with the hydrargyri oxydum cinereum of the London
pharmacopoeia.  It is used  as an alterative in cases of
paina arising from  an admixture of rheumatism with
syphilis.   It nay be substituted for the bydrerfynu
sulphuratus ruber, in fumigating ozena, and venereal
ulcerated  sore throat, on account of its not yielding
any vapour offensive to the patient
  Hydrargyrus vitriolatu*.  Turpetkum miner ale;
Mercurius emetieus ftavus; Sulphas hydrargyri.  For-
merly this medicine was in more general use than In
the present day.  It is a very  powerful and active
alterative  when given in small doses.  Two grains acl
on the stomach so as to produce violent vomitings.
is recommended as an errhine in cases of amaurosis
In combination with antimony  il acts powerfully c«
the skin.
  Hydrargyri nitrico-oxydiim.   Nitrico-oxydun
hydrargyri;  Hydrargyrus nitraius ruber;  Mercu-
rius corrosivus ruber; Mercurius pracipitatus cerrr-
sivus.  Nitric oxide of mercury.   Red precipitate.
Take of purified mercury, by weight, three pounds
of nitric acid, by weight, a pound and a hall: of dis-
tilled water two pints.  Mix in a glass vessel, and boil
the mixture in a sand-bath, until the mercury be dis-
solved, the water  also evaporated, and a  white mass
remain.  Rub this into powder, and put it into auolhe .'
shallow vessel, then apply a moderate heat, and raise
the fire gradually, until red vapour shall cease to rise
This preparation is very extensively employed by sur
geons as a stimulant and escharolic, but its extraordi-
nary activity does not allow of its being given inter-
nally.  Finely levigated and mixed wilh  common
cerates, it is  an excellent application to indolent ul-
cers, especially those which remain after burns and
scalds, and those in which the granulations are indo-
lent and flabby.  It is also an excellent caustic appli-
cation to chancres.
  Hydrargyri oxydum cinerkum. Oxydum hydrar-
gyri nigrum.   The  gray or  black oxide of mercury.
It has received several names; JEthiops per st;  Pul-
vis mercurialis cinereus; Mercurius cinereus;  Tur-
pelhum nigrum; Mercurius pracipitatus niger: Take
of submuriate of mercury, an ounce; limewater,  a
gallon.  Boil  the  submuriate of mercury in the lime-
water, constantly  stirring, until a gray oxide of  mer-
cury is separated.  Wash this with distilled water,
and then dry  it.  The dose from  gr. ii. to x.  There
are four other  preparations of this oxide in high esti-
mation:
  One made  by rubbing mercury with mucilage of
gum-arabic.'  Plenk, of Vienna, has written a treatise
on the superior efficacy of this  medicine.  It is  very
troublesome to make; and  does not appear to possess
more virtues than some other mercurial preparations.
Another made by triturating  equal parts of sugar and
mercury  together.  The third, composed of honey or
liquorice and purified mercury.  The fourth is the blu*
mercurial ointment  All these  preparations possess
anthelmintic, antisyphilitic, alterative, sialagogue, and
deobstruent virtues, and are exhibited in tbe  cure
of worms, syphilis, amenorrhea, diseases of the skin,
chronic diseases, obstructions of  the viscera, tec.
  Hydrargyri oxydum nigrum.  See Hydrargyri
oxydum cinereum.
  Hydrargyri oxydum rubrum.   Oxydum hydrar-
gyri rubrum;  Hydrargyrua  calcinatus.  Red oxide
of mercury.  Take of purified mercury by weight a
pound.  Pour the mercury into a glass matrass,  with
a very narrow mouth and  broad bottom.   Apply  a
heat of 600° to this vessel, without stopping it, until the
mercury  has  changed into  red  scales: then reduce
these to a very fine powder.  The whole process may
probably require an exposure of six weeks.  This pre-
paration of mercury is given with great advantage in
the cure of syphilis.  Its action, however,  is such,
when given alone,  on the bowels, as to require the
addition of opium, which totally prevents it  ii is also
given in conjunction with opium and cainphire, as a
diaphoretic, in chronic pains and diseases of long  con-
tinuance.   It is given as an alterative and diaphoretic
from  gr. ss. to il. every night, joined with camphor
and  opium, each gr. one-fourth or one-half.    It ia
violently emetic and cathartic in the dose of gr. iv. to
Sr- v-
  Hydrargyri oxymurias.  Oxymvriat hydrargyri;
Hydrargyme murialus.   Oxymuriate of  mercury.
Take of purified mercury by weight two pounds, aul
phuric acid by weight thirty ounces, dried muriate of
soda four pounds.  Boil the mercury with the sulphu-
ric acid in a glass vessel until the sulphate of mercury 
HYD
HYD
■hall be left dry.  Rub this, when it is cold, with the
muriate  of soda  in  an earthen-ware mortar: then
sublime it in a glass cucurbit, increasing the heat gra-
dually.  An extremely  acrid and violently poisonous
preparation.
  Given internally in small doses properly diluted, and
never in the form of pill, it possesses antisyphilitic and
alterative virtues. Externally, applied in form of lotion,
it facilitates the healing of venereal 6ores,  and cures
the itch.  In gargles for venereal ulcers in the throat,
the oxymuriate of mercury gr. iii. or iv. barley decoc-
tion Ibj., honey of roses § ij., proves very serviceable;
also in cases of tetters,  from gr. v. to gr. x. in water
Ibj.; and for films and ulcerations of the cornea, gr. i.
to water Jiv.
  Mr. Pearson remarks, that " when the sublimate is
given to cure the primary symptoms of  syphilis, it will
Bometimes succeed; more especially, when it produces
a considerable degree of soreness ofthe gums, and the
common specific effects of  mercury in the animal sys-'
tern.  But it will often fail of removing even a recent
chancre; and where that symptom has vanished dur-
ing the  administration of corrosive sublimate, I have
known, says he, a three months'  course of that medi-
cine fail of securing tlie patient from a constitutional
affection.  The result of my observation is, that simple
mercury, calomel or calcined mercury, are prepara-
tions  more to be confided in for the cure of primary
symptoms,  than corrosive  sublimate.   The latter will
often check the progress of secondary symptoms very
conveniently, and I think it is peculiarly efficacious in
relieving venereal pains, in healing ulcers of the throat,
and in promoting the desquamation of eruptions. Yet
even in thesecasesit never confers permanent benefit;
for new symptoms wHl  appear during the  use of it;
and on  many occasions it will fail of affording the
least advantage to the patient from first to last.  I do,
sometimes, indeed, employ this preparation in venereal
casrtt; but it is either at the beginning of a mercurial
course, to bring the constitution under the influence of
mercury at an early period, or during  a course of in-
unction, with the intention of increasing the action of
simple mercury.  I sometimes  also prescribe it after
the conclusion of a course of friction,  to support the
mercurial influence in  the habit,  in order to guard
against the danger of a relapse. But  on no occasion
whatever do I think it safe to confide in this prepara-
tion singly and uncombined for the cure of any truly
venereal symptoms."
  A solution of it is  ordered in the pharmacopoeia,
termed Liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis. Solution  of
oxymuriate of mercury. Take of oxymuriate of mer-
cury, eight grams; distilled water, fifteen fluid ounces;
rectified spirit, a fluid ounce.  Dissolve the oxymuriate
of mercusjr in the water, and add the spirit.
  This solution is directed in order to facilitate the
administration of divisions of the grain of this active
medicine.   Half an ounce  of it contains one-fourth of
a grain of the salt.  The dose is from one drachm to
half an ounce.
  HydRargyri submurias. Submurias hydrargyri.
Submuriate of mercury. Calomelas. Calomel.  Take
of oxymuriate of mercury,  a pound; purified mercury,
by weight nine  ounces.  Rub them together until the
metallic  globules disappear, then sublime;  take out
the sublimed mass, and  reduce it to powder, and sub-
lime it in the same manner twice more successively.
Lastly, bring it into the state of very fine powder by
the same process which has been directed for the pre-
paration of chalk.  Submuriate, or mild muriate of
mercury, is one of the most useful preparations  of
mercury.  As an anti-venereal it is given in the dose
of a grain night and mornins, its usual determination
to the intestines being  prevented, if  necessary, by
opium.  It  is the preparation  which is perhaps most
usually given-in the other diseases in which mercury
is employed, as in affections of the liver, or neighbour-
ing organs, in cutaneous diseases, chronic rheumatism,
tetanus, hydrophobia, hydrocephalus, and febrile affec-
tions, especially  those of warm  climates.  It  is em-
ployed as a cathartic alone, in doses from v. to xii.
 trains, or to promote the operation of other purgatives.
 ts anthelmintic  power is  justly celebrated; and it is
perhaps superior to the other  mercurials in assisting
the operation of diuretics in dropsy.  From its specific
gravity it ought always  to be given in the form of a
Solus erpUl7
   Hydrargyri sulpht/rbtum Kiamnt-  ffydrargf-
 rus cum sulphure.  ^Ethlop's mineral.  Take of puri-
 fied mercury,  sublimed  sulphur, each  a pound, by
 weight.  Rub them  together, till tlie metallic globules
 disappear.  Some suppose that the mercury is oxidized
 in  this process, hut  that is not confirmed by the best
 experiments.  The mercury, by this admixture of the
 sulphur, is deprived of ils salivating  power, and may
 be administered with safely to all ages  and constitu-
• tions, as an anthelmintic and alterative.
   Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum.  Red  sul-
 phuret of mercury. Hydrargyrus sulphuratus ruber ;
 Minium purum; Minium  Gracorum;  Magnes  epi-
 lepsia ; Atzcmafor; Amnion; Azamar.   Vitruvius
 calls it anthrax.  A  red mineral  substance  composed
 of mercury combined with sulphur.  It is either native
 or factitious.  The native is an ore of quicksilver  mo-
 derately compact, and of an elegant striated red colour.
 It is found in the dutchy of Deuxponts, in the Palati-
 nate, in Spain, South America, &c.  It is called  native
 vermilion, and cinnabar in flowers.  The factitious is
 thus prepared: " Take of purified mercury, by weight
 forty ounces; sublimed sulphur, eight ounces. Having
 melted the sulphur over the fire, mix in the mercury,
 and as soon as the  mass begins  to swell, remove the
 vessel  from the fire, and cover it with considerable
 force to prevent inflammation; then rub the mass  into
 powder, and sublime."  This preparation is esteemed
 a mild mercurial alterative, and given to children ^n
 small doses.  Hoffman greatly recommends it as> a
 sedative and antispasmodic.  Others deny that cinna-
 bar, taken internally, has any medicinal quality, jjuid
 their opinion is grounded on the insolubility ofitjn jany
 menstruum. In surgery its chief and almost only, use ii
 in  the administration of  quicksilver by fumigation.
 Thus employed it has proved extremely serviceable in
 venereal cases.  Ulcers and exorescences „afccnit4tie
 pudendum and anus in women, are particularly bene-
 fited by it; and in these cases it is most  conveniently
 applied by placing a red hot beater at the bottom of a
 night stool-pan, and after sprinkling on it a fewgrajjna
 of the red sulphuret of quicksilver, placing the patient
 on the stool.  To fumigate ulcers in the throat,  if is
 necessary to receive the  fumes on the part affected,
 through the tube of a funnel.  By enclosing-tne patient
 naked in a box, it has on some occasions been contrived
 to fumigate the whole body at once, and  in this way
 the specific  powers of the quicksilver have been very
 rapidly excited.
  This mode of curing the lues venerea is spoken of
 as confirmed;  and the subject has of late years been
 revived in a treatise by Sabonette, and by trials  made
 in Bartholomew's hospital.
  Mr. Pearson, from his experiments on mercurial fu-
 migation, concludes, that where checking the progress
 of the disease suddenly is an object of great moment,
 and where the body is covered with ulcers or large
 and numerous, eruptions, and in general to ulcers,
 fungi, and excrescences, the vapour of mercury is an
 application of great efficacy and utility; but that it is
 apt to induce a ptyaliam rapidly, and great consequent
 debility, and that for the purpose of securing, the con-
 stitution against a relapse, as great a quantity of mer-
 cury must be introduced into the system, by inunction,
 as if no fumigation had been employed.
  HYDRATE.  Hydroxure.  Hydro-oxide.  A com-
 pound of oxygen, in a definite proportion, with water.
  HYDRELiE'UM.  (From vSiap, water, and iXatov,
 oil.)  A mixture of oil and water.
  HYDRENTEROCE'LE.  (From  vSiap, water, tv
 Itpov, an intestine, and anXif, a tumour.)  A hydro-
 cele, or  dropsy of the sc*)tum, attended with a rup-
 ture.
  HYDRIQDATE.  A salt consisting of the hydriodic
 acid, combined in a definite proportion with an oxide.
  HYDRIODIC ACID.    Acidum hydriodicum.   A
 gaseous acid, in its  Insulated state/ " If four parts of
 iodine be mixed with one. of phosphorus, in a  small
 glass retort, applying a gentle heat, and adding  a few
 drops of water from time to time, a  gas  comes over,
 which  must be received in the mercurial bath.  Its
 specific  gravity  is 4.4: 100 cubic inches, therefore,
 weigh 134.2 grs.  It is elastic and invisible, but  has a
 smell somewhat similar to that of muriatic acid.  Mer-
 cury after some time decomposes it, seizing its iodine,
 and leaving its hydrogen, equal  to one-half. tho ori
 ginai  bulk, at  liberty.  Chlorine, oa  the other  hand. 
HYD
HYD
unites to lis hydrogen, aud  precipitates the iodine.
From these experiments, it evidently consists of vapour
of iodine and  hydrogen, which combine in  equal vo-
lumes, wilhout change of their primitive bulk.  Hy-
driodic acid is partly decomposed at a  red-heat, and
the decomposition is complete if it be mixed with oxy-
gen.  Water is formed, and iodine separated.
  We can easily obtain an aqueous hydriodic acid
very economically, by passing sulphuretted  hydrogen
gas through a mixture of  water  and iodine  in a
Woolfe's bottle.  On heating tbe liquid obtained, the
excess of sulphur flies oil', and leaves liquid hydriodic
acid.   At temperatures  below 262°, it  parts with its
water; and becomes of a density =  1.7.  At J62° the
acid distils over.  When exposed to the air, it is speed-
ily decomposed, and iodine is evolved.   Concentrated
sulphuric and nitric acids also decompose it.   When
poured inlo a saline solution of lead, it throws down a
fine orange precipilate.   With solution of peroxide of
mercury, il gives  a red  precipitate;  and with that of
silver, a white precipitate Insoluble in ammonia.  Hy-
driodic acid may also be formed, by  passing hydrogen
over iodine at an elevated tempet ature.
  The compounds of hydriodic acid  with the salifiable
bases may be easily formed, either by direct  combina-
tion, or by acting  on the basis  in  water, with iodine.
The latter mode is most economical. Upon a deter-
minate quantity of iodine, pour solution of potassa or
soda, till the liquor ceases to  be coloured. Evaporate
to dryness, and digest the dry salt in alkohol of  the spe-
cific gravity 0-810, or 0.820.  As the iodate is not solu-
ble in this liquid, while the hydriodate is very  soluble,
ihe two salts easily separate from each other.  After
having washed the iodate two or three times with al-
kohol, dissolve it in water, and neutralize it with ace-
tic acid.  Evaporate to dryness, and  digest the  dry salt
in alkohol, to remove the acetate.  After two or three
washings, the iodate is pure.   As for the alkohol con-
taining the hydriodate, distil it off, and then complete
the neutralization of the potassa, by means of a little
hydriodic acid separately obtained.  Sulphurous and
muriatic acids, as well as sulphuretted hydrogen, pro-
duce no change on the hydriodates, at the usual tem-
perature ofthe air.
  Chlorine, nitric  acid, and concentrated sulphuric, in-
stantly decompose them,  and separate the iodine.
  With solution of silver, they give a white  precipi-
tate insoluble in ammonia; with the pernitrate of mer-
cury, a  greenish-yellow precipilate; with  corrosive
sublimate, a precipitate of a fine orange-red, very solu-
ble  in  an excess  of hydriodate;  and with nitrate of
lead, a precipitate of an  orange-yellow colour.  They
dissolve iodine, and acquire a deep reddish-brown co-
lour.
  Hydriodate of potassa, or in the dry state, iodide of
potassium, yields  crystals like sea-salt, which melt and
sublime at a red-heat.  This salt is not changed by
being healed in contact with  air.   100 parts of water
at 64°, dissolve 143 of it.  It consists of 15.5 iodine,
and 5 potassium.
  Hydriodate of soda, called in the dry stale iodide of
sodium, may be obtained in pretty large flat rhom-
boidal  prisms.  It consists, when dry, of 15.5 iodine
-f- 3 sodium.
  Hydriodate of  barytes crystallizes in fine  prisms,
similar to muriate of strontites.  In its dry state, it con-
sists of 15.5 iodine -j- 8.75 barium.
  The hydriodates of lime and strontites are very so-
luble ;  and the first exceedingly deliquescent.
  Hydriodate of  ammonia results from the combina-
tion of equal volumes of ammoniacal and  hydriodic
gases; though it is usually prepared  by saturating the
liquid acid with ammonia.  It is  nearly as volatile as
sal ammoniac;  but it  is more soluble and more deli-
quescent. It crystallizes in cubes.
  Hydriodate of  magnesia is formed  by uniting its
constituents together; it is deliquescent, and  crystal-
lizes with difficulty.—It is decomposed by a strong
beat
  Hydriodate of  zmc is easily obtained, by  putting
Iodine into water with an excess of zinc, and  favour-
ing their action  by heat  When  dried it becomes an
iodide.
  All the nydriodaies nave tbe property of dissolving
abundance of iodine:  and thence they acquire a deep
reddish-brown colour.  They part with  it on  boiling,
or when exposed to the air after being dried.  '
       434
  HYDRO-CHLORIC ACID.   Muriatic acid ; a corrr
pound of chlorine and hydrogen.  Bee. Muriatic acid-
  HYDRO-CYANIC ACID.  See Prussic acid.
  HYDRO FLUORIC ACID,   Acidum hydrofiuori-
cum.  This is procured by distilling, in lead or silver,
a mixture of one part of the purest fluor spar, In fine
powder, with two of sulphuric acid.   The heat re-
quired is not considerable; sulphate of lime remains in
the retort, and a highly acrid and corrosive liquid paste*
over, which requires the  assistance of ice for its con-
densation.
  HYDRO-SULPHURIC ACID. The aqueous solu-
tion  of sulphuretted hydrogen,  is bo called by Gay
Lussac.
  HYDRO-SULPHUROUS ACID.   When three vo-
lumes of sulphuretted hydrogen gas and two of sul-
phurous acid gas, both dry, are  mixed together over
mercury, they ate condensed into a solid orange-yellow
body, which  Dr. Thompson calls hydro-sulpburous
acid.
  HYDRO'A.  (From vSiap, water.)   A watery pus-
tule.
  HYDROCARBON ATE.   See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.
  HYDROCA'RDIA.  (From vSiap, water, and Kafr
rJta, the heart.)  Hydrocordis.   Hydrops  pericardii.
Dropsy of the heart.  Dropsy of the pericardium.   A
collection of fluid in the pericardium, which may he
either coagulable  lymph, serum, or a  puriform fluid.
It produces symptoms similar to those of hydrothorax,
with violent palpitation of  the  heart, and mostly an
intermittent pulse.  It is incurable.
  HYDROCE'LE.  (From i><5u>p, water, and xnXri, a
tumour.)  The term hydrocele, used in a literal sense,
means any tumour produced by water;  but surgeons
have always confined it to those which possess  either
the membranes of tbe scrotum, or  the coats of the
testicle and  its vessels.  The first of these, viz. that
which has its seat in the membranes of  tbe scrotum,
anasarca integumentorum,  is common to  the whole
bag, and  to all  the cellular substance which loosely
envelopes both the testes.  It is, strictly speaking, only
a symptom of a disease, in which tiie whole habit is
most frequently more or less concerned, and very sel-
dom  affects the part only.   The latter, or tbat which
occupies the coals immediately investing the  testicle
and its vessels, hydrocele tunica vaginalis,  is abso-
lutely local, very seldom affects the common membrane
of the scrotum, generally attacks one side only;  and is
frequently found  in persons who are  perfectly free
from all other complaints.
  The anasarca integumentorum retains the impres-
sion of the finger.  The vaginal hydrocele  has an un-
dulating feel.
  The hydrocele ofthe tunica vaginalis testis is a mor-
bid accumulation  of the water separated on the inter-
nal surface of the tunica vaginalis, to moisten or lubri-
cate the testicle.
  From its first appearance, it seldom disappears  ot
diminishes, hut generally continues to Increase, some-
times rapidly, at others more slowly.  In some it grows
to a painful degree of distention  in a few months:  in
others, it continues many years with little disturbance.
As it enlarges, it becomes more tense, and is sometimes
transparent; so that if a candle is held on the oppo-
site side, a degree of light  is perceived through  the
whole tumour;  but the only certain distinction is tbe
fluctuation, wbich is not found when the disease is  a
hernia of the omentum, or intestines, or an inflamma-
tory or scirrhous tumour of the testicle.
  Hydrocele cystata.   Encysted hydrocele  of tbe
spermatic cord, resembles tbe common hydrocele;  but
the tumour does not extend to the testicle, which may
be felt below or behind it, while, in the hydrocele of the
vaginal coat, when large, the testicle cannot be disco-
vered.  In this  disease, also, the penis is not buried  in
the tumour.   Sometimes the fluid is contained in two
distinct cells; and this is discovered by little contrac-
tions in it.  It is distinguished from the  anasarcoua
hydrocele by a sensible fluctuation, and the want of
the inelastic pitting; from hemia, by its beginning  be-
low,  from its not receding In  a horizontal position,
and not enlarging by coughing and sneezing.
  Hydrocele funiculi spkrmatici, or hydrocele o
the spermatic cord.  Anasarcous hydrocele of the tp«r
matic  cord sometimes accompanies  ascites, and, at
other times, it is found to be confined to trw ceituia, 
HYD
HYD
substance, in or about tbe spermatic cord.  Tbe causes |
of this disease may be obstructions in tbe lymphatics,
leading from the part, in consequence of scirrhous af-
fections of the abdominal viscera, or the  pressure of
a truss applied for the cure of hernia.
  When  the affection is connected with  anasarca in
other parts, it  is then so evident as to require no par-
ticular description.  When  it is local it  is attended
With a colourless tumour in the course ofthe spermatic
cord,  soft and inelastic to the touch, and unaccom-
panied wilh fluctuation.  Iu an erect position of the
body, it is of an oblong figure; but when the body is
recumbent, it  is flatter, and  somewhat round. Gene-
rally it is no longer than the part of the cord which lies
In the groin; though sometimes it extends as far as the
testicle, and even stretches the scrotum to an uncom-
mon size.  By pressure a great part of the swelling can
always be made to  recede into the abdomen.   It in-
stantly, however, returns to its former situation, on the
pressure  being withdrawn.
  Hydrocele peritonei.   The common dropsy of
the belly.
  Hydrocele spinalis.  A watery swelling on the
vertebrae.
  HYDROCEPHALUS.   (From vSiap, water, and
*£<paA»i, the head.)  Hydrocephalum ; Hydrencephalus.
Dropsy of the brain.  Dropsy of the head.  A genus
nf disease arranged  by Cullen in  the class Cachexia,
and order  Intumescentia.   It is  distinguished  by
authors into external and internal:
   1. Hydrocephalus  externus, is a collection  of water
between the membranes of the brain.
   2. Hydrocephalus  internus, is when  a fluid is col-
lected in the ventricles of tbe brain, producing dilata-
tion of the pupils, apoplexy, Sec.   See Apoplexia.  It
is sometimes of a chronic nature, when the water has
been known  to increase to an enormous  quantity,
effecting a  diastasis of the bones of the head, and an
 absorption of the brain.
   Pain in the head, particularly across the brow, stupor,
dilatation of the pupils, nausea, vomiting, preternatu-
ral slowness of the pulse,  and convulsions, are  the
pathognomonic symptoms of this disease, wbich have
 been laid down by the generality of writers.
   Hydrocephalus is almost peculiar to children,  being
 rarely known to extend beyond the age of twelve or
 fourteen; and it seems more frequently to arise  in
 those of a scrofulous and rickety habit than in others.
 It is an affection which has been observed to pervade
 families, affecting all or tbe greater part of the children
 at a certain period of their life; which seems to show
 that, in many cases, it depends more on tbe general
 habit, than on any local affection or accidental cause.
   The disease has generally been supposed to arise in
 consequence either of injuries done to the brain itself,
 by blows, falls, &c.  from  scirrhous tumours or excres-
 cences within the skull, from original laxity  or weak-
 ness in  the brain, or from general debility and  an
 impoverished slate ofthe blood.
   With  respect to its proximate cause, very opposite
 opinions are still entertained by medical writers,which,
 in conjunction with tiie equivocal nature of its symp-
 toms, prove a source of considerable embarrassment to
 the young practitioner.   Some believe it to be inflam-
 matory, and  bleed largely.
   Dr. Withering observes, that in a great many cases,
 if not in all, congestion, or slight inflammation, are the
 precursors to the aqueous accumulation.
   Dr. Rush thinks that, instead of its being considered
 an idiopathic dropsy, it should be considered only as
 an effect of a primary inflammation or congestion of
 blood in the  brain.  It appears, says be, that the dis-
 ease, in  its first stage, is the effect of causes which pro-
 duce a less  degree of that inflammation which consti-
 tutes  pltrenitis; and that its second stage  is  a  less
 degree of that effusion which producesserous apoplexy
 in adults.   The former  partakes of the nature of tbe
 chronic inflammation of Dr. Cullen, and tbe asthenic
 inflammation of Dr. Brown.—There are others, again,
 who view the subject in a very different light.  Dr.
 Darwin supposes inactivity, or torpor of the  absorbent
 vessels of the brain, to be the cause of hydrocephalus
 Internus;  but he confesses,  in another part  of  bis
 work, that the torpor  of the absorbent vessels may
 often exist  as a secondary effect.
   Dr. Whytt, who has published an ingenious treatise
 en the disease, observes, the Immediate cause ot every
                                     Ee2
kind of dropsy is tbe same; viz. such a state ofthe
parts as makes the exhalent arteries throw out a greater
quantity  of fluids than  the  absorbents can take up
From what he afterward mentions, he evidently con
Biders this state as consisting in debility.
  As many cases are accompanied with an increased
or inflammatory action ofthe vessels ofthe brain, and
others again are observed io prevail along with general
anasarca, it seems rational to allow, that hydrocepha-
lus is, in. some instances, the consequence of conges-
tion, or slight inflammation of the brain;  and that, in
others, it arises eilber from general  debility or topical
laxity.  In admitting these  as incontrovertible facts,
Dr. Thomas is, at the same time, induced to suppose,
that the case's of it occurring from mere debility are
by no means frequent.
  The great analogy subsisting between the symptoms
which are  characteristic of inflammation, and those
which form the first stage of the acute species of hydro-
cephalus, (for the disease,  as  already observed,  has
been  divided into the chronic and  acute  by some
writers,) together wilh ihe good effects  often conse-
quent on blood-letting, and  the inflammatory appear-
ance  which the blood frequently exhibits, seems to
point out strong proof of the disease being, in  most
instances, an active  inflammation, and that  it rarely
occurs from mere debility, as a primary cause.
  The progress of the disorder has, by  some, been
divided into three stages.
  When it is accompanied by an increased or inflam-
matory action of the brain, as not uncommonly hap-
pens, its first stage is marked with many of the symp-
toms of pyrexia, such as languor, inactivity, loss of
appetite, nausea, vomiting, parched  tongue, hot, dry
skin, flushing of the face, headache,  throbbing of the
temporal arteries, and quickened pulse; which symp-
toms always suffer an exacerbation in the evening, but
towards morning become milder.
  When it is unaccompanied by any inflammatory
action of the brain, many of these appearances are not
to  be observed.  In these  cases, it  is marked by a
dejection of countenance, loss of appetite, pains over
the eyes, soreness ofthe integuments ofthe cranium to
the touch, propensity to the bed, aversion  to  being
moved, nausea, and costiveness. The disease, at length,
makes a remarkable transition, which  denotes the
commencementof its second stage.  The child screams
out, without being able to assign any cause; its sleep
is much disturbed ; there is  a considerable dilatation
of  the pupils of the eyes, without any contraction on
 their  being exposed to  light: lethargic torpor, with
 strabismus, or perhaps double vision ensues, and the
 pulse becomes slow and unequal.
   In the third stage, the pulse returns  again to the
 febrile state,  becoming  uncommonly quick and va-
 riable; and coma, with convulsions, ensue.-  When
 the accumulation of water is very great, and tiie child
 young, the sutures recede a considerable way from
 each other, and the  head, towards the end, becomes
 much enlarged.
   When recoveries have actually taken place in hy-
 drocephalus, we ought probably to attribute more to
 tbe efforts of nature than to the interference of art  It
 is always to be regarded as of difficult cure.
   An accumulation  of water in the ventricles of the
 brain, is one of the most common appearances to  be
 observed on dissection.  In different cases this is ac-
 cumulated in greater or less quantities.  It sometimes
 amounts only to a  few ounces, and occasionally to
 some pints.  When the quantity of water is consider-
 able, the fornix is raised at its anterior extremity, in
 consequence of its accumulation, and an immediate
 opening of communication is thereby formed between
 tbe lateral ventricles.  The water is of a purer colour
 and more limpid than what is found in  the dropsy of
 the thorax, or abdomen. It appears, however, to be
 generally of the same nature with the  water that is
 accumulated in these cavities.  In some instances, the
 water in hydrocephalus contains a very small propor-
 tion  of coagulable matter, and in others it is entirely
 free  from it
   When the water is accumulated to a very large
 quantity in the ventricles, the substance of the brain
 appears to be a  sort of pulpy bag, containing a fluid.
 The skull, upon such occasions, is very much enlarged
 in  its size, and altered  in its shape; and  It appears
 exceedingly largo in proportion to the  face.  On  le- 
HYD
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moving the scalp, the bones are found to be very thin,
and there are frequently broad spots of membrane in
the bone.  These appearances are, however, only to
be observed where the disease has beeu of some years'
continuance.
  Iu some cases, where the quantity of water collected
is not great, the substance of the brain has appeared to
be indurated, and in  others softened.  At times, the
organ has been found gorged with blood: collections
also of a viscid tenacious matter have been discovered
  i^ytiroeen, as Its name expresses, in one of the eon
stituent elements of water, from which it can nlonn be
procured.   Its existence was unknown till lately.  Ills
plentifully distributed  in  uaturu, aud acts « my con-
siderable part iu the process of the animal and vegeta-
ble economy.  It is one of the ingredients in the varie-
ties of bitumen, oils, fat,  ardent spirits, atlier,  ami, m
fact,  all the proximate, component parts of animal and
vegetable  bodies.  It  forms a constituent part of all
animal and vegetable acids.  It is one of the conatitu-
in cysts, upon its external surface, and tumours have) ents of ammonia and of various other compound gases.
been found attached to its substance.                 I   it possesses  so  great an affinity for caloric, that I
  The treatment must be prompt and active to give a I can only exist separately in the state of gas; it  is con-
  tolerable cJiance of success.  The general indications
  are, in the first st<sge, to lessen the inflammatory action,
  afterward to promote absorption.  Should the patient
  be about tbe  age  of puberty, of a plethoric habit, and
  the symptoms run  high  at  the beginning, it will be
  proper to take some blood, especially from the tempo-
  ral artery, or the jugular  vein ; but, if younger, or the
  disease more advanced,  a sufficient quantity may be
  withdrawn by leeches, applied to the temples, or iu the
  direction of the sutures.   The bowels must then be
  thoroughly evacuated by some active cathartic, as they
  are usually  very  torpid,  calomel with scammony, or
 jalap, for example; and, in the progress of the com-
  plaint, this function must be kept up with some degree
  of activity.  For this purpose, calomel may  be given
  in divided doses, or some  other mercurial preparation,
  which may  not run off too rapidly, producing mere
  watery stools, but regularly  clear out  the bowels, as
 well as tiie  liver, and promote the other secretions.
 Besides, mercury is the  most  powerful  remedy in
  rousing tile absoibents, and some of tlie most remark-
 able cures of this disease,  even at an advanced period,
 have been affected by it:  whence il would be advisa-
 ble, where the  disease was proceeding rapidly, aud
 particularly if the bowels were  irritable, to use mer-
 eurial  frictions, that the system  might  be  sooner
 affected.  Another very important step, after clearing
 the bowels, is to apply some evaporating lotion assidu-
 ously  to the scalp, previously shaved; and the anti-
 phlogistic regimen should  be steadily observed.  Dia-
 phoretics will generally  be  proper, assisted by  the
 warm  bath ; and diuretics on some occasions may be
 useful; but digitalis, which has been recommended on
 this ground,  seems more  likely to avail  by lessening
 arterial action.  Blisters may be applied to the tem-
 ples, behind the ears, or to the nape of the neck, each
 perhaps successively: and dressed with savine cerate
 occasionally, to increase the discharge, and irritation
 externally: issues appear not so  likely  to  prove bene-
 ficial.   Errhines may farther contribute  to  obviate
 internal effusion.  Electricity has been proposed to
 rouse the absorbents to the second stage;  but its effi-
 cacy, and even propriety, is very doubtful.  Should
 the progress of the complaint be fortunately arrested,
 the strength must be established by a nutritious diet,
 and  tonic medicines; taking care to keep the bowels
 in good order, and the head cool: an issue, under these
 circumstances, may be a very useful remedy.
  Hydrocephalus acutus.  See Hydrocephalus.
  Hydrocephalus externus.  Water between the
 brain and ils membranes.
  Hydrocephalus internus.  Water in the ventri-
 cles of the brain.
  HYDROCO'TYLE.  (From  vSiap,  water, and
 KoJvXri, the cotula.)   1. The name of a genus of plants
 in the  Linnaian system.   Class, Pentandria; Order,
 Digynia.
  ii.  The name, io some pharmacopoeias, for the com-
 mon marsh or water cotula,  or pennywort, which is
 said to possess acrid qualities.
  Hydrocy'stis.   (From  vStap, water, and <cu$-tc, a
 vesicle.) An encysted dropsy.
  HYDROGEN.  (Hydrogenium; from vStap,water,
 aniyivouat, to become, orytvvata, to produce, because
 with oxygen it produces water.) Base ofinflammable air.
  Hydrogen is asubstance not perceptible to our sensa-
 tions in a separate state, but  its existence is not at  all
 the less certain.  Though we cannot  exhibit it ex-
 perimentally unoombioed, we can pursue  it while it
passes  out of one combination into anolher; we can-
not, indeed, arrest it on its  passage, but we never fail
to discover it, at least if we  use the proper chemical
means, when it presents itself to our notice in a new
compound.
     436
  sequently impossible to procure it  in the concrete or
  liquid state, independent of combination.
    Solid hydrogen, therefore, united to caloric nnd light,
  forms HYDROGEN GAB.
            Properties of Hydrogen Gas.
    This gas, which was commonly called inflammable
  air, was discovered by Cavendish in the year 1768, or
  rather he first obtained  it in a state  of purity, and as-
  certained its more important properties, though  it  had
  been noticed long before.   The famous philosophical
  candle attests the antiquity of this discovery.
    Hydrogen gas, like oxygen gas, Is a triple compound,
  consisting of the ponderable base of  hydrogen, caloric,
  and light.  It possesses all the mechanical properties
  of atmospheric air.  It is the lightest substance whose
  weight  we  arc able to  estimate:  when in ils  purest
  state, and free from moisture, it is about fourteen times
  lighter than atmospheric air.  It is not fitted for  respi-
  ration ;  animals, when obliged to breathe in it, die al-
  most instantaneously.   It is decomposed by living vege-
  tables, and its basis becomes one of the constituents of
  oil, resin, &c.  It is inflammable, and bums rapidly
  when kindled, in  contact  with atmospheric air  or
 oxygen  gas, by means of the electric spark, or by an
  inflamed body; and burns, when pure, with a yellow-
  ish lambent flame: hut all burning substances are  im-
 mediately extinguished  when immersed  in  il.  It is
  therefore, incapable of supporting combustion.  It is
 not injurious to growing vegetables.   It is unabsorba-
 ble by most substances; water absorbs it very sparingly.
 It  is capable of  dissolving carbon, sulphur, phospho-
 rus, arsenic, and many other bodies.  When its basis
 combines with that of oxygen gas,  water is formed ;
 with nitrogen it forms  ammonia.  Il does not act on
 earthy substances.
   Method of obtaining  Hydrogen  Gas.—A   ready
 method of obtaining hydrogen gas consists in subject-
 ing water to the action of a substance which is capa-
 ble of decomposing this fluid.
   1. For this purpose,  let sulphuric  acid, previously
 diluted with four or five times its weight of water, be
 poured on iron filings, or bits of zinc, in a small retort,
 or  gas-bottle, called  a pneumatic flask, or proof; as
 soon as the diluted acid comes in contact with the metal,
 a violent effervescence takes place, and hytUogen  gas
 escapes without external heat being  applied. It may
 be collected in the usual manner over water, lakinfjeare
 to let a certain portion escape on account of the atmos-
 pheric air contained in the disengaging vessels.   ,
  The production of hydrogen gas in the above way is
 owing to the decomposition of  water.  The iron, or
 zinc, when in contact with this fluid, in conjunction
 with sulphuric acid, has a greater affinity to oxygen
 than the hydrogen has; the oxygen, therefore, unites
 to it, and forms an oxide of that metal which  is  in-
 stantly attacked and dissolved by the acid; the  other
 constituent part ofthe water, the, hydrogen, is set free,
 which, by uniting with  caloric, assumes, the form of
 hydrogen gas.  The oxygen is, therefore, the bond of
 union between the metal and tbe acid.     *
  The hissing noise, or effervescence, observable during
 the process, is owing to the rapid motion excited in the
 mixture by means of the great number of air-bubbles
 quickly disengaged and breaking at the surface of the
 fluid.
  We see, also, in this case, tbat two  substances exert
 an  attraction, and are even capable of decomposing
jointly a third, which neither of them is  able to  do
singly; viz. if we present sulphuric acid alone, or iron
 or zinc alone, to water, they cannot detach the oxygen
 from the hydrogen of that fluid; but, if both are applied,
 a decomposition is instantly effected.  This experiment,
therefore, proves that the agency of chemical affinity
 between two or more bodies may lie dbrraant, until jj 
HYD
HYD
j» esJIerl into action by the  interposition of another
hody, wbich frequently exerts  no energy upon any
of them in a separate  slate.  Instances of this kind
were formerly called predisposing affinities.
  2.  lion, in a red heat, has also the property of decom-
posing water, by dislodging the oxygen from its combi-
nation with hydrogen, in the following manner:—
  Let a gun-barrel, having its touch-hole screwed up,
pass through a furnace, or large crucible perforated for
that  purpose, taking care to incline the  barrel at the
narrowest part; adjust to its upper extremity  a retort
charged with water, and let the other extremity termi-
nate in a tube introduced under a receiver in the pneu-
matic trough.  When the apparatus is thus disposed,
and  well luted, bring toe gun-barrel to a red beat, and,
when thoroughly red-hot, make the water in the retort
boil; the vapour,  when passing through the red-hot
tube, will yield hydrogen gas abundantly.  In this ex-
periment, the oxygen of the water combines with the
iron  at a red heat,  so as to convert it into an oxide, and
the caloric applied combines with the hydrogen of the
water, and forms  hydrogen  gas.   It is, therefore, the
result of a double  affinity, that of the oxygen of  the
water for the metal, and that of its hydrogen for caloric.
  The more caloric is employed  in the experiment of
decomposing water by means of iron, &c. the sooner is
the water decomposed.
  Hydrogen gas, combined with carbon, is  frequently
found in great abundance in mines and coal-pits, where
it is sometimes generated suddenly, and becomes mixed
wilh the atmospheric air of these subterraneous cavi-
ties.   If a lighted candle be brought in, this  mixture
often explodes, and produces the most dreadful effects.
It is  called  by miners, fire damp.   It generally forms a
cloud in the upper part of the mine, on account of its
levity, but  does not mix there with atmospheric air,
unless  some  agitation takes place.  The miners fre-
quently set fire to it with a candle, lying at the same
time flat on their  faces to escape the violence of  the
shock.   An easier  and more safe method of  clearing
the mine, is by leading a long tube through the shaft of
it, to the ash-pit of a furnace; by this means the gas
will  be conducted to feed the fire.
  Sir Humphrey Davy has invented a valuable instru-
ment called a  safety lamp, which  will  enable the
miners to convey a light into such impure air without
risk.  This is founded  on  tbe important discovery,
made by him, that flame  is incapable of passingthrough
minute  apertures in a metallic substance, which  yet
are pervious to air; the reason of which appears to be,
that  the ignited gas, or vapour, is so much cooled by the
metal in its passage as to cease being luminous.
  Hydrogen gas, in whatever manner produced, always
originates from water, either in consequence of a pre-
ceding decomposition, by which it had  been combined
in the state of solid or fixed hydrogen, with one of the
substances employed, or from a decomposition of water
actually taking place during the experiment
  There are instances recorded of a vapour issuing from
the stomach of dead persons which took fire on the ap-
proach of a candle. We even find accounts, in several
works, of the combustionof living human beings, which
appeared to be spontaneous.  Dr. Swediaur has related
some instances of porters at Warsaw,  who having
drunk abundantly of spirit, fell down in the street, with
tbe smoke issuing out of their mouths; and people came
to their assistance, saying they would take  fire; to
prevent which, tbey made them drink a great quantity
of milk, or used a  more singular expedient, by caus-
ing them to swallow the urine of the bystanders, im-
mediately on its evacuation.
  However difficult it  may be to give credit to such
narratives, it is equally difficult to reject them entirely,
without refusing to admit the numerous testimonies of
men, who were, for the most part, worthy of credit
Citizen Lair has collected all the circumstances of this
nature wluch he found dispersed in different books, and
lias rejected those which did not appear to be supported
by respectable testimony, to which he has added some
othets related by persons still living.  These narratives
are nine in number; they were communicated to  the
Philomathic Society, at  Paris, and inserted in the bul-
letin Thermidor, An. 5, No. 29.   The cause of this
pnenomenon has been attributed to a developement of
hydrogen gas taking place in the stomachs of these in-
dividuals.
  Lair believes tbat the bodies of these  people were
hot bunted perfectly spontaneously, but it appeared to
be owingtosome very slight external cause, such as tbe
fire of a candle, taper, or pipe.
  Hydrogen gas, seleniurettbd.  This gas is co-
lourless.  It reddens litmus.  Its density has not been
determined by experiment.  Its smell resembles, at first,
that of sulphuretted hydrogen gas; but the sensation
soon changes, and another  succeeds, which is at once
pungent, astringent, and painful.   The eyes become
almost instantly red and inflamed, and the sense  of
smelling entirely disappears.  A bubble of the size of
a little pea is sufficient  to produce these effects.  Of
all the bodies derived from tiie inorganic kingdom, se-
leniuretted  hydrogen  is that  which exercises  the
strongest action on the animal economy. Water dis-
solves this gas; hut in what proportions is not known.
This solution disturbs almost all the metallic solutions,
producing black or brown precipitates, which assume,
on rubbing with polished haematites, a metallic lustre.
Zinc, manganese, and cerium, form exceptions.  They
yield  flesh-coloured precipitates, which appear to  be
hydro-seleniurets  of the oxides,  while the others, for
the most part, are  merely metallic scleniurets.
  Hydrogen, sulphuretted.  Sulphuretted hydro-
gen gas possesses the properties of  an acid;  for, when
absorbed by water, its solution reddens vegetable blues;
it combines also with alkalies, earths, and with seve-
ral metallic oxides.  Sulphuretted hydrogen, combined
with any base, forms a  hydrosulphuret, which may
be also  called an  hepatule, to distinguisn it from  an
hepar, which is the  union of sulphur singly with a
base.   Sulphuretted  hydrogen gas  possesses  an ex-
tremely offensive odour, resembling that of putrid eggs.
It  kills animals, and extinguishes burning  bodies.
When in contact with oxygen gas, or atmospheric air,
it is inflammable.   Miugled wilh nitrous gas, it burns
with a yellowish  green  flame.  It is decomposed  by
ammonia, by oxymuriatic acid gas, and by sulphurous
acid gas. It bas a strong action on the greater number
of metallic oxides. Its specific  gravity is about 1.18
when pure.  It is composed, according to Thomson,
of sixteen parts of sulphur, and one of hydrogen.  Et
has the property  of  dissolving  a  small quantity  of
phosphorus.
  Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may be obtained in seve-
ral ways:—
  1. Take dry sulphuret  of potassa, put it into a tubu-
lated retort, lodged in a sand-bath, or supported over a
lamp; direct the neck of the retort under a  receiver
placed in the pneumatic trough; then pour gradually
upon the sulphuret diluted sulphuric or muriatic acid;
a violent effervescence will take place, and  sulphuret-
ted hydrogen gas will be liberated.   When no more
gas is produced spontaneously, urge the mixture with
heat,  by degrees,  till it  boils, and gas will again  be
liberated abundantly.
  The water made use of for receiving it, should  be
heated to about 80° or 90°; at this temperature it dis-
solves little of the gas; whereas,  if cold water be made
use of, a much greater quantity of it is absorbed.
  Explanation.—Though sulphur makes no alteration
on water, which proves that sulphur has less attraction
for oxygen than hydrogen has, yet if sulphur be united
to an alkali, this  combination  decomposes water
whenever it comes in contact with it, though the alkali
itself has no attraction either for oxygen or  hydrogen.
  The formation of this gas explains this truth.  On
adding the sulphuret of potassa to the water, this fluid
becomes decomposed, part of the sulphur robs it of its
oxygen; and  forms with it sulphuric acid;  this gene-
rated acid unites to part of the  alkali, and forms sul-
phate of potassa.   The  liberated  hydrogen dissolves
another part of the sulphur, and  forms with it sulphu-
retted hydrogen, the basis of this gas, which is retained
by the separated portion of the alkali.  The sulphuric
or muriatic acid,  added  now, extricates it from the
alkali, and makes it fly off in the form of gas.
  Diluted vmuriatic acid seems  best adapted for the
production  of sulphuretted  hydrogen gas from alka
line sulphurets. If nitric acid be made use of, it must
be much diluted.  Sulphuric acid yields little gas, un-
less assisted by heat.  When  the  proportion of sulphur
in the sulphuret exceeds that of the alkali, the dense
sulphuric acid, poured upon it, emits sulphurous acid
gas.  All the rest of the acids may be made use of for
decomposing the sulphurets.
  2. When iron and sulphur are united together, they 
HYD
HYD
afford a large quantity of sulphuretted hvdrogen gas,
on submitting them to the action of heat, in contact
with diluted muriatic  acid.
  Melt together, in a crucible, equal parts of iron
filings and sulphur; the product is a black brittle mass,
called sulphuret of iron.  Reduce this to powder, and
put it, with a little water, into a tubulated retort: add
diluted muriatic acid, and apply a gentle heat, till no
more gas is disengaged.  The philosophy of this expe-
riment is analogous to  the former.  Part of the oxygen
of the water unites to part of the sulphur, and forms
sulphuric acid; another part oxidizes tlie iron, which,
dissolved by the acid,  forms sulphate of iron: the hy-
drogen of the water unites to another part of the sul-
phur, and  forms sulphuretted hydrogen, which be-
comes gaseous by the addition of caloric.
  3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may also be obtained
by healing an alkaline sulphuret, with the addition of
water, wilhout the aid of an acid.   In this case, the
water is also  decomposed; its hydrogen unites with
part of the sulphur, and forms sulphuretted hydrogen;
the oxygen of the water unites with another part of
the sulphur, and produces sulphuric acid, which joins
to the alkali and forms a sulphate.  The sulphuretted
hydrogen becomes disengaged by heat in the gaseous
form.
  4. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may be obtained by
passing hydrogen gas  through sulphur, in a state of
fusion.
  For this purpose,  put sulphur into a gun-barrel, or
Wedgewood's tube, and place it across a furnace; fit
to the lower extremity a bent glass tube, which goes
under a receiver placed in the pneumatic trough, and
adapt to the upper extremity a tubulated  retort, or
other apparatus proper  for producing hydrogen gas.
The sulphur must then be heated, and, when melted.
the hydrogen  gas evolved  must be made to pass over
it, which, in  this manner, will dissolve part of the
sulphur, and become converted  into sulphuretted hy-
drogen gas.
  5. It may likewise be procured in the following di-
rect manner:  let a small  quantity of sulphur he en-
closed in a jar full of hydrogen gas, and melt it by
means of a burning-glass.  This method does not suc-
ceed except the hydrogen gas be as dry as possible, for
its affinity to sulphur is weakened in proportion to its
moisture.
  6. The method, however, which affords it purest, is
by treating sulphuret of antimony with diluted  muri-
atic acid.  The explanation is similar to the preceding
processes.
  Hydrogen,  carburetted.  See Carburetted hydrogen
gas.
  Hydrogen, percarburetted.  See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.
  Hydrogen, subcarburetted.  See Carburetted hydro-
gen gas.
  Hydrogen,  phosphuretted. See Phosphoius.
  Hydrogen, subphosphuretted.  See Phosphorus.
  Hydrogen gas, heavy, carbonated.   See Carbonated
hydrogen gas.
  Hydrogen gas, light, carbonated.  See Carburetted
hydrogen gas.
  HYDROGURET.   See  Uret.
  Hydroguret of carbon.  See Carburetted hydrogen
gas.
  HYDROLA'PATHUM.  (From vSiap, water, and
\airaOov, the dock.)  See Rumex hydrolapalhum.
  HYDRO'MELI.  (From vSiap, water, and  ptXi, ho-
ney.)  Mulsum; Aqua Mulsa; Melicratum; Brag-
gat; Hydromel.  Water  impregnated  with honey.
After it is fermented,  it  is called vinous hydromel, or
mead.
  HYDROTHIONIC  ACID.  See  Sulphuretted hy-
drogen.
  HYDROMETER.   (Hydrometer; from vStop, wa-
ter, or fluid, and perpov, a measure.)  The best me-
thod of weighing equal quantities of corrosive volatile
fluids, to determine their specific gravities, appears to
consist in enclosing  them  in a bottle with a conical
stopper, in the side of which stopper a fine mark is cut
wilh a file.  The fluid  being poured into the bottle, it
is easy to put in the stopper, because the redundant
fluid escapes through the notch, or mark, and may be
carefully wiped off.  Equal bulks of water, and other
fluids, are by this means weighed to a great degree of
accuracy, care beiug taken to keep the temperature as
      438
equal as possible, by avoiding any contact of the bot-
tle with the  hand,  or otherwise.   Tbe  bottle  Itself
shows with much  precision, by a rise or fall of the
liquid in the  notch  of the stopper, whether  any such
change have taken place.
  The hydrometer of Fahrenheit consists of a hollow
ball, with a counterpoise below, and  a  very Blende'
Btem above, terminating in a small dish.  The middle,
or half length of the stem,  is distinguished  by a  fine
line across.  In this instrument every division of the
stem is rejected, and it is immersed in all experiments
to the middle ofthe stem, by placing proper weights in
the little dish above. Then, as the part  immersed is
constantly  of  the same  magnitude, and the whole
weight of the hydrometer is known, this last weight,
added to the weights in the dish, will be equal  to the
weight of fluid displaced  by  the instrument, as all wri-
ters on hydrostatics  prove.  And, accordingly, the sp.
gravities for the common form ofthe tables will be had
by the proportion:
      As the whole weight  of the hydrometer and its
        load, when  adjusted in distilled water,
      Is to the number 1000, &c.
      So is the whole weight  when adjusted  in any
        other fluid
      To ihe number expressing its specific gravity.
  The  hydrometers, or  pesc-liqueurs,  of Baume,
though in reality comparable with each other, are sub-
ject in part to the defect, that their results, having no
independent numerical measure, require explanation
to those who do not  know the instruments.
  HYDROME'TRA.  (From vSiap, water, and ur/rpa,
the womb.l  Hydrops uteri.   Dropsy  of the  womb.
A genus of disease  in the class Cachexia, and order
Intumescentia, of Cullen.   It produces a swelling of
the  hypogastric  region,  slowly and  gradually  In-
creasing, resembling the  figure  of the uterus, yielding
to, or fluctuating on  pressure; without ischury or preg-
nancy.  Sauvages enumerates seven species.  It must
be considered as a very rare disease, and one that can
with difficulty be ascertained.
  HYDRO'MPHALUM.    (From  vSiap, water,  and
opibaXos, the navel.)  A tumour of tiie navel, contain-
ing water.
  Hydro'nosos.  (From vSiap, water, and voaos,  a
disease.)  The sweating  sickness.   See Ephidrosis.
  HYDRO-OXIDE.  See Hydrate.
  HYDROPEDE'SIS. (FromvSiap, water, and vnSato,
to break out.)  A breaking out into a violent sweat
  HYDROPHANE.  Ocuius  mundi.  A variety of
opal, which has the property of becoming transparent
on immersion in water.
  HY DKOPHO'BIA.  (From vSiap, water, and qSoStta,
to fear.)  Rabies canina; Cynanthropia; Cynolesia.
Canine madness. This  disease arises in consequence
ofthe bite of a  rabid animal, as a dog or cat,  and
sometimes  spontaneously.   It is termed hydrophobia,
because persons that are thus bitten dread the sight or
the falling  of water when  first seized.  Cullen  has
arranged it under the class Neuroses, and order Spas-
mi, and defines it a loathing and great dread  of drink-
ing any liquids, from their creating a painful convul-
sion of the pharynx,  occasioned most commonly by the
bite of a mad animal.
  There are two species of hydrophobia.
  1. Hydrophobia rabiosa, when there  is a  desire of
biting.
  2. Hydrophobia simplex, when there is not a desire
of biting.
  Dr. James observes, that this peculiar affection pro-
perly belongs to the canine genus, viz. dogs, foxes, and
wolves; in which animals  only it seems  to  be innate
and natural,  scarcely  ever  appearing  in  any others,
except when communicated  from these.  When a dog
is affected  with madness, he becomes dull, solitary,
and endeavours to hide  himself, seldom  barking, but
making a murmuring noise, and refusing all kinds of
meat  and drink.  He flies  at strangers; but, in  this
stage, he remembers  and respects bis master; his head
and tail hang down; he  walks as if overpowered by
sleep; and  a bite, at this period, though dangerous, Is
not so apt to bring on the disease in the animal bitten
as one inflicted at a later period.  The dog at length
begins to pant; he breathes quickly and heavily; his
tongue hangs out; his moutb is continually open, ami
discharges  a large quantity of froth.   Sometimes he
walks slowly, as if half asleep, and then runs suddenly 
                      HYD

tut not always directly forward.  At last he forgets his
master; his eyes have a dull, watery, red appearance:
he grows thin and weak, often falls down, gets up and
attempts to fly at every thing,  becoming very soon
quite furious. The animal seldom lives in this latter
state longer  than thirty hours; and it is said, that his
biles toward  the end of his  existence, arc the most
dangerous.  The throat of a  person suffering hydro-
phobia is  always much affected; and, it is asserted,
the nearer the bite to this part the more perilous.
  Hydrophobia may be communicated to the human
subject from  the biles of cats, cows, and other animals,
not of the canine species, to which  the  affection has
been previously communicated.   However, it is from
the bites of those domestic ones, the dog  and cat, that
most cases of hydrophobia  originate.  It docs not ap-
pear that the  bite of a person affected can communi-
cate the disease to another; at least the records of me-
dicine furnish no proof of this circumstance.
  In the human species, the general symptoms attend-
ant upon tbe bite  of a mad dog, or other rabid animal,
are, at some indefinite period, and  occasionally long
after the bitten part seems quite well; a  slight pain
begins to be  felt lu it, now  and then attended with
itching, but  generally  resembling a rheumatic pain.
Then come on wandering pains, with an uneasiness
and heaviness, disturbed sleep, and frightful dreams,
 accompanied with great restlessness, sudden startings,
 and spasms,  sighing, anxiety,  and a love for  solitude.
 These symptoms continuing  to increase daily, pains
 begin to shoot from the place  which was wounded, all
 along up to the throat with a  straitness and sensation
 of choking,  and  a  horror and dread  at the sight of
 water, and other liquids, together with a loss of appe-
 tite and tremor.   The person  is,  however, capable of
 swallowing any  solid substance  with tolerable ease;
 but the moment that any tiling in a fluid  form  is
 brought  in contact with his  lips, it occasions him to
 start back with much dread and horror, although he
 labours perhaps under great thirst at the time.
   A vomiting of bilious matter soon comes on, in the
 course of the disease, and an intense hot fever ensues,
 attended with continual watching, great thirst, dryness
 and roughness of the tongue, hoarseness of the voice,
 and the discbarge of a viscid saliva from the mouth,
 which the patient is constantly  spitting out; together
 with spasms of the genital and urinary organs, in con-
 sequence of which the evacuations are forcibly thrown
 out.  His respiration is laborious and uneasy, but his
 judgment is unaffected; and, as long as he retains the
 power of speech, his answers are distinct.
   In some few instances, a severe delirium arises, and
 closes the tragic scene; but it more frequently happens,
 tbat the pulse becomes tremulous and irregular, that
 convulsions arise, and that nature being at length ex-
 hausted, sinks under the pressure of misery.
   The appearances to be observed,  on dissection in
 hydrophobia, are  unusual aridity of the viscera and
 other parts; marks  of inflammation in the fauces,
 gula, and larynx;  inflammatory appearances in  the
 stomach, and an accumulation or effusion of blood in
 the lungs. Some marks of inflammation are likewise to
 be observed in the  brain, consisting in  a serous effusion
 on its surface, or in a redness of the pia mater; which
 appearances have  also presented themselves in the dog.
    In some cases of dissection, not the  least morbid ap-
 pearance has been observed, either in the fauces, dia-
 phragm, stomach,  or intestines.  Tbe poison has, there-
 fore, been  conceived by some physicians to act upon
 the nervous system, and to be so wholly confined to it,
 as to make it a matter of doubt  whether the  qualities
 of the blood are altered or  not.  There is no knows
 cure for this terrible disease: and the only preventive
 to be relied  upon is the complete excision ofthe bitten
 part, which  should be performed as soon as possible ;
 though it may perhaps not be too late any time before
 the symptoms appear.
    HYDROPHOSPHOROUS ACLD.  See Phosphorous
 add.
    HYDROPHTHA'LMIA.   From vSiap, water, and
 otbBaXpos, the eye.)   Hydrophthalmium.  There are
 two diseases, different in their nature and consequence,
  thus termed.  The one is a mere anasarcous or cedo-
  matous swelling of the eyelid.   The other, the true
  hydrophthalmia, is a swelling of the bulb of the eye,
  from too great  a  collection  of vitreous or aqueous
  humours.
                      HYD

  HYDROPHTHA'LMIUM. (From vcup.'water, and
o&QaXuos, the eye.)  See Hydrophthalmia.
  HYUROPHTORIC ACID.   Acidum hydrophtori-
cum.  (From vStap, water, and diOoptos, destructive.)
Ampere's name for the base of the fluoric acid, called
by Davy,,/?Korine.  See Hydro-fluoric acid.
  HYDROPHYSOCE'LE.  (From ut5uip, water, tbvtrn,
flatulence, and kvXv, a tumour.)  A swelling  formed
of water and air.  It was applied to a hernia, in the
sac of which was a fluid and air.
  HYDRO'PICA.  (From vSpiaip, the dropsy.)   Mcdl
cines which relieve or cure dropsy.
  HYDRO'PIPER. (From vSiap,  water, and ircircpe,
pepper: so called from its biting the tongue like  pepper,
and growing in marshy places.) See Polygonum hydro
piper.
  HYDROPNEUMOSA'RCA.   (From vSiap, water,
■irvsvpa, wind, and cap\, flesh.) A tumour of air, water,
and solid substances.
  HYDROPOI'DES.  (From vSptaip,  a dropsy, and
ciSos, likeness.)  Serous or watery, formerly applied to
liquid and watery excrements.
  HYDROPS.  (Hydrops, pis. m.; from vSiap, water.)
Dropsy.   A  preternatural  collection of serous  or
watery  fluid in tlie cellular substance, or different
cavities of the body.   It receives different appella-
tions,  according to  tbe particular situation of the
fluid.
  When it is diffused through the cellular membrane,
either generally or partially, it is called anasarca.
When it is deposited in the cavity of the cranium, it is
called hydrocephalus ; when in the chest, hydrothorax,
or hydrops pectoris; when  in the abdomen,  ascites.
In  the  uterus, hydrometra, and within the scrotum,
hydrocele.
  The causes of these diseases are a family disposition
thereto, frequent salivations, excessive and long-conti-
nued evacuations, a freo use of spirituous  liquors,
 (which  never fail to destroy the digestive powers,)
sclrrhositiesof the liver, spleen, pancreas, mesentery,
and other abdominal viscera;  preceding diseases, as
the jaundice, diarrhoea, dysentery, phthisis,  asthma,
gout, intermittents of long duration, scarlet fever, and
some of the exanthemata; a  suppression of accus-
 tomed evacuations, the sudden striking in of  eruptive
 humours, ossification of the valves of the heart, polypi
 in the right ventricle, aneurism in the arteries,  tumours
 making a considerable pressure on the neighbouring
 parts, permanent obstruction in the lungs, rupture of
 the thoracic duct, exposure for a length of time to a
 moist atmosphere, laxity of the  exhalants, defect in
 the absorbents, topical weakness, and general debility.
   Hydrops articuli.  A white swelling of a joint is
 sometimes so called.
   Hydrops  cysticus.  A dropsy enclosed in a bag,
 or cyst
   Hydrops  genu.  An accumulation of synovia, or
 serum, within the capsular ligament of the knee.
   Hydrops ad matulam.  Diabetes.
   Hydrops  medullie spinalis.  See Hydrorachitis
 and  Spina bifida.
   Hydrops ovarii.  A dropsy of the ovarium.  See
 Ascites.
   Hydrops pectoris.   See Hydrothorax.
   Hydrops  pericardii.  See Hydrvcardia,
   Hydrops pulmonum.  Water in the cellular inter-
 stices of the lungs.
   Hydrops scroti.  See Hydrocele.
   Hydrops uteri.  See Hydrometra.
   Hydropy'retus.  (From vStap, water, and nvpejoi,
 fever.)  A sweating fever.
   HYDRORAOHI'TIS.   (From  vSiap,  water,  and
 paxis, tlie spine.)  A fluctuating  tumour, mostly situ-
 ated on the lumbar vertebrae of new-born children.  It
 is a genus of disease in the class Cachexia, and order
 Intumescentia, of Cullen, and is always incurable.
 See  Spina bifida.
   Hydroro satum.  A drink  mado of water, honey,
 and thejuice of roses.
   HYDROSA'CCHARUM.  (From  vStap, water, and
 aaxxapov, sugar.)  A drink made of sugar and water.
   HYDROSA'RCA.  (From vStap, water, and oap\t
  the flesh.)   See Anasarca.
   HYDROSARCOCE'LE. (From vSiap, water, aap\
  the flesh, and  kvXv, a tumour.)   Sarcocele,  with  an
  effusion of water into the cellular membrane.
    HYDROSELENIC ACID.  The best process which 
HYD
HYG
we can empley  for procuring this acid, consists in I
treadngthe seleniurel of iron with the liquid muriatic
acid.  The acid  gas evolved must be collected over
mercury.  As in tins case a little of another gas, con-
densible neither by  water nor alkaline solutions, ap-
pears, the  best substance lor obtaining  absolutely
pure hydroselenic acid would be seleniurel of potas-
sium.
  HYDROSELI'NUM.   (From vSiap, water,  and
otXivov, purslane.)  A species of purslane growing in
marshy places.
  HYDROSULPHURET.  Hydrosulphurdum.   A
compound of sulphuretted hydrogen wilh a salifiable
basis.
  Hydrosulphure'tum stibu luteum.  See Anti-
monii sulphuretum pradpitatum.
  Hydrosulpuuretuu  stibu rubrum.   Kermes
mineralis.  A hydro-sulpburet of antimony formerly
in high estimation as an expectorant, sudorific, and
antispasmodic, in difficult  respiration, rheumatism,
diseases of the skin and glands.
  HYDROTHIONIUACID. Some German chemists
distinguish sulphuretted hydrogen by this name on ac-
count of itspropertiesresembling those of an acid.
  HYDROTHO'RAX.  (From vdtap, water, and diapa\,
the chest.)   Hydrops  thoracis; Hydrops pectoris.
Dropsy of the chest.  A genus of disease in the class
Cachexia, and order Intumescentia, of Cullen.  Diffi-
culty of breathing, particularly when in a horizontal
posture; sudden  starlings from sleep,  wilh  anxiety,
and palpitations of the  heart; cough, paleness of
tbe visage, anasarcous swellings of  the  lower ex-
tremities, thirst, and a scarcity of urine, are the cha-
racteristic symptoms of hydrothorax; but tiie  one
which is more decisive  than all the  rest  is a fluc-
tuation of water being perceived in the chest, either
by the patient himself or his medical attendant, on cer-
tain motions of the body.
  The causes which give rise to the disease, are pretty
much the same with those which are productive of
the other  species of dropsy.  In some cases, it exists
wilhout any other kiud of dropsical  affection being
present; but it prevails very often as  a part of more
universal dropsy.
  Ii frequently takes place to a considerable degree be-
fore it becomes very perceptible; and  its presence ia
not readily known, the symptoms, like those of hydro-
cephalus, not being always very distinct.  In some in-
stances, tiie water  is collected in  both sacs  of the
pleura; but, at other times', it is only ia one.   Some-
times it is lodged in tbe  pericardium alone; but, foi
the most part, it only appears there when, at the same
time, a collection is  present in one or both cavities of
the thorax.  Sometimes the water is effused in the
cellular texture of the lungs, without any being de-
posited in the cavity of the thorax.   In a few cases,
the water that is collected is enveloped in small cysts,
of a membraneous  nature, known by the name of
hydatides, which seem  to float in the  cavity; but
more frequently they are connected with, and attach-
ed  to, particular parts of the internal surface of the
pleura.
  Hydrothorax often comes on with a sense of uneasi-
ness at the lower end of the sternum, accompanied by
a difficulty of breathing wbicb is much increased by
any exertion, and wbich is  always most considerable
during night, when the body is in a horizontal posture.
Along with these symptoms there is a cough, that is at
first dry, but which, after a time, is attended with an
expectoration of thin mucus.   There is likewise a
paleness of the complexion, and an anasarcous swell-
ing of the feet and  legs, together with a considerable
degree of thirst and a diminished flow of urine.  Under
these appearances, we have just grounds to suspect
that there is a collection of water  in  tbe chest; but
if the fluctuation can be perceived, there can then re-
main no doubt as to the reality of its presence.
  During  the progress of the disease, il is no uncom-
mon thing for the patient to feel a numbness, or degree
of  palsy, in  one or both arms, and to be more than
ordinarily sensible to cold.  Wilh regard to tbe pulse,
it is usually quick at first, but, towards the end, be-
comes irregular and intermitting.
  Our prognostic in hydrothorax must, in general, be
unfavourable, as it bas seldom been  cured, aud, in
many cases, will hardly admit even of alleviation, the
difficulty of breathing continuing to increase, until the
action of the lungs is as Inst entirely iaipeesd by the
quantity of water deposited in the chest.   In aoms
cases, the event Is suddenly fntal; but In others, It is
preceded, for a few days previous io death, by a spit-
ting of blood.
  Dissections of this disease show that, in some cases,
the water is either collected In one side of the thorax,
or that there are hydatides formed in some particular
part of it;  but they more frequently discover woter In
both sides  of the chest, accompanied by a collection
in the  cellular texture and principal covities of the
body.  The fluid is usually of a yellowish colour; pos-
sesses properties similar to  serum, and, with respect to
its quantity, varies very  much, being from a  few
ounces to several quarts.   According to the quantity,
so are  the  lungs compressed  by it; and, where it Is
very considerable,  tbey are usually found much re-
duced  iu size.  When universal  anasarca has  pre-
ceded the collection in the chest, it Is  no uncommon
occurrence  to find some of the abdominal viscera in a
scirrhous state.
  The treatment of this disease must be conducted on
the same general plan as that of anasarca.  Emetics,
however, are hazardous, and purgatives do not afford
so much benefit; but the bowels must be kept regular,
and other evacuating remedies may be employed in
conjunction with  tonics.   Squill has been chiefly re-
sorted to, as being expeetornnt as well as diuretic; but
its power Is usually not great, unless it be carried so far
as to cause nausea, which  cannot usually be borne to
any extent.  Digitalis is more to be relied upon; but it
will be better to conjoin them, adding, perhaps, some
form of mercury; and employing  at the same time
other diuretics, as the supertartrate or  acetate of po-
tassa, juniper berries, &c.   Where febrile symptoms
attend, diaphoretics will probably  be  especially ser-
viceable, as the pulvis  ipecacuanha}  compositus, or
antimonialB, in small doses; which last may also  pro-
mote expectoration. Blisters to the chest will be pro-
per In  many cases, particularly should there be any
pain or other  mark of inflammatory actio*.  Myrrh
seems to answer better than most other tolrlcs, as more
decidedly promoting expectoration ; or the nitric  acid
may be given, increasing the secretion of urtne> as' well
as supporting tbe strength.  The mhalauoii Of bxVgktl
gas is stated to have been in some instances stagtilaftf
beneficial.   Where the  fluid  is collected in mttervt
the sacs of  the pleura, the operation-of paractJntesiscf
the thorax  may afford relief under Iffgent symptoms,
and, perhaps, contribute  to the recoverytof the patient.
   HYDRUXURE. See Hydrate.         '
   HYDRURET   A compound of hydrdgen with a
metal.  See Uret.                         ,:  ; •"
   HYGEIA.  Hygieia.  The goddeseof health.  One
ofthe four daughters ef Esculapius.   Sire often'ac-
companies her father in tbe monuments of him ttdw
remaining,  and appears Mke a young  woman, com-
monly holding a serpent in one hand, and a pater* in
the other.   Sometimes the serpent drinks out of $e
patera; sometimes he twines about the whole body of
the goddess.
   HYGIE'NE. (From vyiaivta,to be well.) Hygiesis.
Modern physicians have applied this term to that divi-
sion of Iherapda which treats of the diet and non
naturals of the sick.
   Hygiesis.  See Hygiene.                 .-*■
   Hy'gra.   (From vypoc,  humid.)   An ancient term
for liquid plasters.
   Hyorempla'strum.   (From vypoc, moist, and ru-
nXa^pov, a plaster.) A liquid plaster.
   Hygroblepha'ricus.   (From  vypoc, humid, and
QXttbapov,  the eyelid.)    Applied  to  the emuuetory
ducts in the extreme edge, or  inner part of the eyelid
   Hygrocirsoce'le.   (From vypoc, moist, xtpoos, a
varix,  and  xtiXij, a tumour.)   Dilated spermatic veins,
or circocele, with dropsy of the scrotum.
   Hygrocolly'rium.  (From vypoc, liquid,  and icctA-
Xvpiov, a collyrium.) A collyrium composed of liquids
   HYGRO'LOGY. (Hygrologia; from vypoc, a hu-
mour or fluid,  and Xoyos, a discourse.)  The aoctrine
of the fluids.
   HYGROMA.  (Typwua; from vypos, a liquid.) An
encysted tuniour,  the contents of which are either
serum or a fluid-like lymph.   It sometimes happens
that these tumours are filled with hydatids.   Hygro
matous tumours require  the removal ofthe cyst, or the
destruction of its secreting surface. 
HYM                                           HYO
   HYGRO'METER.   (Hygromctrum;  from, vypoc,
 Oioist, and ptrpov, a measure.)  Hygrometer.  An in-
 strument  to measure the degrees of moisture in the
 atmosphere.  It also means an infirm part of the body,
 affected by moisture of the atmosphere.
   Hyoromy'rum.  (From vypos, moist, and pvpov, a
 liquid ointment;  A liquid ointment,
   HYGROSCOPIC.  Substances which have the pro-
 perty of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere.  See
 Atmosphere.
   Hyoropho'bia. See Hydrophobia.
   HY'LE.  ('VX17, matter.)   The materia medica, or
 matter of any kind that  comes under  the  cognizance
 Of a medical person.
   HY'MEN.   (From Hymen, the god of marriage,
 because this membrane is supposed to be entire before
 marriage, or copulation.)  The hymen is a thin mem-
 brane, of a semilunar or circular form, placed at tbe
 entrance of the vagina, which it partly closes.  It has
 a very different appearance in different women, but it
 is  generally, if not always, found in  virgins, and is
 very properly esteemed the test  of virginity, being
ruptured in the first act of coition.  The remnants of
the hymen are called the caruncula; myrtiformes.  The
hymen is also peculiar to the human species.  There
are two circumstances relating to the  hymen which
require medical assistance.   It is sometimes of such a
strong ligamentous texture, that it cannot be ruptured,
and prevents the connexion  between the sexes.  It is
also sometimes  imperforated, wholly closing  the en-
trance into the vagina, and preventing  any discharge
from  the uterus;  but both these cases are extremely
rare.   If the hymen be of an unnaturally firm tex-
ture,  but  perforated,  though perhaps with  a  very
Binall opening,  the  inconveniences  thence  arising
will not lie discovered before the time of marriage,
when they may  be removed  by a crucial incision
made through it, taking care not to injure the adjoin-
ing parts.
  The imperforation  of the hymen will produce  its
inconveiuences when  the person begins to menstruate.
For tbe  menstruous  fluid, being secreted from  the
uterus at each period, and not evacuated, the patient
suffers much  pain from the distention of the parts,
many strange symptoms and  appearances  are occa-
sioned, and suspicions injurious to her reputation are
often  entertained.  In a  case  of this kind, for which
Dr. Denman was  consulted, the young woman, who
 was twenty-two years of age, having  many  uterine
 complaints, with the abdomen enlarged, was suspected
to be pregnant, though she persevered in asserting the
contrary, and had  never menstruated-  When she was
iirevailed upon to  submit to an examination, the cir-
cumscribed tumour of tbe uterus was found to reach
as high as the  navel, and  the external  parts were
stretched by a round soft substance at tiie entrance of
tbe vagina, in such a manner as to resemble that ap-
pearance which they have when the head of a child
is  passing  through them; but  there was no entrance
into the vagina.  On the following morning an incision
was carefully made through tbe hymen, which had a
 fleshy appearance, and was thickened in proportion
 to its detention. Not less than four pounds of blood,
 of the colour and  consistence of tar, were discharged;
 and the tumefaction of the abdomen was immediately
 removed.   Several stellated incisions were afterward
made through tlie  divided edges, which is a very ne-
cessary part of the operation: and care was taken to
jprevent a reunion of the hymen till the next period
of menstruation, after which she suffered no inconve-
nience.   The blood discharged was not putrid or co-
agulated,  and seemed to have undergone no other
change after its secretion, but what was occasioned by
tbe absorption of  its more fluid parts.   Some caution
 is  required when the hymen is closed in those who are
 in advanced age, unless the membrane be distended by
 the confined menses;  as Dr. Denman once saw an in-
stance of inflammation of the peritoneum being im-
mediately produced after the operation, of which the
.patient died as in the true puerperal  fever;  and  no
other reason could be assigned for the disease.
  The caruncula; myrtiformes, by their elongation and
enlargement,  sometimes become  very painful and
Jttpublesome.       v
  HYMEN A2A.   (From Hymen, the god of marriage;
 because, as Linnaeus informs us, its younger leaves
 cohere together  in pairs, throughout the night.)  Tho
name of a genus of plants.  Class, Dectndria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Hvmen-ea  courbaril.  The systematic name of
the. locust-tree which  affords  the resin called gum
anime, which is now fallen into disuse, and is only to
be found in the collections ofthe curious.
  HYMENIUM.  (From vunv, a  membrane.)  The
dilated exposed  membrane of  gymnocarpous mush
rooms, in which the seed is placed. See Gymnocarpi.
  HYMENODES.  (From vunv,  a  membrane, and
tiSos, likeness.) An old term for such urine as is found
to be full of little films and  pellicles.   Hippocrates
applies it also to the menstrual discharge when mixed
with a tough viscid phlegm.
  HYO.  Names compounded  of this word belong to
muscles which originate from, or are inserted  into, or'
connected with, the os hyoides;  as  Hyo-glossus, Hyo-
pharyngeals,  Genio-hyo-glossus, Sec
  HYC-GLOSSUS.  Cerato-glossus of Douglas and
Cowper.  Basio-cerato-ckondro-glossus of Albinus.
Hyo-chondro-glosse of Dumas.   A muscle situated at
tbe sides, between the os hyoides and the tongue. It
arises from the basis, but chiefly from  the corner of the
os hyoides, running laterally and forwards to the tongue,
wbich it pulls inward and downward.
  HYOIDES OS. (From the Greek letter 11, and  ctSos,
likeness: so named from its resemblance.)  This  bone,
which is situated between the root of the tongue and
the larynx, derives ils name from its supposed resem-
blance to  the Greek  letter v, and is,  by some writers,
described along with the parts contained in the mouth.
Ruysch has seen the  ligaments of tiie bone so  com-
pletely ossified, that the os  hyoides  was  joined to
the temporal bones by anchylosis.  In describing this
bone, it may be distinguished  into its body, horns, and
appendices.  The body is the middle and broadest part
of the bone, so placed that it may be easily felt with
the finger in the forepart of the throat   Ils forepart,
which is placed toward the tongue, is irregularly con-
vex, and ils inner surface, which is turneds towards the
larynx, is  unequally concave.  Tbe cornua, or horns,
which are flat, and a little bent, are considerably longer
than the body of the bone, and may be said to form tiie
sides of tbe v.  These horns are  thickest near the body
of the bone.  At tbe extremity of each is observed a
round tubercle, from which a ligamec* passes to the
thyroid cartilage.  The  appendices, or smaller horns,
cornua minora, as tliey are called by some writers, are
two small processes, which, in their size and shape, are
somewhat like a grain of wheat.  They rise up from
tbe articulations of the  cornua, with  the body of the
bone, and  are  sometimes connected wilh the styloid
process on each side, by means of a ligament.  It is not
unusual to find small portions  of bone in these liga-
ments; and Ruysch, as we bave already observed, bas
seen them completely ossified. In the fcetus, almost the
whole of the bone is in a cartilaginous state, excepting
a small point of a bone in the middle of its body, ana
in each of its horns.  The appendices do not begin to
appear till after birth, and usually remain cartilaginous
many years.  The os hyoides  serves to  support the
tongue, and affords attachment to a variety of muscles,
some  of wliich perform the  motions of  the tongue,
while others act on the larynx and fauces.
  HYOPHARYNGE'US.  (From  votiSts, the hyoicl
bone, and f>apuv^, the pharynx.) A muscle so called
from its origin in the os hyoides, and its insertion in
the pharynx.
  HYOPHTHA'LMUS. (From vc, a swine, and otb-
OaXpof, an eye: so named from the supposed resem-
blance of its flower to a hog's eye.)  Hogs-eye plant.
Most probably the Buphthalmum spmosum Of Linnaeus.
  HYOSCIANIA.  A new vegetable  alkali extracted
by Dr. Brande from henbane.  See Hyoscyamus niger.
  HYOSCYAMUS.  (From  vc, a swine, and (evador,
a bean: so named because hogs eat it as a medicine,
or it may be because the plant is hairy and bristly, like
a swine.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnasan
system. Class, Pentandria;  Older, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name  of the henbane.   See
Hyoscyamus niger.
  Hyoscyamus albus.   This plant,  a native of tbe
south of Europe, possesses similar virtues to the hyos-
cyamus niger.
  Hyoscyamus luteus.  A  species  of tobacco, tin
Nicotiana rustica of Linneus.
                                        441 
HYP
HYP
  Htosctamus meia.  The systematic name of com-
mon or black henbane, called also Faba suilla; Apolli-
naris altercum; A gone; Altercan genon; Hyoscyamus
—foliis amplexicaulibus sinuatis, floribus  sessilibus
of Linnaeus.  The leaves of this plant, when recent,
have a slightly fcetid smell, and a mucilaginous taste;
when dried, they lose both mate and smell, and part also
of their narcotic power.   The root possesses the same
  ualities as the leaves, and even  in a more eminent
  egree. Henbane resembles opium ia its action, more
than any other  narcotic dose.  In  a moderate dose it
increases at first the strength of the pulse, and occa-
sions some  sense  of heat, which are followed by
diminished sensibility and motion; in some cases, by
thirst,  sickness, stupor, and dimness of vision.   In a
larger quantity it occasions profound sleep, hard pulse,
and sometimes fierce delirium, ending in coma, or con-
vulsions, wilh a remarkable dilatation of the pupil, dis-
tortion of the countenance, a weak tremulous pulse,
and eruption of petechia;.  On dissection, gangrenous
spots have been found on the internal  surface of the
stomach.  Its baneful effects are best counteracted by
a powerful emetic, and by drinking largely of the vege-
table acids.
  Henbane has been used  in various spasmodic and
painful diseases, as in epilepsy, hysteria, palpitation,
headache; paralysis, mania, and scirrhus.   It is given
in the  form of the inspissated juice of the fresh leaves,
the dose of which is from one to  two grains; which
requires to be gradually  increased.  It is sometimes
employed  as a substitute for opium, where the latter,
from idiosyncrasy, occasions any disagreeable symp-
tom.   The henbane also is free from the constipating
quality ofthe opium.
  Dr. Brande has extracted a new alkali  from  this
plant, which he calls hyosciania. It crystallizes in long
prisms, and when neutralized by  sulphuric or nitric
acid, forms characteristic salts.
  Hyotbyroi'des.  (From votiSts,  the hyoid bone.
and OvpoctSns, the thyroid  cartilage.) A muscle named
from ils origin in the hyoid bone, and insertion in the
thyroid cartilage.
  Hypa'otica.  (From virayta, to subdue.)   Medicines
Wbich evacuate the faeces.
  Hypalei'ptrum. (From viraXtttfna, to spread upon.)
A spatula for spreading ointments with.
  Hype'lata.  (From virtXaia, to move.)   Medicines
which purge.
  HYPERiETHE'SIS.  (From virtp, and aioBavopai,
to feel.)  Error of appetite, whether by excess or de-
ficiency.
  HYPERCATHA'RSIS. (From virtp, supra, over or
above, and xaBatpia, to purge.)  Hyperinesis; Hype-
rinos.  An excessive purging from medicines.
  Hypebcorypho'sis.  (From virtp, above, and xopv-
q)n, the vertex.) A prominence or protuberance.   Hip-
pocrates calls the lobes of the liver and lungs Hyper-
coryphoses.
  HYPE'RCRISIS.  ('i*irtpA-p«ric; from virtp,  over
or above, and xpivta, to separate.)  A critical excretion
above measure; as when a fever terminates  in a loose-
ness, the humours may flow off faster than the strength
can bear, and therefore it is to be checked.
  HYPERE'MESlS. (From virtp, in excess, and tutia,
 to vomit.)   An excessive evacuation by vomiting.
   HYPEREPHIDRO'SIS.  (From virtp,  excess, and
 iSpias, sweat.)  Immoderate sweating.
   HYPERICUM.  (From virtp, over, and ttxtav, an
 image or spectre: so named because it was thought to
 have powerover and to drive away evil spirits'.)  1.
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Polyaaelphia; Order, Polyandria.   St. John's
 wort.
  S. The  pharmacopceial  name of the common St.
 John's wort See Hypericum perfoliatum.
   Hypericum  bacciferum   Caa-opia;  Arbuncula
gummi/era Braziliensis.   A juice exudes from the
 wounded  bark of this plant, in  the  Brazils, which,
 in a dry state, resembles camboge, but is rather darker.
   Hypericum  coris.  Coris  lutea; Coris legitima
 eretica.   Bastard St. John's  wort.  The  seeds are
 diuretic, emmeuagogue, and antispasmodic.
   Hypericum perfoliatum.  The systematic name
 ofthe St. John's wort, called also fuga damonum; and
 androsamum.  Hypericum perforatum—floribus tri-
 gynis, caule andpiti, foliis obtusis pellucido-punctatis,
 of Linneus. This  indigenous plant was greatly es-
       443
teemed by the ancients, Internally in a great variety
of diseases, and externally as an anodyne and dis»
anient,  but  is now very rarely used.  The flowers
were formerly used in our pharmacopoeia, on account
of ihe great proportion of resinous oily matter, in which
the niedical efficacy ofthe plant is supposed to reside,
but are now omitted.
  Hypericum saxatile.   Hypericoides.  Tbe  seeds
are said to be diuretic and antispasmodic.
  HYPERI'NA.   (From virtp, in excess, and ivtia, to
evacuate.)  Medicines which purge excessively.
  Hyperinb'sis.  See Hypercatharsis.
  Hyperi'nos.  See Hypercatharsis.
  Hypero'a.  (From virtp, above, and taov, the top of
a house.)  The palate.
  Hyperopharyngz'us.   (From  virtp; above,  and
tpapvy\, the pharynx.)  A muscle named from its situa-
tion above the pharynx.
  HYPEROSTOSIS.  (From virtp, upon, and taov, a
bone.)  See Exostosis.
  Hypero'um.  (From virtp, above, and u>ov, the roof
or palate.)  A foramen in the upper part of tbe palate.
  Hyperoxymuriate of potassa.  See Murias potassa
oxygenatus
  Hyperoxymurialic acid.  See Chlorine.
  HYPEROXYMURIATE.  A salt now called a chlo-
rate.
  HYPERSARCO MA.  (From virtp, in excess, and
8-apl-, flesh.)  Hypersarcosis.  A fleshy excrescence.
A polypus.
  Hypkrsarco'sis. See Hypersarcoma.
  HYPERSTENE. LaDrador schiller spar.  Found
in Labrador, Greenland, and Isle of Skye.  It has a
beautiful copper colour when cut  and  polished into
rings, brooches, &c.
  Hyperydro'sis. (From virtp, in excess, and vSiap,
water.)   A great distention of any part, from water
collected in it.
  Hypk'xodos.   (From viro, under, and t\oSos, passing
out.)  A flux of the belly.
  HYPNO'BATES.  (From virvoc, sleep, and (3atvta,
logo.)   Hypnobatasis.  One who walks in his sleep
See Oneirodynia.
  HYPNOLO'GIA.  (From virvoc, sleep, and Xoyoc, a
discourse.)   A dissertation, or directions for tbe  due
regulation of sleeping and waking.
  HYPNOPOIE'TICA.    (From  virvot,  sleep,  and
irottia, to cause.)   Medicines which procure sleep.   See
Anodyne.
  HYPNOTIC.   (Hipnoticus;  from  virvoc, sleep.)
Sec Anodyne.
  HYPO-SULPHITE.   A sulphuretted sulphite.
  HYPOjE'MA.  (From tnro, under, and aiua, blood;
because the blood is under the cornea.)  An effusion
of red blood into the chambers ofthe eye.
  Hypocaro'des.  (From  viro, and  xapos, a carus.)
Hypocarothis.  One who labours under a low degree
of carus.
  Hypocatha'rsis.  (From viru, under, and xaBatpia,
to purge.)  It is when a medicine does not work so
much as expected, or but very little.  Or a slight purg-
ing, when it is a disorder.
  HYPOCAU'STRUM.  (From viro, under, and«a«a,
to burn.)  A stove, hot house, or any such like con-
trivance, to preserve plants from cold air.
  Hypocerchna'leon.   (From viro, and xtpxvos, an
asperity of the fauces.)  A stridulous kind or asperity
ofthe fauces.
  Hypocheo'menos.  (From viro, under, and xt«, to
pour.)  One who  labours under a cataract.
  Hypochloro'sis.  (From viro, and  \Xuipwcis,  the
green-sickness.)  A slight dogree of chlorosis.
  HYPOCHONDRIAC.    (From  viro, under,   and
XovSpos, a cartilage.)  1. Belonging to the hypochon-
dria.
  2.  A person affected with lowness of spirits.   See
Hypochondriasis
  Hypochondriac regions.  Regiones hypochondri-
acal Hypochondria.  The spaces in the abdomen that
are under the cartilages of  the  spurious ribs on each
side of the epigastrium.
  HYPOCHONDRIASIS. (FromvirexovopjaKos,one
who is  hipped.j  Hypochondriacus morbus; Affcctia
hypochondriaca ;  Passio hypochondriaca.  The hypo-
chondriac affection, vapours, spleen, Sec  A genus of
disease in tbe class Neuroses, and order Adynamia, of
Cullen, characterized by dyspepsia, languor, and want 
HYP
HYP
  d/ energy; Badness and fear from uncertain causes,
  with a melancholic temperament
   The state of mind peculiar to hypochondriacs is thus
  described by Cullen:—" A langour, listlessness, or want
  of resolution and activity, with respect to all undertak-
  ings ; a disposition to seriousness, sadness, and timidity,
  as to all future events, and apprehension of the worst
  or most  unhappy  state of them; and, therefore, often
  upon slight grounds, and apprehension of great evil.
  Bueh persons are particularly attentive to the state of
  their own health, to every the smallest change of feel-
  ing in  their bodies: and from any unusual sensation,
  perhaps of the slightest  kind, they apprehend great
  danger, and even death itself.  In respect  to these
  feelings and fears,  there is commonly the most obsti-
  nate belief and persuasion."  He adds, " that it is only
  when the state of  mind just described is joined with
  indigestion, in either sex, somewhat in years, of a me-
  lancholic temperament, and a firm and rigid habit, that
  the disease takes the name of Hypochondriacism."
   The seat of the hypochondriac passions is in the
 stomach  and  bowels; for, first these parts are disor-
 dered, then the others suffer from the connexion.  The
 causes are, sorrow, fear, or excesses of any of the pas-
 sions ;  too  long continued watching; irregular diet.
 Those habitually disposed to it (and these causes have
 little effect in other constitutions,) have generally a sal-
 low  or brown complexion,  and a downcast look; a
 rigidity of the solids, and torpor of the nervous system.
 Whatever may occasion nervous disorders in general,
 may also be the cause of this.
   The signs of this complaint are so various, that to
 describe them is to describe almost every other disease;
 but, in general, there is an insurmountable indolence,
 dejected spirits, dread of death, costiveness, a slow and
 somewhat difficult inspiration, flatulencies in the prima
 vie,  and various spasmodic affections.  It is seldom
 fatal; but if  neglected, or improperly treated,  may
 bring on incurable  melancholy, jaundice, madness, or
 vertigo, palsy, and apoplexy.
   On dissections of hypochondriacal persons,  some of
 the   abdominal viscera (particularly the  liver and
 spleen) are usually found considerably enlarged. In
 some few instances, effusion and a turgescence of the
 vessels have been observed in the brain.
   This being a disease of a mixed description, the treat-
 ment must be partly corporeal, partly mental; but it has
 been too often neglected, as merely  imaginary, and
 their complaints met by argument or railiery, which,
 however, can  only weaken their confidence in the
 practitioner.  It may be very proper to inform them,
 that their disorder is not so dangerous as they suppose,
 and may be removed by suitable remedies; but to tell
 them tbey ail nothing, is absurd.  In reality, medicine
 is often of much service; and though others have been
 cured chiefly by  amusements, country air, and exer-
 cise, it by no means  follows, that their disorder was only
 in the imagination.   In so far as dyspeptic symptoms
 appear, these must be  encountered by the remedies
 pointed out under that head; antacids, aperients, &c.
 Sometimes emetics, or drastic  cathartics, have  pro-
 duced speedy relief; but they are too debilitating to be
 often employed.  The bowels will be better regulated
 by milder remedies, as castor oil, senna, aloes, (unless
 they  are subject to haemorrhoids,) and the like; and
 magnesia may at the same time correct ascidity;  but if
 the liver be torpid, some mercurial preparation will be
 of more avail.  Flatulence and spasmodic pains may
 be relieved by aromatics, ether, the fcetid gum resins,
 musk, valserian, &c. but severe and  obstinate  pain, or
 high  irritation, will be best attacked by opium: it is
 important, however, to guard against the patient get-
 ting into the habitual use of this remedy.  Occasionally,
 mild  tonics  appear  useful, especially  chalybeate
 waters; and tepid bathing, with  friction, gentle exjr-
 cise, and warm clothing, are important to keep up the
 function of the skin.  The diet  should be light, and
 sufficiently nutritious; but moderation  must be en-
joined to those who have been accustomed to indulge
 too much in the luxuries of the table: and, in all cases.
 those articles which are ascesccnt, flatulent, or difficult
of digestion,  must be avoided.   Mall  liquors  do not
 usually agree so well ss wine or spirits, considerably
 diluted; but these stimuli should  never be allowed un-
 necessarily.  The mental treatment required  will be
 such as is calculated to restore the strength, and cor-
 rect  the aberrations of  the  judgment.   When any
 false association of ideas occurs, the best mode of re-
 moving it is, by keeping up a continued train of natural
 associated impressions of superior force, which  may
 amuse the mind,  and moderately exercise,  without
 exhausting it.   A variety of literary recreations and
 diversions, especially in the open air, with agreeable
 company, will  be therefore  advisable: frequently
 changing  the scene, taking them to  watering places,
 and adopting other expedients, to prevent them from
 dwelling too much  upon their own morbid feelings.
   HYPOCHONDRIUM.   (From  viro  under,  and
 XovSpos, a cartilage.)  That part of the body which
 lies under the cartilages of the spurious ribs.
   HYPO'CHYMA.  (From viro, and xo<a, to pour ;
 because the ancients thought that the opacity  pro-
 ceeded from something running under the crystalline
 humour.)  A cataract.
   HYPOCI'STIS.  (From viro, under, and kic-oc, the
 cistus.)   See Asarum hypocistis and Cytinus hypo
 dstis.
   Hypoclb'pticum.  (From viro, under, and  xXeirrio,
 to steal.)  A chemical vessel  for separating  liquors,
 particularly the essential oil of any vegetable from the
 water; and named because it steals, as it were, the
 water from the oil.
   Hypocoelon.  (From  viro,  under, and  xoiXov, a
 cavity.)  The cavity under the lower eyelid.
   Hypocopho'sis.  A trifling degree  of deafness.
   Hypocra'nium.  (From vn-o, under, and xpaviov, tbe
 skull.)  A kind of  abscess, so  called because seated
 under the cranium, between it and the dura mater.
   HYPOCRATERIFORMIS.   (From viro, vpanjp, a
 cup, goblet, or salver, aud forma, likeness.) Hypocrate-
 riform, salver-shaped; applied to leaves so shaped, as
 those of the Primula.
   Hypodbi'ris.  In Rufus Ephesius, it is the extremity
 of the forepart of the neck.
   Hypode'rmis. (From viro, under, and <5tpua, the
 skin.)   L  The skin over the clitoris, which covers it
 like a prepuce.
   2. The clitoris.
   Hypo'desis.  (From viro,  under, and Stia to bind.)
 Hypodesmus.   An underswathe, or bandage.
   HYPO'GALA.   (From otto, under, and yaXa, milk;
 because it isa milk-like effusion under the cornea.)  A
 collection of white humour, like milk, in the chambers
 of the eye.  There are two species of this disease; the
 one takes place, it is  said, from a deposition of the mUk,
 as is sometimes observed in women  who suckle, the
 other from a depression of the milky cataract.
   HYPOGASTRIC.  (From v*o, under, and yae^p,
 the stomach.)   Belonging to the hypogastria.   See
 Hypo gas trium.
   Hypogastric  arteries.  Of or belonging to the
 hypogastrium.   See Iliac arteries.
   Hypogastric region.  See Hypogastrium.
   HYPOGA'STRIUM. (From viro, under, and yagnp,
 the stomach.)   Regio hypogastrica.   The region of
 the abdomen that  reaches frbm  above the pubes to
 within three fingers' breadth ofthe navel.
   HYPOGASTROCE'LE.   (From  viroyaj-piov,  the
 hypogastrium, and KijXn, a tumour.)   A hernia, in tbe
 hypogastric region.
   HYPOGLO*SSIS.  (From viro, under, and yXiaaca,
 the tongue.)   The  under part of the tongue, which
 adheres to the jaw.
   HYPOGLO'SSUS.  (From vm>, under, and yXtaaea,
 the tongue.)  A nerve which goes to the under  part of
 the tongue.
   HYPOGLO'TTIDES.   (From  viro,  under,  and
 yXtarla, the tongue.)  They are a kind of lozenge to
 be held under the tongue until they are dissolved.
   HYPOGLU'TIS.   (From viro, under, and yXovror,
 the nates.)  It is the  fleshy part under the nates to-
 wards  the  thigh. Some say it is the flexure  of the
 coxa, under the nates.
  Hypo'mia.  (From viro, under, and taeos, shoulder.)
 In Galen's Exegesis, it is the  part subjacent to the
shoulder.
  HYPONITRIC ACID.  See JVi'tWe acid.
  HYPONITROUS  ACID.   Pernitrous acid.   «It
appears from the experiments  of Gay Lussac, that
there exists an  acid,  formed  of  100 azole  and 150
oxygen.   When into a test tube filled with mercury,
we pass up from 500 to 000 volumes of deutoxide of
azote, a little alkaline water, and 100 parts of oxygen
gas, we obtain an absorption of 500, proceeding from 
                       HYP

the condensation of the 100 parts of oxygen with 400
of deutoxide of azote.  Now these 400 parts are com-
posed of 200 azote and -200 oxygen; consequently, the
new acid is composed of azote and oxygen, in the ratio
sf 100 to 130, as wc have said above.  It is the same
acid, according to Gay Lussac, which is produced on
reaving  for a long time a strong solution of potassa in
contact  with deutoxide of azote.  At the end of three
months  he found that 100 parts of deutoxide of azote
were reduced  lo 23 of protoxide of azote, and  that
crystals of hyponitrite (pernitrile) were formed.
  Hyponitrous acid  (called pernitroua by the French
chemists)  cannot be insulated.  As soon  as we  lay
hold, by an acid, of  the potassa with which it is asso-
ciated, it is transformed Into deutoxide of azote, which
is disengaged,  and  into  nitrous or nitric acid, which
remains in solution."
  Htpo'momos.  (From vstovquoc, a phagedenic ulcer.)
1. A subterraneous  place.
  2.  A deep phagedenic ulcer.
  Hy-pope'dium. (From viro, under, and irovs,  tlie
foot)  A cataplasm for the sole of the foot.
  Hypo'phora.  (From  vvotbtpouoi,  to  be  carried or
conveyed  underneath.)   A deep fistulous ulcer.
  HYPOPHOSPHOROUS  ACID.    This  acid was
lately discovered by Dulong.  Pour water on the phos-
phuret of  barytes, and wait till all the phosphuretted
hydrogen  be  disengaged.  Add  cautiously to  the
filtered liquid dilute  sulphuric acid, till the barytes be
all precipitated in the state of sulphate.  The superna-
tant  liquid is hypophosphorous acid, which should be
passed through  a filter.  This liquid  may be concen-
trated by  evaporation, till it become viscid.  It has a
very snur  taste, reddens  vegetable blues, and does not
Crystallize.  It is probably composed  of 2  primes of
phosphorus = 3 + 1  of oxygen.  Dulong's analysis ap-
proaches  to this proportion.   He assigns,  but from
rather precarious data, 100 phosphorus  to 37.44 oxy-
gen.   The hypophosphites have the  remarkable pro-
perty of being all soluble in water; while many ofthe
phosphates and phosphites are insoluble.
  HYPOPHTHA'LMION.  (From viro, under,  and
oa)BaXppf,  the eye.)   The part under the eye which is
subject to  swell in a cachexy, or dropsy.
  Hypo'pbysis-  (From viro, under, and dnita. to pro-
duce.)  A disease of the  eyelids, when the hairs grow
so much as to irritate and offend the pupil.
  HYPOPYUM. (From viro, under, and rrvov, pus;
because the pus is  under the cornea.)   Hypopion;
Pyosis; Abscessus oculi. An accumulation of a glu-
tinous yellow fluid, like pus, which takes place in  the
anterior chamber of the aqueous humour, and  fre-
quently  also in the posterior one, in consequence of
severe, acute ophthalmy, particularly the Internal spe-
cies.  This viscid matter of the hypopyum, is com-
monly palled pus; but Scarpa contends, that it is only
coagulating lymph.   The symptoms portending  an
extravasation of coagulable lymph in the eye, or an
hypopyum, are the same as those which occur in  the
highest  stage of violent acute ophthalmy, viz. prodi-
gious tumefaction of the eyelids; the same swelling
and redness as  in cbemosis; burning beat and pain in
the eye; pains In the eyebrowi and nape of the neck;
fever, reaUessoesa, aversion to tbe faintest light, and a
contracted state ofthe pupil.
  Hyfori'nion.  (From  viro, under, and  oia>, tbe nose.)
\ name for the parts  of  tile upper lip below tbe
(ostrifs.
  HvaosA'acA.  (From «nro, under, and gopl, flesh.)
t/ypasorddios.  A collection of fluid or air in the cel-
lular roembraue
  Hypospadije'os.   (From viro, uader,  and <rirao>, to
draw.)  The urethra terminating under tbe glans.
  Hyfogfatw'smus. (From  vto, under, and oiraBn,
a spatola.) The name of an operation formerly used
iu surgary, for removing defluxions in  the eyes.   It
was thus  named from  the instrument with which it
was performed.
  Hypospha'sxa-   (From  viro, under, and oda£ia,
tt> kill.)  Aposphagma.   An extravasation  of blood
in the  tunica  adnata  of the  eye,  from external
injury.
  HvpotPLe'siA-  (From viro, under, and eirXnv,  the
spleen.)   A tumour  under the spleen.
  Hvposta'phyle.   (From  viro,  and  s-aipuki,   the
Wruja.)  Relaxation ofthe uvula.
  Hybo'stajis.  (From v*i™k> to subside.)  Asedi-
      444
                     HYS

 meat,  as that which Is occasionally let down from
 urine.
  HYPOSULPHUREOUS ACID.  <> In order to ob-
 tain hypostilpliureous acid,  Herschel mixed a dilute
 solution of hyposulphite of strontites with a slight ex-
 cess of dilute sulphuric  acid,  and, after  agnation,
 poured the mixture on three filters.  The first was re-
 ceived into a solution of carbonate of potassa,  from
 which it expelled carbonic acid gas.  The second por-
 tion being received successively into nitrates of silver
 and mercury, precipitated the metals copiously in the
 state of sulphurets, but produced no effect on solutions
 of copper, iron, or sine.  The third, being tasted, was
 acid,  astringent, and bitter.  Wtien fresh filtered,  it
 was clear; but it became milky on standing, deposit-
 ing sulphur, and colouring  sulphureous acid.  A mo-
 derate exposure to air, or a gentle heat,  caused its en-
 tire decomposition."
  HYPOSULPHURIC ACID.   "Gay Lussac and
 Welther have recently announced the discovery of a
 new acid combination of sulphur and oxygen, interme-
 diate  between sulphureous and sulphuric acids, to
 which they have  given the name of huposulphttflc
 acid.  It is obtained by passing a current of sulphure-
 ous aoid gas over the black oxide of manganese.  A
 combination takes place;  the excess of the oxide of
 manganese is separated by dissolving tbe hyposulphats
 of manganese in water.  Caustic barytes precipitates
 tho manganese, and forms  with tbe new acid a  very
 soluble salt, which, freed from excess of barytes  by a
 current  of carbonic acid, crystallizes  regularly, like
 the nitrate or muriate of  barytes.  Hyposulphate of
 barytes  being thus obtained, sulphuric acid  is  cau-
 tiously added to the solution, which throws down the
 barytes, and leaves the hyposulphuric acid  in the wa-
 ter.  This acid bears considerable concentration under
 the receiver of the air-pump.  It consists of five parts
 of oxygen to four of sulphur.  The greater number of
 the hyposulphites, both earthy and  metallic, are solu-
 ble, and crystallize; those of barytes and lime  are un-
 alterable in the air.
  Hyposulphuric acid is distinguished by the following
 properties:—
  1st, It is decomposed by beat into sulphurous and
 sulphuric acids.
  2d, It forms soluble salts with barytes,  strontites,
lime, lead, and silver.
  3d, The hyposulphatcs are ell soluble.
  4th, They yield sulphurous acid whsnlheirsoiutiotu
 are mixed wilh acids, only if the mixture becewesiiot
 of itself, or be artificially bested.
  5th, They disengage a great deal of enlpfcmttus BflM
 at a high temperature, and are converted into neutral
 sulphates."
  HYPO'THENAR.   (From viro, under, and tevap,
 the palm of the hand.) 1.  A muscle which runs on
 tbe inside of the hand.
  2. That part of tbe hand which is opposite to the
 palm.
  HYPOTHESIS.  An opinion, or a system of gene-
 ral rules, founded partly on fact  but  principally on
 conjecture.   A theory explains every fact,  and every
 circumstance connected with it;  an hypothesis exr
plains only a certain  number, feaving some luaer
connted for, and others in opposition to it
  HYPO'THETON.  (From viro, under, and  Tsflmw,
to put.)   A suppository, or medicine introduced Wile
the rectum, to procure stools.
  Hypo'xylon.   (From viro, and IvXov, wood.  A spe-
cies of davaria, which grows under old wood.
  Hypozo'ma.  (From viro and  \iawviu, to bind
round.)  The diaphragm.
  Hypsiqlo'ssus.  (From vxptXottSts, the hyoid bone,
and yXiaaaa, the tongue.)  A muscle named from its
origin in  the os hyoides,  and its insertion  in the
 tongue.
  HYPSILOI'DES.  1. The Os kyoides.
  2. The hyoglossus muscle.
  Hyptia'smos.  (From vir7ia{«*, to tie with the face
 upwards.)  A supine decublture, or a nausea, with in
 clination to vomit
  Htpu'lus.  (From viro, under, and ovXij, a cicatrix.)
 An ulcer under a cicatrix.
  HYSSOP.  See Hyesopue.
  Hyssop hedge.   See Gratiola.
  Hyssofttes.   (From v«w*oc, hyssop.)   Wine im-
 pregnated with hyssop. 
HYS
HYS
   HYSSO'PUS.   ('Yo-doiroc;  from Atob, Hebrew.)
 1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean sys-
 tem.   Class,  Didynamia;  Order,  Gymnospermia.
 Hyssop.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the common hys-
 sop.  See Hyssopus rff.cinalis.
   HYssorus capitata.  Wild thyme.
   Hyssopus officinalis.   The systematic name of
 the common hyssop.  Hyssopus—spicis secwhdis, fo-
 Hie lanceolatis of Linnajus.  This ei-otic plant  is es-
 teemed as an aromatic and stimulant, but is chiefly
 employed as a pectoral, and has long been thought use-
 ful in humoral asthmas, coughs, and catarrhal  affec-
 tions,; for this purpose,  an infusion  of the leaves,
 sweetened with honey, or  sugar, is recommended to
 be drank as t.a.
   HY'STERA.  (From ve-tpoc, behind: so called be-
 cause it is placed behind the other parts.)  The womb.
 See Uterus.
   HYSTERA'LGIA.   (From vrtpa, the womb, and
 aXyoc, pain.)  A pain in the womb.
   HYSTE'RIA.  (From vc-rpa, the womb, from which
the disease was supposed to arise.)  Passio hysterica.
Hysterics.  Dr. Cullen places this disease in the class
Neuroses, and order Spasmi.  There are four species:
  1. Hysteria chlorotica,   from a retention of the
menses.
  2. Hysteria A leueorrhaa, from a fluor albus.
  3. Hysteria a menorrhagia, from  an immoderate
flow of the menses.
  4. Hysteria libidinosa, from sensual desires.
  The complaint appears under such various  shapes,
imitates so many other diseases, and is attended with
such a variety of symptoms, which denote the animal
and vital functions to  be considerably disordered, that
it is difficult to give a just character or definition of it;
and it is only by taking an assemblage of all its appear-
ances, that we can convey a proper idea of it to others.
The disease attacks in paroxysms, or fits.  These are
sometimes preceded by dejection of spirits, anxiety of
mind, effusion of tears, difficulty of breathing, sickness
at the stomach, and palpitations at the heart; but it
more usually happens, that  a pain is felt  on  the left
Bide, about the flexure of the colon, with a sense of
 distention advancing  upwards, till it gets into the sto-
 mach, and removing from thence Into the throat, it oc-
 casions, by its pressure, a sensation as if a ball was
 lodged there, which by authors has been called globus
 hystericus.  The disease having arrived at this height,
 the patient appears to be threatened with suffocation,
 becomes taint, and is  affected with stupor and insen-
 sibility;  while, at the same time, the trunk ofthe body
 is turned to and fro, the limbs are variously agitated;
 wild and  irregular actions take place in alternate fits
 of laughter, crying, and  screaming:  incoherent ex-
 pressions  are uttered, a temporary delirium prevails,
 and a frothy saliva is discharged from the mouth.  The
 spasms at length abating, a quantity of wind is evacu-
 ated upwards, with frequent sighing and sobbing, and
 the woman recovers the exercise of sense and motion
 without any recollection of what has taken place dur-
 ing the fit;  feeling, however,  a severe  pain in her
 head, and a soreness over her whole  body.  In  some
 cases, there -is little or no convulsive motion, and the
 person lies seemingly in a state of profound sleep, with-
 out eithersenseor motion.   Hiccup is a symptom which
 likewise attends, in some instances, on hysteria; and
 now and then it happens, that a fit of hysteria consists
 of this alone.  In some cases, of this nature, it has been
 known to continue for two or three days, during which
 it frequently seems as if It would suffocate  the patient,
 and proceeds, gradually weakening her, till it either
 goes off or  else occasions death by suffocation: but
 this last is  extremely rare.   Besides  hiccup,  other
 Blight spasmodic affections sometimes wholly form a
 lit of  hysteria, which  perhaps continue for a day or
 two, and  then either go off of themselves, or are re-
 moved by the aid of medicine.  In some cases the pa-
 tient is attacked with violent pain in the back, which
 extend from the spine to  the sternum, and at length
 become fixed upon the region of the stomach, being
 evidently of a spasmodic nature, and often prevailing
 in so high a degree as  to cause clammy sweats, a pale
 cadaverous  look, coldness of the  extremities, and a
 pulse hardly perceptible.
   Hysteric affections occur more frequently in a single
 state of life than in tiie married ; and usually between
the age of puberty and that of thirty-five years;  ani
they make their attack oftener about the period of
menstruation than at any other.
  They are readily excited in those who are subject to
them, by passions ofthe mind, and by every consider-
able emot ion, especially when brought on by surprise;
hence, sudden joy, grief, fear, Sec. are very apt to occa-
sion them. They have also been known to arise from
imitation and sympathy.
  Women of a delicate habit, and whose nervous  sys-
tem is extremely sensible, are those who are most sub-
ject to hysteric affections; and the habit which predis-
poses to their attacks, is acquired by inactivity and a
sedentary life, grief, anxiety of mind, a suppression ot
obstruction of the menstrual  flux,  excessive evacua-
tions, and a constant use of a low diet, or Of crude un-
wholesome food.
  Hysteria differs  from hypochondriasis in the follow-
ing particulars, and, by paying attention to them, may
always readily be distinguished from it:—Hysteria at-
tacks the sanguine and plethoric; comes on Boon after
the age of puberty; makes its onset suddenly and vi-
olently, so as to deprive the  patient of all sense  and
voluntary motion: is accompanied with the sensation
of a ball rising upwards in the throat, so as to threaten
suffocation; is attended usually with much spasmodic
affection; is more apt to terminate in epilepsy than in
any other disease; and, on dissection, its  morbid  ap-
pearances are confined principally to the uterus  and
ovaria.
  The reverse happens in hypochondriasis.  It attacks
the melancholic; seldom occurs till after  the age of
thirty-five; comes on  gradually;  is a tedious disease,
and difficult to cure ; exerts its pernicious effects on the
membraneous canal ofthe intestines, as well by spasms
as wind; is more apt to terminate in melancholy, or a
low fever, than  in any other disease; and, on dissec-
tion, exhibits its morbid effects principally on the liver,
spleen, and pancreas, which are often found in a  dis-
eased state.
  Another very materia) difference might be pointed
out between these two diseases, which is, that hysteria
is much relieved by advancing in age, whereas hypo-
chondriasis usually becomes aggravated.
  The two diseases have often been confounded to-
gether;  bul, from considering the  foregoing circum-
stances, it appears  that a proper line of distinction
should be drawn between them.
  The hysteric passion likewise differs from a syncope,
as in this there is an entire Cessation ofthe pulse, a con
tracted face, and  a ghastly countenance;  whereas, in
the uterine disorder, there is Often something of a co-
lour, and the face  is more expanded; there is likewise
a pulse, though languid; and  this state may continue
some days, which never happens in a syncope.
  It also differs from apoplexy, in which the abolition
of sense and voluntary motion is attended witb a  sort
of snoring, great  difficulty of breathing, and  a  quick
pulse; which do not take place in hysteria.
  It differs from epilepsy, in  that this is  supposed to
arise in consequence of a distention of the vessels of
the brain: whereas,  in hysteria, the  spasmodic and
convulsive motions arise from a turgescence of blood
in the uterus, or in other parts ofthe genital system.
  However dreadful and alarming any hysteric fit may
appear, still it is seldom accompanied with danger,  and
the disease never  terminates fatally, unless it changes
into epilepsy, or that the patient is in a very weak re-
duced state.
  The indications in this disease are, 1. To lessen the
violence of tiie fits.  2. To prevent their return by ob-
viating the several causes. Where the attack is slight,
it may be as well  to leave it  in  a  great measure to
have its course.   But where the  paroxysm is severe,
and the disease of no long standing,  occurring in a
young plethoric female, as is most frequent, and espe-
cially from suppression of the menses, a liberal  ab-
straction of blood should be made, and will often afford
speedy relief.  If this step do not appear advisable,  and
the disorder be rather  connected with the  state of the
primes via;, an emetic  may check its  progress,  if the
patient can be got  to swallow during a remission of the
convulsions.  At other times  the application of cold
water to tlie skin more or less extensively; strong  and
disagreeable odours, as hartshorn, burnt feathers, ice. j
rubbing the temples with tether;  antispasmodics, par-
ticularly opiumi by tlie mouth or in glyster: the pedi- 
HYS
HYS
hivium, sec. may be resorted to according to the state
of the  patient  During the intervals, we must endea-
vour to remove any observable predisposition; in the
plethoric, by a spare diet, exercise, and occasional pur-
gatives ; in those who are weakly, and rather deficient
in blood, by proper nourishment, with chalybeates, or
other tonic medicines.  The state of the uterine func-
tion must  be particularly attended to, as well as  that
of the primte vie; those cathartics are to be preferred
which  are not apt to occasion flatulence, nor particu-
larly irritate the  rectum, unless where the menses are
interrupted, when the aloelic preparations may claim
a preference; and the perspiration should be main-
tained by warm clothing, particularly to the feet, with
the prudent use of the cold bath.  The mind ought also
to be occupied by agreeable and useful pursuits, and
regular hours  will tend materially to the restoration of
the general health.
  Hysteria'lges.  (From vc-tpa, the  womb, and dX-
yos, pain.) 1. An epithet for any thing that excites
pain in the uterus.
  2. Hippocrates applies this word to vinegar.
  3. The pains which resemble labour-;pains, generally
called false pains.
  HYSTERl'TIS.  (From vc-rpa,  the womb.)   Me-
tritis.  Inflammation of the womb.  A genus of disease
in the class Pyrexia, and order Phlegmasia, of Cullen;
characterized by fever,  heat, tension,  tumour,  and
pain in the region of the womb; pain in the os uteri,
when touched, and vomiting.
  In natural labours, as  well as those of a laborious
sort, manv causes of injury to the uterus, and the peri-
tona-um which covers it, will be applied.   The long
continued  action of the uterus on tiie body of the
child, and  the great pressure made by its head on the
soft parts, will further add to the chance of injury.
Besides these, an improper application of instruments,
or an officiousness of the  midwife in  hurrying the
labour, may have contributed to the violence.  To
these causes may be added exposure to cold, by taking
the woman too  early out of  bed alter delivery,  and
thereby throwing the circulating fluids upon the inter-
nal parts,  putting a stop to the secretion of milk, or
occasioning a suppression of the lochia.
  As  inflammation of the womb  is sometimes  per-
fectly distinct, but is more frequently communicated to
the peritonaeum, Fallopian tubes, and ovaria;  and
bavin; once begun, the natural functions of the organ
become much disturbed, which greatly adds lo the
disease. It is oftener met with in women of a robust
and plethoric habit than in those of lax  fibres and a de-
licate constitution, particularly where they have in-
dulged freely in food of a heating nature, and in the
use of spirituous liquors.  It never  prevails  as an epi-
demic, like puerperal fever, for which  it has probably
often been mistaken; and to this we may, with e ime
reason, ascribe the difference in the mode of treatment
which has taken place among physicians.
  An inflammation of the uterus shows itself usually
about the  second or third day after delivery, with  a
painful sensation at the bottom of the belly, which
gradually increases in  violence, wilhout any kind of
intermission.   On  examining externally, the uterus
appears much increased in size, is hard to the feel, and
on making a pressure upon it, the patient experiences
great soreness and pain. Soon afterward there ensues
an increase in heat over the whole of the body, with
pains in the head and back, extending  into the groins,
rigors, considerable thirst, nausea, and vomiting. The
tongue is white and dry, the secretion of milk is usually
much interrupted, the lochia  are greatly diminished,
the urine is high-coloured and scanty; the body is cos-
tive snd the pulse bard, full, and frequent
  These are the symptoms which usually present them-
selves when the inflammation does not run very high,
and is perfectly distinct;  but when It  Is  so extensive
as to affect the peritoneum, those of irritation succeed,
and soon destroy the patient.
  Uterine inflammation is always attended with much
danger, particularly where-the  symptoms run high,
and the proper means for removing them have not been
timely adopted.  In such cases, it may terminate in
suppuration, scirrhus, or gangrene.
  Frequent rigors, succeeded by flushings of the face,
quickness and weakness of the pulse, great depression
of strength, delirium, and tiie sudden cessation of pain
and soreness in tiie region of the abdomen, denote a
fatal  termination.  On the contrary, the ensuing of a
gentle diarrhoea, the lochial discharge returning in due
quantity and quality, the secretion of milk  recons-
mencing,  and the uterus becoming gradually softer
and less tender to the touch, with an abatement ot
heat and thirst, prognosticate a favourable issue.
  When shivermgs  attack the  patient, after  several
days'  continuance of the symptoms, but little relief
can be afforded by medicine, the  event being generally
fatal.   In this case, the woman emaciates and loses her
strength, becomes hectic, and sinks under colliquative
sweating, or purging.
  Upon opening the bodies of women  who have died
of this disease, and where it existed in  a simple state,
little or no extravasated fluid is usually  to be met with
in the cavity of the abdomen. In some instances, the
peritoneal surfaces have been discovered free from the
disease; while in others, that portion which  covers
the uterus and posterior part of the bladder, bas been
found partially inflamed.  The inflammation has been
observed, in some cases, to extend  to tbe ovaria and
Fallopian  tubes, which,  when  cut open,  are often
loaded with  blood.   The uterun  Itself  usually  ap-
pears  of a firm substance, but  is larger than in its
natural  slate, and, when cut into,  a quantity of pus
is often found.  Gangrene is  seldom,  if ever, to be
met with.
  HYSTEROCE'LE.  (From vs-tpa, the womb, and
KijXn, a tumour.)  A hernia of  the womb.   This is
occasioned by violent muscular efforts, by ulows on the
abdomen at the time of gestation, and also i>y wounds
and abscesses of the abdomen which permit the uterus
to dilate the part.  Ruysch relates the case of a woman,
who, becoming pregnant after an  ulcer had been healed
in the lower part of the  abdomen, the tumid uterus
descended into a dilated sac of the peritoneum in that
weakened part, till it hung, with  the included fcetus, at
her knees.   Yet when her full time was  come, the
midwife reduced this wonderful hernia, and, In  a natu-
ral way, she was safely delivered of a son.
  Hy'steron.   (From vs-tpoc, afterward; so  named
because it comes immediately after the fcetus.)  Tho
placenta.
  HYSTEROPHY'SA.  (From  vj-tpa,  the womb, and
tbvoa,  flatus.)  A swelling, or distention of the womb,
from a collection of air in its cavity.
  HYSTEBO'TOMY.  (Hysterotomia;  from vc-rpa,
the womb, and repvia, to cut.)   Sec  Casarian ope-
ration.
  Hysterotomatocia.  See Casarian operation.
  H YSTEROPTO'SIS.   (From  vg-tpa,  the womb, and
mirria, to fall.)  A bearing down of the womb.
  HYSTRICI'ASIS.   (From ve-pill. a hedge-hog, or
porcupine.)   A disease of the hairs, in  which  they
stand  erect, like porcupine quills.  An account of this
rare disease is to be seen in the  Philosophical  Trans-
actions, No. 424.
  Hy'stricis lapis.   See Bezoar hystricis.
  HYSTRl'TIS  See Hystcritis. 
I
rcH                                             ICH
"JATRALEIPTES.  (From (arpoc, a physician, and
* aXtidtto, lo anoint.)  One who  undertakes to cure
distempers by external unction and  friction: Galen
makes mention of such iu his time, particularly one
Diotas; and Pliny informs us, that this practice was
first introduced by Prodicus of Sclymbria, who was a
disciple of Aesculapius.
  IATROCHY MIClfS.  (From jarpoj, a physician,
and xvuin, chemistry.)  Chymiater.  A chemical phy-
sician, who cures by means of chemical medicines.
  IATROLI'PTICE.  (.From mrpoc, a physician, and
aXctibia, to auoint.) The method of curing diseases by
unction and friction.
  IATROPH YSICUS.  (From  mrpoc, physician, and
ibvcts, nature.)  An epithet bestowed on some writ-
ings which treat of physical subjects with relation to
medicine.
  IBE'RIS.  (So  named from Iberia, the place of its
natural  growth.)   1.  The  name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system. Class, Tetradynamia; Order,
Siliculosa.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the Sciatica cresses.
See Lepidium iberis.
  Ibira'ce.  See Guaiacum.
  I'BIS.  I/?if.   A  bird  much like our kingfisher,
taken notice of by the Egyptians, because, when it was
sick, it used to inject with its long bill the water of the
Nile into its fundament, whence Langius, lib. ii. ep. ii.
says they learned the use of clysters.
  IBI'SCUS.   (From i/Jic, the  stork, who was said
to chew it and inject it as a clyster.)  Marshmallow.
  Ibi'xuma.  (From iSiokos, the  mallow, and ilos,
glue:  so named from  its having a  glutinous leaf, like
the mallow.)  Saponaria  arbor.  The soap tree, pro-
bably  the Sapindus saponaria of Linneus.
  ICE.  Glades.  Water  made solid by the applica-
tion of cold.  It is frequently applied by surgeons to
resolve external inflammatory diseases, to stop hemor-
rhages, and constringe relaxed parts.
  Iceland spar.  A calcareous spar.
  I'CHOR.  (Ixup.)   A thin, aqueous, and acrid dis-
charge.
  I'CTH YA.  OxBva, a fish-hook; from ixBvs, a fish.)
I. The skin of the Squatina, or  monkfish.
  2. The name of an  instrument like a fish-hook, for
extracting the fcetus.
  ICHTHYASIS. See Ichthyosis.
  ICHTHYOCO'LLA.    (From  iXBvs,  a fish, and
xoXXa, glue.)   Colla  piscium.   Isinglass.  Fish-glue.
This substance is almost wholly gelatin; 100 grains of
good dry isinglass containing rather more than 98 of
matter soluble in water.
  isinglass is  made  from certain fish found in the
Danube, and the rivers of Muscovy   Willoughby and
others inform us, that it is made of the sound of the
Beluga; and Neumann, that it  is  made  of the Huso
Gertnanorum, and other fish, which he has frequently
seen sold  in the  public markets of Vienna.  Jackson
remarks,  tbat the sounds of cod, properly prepared,
afford this substance; and that  the lakes of America
abound with fish from which the very finest sort may
be obtained.
  Isinglass receives its different shapes in the follow-
ing manner: the parts of which it is composed, parti-
cularly the sounds, are taken from the fish while sweet
and fresh, slit open, washed from  their slimy sordes,
divested of a very thin membrane which envelopes
the sound, and  then exposed  to stiffen a little in the
air.   In this state, they are formed into rolls about the
thickness of a finger, and in  length according to the
intended size of tiie staple: a thin membrane is gene-
rally  selected for the  centre of the roll, round which
the rest are folded alternately, and about half an inch
uf each extremity of the roll is turned inwards.
  Isinglass is best made in the summer, as frost gives it
a disagreeable colour, deprives it of weight, and im-
pal-s  its gelatinous principles.
  Isinglass boiled in milk forms a mild nutritious telly,
and Is thus sometimes employed medicinally.   This,
when flavoured by the art of the cook, is the blanc-
manger of our tables   A solution of isinglass in water,
with  a very small proportion of some balsam, spread'
on black silk, is the court-plaster of the shops.
  [That  variety of the codfish called tlie Hake, and
known to naturalists as the Gadus Merluccius, has a
very large sound or swimming  bladder, which affords
ichthyocolla in abundance.  In 1824, a quantity was
presented to the New-York Lyceum of Natural His-
tory for  their inspection,  and a committee of that
learned body made the following report  on the sub-
ject:
  " The Isinglass, or Ichthyocolla, made  by Mr. Wil
liam Hall, at the Isle of Shoals, which was presented
by him, for examination, at the last sitting of the Ly
ceum, has been submitted to several experiments by the
committee.  It  proved more pure  than the Russian
isinglass, with which it  was  compared,  possesses
greater solubility, and exhibits more tenacity; and its
solution resists longer the process of putrefaction; but
it retains to a peculiar degree the unpleasant flavour
peculiar to fish.
  The result of the experiment induces the committee
to recommend the article as a valuable acquisition to
our domestic manufactures.  It is found excellent in
clarifying liquors, and merits the particular attention
of brewers; it is valuable in preparing leather, render-
ing it soft and pliable, and deserves to be employed in
cotton manufactories  for glazing, and starching gene-
rally.  Iu its present  state, however, it would not be
agreeable as an article in the preparation of food; it
might be, if deprived of the fishy smell.
  The form  of the  ichthyocolla  from  the  Isle  of
Shoals, is far preferable to that of foreign manufac-
ture.   The peculiar shape of the isinglass from the
Muscovy rivers was probably adopted to conceal and
disguise the real substance, and to preserve the mono-
poly ; but now, as the subterfuge is no longer neces-
sary, it is acknowledged to answer every purpose more
effectually in its native state. In the rolled, or curled
form, it Is more apt to retain oily particles and exuvia
of insects between the membranes, that frequently con-
taminate the liquor  for whose clarification it is em-
ployed.  The sounds of the Cod (gadus  morhua) and
Ling (gadus molva) have long been used by Newfound-
land  and Iceland fishermen, and  bear  a strong  re-
semblance to those of the genus Accipenser; the Huso
(or Beluga) which family has always supplied Muscovy
(to which country we are originally indebted for it)
with  this article of commerce.  Mr. Hall, alone, as far
as  we know,  employs the Hake (gadus merluccius)
and he offers his isinglass at $4,000 a ton, nearly one
quarter less than we pay for the foreign, of which 100
tons are every year  imported.  If  the  manufacture
succeeds, of which (with  capital and zeal) we little
doubt, it will save yearly from 80 to $100,000 to our
citizens; at the same time it opens to them afield of en-
terprise which will yield annually from 4to $5,000, and
which must increase wilh the growth of our country.
  In  concluding, we  may remark, that Mr. Hall em-
ploys the mode described iu  the 63d volume of the
Transactions of  the  Royal Society of  London, but
without previously salting  the sounds.
                           J. VAN RENSSELAER.
                           J. E. DE KAY.
                           SAMUEL AKERLY.
  ftCT Mr. Hall observes that the unpleasant smell of
the isinglass can be entirely extracted by three weeks'
exposure to the night-air, after finished."—From  the
Statesman, Jan. 9th, 1824.1
  ICHTHYOPHTHAL'MITE. Fish eyestone. See
Apophyllite.
  ICHTHYOSIS.  (From txBva, the scale of a fish;
from  the resemblance of the scales to those of a fish.)
Ichthyosis.  A genus  of diseases of the second  order
of Dr. Willan's disease of the skin.  The character-
istic of ichthyosis is  a permanently harsh, dry, scaly,
and In some cases, almost horny texture of the integu-
ments of the body, unconnected with internal disorder.
Psoriasis and Lepra differ from this affection, in being
but partially diffused, and in having deciduous scales. 
CT
ICT
The arrangement and distribution of the Kales in ich-
thyosis are peculiar.   Above and below the olecranon
sn the arm, says Dr. Willan, and in a similar situation
with respect to the patella on the thi^h and leg, they
are small, rounded, prominent, or papillary, and of a
black colour;  some of the scaly papillae have  a short,
narrow neck, and broad irregular tops.  On some part
of the extremities, and on  tbe trunk of tbe body, the
scales are flat and large, often placed like tiling, or in
the same order as scales on the back of a fish; but, in
a few cases, they have appeared separate, being inter-
sected by whitish furrows.  There  is usually in this
complaint a dryness and roughness of the soles of tbe
feet; sometimes a thickened  and brittle  state ofthe
skin in the palms  of the hands,  with large  painful
fissures, and on the face  an appearance of the scurf
rather than of scales.   The inner part of the wrist,
the hams, the inside of the elbow,  the furrow along
the spine, the  inner and upper part of the titigh, are
perhaps the only portions of the skin always exempt
from the scaliness.  Patients affected with ichthyosis
are occasionally much harassed with inflamed pus-
tules, or with large painful biles on different parts of
the body; it is also remarkable, that they never seem
to have the least perspiration or moisture  ofthe  skin.
This disease did not, in any case, appear to Dr.,Willan
to have been transmitted hereditarily; nor was more
than one child from the same parents affected  with it.
Dr. Willan never met with an instance of the horny
rigidity of the integuments,  Ichthyosis cornea, im-
peding (Tie motion of the muscles or joints.   It is, how-
everj mentioned by authors as affecting the lips, pre-
pabeyioes. Angers, esc. and sometimes as extending
over nearly the whole body.
  ICOBA'^DRIA.   (From exact, twenty, and avnp,
a*man, or Husband.)  The name of a class of plants
in the sexual system of Linneus, consisting of those
which have hermaphrodite flowers furnished  with
tWeriiy or more stamhia that are inserted into the inner
side or the calyx, or petals, or both.  By this last cir-
CltttstEttte is this class distinguished from Polyandria.
  stTtlEBI'TIA.  (From  icterus, tbe jaundice.)  1.
An eruption of yellowish spots.
  2. A yellow  discoloration ofthe Skin.
  ICTERUS.  (Named from  its likeness to the plu-
mage ofthe golden thrush, of which  Pliny  relates, that
if a jaundiced  person looks on one,  the bird dies, and
the patient recovers.)  Morbus arcuatus, or arquatus ;
Auriga; Morbus regius; Morbus leseoli.  The jaun-
dice.  A genus of disease in the class Cachexia,  and
order Impeligines, of  Cullen;  characterized  by yel-
lowness of the skin and eyes;  feces white, and urine
of a high colour.  There are six species:—
  1. Icterus calculosus, acute pain  in  the epigastric
region,  increasing after eating: gall-stones pass  by
stool.         )
  2. Icterus spasmodicus, without pain, after spasmo-
dic  diseases and passions of the mind.
  3. Icterus mucosus, without either pain, gall-stones,
or spasm,  and relieved  by the discharge of tough
phlegm by stool.
  4. Icterus hepaticus, from an induration in the liver.
  5. Icterus gravidarum, from pregnancy, and disap
rearing after delivery.
  6. Icterus infantum, of infants.
  It takes place meet usually in consequence of an in-
terrupted'excretion of bile, from an obstruction in the
ductus communis choledochus, which occasions its ab-
sorption into Ibe blood-vessels.  In some cases  it may,
however, be owing to a redundant secretion of the
bile.  Tlie causes producing the first species are, the
presence of biliary calculi in  the gall-bladder  and its
ducts; spasmodic constriction of tbe ducts themselves;
arid, rasuy, the pressure made by tumours in adjacent
parts;  hence jaundice is often an attendant symptom
on  a scirrhosity of the liver,  pancreas, &c,  and on
pregnancy.
  Chronic bilious affections are frequently brought on
by drinking freely, but more particularly by spirituous
liquors: hence they are often to be observed in the
debauchee and the drinker of drams.  They are like-
wise frequently met with in those who lead a seden-
tary life; and Who indulge much in anxious thoughts.
  A slight degree of jaundice often proceeds from the
redundant eeoretion  of bile;  and a bilious habit is
therefore constitutional to some people, particularly to
those who reside long in a warm climate.
      448
  By attending to the various circumstances and symp-
toms which present themselves, we shall in general be
able to ascertain, with much certainty, the real nature
ofthe cause which has given rise to the disease.
  We may he assured by the long continuance of the
complaint, and by  feeling the liver and other parts ex-
ternally, whether or not it arises from disease of the
liver, pancreas, or adjacent parts.
  Where  passions cf the mind induce  the disease,
without any hardness or enlargement of the liver, or
adjacent parts, and without any appearance of calculi
in the feces, or on  dissection  after death, we are na-
turally induced to conclude  that  tlie disorder  was
owing to a spasmodic affection of the biliary ducts.
  Where  gall-stones are lodged  in the  ducts, acute
lancinating pains will be felt in the region of the parts,
which  will cease for a  lime,  and then return again;
great irritation at tho stomach and  frequent vomiting
will attend, and the patient will experience an aggra-
vation of  the pain  after  eating.  Such calculi are of
various sizes, from  a pea to that of  a walnut; and, in
some cases, are voided in a considerable number, being,
like tiie gaH, of a yellowish, brownish, or green colour.
  The  jaundice comes  on with  languor, inactivity,
loathing of food, flatulence, acidities in  the  stomach
and bowels, and costiveness.   As it  advances in its
progress,  the  skin  and eyes become tinged of a deep
yellow; there is a  bitter taste  in the mouth, with fre-
quent nausea and  vomiting;  the urine  is very high
coloured;  the stools are of a gray cwdayov appearance,
and a dull obtuse pain is tut in  the  right hypochon-
drium, which is much increased by pressure.   Where
the  pain is very acute, the pulse is apt to become hard
and full, and other febrile symptomstoattend.
  The  disease, when of long continuance, and  pro-
ceeding from  a chronic affection of the liver, or other
neighbouring  viscera, is often attended with anasar-
cous swellings, and sometimes with  ascites: also scar
bulic symptoms frequently supervene.
  Where jaundice is recent, and is occasioned by con-
cretions obstructing the  biliary ducts, it  is probable
that, by using proper means, we may be  able to effect
a cure; but where  it is brought on  by tumours .of the
neighbouring  parts, or bas arisen in  consequence of
other diseases attended  with symptoms of obstructed
viscera, our  endeavours  will most likely  not be
crowned with success.  Arising during a state of preg-
nancy, it  is of little consequence, as  It will cease on
parturition.
  On opening the bodies of those wbo die of jaundice,
the  yellow tinge appears to pervade even  the most in-
terior part of the body; it is  diffused throughout the
whole of the  cellular membrane, in the cartilages and
bones, and even the substance of tbe brain is coloured
with it. A diseased state of the liver, gall-bladder, or
adjacent viscera, is usually to  be met wilh.
  The  Icterus infantum, or yellow gum, is a species
of jaundice which  affects children,  at or soon after
their birth, and which  usually continues  for  some
days.  It has generally been supposed to arise from the
meconium, impacted in  the intestines, preventing the
flow of bile into them.  The effects produced by it art
languor, indolence, a yellow tinge of the skin, and a
tendency to Sleep, which is sometimes fatal, where tb.
child is prevented from sucking.
  The  indications  in this  disease are, 1. To palliate
urgent symptoms.  2. To remove the cause of obstruc-
tion to the passage ofthe bile into the duodenum: this
is the essential part of the treatment; but the means
will vary  according  to  circumstances.  When  there
are  appearances of inflammation,  of which perhaps
the  jaundice  is symptomatic, or both produced  by a
gall-stone, the means explained under the bead of he-
patitis will be proper.  If there be severe spasmodic
pain, as is usual when a gall-stone is passing, the libe-
ral  use of  opium and the warm bath will probably re-
lieve it   After which, in all instances, where there is
reason for supposing an  obstructing cause within the
duct, a nauseating emetic, or brisk cathartic, would be
the  most likely to force it onward:  emetics, however,
are hardly advisable, except in recent cases without
inflammation; and calomel, seeming to  promote the
discharge  of  bile more than other cathartics, may be
given in a large dose with or after tlie opium.  Several
remedies  have been recommended, on the idea  that
they may dissolve  gall-stones; wbich,  however.  Is
hardly probable, unless they should  have advanced to 
IDE
IGA
Ike end of the common duct: the fixed alkalies, ether
with oil of turpentine,  raw eggs, Sec. come under this
head; though the alkalies may be certainly beneficial
by correcting acidity, which usually results from a de-
ficient supply of bile  to  the  intestines; and possibly
alter the secretion of the liver so much as to prevent
the formation of more concretions.  When the com-
plaint arises from scirrhous tumours, mercury is the
remedy most likely to afford relief, particularly should
the river itself be diseased: but it must be used with
proper caution, and hemlock, or other narcotic, may
sometimes enable the system to bear it better. Where
this remedy  is precluded, nitric acid promises to be the
best substitute, the taraxacum appears by no means so
much to be depended upon.  In all tedious cases the
strength must be supported by the vegetable bitters, or
other tonics, and a nutritious diet, easy of digestion:
there is often a dislike of animal food; and a craving
for acids, which mostly may be indulged; indeed,
when scorbutic symptoms attended, the native vegeta-
ble acids have been sometimes very serviceable.   The
bowels must be kept regular, and the other secretions
promoted, to get rid ofthe bile diffused in the system;
as well  as to obviate  febrile or inflammatory action.
When  accumulations  of hardened feces  induce the
complaint, or in  the icterus infantum, cathartics may
be alone sufficient to afford relief: and, in that of preg-
nant females, we must chiefly look  to the period of
delivery.
  Ictercs albus.  The white jaundice.   Chlorosis
is sometimes so called.
  I'CTUS.  1. A stroke or blow.
  2. The pulsation of an artery.
  3. The sting of a bee, or other insect.
  IDAS'US.   (From iSn, a mountain in Phrygia, their
native place.)  A name of the peony and blackberry.
  IDE.  This terminal is affixed to oxygen, chlorine,
and iodine,  when they enter into combination with
each other,  or with simple combustibles or metals in
proportions  not forming an acid, thus ox-ide of chlo-
rine, ox-ide  of nitrogen, chlor-ide of sulphur, iod-ide
of iron.
  IDE'OLOGY.  (Ideologia; from «&a, a thought,
and Xoy»s, a discourse.) The doctrine or study of the
understanding.   " Whatever  be the number and the
diversity of  the phenomena which belong to human
intelligence, however  different they appear from the
other phenomena of life, though they evidently depend
on the soul,  it is absolutely necessary to consider them
as the result of the action of the brain, and to make no
distinction between them and tbe other phenomena
that depend on the actions of that organ.  The func-
tions of tbe brain are  absolutely subject to tbe same
laws as the other functions; they develope and goto
decay in the progress of age; they are modified by ha-
bit, sex, temperament, and individual disposition; they
become confused, weakened, or elevated in diseases;
the physical injuries of the brain weaken or destroy
them;  in  a word, they are  not susceptible of any ex-
planation  more than tbe other actions of tbe organ;
and setting aside all hypothetical ideas, they are capa-
ble of  being studied oidy by observation and ex-
perience.
  We  must also be cautious in imagining that tiie
study of the functions of the brain is more difficult than
that ofthe other organs, and that it  appertains  pecu-
liarly to metaphysics.  By  keeping close to observa-
tion, and avoiding carefully any theory, or conjecture,
this study becomes purely physiological, and perhaps
it is easier than the  most part of the other functions,
on account of the facility with which the phenomena
can be produced and observed.  The  innumerable
phenomena  which form the intellect of man, are only
mod ifications of the faculty of perception.  If they are
examined attentively, this  truth, which is well illus-
trated  by  modern metaphysicians, will be found very
clear.
  There are four principal modifications ofthe faculty
ofperception.
  1st. Sensibility, or the action of the brain, by which
we receive  impressions, either from within or from
without
  2d.  The Memory, or the faculty of reproducing im-
pressions, or sensations formerly received.
  3d. The faculty of perceiving the relations which
sensations have to each other, or the Judgment.
  4th. The Desires, ot the  Will.
  The study of the understanding,  from whatever
cause, is not at present an essential part of physiology;
the science which treats particularly of it is Ideology.
Whoever may wish to acquire an extensive knowledge
on this interesting subject, should consult the works of
Bacon, Locke, Condillac, Cabanis, and especially the
excellent book of Destutt Tracy, entitled " Elements
of Ideology."
  IDIOCRA'SIA.  See Idiosyncrasy.
  IDIOPATHIC. (Idiopathicus; from iSios, peculiar,
and iraBos, an affection.)   A  disease  which does not
depend on any other disease, in which respect it is
opposed to a systematic  disease, which is dependen
on another.
  IDIOSY'NCRASY.  (Idiosyncrasia;  from iSios,
peculiar, crvv, with, and xpaois, a temperament.)  A
peculiarity of constitution, in which a person is affected
by certain agents, which, if applied to  a hundred other
persons, would  produce no effect: thus  some people
cannot see a finger bleed without fainting; and thus
violent inflammation is induced on the skin of some
persons, by substances that are perfectly innocent to
others.               ,
  Idiot'ropia.  (From tStos,  peculiar, and rptrru, to
turn.)  The same as Idiosyncrasia.
  IDOCRASE.  See Vesuvian.
  IGASURIC ACID.  Acidum Igusaricum. Pelletier
and Caventou, in  their elegant  researches in the faba
Sancti Ignatii, et mux vomica,  having observed that
these substances contained anew vegetable base (strych
nine)  in combination with an acid,  sought to sepa
rate the latter, in order to determine its nature.  It
appeared to them to be new, and they called it igasuric
acid, from the Malay name by which tbe natives desig
nate in the Indies the faba Sancti Ignatii. This bean,
according to these chemists, is composed of igasurate
of strychnine, a little wax, a concrete  oil, a yellow
colouring  matter, gum, starch, bassorine, and vege-
table fibre.
  To  extract the acid, the rasped bean must be heated
in ether, in a digester, with a valve of safety.  Thus
the concrete oil, and a little igasurate of strychnine,
are dissolved out  When the powder is no longer
acted on by the ether, they subject it,  at several times,
to the action of boiling alkohol, which carries off the
oil which  had escaped the  ether, as also wax, which
is deposited on  cooling, some igasurate of strychnine,
and colouring matter.  All the alkohoiic decoctions are
united, filtered, and evaporated.  The brownish-yellow
residuum is diffused in water; magnesia is now added,
and the whole is boiled together for some minutes.
By this means, the igasurate is decomposed, and from
this decomposition there results free strychnine, and a
sub-igasurate of magnesia, very little soluble in water.
Washing with cold water  removes almost completely
the colouring matter, and boiling alkohol then separates
the strychnine, which falls down  as  the liquid cools.
Finally, to procure igasuric acid from the sub-igasurate
of magnesia, which remains united to a small quantity
of colouring matter, we must dissolve the magnesian
salt in a great body of boiling distilled water; concen-
trate the liquor, and add  to it acetate of lead, which
immediately throws down tbe acid in the state of an
igasurate of lead.  This compound is then decomposed,
by  transmitting a current of sulphuretted hydrogen
through it, diffused in 8 or 10 times its  weight of boiling
water.
  This acid, evaporated to the consistence of syrup,
and left to itself, concretes in hard and granular crys-
tals.  It is very soluble in water, and in alkohol.  In
taste  is acid and very styptic. It combines with the
alkaline  and earthy bases, forming  salts soluble in
water and alkohol.  Its combination with barytes is
very soluble, and crystallizes with difficulty, and mush-
room-like. Its combination with ammonia, when per-
fectly neutral, does not form a precipitate with  the
salts  of silver,  mercury, and iron;  but it comports
itself with the salts of copper in a peculiar manner, and
which seems to characterize the acid  of strychnos (fur
the same  acid is  found in nux vomica, and in snake-
wood, bois de couleuvre): this  effect consists in tho
decomposition of the salts of copper, by its ammoniacal
compound.  These salts pass  immediately to a green
colour, and gradually deposite a greenish-white salt, of
very sparing solubility in water. The acid of strychnos
seems thus to resemble meconic acid; but it differs
essentially from it, by its  action with salts of iron, 
ILE                                             ILL
which immediately assume a very deep red colour with
the meconic acid; an effect not produced by the acid of
strychnos.  The authors,  after all, do  not positively
affirm this acid to be new and peculiar.
  IGNA'TIA.  (So named by Linneus, because the
seeds are known in the materia medica by the name
of Saint Ignatius's beans.) The name of a genus of
plants.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Ignatia amara.  The systematic name ofthe plant
which affords St. Ignatius's bean; Faba indica; Faba
Sancti Ignatii; Faba febrifuga.  These beans are of
a roundish figure,  very irregular and uneven, about
the size of a middling nutmeg, semi-transparent, and
of a hard,  homy texture.  They have a  very bitter
taste, and no considerable  smell.  They are said to be
used in the Philippine  islands in all diseases, acting as
a vomit and purgative.  Infusions are given in the
cure of intermittents, &c.
  Ignatii faba.  See  Ignatia amara.
  IGNATIUS'S BEAN.  See Ignatia amara.
  I'GNIS.  Fire.  1. Van Helmont, Paracelsus, and
other alchemists, applied this  term to what they con-
sidered as universal solvents.
  2.  In medicine, the older writers used it to express
several diseases characterized by external redness and
heat.
  Ignis cahdus.  A  hot fire:  a gangrene:  also a
violent inflammation, just about to degenerate into
a gangrene, were formerly so called by some.
  Ignis fatuus.  A luminous appearance or flame,
frequently seen in the night in different country places,
and called in England Jackwith a lantern,or Will with
the wisp.   It seems to be mostly occasioned by the
extrication of phosphorus from rouing leaves and
other vegetable matters. It is probable, that the motion-
less ignes fatui of Italy, which are Been nightly on the
Bame spot, are produced by the slow combustion of
sulphur, emitted  through clefts and apertures in tiie
soil of tnat volcanic country.
  Ignis frigidus.  A  cold fire.  A sphacelus was so
called, because the parts that are so affected become
as cold as the surrounding air.
  Ignis persicus.   A name ofthe erysipelas, also of
the carbuncle. See Anthrax.
  Ignis rot.e.  Fire for fusion.  It is when a vessel,
which contains some matter for fusion, is surrounded
with live, i. e. red-hot,  coals.
  Ignis sacer. A name of erysipelas, and of a species
of herpes.
  Ignis sapientium.  Heat of horse-dung.
  Ignis sancti antonii.  See Erysipelas.
  Ionis sylvaticus.  See Impetigo.
  Ignis volagrius. See Impetigo.
  Ignis volaticus. See Erysipelas.
  I'kan radix.  A somewhat oval, oblong, compressed
root, brought  from China. It is extremely rare, and
would appear to be the root of some of the orchis
tribe.
  I'laphis.  A name  in Myrepsus for the  burdoch.
See Arctium lappa.
  I'lbcb.   By this word, Paracelsus seems to mean a
first principle.
  I'leon crdentum.  Hippocrates describes it in lib.
De Intern. Affect.  In this disease, as well as in the
scurvy, the breath is fcetid, the gums recede from  the
teeth, hemorrhages of the nose happen, and sometimes
there are ulcers in  the legs, but the patient can move
about
  I'LEUM.  (From tiAtoi, to turn  about;  from  its
convolutions.) Ileum intestinum.  The last portion
ofthe small intestines, about nfteen hands' breadth in
length, which terminates at the valve of the cecum.
See Intestine.
  ILEUS.  See Iliac passion.
  ILEX.   (The name of a  genus of plants In the
Linnean system.  Class,  Telrandria; Order, Tetra-
gynia.) The holly.
  Ilex  ao,uifolicm.  The systematic name of the
common holly. Aquifolium.  Theleavesof this plant,
Ilex—foliis ovatis acutis spinosis, of Linneus, have
been known  to cure intermittent fevers; and an in-
fusion of tbe leaves, drank as tea, is said to be a pre-
ventive against the gout
  Ilex cassine.   Cassina; Apalachine gallis.  Thl9
tree grows in  Carolina; the leaves resemble those of
senna, blackish when dried, with a bitter taste, and
aromatic smell.  Tliey are considered as stomachic
      450
 and stimulant.  They are sometimes used as expec-
 torants ;  and when fresh are emetic.
   ILIA.   (The plural of lie, tiXn)
   1. The flanks, or that part in which are enclosed ibe
 small intestines.
   2. The Binall Intestines.
   I'LIAC.   (Iliacns;  from  ileum intestinum.)  Be-
 longing to the ilium ; an intestine so called.
   Iliac arteriks.  Arteria iliaca.  The arteries so
 called are formed by the bifurcation of the aorta, near
 the last lumbar vertebra. They are divided into inter-
 nal and external.  The internal iliac, al»o called the
 hypograstic artery, is distributed in the fcetus into six
 and in the adult into five branches, which are divided
 about the pelvis, viz.  the little Iliac, the gluteal, tho
 ischiatic, tiie pudical, and the obturatory; and in the
 fcetus, the umbilical.  The external iliac proceeds out
 of the pelvis through Poupart's ligament, to  form the
 femoral artery
   Iliac passion.   (EiXtoc, iXtoc, tiXtioc,isdescribed as
 a kind of nervous colic, the seat of which is the ilium.)
 Passio iliaca; Volvulus; Miserere mei; Convolvulus;
 Chordapsus;  Tormentum.   A  violent vomiting, in
 which the fecal portion of the food is voided by the
 mouth.  It is produced  by many morbid conditions of
 the bowels, by inflammatory  affections of the abdomi-
 nal viscera, and by hernie.
  Iliac region.  The  side of the abdomen, between
 the ribs and the hips.
   ILI'ACUS.  The name of muscles, regions, or dis-
 eases, situated near to, or connected with, parts about
 the ilia or flanks.
  Iliacus  internus.  Iliacus  of  Winslow.  Iliaco
 trachanten  of Dumas.   A thick, broad, aud  radiated
 muscle, which is situated in  the pelviB, upon the inner
 surface of the ilium.  It arises fleshy from  the  inner
 lip ofthe ilium, from most of the hollow part,  and like-
 wise from the edge of that bone, between its anterior
 superior spinous process and the acetabulum.   It joins
 with the psoas magnus, where it begins to become ten-
 dinous, a^d passing under the ligamenlum Fallopii, is
 inserted in common with that muscle.  1'he tendon of
 this muscle has been seen distinct from that of the
 psoas, and, in some subjects,  it has been found divided
 into two portions.  The iliacus internus serves to assist
 the psoas magnus in bending the thigh, and in bringing
 it directly forwards.
  ILI'ADUM.  Iliadus.  The first matter of all things,
 consisting of mercury, salt,  and sulphur.  These are
 Paracelsus's three principles.  His iliadus  is also a
 mineral spirit, which is contained in every element,
 and Is the supposed cause of diseases.
   Ilia'ster.  Paracelsus gives this name to tbe occult
 virtue of nature, whence all things have their increase.
   ILI'NGOS.   (From iXty\,  a vortex.)  A giddiness,
 in which all things appear to turn round, and  the eyes
 grow dim.
  Ili'scus.  Avicenna says,  it is madness caused by
 love.
  I'LIUM OS.  (From ilia, the small intestines; so
 named because it supports the ilia.) The haunch-bone.
 The superior portion ofthe os innorninatum, which, in
 the foetus, is a distinct bone.   See Innorninatum os.
  ILLA.  See Via.
  ILLE'CEBRA.  (From ttXtia, to turn; because its
 leaves resemble worms.) See Sedum acre.
  ILLI'CIUM.  (Illicium, ab illiciendo; denoting an
enticing plant, from  its being very fragrant and aro-
matic.)  The name of a genus  of plants in the Lin-
nean system.  Class, Polyandria: Order, Polygynia.
  Illicium anisatum.  The systematic name of the
yellow-flowered aniseed-tree: the seeds of which are
called the star aniseed.  Anisum stellatum;  Anisum
stinense; Semen badian.  They are used witb the same
views as those of the Pimpinella anisum.  The same
tree is supposed to furnish the aromatic bark, called
cortex anisi stellati, or cortex lavola.
  ILLO'SIS.   (From «XAoc, the eye.)  A distortion of
the eyes.
  Illotame'ntom. An ancient form of an  external
medicine, like tbe  Ceroma, with  which the limbs of
wrestlers, and others delighting in like exercises, were
rubbed, especially after bathing ;  nn account of which
may be met witb in Bactius De Thermls.
  Illtjta'tio.   (From in. and lutum, mud.)  Illutation.
A besmearing any part or the  body with mud, and re-
newing it as it grows dry, with a view of heating, dry- 
IMP
IND
big, and discussing.  It was cMcfly done with the mud
found at tbe bottom of mineral springs.
  I'lly8.   (From  iXXos, 'he  eye.)  A person  who
squints, or with distorted eyes.
  I'lys.  (From iXvs, mud.)  1. The feces of wine.
An obsolete term.
  2. The sediment in stools which  resemble feces of
wine.
  3. The sediments in urine, when it  resembles the
same.
  Imbeci'llitas  oculorum.  Celsus speaks of the
Nyctalopia by this name.
  Imbibi'tio.   (From imbibo, to receive into.) An ob-
solete term.  In chemistry for a kind of cohobation,
when the liquor ascends and descends upon a solid sub-
stance, till it is fixed therewith.
  IMBRICATUS.  Imbricated: like tiles upon a house.
A term applied to leaves as those  of the Euphorbia
paralia.
  IMMERSUS.  Immersed: plunged under water—
folia immersa: leaves which are naturally under the
water, and are different from those which  naturally
float. See Leaf.
  It is remarked by Linneus, that aquatic plants have
their lower, and mountainous ones their upper, leaves
most divided, by which they better resist the  action of
the stream in one case, and of the wind in the other.
  Imme'rsus.   A term given by Bartholine, and some
other anatomists to the Subscapularis muscle, because
it was hidden,  or, as it were, sunk.
  IMPA'TIENS.  (From in, not, and potior, to suffer;
because its leaves recede from the hand  with a crack-
ling noise, as impatient of the touch, or from the great
elasticity of the sutures of its seed vessel  which is com-
pletely impatient of the touch, curling up with the
greatest velocity, and  scattering round the seeds, the
instant any extraneous body comes in contact with it.)
The name of  a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  IMPERATO'RIA.  (From impero, to  overcome: so
named because its leaves extend and overwhelm the
lessherbswhichgrownearit)  1. The name of a genus
of plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the master-wort.
See Imperatoria ostruthium,
  Imferatoria ostruthium.  The systematic name
of  the  master-wort   Imperatoria;  Magistrantia.
The roots of this plant are imported from the Alps and
Pyrenees, notwithstanding  it  is indigenous to this
island: tbey have a fragrant smell, and a bitterish pun-
gent taste. The plant, as its name imports, was for-
merly thought  to be of singular efficacy; and its great
success, it is said, caused it to be distinguished by the
name of divinium remedium.  At present, it is consi-
dered merely as an aromatic, and consequently is super-
seded by many of tbat class which possess superior
qualities.
  IMPETI'GINES.   (The plural  of impetigo;  from
impeto, to infest.)  An order in the class Cachexia ot
Cullen,  the genera of which  are characterized  by
cachexia deforming the external parts of the body with
tumours, eruptions, Sec.
  IMPETI'GO.  Ignis sylvaticus; Ignis volagrius.
A disease of the skin, variously described by authors,
but mostly as one in which several red, hard, dry, pru-
rient spots arise in the face and neck, and sometimes all
over the body, and disappear by furfuraceous or tender
scales.
  Impetum faciens.  See Vis vita.
  IMPETUSA. Force or motion.
  I'mpia herba.   (From in, not,  and pius,  good;
because  it grows only on barren ground.)  A  name
given to cudweed.  See Gnaphalium.
  IMPLICATED. Celsus, Scribonius,and some others,
call those parts of physic so, which have a necessary
dependence on one another; but the term has  been
more significantly applied, by Bellini, to fevers, where
two at a time afflict a person, either of the same kind,
as a double tertian ;  or, of different kinds, as an inter-
mittent  tertian, and a quotidian, called a  Semi-
tertian.
  Implu'vium. (From impluo, to shower upon.)  1.
The shower-bath.
  2. An embrocation.
  IMPOSTHU MA.   A term corrupted from impostem
aud apostcm.   An abscess.
  IMPREGNATION.  Impregnalw   SeeConecptien
and Generation.
  IN AN I'TIO.  (From inanio, to empty.)  Inanition
Applied to the body or vessels, it means emptiness J
applied to tbe mind, it means a defect of its powers.
  INCANTA'TION. Incantatio; Ineantamentum. A
way of curing diseases by charms, defended by Para-
celsus, Helmont, and some other  chemical enthusiasts.
  INCANUS.  Hoary.  Applied to-stems which are
covered with a kind of scaly mealiness, aa tbat of the
A'temisia absinthium, and Atriplex portulacoides.
  Ince'ndium.   (From incendo, to burn.)  A burning
fever, or heat.
  Ince'nsio.  1. A burning fever.
  2. A hot inflammatory tumour.
  Incerni'culum.  (From incerno, to sift.)
  1. A strainer, or sieve.
  2. A name for the pelvis of the kidney, from  its
office as a strainer.
  Incide'ntia.  (From  incido,  to  cut.)  Medicines
wbich consist of pointed and sharp particles, as acids,
and most salts, which  are said to incide or  cut the
phlegm, when they break it, so as to occasion its dis-
charge.
  INCINERA'TION.  (From mcinero, to reduce to
ashes.)  Incineratio.  The combustion  of  vegetable
and animal substances,  for the  purpose of obtaining
their ashes or fixed residue.
  INCISI'VUS.  (From incido, to cut.)  A name given
to some muscles, &c.
  Incisivus inferior.  See Levator labii inferioris.
  Incisivus lateralis.  See Levator labii superioris
alaque nasi.
  Incisivus medius.  See Depressor labii superioris
alaque nasi.
  INCI'SOR.  (Dentes indsores ; from incido, to cut,
from their use in cutting the food.)   The four front
teeth of both jaws are called incisors, because they cut
the food. See Teeth.
  INCISO'RIUM.  (From incido, to cut)  A  table
whereon a patient is laid for an operation.
  Incisorivm  foramen.  A  name of the foramen,
wbich lies  behind the dentes incisores of the upper
jaw.
  INCISUS.  (From incido, to  cut.)   Cut.  A term
applied  in  botany, synonymously with dissectus, to
leaves;  as those ofthe Geranium dissectum.
  INCONTINENTIA.  (From in, and  contineo, to
contain.)  Inability to retain the natural evacuations.
Hence we say, incontinence of urine, &.C. _
  Incrassa'ntia.   (Incrassans;  from incrasso, to
make thick.)  Medicines which thicken the fluids.
  I'NCUBUS.   (From  incubo,  to  lie upon; because
the patient fancies that something lies upon bis chest.)
See Ondrodynia.
  INCURVUS.  Curved inwards: applied to leaves;
as in Erica empetrifolia.
  INCUS.  (A smith's anvil: from incudo, to smite
upon: so named from its likeness in shape to an anvil)
The largest and strongest of the bones of the ear in the
tympanum.  It is divided into a body and two crura.
Its  body is situated  anteriorly, is rather broad and
thick, and has two eminences  and two  depressions,
both covered with cartilage, and intended for the re-
ception  of the head of the malleus.   Its shorter crus
extends no farther than the cells of the mastoid apophy-
sis. Its longer crus, together with  the manubrium of
the malleus, to which it is connected by a ligament, is
of the same extent as the shorter; but its extremity is
curved inwards, to receive the os orbiculare, by the in-
tervention of which it is united with the stapes.
  I'NDEX.  (From  indico, to point out; because it is
generally used for such purposes.)  The forefinger
  Indian arrow-root.  See Maranta.
  Indian cress.  See Tropaolum majus.
  Indian date-plum.   See Diospyros lotus
  Indian leaf.  See Laurus cassia-
  Indian-pink.  See Spigelia.
  Indian-rubber.  See Caoutchouc.
  Indian wheat. See Zea mays.
  " Indian tobacco.  Lobelia.  The  Lobdia inflata
is an annual American plant, found in a great variety
of soils throughout the United States.
  It is lactescent, like many others of its genus. When
chewed it communicates to the mouth a burning, pun-
gent sensation, which remains long in the fauces, re-
Bcmblin  the effect of green tobacco.  The plant cow
                                       JCI 
IND
INF
lalns caoutchouc, extractive, and  an acrid  principle,
which  is present in the tincture, decoction, and dis-
tilled water.
  The  lobelia is a prompt emetic, attended with nar-
cotic effects during  its operation.  If a leaf or capsule
be held in the mouth for a short time, It brings on gid-
diness, headache, a trembling  agitation of toe  whole
body, sickness, and finally vomiting.  These effects are
analogous to tbjpe which tobacco produces in the un-
accustomed. If swallowed in substance,  it excites
speedy vomiting,  accompanied with distressing and
long-continued  sickness, and  even with  dangerous
symptoms, if the dose be large.  On account  of tbe
violence of its operation, it is  probable that this plant
will never come in use for  the common purpose of an
emetic. It is, however, entitled to notice as a remedy
in asthma and  some other pulmonary affections.  It
produces relief  in  asthmatic  cases, sometimes with-
out vomiting, but  more frequently after discharging
the contents of the stomach.  On account of the
harshness of its operation, it is reluctantly resorted to
by patients, who expect  relief from any milder means.
It, however, certainly relieves some cases, in  which
other emetic substances fail.  In small doses the lobe-
lia is found a good expectorant for pneumonia, in its
advanced stages, and for catarrh.  In  rheumatism it
has also been found of service.
  The  strength  of the lobelia varies with its age, and
other circumstances.  In some instances, a grain will
produce vomiting.   The tincture is most  frequently
given in asthma, in doses of about a fluid drachm."—
Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [Indian turnip.  Dragon root.  Arum.   " The
Arum  triphyllum  is an American plant, growing  in
damp,  shady situations,  and sometimes called Indian
Turnip, and Wake robin.  The root is large andfleshy,
consisting chiefly of fcecula, which it affords, without
taste or smell, in the form of a white delicate powder.
In its recent state, this root, and in fact every part of
the plant, is violently acrid, and almost caustic.  Ap-
plied to the tongue, or to any secreting surface, it pro-
duces  an effect like that of Cayenne pepper, but far
more powerful, so  as to leave a permanent soreness
for many hours.  Its action does not readily extend
through the cuticle, since the bruised root may be worn
upon the skin till it becomes dry, without occasioning
pain or rubefaction.  The  acrimony of this plain re-
sides in a highly volatile principle, which is driven off
by heat, and gradually disappears in drying. It is not
communicated to  water, alkohol, nor oil, but may be
obtained in the form of an  inflammable gas or vapour,
by boiling the plant under an Inverted receiver, filled
with water.  Arum is too violently acrid to be a Bafe
medicine in its recent  state, though It has sometimes
been given with impunity.  The  dried root, while it
retains a slight portion of acrimony,  is  sometimes
grated in milk,  and given as a carminative and dia-
phoretic."—Big. Mat. Med.   A.]
  India'na radix.   Ipecacuanha.
  I'ndica camote8.  Potatoes.
  INDICANT.   (Indicans; from indico,  to show.)
That from which the indication is drawn, which is in
reality the proximate cause  of a disease.
  Indicating days   Critical days.
  INDICATION.   (Indicatio; from indico, to show.)
An indication is that which demonstrates in a disease
what ought to be done.  It is three-fold: preservative,
which preserves  health;  curative, which expels a
present disease; and vital,  which respects the powers
and reasons of diet.  The scope from which indications
arc taken, or determined, is comprehended in this dis-
tich :
    ------Ars, atas, regie, complexio, virtus,
    Mos et symptoma, repletio, tempus, et usus.
  INDICATOR.  (From indico,  to point:  so named
from its  office of extending the index, or forefinger)
An extensor muscle of the forefinger, situated chiefly
on the lower and posterior part of the forearm.  Ex-
tensor indicis of Cowper.   Extensor secundii inter-
nodii indids proprius,  vulgo indicator of Douglas;
and Cuoi'tosus phalangdlien de Vindix of Dumas.  It
arises,  by an acute fleshy beginning, from the middle  of
the posterior part of the ulna;  ils tendon passes under
the same ligament with the extensor digitorum commu-
nis, with part of which it is inserted into the posterior
part of the forefinger.
  Indicum lignum.  Logwood
      452
  Indicts Monnrs.  The venereal disease.
  INDIGENOUS.  (Indigcnus;  indigena ab indu,
i. e. in et geno, i. e. gigno, lo beget.)  Applied to dis-
eases, plants, and other objects which are peculiar to
any country.
  INDIGO.  A blue colouring matter extracted from
the Indigofera tindoria.  Anil, or the indigo plant.
  INDIGOFERA.  (From indigo, and fere, to bcar.1
The name of a genus  of plants.   Class, Diaddphia;
Order, Decandria.
  Indigofera tinctoria.  The systematic name of
tbe plant which affords indico.
  LNDUCIUM.  (From induco, to cover ordrawover.)
A covering.   1. A shirt
  2. The name of tlie amnios from its covering the
fcetus like a shirt.
  3. Wildenow and Swarf's name  for the Involucrum,
or thin membraneous covering of the fructification of
ferns.
  Its varieties are,
  1. Inducium planum, flat; as in  the genus  Poly-
podium.
  2. I.peltatum,  connected with  the seed by a fila-
ment or stalk; as in Aspidium filixmas.
  3. V. corniculalum, round and hollow; as hi Equi-
setnm.
  Indura'ntia.   (From induro, to  harden.)  Medl
cines which harden.
  INEQUALIS.  Unequal.  Applied to a leaf when
the two halves are unequal in dimensions and tlie base
end parallel;  as in F.ucalyptus resinifera.
  INERMIS.  (From in, priv. and arma.)  Unarmed-
opposed, in designating leaves, to such as are spinous.
  Ine'sis.  (From ivaia, to evacuate)   Inethus.  An
evacuation ofthe humours.
  INFECTION.  See Contagion.
  INFERNAL.  A name  given to a caustic, lapis in-
fernalis, from its strong burning property.  See Argenti
nitras.
  Infibula'tio.   (From infibulo, to  button together.)
An impediment to the  retraction of the  prepuce.
  INFLAMMABLE.   Chemists  distinguish by this
term such bodies as burn with facility, and flame in an
increased  temperature.
  Inflammable air.  See Hydrogen gas.
  Inflammable air, heavy.  See Carburetted hydrogen
gas.
  INFLAMMATION. (Inflamtnatio, onis. f.\ from in-
flammo, to burn.)  PUogosis;  Phlegmasia.  A dis-
ease  characterized by heat, pain, redness, attended
with  more or less of tumefaction  and fever.  Inflam-
mation is divided into two species, viz. phlegmonous and
erysipelatous.
   Besides this division, Inflammation Is either acute or
chronic, local or general, simple or  complicated with
other diseases.
   1. Phlegmonous inflammation is known by its bright
red colour, tension, heat, and a circumscribed, throb-
bing, painful tumefaction of tbe part;  lending to sup-
puration.  Phlegmon  is generally used to denote an
inflammatory tumour, situated in tbe skin  or cellular
membrane.  When the  same disease  affects the vis-
cera, it is usually called phlegmonous inflammation.
  2. Erysipelatous inflammation is  considered as an
inflammation  of a dull red colour, vanishing upon
pressure, spreading unequally, with a burning pain, the
tumour scarcely perceptible, ending in vesicles, or des-
quamation.  This species of inflammation admits of a
division into erythema, when there is merely an affec-
tion of the skin, with very little of the whole system;
and erysipelas, when  there is general  affection of the
system.
  Tbe fever  attending erysipelatous inflammation  is
generally synochus or typhus, excepting when it affects
very vigorous habits, and then it may be synocha.  The
fever attending phlegmonous inflammation is almost
always synocha.  Personsinthe prime of life, and in full
vigour with a plethoric habit of body, are most liable to
tbe attacks of a phlegmonous inflammation ; whereas
those advanced in years, and those of a weak habit oi
body, Irritable, and lean, are most apt  to be attacked
with erysipelatous inflammation.
  Phlegmonous inflammation terminates in resolution,
suppuration,  gangrene, and scirrhus,  or  induration.
Resolution is known to be about  to take place when
the symptoms gradually abate; suppuration, when the
inflammation does not readily yield to proper remedies, 
                       INN

the throbbing increases, the tumour points externally,
and rigors come on.  Gangrene is about to take place,
when the pain abates, tlie  pulse sinks, and  cold per-
spirations come on.  Schirrhus, or induration, is known
by the inflammation continuing  a longer time than
usual; the tumefaction continues, and a considerable
hardness remains.  This kind of tumour gives little or
no pain,  and, when it takes place, it is usually the se-
quel ot  inflammation  affecting  glandular parts.  It
sometimes, however, is accompanied with lancinating
pains, ulcerates, and becomes cancerous.
  Erythematous inflammation terminates in resolu-
tion, suppuration, or gangrene. Tbe symptoms of in-
flammation are accounted for in the following way:—
  The redness arises from the dilatation of  the smal)
vessels, wbich  become sufficiently large  to admit the
red particles in large quantities; it appears also to
occur, in some cases, from the generation of  new ves-
sels.  Tbe swelling is caused by the dilatation  of the
vessels, the plethoric state of the arteries and veins, the
exudation of coagulable lymph into the cellular mem-
brane, aud tbe interruption of absorption.
  In regard to the augmentation of heat, as  the ther-
mometer denotes very little increase of temperature, it
appears to be accounted for  from  the increased sensi-
bility of  the nerves, which convey false  impressions
to the sensorium.  The pain is  occasioned  by a de-
viation from the natural state of the parts, and the
unusual condition into which the nerves are thrown.
The throbbing depends on the action of the arteries.
  Blood taken from a person  labouring under  active
inflammation, exhibits a yellowish white crust  on the
surface ;  this is denominated the buffy coriaceous, or
inflammatory coat.  This consists of a layer of coagu-
lable lymph, almost destitute of red particles.  Blood,
in this state, is often termed sizy.   The colouring part
of the blood  is its heaviest constituent;  and,  as the
blood of a person labouring under inflammation is
longer coagulating than healthy  blood, it is  supposed
that the red particles have an opportunity to descend
to a considerable depth from the surface before they
become  entangled.   The buffy coat  of blood is gene-
rally the best criterion of inflammation; there are a few
anomalous constitutions in which this state of blood is
always found;  but these are rare.
  The occasional and exciting causes of inflammation
are very numerous: they, however,  may generally be
classed under external violence,  produced either by
mechanical or chemical irritation, changes of tempera-
ture, and stimulating foods.   Fever often  seems to be
a remote cause; the inflammation  thus produced is
generally considered as critical.   Spontaneous inflam-
mation sometimes occurs when no perceptible cause
can  be  assigned for its production. Scrofula and
syphilis may be considered as exciting causes of in-
flammation.
-  With regard to the proximate cause, it has been the
subject of much dispute.  Galen considered phlegmon
to be produced by a superabundance of the humor
sanguineus.  Boerhaave referred the proximate cause
to an obstruction in the small vessels, occasioned by a
Icntor' of the blood.  Cullen and others attributed it
rather to an affection of the vessels than a change of the
fluids.
  The  proximate cause, at the present period, is gene-
rally considered to be a morbid dilatation, and increased
action of such arteries as lead and are distributed to
the inflamed part.
  Inflammation of the bladder.  See Cystitis.
  Inflammation of the brain. See Phrenitis.
  Inflammation of the eyes.   See Ophthalmia.
  Inflammation of the intestines.  See Enteritis.
  Inflammation of the kidneys.  See Nephritis.
  Inflammation of the liver.  See Hepatitis.
  Inflammation of the lungs.  See Pneumonia.
  Inflammation of the peritonaum.  See Peritonitis.
  Inflammation of the pleura.  See Pleuritis.
  Inflammation of the stomach. See Gastritis.
  Inflammation of the testicle.  See Orchitis.
  Inflammation of the uterus.  See Hysteritis.
  INFLA'TIO.  (From inflo, to  puffup.) A windy
swelling.   See Pneumatosis.
  Infla'tiva.   (Inflativus;  from inflo, to puff up with
wind.)   Medicines or food which  cause flatulence.
  1NFLATUS.  Inflated.  In botany applied to vesi-
culaled parts,  which naturally contain only air; as
legumen inflatum, seen in Astragalus vcsica»-iusM and
                       INN

 tho distended and hollow perianths of the Cucuoojitf
 6eheii, and Physalis alkekengi in fruit.
   INFLEXUS.  Curved inwards; synonymous to in-
 curvus, as applied to leaves, petals, Sec See Incurvns:
 The petals Of the Pimpinella, and Charophyllum, are
 described as inflexa.
   INFLORESCENCE.  (Inflorescentia; from inflo-
 resco, to flower or blossom.)   A term used by Lin-
 neus to express the particular manner in which flowers
 are situated  upon a plant, denominated by preceding
 writers, modus florendi, or manner of flowering.
   It is divided into  simple,  when solitary, and com-
 pound, when many flowers are  placed together in one
 place.
   The first affords the following distinctions.
   1. Flospedunculatus, furnished with a stalk; as in
 Gratiolus and Vinca.
   2. F. sessilis, adhering to the plant without a flower
 stalk; as in Daphne mezerium, and  Zinia pauciflora.
   3. F. cauiinus, when on the stem.
   4. F. rameus, when on the branch.
   5. F. terminalis, when on the apex of the stem, or
 branch; as Paris quadrifolia, and Chrysanthemum
 leucanthemum.
   6. F. axillaris, in the axilla; as in Convallaria mul-
 tiflora.
   7. F. foliaris, on the surface of the leaf;  as in Phyl-
 lanthus.
   8. F. radicalis,  on the  root; as  Carlina acaulis,
 Crocus, and Colchicum.
   9. F. latitans, concealed in a fleshy receptacle; as
 in Ficus carica.
   Again, it is said  to be,
   1. Alternate; as in Polyanthes tuberosa.
   2. Opposite; as  in Passiflora hirsuta.
   3. Unilateral, hanging all to one side; as Erica her-
 bacea, and Silene amana.
   4. Solitary; as in  Campanula speculum, and  Car-
 duus tuberosus.
   The second, or compound  inflorescence, has the fol-
 lowing kinds:
    1. Tbe verticillus, or whirl.
    2. The capitulum, or tuft
    3. The spica, or spike.
    4. The racemus, or cluster.
    5. The corymbos,  or corymb.
    6. The umbdla, or umbel.
    7. The cyma, or cyme.
    8. The fasdculus, or fascicle.
    9. The panicula, or panicle.
   10. The thyrsus, or bunch.
   11. The spadix, or sheath.
   12. The amentum,  or catkin.
   INFLUE'NZA.   (The Italian word for influence.)
 The disease is so named because it was supposed to be
 produced by  a peculiar influence of the stars.   See
 Catarrhus a contagione.
   INFRASCAPULA'RIS  (From infra, beneath, and
 scapula, the shoulder-blade.)   A muscle named from
 its position beneath the scapula. See Subscapularis.
   INFRASPINATUS.  (From infra, beneath, and
 spina, the spine.)   A muscle  of the humerus, situated
 on the scapula. It arises fleshy, from all that part of
 the dorsum scapule which is below its spine; and from
 the spine itself, as far as the  cervix  scapule.   The
 fibres run obliquely towards a tendon in the middle of
 a  muscle, which runs  forwards, and adheres to the
 capsular ligament.  It is inserted by a flat, thick tendon',
 into the upper and outer part  ofthe large protuberance
 on the head of the os humeri. Its  use is to roll the oa
 humeri outwards, to  assist in raising and supporting
 it when iaised, and to pull the ligament from between
 the bones.  This muscle and the supra spinatus are
 covered by an aponeurosis, which extends between the
 coste, and edges of the spine  of the scapula, and gives
 rise to many of the muscular fibres.
  INFUNDIBULIFORMIS.   Funnel-shaped.   Ap-
 plied to the corolla  of plants; as in Pulmonaria.
  INFUNDIBULUM.   (From infundo,  to pour in.)
 1.  A canal that proceeds from the vulva of the brain
 to the pituitary gland  in the sella turcica.
  2. The beginnings of the excretory duct of the  kid-
ney, or cavities into which the urine is first received,
from the secretory crypte, are called infundibula.
  INFUSION.  (Infusum; from infundo, to pour in.)
Infusio.  A process that consists in ponnng water of
any required degree of temperature on such substances 
INF
INN
 as have a loose texture, as thin bark, wood in shavings,
 or small pieces, leaves, flowers, Sec. and suffering it to
 stand a certain time.  The liquor obtained by the above
 process is called an infusion. The following are among
 the most approved infusions.
   INFU'SUM.  See Infusion.
   Infusum anthemidis.  Infusion of chamomile. Take
 of chamomile-flowers, two drachms; boiling-water, half
 a pint   Macerate for ten minutes in a Covered vessel,
 and strain.  For its virtues, see Anthemis nobilis.
   Infusum armoracia compositum.   Compound in-
 fusion of horse-radish.  Take of fresh horse-radish
 root, sliced, mustard-seeds, bruised, of each one ounce;
 boiling water, a pint  Macerate for two hours,  in a
 covered vessel, and strain; then add compound spirit
 of horse-radish, a fluid ounce.  See Cochlearia armo-
 racia.
   Infusum  aurantii compositum.  Compound  in-
 fusion of orange-peel.  Take of orange-peel, dried,
 two drachms; lemon-peel, fiesh, a drachm;  cloves,
 bruised,  half a drachm; boiling water, half a pint.
 Macerate for a quarter of an hour, in a covered ves-
 sel, and strain.  See Citrus aurantium.
   Infusum calumba.  Infusion of calumba. Take of
 calumba-root, sliced, a drachm; boiling water, half a
 pint. Macerate for two hours, in a covered vessel, and
 strain.  See Calumba.
   Infusum  caryophyllorum.  Infusion of  cloves.
 Take of cloves, bruised, a drachm; boiling water, half
 a pint.  Macerate for two hours, in  a covered vessel,
 and strain.  See Eugenia caryophyllata.
   Infusum cascarilla.  Infusion of cascarilla. Take
 of cascarilla bark, bruised, half an ounce;  boiling
 water, balf a pint.  Macerate for two hours, in a co-
 vered vessel, and strain.  See Croton cascarilla.
   Infusum catechu  compositum.   Compound in-
 fusion of catechu.  Take of extract of catechu,  two
 drachms and a half; cinnamon bark, bruised, half a
 drachm; boiling water, half a pint.  Macerate for an
 hour, in a covered vessel, and  strain.  See  Acacia
 catechu.
   Infusum cinchona.  Infusion of cinchona.  Take
 of lance-leaved cinchona bark, bruised, half an ounce;
 boiling water, half a pint.  Macerate for two hours, in
 a covered vessel, and strain.  See Cinchona,
   Infusum cusparia.  Infusion of cusparia.  Take
 of cusparia bark, bruised, two drachms;  boiling water,
 half a pint  Macerate for two hours, in a covered ves-
 sel, and strain.  See Cusparia febrifuga.
   Infusum digitalis.  Infusion of fox-glove.  Take
 of purple fox-glove leaves, dried, a drachm;  boiling
 water, half a pint.  Macerate for four hours, in a co-
 vered vessel, and strain; then add spirit of cinnamon,
 half a fluid ounce.  See Digitalis purpurea.
   Infusum gentian* compositum.  Compound in-
 fusion of gentian.  Take of gentian-root, sliced, orange-
 peel, dried, of each a drachm; lemon-peel, fresh, two
 drachms; boiling water, twelve fluid ounces.  Mace-
 rate for an hour, in a covered vessel, and strain.   See
 Gentiana lutea.
   Infusum lini.  Infusion of  linseed.   Take of lin-
 seed, bruised, an ounce; liquorice-root, sliced, half an
 ounce;  boiling water, two pints.  Macerate for two
 hours, near  the fire, in a covered vessel,  and strain.
 See Linum uritatissimum.
   Infusum quassia.  Infusion of quassia.  Take of
 quassia wood, a scruple;  boiling water, half a pint
 Macerate for two hours and  strain.   See Quassia
 amara.                  '
   Infusum rhki.  Infusion of rhubarb.  Take of
 rhubarb-root, sliced, a drachm; boiling  water, half a
 pint.  Macerate for two hours, and strain. See Rheum.
   Infusum  rosa.  Take of  the petals of red rose,
dried, half an ounce; boiling water, two pints and a
half; dilute sulphuric acid, three fluid drachms; double-
refined sugar, an ounce and a half.  Pour the water
upon the petals of the rose in a glass vessel;  then add
the acid, and  macerate  for half an  hour.  Lastly,
strain the infusion, and add the sugar to  it  See Rosa
 Gallica.
   Infusum senna.  Infusion of senna.   Take of
senna-leaves, an ounce and a half; ginger-root, sliced,
a  drachm;  boiling water, a pint.  Macerate for an
hour, in a covered vessel,  and strain the liquor.  ,vee
 Cassia senna.
  Infusum simarocba. Infusion of simarouba. Take
of simarouba bark bruised, half a arachm; boiling
      454
 water, half a pint.  Macerate for two hours, In a co-
 vered vessel, and strain.  See Quassia simarouba.
   Infusum tabaci.  Infusion of tobacco.  Take  of
 tobacco-leaves, a drachm; boing water, a pint.  Mace
 rate for an hour, in a covered vessel, and strain,  s. c
 Nicotiana.
   INGENHOUZ, John, was born at Kreda, in 1730
 Little is known of his early life ; but In J7fcV7, be cam*
 to England to learn the Suttonian method of inocula-
 tion.  In the following year he went to Vienna, in
 inoculate some of the imperial  family, for which ser-
 vice  he  received ample  honours;  and  shortly allci
 performed the same operation on the Grand Duke of
 Tuscany, when he returned to this country, and spent
 the remainder of his life in scientific pursuits.  In 1779,
 he published "Experiments on Vegetables,"  disco-
 vering their  great power of purifying  the uir in sun-
 shine, but injuring it in the shade and night.  He war
 also  author  of several  papers In  tho Philosophical
 Transactions, being an active member of the  Royal
 Society.  He died in 1799.
   INGLUVIES. 1. Gluttony.
   2. The claw, crop, or gorge of a bird.
   INGRASSIAS, John  Philip, was born in  Sicily,
 and graduated at Padua in 1537 with singular reputa-
 tion;  whence he was invited to a professorship In
 several of the Italian schools; bnt he gave the prefer-
 ence to Naples, where he distinguished himself greatly
 by his learning and judgment. At length he returned
 lo his native  island, and settled in Palermo, where ha
 was also highly esteemed; and in 1563 made first physi-
 cian to that country by Philip II. of Spain, to whom it
 then belonged.   This office enabled him to  introduce
 excellent regulations into the medical  practice  of tha
 island, and when the  plague  raged there in 1575, tht
 judicious measures  adopted by him arrested ils pro-
 gress; whence the  magistrates  decreed  him a larg«
 reward, of which, however, he  only accepted a part,
 and applied that to religious uses.  He died in 1580, al
 the age  of 70.  He cultivated anatomy with great
 assiduity, and is reckoned one ofthe improvers of that
 art. especially in regard to the structure of the cranium,
 and the organ of hearing.  He is said also to have dis
 covered  the seminal vesicles. He  published several
 works, particularly an account of the plague,  and a
 treatise, "DeTumoribus  prater Naturam," which is
 chiefly a commentary  on  Avicenna, but is deserving
 of notice, as containing the first modern description of
 Scarlatina, under the name of Rossalia;  and perhaps
 Ihe first account of varicella, which he called crystalli.
 But his principal work was published by his nephew,
 in 1603,  entitled, "Commentaries on Galen's  Book
 concerning the Bones."
   Inoravidation. (From ingravidor, to be great with
 child.) The same as impregnation, or going with child.
   I'NGUEN.  (Inguen, mi's, n.)   The groin.   The
 lower and lateral part ofthe abdomen, above the thigh.
   INGUINAL. Inguinalis. Appertaining to the groin.
   Inguinal hernia.  See Hernia.
   Inguinal ligament.  See Poupart's ligament.
   INHUMATION.  (From inhumo, to put into the
 ground.)  The burying a patient in warm or medicated
 earth. Some chemists have  fancied thus to call that
 kind of digestion which is performed  by buryiug the
 materials in dung, or in the earth.
   I'nion.  (From if, a nerve; as being the place where
 nerves originate.) The occiput.  Blancard says it is
 the beginning ofthe spinal  marrow; others say it is
 the back part of the neck.
  Injacula'tto.  (From injaculor, to shoot into.)  So
 Helmont  calls a disorder which consists of a violent
 spasmodic pain in the stomach, and  an immobility of
 the body.
  INJECTION. (Injedio ; from injicio, to cast  into.)
 A medicated liquor to throw into a  natural or preter
 natural cavity ofthe body by means of a syringe.
  INNOMINA'TUS.  (From in, priv., and nomen, a
 name.)  Some parts of the body are  so named:  thus,
 tiie pelvic bones, which in the young subject ore  three
 in number, to which names were given, become one in
 the adult, which was without a name; an artery from
 the arch of the aorta, and  the  fifth pair of nerves,
 because they appeared to  have been forgotten by the
 older anatomists.
  Innominata arteria.  The first branch given off
by the arch of the aorta. It soon divides into the  right
carotid and right subcla - n arteries. 
INN                                             INN
   Ihkominati kirvi.  The fifth pair of nerves.  See
  Trigemini.
   Innominatum os. (So called because the throe bones
 of which it  originally was formed grew together, and
 formed one complete bone, which was then left name-
 less.^  A large irregular bone, situated at the side of the
 pelvis.  It is divided into three portions, viz. the iliac,
 ischiatic, and pubic, which are usually described as
 three distinct bones.
   The os ilium, or haunch-bone, is of a very irregular
 shape.  The low er part of it is thick and narrow; its
 superior portion is broad and thin, terminating in a
 ridge, called the spine ofthe ilium, and more commonly
 known by the name of the haunch.  The spine rises
 up like an arch, being turned somewhat outward, and
 from this appearance,  the  upper part  of the  pelvis,
 when viewed together, has not been improperly com-
 pared to the wings of a pheton. This spine, in tbe
 recent subject, appears as if tipped with cartilage; but
 this appearance is nothing more than the tendinous
 fibres of the muscles that are inserted into it.   Exter-
 nally, this bone is unequally prominent, and hollowed
 for the attachment of  muscles; and internally, at its
 broadest forepart,  it  is smooth and concave.  At its
 lower part, there  is a considerable  ridge on its inner
 surface. This ridge, which extends from the os sacrum,
 and corresponds with a  similar prominence, both on
 that bone and the ischium, forms, with  the inner part
 of the ossa pubis, what is called the brim ofthe pelvis.
 The whole of the internal surface, behind this ridge, is
 very unequal.  The  os ilium  has likewise  a smaller
 Burface posteriorly, by which  it is articulated to the
 sides of the os sacrum.  This surface has, by some,
 been compared to the human  ear,  and, by others, to
  the head of a bird :  but neither of these comparisons
  seem to convey any just idea of its form  or appearance.
 Its upper part is  rough and porous; lower down it is
 more solid.  It is  firmly united to the os sacrum by a
 cartilaginous substance,  and  likewise by very strong
 ligamentous fibres, which are extended to that  bone
 from the whole circumference of this irregular surface.
 Thespine of this bone, which is originally an epiphysis,
  has two considerable tuberosities, one anteriorly, and
 the other posteriorly, which is the largest of the two.
  The ends of this spine too, from their projecting more
  than tbe parts of the bone below  them, arc called
  spinal processes.   Before the  anterior spinal process,
  the spine is hollowed,  where  part of the  Sartorius
._ muscle is placed;  and below the posterior spinal pro-
  cess, there is a very large niche  in the bone, which, in
  the recent subject, has a strong ligament stretched over
  its lower part, from the os sacrum to the sharp-pointed
  process of tiie ischium; so that a great hole is formed,
  through which pass the great sciatic  nerve and the
  posterior crural vessels  under the  pyriform  muscle,
  part of which is  likewise  lodged in this hole.  The
  lowest, thickest, and narrowest part ofthe ilium, in con-
 junction with the other two portions of each os innomi-
  natum, helps to form the acetabulum for the os femoris.
    The os ischium, or hip-bone, which is the lowest of
  the three portions of each os imiomiuatum, is of a very
  irregular figure, and usually divided into its body, tu-
  berosity, and ramus.  The body externally forms the
  inferior portion of the acetabulum, and sends a sharp-
  pointed  process backward, called the  spine  of the
  ischium.  This is  the process to which the ligament is
  attached, which was just now described as forming a
  great foramen for the passage of the  sciatic nerve.
  The tuberosity is  large and irregular, and is placed  at
  the inferior part of the  bone, giving origin to several
  muscles.  In the recent subject, it seems covered wilh
  a cartilaginous crust; but this appearance,  as in the
  spine of the ilium, is nothing more than the tendinous
  fibres of the muscles that are inserted into it  This
  tuberosity, which  is the lowest portion of the trunk,
  supports us  when  we sit. Between the spine and the
  tuberosity is observed a sinuosity, covered with a car-
 tilaginous crust, which serves as a pulley, on which
  tiie obturator muscle plays.  From  the  tuberosity, the
  bone, becoming narrower and thinner, forms the ramus,
  or  branch,  which, passing forwards  and upwards,
  rakes, with the ramus of the os pubis, a large  hole,
  >f an oval shape,  the foramen magnum ischu, which
  affords, through its whole  circumlerence, attachment
  »o muscles.  This foramen is more particularly noticed
  ►n describing the os pubis.
    The os pubis  or share-bone, wbich  is the smallest I
 ofthe three portions of the os innominatum, is placed
 at the upper and forepart ofthe pelvis, where the two
 ossa pubis meet, and are united to each other by means
 of a  very strong cartilage, which constitutes what is
 called the  symphysis pubis.  Each os pubis may be
 divided into its body, angle, and  ramus.  The body,
 which is the outer part, is joined to the os ilium.   The
 angle comes forward to form the symphisis, and tho
 ramus is a thin apophysis,  which, uniting with the
 ramus of  the ischium, forms the foramen magnum
 ischii, or thyroideum, as it has been sometimes called,
 from its resemblance to a door or shield. This foramen
 is somewhat wider above than below, and its greatest
 diameter is, from above  downwards, and obliquely
 from within outwards.  In the recent subject,  it  is
 almost completely closed by a strong fibrous membrane,
 called the obturator ligament. Upwards and outwards.
 where we observe a niche in the bone,  tiie fibres of
 this ligament are separated,  to allow a passage to the
 posterior crural nerve, an artery and vein. The great
 uses  of this foramen seem to bo  to lighten the bones
 of the pelvis, and to afford a convenient lodgment to
 the obturator muscles. The  three bones now described
 as constituting the os innominatum on  each side, all
 concur to form the great acetabulum, or cotyloid cavity,
 which receives the head of the thigh-bone; the os ilium
 and os ischium making each about two-fifths, and the
 os pubis one-fifth, of the cavity.  This acetabulum,
 which is of considerable depth, is of a spherical shape.
 Its brims are high, and, in the recent subject, it is tipped
 with cartilage.  These brims, however,  are higher
 above and externally, than they are internally and
 below, where we observe a niche in the bone (namely,
 the  ischium), across which is stretched a ligament,
 forming a hole for the transmission of blood-vessels
 and  nerves to the cavity of the joint.  The cartilage
 which lines the acetabulum, is thickest at its circum-
 ference,  and thinner within, where a little hole is to be
 observed, in which is placed the apparatus that serves
 to lubricate the joint, and facilitate its motions.  We
 are  likewise able  to  discover the impression made by
 the  internal ligament of the  os  femoris, which, by
 being attached both lo this  cavity and to the head of
 the  os femoris, helps to secure the latter in the aceta-
 bulum.  The bones of the pelvis serve to support the
 spine and  upper parts of the body, to lodge the  intes-
 tines, urinary bladder, and other viscera; and likewise
 to unite the  trunk to the lower  extremities.   But,
 besides these uses, they are destined, in the female
 subject,  for other important purposes;  and the ac-
 coucheur finds, in the study of these bones, the founda-
 tion  of all midwifery knowledge.   Several eminent
 writers are of opinion, that in difficult parturition, all
 the  bones of the  pelvis undergo  a certain degree of
 separation.  It has been observed, likewise, that the
 cartilage uniting tlie ossa pubis is thicker, and of a
 more spongy  texture, in women than iu men; and
 therefore more likely to swell and enlarge during preg
 nancy.  That many instances of a partial separation
 of these bones, during labour, have happened,  there
 can  be no doubt; such a separation, however, ought
 by no means to be considered as a uniform and salutary
 work of nature, as some writers seem to think, but as
 the effect of disease. But there is another circumstance
 in regard to this part of osteology, which is well worthy
 of attention;  and  this is, the different capacities of tbe
 pelvis in the male and  female subject.  It bas been
 observed that the  os  sacrum is shorter and broader in
 women than in men; the ossa ilia are also found more
 expanded; whence it happens, that in women the cen-
 tre of gravity does not fall so directly on the upper part
 of the thigh as in  men, and this seems to be the reason
 why, in general, they step with less firmness, and move
 their hips forward in walking.  From  these circum-
 stances,  also, the brim of the  female pelvis  is nearly
 of an oval shape, being considerably wider from side to
 side, than  from the symphysis pubis to the os sacrum;
 whereas, in men, it is rounder, and everywhere of less
 diameter.   The inferior opening  of the pelvis is like-
 wise proportionably larger  In the female subject, the
 ossa ischia being more separated from each other, and
 the foramen ischii larger, so  that, where the os ischium
 and  os pubis are united together, tbey form a greate'
 circle; the os sacrum is  also more hollowed, though
 shorter, and the os coccygis more loosely connected,and,
 therefore, capable of a greater degree of motion than
I in men.
                                        455 
INO
INS
  INOCULATION.  Inoculatio.  The Insertion of a
poison into any part of the body.  It was mostly prac-
tised with that ofthe small-pox, because we had learned,
from  experience, that by  so  doing, we generally pro-
cured fewer pustules, and a much milder disease, than
when the small-pox was taken in a natural way.  Al-
though  the advantages  were evident, yet objections
were raised against inoculation, on the notion tbat it
exposed the person to some risk, when he might have
passed through life, without  ever taking the disease
naturally; but it is obvious thai  he was exposed to
much greater danger, from tiie intercourse which he
must have with his fellow-creatures, by taking the dis-
order in a natural way.  It has also been adduced, that
a person is liable to take the small-pox a second time,
when produced at first by artificial means ; but such
instances are very rare, bcsides.not being sufficiently
authentic.  We may conjecture that, in most of those
cases,  the matter  used was not variolous, but that of
some other eruptive disorder, such as the chicken-pox,
wbich has often been  mistaken for the  smafepox.
However, since the discovery of the preventive power
of the cow-pox, small-pox inoculation has been ra-
pidly falling into disuse.  See Variola vaccina.
  To illustrate the  benefits arising from inoculation, it
has been calculated that a third of the adults die who
take the disease in a natural  way, and about one-
seventh  of tiie  children; whereas of those who are
inoculated, and  are properly  treated afterward,  the
proportion is probably not greater than one in five or
six hundred.
  Inoculation is generally thought to have been intro-
duced into Britain from Turkey, by Lady Mary Wort-
ley Montague,  about the year 1721,  whose son had
been inoculated at Constantinople, during her resi-
dence there, and whose infant daughter was the first
that underwent the operation in this country.  It ap-
pears, however,  to have been well known  before this
period, both in the south of Wales and Highlands of
Scotland. Mungo Park, in his travels into the  interior
of Africa, found tbat inoculation had been long prac-
tised by tlie Negroes on the Guinea coast; and nearly
in the same manner, and at the same time of life, as
In Europe.  It is not clearly ascertained where inocu-
lation  really  originated.  It bas been ascribed to the
Circassians, who employed it as the means of preserv-
ing tiie beauty of their women.  It appears more pro-
bable that accident first suggested the expedient among
different nations, to whom the small-pox had long been
known, Independently of any intercourse  with each
other ; and what adds to the probability of this con-
jecture is, that in most places where inoculation can be
traced back, for a considerable length of time, it seems
to have been  practised chiefly by old women, before it
was adopted by regular practitioners.
  Many  physicians held inoculation in the greatest
contempt at first from ils supposed origin; others again
discredited the fact of its utility ; while others, on the
testimony of the success in distant countries, believed
in the advantages it  afforded, but still did not think
themselves warranted to recommend it to the families
they attended; and it was not until the experiment of
it had been made on six criminals (all of whom reco-
vered from the disease and  regained their liberty),
that it was practised, in the year 1726, on the royal
ramily, and afterward adopted as a general  thing.
  To ensure success from inoculation, the following
precautions should strictly be attended to.
  1. That the  person should be  of a good habit  of
body, and free from any disease, apparent or latent, in
order that he may not have tbe disease and  a bad con-
stitution, or perhaps another disorder, to struggle with
at the same time.
  2. To enjoin a temperate diet and proper regimen ;
and, where the body is plethoric, or gross, to make use
of gentle purges, together with mercurial and antimo-
nial medicines.
  3. That the age of the person be as little advanced
as possible, but not younger if it can be avoided, than
four months.
  4. To choose a cool season ofthe year, and to avoid
external beat, either by exposure to the sun, sitting by
fires, or in warm chambers, or by going too warmly
clothed, or befog too much in bed.
  5. To take the matter from a young subject, who has
the small-pox in a favourable way, and who is other-
wUe  healthy, uud free  from  disease; and,  when
      4oU
fresh matter can be procured, to give It the prefer
ence.
  Where matter of a benign kind cannot be procured,
and the patient is  evideutly in danger of Uie casual
small-pox, we should not, however, hesitate a moment
to inoculate from any kind of  matter that ran be pro-
cured ; as what has been taken In malignant  kinds of
small-pox has been found to produce a very mild dis-
ease. The mildness or malignity of the disease ap
peari, therefore, to depend little or not at all on the
inoculating matter.  Variolous matter, as well as the
vaccine, by being kept for a length of time, particularly
in a warm place, is apt, however, to undergo decompo-
sition, by putrefaction; and then another kind of con
tagious material has been produced.
  In inoculating, tiie operator is to make the  slightest
puncture or scratch imaginable in the arm of the per
son, rubbing that part of the lancet which is besmeared
With matter repeatedly over it,  by wny of ensuring the
absorption; and in order to prevent its being wiped off,
tiie shirt sloeve ought not  lo be pulled down until the
part is dry.
  A singular  circumstance  attending inoculation Is,
that when this fails in producing the disease, the in-
oculated  part nevertheless sometimes  Inflames and
suppurates, as in  cases where  the  complaint is about
to follow; and the matter produced in those cases, is
as  fit for inoculation  as  that taken  from  a person
actually labouring under tiie disease.  The same hap-
pens very frequently  in  inoculation -for the  cow
pox.
  If, on the fourth or fifth day after the operation, no
redness or inflammation is apparent on the edge ofthe
wound, we ought then to inoculate in the other arm,
in the same manner as before; or, for greater certain-
ty, we may do it in both.
  Some constitutions are incapable of having tbe dis-
ease in any form.   Others do not receive the disease at
one time, however freely exposed  to  its contagion,
even though  repeatedly inoculated, and yet receive it
afterward by merely  approaching those labouring
under it.
  On the coming on of the febrile symptoms, wbich ia
generally on the seventh day in the inoculated small-
pox, the  patient is not to  be suffered to lie abed, but
should be kept cool, and partake freely of antiseptic
cooling drinks.  See Variola.
  INOSCULA'TION.   (Inosculatio;  from in, and
oseulum,  a little mouth.)   The  running of the  veins
and arteries into one another, or the interunion of tile
extremities of the arteries and veins.
  INSA'NIA.  (From in, not,  and sanus,  sound.)
Insanity, or deranged intellect.  A genus of disease in
the class Neuroses, and order Vesania, characterized
by erroneous judgment, from imaginary perceptions or
recollections, attended with agreeable emotions in per-
sons of a sanguine temperament.  See Mania.
  Inse'ssus.   (From  insideo,  to sit upon.)  A  hot-
bath, simple or medicated, over which the  patient
sits.
  Insipie'ntia.  (From in,  and sapienlia, wisdom.)
A delirium wilhout fever.
  Insola'tio.  (From in, upon, and sol, the. sun.)  A
disease which arises from a too great influence of* the
sun's heat upon the head, a coup de soleil.
  INSPIRATION.  (Inspiratio ;  from in, and spiro,
to breathe.) The act of drawing the air into the lungs.
See Respiration.
  INSTINCT.  (Instinctus, us. m )   Animals are
not abandoned by nature to themselves: they are all
employed in a series of actions ;  whence results that
marvellous whole that is seen among organized beings.
To incline animals to the punctual execution of those
actions which are necessary for them, nature has pro-
vided them with instinct; that is, propensities, incli-
nations, wants, by which  they are constantly excited,
and forced to fulfil the Intentions of nature.
  Instinct may excite in two different modes, with or
without knowledge of the end.  The first is  enlight
ened instinct, the  second is blind  Instinct;  the one
is particularly ihe gift of man, the otber belongs to
animals.
  In examining carefully  the numerous phenomena
which depend on instinct, we see that there is a double
design In every animal:—1. The preservation of the
individual. 2. The preservation of the species.  Every
animal fulfils  this end in its own way, and according to 
INT
INT
hs organization; there are therefore  as many dif-
ferent instincts as there are different species; and as
the organization varies in  individuals, instinct pre-
sents individual differences sometimes strongly marked.
  We recognise two sorts of instinct in man: the one
depends  more evidently on his organization, on bis
animal state; he presents  it in  whatever state  he  is
found.  This sort of instinct is nearly the same as that
of animals.   The other kind of instinct springs from
the social state ; and, without doubt, depends on orga-
nization : what vital phenomenon does not depend on
it ?  But it  does not display itself except when man
lives in civilized society,  and when he enjoys all the
advantages of that state.
  To the first, that may be called animal instinct, be-
long hunger, thirst, the necessity of clothing, of a
covering from the weather; the desire of agreeable
sensations;  the fear of pain and of death;  the desire
to injure others, if there is any danger  to  be feared
from  thotn,  or any advantage  to arise from hurting
them ; the venereal inclinations; the interest inspired
by children ; inclination to imitation; to live in society,
which leads man to pass through the different degrees
of civilization, Sec.  These different  instinctive  feel-
ings incline him to concur in the established order of
organized beings.  Man is, of all the animals, the one
whose natural wants are most  numerous, and of the
greatest variety; which is in proportion  to the extent
of his intelligence: if  he had  only  these wants, he
would have  always a marked superiority over the
animals.
  When man, living in society, can easily provide for
all tlie wants which we have mentioned, he has then
time and powers of action more than his original
wants require:  then new wants urise, that may  be
called social wants: such is that of a lively perception
of existence ; a want which, the more it is satisfied,
the more difficult it becomes, because the sensations
become blunted by habit.
  This want of a vivid existence, added to the conti-
nually increasing feebleness ofthe sensations, causes a
mechanical  restlessness, vague  desires, excited by the
remembrance of vivid sensations  formerly felt:  in
order to escape from  this state, man is continually
forced to change his object, or to overstrain sensations
of the same kind.  Thence arises an  inconstancy
which never permits our desires to rest, and a progres-
sion of desires, which, always  annihilated  by enjoy-
ment, and irritated by remembrance, proceed forward
without end; thence arises ennui, by which the civil-
ized idler is incessantly tormented.
  The want of vivid  sensations is balanced by the
love of repose and idleness in the opulent classes of
society.   These contradictory  feelings modify each
other, and from their  reciprocal  reaction results the
love of power, of consideration, of fortune, &c. which
gives us the means of satisfying  both.
  These two instinctive sensations are not the only
ones which  spring from the social state; a crowd  of
others arise from it, equally real, though less important;
besides, the  natural wants become so changed  as no
longer to be known; hunger is often  replaced  by a
capricious taste; the venereal desires by a feeling of
quite another nature, &c.
  The natural wants  have a  considerable  influence
upon those which arise from society; these, in their
turn, modify the former; and if we add age, tempera-
ment, sex, &c. which tend to change every sort of want,
we will have an idea of the difficulty which the study
of tiie instinct of man presents.  This part of physi-
ology is  also scarcely begun.  We remark, however,
that the social wants necessarily carry along with them
the enlargement of the understanding; there  is no
comparison  in regard to the capacity of the mind, be-
tween a man in the higher class of society, and a man
whose physical powers are  scarcely sufficient to pro-
vide for his  natural wants.
  INTEGER.   When applied to leaves,  perianths,
petals, Sec. folia integra, means undivided; and is said
of the simple leaves,  as those of the orchises and
grasses.  The female flower of the oak  affords an ex-
ample of the perianthium  integrum, and the petals of
the Nigella arvensis and Silene quinquevulnera are
described as petala integra.
  INTEGERRIMUS.   Most perfect or entire.  Ap-
plied to leaves, the margin of which has no  teeth,
notches, or  incisions.   It regards solely the margin-
whereas the folium integrum respects the whole shape,
and has nothing to do with the margin.
  INTERCOSTAL.  (Intercostalis;  from inter, be-
tween, and casta, a rib.)   A name given to muscles,
vessels, &c. which are between the ribs.
  Intercostal arteries.   Arteria  intercostales.
The arteries which run between the ribs.  The superior
intercostal artery is a branch of the subclavian.  The
other intercostal arteries are given off from the aorta.
  Intercostal muscles.   Intercostales  extemi et
interni.  Between the ribs on  each side  are eleven
double rows of muscles.  These are the intercostales
extemi, and interni. Galen has very properly obsei ved,
that they decussate each other like the strokes of the
letter X.   The intercostales extemi  arise from the
lower edge of each superior rib, and, running obliquely
downwards and forwards, are inserted into the upper
edge of each inferior rib, so as to occupy the intervals
of the ribs, from as far back as the spine to their car-
tilages ; but from their cartilages to the sternum, there
is only a thin aponeurosis covering the internal inter-
costales.   The intercostales interni arise and are in-
serted in the same manner as the external. They begin
at the sternum, and extend as far as the angles of the
ribs, their fibres running obliquely  backwards.  These
fibres are spread over a considerable part of the inner
surface of the ribs, so as to be longer than those ofthe
external intercostals.  Some of the posterior portions
of the internal  intercostals pass over one rib,  and are
inserted into the rib below.  Verheyen first described
these portions as separate muscles, under the name of
infra costales.  Winslow has adopted the same name.
Cowper, and after him Douglas,  call  them costarum
depressores proprii.  These distinctions, however, are
altogether superfluous, as they  are evidently nothing
more than appendages of the intercostals.  The num-
ber of these portions varies in different subjects.  Most
commonly there are only four, the first of which runs
from the second rib to the fourth,  the second from the
third rib to the fifth, the third from the fourth rib to
the sixth, and the fourth from the fifth rib to the seventh.
The internal intercostals of the two inferior false ribs
are frequently so thin, as to be with difficulty separated
from the external; and, in some subjects, one or both
of them seem  to be altogether wanting.  It was the
opinion of the ancients, that the external intercostals
serve to elevate, and the internal  to depress  the ribs.
They were probably led to this opinion, by observing
the different direction of their fibres; but it is now well
known, that both have the same use, which is that
of raising the ribs equally during  inspiration.  Fallo-
pius was one of tlie first who ventured to call in ques-
tion the opinion of Galen on this  subject, by contend-
ing that both layers of the intercostals serve to elevate
the ribs.   In this opinion he was followed by Hierony-
mus Fabricius, our countryman Mayow, and Borelli.
But, towards the  close of the last century, Bayle, a
writer of some eminence, and professor at Toulouse,
revived the opinion of the ancients by the following
arguments:—He observed,that the oblique direction
of the fibres of the internal  intercostals is such, that
in each inferior rib, these fibres are nearer to the verte-
bra than  they  are at their superior extremities, or in
the rib immediately above; and that,  of course, they
must serve to  draw the rib downwards, as towards
the most  fixed point.   This plausible  doctrine was
adopted byseveral eminent writers, and among others,
by Nicholls, Hoadley,  and Schreiber; but above all,
by Hamberger, who went  so far as to assert, that not
only the ribs, but even the sternum, are  pulled down
wards by these muscles, and constructed a particular
instrument to  illustrate this doctrine.   He pretended
likewise that the intervals of the ribs are increased by
their elevation, and  diminished  by their depression;
but he allowed  that,  while those parts of the internal
intercostals that are placed between the bony part of
the ribs pull them downwards, the anterior portions of
the muscle, which  are situated between the cartilages,
concur with the external intercostals in raising them
upwards.   These opinions gave rise to a warm and
interesting controversy, in wbich Hamberger and Hal-
ler were the principal disputants.  The former argued
chiefly from theory, and the latter from experiments
on living animals, which  demonstrate the fallacy of
Bamberger's arguments, and prove, beyond a doubt,
that the internal intercostals perform the same func-
tions as the external. 
INT
INT
  Intercostal nerve.  Nervus intercostalis.  Great
Intercostal nerve.  Sympathetic nerve.  The great in-
tercostal nerve arises in the cavity of the cranium,
from a branch of the sixth and one of the fifth pair,
uniting into one trunk, which passes out of tlie cranium
through the carotid canal, and descends by the sides
of the bodies of the vertebre of the neck, thorax, loins,
and os sacrum: in its course, il receives the small ac-
cessory  branches from  all the thirty pair of spinal
nerves.   In the neck, it  gives off three  cervical gan-
glions, the upper, middle, and lower;  from which the
cardiac and pulmonary nerves arise.  In  the thorax,
it gives off the splanchnic or anterior intercostal, which
perforates the diaphragm, and forms the semilunar
ganglions, from which nerves pass to all the abdominal
viscera.  They also form in the abdomen ten peculiar
plexuses, distinguished by the name of  the viscus, to
which they belong, as  the  cceliac, splenic, hepatic,
superior, middle, and lower mesenteric, two renal, and
two  spermatic plexuses.   The  posterior  intercostal
nerve gives accessory branches about the  pelvis and
ischiatic nerve, and at length terminates.
  Intercostal veins.  The intercostal veins empty
their blood into the vena azygos.
  INTERCURRENT.  Those fevers which  happen
in certain seasons only, are called stationary: others
are called, by Sydenham, intercurrents.
  Inte'rcus.  (From inter,  between, and cutis, the
skin.)  A dropsy between the skin aud the flesh. See
Anasarca.
  INTERDE'NTIUM.   (From inter, between, and
dens, a tooth.)  The intervals between teeth  of the
same order.
  INTERDI'GITUM.   (From inter, between, and
digitus, a toe, or finger.)   A corn between the toes, or
wart between the fingers.
  INTERFiEMI'NEUM.  (From inter, between, and
famen, the thigh.)   The perineum, or space between
the anus and pudendum.
  Interlu'nius.   (From inter,  between, and luna,
the moon; because it was supposed  to affect those
who were born in the wane of the moon.) The epi-
lepsy.
  Intermediate affinity.   See  Affinity intermediate.
  INTERMITTENT.   (Intermittens; from  inter,
between, and  mitto, to send  away.)  A disease is so
called which does  not continue until it finishes one
way or the other, as most diseases do, but  ceases and re-
turns again at regular or uncertain periods; as agues, Sec.
  Intermittent fever. See Febris intermittens.
  INTERNODIS.   Applied to a flowerstalk or pedun-
culus, when it proceeds from the intermediate part
of a branch between two leaves;  as in Ehretia inter-
nodis.
  Internu'ntii dies.   (From internuncio, to go be-
tween.)   Applied to critical days, or such as stand
between the increase of a disorder and its  decrease.
  Intero'ssei manus.   (Interosseus; from inter, be-
tween, and os, the bone.)   These are small muscles
situated between the metacarpal bones, and extending
from the bones of the carpus to the fingers. They are
divided into internal and external; the former are to
be seen only on tbe palm of  the  hand,  but tbe latter
are conspicuous both on the palm and back of the
hand.   The interossei interni are three  in number.
The first,  which  Albinus names posterior  indicis,
arises tendinous and fleshy from  the  basis and inner
part of the metacarpal  bone of the forefinger, and
likewise from the  upper part of  that which supports
the middle finger.  Its tendon passes over the articula-
tion of  this part of these bones with the forefinger,
and, uniting with the tendinous expansion that is sent
off from the extensor digitorum communis, is inserted
into the posterior convex surface of the first phalanx
of that finger.  The second and third, to which Albinus
gives the names of prior annularis, and interrosseus
auricularis, arise, in the same manner, from the basis
of the outsides of tbe metacarpal bones that sustain
the ring-finger and the little finger, and are Inserted
into tbe outside of the tendinous  expansion of the ex-
tensor digitorum communis that covers  each of those
fingers.   These three muscles draw  the  fingers into
which they are inserted, towards the  thumb.   The
tnttrossd externi are four in number; for among these
is included  the small muscle that is situated on tbe
outside of the metacarpal bone that supports the fore-
finger.   Douglas calls it extensor tertii internodii in-
      458
dtcis, and Winslow trmi-interosstus indicis.  Albimu,
who describes it  among the interrossei, gives It  the
name of prior indicia.  This firrt interosseus externus
arises by two tendinous and fleshy portions.  One of
these springs from the upper half of the inner side of
the first bone of the thumb, and the other  from  the
ligaments tbat unite the os trapezoides to the metacar-
pal bone of the forefinger, and  likewise from all  the
outside of this latter bone.  These two portions unite
as they descend, and terminate  in a tendon, which la-
inserted into the outside of that part of tiie tendinous
expansion from tlie extensor digitorum communis that
ia spread over the posterior convex surface of tiie fore-
finger.   The second, to which Albinus gives the name
of prior medii, is not quite so thick as the last described
muscle.  It arises by two heads, one of which springs
from the inner side of the metacarpal bone ofthe fore-
finger, chiefly towards its convex surface, and the other
arises from the adjacent ligaments, and from the whole
outer side of the metacarpal bone that sustains  the
middle finger.  These two portions unite as they de-
scend, and terminate in a tendon, which  is Inserted,
in the same manner, as the preceding muscle, into  the
outside ofthe tendinous expansion that covers the pos-
terior part of the middle finger.  The  third belongs
likewise to the middle finger, and is therefore named
posterior medii by Albinus.  It arises, like tiie last de-
scribed muscle, by two origins, which spring from  the
roots of the metacarpal bones of tbe ring  and middle
fingers,  and from the adjacent ligaments, and  is in-
serted into the inside of the same tendinous expansion
as the preceding muscle.  The fourth, to which Albi-
nus gives the name of posterior annularis, differs from
the last two only in its situation, which is between the
metacarpal bones of the ring and little  fingers.  It is
inserted into the inside of the tendinous  expansion of
the extensor digitorum communis, that covers the pos-
terior part of the ring-finger.   All these four muscles
serve to extend the fingers into which they are inserted,
and  likewise  to  draw  them inwards, towards  the
thumb, except the third, or posterii medii, which, from
its situation and insertion,  is calculated  to pull  the
middle finger outwards.
  Interossei  pedis.  These small muscles, in their
situation between the metatarsal bones, resemble the
interossei of the hand, and, like them, are divided into
internal and  external.  The interossei  pedis interni
are three in number.  They arise tendinous and fleshy,
from the basis and Inside of the metatarsal bones of the
middle, the third, and little toes, in the  same manner
as those of the hand, and they each terminate in  a
tendon that runs to the inside of  the first joint of these
toes, and from thence to their upper surface, where  it
loses itself in  the tendinous expansion that is sent off
from the  extensors.  Each  of these  three muscles
serves to draw the toe into which it is inserted towards
the great toe.   The interossri externi are four in num-
ber.  The first arises tendinous and fleshy from the
outside ofthe root of the metatarsal bone of the great
toe, from the os cuneiforme internum,  and  from the
root ofthe inside of the metatarsal bone of the foretoe
Its tendon is inserted into the inside  of  the tendinous
expansion that covers the back part of the toes.  The
second is  placed  in  a similar  manner  between the
metatarsal bones of the  fore and middle toes, and  is
inserted into  the outside of the tendinous expansion
on the back part of the foretoe.  The third and  fourth
are placed between the two next metatarsal bones, and
are inserted into the outside of the  middle  and third
toes.  The first of these muscles draws the foretoe
inwards towards the great toe.  The three others  pull
the toes, into which they are inserted, outwards.  They
all assist in extending the toes.
  INTEROSSEOUS.  (Interosseus; from inter, be-
tween, and  os, a bone.)  A name given to muscles
ligaments, Sec. which are between bones.
  Interpella'tus.   (From  interpella,  to interrupt.)
A name given by Paracelsus to a disease attended with
irregular or uncertain paroxysms.
  Interpola'tus dies.  (From interpolo, to renew.)
In Paracelsus, these are the days interpolated between
two paroxysms.
  INTERSCAPU'LIUM.  (From inter, between, and
scapula, the shoulder-blade.)  That part of the spine
which lies between  the Bhoulders.
  INTERSE'PTUM.  (From inter, between, and sep-
tum.an enclosure 1  Tbe uvula and the seLtuiu nariuui. 
INT
1NV
  INTERSPINALS.  (From inter, between,  and
apina, the spine.)  Muscles, nerves, Sec are so named
which are between the processes ofthe spine.
  Interspinales.  The fleshy portions between the
spinous processes of the neck, back, and loins, distin-
guished by the names of interspinales colli, dorsi et
lumborum. Those  which  connect processes  of the
back and loins, are rather small tendons than muscles:
they draw these processes nearer to each other.
  INTERTRANSVERSA'LES.   Four distinct small
bundles of flesh, which fill  up the spaces between the
transverse processes of the vertebra of the loins, and
serve to draw them towards each other
  INTERTRI'GO.  (From inter,  between, and tero,
to rub.)  An excoriation about the  anus, groins, axilla,
or other parts of the body, attended with inflammation
and moisture.  It is most commonly produced by the
irritation of the urine, from riding, or some acrimony
in children.
  INTE'STINE.  (Intestinum; from intus, within.)
The convoluted membraneous tube that  extends from
the stomach to the anus, receives the ingested food, re-
ains it a certain  time, mixes with  it the bile and pan-
 -eatic juice,  propels the chyle into the  lacteals, and
covers the feces with mucus, is so  called.  The intes-
tines are situated in the cavity of the abdomen, and
are divided into the small and large, which have, be-
sides their sice, other circumstances of distinction.
  The small intestines  are supplied internally with
folds, called valvula conniventes, and have no bands
on their external surface.   The large intestines have
no folds internally; are supplied externally with three
strong muscular bands,  which run parallel upon the
surface, and give the intestines a saccated appearance;
they have also small fatty appendages, called appendi-
cula epiploica.
  The first portion of the intestinal tube,  for about the
extent of twelve  fingers' breadth, is called the duode-
num;  it lies  in  the epigastric region;  makes  three
turnings, and between the first and second flexure re-
ceives by a common opening, the pancreatic duct, and
the ductus communis choledochus. It is in this por-
tion of the intestines that chylification is chiefly per-
formed.  The remaining portion ofthe small intestines
is distinguished by an imaginary division  into the jeju-
num and ileum.
  The jejunum, which commences where the duode-
num ends, is situated in the umbilical region, and is
mostly found empty; hence its name: it is everywhere
covered wilh red vessels, and, about an hour and a half
after a meal, with destended lacteals.
  The ileum  occupies the hypogastric region and the
pelvis, is of a more pallid colour than the former, and
terminates by a transverse opening into the large intes-
tines, which is called the valve of the ileum, valve of
the cacum, or the valve of Tulpius.
  The beginning of the large intestines  is firmly tied
down in the right iliac region, and for the extent of
about four fingers' breadth is called the cacum, having
adhering to it a worm-like process, called  the processus
cad vermiformis, or  appendicula caci  vermiformis.
The great intestine then commences colon, ascends to-
wards the liver, passes across the abdomen,  under the
stomach, to the left side, where it is contorted like the
letter S, and descends to the pelvis: hence it is divided
in this course into the ascending portion, the transverse
arch, and the sigmoid flexure.  When it has reached
the pelvis, it is called the redum, from whence it pro-
ceeds in a straight line to the amis.
  The intestinal canal  is  composed of three mem-
branes, or coats; a common one from the  peritoneum, a
muscular coat, and a villous coat, the villi being formed
ofthe fine terminations of arteries.and fltewtes, and the
origins of lacteals and lymphatics. The intestines are
connected to the  body by the mesentery; the duodenum
has  also a peculiar collecting cellular  substance,  as
have likewise the colon  and rectum, by  whose means
the former is firmly accreted to the back, the colon to
the kidneys, and the latter to the  os coccygis, and, in
women, to the vagina.  The remaining portion of the
tube Is loose in the cavity of the abdomen.  The arte-
ries of this canal are branches of the superior and infe-
rior mesenteric,  and the duodenal. The veins evacu-
ate their blood into the vena porte.  The nerves are
branches  of  the  eight pair and intercostals.  The
lacteal vessels, which originate  principally from the
jejunum, proceed to the glands in the mesentery.
  INTRAFOLIACEUS.  Applied to stipule, which
are above the footstalk, and internal with respect to
the leaf; as in Ficus carica and Morus nigra.
  Intrica'tus.  (From intrico, to entangle; so called
from its intricate folds.)  A muscle ofthe ear.
  Intri'nseci's.   (From intra, within, and secus, to-
wards.) A painful disorder of an internal part
  Introce'ssio.   (From introcedo, to go in.)  Depres
sio.  A depression or sinking of any part inwards.
  INTUSSUSCEPTION.  (Intus-susceptio, and a'n-
tro-susceptio;  from intus, within, and suscipio, to re
ceive.)  A disease of the intestinal tube, and most fre
quently of ihe small intestines; it consists in a portion
of gut passing for  some length within another portion.
  I'NTYBUS.  (From in, and tuSa,  a hollow instru-
ment:  so named from the hollowness of its stalk.)   See
Cichorium endivia.
  INULA.  (Contracted or corrupted from helenium,
rjXtviov, fabled to have sprung from the tears of Helen.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in tbe Linnean sys-
tem.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia superflua.
  2. The herb inula, or elecampane.  See Inula hele-
nium.
  Inula, common.  See Inula helenium.
  Inula crithmoides.  Caaponga  of the Brazilians.
Trifolia spica;   Crithmum marinum non spinosum.
The leaves and young stalks of this plant are pickled for
the use of  the table; they are gently diuretic.
  Inula dysenterica.  The systematic name of the
smaller inula, Conyza media. Arnica Suedensis, Arnica
spurio, Conyza:  Inula—amplexicaulibus, cordato ob-
longis ; caule  villoso, paniculato; squamis ealycinis,
setaceis, of  Linneus.   This indigenous plant was
once considered as possessing great antidysenteric vir-
tues.   The whole herb is to the taste acrid, and at the
same time rather  aromatic.  It is now fallen into dis-
use.
  Inula  helenium.  The  systematic name of the
common inula or elecampane.   Enula campana:  He-
lenium. Inula—foliis amplexicaulibus ovatis rugosis
subtus tomentosis, calycum squamis  ovatis, of  Lin-
neus.  This plant, though a native of Britain, is sel-
dom met with in  its wild state, but mostly cultivated.
The root, which is the part employed medicinally, in
its recent state, has a weaker and less grateful smell
than when thoroughly dried, and kept for a length of
time, by which it is greatly improved; its odour then ap-
proaching to that of Florentine orris-root. Itwasformer-
ly in high estimation in dyspepsia, pulmonary affections,
and uterine obstructions, but is now fallen into disuse.
From the  root of this plant, Rose first extracted the
peculiar vegetable principle called inulin-  Funke has
since given the following as the analysis of elecampane
root:—A crystallizable volatile oil; inulin; extractive;
acetic acid; a crystallizable resin: gluten: a fibrous
matter. See Inulin.
  INULIN    In  examining the Inula helenium, or
Elecampane, Rose imagined he discovered a new vege-
table  product, to which the name of  Inulin has  been
given. It is white and pulverulent, like starch.  When
thrown on red-hot coals, it melts, diffusing a white
smoke, with the smell of burning sugar.  It yields, on
distillation in a retort, all the products furnished by
gum.   It dissolves readily in hot water;  and precipi-
tates almost entirely on cooling, in the form of a white
powder; but before falling down, it gives the liquid  a
mucilaginous consistence.  It precipitates quickly on
the addition of alkohol.
  The above substance is obtained Dy boiling the root
of this plant iu four times its weight of water, and
leaving the  liquid in repose.  Pelletier and Caventou
have found the same starch-like matter in abundance
in the root of colchicum: and Gautier in  the root of
pellitory.
  Inustion.  (From in, and uro, to burn.)   It is some
times  used for hot and dry seasons; and formerly by
surgeons for the operation of the cautery.
  Inverkcu'ndum os. (From in, not, and verecundus
modest.)  An obsolete  name of the frontal  bones
from its being regarded as the seat of impudence.
  INVERSION.  Inversio.  Turned inside outward
  INVOLUCELLUM.  A partial involucrum.   See
Involucrum.
  INVOLU'CRUM.   (From in, and volvo, to  wrap
up; because parts are enclosed by it.)  In anatomy
1. A name of the  pericardium.
  2. A membrane which covers any part 
IOD
IOD
   ' n botany.  A leafy calyx, remote from the flower,
 applied particularly to umbelliferous plants.
   From the part of the umbel in which it is placed, it
 Is called,
   1. Involucrum universale, being at the base of tiie
 whole umbel; as in Coriandrum sativum, Scandix
 cerefolium, and Corns* musculo,
   2. I. partiale, called involucellum; at the bottom of
 each umbellula, or partial stalk of the umbel; as  in
 Daucus carota.
   3. I. dimidiatum, surrounding the middle  of the
 stalk at the base of the umbel;  as in JEthusa cy-
■ napium.
   From the number of the involucre leaves,
   4. MonophyUous; as in Coriander and Hermas.
   5. Tryphillous ;  as in Bupleurum junceum.
   6. Polyphillous; as in Bunium bulbocastanum, and
 Sium.
   7. Pinnatifid; as in Daucus carota, and Sium an-
 gustifolium.
   8. Reflex, turned back; as in SeUnum mowsieri.
   Solitary flowers rarely have  an involucrum; yet it
 is found in the anemones.
   INVOLUTUS.   Involute.   Rolled  inwards.  Ap-
 plied to leaves, petals, sec. when their margins are
 turned inward; as  in the leaves of Pimguicula, and
 petals of Anethum, Pastinaca, and Bupleurum.
   IODATE.   A  compound of iodine with oxygen,
 and a metallic basis.  The oxiodes of Davy.
   Iodes.  (Fronwoc, verdigris.)  Green matter thrown
 off by vomiting.
   IODIC  ACID.  Acidum iodieum.  Oxiodic  acid.
 " When barytes water is made to act on iodine, a  so-
 luble hydriodate, and  an insoluble iodate of barytes,
 are formed.  On the latter, well washed, pour sulphu-
 ric acid, equivalent to the barytes present, diluted with
 twice its weight of water, and heat the mixture.  The
 iodic  acid quickly abandons a portion of its base, and
 combines with the water; but though even less than
 the equivalent proportion of sulphuric acid has been
 used, a little of it will be found mixed with the liquid
 acid.   If we endeavour to separate this portion, by
 adding barytes water, the two  acids precipitate to-
 gether.
    The above economical process is  that of Gay Lus-
 sac; but  Sir H. Davy, who is the first discoverer of
 this acid, invented one more elegant, and  which yields
  a purer acid.  Into a long glass tube, bent like  the
  letter L inverted, (i) shut at  one end, put 100 grains
  of chlorate of potassa, and pour over  it 400 grains of
  muriatic  acid, specific gravity 1.105.  Put 40 grams of
  iddine into a thin long- necked receiver.  Into the open
  end of the bent tube put some muriate  of lime, and
  then connect It with the receiver.  Apply a gentle heat
  to the sealed end of the former.  Protoxide of chlorine
  is  evolved, which, as it comes in contact with  the
  iodine, produces combustion, and two new compounds,
  a compound of iodine and oxygen, and one of  iodine
  and chlorine.  The latter is easily separated by heat,
  while the former remains in a state of purity.
    The iodic acid of Sir H. Davy is a white semitrans-
  parent solid.  It has a  strong acido-astringent taste,
  liut no smell. Its density is considerably greater than
  that of sulphuric acid, in which it rapidly sinks.  It
   melts, and i3 decomposed into iodine and oxygen,  at a
   temperature of aboul 620°. A grain of iodic acid gives
   out 176.1, grain measure, of oxygen gas.  It would ap-
   pear from this, that iodic acid consists of 15.5 iodine,
   to 5 oxygen.                          .
     Iodic acid deliquesces in the air, and is, ot course,
   very soluble in water.  It first reddens and then de-
   stroys the blues of vegetable infusions.   It  blanches
   other vegetable colours.  Between the acid prepared
   by Gay Lussac, and  that of Sir H. Davy, there is one
   important difference.   The  latter, being dissolved,
   may, by evaporation of the water, pass not only to the
   inspissated syrup state, but can be made to assume a
   pasty consistence;  and, finally, by a stronger heat,
   yields the solid substance unaltered.  When a mixture
   of it with charcoal, sulphur, resin, sugar, or the com-
   bustible metals, in a finely divided state, is heated, de-
   tonations are produced; and its solution rapidly cor-
   rodes all the metals to which Sir H. Davy exposed it,
   both gold and platinum, but much more intensely the
   first of these metals.
     It appears to form combinations with all the fluid or
   solid acids which it does not decompose.  When sul-
         460
phuric acid is dropped into a concentrated solution of
it in hot water, a solid substance is precipitated, wbich
consists of the acid and the compound; for, ou evapo-
rating the solution by a gentle heat, nothing rises but
water. On  increasing the heat in an experiment of
this kind, Ihe solid  substance formed fused; mid ou
cooling tiie mixture, rhomboidal crystals formed of  a
pale  yellow colour, which were very  fusible, and
which did not change  nt the  heal at which the coni_
pound of osvgen aud iodine decomposes, but sublimed
unaltered.  When urged by a much stronger heat,  it
 Sartially sublimed, and partially decomposed, alfo-rd-
 ig oxygen, iodine, and sulphuric acid.
  With hydro-phosphoric, the compound presents phe-
nomena precisely similar, and they form together a
solid, yellow, crystalline combination.
  With hydro-nitric acid, it yields  white crystals in
rhomboidal  plates, which, at  a lower heat than the
preceding acid compounds, are resolved into hydro-
nitric acid, oxygen, and iodine.  By liquid  muriatic
acid, the Bubstance is Immediately decomposed, arid
the compound of cldorine and iodine is formed.  All
these acid compounds redden vegetable blues, taste
sour, and dissolve  gold  and  platinum.  From  these
curious researches Sir H. Davy infers, that Gay Lus-
sac's iodic acid is a sulpho-iodic acid, and probably a
definite compound.   However minute the  quantity
of  sulphuric acid made  to act on the  iodide  of ba-
rium may be, a part of it is always  employed  to
form the compound acid; and the residual fluid con-
tains both the compound acid and a certain quantity
of  the original salt."— Ure.                   .
  IODIDE.   lode; lodure.  A compound of iodine
 with a metal; as Iodide of potassium.
  IODINE.  (Iodina; from iiaSns, a violet colour, so
 termed from its beautiful colour.)   A peculiar or un
 decompounded principle.
   " Iodine was accidentally  discovered, In  1812, by
 De Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris.   In
 his processes for procuring soda from the ashes of sea-
 weeds, he found the metallic vessels much corroded;
 and, in searching for the cause of the corrosion,  he
 made this important discovery.  But for this circum-
 stance, nearly accidental, one of the most curious  of
 substances might have remained for ages unknown,
 since nature has not distributed it, in either a simple or
 compound state, through her different kingdoms, but
 has confined it to what the Roman satirist considers aa
 the most worthless of things, the vile seaweed.
   Iodine derived its first illustration from Clement and
 Desormes.  In their memoir, read at a meeting of the
 Institute, these able  chemists described its principal
 properties.  They stated its sp. gr. to be about 4; that
 Ft  becomes a violet-coloured  gas at a temperature be-
 low that of boiling water,—whence its  name; that it
 combines with the metals, and with phosphorus and
 BUlphur, and  likewise with the  alkalies and metallic
 oxides; that it forms a detonating compound with am-
 monia- that it is soluble in alkohol,  and  still more
 soluble' in ether; and that, by its action upon phospho-
 rus  and upon hydrogen, a substance having the cha-
 racters of muriatic acid  is formed.   In  this communi-
 cation they offered no decided  opinion respecting its
 nature.                            ,         . , „
    In 1813, Sir H. Davy  happened to be on a visit to
 Paris, receiving, amid  the  political  convulsions of
 France, the tranquil homage due to his genius.  ' When
 Clement showed iodine lo me,'  says Sir H. Davy,  'he
  believed that the  hydriodic acid was  muriatic acid ;
  and Gay Lussac, after his  early experiments, made
  originally with Clement, formed the same opinion, and
  maintained it, when I first stated to  him my belief,
  that it was a new and  peculiar acid, and that iodine
  was a substance analogous in its chemical relations to
  chlorine.'
    Iodine has been found  in the following seaweeds,
  the Alga aquatica of Linneus:—
  Fucus cartilagineus,     Fucus palmatus,
        membranaccus,         filum,
        filamentosus,           digitntus,
        rubens                 saccharinus,
        nodoBus,          Ulva umbilicalis,
        serratus,                pavoma,
         siliquosus,              I"™. «">d in sponge.
     It is from the  incinerated seaweed, or kelp, tha
  iodine in quantities  is to be obtained.  Dr. Wollastos
  first communicated a precise formula for extracting it 
lOD
IOD
Dissolve the soluble part of kelp in water.  Concen-
trate the liquid by evaporation, and  separate all the
crystals that can  be  obtained.  Pour the remaining
liquid into a clean vessel, and mix with it an excess of
sulphuric acid.  Boil this liquid for some time.  Sul-
 Bhur  is  precipitated, and  muriatic acid driven off.
 'ecant off the clear liquid, and strain it through wool.
Put it  into a small flask, and mix it with  as much
black oxide of manganese as we used before of sulphu-
ric acid.  Apply to the top of the flask  a  glass tube,
shut at one end.  Then heat the mixture in the flask.
The iodine sublimes into the glass tube.  None can be
obtained from sea-water.
  Iodine is a solid, of a grayish-black colour and me-
tallic lustre.  It is often in scales similar  to those of
micaceous  iron ore, sometimes in rhomboidal plates,
very large and very brilliant.  It has been obtained in
elongated octohedrons, nearly half an inch in length;
the axes of which were shown by Dr. Wollaston to be
to each other, as the numbers 2, 3, and 4, at least so
nearly, that in a body so volatile, it is scarcely possible
to detect an error in this estimate, by the reflective
goniometer.  Its fracture is  lamellated, and  it is soft
and friable to the touch.   Its taste is very acrid, though
il  be very sparingly soluble in water.  It is  a deadly
poison. It gives a deep brown stain to the skin, which
soon vanishes by evaporation.  In odour, and power of
destroying  vegetable  colours, it resembles very dilute
aqueous chlorine.  The sp. gr. of iodine at 62£° is 4.948.
It dissolves in 7000 parts of water.  The solution is of
an orange-yellow colour, and in small quantity tinges
raw starch of a purplehue.
   It melts, according to Gay Lussac, at 227° F., and  is
volatilized under  the common pressure of the atmos-
phere, at the temperature of 350°.  It evaporates pretty
quickly at ordinary temperatures.  Boiling water aids
its sublimation, as  is shown in the above process of ex-
trac tion.  The sp. gr. of its violet vapour is 8.678.  It is
a  non-conductor  of electricity.   When  the  voltaic
chain is interrupted by a small fragment of it, the de-
composition of water instantly ceases.
   Iodine is incombustible, but with  azote it forms a
curious detonating compound; and in combining with
several bodies, the intensity of mutual action is such as
to produce the phenomena of combustion.  Its combi-
nations with oxygen and chlorine are described, under
iodic and chloriodic acids.
   With a view of determining whether it was a simple
or compound form of matter, Sir H. Davy exposed it to
the action of the  highly inflammable metals.  When
its vapour is passed over potassium heated in a glass
tube,  inflammation  takes place,  and the potassium
bums slowly with  a pale blue light.  There was no gas
disengaged when  the experiment was repeated in a
mercurial apparatus.  The iodideof potassium is white,
fusible at a red heat, and soluble in water.  It has a
peculiar acrid  taste.  When acted on by  sulphuric
acid, it effervesces, and  iodine appears.  It is evident
that in this experiment  there had been no decomposi-
tion ; the result depending merely on the combination of
iodine with potassium.  By passing the vapour of iodide
over  dry red-hot potassa,  formed from  potassium,
oxygen is expelled, and the above iodine results. Hence,
we see, that at the temperature of ignition, the affinity
between iodine and potassium is superior to that of the
latter for oxygen.   But iodine in its turn is displaced by
chlorine, at a moderate heat, and if the latter be in ex-
cess, chloriodic acid is  formed.  Gay Lussac passed
vapour of iodine in a red  heat over melted subcar-
bonate of potassa; and he obtained carbonic acid and
oxygen gases, in the proportions of two in volume of the
first, and one of tiie second, precisely those which exist
in the salt.
   The oxide of sodium, and the suDcarbonate of soda,
are  also completely  decomposed by iodine.   From
these experiments it would seem, that this  substance
ough' to disengage oxygen from most ofthe oxides; but
tliis happens only In a small number of cases.  The
protoxides of lead and bismuth are the only oxides not
reducible by mere heat, with which  it  exhibited that
power.  Barytes, strontian, and lime combine with
Iodine, without giving out oxygen gas, and the oxides
of zinc and iron undergo no alteration in this respect.
From these facts we must conclude, that the decompo-
sition of the oxides by iodine depends less on the con-
densed state of the oxygen, than upon the  affinity of
the metal for Iodine.  Except barytes, strontian, and
lime, no oxide can remain in combination with iodine
at a red heat.  For a more particular account of some
iodides, see Hydriodic acid ; the compounds of which,
in the liquid or moist state, are hydriodates, but change,
on drying, into iodides, in the same way as the muri-
ates become chlorides.
  From the proportion of the constituents in hydriodic
acid, 15.5 has been deduced as the prime equivalent of
iodine.
  Iodine forms with sulphur a feeble compound, of a
grayish-black colour, radiated like sulphuret of antimo-
ny.  When it is distilled with water, iodine separates.
  Iodine and phosphorus combine with great rapidity
at common temperatures, producing heat wilhout light.
From the presence of a little moisture, small quantities
of hydriodic acid gas are exhaled.
  Oxygen expels  iodine from  both sulphur and phos-
phorus.
  Hydrogen,  whether dry or moist, did not seem to
have any  action on iodine at the ordinary tempera-
ture;  but if  we expose a mixture  of hydrogen and
iodine to a red heat in a tube, they unite together, and
hydriodic  acid is  produced,  which  gives a  reddish
brown colour to water.  Sir H. Davy threw the violet-
coloured gas upon the  flame of hydrogen, when it
seemed to support  its combustion.  He also formed a
compound of iodine with hydrogen, by heating to red-
ness the two bodies in a glass tube.
  Charcoal has no action upon iodine, either at a high
or low temperature. Several of the common, metals,
on the contrary, as zinc, iron, tin, mercury, attack it
readily, even at a low temperature, provided they be in
a divided  state.   Though  these combinations take
place  rapidly, they produce but  little heat, and  but
rarely any light.
  The compound of iodine and zinc, or iodide of zinc,
is white.   It melts readily, and is sublimed in the state
of fine, acicular, four-sided prisms.  It is very soluble in
water, and rapidly deliquesces in the air.  It dissolves in
water without the evolution of any gas.  The solution
is slightly acid, and does not crystallize.   The alkaUes
precipitate from it white oxide of zinc; while concen-
trated sulphuric  acid disengages hydriodic acid and
iodine, because sulphurous acid is produced.  The so-
lution is a hydriodate of oxide of zinc.  When iodine and
zinc are made to act on each other under water in
vessels hermetically sealed, on the  application of  a
slight  heat, the water assumes a deep reddish-brown
colour, because, as soon as hydriodic acid is produced,
it dissolves iodine in abundance.  But by degrees the
zinc, supposed to be in  excess,  combines with  tbe
whole iodine, and the solution becomes colourless like
water.
   Iron is acted on by iodine in the same way as zinc!
and a brown iodide results, which  is fusible at a red
heat.  It dissolves in water, forming a light green so-
lution, like that  of muriate of iron. When the  dry
iodide was heated, by  Sir II.  Davy, in  a small retort
containing pure ammoniacal gas, it combined with the
ammonia  and formed  a compound  which volatilized
without leaving any oxide.
   The iodide of tin is very fusible.  When in powder,
its colour is a dirty orange-yellow, not unlike  that of
glass of antimony.  When put  into a considerable
quantity of water, it is completely decomposed.  Hy-
driodic acid is formed, which remains in solution in the
water, and the oxide of tin precipitates  in white floc-
culi.   If  tbe quantity of water  be small, the acid,
being more concentrated, retains a portion of oxide of
tin and forms a silky orange-coloured salt, which may
be almost  entirely decomposed by water.  Iodine and
tin act very well on ench other, in water of tiie tempe-
rature of 212°.   By employing an  excess of tin, we
may  obtain  pure  hydriodic acid, or at  least  an acid
containing only traces of the metal.  The tin  must be
in considerable quantity, because the oxide which pre-
cipitates on its surface, diminishes very much its action
on iodine.
   Antimony presents with iodine the same phenomena
as tin; so that we might employ either for the prepara-
tion of hydriodic  acid, if we were not acquainted with
preferable methods.
   The iodides of lead, copper, bismuth, silver, and mer-
cury, are insoluble in water, while  tiie  iodides of the
 very oxidizable metals are soluble in that liquid.  Il
 we mix a hydriodate with the metallic  solutions, all
the  metals which do not decompose water will give
                                         461 
IOD
IOD
 preclpitatps, while those which decompose that liquid
 will give rwiie.   This is at least the  case  with tiie
 above-mentioned metals
   There are two iodides of mercury; the one yellow,
 the other red;  both are fusible and volatile.  The yel-
 low or prot-iodide, contains one half less iodine  than
 the dcut-iodide. The latter when crystallized is a bright
 crimson.  In general, there ought to be for each metal
 as many iodides as there are oxides and chlorides.   All
 the iodides are decomposed by concentrated sulphuric
 and nitric acids.   The metal isconverted into an oxide,
 and iodine is disengaged.  They are likewise decom-
 posed by oxygen at a red heat, if we except the iodides
 of potassium,  sodiun*  lead,  and  bismuth.  Chlorine
 likewise separates iodine from all the iodides;  but
 iodine, on tlie other hand, decomposes most of the sul-
 phurets and phosphurets.
   When iodine and oxides act upon each other in con-
 tact with water, very different results take place from
 those  above described.  The water is decomposed; its
 hydrogen unites with iodine, to form hydriodic acid;
 while its oxygen, on the  other hand, produces with
 iodine, iodic acid.  All the oxides, however, do not
 give  the same results.    We obtain them only with
 potassa, soda,  barytes,  strontian, lime, and magnesia.
 The oxide of zinc, precipitated by ammonia from its
 solution in sulphuric acid, and well washed,  gives no
 trace of iodate  and hydriodate.
   From all the above-recited facts, we are warranted
 in concluding  iodine to be an undecompounded body.
 In its specific  gravity, lustre, and magnitude of its
 prime equivalent, it resembles  the metals; but in all
 its chemical agencies, it  is analagous to oxygen and
 chlorine. It is a non-conductor of electricity, and pos-
 sesses, like these  two bodies, the negative electrical
 energy with regard to metals, inflammable and alkaline
 substances; and hence, when combined with these sub-
 stances in aqueous solution, and electrised in the voltaic
 circuit, ir separates at the positive surface.  But it has
 a positive energy with respect to  chlorine: for when
 united to chlorine, in ihe chloriodic acid, it separates at
 the negative surface. This likewise corresponds with
 their  relative attractive energy, since chlorine expels
 iodine from all ite combinations.  Iodine dissolves in
 carburet of  sulphur,  giving, in very minute quantities,
 a fine  amethystine tint to the liquid.
   Iodide of mercury  has been  proposed for a pigment.
 Orfila  swallowed 6 grains of iodine; and was imme-
 diately affected with  heat, constriction of the throat,
 nausea, eructation, salivation, and cardialgia.  In ten
 minutes he had copious bilious vomitings, and slight
 colic pains.   His pulse rose from 70 to about 90 beats in
 a minute.  By swallowing large quantities of muci-
 lage, and emollient  clysters,  he recovered, and  felt
 nothing  next day but slight fatigue.  About  70 or 80
 grains proved a fatal dose to dogs.  They usually died
 on the fourth or fifth day.
   Dr. Coindet of Geneva has recommended the use of
 iodine in the form of tincture, and also hydriodate of
 potassa or soda, as an efficacious remedy for the cure of
 glandular swellings, of the goitrous and  scrofulous
 kind.  I have found  an ointment composed of 1 oz.
 hog's lard, and 1 drachm of iodide  of zinc, a powerful
 external application  in such cases. About a drachm
 of this ointment should be used in friction on the swell-
 ing once or twice a-day."— Ure's Chem. Did.
   [This  powerful  remedy, which  has recently been
 introduced into practice,  is obtained from the plants
 affording soda, or the vegetables called  " Varecks,"
 by the French, or from other species of the  alge or
 seaweeds.  A species furnishing a more considerable
 portion of iodine than its congeners is the Fucus sac-
 charinus, or Sugar-seaweed,  belonging to the class
 Cryptogamia, order Alga.
   In the year 1815, Dr. MitchiU received from Mr. G.
 De Claubry, of Paris, his researches upon this subject.
 His particular objects were to find whether iodine  ex-
 isted in ocean-water, and the condition and manner of
 ite evolution from the vegetables  that furnished  the
 soda or salt of Varecks.   He ascribes the discovery of
 this substance to Messrs. Macquer  and De La Salle,
 who, in  their experiments upon  the Varecks or sea-
 weeds, discovered iodine  in the mother-water of  ihe
 soda they afforded.  This fact he deemed sufficiently
 important to encourage chemists to look for it in the
vegetables themselves, from which that kind of soda
w as obtained   He m ade a journey to the west of Nor
       102
 mandy un Franre) for the express purpose of examin-
 ing upon  the spot tiie different species of Fucus; and
 he obtained  from the able botanist of Caen, various
 kinds of these marine plants, which he  submitted to
 experiment.   His analyses were chiefly made upon the
 following sorts, viz.
   I.  Of the Family of the Ulvte.
         1. The Ulva saccharina.
         2.    ..     digitata.
         3. The Fucus saccharinus,  J of Llnn|Eua

   II. Of the Family of the Varecks.
         1. The Fucus vesiculosus.
         2.    ..     serratus.
         3.    ..     siliquosus.
   IH. Of  the Family of the Ceramium.
         1. The Ceramium filum, or the Fucus filum,
             of Linneus.
   Such and other seaweeds are gathered on the shores
 of the ocean, among other purposes, for that of being
 burned to  ashes, for the preparation of the fixed alkali,
 called the  soda or salt of Varecks by  the  French and
 Dutch, as  distinguished from the soda or barilla, made
 by burning the maritime  plant  called  salsola.  The
 product of the above-mentioned seaweeds is a compli-
 cated mixture of things, such as,
   1.  A small quantity of the subcarbonate of soda.
   2.  A good deal of the hydro-chlorate of soda.
   3.         ..         sulphate of soda.
   4.  Sulphate of magnesia.
   5.  Hydro-chlorate of potash and magnesia.
   6.  Subcarbonate of potash.
   7.  A little sulphuretted sulphate of soda, and
   8.  A minute portion of the hydro-iodate of potash.
   The poverty of this sort of soda gives it but little
 value in commerce, its chief consumption being in the
 glass manufactures.   It is called kelp, and contains
 much less  soda than barilla.
   It was In the mother waters of the leys or lixiviums
 of kelp that iodine was first discovered, as is  said by
 Mr. Courtois.   All the foregoing products were conse-
 quent upon the preceding incineration of the fuci. As
 a number of these fuci are employed in  their recent
 state  as human food, (as is the fucus edulis) the several
 sorts  acquired an interest corresponding to their use-
 fulness, as applicable  for manure, for making kelp or
 iodine, or for food.
  On burning the fucus saccharinus, one of the results
 of a most  elaborate and complicated analysis of tbe
 residue, was that potash was associated  with iodine in
 the form of a hydro-iodate, the hydro-iodate of potash.
 As a general  remark, he says, that the species of fuci
 which contain the most mucilage, contain more iodine
 than  the others, by a large difference.
  This analysis of ocean or sea-water, proved that it
 contained  no  iodine ;  therefore it may  be fairly con-
 cluded, that the peculiar article under consideration, is
 prepared, or elaborated, by the living economy of these
 marine vegetables.  Of the fuci he analyzed, the fucus
 saccharinus which contained more of it than the other
 species.  This species, treated wilh  sulphuric acid,
 yielded immediately the  iodine it contained, wilhout
 the process of burning to ashes.  This saves the trou-
 ble of resorting to the eau mere, or mother water,, to ob-
 tain  it.   The  iodine has an affinity to oxygen, and
 under convenient circumstances, forms the hydro-iodtt
 acid.
  Iodine is particularly acted upon by starch, and other
 vegetable fecule, whereby it acquires, m the cool and
 dry way by trituration, a violet colour, passing into
 blue and  black, according to  the  relative proportions
 of the iodine and  starch employed.  The hue is red-
 dish if the starch  predominates; a superb  blue, if the
 ingredients are duly apportioned; and  black, if the
 iodine is iu excess; as  also violets of different shades,
 between the reds  and blues.  By a particular process,
 iodine may be obtained white.  This is shown in the
 memoir of  Messrs. Colin  and Claubry, on tbe combi-
nation of  iodine  with vegetable  and  animal Bub-
stances, as contained in the Annals of Chemistry  for
1814.
  It has lately been discovered, that iodine existed in
small quantity, with a portion of carbon,  arid of the
other  muriate  and carbonate of soda, in the officinal
preparation called iurnt sponge,  or pulvis spongia
usta.
  Tbe sponges art in modem zoology, classed among 
IOD
1RI
the zoophytes.  They are marine productions, of a
fibrous and tough constitution, covered with a slimy
matter, in which it has not yet been possible to disco-
ver either polypes, or other moveable parts, nor any
decided proofs of animality.  It seems,  nevertheless,
that living sponges evince a kind of shrinking, or con-
traction, on being touched, and that there is  a sort of
palpitation in the pores with which  the body of the
sponge is pierced.
  From such feeble evidence of the animal  nature of
the sponge,  it has been doubted by some naturalists,
whether they ought to be  referred  to the animal king-
dom.  By others they have been roundly pronounced
to be  vegetables.   Dr. Mitchill's opinion is, that from
the analysis of sponge,  the proximity of the results to
those  of varecks and other seaweeds, and more espe-
cially the detection and presence of iodine, is in favour
of the vegetable character of sponge.
  Burnt  sponge was admitted  into  the Edinburgh
New Dispensatory, for the first time, in 1786, by reason
of the reputation it had acquired as a remedy for scro-
fulous and cutaneous diseases,  for removing obstruc-
tions in the glands, and among others, for lessening and
removing the bronchocele.  There the process for re-
ducing it to ashes is detailed.  The dose  is a scruple
several times a-day.
  Now, since the  discovery of iodine in the ashes of
sponge, modern physicians have ascribed the chief vir-
tue, against the aforesaid disorders, to this ingredient.
The conjecture is a rational one; for it is more probable
ils efficacy proceeds from  the  iodine than  from the
charcoal and neutral salts.
   Upon  the faith of this  interpretation, it was con-
ceived belter to prescribe the iodine by itself, or in
known and exact combination, than in form of burnt
sponge, and as sponge  contained this  active principle,
il was naturally concluded, that the iodine would be
iu all respects  as  good when prepared from the sea-
wrecks as from sponges.
  In  that ugly and obstinate disorder, the  goitre, Dr.
Coindet, of Geneva, (in Switzerland,) has  prescribed
iodine with remarkable success.   The preparation he
employs requires explanation, by  reason of its chemi-
cal intricacy.  To understand the receipt we must
recapitulate.  Tho forms of iodine are,
   1. Simple iodine.  2. Oxide of  iodine, by starch or
other fecula.  3. Iodic-acid.  4. Hydro-iodic acid.  5.
Hydro-iodate of potash, by burning, &c.
   Dr. Coindet prescribes what is  termed " Ioduretted
hydro-iodate of potash."  To prepare this the hydro-
iodic acid must first be procured,  which is done thus :
Take of alkohoiic spirit,  pure iodine, any quantities.
Then pass sulphuretted hydrogen  through the solution.
This forms the hydro-iodic acid.  The next process is,
to take potash and hydro-iodic acid, and combine them
to saturation. This forms Dr. Coindet's medicine. The
hydro-iodate of potash.—To  reduce this into a  form
for medicinal  prescription, he proceeds as  follows:
Take of the hydro-iodate of potash, grs. 36.   Pure
iodine, grs. 10.  Distilled water,  5 j. m.
   This is the ioduretted hydro-iodate of potash.  It is
so active a preparation, that a full dose is from 5 to 10
drops three limes a-day in syrup.  The dose maybe
gradually increased, according to circumstances, but
with great caution, to the extent of 20 drops.  It must
 be remembered, whenever it is administered, an over-
dose must be avoided, as it acts with an extreme  and
 dangerous effect upon the constitution.
   They say, that after a few weeks' skilful administra-
tion,  the  external swelling will  gradually disappear.
 Should the patient, while under a course of it, experi-
ence any considerable quickening of the pulse, a rapid
 loss of flesh, palpitation of the  heart,  a dry cough,
 restlessness, and want of sleep, and  in certain  cases
 with an increase of appetite for food, though the swell-
 ing shall  undergo  diminution, it  will be necessary to
 intermit  the medicine for some  days; and afterward
 resume the use of it when the health  and safety of the
 patient will permit —Notes from Mitchill's Leds. on
 Mat. Med.  A.]
   IODOSULPHURIC ACID. " When sulphuric acid
 is poured, drop by drop, into a concentrated and  hot
 aqueous  solution of iodic acid, there immediately re-
 sults a precipitate of iodo-sulphuric acid, possessed of
 peculiar properties.  Exposed gradually to the action of
 a gentle heat, the  iodo-sulphuric  acid melts, and crys-
 tallizes  on cooling into  rhomboids of  a pale yellow
colour.   When strongly heated, it sublimes, and is
partially decomposed; the latter portion being converted
into oxygen, iodine, and sulphuric acid.
  Phosphoric and nitric acids exhibit similar pheno-
mena.  These compound acids act with great energy
on the metals.  They dissolve gold and platinum."
  IOLITE.  Dichroite.  Prismato-rhomboidal quartz
of Mohs.  This is of a  colour Intermediate  between
black, blue,  and  violet-blue.   When viewed in the
direction of  the axis of the crystals, the colour is dark
indigo-blue; but perpendicular to the axis of the crys-
tals, pale brownish-yellow.  It comes from Finland.
  I'onis.  (From wv  a violet.)  A carbuncle of a violet
colour.
  IO'NTHUS. (From tov, a violet, and avBos, a flower.)
A pimple in the face, of a violet colour.
  IOTAC1TSMUS.  (From iiara, the Greek  letter i.)
A defect in the tongue or organs of speech, which ren-
ders a person incapable of pronouncing his letters.
  IPECACUANHA.  (An Indian word.)  See Colli
cocca ipecacuanha.
  [Ipecacuanha  spurge.   See Euphorbia ipecacu-
anha.  AJ
  IPOMGSA.  (So called by Linneus from |U/, wbich
he unaccountably mistakes for the  convolvulus plant,
whereas it means a creeping sort of worm that  infests
and corrodes vines, and ouotos, like.  By this appella-
tion he evidently intended to express the close resem-
blance of Ipomaa to  the genus  Convolvulus, with
which it agrees in habit altogether.)  The name of  a
genus of plants in the  Linnean system.   Class, Pen-
tandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  Ipomcea quamoclit.   Batata peregrina.  The ca-
thartio potato.  If about two ounces are eaten at bed-
time, they gently  open the bowels by morning.
   Icjueta'ia.  The inhabitants of the Brazils give this
name to  the Scrophularia aquatica, which is there
celebrated as a corrector of the ill flavour of  senna.
  IRACU'NDUS. (.From ira, anger: so called because
it forms the angry look.)  A muscle of the eye.
  IRIDIUM.  A  metal found with  another, called os-
mium, in the black powder left after dissolving plati
num.  See  Platinum.
  I'RIS.  (A rainbow: so called because of the variety
of its colours.)  1. The anterior portion of tilt continu-
ation of the choroid membrane  of the eye,  which  is
perforated in the middle by the pupil. It is of various
colours.   The posterior surface of the iris is termed the
uvea.  See  Choroid membrane.
  2. The flower-de-luce, from the  resemblance of its
flowers to the rainbow.
   3. The name of a genus of plants in the  Linnean
system.   Class, Triandria;  Order, Monogynia.
   Iris  florentina.  Florentine orris, or iris.   The
root of this plant, Iris—corollis barbatis, caule  foliis
altiore  subbifloro, floribus sessilibus, of  Linneus,
which is indigenous to Italy, In its recent  state is ex-
tremely acrid, and, when chewed, excites a pungent
heat in the mouth, that continues several hours: on
being dried, this acrimony is almost wholly dissipated ;
the taste is slightly bitter, and the smell agreeable, and
approaching to that of violets.  The fresh root is ca-
thartic, and for  this purpose has  been employed in
dropsies.  It is now chiefly used in its dried state, and
ranked as a pectoral and expectorant; and hencn has a
 place in the trochisci amyli of the  pharmacopoeias.
   Iris, florentine. See Iris florentina.
   Iris germanica.  The systematic name of the com-
 mon iris, or orris, or flower-de-luce.   Iris nostra.  The
 fresh roots  of this plant, Iris—corollis barbatis, caule
foliis altiori multifloro, floribus inferioribus peduncu-
 latis, of Linneus, have a strong,  disagreeable smell,
 and an  acrid, nauseous taste.  They are powerfully
 cathartic, and are given in dropsical diseases, whera
 such remedies are indicated.
   Iris  nostras.  See Iris germanica.
   Iris  palustris.  See Iris pseudacorus.
   Iris  pseudacorus.   The systematic name of tho
 yellow water-flag.  Iris palustris; Gladiolus luteus ;
 Acorus vulgaris.  This indigenous plant,  Iris—im-
 berbis, foliis ensiformibus, petalis alternis,  stigmati-
 bus minoribus,  is common in marshes, and  on the
 banks of rivers.  It formerly had a place in the London
 Pharmacopoeia, under  the name of Gladiolus luteus.
 The root is without smell, but has an acrid styptic taste,
 and its juice, on being snuffed up the nostrils, produces
I a burning heat in the nose and mouth, accompanied by 
[RO
mo
  copious  discbarge  from these organs: hence  it Is
recommendedboihasanerrhineandsialagogue. Given
internally, when perfectly dry, iu adstringent qualities
are such as to cure diarrhoeas.  The expressed juice is
likewise said to be a useful application to serpiginous
eruptions and scrofulous tumours.
  Irish Slate.   See Lapis Hybernicus.
  IRPTIS.  (Iritis, iiis. f.; from tris, the name of the
membrane.)  Inflammation of the iris: it produces the
Bymptoms of deep-seated or internal inflammation of
the eye. See Ophthalmia.
  IRON.  Ferrum.   Of all the  metals, there  is none
which is so copiously and so variously dispersed through
nature as  iron.  In animals, in vegetables, and in all
parts of the mineral kingdom, we detect its presence.
Mineralogists are not agreed with respect to the exist-
ence of native iron, though immense masses of it nave
been discovered, which could not have been the products
of art;  but there is much in favour of the notion that
these specimens have been extracted by subterraneous
fire. A massof native iron, of 1 GOO pounds weight, was
found by Pallas, on the river Denisei, in Siberia; and
another mass of 300 pounds was found in Paraguay, of
which   specimens have  been distributed everywhere.
A piece of native iron, of two pounds weight, has been
also met with at Kamsdorf, in the territories of Neu-
stadt, which is still  preserved  there.  These  masses
evidently did not originate  in the places where they
were found.
  [Specimens of native iron have been found in several
places in America, in situations which give rise to the
conjecture, that they  were of meteoric origin.  One of
the largest of these has been deposited by its owner,
Colonel Gibs, in the Cabinet ofthe New-York Lyceum
of Natural History.  It is an irregular mass, weighing
upwards of 3000 lbs.  " Its surface, which is covered
by a blackish crust, is greatly indented, from which  it
would appear that this mass had been in a soft state.
On removing  the crust, the iron, on exposure  to
moisture, soon becomes oxidated. Sp.gr. 7.400.
  " It  appears  to consist  entirely  of iron,  which
possesses a  high  degree of malleability; experiments
have been made without detecting nickel or any other
metal.   This enormous  mass of iron is said  to have
been found near the Red river, in Louisiana."—Bruce's
Min. Journal.  A.]
  There are a  vast variety  of  iron ores: they may,
however, be all arranged under the following genera;
namely, sulphurets, carburets, oxides, and salts of iron.
The sulphurets of iron form  the ores called Pyrites,
of which there  are many varieties.  Their colour is, in
general, a straw-yellow, with a metallic lustre; some-
times brownish, which sort is attracted by the magnet.
They are often  amorphous, and  often also crystallized.
iron, in the state of a carburet, forms the graphite of
Werner {plumbago).  This mineral occurs in kidney-
form lumps of various sizes.  Its colour is a dark iron-
gray, or brownish-black; when cut, bluish-gray.  It
has a metallic lustre.  Its texture is  fine-grained.  It
is very brittle.   The combination  of iron with oxy-
gen is  very  abundant.   The common magnetic iron-
stone,  or  load-stone,  belongs to this class;  as  does
specular iron ore, and all the different ores called hama-
tites, or blood-stone.  Iron,  united to carbonic acid,
exists in the sparry iron ore.  Joined to arsenic acid,
it exists in the ores called arseniate of iron, and arse-
niate of iron and copper.
  [The different varieties of the ores of iron are ar-
ranged as follows in Cleaveland's Mineralogy, which is
a standard work on the subject in the United States:—
Sjiecies 1. Native iron.
        2. Arsenical iron.
            a.  Argentiferous arsenical iron.
        3. Sulphuret of iron. Iron Syrites.
            a.  Common sulphuret of iron.
            b.  Radiated
            c.  Hepatic
            Sub-species 1. Magnetic sulphuret of iron.
                       2. Arsenical
    ..   4. Magnetic oxide of iron
            a.  Native magnet.
            b.  Iron sand.
        5. Specular oxide of iron.
            Sub-species 1. Micaceous oxide of iron.
    •.   6.  Red oxide of iro.i.
            a.  Scaly red oxide of iron.
            b.  Red hematite.
      464
            c. Conqiaet red oxide of iron.
            d. Ochrey red oxide.
Species 7. Brown oxide of iron.
            a. Scaly red oxide of iron
            b. Hematltic ..
            c Compact
            d. Ochrey
        6. Argillaceous oxide of iron.
            a. Columnar argillaceous oxide of iron
            b. Granular
            c Lenticular
            d. Nodular
            e. Common       ••
            f. Bog ore.
   ..   9. Carbonate of iron.
   ■.  10.' Sulphate of iron.
   ■ •  11. Phosphate of iron.
            a. Foliated phosphate of iron.
            b. Earthy
            c. Green iron earth.
   ..  12. Arseniate of iron.
   ..  13. Chromate of iron.
            a. Crystallized chromate of iron.
            b. Granular
            c. Amorphous     ..           A.]
  Properties of iron.—Iron is distinguished from every
other metal by its magnetical properties.   It is attracted
by tiie magnet, and acquires, under various conditions,
the property of attracting other iron.  Pure iron is of a
whitish gray, or rather  bluish colour, very slightly
livid; but when polished, it has a great deal of bril-
liancy.  Its  texture is either fibrous, fine-grained, or in
dense plates.  Its specific gravity varies from 7.6 to
7.8.  It is the hardest and most elastic of all the metals.
It is extremely ductile, and may therefore be drawn into
wire as fine as a human hair; it is also more tena-
cious than any other metal, and yields with facility to
pressure.  It is extremely infusible, and when not In
contact with the fuel, it cannot be melted by the heat
which any furnace can excite;  It is, however, softened
by heat, still preserving Its ductility; and when thus
softened, different pieces  may  be united; this consti-
tutes the valuable property of welding.  It is very
dilatable by heat.  It is the only metal which takes  fire
by the collision of flint.   Heated In contain'with  air
it becomes oxidized.  If intensely and briskly heated,
it takes fire wilh scintillation, and becomes a black
oxide.  It combines  with carbon, and forms  what is
called steel.  It combines with phosphorus in a direct
and an indirect manner, and unites with sulphur readily
by fusion.  It decomposes water in the cold slowly, but
rapidly when ignited.  Il decomposes most of the me-
tallic oxides. All acids act upon iron.  Very concen-
trated sulphuric acid has little or no effect upon it,  but
when diluted it oxidizes it rapidly.  The nitric acid
oxidizes it with great vehemence.  Muriate of ammonia
is decomposed by it.  Nitrate of potassa detonates very
vigorously with it. Iron is likewise dissolved by alka-
line  sulphurets.   It is capable of combining with a
number of metals.  It does not uattc with lead or bis-
muth, and very feebly with mercury.  It detonates by
percussion with the oxygenated muriates.
  Method of obtaining iron.—The general process by
which iron is extracted from  its ores, is first to roast
them by a strong heat, to expel the sulphur, carbonic
acid, and other mineralizers which can be separated by
heat.   The  remaining ore, being reduced  to small
pieces, is mixed with charcoal, or coke;  and is then
exposed to an intense heat, in a close furnace, excited
by bellows; the oxygen then combines with the carbon,
forming carbonic acid gas during the process, and  the
oxide is reduced to its metallic state. There are like-
wise some fluxes necessary in order to facilitate the
separation of the melted metal.  The matrix of tlie
iron ore is generally either argillaceous or calcareous,
or sometimes a portion of siliceous earth; but which-
ever of these earths  is present, the addition of one or
both of the  others makes a proper flux.   These are
therefore added  in  due proportion, according to the
nature of tbe ores; and this mixture, in contact with
the fuel, is exposed to a heat sufficient to reduce the
oxide to its metallic state.
  The metal thus obtained, and called smelted, pig, or
cast iron, is far from being pure, always  retaining a
considerable quantity of carbon and oxygen, as well
as several heterogeneous ingredients.   According  as
one or other  of these predominates, the property  of 
                       mo

the metal  differs.  Where the oxygen is present in a
large proportion, the colour of the iron is whitish gray;
it is extremely brittle, and its fracture exhibits an ap-
pearance of crystallization: where the carbon exceeds,
it is of a dark gray, inclining to blue,  or black, and is
less brittle.  The former  is  the while,  the latter the
black crude iron of commerce.   The gray  is interme-
diate  to both.  In many of these states, the iron  is
much more fusible  than  when pure; hence it can be
fused and  cast into any form; and when  suffered to
cool slowly, it crystallizes in octahedra:  it is also
much  more brittle,  and  cannot therefore be either
flattened under the hammer, or by  the  laminating
rollers.
  To obtain the iron more pure, or to free It from the
carbon with which it is combined in this state, it must
be refined by subjecting it  to tbe operations  of melting
and forging. By the former, in which the metal is
kept in fusion  for some time, and constantly kneaded
and stirred,  the  carbon and oxygen it contains are
partly combined, and the  produced carbonic acid gas
is expelled: the metal at  length  becomes  viscid and
stiff; it is then subjected to the action of a very large
hammer, or to  the more equal, but less forcible  pres-
sure of large rollers, by which the remaining oxide of
iron, and other  impurities, not consumed by the fusion,
are pressed out.  The iron is now no longer granular
nor crystallized in its texture; it is fibrous, soft, duc-
tile, malleable, and  totally  infusible.  It  is termed
forged,  wrought, or bar iron, and is the metal in a
purer state, though far from being absolutely pure.
  The compounds of iron  are the following:
  1. Oxides; of which there are two, or perhaps three.
  1st, The oxide, obtained either by digesting an ex-
cess of iron filings in water, by the combustion of iron
wire in oxygen, or by adding pure ammonia to solution
of green copperas, and drying the  precipitate out of
contact of air, is of a black colour, becoming white by
its union with water, in the hydrate, attractible by the
magnet, but more feebly than iron.  By  a mean ofthe
experiments of several chemists, its composition seems
to be,
        Iron,     100      77.82      3.5
        Oxygen,    28.5     22.18      1.0
  2d, Deutoxide of Gay Lussac.  He forms it by ex-
posing a coil of fine iron wire, placed in an ignited
porcelain tube, to a  current of steam, as long as any
hydrogen comes over.  There is no  danger, he says,
of generating peroxide in this experiment, because iron,
once in the state of deutoxide, has no such affinity for
oxygen as to enable it to decompose water.  It may
also, he states, be procured  by  calcining  strongly a
mixture of 1 part of iron and 3 parts of the red oxide
in a stoneware crucible, to the neck  of which a tube
is adapted to cut off  the contact of  air.  But this pro-
cess is  less certain than the first, because a portion of
peroxide may escape tbe reaction of the  iron. But we
may dispense  with  the trouble  of making it, adds
Thenard, because it is found abundantly in nature.
He refers to this oxide, the crystallized specular iron
ore of  Elba, Corsica, Dalecarlia, and  Sweden.  He
also classes under this oxide all the magnetic iron ores;
and says, that the above-described protoxide does not
exist in nature. From the synthesis of this oxide by
steam,  Gay Lussac bas determined  its composition
to be,
               Iron,      100      72.72
               Oxygen,    37.5     27.28
  3d, The red  oxide.  It may be obtained  by igniting
tbe nitrate,  or carbonate; by calcining iron in open
vessels; or simply by treating the  metal with strong
nitric acid, then washing and drying  the residuum.
Colcothar  of vitriol, or thorough calcined copperas,
■nay  be considered as peroxide of  iron.  It  exists
abundantly native in the red  iron ores.  It seems to be
a compound of,
        Iron,      100      70 = 4 primes.
        Oxygen,    43      30 = 3 primes.
  2. Chlorides of iron; of which there are two, first
examined in detail by Dr. John Davy.
  The  protochloride may be procured  by  heating  to
redness, in a glass tube with a very small orifice, the
residue which is obtained by evaporating to dryness  the
green muriate of iron.  It is a fixed  substance,  re-
quiring a red beat for its fusion. It has a grayish, varie-
gated colour, a metallic splendour, and a lamellar tex-
ture.
                                         G8
                      LTIO

  The deutochloride maybe formed by the combustion
of iron wire in chlorine gas, or by gently heating the
green muriate  in  a glass tube.   It is the volatile com-
pound described by  Sir H. Davy in his celebrated
Bakerian  lecture on oxymuriatic acid.  It condenses
after  sublimation, in the  form of small brilliant iri-
descent plates.
  3.  For the iodide of iron, see  Iodine.
  4.  Sulphurets of iron; of which, according to For
rett, there are four, though only two are usually de-
scribed, his protosulphuret and persulphuret
  5.  Carburets of iron.  These compounds form steel,
and probably cast-iron; though the latter contains also
some other ingredients. The latest practical researches
on the constitution of these carburets, are  those of
Daniel.
  6.  Salts of iron.
  1.  Protacetate of iron forms small prismatic crys-
tals, of a green colour, a sweetish styptic taste.
  2.  Peracetate of iron forms a reddish-brown, un-
crystallizable solution, much used by the calico-print -
ers, and prepared  by keeping  iron turnings, or pieces
of old iron, for six months immersed in redistilled
pyrolignous acid.
  3.  Protarseniate of iron exists native in crystals,
and may be formed in a pulverulent state, by pouring
arseniate of ammonia into sulphate of iron.
  4.  Perarseniate of iron  may be formed by pouring
arseniate of ammonia into peracetate of iron; or by
boiling nitric  acid on the protarseniate.  It is inso-
luble.
  5.  Antimoniate of iron is white, becoming yellow
insoluble.
   6. Borate, pale yellow, insoluble.
   7. Benzoate, yellow,     do.
   8. Protocarbonale, greenish, soluble
   9. Percarbonate, brown, insoluble.
  10. Chromate, blackish,      do.
  11. Protocitrate, brown crystals, soluble.
  12. Protoferroprus3iate, white, insoluble
  13. Perferroprussiate, white,      do.
  This constitutes the beautiful pigment called Prus-
sian blue.
  14. Protogallate, colourless,  soluble.
  15. Pcrgallate, purple, insoluble.
  16. Protomuriate, green crystals, very soluble.
  17. Pirmuriate, brown, uncrystallizable,  very so-
luble.
  18. Protonitrate, pale green, soluble.
  19. Pernitrate, brown,        do.
  20. Protoxalate, green prisms, do.
  21. Peroxalate, yellow, scarcely soluble.
  22. Protophosphate, blue, insoluble.
  23. Perphosphate, white,    do.
  24. Protosuccinate, brown crystals, soluble.
  25. Persuccinate, brownish-red, insoluble.
  26. Protosulphate, green vitriol, or copperas.   It is
generally formed by exposing native pyrites to air and
moisture, when  the sulphur  and iron both absorb
oxygen, and form the salt.
  27. Persulphate.  Of this salt there seems  to be four
or more varieties, having a ferreous base, wbich con-
sists, by  Porrett, of 4 primes iron ■+• 3 oxygen = 10
in  weight,  from  which  their constitution  may be
learned.
  Tbe tartrate and  pertartrate of iron may also be
formed; or by digesting cream of tartar with water or
iron filings, a triple salt may be  obtained, formerly
called tartarized tincture of Mars.
  These salts have the following general characters:—
  1.  Most of them are soluble in water; those with
the protoxide  for a base are generally crystallizable;
those with the peroxide are generally not; the former
are insoluble, the latter soluble in alkohol.
  2. Ferroprussiate of potassa throws down a blue
precipitate, or one becoming blue in the air.
  3.  infusion of galls gives a  dark purple precipitate,
or one becoming so in the air.
  4. Hydrosulphuret of potassa  or ammonia gives a
black precipitate;  but sulphuretted hydrogen merely
deprives the solutions  of iron of their yellow-brown
colour.
  5.  Phosphate of soda gives a whitish precipitate.   '
  6.  Benzoate of ammonia, yellow.                *
  7. Succinate of ammonia, flesh-coloured  with the
peroxide.
  The  general medicinal virtues of  iron,  and the 
1RR
IRR
several preparations of it, are to constringe the fibres,
to quicken  tbe circulation, to promote the different
secretions in the  remoter parts, and at the same time
to repress inordinate  discharges  into  the  intestinal
tube.  By tbe use of chalybeates, the pulse is very sen-
sibly raised, the colour of the face, though before pale,
changes to a florid red; the alvine, urinary, and cuti-
cular excretions, are increased.
  When given improperly, or to excess, iron produces
headache, anxiety, heats the body, and often causes
hemorrhages, or even vomiting, pains in the stomach,
spasms, and pains of the bowels.
  Iron is given in most cases of debility  and relax-
ation; in passive hemorrhages; in dyspepsia, hysteria,
and chlorosis; in most of the cachexie;  and it has
lately been  recommended as  a  specific  in cancer.
Where cither a preternatural discharge, or suppression
of natural secretions, proceeds from  a  languor,  or
sluggishness of the fluids,  and  weakness of the solids,
this metal, by increasing the motion of ihe former and
the strength of the latter, will suppress  the flux, or re-
move the suppression; but where the circulation is
already too quick, the solids too tense and rigid, where
there is any  stricture, or spasmodic contraction of the
vessels, iron, and  all the preparations of it, will aggra-
vate both diseases. Iron probably  has no action on
the body when taken  into the stomach, unless it be
oxidized. But during its oxidizement, hydrogen gas is
evolved,  and accordingly  wc find that fcetid eructa-
tions and black feces are considered as proofs of the
medicine having taken effect.  It can only be exhibited
internally in the  state of filings, which may be given
in doses from five to twenty  grains.   Iron wire is to
be preferred for pharmaceutical  preparations, both
because it is tiie most  convenient form,  and because it
is the purest iron.
  The medicinal preparations of iron now in use
are:—
  1. Subcarbonas ferri.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
  2. Sulphas ferri.  See Ferri sulphas.
  3. Fei-rum tartarizatum.  See Ferrum tartarizatum.
  4. Liquor ferri  alkalini.  See ferri alkalini liquor.
  5. Tinctura acetatis  ferri.   See Tinctura  ferri
acetatis.
  6. Tinctura muriatis ferri.  See Tinctura ferri mu-
riatis.
  7. Tinctura ferri ammoniati.   See  Tinctura ferri
ammoniati.
  8. Vinum ferri.  See Vinum ferri.
  9. Ferrum anunoniatum.   See  Ferrum  ammonia-
turn.
  10. Oxidtlm ferri rubrum.  See Oxidum ferri ru-
brum.
  11. Oxidum ferri nigrum.  See  Oxidum ferri ni-
grum.
  IRON-FLINT.  This occurs in veins of Ironstone,
and in trap-rocks, near Bristol, and in  many parts of
Germany.
  IRRITABILITY.    (Irritabilitas;  from irrito,  to
provoke.)  Vis insita of Haller.  Vis vitalis of Goer-
ter. Oscillation of Boerhaave.   Tonic power of Stahl.
Muscular power  of Bell.   Inherent power of Cullen.
The contractility of muscular  fibres, or a property pe-
culiar to muscles, by which they contract upon the
application of certain  stimuli, without a consciousness
of action.   This  power may be seen in the tremulous
contraction  of muscles when  lacerated, or when en-
tirely separated from  the body in operations.   Even
when the body  is dead  to all appearance, and the
nervous power is gone, this contractile power remains
till the organization yields, and begins to be dissolved.
It is by this inherent power  that a cut muscle con-
tracts, and leaves a gap; that a cut artery shrinks and
grows stiff after death.  This irritability of muscles is
so far independent of nerves, and so little connected
with feeling, which is the province of the nerves, that,
upon stimulating any muscle by touching it with caus-
tic, or irritating  it with  a sharp point, or  driving the
electric spark through it, or exciting with the metallic
conductors, as those of silver, or  zinc,  the  muscle in-
rt::ntly contracts, although the nerve of that muscle be
tied; although the nerve be cut so as to separate the
muscle entirely from  all connexion with the system;
although the muscle  be separated from tiie body;  al-
though the creature upon which the experiment is per-
formed  may have lost all sense of feeling, and have
been long apparently  dead.  Thus a muscle, cut from ]
      466
 the limb, trembles and palpitates a longtime after; the
 heart, separated from  the body, contracu when Irri-
 tated ; the bowels, when torn from the body, continue
 their peristaltic motion,  so as to roll upon the table,
 ceasing to answer to stimuli only when they become
 stiff and cold;  and too often, in the human body, the
 vis insita loses the exciting power  of the nerves, and
 then palsy ensues;  or,  losing  all governance of the
 nerves, the vis insita, acting without the regulating
 power, falls into partial or general convulsions.  Even
 in vegetables, as in the sensitive plant, this  contractile
 power lives.  Thence comes the distinction between
 the irritability of muscles and tbe sensibility of nerves:
 for the irritability of muscles survives the animals, as
 when it is active after death; survives  the life of the
 part, or the feelings of the whole system,  as in uni-
 versal palsy, where the vital motions continue entire
 and perfect, and where the muscles, though not obe-
 dient to the will, are subject to irregular and violent
 actions ; and it survives the connexion with the rest
 ofthe system, as when animals, very tenacious of life,
 are cut into parts: but sensibility, the property of the
 nerves, gives the various  modifications of sense, as vi-
 sion, hearing,  and the  rest;  gives also the general
 sense of pleasure or pain, and  makes the system, ac-
 cording to its  various conditions, feel  vigorous and
 healthy, or weary and low.   And thus the eye feels,
 and the skin feels: but their appointed stimuli produce
 no emotions in these parts; they are sensible, but not
 irritable. The heart,  the intestines, the urinary blad-
 der, and all the muscles  of voluntary motion, answer
 to stimuli with a quick and forcible contraction; and
 yet  they hardly feel the  stimuli by which these con-
 tractions are produced, or, at least, they do not convey
 that feeling to  the brain.  There is no consciousness
 of present stimulus in those parts which are called into
 action by the impulse of the nerves, and at the com-
 mand of the will: so that muscular parts have all the
 irritability of tbe  system, with but little feeling, and
 that little owing to the nerves which enter into their
 substance; while nerves  have all the sensibility of the
 system, but no motion.
  The discovery of this singular property belongs to our
 countryman Glisson; but Baron Haller  must be con-
 sidered as the first wlio  clearly pointed out its existence,
 and  proved it to be the cause of muscular motion.
  The laws of irritability, according to Dr. Crichton,
 are, 1. After every action in  an irritable part, a state
 of rest, or cessation from motion, must  take place be-
 fore the  irritable part  can be again incited to action.
 If, by an act of volition,  we throw any of our muscles
 into action, that action  can only be continued for a
 certain space of time; the muscle becomes relaxed,
 notwithstanding all our endeavours to the contrary,
 and remains a  certain time in that relaxed state, before
 it can be again thrown into action.  2. Each irritable
 part has a certain portion or quantity of the principle
 of irritability which is natural to it, part of which it
 loses during action, or  from the application of stimuli.
 3. By a process wholly unknown to us, it regains this
 lost quantity, during its repose, or state of rest.  In
 order to express the different quantities of irritability
 in any part, we say that it is either more or less  re-
 dundant, or  more or less defective.  It becomes re-
 dundant in a part when the stimuli which are calcu-
 lated to act  on that part are withdrawn, or withheld
 for a certain length of time, because then no action can
 take place: while, on  the other hand, the application
 of stimuli causes it to  be exhausted, or to be deficient,
 not only by exciting action, hut by some secret influ-
 ence, the nature of which has  not yet been detected;
 for  it is a circumstance extremely deserving of atten-
 tion, that an irritable  part, or  body, may be suddenly
 deprived of its irritability by powerful stimuli, and yet
 no apparent muscular or vascular action takes place
 at the time.   A certain quantity of spirits, taken at
 once into the stomach, kills almost as instantaneously
 as lightning does: the same thing may be observed of
 some poisons, as opium,  distilled laurel-water, the
 juice of the cerbera  abovai, Sec.  4. Each  irritable
 part has stimuli which  are peculiar to It,  and which
 are intended to support its natural action: thus, blood,
 which is the stimulus proper to the heart, and arteries,
 if, by any accident, it  gets  into the stomach, produces
 sickness, or vomiting.  If the gall, which is the natural
 stimulus to the ducts of the liver, the gall-bladder, and
I the intestines, is  by any accident effused into the ca- 
ISA
ISC
 *ity of the  peritoneum, it excites too groat action of
 the vessels  of that part,  and induces inflammation.
 The urine does not irritate the tender fabric of the kid-
 neys, ureters, or bladder, except in such a degree as to
 preserve their healthy action;  but if it be effused into
 the cellular membrane, it brings on such a violent ac-
 tion of the vessels of these parts, as to produce gan-
 grene.   Such stimuli  are called  habitual stimuli of
 parts   5. Each irritable part differs from the rest in
 regard to the quantity of irritability which it possesses.
 This law explains  to us the reason of the great di-
 versity which we observe in the action of various irri-
 table parts; thus, the muscles of voluntary motion can
 remain a long time in a slate of action, and  if it be
 continued as long as possible, another considerable
 portion of time is required before they regain the irri-
 tability they lost; but the heart and arteries have a
 more short and sudden action, and their state of rest
 is equally bo.   The circular muscles of the intestines
 have also a quick action and short rest. The urinary
 bladder does  not fully regain the irritability it loses
 during its contraction for a considerable space of time;
 the vessels which separate and throw out the  men-
 strual discharge, act, in general, for three or four days,
 and do not regain the irritability they lose for a  lunar
 month.  6. All stimuli produce action in proportion to
 their  irritating powers.  As a person approaches his
 hand to the fire, tiie action of-all the vessels in the
 skin is increased, aud it glows with  heat; if the hand
 be approached still  nearer, the action is increased  to
 such  an unusual degree  as to occasion  redness and
 pain; and if it be continued too long, real inflamma-
 tion takes place; but  if this heat  be  continued, the
 part at last loses its irritability, and a sphacelus or gan-
 grene ensues.  7. The action of every stimulus is  in
 an inverse ratio to the frequency of its application.  A
 small quantity of spirits taken into the stomach, in-
 creases the action of its muscular coat, and also of its
 various vessels, so that digestion is thereby facilitated.
 If the same quantity, however, be token frequently, it
 loses its effect. In order to produce  the same effect as
 at first, a larger quantity is necessary; and hence the
 origin of dram-drinking.  8. The more the irritability
 of a part is accumulated, the more that part is disposed
 to be acted  upon.  It is on this account that the ac-
 tivity of all animals, while in perfect health, is much
 livelier  in the morning than at any other part of the
 day;  for, during the night, the irritability of the whole
 frame, and especially tbat of the muscles destined for
 labour, viz.  the muscles for voluntary action,  is reac-
 cumulated.   The same law explains  why digestion
 goes on more rapidly the first hour after food  is swal-
 lowed than at any other  time; and it also .accounts
 for the great danger that accrues to a famished person
 upon first taking in food.  9. If the stimuli which keep
 up the action  of any irritable  body  be  withdrawn for
 too great a length of time, that process on which the
 formation of tlie principle depends  is gradually dimi-
 nished, and at last entirely destroyed.  When  the irri-
 tability of the system is too quickly exhausted by heat,
 as is the case in certain warm climates, the application
 of cold invigorates the frame, because  cold is a mere
 diminution ofthe overplus of that stimulus which was
 causing the rapid consumption ofthe  principle.  Under
 such or similar circumstances, therefore, cold is a tome
 remedy; but if, in a climate naturally cold, a person
 were to go into a cold bath, and not soon return into
 a warmer atmospbere, it would destroy life just in the
 same manner as many poor people who have no com-
 fortable dwellings are often destroyed, from being too
long exposed to the cold in winter.   Upon the first ap-
plication of cold the irritability is accumulated, and
 the vascular  system  therefore is exposed to  great
 action;  but, after a certain time, all  action is so much
 diminished, that the process, whatever it be, on which
the formation of the irritable principle depends, is en-
tirely lost.  For further information  on this interesting
subject, see Dr. Crichton on Mental Derangement.
  IRRITATION.   Irritatio.  The action produced
by any stimulus.
  ISATIS.   (Is-arts of Dioscorides, and  Isatis of
Pliny, the derivation  of which is unknown.)  The
 name of a genus of plants  in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Tetradynamia;  Order, Siliquosa.
  Isatis tinctoria. Glastum. The systematic name
 of the plant used for dying called woad.   It is said to
 be adstringent.                                   J
   I'sca.  A sort of fungous excrescence of the oak,'
 or of the hazel, &c.  The ancients used it as the
 moderns used moxa.
   ISCH^E'MON.  (From tcrx<a, to restrai.,, and aiua,
 blood.)  A name for any medicine which restrains or
 stops bleeding.
   Ischje'mum.  A species of Andropogon.
   I'SCHIAS.   (Icx'ac;  from ioxiov, the hip.)   A
 rheumatic affection of the hip-joint.   See  Rlieuma-
 tismus.
   ISCHIATOCE'LE.   (From ioxiov, the  hip, and
 KiXn, a rupture.)  Ischiocele.  An intestinal rupture,
 through the sciatic ligaments.
   Ischio-cavernosus.  See Erector penis.
   Ischioce'le.  See Ischialocele.
   I'SCHIUM.  (From toxic, the loin: so named be-
 cause it is near the loin.)  A bone of the pelvis ofthe
 fcetus, and a part of the os innominatum of the adult.
 See Innominatum os.
   ISCHNOPHO'NIA.   (From taxvos, slender, and
 dtiavn, the voice.)  1. A shrillness ot  the voice.
   2.  A hesitation of speech, or a stammering.
   Ischurk'tica.  (From toxovpia, a suppression of
 the urine.) Medicines which relieve a suppression  of
 the urine.
   ISCHURIA.  (From taxu,  to restrain, and ovpov,
 the urine.)  A suppression of urine.   A genus of dis-
 ease in the class Locales, and order Epischeses, of
 Cullen.  There are four species of ischuria:
   1.  Ischuria  renalis, coming  after a disease of the
 kidneys, with  a troublesome sense of weight or pain
 in that part.
   2.  Ischuria ureterica, after a disease of the kidneys,
 with  a  sense of pain or uneasiness  iu the course of
 the ureters.
   3.  Ischuria vesicalis, Marked by a frequent desire to
 make water, witii a swelling of the hypogastrium, and
 pain at  the neck of the bladder.
   4.  Ischuria urclhralis, marked by a frequent desire
 to make water, with a swelling of the hypogastrium,
 and pain of some part of the urethra.
   When there is a frequent desire of making water,
 attended with  much difficulty  in voiding it, the com-
 plaint is called a dysury, or strangury; and when there
 is a total suppression of urine, it is known  by Ihe name
 of an ischury.   Both ischuria  and dysuria are distin-
 guished into acute, when arising in consequence of
 inflammation,  and  chronic, when  proceeding  from
 any other cause, such as calculus, &c.
   The causes  which give rise to these diseases, are
 an inflammation of the urethra, occasioned either by
 venereal sores or by a use of acrid injections, tumour
 or ulcer of the prostate gland, inflammation of the
 bladder or kidneys, considerable enlargements of the
 hemorrhoidal  veins, a lodgment of  indurated fasces
 in the rectum, spasm at the neck of the  bladder, the
 absorption of cantharides applied externally, or taken
 internally, and excess in drinking either spirituous or
 vinous liquors; but particles of gravel sticking at the
 neck  of the bladder, or lodging  in  the urethra, and
 thereby producing irritation, prove the most frequent
 cause.  Gouty matter falling on the neck of the blad-
 der, will sometimes occasion these complaints.
   In dysury there is a frequent inclination to make
 water, attended with a smarting pain, heat, and diffi-
 culty in voiding it, together with a sense of fulness in
 the region of the bladder.  The symptoms often vary,
 however,  according to the cause which has given rise
 to it  If it proceeds from a calculus in the kidney, or
 ureter, besides the affections mentioned, it will be ac-
 companied with nausea, vomiting, and acute pains in
 the loins and regions of the ureter and kidney of the
 side affected.   When a stone in the bladder, or gravel
 in the urethra, is the cause, an acute pain will be felt
 at tiie end of the penis, particularly on voiding the last
 drops of urine, and the stream of water will either be
 divided  into two, or be discharged in a twisted manner,
 not unlike a cork-screw.  If a scirrhus ofthe prostate
 gland has occasioned the suppression or difficulty of
 urine, a hard indolent  tumour, unattended with  any
 acute pain, may readily be felt  in the perinaium, or by
 introducing the finger in ano.
   Dysury is seldom attended with much danger, unless,
 by neglect, it should terminate  in  a  total  obstruction.
 Ischury  may always be regarded as a dangerous  com-
 plaint, wheu it continues for any length of time, from
I the great distention and often consequent inflammation
                                         467 
3A8
JEB
which ensue.  In those cases where neither a bougie
nor a catheter can be introduced, the event in all pro-
bability, will be fatal, as  few patients will submit to
the only other means of drawing off the urine before
a considerable degree of inflammation and tendency to
gangrene have taken place.
  ISERINE.   (So called from the river Iser, near the
origin of which it is found.)  Anironblack-colouredore.
  ISINGLASS.   See Ichthyocolla.
'  ISO'CHRONOS.   (From  taos, equal, and xpovoc,
time.)  Preserving an equal distance of time between
the beats; applied to the pulse.
  Iso' crates.  (From  jcoc,  equal,  and xtpavvvpt, to
mix.)  Wine mixed  with an equal quantity of water.
  ISO'DROMUS.   (From 100s, equal, and Spopos, a
course.)  The same as Isochronos.
  Isopy'rum.  (From taos, equal,  and  imp,  Are: so
named from  its flame-coloured flower.)   The Aqui-
legia vulgaris.
  lSO'TONUS.   (From taos, equal, and rovos, exten-
sion.)  Applied to fevers which  ore of equal strength
during the whole of  the paroxysm.
  I'SSUE.  Fonliculus. An artificial ulcer made by
cutting a portion of the skin, and  burying a pea or
some other substance in it, so as to produce a discharge
of purulent matter.
  FSTHMION.   (From «r0uoc, a  narrow piece of
land between two seas.) The fauces narrow  passage
between the mouth and gullet.
  Isthmus vieussenii.  The ridge surrounding the
remains of the foramen ovale, in the right auricle of
the human heart.
 TA'CEA.  (Quia prodest hominibus tristitia jacen-
"  tibus ; because it resists sorrow; or from taopat,
to heal.)  The herb pansey, or heart's-ease. See Viola
tricolor.
  Jaceranta tinoa.  See Acorus calamus.
  Jaci'nthus.   See Hyacinthus.
  Jack-by-the-hedge.  See Erysimum alliaria.
  JACOBAS'A.  (Named because it was dedicated
to St. James, or because it was directed to be gathered
about the feast of that saint.)  See Senecio Jacobaa.
  JADE.  See Nephrite.
  Jagged leaf.  See Erosus.
  JALAP. See Convolvulus jalapa.
  JALA'PA.   See Convolvulus jalapa.
  JALA'PIUM.    (From Chalapa,  or  Xalapa, in
New Spain, whence it is brought) See Convolvulus
ialapa.
  Jalappa alba.  White jalap.  See Convolvulus
mecoaean.
  JAMAICA BARK.   See Cinchona caribaa.
  JAMAICA PEPPER.  See Myrtus pimento.
  Ja'hiilichi sales.  A preparation with sal-ammo-
niac, some aromatic ingredients, &c. so called from
Jamblichus, the inventor.
  JA'NITOR.   (From janua, a gate.)  The pylorus,
so called from its being, as it were, the door or entrance
of the intestines.
  Japan earth.   See Acacia catechu.
  Japo'nica terra.   (So called  from the  place it
tame from.)  See Acacia catechu.
  JARGON.  See Zircon.
  JA'SMINUM.  (Jasminum; from jasmen, Arab.;
or from iov, a violet, and ocun, odour, on account of
the fine odour of the flowers.)  1. The name of a genus
of plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Diandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of tlie jessamine.  See
Jasminum officinale.
  Jasminum officinale.   The  systematic name of
the jessamine-tree.  The flowers of this beautiful plant
have  a very fragrant smell, and a bitter taste.  They
afford, by distillation, an essential oil, which  is much
esteemed in Italy to rub paralytic limbs, and in the
cure of rheumatic pains.
  JASPER.   A sub-species of rhomboidal  quarts,
      489
  Ithmoi'des.  See F.thnwides.
  Itinera'rium.  (From iter, a way.)  The catheter-
also a staff used in cutting for tbe stone.
  ITIS.  From the time of Boerbaave, viscera) in-
flammations have been generally distinguished by ana-
tomical terms derived from the organ affected, with the
Greek  term if is, added as a suffix; as cephalitis, Sec
Itis is sufficiently significant of its purpose; it is im-
mediately derived from ituat, which is itself a ramifica-
tion from col, and  imports, not merely action, "putting
or going forth," which is the strict and simple meaning
of tia,  but action in its  fullest urgency, "violent or
impetuous action."  When  this term then is added to
the genitive case of the  Greek name of an organ, II
means inflammation of that viscus: hence, hepatitis,
nephritis, gastritis, carditis, mean inflammation of
the liver, kidney, stomach, heart—Good.
  I'va pecanoa.  See Smilax sarsaparilla.
  IVORY.   The tusk, or tooth of  defence, of the male
elephant.  It is an intermediate  substance between
bone and horn.   The dust is occasionally boiled to
form jelly, instead of isinglass, for which it is a bad
substitute.  In 100 parts there are 24 gelatin, 64 phos-
phate of lime, and 0.1 carbonate of lime.
  IVY.  See Hedera helix.
  Ivy, ground.  See Glecoma hederacea.
  Ivy-gum.  See Hedera helix.
  I'xia.  (From t\os, glue.)   1. A name of the Carina
gummifera, from its viscous juice.
  2. (From i\ouai, to proceed from.)   A preternatural
distention of the veins.
  Ixine.  See Carlina gummifera.
according to  Jameson, who  enumerates five kinds:
Egyptian, striped, porcelain, common, agate jasper.
  JA'TROPHA.  (Most probably from ia7poc, a phy-
sician.)   The name of a genus of plants in ihe Lin-
naean system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Monaddphia,
  Jatropha curcas.  The systematic name of a plant,
the seeds of which resemble the castor-oil seeds.  Ri-
dnus major;  Ricinoides ; Pineus purgans ; Pinhonea
indici;  Faba cathartica; Nux cathartica;  Ameri-
cana ; Nux barbadensis.  The seed or nut so called  in
the pharmacopoeias is oblong and black, the produce of
the Jatropha—foliis cordatis angulatis of LinnTits.
It affords a quantity of oil, which is given, in many
places, as the castor-oil is in  this country, to which it
is very nearly allied.  The seeds of the Jatropha multi-
fidaare of an oval and triangular shape, of a pale brown
colour, are called purging-nuts, and give out a similar
oil.
  Jatropha elastica. The juice of this plant affords
an elastic gum.  See Caoutchouc.
  Jatropha manihot.  This is the plant  which af-
fords the Cassada root.  Cassada; Cacavi; Cassave;
Cassava; Pain de  Madagascar;  Ricinus  minor;
Maniot ;  Yucca; Manibar ; Aipi;  Aipima  coxera;
Aipipoca; Janipha.   The leaves are boiled, and eaten
as we do spinach.   The  root abounds with a milky
juice, and every part, when raw, is a fatal poison.   II
is remarkable that the poisonous quality is  destroyed
by heat:  hence  the juice  is boiled with meat, pepper,
4tc. into  a wholesome soup,  and what remains after
expressing the juice, is formed into cakes or meal, the
principal food of the  inhabitants. This plant, which is
a native of three quarters of the world,  is one of the
most advantageous  gifts of Providence, entering into
the composition of  innumerable  preparations of an
economical nature.
  Cassada roots yield a great quantity of starch, called
tapioca, exported in little lumps  by the Brazilians, and
now well known to us as a diet for sick  and  weakly
persons.
  JERB, John,  was  born at London in 1736.  He was
originally devoted to the church, and after studying at
Cambridge, entered into orders, and obtained a living
in Norfolk in 1764.  The year following, he imblislied
in conjunction with two friends, a selection from New
J 
JON
JON
ton's Principla, with notes, which was highly  es-
teemed.  He soon afterward returned to Cambridge,
and engaged warmly as an advocate  for a reform in
church and state, as well as in the discipline of that
university.  At length, in 1775, he resigned all his  of-
fices in the church, the established doctrines of which
he did not approve; and determined upon entering inlo
the Medical profession  He soon qualified himself for
this, obtained a diploma from St. Andrews, and was
admitted a licentiate of the London  College of Physi-
cians ; and in the same year, 1778,  he was elected a
fellow of the Royal  Society.  In 1782  he published
" Select Cases of Paralysis of the Lower Extremities;"
which tend to support the practice of Pott, of applying
caustics near the spine.  To this work is added an in-
teresting description of a very rare disease, catalepsy.
The warmth of his political sentiments, however,  ob-
structed his professional  career; and  the  various  fa-
tigues  and anxieties to which he exposed himself, in
order to further his benevolent designs, exhausted  his
constitution so much, that be sunk a premature victim
in 1786.
  Jecora'ria.   (From jeeur, the liver: so named from
its supposed efficacy in diseases of the  liver.)  1. The
name of a plant.  See Marchantia polymorpha.
  2. A name given to a vein in the right hand, because
it was usually opened in diseases ofthe liver.
  JE'CUR. (Jecur,  oris., or jednoris,   neut.)  The
liver.  See Liver.
  Jecur uterinum.  The placenta is, by some, thus
called, from the supposed  similitude  of its office with
that of the liver.
  JEJUNUM.   (From jejunus, empty.)   Jejunum in-
testinum.   The second portion of the small intestines,
so called because it is mostly found empty. See Intes-
tine.
  JELLY.  See Gelatin.
  JENITE.  See Lievrite.
  Jerusalem cowslips.  See Pulmonaria  officinalis.
  Jerusalem oak.  See Chenopodium botrys.
  Jerusalem sage.  See Pulmonaria officinalis.
  JESSAMINE. See Jasminum.
  Jesuita'nus cortex.  (From jesuita,  a Jesuit.)  A
name of tbe Peruvian bark, because il was first intro-
duced  into Europe by Father de Lugo, a Jesuit  See
Cinchona.
  Jesui'ticus cortex.  See Cinchona.
  Jesuit's bark.  See CincAona.
  JET.  (So called from the river Gaza In Lesser
Asia, from  whence  it came.)  A black  bituminous
coal, hard and compact, found in great abundance in
various partsof France, Sweden, Germany, and Ireland.
It is brilliant and vitreous  in its fracture, and capable
of taking a good |iolish by friction; it attracts light sub-
stances, and appears to be electric like amber; hence
it  has  been called  black amber.  It  has  no smell,  but
when heated, it acquires one like bitumen judaicum.
  Jew's Pitch.   See Bitumen judaicum.
  JOHN'S WORT.   See Hypericum.
  Jointed Leaf.  See Articulatus.
  [" JONES, John,  M. D. The family of Dr. Jones
was of Welsh extraction, and of the religious society
of Friends.  He was born in  the town of Jamaica,
(Long Island,) In Queen's county, New-York, in  the
year 1729 ; and  received his education  partly from  his
excellent parents, but chiefly at a private  school in the
city of New-York.   He was early led, both  by the
advice of his father, and his own inclination, to the
study of medicine.
  Dr. Jones early indicated an  attachment for that
profession which, at a subsequent period,  he cultivated
with so much ardour, by his fondness  for anatomical
researches; and though, as it may be readily supposed,
these could only be of the comparative  kind, yet it is a
remarkable fact, that this love for pursuits ofthe same
nature has been noticed in the youth of some of the
most distinguished anatomists that ever lived.
  After completing his studies in  this country. Dr.
Jones visited Europe, in order to improve himself still
farther in his profession.
  Upon the return of Dr. Jones to this  country,  he
settled in New-York, where his abilities soon procured
Mm extensive practice.  To tbe  profession of surgery,
in particular, he devoted much attention ;  he was the
firet who performed the operation of lithotomy in that
city, and succeeded so well in several cnses that offered
shortly after his return, that his fame  as  an oi/viuu-r
became generally known throughout the middle and
eastern states of America.
  Upon the institution of a medical school in the col-
lege of New-York, Dr. Jones was appointed  professor
of Surgery, upon which branch he gave several courses
of lectures,  and thereby diffused a taste for it among
the students, and  made known the improved methods
of practice lately adopted in Europe, with which most
of the practitioners in this country  were entirely unac-
quainted.
  For a  considerable part of the previous life of Dr.
Jones, he had been afflicted by the asthma, and for  a
long time had struggled to overcome that painful dis-
ease ; but the exertions both  of his own skill, and of
the rest of his medical brethren in most parts of the
continent, had hitherto proved ineffectual even to his
relief. He determined, therefore, lo take a voyage tc
Europe, and accordingly sailed for London  Here, in
a thick smoke and an impure atmosphere, where sc
many asthmatics have found such  remarkable benefit,
he also experienced a considerable alleviation of his
complaint; and probably the  permanent alteration in
his health which he afterward enjoyed, may  be  in
some measure attributed  to the effects of his  residence
in London.  He also employed himself during his con-
tinuance in the metropolis, in collecting subscriptions
for an hospital in New-York, which he had been chiefly
instrumental in establishing.
  In  London he again had an  opportunity of seeing
his friend, Mr. Pott, at the head  of his profession, and
of renewing that intercourse which had been previously
commenced between them.   He had  now_ been for
some years  left to the guidance of  his own judgment;
but unlike many who suppose  all knowledge to become
stationary at the time of their leaving college, he was
still  willing  to be taught by those who had formerly
been his  instructors, and who, from the great opportu-
nities they enjoyed, would be enabled to afford him
much information.  Eager for the  acquisition of
knowledge,  whenever* and wherever it could be ob-
tained, he again attended the lectures of his old master,
Dr. Hunter, and those of his friend, Mr. Pott, who lost
no opportunity of showing the  consistency between his
profession and proofs of respect: during his short stay
there, he paid Dr. Jones the most particular attention,
and  presented him with a complete copy of his lectures,
just before his departure from  London.  His  kindness,
however, did not end here: for in the frequent appli-
cations which he received for  advice from all parts of
this country, in difficult and important cases, he never
failed to  recommend his old pupil, as capable of afford-
ing any relief to be derived  from surgical assistance.
In consequence of this, bis attendance was frequently
desired in the different states; and while he showed,
by his skill and success, that the  opinion which had
been formed of him was just, his fame became thereby
diffused throughout the continent of America.
  The following year he returned to his native country,
the political situation of which, at that time,  called
loudly for the exertions of all her citizens.   He again
resumed  his lectures, and delivered several courses,
and in the autumn ofthe next  year, 1775, published his
" Plain Remarks upon Wounds and Fractures," which
he inscribed to his old preceptor, Dr. Cadwallader, in
a neat dedication.  A work of this kind which would
give the  young practitioner clear  notions of the im-
proved mode of treating disease, without embarrassing
him  with refined speculations or useless disquisitions,
was much wanted.  He attempted no systematic ar-
rangements, but simply treated of those subjects  to
which the attention of the surgeons of the army and
navy would be most continually directed.   No present
could have been more acceptable to his country, and no
girt more opportunely made;  for in the situation of
American affairs, many persons were chosen  to act  as
surgeons, who, from their few  opportunities, and their
ignorance of the improvements  that had lately been
brought in practice, were but ill qualified for the office.
His well-meant endeavours were not lost;  for the im-
provements which he had  made known, though new to
most practitioners and surgeons, were readily adopted
when recommended by such authority.  This was the
only work ever published by Dr. Jones;  it might have,
indeed, been readily supposed,  that more would have
come from his pen, considering how well qualified he
was  to make observations, and impart to others «ome
portion of that knowledge   of which he  himself
                                       409 
JUD
JUG
 possessed so great a share.  Such was actually his in-
 tention ; and he  had prepared another work for the
 press, but was prevented by the most base treachery
 from giving it to the world.
   He died 1791, in the 63d year of bis age.  As a Sur-
 geon, Dr. Jones stood al the head of the profession in
 this country; and be may be deservedly considered as
 the  chief instrument  in  effecting the remarkable re-
 volution in that branch of the healing art, which is now
 so apparent, by laying aside the former complicated
 modes of practice, and substituting those  which are
 plain and simple.  Tbe operation to which he princi-
 pally confined himself for many ofthe last years of his
 life, was lithotomy;  and  his success In  this difficult
 and important object of  a surgeon's duty, was great
 indeed. Even in tbe month before his death, in a most
 capital and  nice operation, there did  not appear to be i
 any diminution  of that dexterity and steadiness  of
 hand, for which he had always  been  remarkable, and
 of which those not half his age might  have boasted.
   Connected with this part of his professional charac-
 ter, was his merit as an accoucheur; and in this diffi-
 cult and important branch his success  was great.
   Tbe merit of Dr. Jones  as a physician was likewise
 considerable.  Though educated in the school of Boer-
 haave, he never professed an implicit faith in that, or
 any other system. He was guided by just principles,
 and he varied his practice like every judicious phy-
 sician, with the  varying circumstances  of the  case.
 The success of his practice was the best proof of the
 truth of his principles, and of the judgment which di-
 rected their application."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
   [" JONES, Walter, M. D., one of the most eminent
 physicians of our country, was  born  in Virginia, and
 received his medical  education at the University of
 Edinburgh, where he was graduated  about the  year
 1770. While at this institution he became a favourite
 of the school,  and enjoyed the particular friendship
 and esteem of Cullen, and the other professors of that
 time.
   On his  return to his native  country, he settled in
 Northumberland county, Virginia, where he acquired
 an extensive practice, and  sustained  throughout life the
 highest standing both as a scholar and  physician.  ' He
 was,' (says a distinguished gentleman, who for some
 time enjoyed his  acquaintance,} ' for  the  variety and
 extent of his learning, the originality and strength of his
 mind, the  sagacity of his observations, and the capti-
 vating powers of his conversation, one of the most ex-
 traordinary men I have ever known.  He was an ac-
 curate observer of nature and of human character; and
 seemed to possess intuitively the faculty of discerning
 tbe hidden cause of disease, and of applying, with a
 promptness and decision  peculiar to  himself, the ap-
 propriate remedies.'   For  a few years  he was returned
 a member of the national legislature;  but he spent the
most of his life in the practice  of that  profession of
which he was a distinguished ornament"— Thach.Med.
 Biog.  A.l
  JUDGMENT.   The judgment is the most important
of the  intellectual  faculties.  We  acquire  all  our
knowledge by this faculty; without it our  life would
 be merely vegetative; we  would have no idea either
of the existence of other bodies, or of our own; for
 these two sorts of notions, like our knowledge, are the
 consequence of our faculty of judging.
  To judge is to establish a relation between two ideas,
 or between two groups of ideas.  When I judge of the
 goodness of a work, I feel that the idea of goodness
 belongs to the book which I have read;  I establish a
 relation, I form to myself an idea of  a different  kind
 from that which arises from sensibility and memory.
  A continuation of judgments linked  together form an
 inference, or process of reasoning.
   We see how important it is to judge justly, that is, to
 i-*iiblish only those relations which really exist   If I
judge that  a poisonous substance is salutary, I am in
 danger of losing my life; my false judgment is there-
 fore hurtful.  It is tbe same with all those of the same
 kind.  Almost all the misfortunes which oppress man
 in a moral sense, arise from errors of judgment; crimes,
 vices, bad conduct, spring from  false judgment
   The science of logic has for its end  the teaching of
 just reasoning: but pure judgment, or good sense, and
 false judgment, or wrong-headedness, depend on organi-
 zation.  We cannot change in this  respect; we  must
 remain as  nature has made us.  There are men en-
      470
dowed with  the precious gift of finding relations of
things which have never been  percnivcd before.  If
these relations are very important,  and beneficial to
humanity, the authors arc men of genius: if the rela-
tions are of less importance, they are considered men
of wit,  imagination.  Men differ principally by their
manner of feeling different relations, or of judging.
The judgment seems to be injured by  an exlremu
vhacily of sensations; hence we see that faculty be-
come more perfect with age.—Magendie's Physiology
  Judicatorius.   (From judico, to discern.)  An ob-
solete term applied to a synocha of four days, becausa
its termination may certainly be foreseen.
  JUG ALE  OS.   (Jugalis; from  jugum,  a  yoke.
from its resemblance, or because il is articulated, to the
bone of the upper jaw, like  a yoke.)   Os mala;  Os
zygomaticum.  The ossa inalarum are the prominent
square bones  which form the upper part of the cheeks.
They are situated close under the eyes, and make part
ofthe orbit.   Each of  these bones have three surfaces
to be considered.  One of these  is exterior and some-
what convex. The second is superior and concave,
serving to form the lower and lateral parts ofthe orbit.
The third, which is posterior, is very uncquul and con-
cave, for the lodgment of the lower part of the temporal
muscle.  Each  of  these bones  may be described as
having four processes formed by their fourangles.   Two
of these may be called orbitar processes.   The superior
one is connected with  the  orbitar  process  of  the os
frontis;  and Ihe inferior one with tiie malar process of
the maxillary bone.  The third  is connected wilh the
temporal process of the sphenoid bone; and tiie fourth
forms a bony arch, by its connexion wilh tlie zygomatic
process of tlie temporal bone.  In infauts, these bones
are entire and completely ossified.
  JUGLANS. (Quasi Jovis glans, the royal fruit,
from its magnitude.)  1. The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnean system.  Class, Monacia; Order, Poly-
andria.  The walnut-tree.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name  of  the walnut.  See
Juglans regia.
  Juolans regia.  The systematic name of the wal-
nut-tree.  The tree which  bears the  walnut  is the
Juglans—foliolis  ovalibus glabris  subserratis  suba-
qualibus of Linneus.  It is a native of Persia, but
cultivated in  this country.   The unripe fruit, which
has an astringent bitterish  taste, and  has been long
employed as  a pickle, is the part which was directed
for medical use by the London College, on account of
its athelmintic virtues. An  extract ot  the green fruit
is the most convenient preparation, as it may be kept for
a sufficient length of time, and made agreeable to the sto-
mach of the patient, by mixing it with cinnamon water.
  The putamen, or green rind of tiie walnut, has been
celebrated as a powerful anti-venereal remedy, for
more than a century and a half; and Petrus Borellus
has given directions for a decoction not unlike that
which is commonly called the  Lisbon  diet-drink, in
which the walnut, with its green bark, forms a  princi-
pal ingredient.  Ramazzini, whose  works were pub-
lished early  in the present  century, has likewise in-
formed us, that in  his time, the green rind of the wal-
nut was esteemed a good anti-vinereal remedy in Eng
land.  This part of the walnut has been much used iu
decoctions, during the last fifty years, both in the green
and dried stale; it has been greatly recommended by
writers on the continent, as well as by those  of our
own country; and is, without doubt, a very useful addi-
tion to the decoction of the woods.   Pearson has em-
ployed it during many years, in those cases where pains
in the limbs and indurations of the  membranes have
remained, after the venereal disease  has been cured by
mercury;  and he informs us that he has seldom  direct-
ed it without  manifest advantage.
  Brambilla and Girtanuer also contend for the anti
venereal virtues of the green bark of tiie walnut: but
the result of Pearson's experience will not permit him
to add his testimony to theirs.   I have  given it, says
he, in as large doses as the stomach could retain, and
for as long a time as the strength of  the patients, and
the nature of their complaints would  permit; but I
have uniformly observed, that if they who take it be
not previously cured  of lues venerea,  the peculiar
symptoms will appear, and proceed in  their  usual
course, in defiance of the powers of this medicine.  The
Decoctum Lusitanicum may be  given with great ad
vantage in many  of those cutaneous diseases, whicb 
JUN
JUN
are attended with aridity of the skin; and I have had
some opportunities of observing that when the putamen
of the walnut has been omitted, either intentionally or
by accident, the same good effects have not followed
the taking of the decoction, as when it contained this
ingredient.  See Juglans.
  JUGULAR. (Jugularis; fromjugulum, the throat.)
Belonging to the throat.
  Jugular veins.  The veins so called run from the
head down the sides of the neck, and are divided, from
their situation, into external and internal.  The eitcr-
nal, or superficial jugular vein, receives  the blood
from the frontal, angular, temporal, auricular, sublin-
gual or ranine, and occipital veins.  The internal, or
deep-seated jugular van, receives the blood from the
lateral sinuses of the dura mater, the laryngeal and pha-
ryngeal veins.   Both jugulars unite, and form, with the
subclavian vein, the superior vena cava, which termi-
nates in the superior part of the right auricle of the heart.
  JU'GULUM.  (From  jugum, a yoke; because the
yoke is fastened to this part.)  The throat or anierior
»art of the neck.
  JUJUBA. (An Arabian word.) Jujube. SeeiJAam-
nirs ziiyphus.
  JU'JUBE.  See Rhamnus zizyphus.            •
  JULY-FLOWER.  See Dianthus Caryophyllus.
  JUNCKER, Gottlob John, was born  in 1680 at
Londorff, in Hesse.  After the proper studies he gradu-
ated at Halle in 1718; and became afterward a distin-
guished professor there,  as well as physician  to the
 fiublic hospital.  His works, which are chiefly compi-
 ations, have  been much esteemed, and are still occa-
sionally referred to;  especially as giving a compendious
view of the doctrines of Stahl, which he espoused and
taught. He has given a  " Conspectus" of medicine, of
surgery, of chemistry, and of several other departments
of professional knowledge; also many academical theses
on medical, chirurgical, and philosophical subjects. He
died in 1752.
  JU'NCUS.  (An old Latin word, a jungendo, say
the etymologists, from the use of the plants which bear
this name in joining or binding things together.)  The
name of a genus of plants in  the  Linnean  system.
Class, Hexandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Jungus odoratus.  See Andropogon schananthus.
  JUNIPER.  See Juniperus communis.
  Juniper gum.  See Juniperus communis.
  JUNI'PERUS.  (From juvenis, young,  and pario,
 to bring forth: so called because it produces its young
 terries while the old ones are ripening.)   1. The name
 of a genus of plants.  Class, Diacia; Order,  Mono-
 dclphia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common juniper.
 See Juniperus  communis.
  Juniperus communis.  The systematic name of the
 juniper-tree.  Juniperus—foliis ternis patentibus mu-
 cronatis, baccis longioribus, of Linneus. Both the tops
 and berries of  this indigenous plant are  directed  in
 our pharmacopoeias, but the latter are usually preferred,
 and are brought chiefly from Holland and Italy.  Of
 their efficacy as a stomachic, carminative, diaphoretic,
 and diuretic, there are  several relations by physicians
 of great  authority: and medical writers  have also
 spoken of the utility of  the juniper in  nephritic cases,
 uterine obstructions, scorbutic affections,  and some
 cutaneous diseases.  Our  pharmacopoeias direct the
 essential oil, and a spirituous distillation of the berries,
 to be kept in the shops.   From this tree is also obtained
 a concrete resin, which has been called sandarach, or
 gum juniper.  It exudes in white tears, more transpa-
 rent than mastich.  It Is almost totally soluble in alko-
 hol, with which it forms  a white  varnish that dries
 speedily.  Reduced to powder it is called pounce, which
 prevents ink from sinking into paper  from wbich the
 exterior coating of size has been scraped away.
   Juniperus lycia.   The systematic name of the
 plant which affords the true frankincense.   Olibantim;
 Thus.  Frankincense has received different appella-
 tions, according to its different appearances; the single
 tears  are called 6imply olibanum, or tAus; when two
 are joined together, thus masculum ; and when two are
 very large, thus femininum; if several adhere to the
 bark, thus corticosum;  the fine powder which rubs off
 from  the tears, mica thuris •  and the coarser, manna
 thuris.  The gum-resin, that is so called, is the juice of
 the Juniperus—foliis ternis  undique imbricatis ovatis
  btusis,  and is  brought from Turkey and the East
Indies; but that which comes  from India is less es-
teemed.  It is said to ooze spontaneously from  the
bark of the tree, appearing in drops, or tears, of a pale
yellowish, and sometimes of a reddish colour. Olba-
num has a moderately strong and not very agreeable
smell, and a bitterish, somewhat pungent taste:  In
chewing, it sticks to the teeth, becomes white, and ren-
ders the saliva milky.  Laid on a red-hot iron, it readily
catches flame, and burns witb a strong  diffusive and
not unpleasant smell.  On trituration with water, the
greatest part dissolves into a milky liquor, which, on
standing, deposites a portion of resinous matter.  The
gummy and resinous parts are nearly in equal propor-
tions ; and though rectified spirit dissolves less of tbe
olibanum than water, it extracts nearly all its active
matter.   In ancient times,  olibanum seems to have
been in great repute in affections of the head and breast,
coughs, haemoptysis, and in various fluxes, both uterine
and intestinal; it was also much employed externally.
Recourse is now seldom had to this medicine, which is
superseded by myrrb, and other articles of the resinous
kind. It is, however, esteemed by many as an adstrin-
gent, and though not in general use, is considered as a
valuable medicine  in fluor albus, and debilities of the
stomach and intestines: applied externally in the form
of plaster, it is said to be corroborant, ccc. and with this
intention it forms the basis of the emplastrum thuris. \
  Juniperus sabina.   The systematic name of the
common or barren  savin-tree.  Sabina;  Savina;  Sa-
bina sterilis; Brathu.   Juniperus—foliis  oppositis
eredis decurrentibus, oppositionibus pyxidatis, of Lin-
neus.  Savin is a native of the south of Europe and
the Levant; it has long been cultivated in our gardens,
and from producing male and female flowers on sepa-
rate plants, it was formerly distinguished into the barren
and berry-bearing savin.  The leaves and tops of this
plant have a moderately strong smell of the disagreea-
ble kind, and a  hot, bitterish, acrid taste. They give
out great part of their active matter to watery liquors,
and the whole to rectified spirit.  Distilled with water
they yield a large quantity of essential oil.  Decoctions
of the leaves, freed from  the volatile principle by in
spissation to the consistence of  an extract,  retain a
considerable share of their pungency and warmth along
with their bitterness, and have some  degree of smell,
but not resembling  that of the plant itself. On inspis-
sating the spirituous tincture, there remains an extract
consisting of two distinct substances, of which one is
yellow, unctuous, or oily, bitterish, and very pungent;
the other black, resinous, less pungent, and sub-astrin-
gent. Savin is a powerful  and active medicine,  and
has been long reputed the most efficacious in the materia
medica, for producing a determination to the uterus,
and thereby proving emmenagogue; it heats and stimu-
lates the whole system very considerably, and is said
to promote the fluid secretions.  The power which this
plant possesses (observes Dr. Woodville) in opening ute-
rine obstructions, is considered to be so great, tbat we
are told it has been frequently employed; and with too
much  success,  for  purposes the most infamous and
unnatural.  It seems probable, however, that its effects
in this way  have  been  somewhat overrated, as it is
found, very frequently, to  fail as an emmenagogue,
though this, in some measure, may be ascribed to the
smallness of the dose in which it has been usually pre-
scribed .by physicians; for Dr.Cullen observes, "that
savin is a very acrid and heating substance, and I have
been often, on  account of these qualities, prevented
from employing it  in the quantity necessary to render
it emmenagogue.  I must own, however, that it shows
a more powerful determination to the uterus than any
other plant I have employed; but I have been frequently
disappointed in this, and its heating qualities always
require a great deal of caution."  Dr. Home appears to
have had very great success with this medicine, for in
five cases of amenorrhcea, which occurred at the Royal
Infirmary at Edinburgh, four we re cured by the sabina,
which he gave  in powder from a scruple to a drachm
twice a-day. He says it is well suited to the debile, but
improper in plethoric habits, and therefore orders re-
peated bleedings before its exhibitions. Country people
give the juice from the leaves and young tops of savin
mixed with milk to their children, in order to destroy
 the worms;  it  generally operates by stool, and brings
 them away with it. The leaves cut *mall, and  given
 to horses, mixed  with their  corn, destroy  the bots.
 Externally, savin is recommended as an escharotic to 
JUR
JUX
foul ulcers, syphilitic warts, (ec.  A strong decoction of
the plant  in lard and wax forms a useful ointment to
keep up a constant discharge  from blisters. Sec  See
Ceratum sabina.
  JUPITER.   The  ancient chemical  name of  tin,
lierause supposed under the government of that planet
  JURIN. James, was, during several years,an active
member and Secretary of the Royal Society, and at his
death in 1750, President of the College of Physicians. He
distinguished himself by a series of seventeen disserta-
tions, printed in the  Philosophical Transactions, and
nfierward as a separate work, in which mathematical
science was applied  with considerable acuteness to
physiological  subjects.   These papers, however, in-
volved him in several philosophical controversies con-
cerning  the force of the heart, tec.  Ho was a warm
advocate for  the practice of inoculation,  which he
proved greatly to lessen the violence of the small-pox:
but he did not anticipate that it would increase tho
mortality upon the whole, by keeping up the infection,
while manv retained their prejudices against adopting it.
  JUSTICIA.  (So named  in honour of Mr. Justice,
who published the British Gardener's  Director.) The
name of a genus of plants.  Class, JJiandrta.- Order
Monogynia.
  JUVA'NTIA.  (From juvo, to  assist)   Whatever
assists in relieving a disease.
  JUVENTUS.  See Age.
  Juxtanoi'na.  (From juxta, near, and  angina, a
quinsy.)  A disease resembling a quinsy.
END OP  VOL. L 
Harper's Thirteenth Edition, improved and enlarged
      LEXICON   MEDICUM;
                              OR

MEDICAL   DICTIONARY;
           CONTAINING AN EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS IN
ANATOMY,
BOTANY,
CHEMISTRY,
MATERIA MEDICA,
MIDWIFERY,
MINERALOGY,
PHARMACY,
PHYSIOLOGY,
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,
SURGERY,
             AND THE VARIOUS  BRANCHES OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE
       SELECTED, ARRANOED, AND COMPILED FROM THE BEST AUTHORS.
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By  ROBERT  HOOPER, M.D. F.L.S.
      THIRTEENTH AMERICAN, FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION,
WITM ADDITIONS FROM AMERICAN AUTUORf ON BOTANY, CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MEDICA, M1NERAL0OY, ScO


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                            A  NEW

MEDICAL   DICTIONARY.
                         K
KEI                                           KID
    Kaath.  See Acada catechu.
     KjEMPFER, Engelbert, was born in 1651 at
Lippe, in Westphalia.  He was educated in Sweden,
and being eager  to travel, accompanied the Swedish
ambassador, Fabricius, to  Persia,  as  secretary: on
whose departure from Ispahan, after two years, he ob-
tained the appointment of chief surgeon to the Dutch
East India Company; and was  thus enabled to pene-
trate as far as Siam and Japan,  and  cleared up the
geography of these countries, which was  very imper-
fectly known before.   On  his return  to Eurcpe, in
1694,  he graduated at Leyden, and settled in  liis own
country; he was afterward appointed physician to his
sovereign, and continued  engaged in practice, and in
composing several works, till his death, in 1716.  In his
inaugural dissertation, among other subjects  relating
to medicine, he notices a method of curing colic among
the Japanese by puncture  with a needle. But  his great
work, entitled " Amamitates Exotica;," is more espe-
cially esteemed for ils botanical informa'ion,  and au-
thentic details, relating to the history and manners of
Persia, Ate.  His History of Japan, of which there is an
English translation in folio, is  highly  valued for its
accuracy and fidelity.
  K^MPFE'RIA.   (Named  after  Ktempfer,  the
Westphalian  naturalist.)  The  name  of  a genus of
plants.  Class, Monandria ;  Order, Monogynia.
  Kempferia galanga.   The plant  which affords
the greater galangal root.
  K.empferia rotvnda.  The systematic name of
the plant which affords the officinal  zedoary.   Zedoa-
ria.   Kampferia—foliis lanceolatis petiolatis, of Lin-
naeus.  The roots of this  plant are  brought to us in
long pieces, zedoaria longa, about the thickness of the
little finger, two or three inches in length,  bent, rough,
and angular;  or in roundish pieces,  zedoaria rotunda,
about an inch in diameter, of an ash colour on the  out-
side,  and  wiiite  witliin.  They  have an agreeable
camphoraceous smell, and a bitterish  aromatic taste.
Though formerly  much esteemed asainst rheumatic
affections, they are at present thought to  possess very
little medicinal powers, although they had a place in
the confectio aromatica of the London Pharmacopoeia.
  Ka'jepot oleum.  See Melaleuca.
  KA'LI.   (An Arabian word.) Tbe vegetable alkali.
See Potassa.
  Kali  acetatcm.  See  Potassa acetas.
  Kali  aeratum.  See Potassa carbonas.
  Kali  arsenicatum.   A  preparation  of  arsenic,
composed  of  tbe vegetable alkali  and the  acid of
arsenic.
  Kali  citratum.  See Potassa citras.
  Kali  praparatum.  Sec Potassa subcarbonas.
  Kali  ruRitM.  See Potassa fvsa.
  Kali  suli-huratum. See Sulphuretum potassa.
  Kali tartarizatum.  See Potassa tartras.
  Kali  vitriolatum.  See Potassa sulphas.
  KARPHOLITE.  A yellow mineral whichoccurs
in thin prismatic concretions.
  KEEL.  See Carina.
  Keeled leaf.  See Carinatus.
  KEILL, James, was born in Scotland, 1673.  After
going  through the proper studies abroad, and especi-
ally attending  to  anatomy, he was enabled to lecture
on ibat subject with great reputation in both tlie Enj-
I ish universities, and received an honorary degree at
Cambridge.  During this period he published a Com-
pendium of Anatomy, chiefly from Cowper.  In 1703-
he settled in practice at Northampton;  and three
years after sent to the Royal Society an account ofthe
dissection of a man, reputed to have been 130 years of
age; which agreed very much  with what  Harvey
found in old Parr.   He was well skilled  in  mathema-
tics, which  he applied to the  explanation of the laws
of the animal economy.  In 1708, he  published " An
Account of Animal Secretion, the Quantity of Blood
in the  Human Body, and Muscular Motion."  To
which, in a second edition, he added an Essay on the
Force of the Heart.  This engaged him  in a contro-
versy with  Dr. Jurin, which was carried  on in the
Philosophical Transactions (Dr.  Keill being then  a
member of the Royal Society) till the  period of his
premature death in 1719, occasioned by a cancer in the
mouth, to whichhe had applied the cautery, but with-
out any relief.
  Kei'ri.  See Cheiranthus chart
  KELP.  Incinerated seaweed.
  KENEANGIA. (From Ktvos, empty, and ayyetov,
a vessel.)  1. A state of inaction ofthe blood or other
vessels.
  2. A deficiency of blood in the vessels.
  KERATE.  The third mineral order of Mohs.
  KERATO-piiARYNGfus. (From Ktpas, a horn, and
tbapvyl, the pharynx.)  A muscle so' named  from  its
shape, and insertion in the pharynx.
  KE'RMES.  (Chermah, Arabian.^   Granum tinc-
torium ; Coccus baphica.  Round reddish grains, about
the size of peas, found in Spain, Italy, and the south
of France, adhering to the branches ofthe scarlet oak.
They are the nidus of a minute red animalcule, called
Coccus  quercus ilicis.  The  confectio alkermes, Dow
obsolete, was prepared with these, which possess cor-
roborant and adstringent virtues.
  Kermes  minkralis.   A preparation  of antimony,
so termed from ils  resemblance in colour to the insect
of that name.  It is now disused in medicine, and
gives place to the other preparations of antimony. See
Hydrosulphuretum stibii rubrum.
  KERNEL WORT. See Gcrophularianodosa.
  Ke'rva.   (Kervah, Arabian.)   Tbe Ricinus com-
munis.
  KETCHUP.  The prepared liquor of the mush-
room, made by sprinkling salt on that vegetable, and
collecting the fluid whicn escapes.
  Keyser's pills.  A once celebrated mercurial me-
dicine, the method of preparing which was purchased
by the French  government, and bas  since been pub-
lished by Richard.  The  hydrargytus  acetatus is con-
sidered as an adequate substitute forxhe more elaborate
form of Keyser.  Richard concludes  his account of
Keyser's pills with observing, that he considers ft to be,
without exception, the most effectual  remedy for the
venereal  disease hitherto discovered.   But further
trials of this remedy  do  not justify the  sanguine ac-
counts of its properties;  though it may sometimes suc-
ceed  when some of the  other mercurial  preparations
have failed.
  Kibes.  A name  for chilblains.
  Kidria terrestris.   Barbadoes tar.
  KIDNEY   'Ran, nis  m.)  An abdominal viscus, 
LAB
LAC
shaped  like a kidney-bean, that secretes the urine.
There are two kidneys.  One is situated in each lum-
bar region, near the first lumbar vertebra, behind the
peritonaeum.  This organ  is composed of three sub-
stances ; a cortical, whicb is external, and very vas-
cular ; a tubulous, which consists of small lubes; and
a papillous substance, which is tbe innermost.  The
kidneys are generally surrounded with more or less
adipose  membrane, and tbey have also a proper mem-
brane, membrana propria, which is closely accreted to
the cortical substance.  The renal arteries, called also
emulgents, proceed from the aorta.  The veins eva-
cuate their blood into the ascending cava.  The absor-
bents accompany the blood-vessels, and terminate in
the thoracic  duct.  Tbe nerves of the kidneys are
branches of tbe eighth pair and great intercostal. The
excretory duct of this viscus is called tiie ureter.  At
the middle of the kidney, where the  blood-vessels enter
it, is a large membraneous bag. called the pelvis, which
diminishes like a funnel,  and forms a long canal, the
ureter, that conveys  the urine from the kidney to the
bladder, which it perforates obliquely.
  Kidney-shaped leaf.  See Reniformis.
  KIFFEKILL.  See Meerschaum.
  Kikekunemalo.   A pure  resin, very  similar  to
copal, but of a more beautiful whiteness and  transpa-
rency.   Il is brought from America, where it is said lo
be used  medicinally, in the cure of hysteria, tetanus,
Sec.  It  forms the most beautiful of  all varnishes.
  Ki'ki.  (Kike, Arabian.)  See Ricinus.
  Ki'na kin a.  See Cinchona.
  KINATE.  Kinas. Acompoundof the Kinic acid,
with a salifiable base.
  KINIC ACID.  (Acidum kinicum;  from kinia, the
French  name of cinchona, from which it is obtained.)
"A  peouliar  acid extracted from  cinchona.  Let  a
watery extract from hot infusions of tbe bark in pow-
der be made.  Alkohol removes the resinous part of
this extract, and leaves a viscid residue, of a brown
colour, which has hardly any bitter taste,  and which
consists  of kinate of  lime and a mucilaginous matter.
This residue is dissolved in water, the liquor is filtered
and left to spontaneous evaporation in a warm place.
Il becomes thick like  syrup, and then deposites by de-
grees crystalline plates,  sometimes hexae'dral, some-
times rhomboidal, sometimes square, and  always
coloured slightly of a  reddish-brown.  These plates of
kinate of lime must be purified by a  second crystalliza-
tion.  They are then  dissolved in ten or twelve times
their weight of water, and  very dilute  aqueous oxalic
acid is poured into the solution, till no more precipitate
is formed.  By  filtration, the oxalate of lime is sepa-
rated, and the kinic acid being concentrated by spon-
taneous evaporation,  yields regular crystals.   It is de-
composed by heat.  While it forms  a soluble salt wilh
lime, it  does not  precipitate lead or silver from their
solutions. These are characters sufficiently distinctive.
The kinates are scarcely known; that of lime const]
lutes seven per cent, of cinchona."
  Kin ki'na.  See Cinchona.
  Kl.NO.   (An Indian  word.)  f7ummi gambirnse;
Gummi rubrum adstringens gambiense.  The tree
from which this resin is obtained, though not botani-
cally ascertained, is known to grow on  the banks of
the river Gambia, in Africa.   On wounding its bark
the fluid kino immediately issues  drop by drop, and,
by the heat of the sun, is formed inlo hard masses.  It
is in appearance  very like the resin called Sangui$
draconis; much tedder, more  firm, resinous, and ad-
stringent than catechu.   It is now in common use, and
is one of the most efficacious vegetable  adstrlngenu,
or strptics, in the materia  medica.  Its  dose is from
twenty lo thirty grains.
  KNEE-HOLLY.   See Ruscus.
  KNEE-PAN.  See Patella.
  KOLLYJUTE.  A light greasy mineral of a while
colour, which adheres to the tongue.
  Kolto.  (A Polonese word.) The  plica polonica,
or plaited hair.
  KOUMI3.  A vinous liquid which the Tartars make
by  fermenting  mare's  milk.   Something  similar is
prepared in the Orkneys and Shetland.
  KRAMERIA.  (So named in commemoration  of
two German  botanists, who flourished about the mid-
dle of the  last century.)  The name  of a genus of
plants  in the Linnajan system.  Class,  Tetrandria;
Order, Monogynia,
  Krameria triandria. The systematic name of the
tree, llie root of which is called rhatania, a substance
which has  been long known to the manufacturers of
port wine;  it is the production of Peru, and was long
thought to  be the root of the cinchona cordifolia. It is
described as externally resembling  the root of the
rubia tinctorum io  the  taste, being  aromatic,  bitter,
and very astringent; its infusion or decoction turns
black with sulphate of iron,  and precipitates tannin.
The principal virtues appear  to reside in the cortical
part of the root,  which is thick  and resinous.  An
opinion prevails that the substance sold  in the shops
under the  name of foreign extract of bark, is made
from this root.
  It is well known that the  medical  virtues of this
root are powerfully tonic.  In  debility of  the digestive
organs,  in  chronic rheumatisms, fluor albus.  and in
intermittent fevers, it bas  been employed with  good
effect.  While given in doses similar to cinchona, it
has the advantage of being only one-third the price of
that substance.
  KRAMERIC ACID.  (Acidum  kramericum; from
krameria, the name of  the  plant from which it is ob-
tained.)  An acid obtained by Pcschier from the root
of the Krameria triandria
  Kyanite.  See  Cyanite.
  Kyna'nche.  See Cynanehe.
T A'BDANUM.  See Cistus creticus.
*-*  LABELLUM.  A little lip.  Applied in botany tn
the barba, or inferior  lip, of ringent and personate
plants.  See Corolla.
  LABIUM.   (Labium, i. n.; airo rov Xa6eiv-)
  I. The lip of animals.
  2. Applied in botany to cordis of plants, wbich are
termed unilabiate, bilabiate, Sec; and from their posi-
tion in certain flowers, superior, inferior, Sec
  La'bium i.eporincm.  See Hare-lip.
  LABORATO'RIUM.   (From  laboro, labour.)  A
place properly fitted up for the performance of chemi-
cal operations.
  LABRADOR  STONE.  See Felspar.
  LA'BYRINTH.   Labyrinthue.  That part of the
internal ear which is behind the cavity of the tympa
nura; it is constituted by the cochlea, vcslibuluni, and
semicircular canals.  See Ear.
      4
   LAC.  (Lac. tie. n.)   1. Milk.  See Milk.
   2. The name of a vegetable substance.  See Lacca.
   Lac ammoniaci.  See Mistura ammoniaci.
   Lac AMiGDALS.  See Mistura amygdala- *
   Lac assafcetid.e.  See Mistura assafatida.
   Lac sulphuris.  See SuJpnur practpitatum.
   LA'CCA.  (From lakah, Arabian.) Gummi lacca.
 Stick-lac; Gum-lac; Seed-lac;  Shell-lac   The im-
 proper Dame of gum-lac is given to a concrete brittle
 substance, of a dark red colour, brought from the East
 Indies, incrustated on the twigs of the Croton laccife-
 rum; foliis  ovatis tomentosis serrulatis petiolalis,
 calycibus tomentosis, of Linnetr-, where it is deposited
 by a small insect, at prr-sent not scientifically known.
 It is found in very great quantities on the uncultivated
 mountains on both sides the  Ganges, and  is of great
 use to the natives in various works of art, as varnish,
 painting, dying, Sec  When the  resinous matter  ia
. broken off th« wood into  small  pieces or grains, it Is 
LAC
LAC
 termed seed-lac, and when melted and formed Into flat
 plates, shell-lac. This substance is chiefly employed
 for making sealing-wax.  A tincture of it is recom-
 mended as an antiscorhutic to wash tlie gums.
   LA'CHR VMA.  A tear. A limpid fluid secreted by
 the lachrymal gland, and flowing on the surface ofthe
 eye.   See Tear.
   Lachrvma abiegna. See  Terebinthina argentora-
 tensis.
   LACHRYMAL.  Lachrymalis.   Of or belonging
 to tears, or parts near where they are secreted.
   Lachrymal bone.  See Unguis os.
   Lachrymal duct.  Ductus lachrymalis.  The ex-
 cretory duct ofthe lachrymal gland, which opens upon
 the internal surface ofthe upper eyelid.
   Lachrymal   gland.  Glandula ladirymalis.  A
 glomerate gland, situated above the external angle of
 the orbit, in a peculiar depression of the frontal bone.
 It secretes the tears, and conveys them to the eye by its
 excretory ducts, which are six or eight in number.
   Lachrymal nerve.  The fifth pair of nerves from
 the head  is divided into several branches, the first of
 which is called the orbitary  branch; this is  divided
 into three more, the third of which is called the lachry-
 mal branch; it goes offchiefly to the lachrymal gland.
   LACCIC ACID.   (Acidum laccicum;  from lacca,
 the substance in which it exists.)   "Dr. John made a
 watery extract of powdered stick-lac, and evaporated it
 to dryness.  He digested alkohol on  this extract, and
 evaporated tlie alkohoiic extract to dryness.  He  then
 digested this mass in ether, and evaporated the ethereal
 solution; when he obtained a syrupy mass of a light
 yellow colour, which  was again dissolved in alkohol.
 On adding water to this solution, a little resin fell. A
 peculiar acid united to potassa and lime remains in
 the solution, which is obtained free,  by forming with
 acetate of lead an insoluble lacoate, and  decomposing
 this with the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid.
 Laccic acid crystallizes; it has a wine-yellow colour,
 a sour taste, and is soluble, as we have seen, in water,
 alkohol, and ether.  It precipitates lead and mercury
 white; but it does not affect lime, barytes, or silver, in
 their  solutions.  It throws down  the sails of iron
 white.  With lime, soda,  and potassa, it forms deli-
 quescent salt, soluble in alkohol."
   LACINIATUS.  Laciniale,  fringe-like: cut  into
 numerous irregular portions;  applied to leaves, petals,
 Sec.;  as the leaves ofthe Ranunculus parvifiorus, and
 Geranium columbinum, the petals of the Reseda.
   Laco'nicum.  (Because they were much used by the
 oeople of Laconia.)  A stove, or sweating-room.
   Lacquer.  A solution of lac in alkohol.
   LACTATE.  Lactas. A definite compound, formed
 by the union of the acid of sour whey, or lactic acid,
 with salifiable bases; thus lactate of potassa, Ate.
   LACTATION.  (Lactatio; from ladco, to suckle.)
 The giving suck.
   LACTEAL.   (Lacteus; from lac, milk ; because
 the Auid tbey absorb looks like milk.)
   1. Milky.
   2. In anatomy, this term is applied to the vasa lactea.
 The absorbents of the mesenitry, which originate in
 the small intestines, and convey the chyle from thence
 to the thoracic duct.  They are veiy tender and trans-
 parent vessels, possessed of an infinite number of valves,
 wbich, when distended wilh chyle, a milky or lacteal
 fluid,   give them a knotty appearance.   They arise
 from  the internal surface of  ihe villous  coat of the
 small  intesline, perforate the  other coats, and form a
 kind of net-work, while the greater number unite one
 with another between the muscular and external coats.
 From thence they proceed  between the laminae of the
mesentery to  the conglobate glands.  In their course
they constitute the greater part of the gland through
which  they  pass, being  distributed  through them
several times, and curled in various directions.  The
lacteals having passed these glands, go to others, and
at length seek  those  nearest the mesentery.  From
these glands, which are only four or five, or perhaps
more, the lacteals pass out and ascend with the mesen-
teric artery, and unite with the lymphatics of the lower
extremities, and  those of the  abdominal viscera, and
Uien form a common trunk, the thoracic,  duct,  which,
in some subjects, is dilated at its origin, forming  the
receptaculum chyli.  See Nutrition.
  LACTESCENS.   (From  lac, milk.)   Lactescent
or milky.
   LACTIC ACID. (Acidum ladicum; from lac milk.)
 " By evaporating sour whey to one-eighth, fi tering,
 precipitating with lime-water, and separating ti,b iima
 by oxalic acid, Scheele obtained an aqueous solution
 of what he supposed to be a peculiar acid, which has
 accordingly been termed the lactic.   To procure it
 separate, lie evaporated the solution to the consistence
 of honey, poured on it alkohol, tillered this solution,
 and evaporated the alkohol. The residuum was an
 acid of a yellow colour, incapable of being crystallized,
 attracting the humidity  if the  air, and forming  deli-
 quescent salts with the earths and alkalies.
   Bouillon Lagrange since examined it more narrowly,
 and from a series of experiments concluded, that it con-
 sists of acetic acid, muriate of potassa, a small portion
 of iron probably dissolved in the acetic acid, and an
 animal matter.
   This judgment of Lagrange was afterward supported
 by the opinions of Fourcroy and Vauquelin.  But since
 then, Berzelius has investigated its  nature very fully,
 aud has obtained, by means of a long and  often-re-
 peated series of different experiments, a complete con-
 viction that Scheele was in the right, and that the lactic
 acid is a peculiar acid, very distinct from all others.
   The lactic acid, purified, has a brown-yellow colour,
 and a sharp sour taste, which  is much weakened by
 diluting it with water.  It is without smell in the cold,
 but emits, when heated, a sharp sour smell, not unlike
 that of sublimed oxalic acid.  It cannot he made to
 crystallize, and does not exhibit the slightest appear-
 ance of a saline substance; but dries into a thick and
 smooth varnish, which slowly attracts moisture from
 the air.  It  is very easily soluble in alkohol.  Healed
 in a  gold spoon over the  flame of a candle,  it  first
 boils, and then  its pungent acid smell becomes very
 manifest,  but extremely distinct from that ofthe acetic
 acid; afterward it is charred, and has an empyreuma-
 tic, but by no means an animal, smell.  A porous char-
 coal is left  behind, which does not readily burn to
 ashes.  When distilled, it gives an empyreumatic oil,
 water, empyreumatic vinegar, carbonic acid, and in-
 flammable gases. With alkalies, earths, and metallic
 oxides, it  affords peculiar salts; and these are distin-
 guished by being soluble in alkohol, and in general by
 not having the least disposition to crystallize, but dry
 ing into a mass like gum, which slowly becomes moist
 in the air.
  La'ctica.  The Arabian name for the fever which
 the Greeks call Typhos.
   LACTI'FUGA.   (From lac,milk, ond fugo, to drive
 away.)  A medicine or other means which dispel milk.
   LACTU'CA. (From lac, milk; named  from the
 milky juice which exudes upon its being wounded.)
 1. The name of a genu3 of plants in tlie Linnaean sys-
 tem.   Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.
 The lettuce.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the garden-lettuce,
 Ihe Lactuca sativa.
  Lactuca graveolens.  See Lactuca virosa.
  Lactuca sativa.  The  systematic name of the
 lettuce.  It is esteemed as a wholesome, aperient, bitter
 anodyne, easy of digestion, but affording no nutriment.
 Lettuces appear to agree better with hot, bilious,  me-
 lancholic  temperaments,  than the phlegmatic.  Tbe
 seeds possess  a quantity of oily substance, which,,
 triturated  with water, forms an emulsion esteemed by
 some in ardor urina;, and  some diseases of the urinary
 passages.  Lettuce was famous for the cure of the
 emperor Augustus, and formed the opiate of Galen,
 in bis old age; a proof that, in the warmer climates,
 it must acquire an exaltation of its virtues above what
 is met with in this country.
  Lactuca scariola.  Lactuca sylvestris; Scariola;
 Scariola gallorum.  This species possesses a stronger
 degree of  bitterness than the Lactuca sativa, and is
 said to be more aperient and laxative.  It  is nearly
 similar, in virtue as in taste, to endive unblancbed.
  Lactuca sylvestris.   See Lactuca scariola,
  Lactuca virosa.   The systematic name of  the
opium, or strong-scented lettuce.  Lactuca graveolens.
 Lactuca—foliis horizontalibus carino  aculealis den-
tatis,  of Linnseus.  A common plant  in our hedges
and ditches.  It has a strong, ungrateful smell, resem-
 bling that of opium,  and  a bitterish acrid  laste: il
abounds with  a milky juice, in which  its  sensible
qualities seem to reside, and which appears  to have
been noticed by Dioscorides, who describes the odour 
L.EV
LAM
and taste of the juice as nearly agreeing with that of the
white poppy. Its effects are also said, according to Haller,
to be powerfully narcotic   Dr. Collin, at Vienna, first
brought tbe lactuca virosa into medical repute, and its
character has lately induced the Col lege of Physicians at
Edinburgh, to insert it in the catalogue of the materia
medica. More than twenty-fourcases of dropsy are said,
by Collin, to have been successfully treated by employing
an extract prepared  from the expressed juice of this
plant, which is slated not only to be powerfully diuretic,
but, by attenuating the viscid humours to promote all
the secretions, and to remove visceral obstructions.  In
the more simple cases, proceeding from debility, the
extract, in doses of  eighteen to thirty grains a-day,
proved sufficient to  accomplish a cure; but when the
disease was inveterate, and accompanied with visceral
obstructions, the quantity of extract was increased to
three drachms; nor did larger doses, though they ex-
cited nausea, ever produce any other bad effect;  and
the patient continued so strong under the use of this
remedy, that it was seldom  necessary lo employ any
tonic medicines.  Though. Dr. Collin began his experi-
ments with the lactuca at the Pazman hospital, at the
time he was trying the arnica, 1771, yet very few phy-
Bicians, even at Vienna, have since adopted the use of
this plant.  Plenciz,  indeed, has published a solitary
instance of its efficacy, while Quarin informs  us that
he never experienced any good effect from  its use;
alleging, thai those who "were  desirous of supporting
its character, mixed  it with a  quantity of extractum
scilla;.   Under these circumstances we shall only say,
that the recommendation of this medicine by Dr. Col-
lin will be scarcely thought  sufficient to establish its
use in England.
  ["Lactuca elonoata.   This is a tall, lactescent,
native  plant.   It is substituted for the Lactuca virosa
of Europe, which it somewhat resembles in its proper-
ties, though of inferior strength.   I have no personal
experience with this  plant, but am informed by physi-
cians who have tried it, that it is anodyne, and  pro-
motes the excretion of the skin and kidneys.   An ex-
tract made by inspissating the expressed juice  may be
given in doses of from five to fifteen grains.  The con-
crete, lactescent juice would probably be found much
stronger."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [" Lactucarium.   Common garden-lettuce,  like
many plants of its class, exudes a milky juice on being
wounded after it is fully grown. Thjs juice concretes
on exposure to the  air,  into a  brownish,  bitter sub-
stance, resembling opium in some of its characters. It
is most abundant when the plant is in flower, and
least so while the leaves are  young, or when they are
etiolated by heading.  Lactucarium has tlie  colour,
and in some degree the taste and odour, of opium, for
which  it has been proposed as a substitute by Dr. Coxe
and Dr. Duncan.  It has been said lo contain morphia
in addition lo its other component parts.  It acts as a
soporific, and has been thought useful in phthisis as a
palliative.  Dose, one or two grains."—Big.  Mat.
Med.   A.]
  Lactuce'lla.  (Diminutive of  lactuca, the lettuce;
so named from its milky juice.)  Tbe sow-thistle. Tbe
Sonchus arvensis.
  Lactuci'mina.  (From ladeo, to suckle: so called
because they happen chiefly to children while at the
breast.)  The thrush, and little ulcers, or crusty scabs
on the  skin, which happen during the time the child is
at the breast.
  LACTU'MEN.  (Fromlac,milk; so named because
it is covered with a white crust.)  The achor, or scald-
head ;  also  a little crusty scab on the skin, affecting
children at the breast.
  LACU'NA.  (From lacus a channel.)  The mouth
or opening of the excretory duct of a muciparous gland,
as those of the urethra, and other  parts.
  LA'DANUM.   (From  ladon, Arab.)  See  Cistus
creticus.
  Ladies' bed-straw.  See Galium.
  Ladies' mantle.  See Alchemilla.
  Ladies' smock.  See Cardamine.
  Ljetifica'ntia.  (From latifico, to make glad)  This
term has been applied to many compositions under the
intention of cordials; but both the medicines and dis-
tinctions are now quite disused.
  LiEVIS.  Smooth and even.  Applied to stems of
plants, and is opposed to all roughness and inequality
whatever.
      0
  L.eviTAS intestinorum.  A name of the licnterjW
See Diarrhaa.
  La'oaros.  (Aayapos, lax; so named from Its com-
parative laxity.)  The right ventricle of the heart.
  LAGENjEFORMIS.  Bottle shaped.   Applied to
the gourd ;  as in Cucurbita lagenaria.
  LAGNESIS.  (FromXayvns,libidinous.)  Thename
of a genus of diseases.  Class, Genetica; Order, Or-
gastica; in Good's Nosology: lust.   Il embraces two
species, viz. Lagnesis salacitas, and L. furor.
  LAGOPHTHA'LMIA.  (From Xayiaos, a hare, and
oibBaXuos, an eye; because it is believed that hares
sleep wilh  their eyes open.) Lagophthalmos.  The
hare's eye.  A disease in which the eye cannot be shut.
The following complaints may arise from it: a constant
weeping of the organ, in consequence of the interrup-
tion of the alternate closure and opening of the eyelids,
which motions so  materially contribute to propelling
the tears into the nose;  blindness in a strong light, in
consequence of the inability to moderate the rays which
fall on the eye; on the same account, the sight becomes
gradually very much weakened; incapacity  to sleep
where there is any light; irritation, pain, and redness
of the eye, from  this organ being exposed lo the ex-
traneous substances  in  the atmosphere, without the
eyelids having the power of washing them away in
the natural manner.
  An enlargement or protrusion of the whole eye, or a
staphyloma, may obviously  produce lagophthalmos
But  affections of the upper  eyelids  are  the common
causes.  Heistcr  says, he has seen the complaint ori-
ginate from a disease of the lower  one.  Now  and
then lagophthalmos depends on paralysis of tlie orbi-
cularis muscle.   A cicatrix after a wound, ulcer, or
burn, is the most frequent cause.
  LAGOPO'DIUM.  (From  Xayiaos, a hare, and rouf,
a foot: so called because it has narrow hairy leaves,
like the foot of a hare.)  The herb hare's-foot trefoil.
  LAGO'STOMA.  (From Xayiaos, a hare, and you-a.
the mouth: so called because the upper lip is divided
in the middle like that of a hare.)  See Harelip.
  LAKEWEED.  See Polygonum hydropiper.
  LALLANS.  SeeLallalio.
  LALLATIO.  That species of vicious pronuncia-
tion  in which the letter I is rendered unduly liquid, or
substituted  for  an r.  The Greeks  denominated  it
lambdacismus, from the letter X, lambda.
  La'mac.   Gum-arabic.
  LAMBDACISMUS.  A  defect in speech, which
consists in an inability to pronounce certain conso-
nants ; or that stammering or difficulty of speech when
the letter I  is pronounced too liquid,  and often in the
place of r.   See Psellismus lallans.
  LAMBDOIDAL.  (Lambdoidalis; from  A,  and
tiSos, resemblance, because it is  shaped like the letter
A.)   Belonging lo the suture so called.
  Lambdoidal suture.  (Sutura lambdoidalis; be-
cause it is shaped like the letter A.)   Occipital suture.
The suture  that unites the occipital  bone lo the  two
parietal bones.
  LAMB1TIVUM.   (From  Umbo,  to lick up.)  A
linctus or medicine to be licked up.
  LAME'LLA.  (Dim. of lamina, a  plate of metal.)
1. A thin plate of metal.
  2.  The parallel gills or plates in the inferior surface
of the agaric family only
  LA M1NA.  (From tXaia,  to beat off.)  A  bone, or
membrane, or any substance resembling a thin plate of
metal.
  2.  The lap of the ear.
  3.  The parts of the corolla  of a polypetalous flower,
are named the unguis, or claw, and lamina, or border.
  LAMINABILITY.  A property possessed by some
bodies of being extended in dimensions by a gradually-
applied  pressure.   See Ductility.
  LA'MIUM.   (From Lamium, a mountain of Ionia,
where it grew; or from lama, a ditch,because it usually
grows about ditches and neglected places.) The name
of a genus of plants in  the Linna-an system.  Class,
Didynamia; Order, Qymnospermia.   The nettle.
  Lamium  album.  Urtica  morlua; Archangelica;
Galeobdolon;  Stachys fa.tida;  t'rticn  mere  magna
falidissima.  Dead  nPttle;  White archangel nettle.
Uterine hemorrhages and fluor albus are said to bo
relieved by infusions of this plant, from whose sensibl*
qualities very little benefit can be expected.
  LAMPIC ACID. (Aridumlampsicum  tromXauwi* 
LAN
LAP
to shine.)  ««Sir H. Davy, during his admirable  re-
searches on  the nature and  properties of flame, an-
nounced the singular fact, that combustible bodies might
be made to combine rapidly with oxygen, at temperatures
below what were necessary to their visible inflamma-
tion.   Among the phenomena resulting from these new
combinations, he remarked the production of a peculiar
acid and pungent vapour from the slow combustion of
ether; and from its obvious  qualities he was  led to
suspect, that it  might be  a product  yet new  to the
chemical catalogue.  Faraday, in tlie 3d volume ofthe
Journal of Science and the Arts, has given some ac-
count of the properties of this new acid ; but from the
very small quantities in which he was able to collect
it, was prevented from performing any decisive expe-
riments upon it.
  In the 6th  volume of the same Journal, we have a
pretty copious investigation of the properties and com-
pounds of this new acid, by Daniell.  From the slow
combustion of ether during six weeks, by means of a
coil of platina wire sitting on the cotton wick of the
lamp, he condensed with the head of an alembic, whose
beak was inserted in a receiver, a pint and a half  of
the lampic acid liquor.
  When first collected, it is a colourless fluid, of an in-
tensely sour taste, and pungent odour.  Its vapour,
when heated, is extremely irritating and disagreeable,
and, when received into the  lungs, produces an op-
pression at the chest very much resembling the effect
of chlorine.  Its specific gravity varies according to the
care wilh which it has been prepared, from less than
1.000 to 1.008. It may  be purified by careful evapora-
tion ; and it  is worthy of remark, that the vapour
which rises from it is that of alkohol, with which it is
slightly contaminated, and not of ether. Thus recti-
fied, its specific gravity is 1.015.  It reddens vegetable
blues, and decomposes all the earthy and alkaline car-
bonates, forming neutral salts with their bases, which
are more or less deliquescent."— Ure's Chem. Did.
  ["Lamp, safety. The safety-lamp as recommended
for general use by Sir H. Davy, is a cylinder of wire
gauze with adouble top, securely and carefully fastened.
The whole is  protected and rendered convenient for
carrying by a frame and ring.  If the cylinder be of
twilled wire-gauze the wire should be at least of the
thickness of  one fortieth of an  inch, and  of iron or
copper, and 30 in the warp, and 16 or 18 in the weft.
If of plain wire-gauze the wire should not be less than
one-sixtieth of an inch in thickness, and from 28 to  30
both warp and woof.
  The operation of this lamp may be shown on a small
scale by suspending it in a glass jar, and then admitting
a sufficient stream of coal  gas to render  the enclosed
atmosphere explosive.   The flame of the lamp first en-
larges, and is then extinguished, the whole of the cage
being filled with  a lambent blue light; on turning off
the supply of the gas this appearance gradually ceases
and the wick  becomes rekindled, when the atmosphere
returns to its natural state."— Web. Man. of Chem. A.]
  LA'MPSANA.  See Lapsana.
  LANA.  Wool.  In botany, applied  to a species  of
hairy pubescence, consisting of white, long, somewhat
crisp hair,  like wool.  It is applied to stems, leaves,
seeds,  Sec.
  Lana philosophica.  The snowy flakes of white
oxide, which rise and float in the air from tbe combus-
tion of zinc.
  LANATUS.  Woolly.   Applied  to the  stems,
leaves, seeds, sec. of plants.  The Verbascum thapsus
is a good example of tbe Caulis lanatus; the Stachys
lanata of the leaves; and the Gossypium of the seed.
  LANCEOLATUS.  Lanceolate, lance-shaped. Ap-
plied to leaves, petals, seeds, sec. of a narrow, oblong
form,  tapering towards each end;  as the leaves  in
Plantago lanceolata, and petals of Narcissus minor,
and seeds ofthe Fraxinus.
  LANCE'TTA.  (Dim.  of lancea,  a spear.)   A
lancet.  An  instrument used  for bleeding and  other
purposes.
  LANCISI, John Maria, was born at Rome, in 1654.
He was intended for the church, but a taste for natural
history led him to the study of medicine, which he pur-
sued with great ardour, and took his degree  at the age
of 18.  After  some minor appointments, which  ena-
bled him to display his talents and  acquirements, he
was appointed professor of anatomy in 1684; and con-
tinued his duties for 13 years, witb great reputation
 He was made physician to three succeeding popes, and
 attained the age of 65.  He had great knowledge of
 mankind, with very engaging manners; and his zeal
 for the advancement of medicine was extreme and un-
 ceasing.   He collected a library of above 20,000 vo-
 lumes, which he devoted to the use of the public, and
 particularly of  niedical students: it was opened four
 years before his death. He left a considerable num-
 ber of works, several of which were printed, others
 remain  in manuscript  in that library. His more im
 portant publications are, a treatise, "De Subitaneis
 Mortibus;"  "The  Anatomical Plates of Eustachius,
 with a Preface and Notes, in folio;" and a disserta-
 tion, " De Noxiis Paludum Effluviis," referring  inter-
 mittents to the marsh miasmata, printed in 1717.  After
 his death, a treatise, " De Motu Cordis et Aneurysma-
 tibus," and  a collection of cases from his manuscript,
 were given to the public.
  LANGR1SH, Browne, a physician of the last cen-
 tury, distinguished  himself as an advocate for the me-
 chanical theories of physiology and medicine, which
 he supported by numerous experiments.   He had the
 merit of ascertaining several interesting facts in respect
 to the nature of the circulating powers.  He died in
 London, in 1759.  His publications  are, "A New Es-
 say on Muscular Motion, Sec.;" "Modern Theory of
 Physic;"  "Physical Experiments upon Brutes;" and
 " Croonian Lectures on Muscular Motion."
  Lao'nica  curatio.   A method of curing the gout,
 by evaporating  the morbid matter by topical applica-
 tions.
  Lapa'ctica.   (From Xairaju, to evacuate.)    Pur-
 gative medicines.
  LA'PARA.   (From Xaizagia, to empty; so named
 from its concave and empty appearance.)   The flank.
  LAPAROCE'LE.   (From Xanapa, the flank, and
 kijXi], a  rupture.)  A rupture through the side of the
 belly.
  LA'PATHUM.  (From Xana$to,  to evacuate: so
 named because it  purges gently.)   The dock.  See
 Rumex.
  Lapathum acetosum.  See Rumex acetosa.
  Lapathum acutum.  See Rumex acutus.
  Lapathum aquaticum.   See  Rumex hydrolapa
 thum.
  Lapidb'llum. (From lapis, a stone.)   Lapidellus.
 The name of a kind of spoon, formerly used to take
 out small stones and fragments from the bladder.
  LAPIDEUS.  Stony. Applied to seeds of plants;
 as those of the Lithospermum and Osteosperma.
  La'pides  cancrorum.  See Cancer.
  Lapi'lli cancrorum.  See Cancer.
  LA'PIS.  (Lapis, idis. m.; of uncertain dcrlvn
 tion.)  A stone.
  Lapis ageratus.  See Ageratus.
  Lapis bezoar.  See Bezoar.
  Lapis cjeruleus.   See Lapis lazuli.
  Lapis calaminaris.  See Calamine.
  Lapis calcarbus.  A carbonate of lime.
  Lapis cyanus.  See Lapis lazuli.
  Lai-is hematites.   See Hamatites.
  Lapis hibernicus.   Tegula  hibernica.   Ardesno
 hibernica.  Hardesia.   Irisli slate.   A kind  of slate,
 or very hard stone,  found in different parts of Ireland,
 in a mass  of a  bluish-black colour, which stains the
 hands.   When dried and powdered, it is pale, or of a
 whitish  blue, and, by keeping, grows black.  In the
 fire it yields a sulphureous  gas, and acquires a pale-
 red  colour, with additional hardness.  It is occasion-
 ally powdered by the  common people, and taken in
 spruce beer,  against inward bruises.
  Lapis hystricis.  See Bezoar hystricis.
  Lapis infernalis.  An old name for the caustic
potassa.  See Potassa fusa.
  Lapis lazuli.   Lapis cyanus.  Azure stone. A
combination of 46 silica, 28 lime, 14.5 alumina, 3 oxide
of iron, 6.5 sulphate of lime, and 2 water, according
to Klaproth.   This  singular mixture forms a stone, of
a beautiful azure blue, which it preserves in a strong
beat, and does not suffer any alteration by the contact
of air.  The finest  specimens come from China, Per
sia, and Great Bucharia. It was formerly exhibited ss
a purgative and vomit, and given in epilepsy.
  Lapis malacensib.   See Bezoar hystricis.
  Lapis ollaris.  Potstone.
  Lapis Porcinub.   See Bezoar hystricis.
  Lapis simus.  See Beioar simia. 
LAT
LAU
  LAPPA.   (Lappa, airo r» XaSttv, from its seizins
 the garments of passengers.)   See Arctium lappa.
  Lappa_ major.  See Arctium lappa.
  LA'PSAN A.  (Aaipavn, from Lampsacus, the town
 near which  it flourished; or from Aairagu, to evacu-
 ate ; because it was said to  relax the bowels.)  The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class, Syngenesia; Order,
 Polygamia aquales.
  Laps an a  communis.  Lampsana; Napium; Pa-
 villaris  herba.  Dock-cresses.   Nipplewort.   This
 plant is a lactescent bilter,  and nearly similar in vir-
 tues lo the  cichory, dandelion, and endive.  It has
 been employed chiefly for external purposes, against
 wounds and ulcerations, whence the name of nipple-
 wort and papillaris.
  La'ques gutturis.  A malignant inflammation of
 the tonsils, iu which the patient appears as if he were
 suffocated with a noose.
  LARCH.  See Pinus larix.
  LARD.   The English name of hog's fat,  when
 melted d«wn.   See Adeps suilla.
  [Larkspur.  See Delphinium.   A.]
  LARYNGISMUS. The name of a genus of diseases.
 Class,  Pneumatica;  Order,  Pncumonica, in Good's
 Nosology.   Laryngic  suffocation.  It has oidy one
 species, stridulus, the spasmodic croup.
  LARYNGOTOMY.   (Laryngotomia;  from Xa-
 pvyl,  the larynx, and rtpvia, to cut.)   See Broncho-
 lomy.
  LARYNX.   (Larynx, gis. f.;  a Greek primitive.)
 A cartilaginous cavity, situated behind llie tongue, in
 the anterior  part of the fauces, and lined with an ex-
 quisitely sensible membrane. It  is composed of the
 annular or cricoid cartilage, the scutiform or thyroid,
 the epiglottis and  two arytenoid cartilages.  The
 superior  opening of the larynx is called the glottis.
 The laryngeal  arteries are blanches ol the external
 carotids.  The  laryngeal veins evacuate their  blood
 Into the external jugulars.  The nerves of the larynx
 are from the eighth  pair.  The U6e of the larynx is to
 constitute the organ of voice, and to serve also for
 respiration.
  LASCI'VUS.  (From  lacio, to  ensnaro; upon ac-
 count of its irregular motions.)
  1. Lascivious.
  2. An  epithet used  by Paracelsus for  the chorea
 sancti vitl.
  LA'SER.   (A term used by the Cyrenians.)  The
 herb laserwort, or assafcetida.
  LASERPITIUM.  (Lac serpitium,  alluding  to its
 milky juice.) The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnteau  system;   Class,  Pentandria;  Order, Di-
 gynia.
  Laserpitium chironium.  Panax.  Hercules' all-
 heal, or woundwort. The seeds and roots of this plant
 are warm, and similar in flavour and quality to those
•of the parsnip.  The roots  and stalks have a  much
.stronger smell, which resembles that of opoponax; and
 Boerhaave relates, thai, on wounding the plant in the
 eumuier, he obtained a yellow juice, which, being in-
 spissated a little in the sun, agreed perfectly in both re-
 spects with that exotic gum resin.
  Laserpitium latifolium. The systematic  name
-of tlie white gentian.   Gentiana alba.  The root of
 this plant, Laserpitium foliis cordatis, inciso-serralis,
 of Linns;us, possesses stomachic, corroborant, and de-
 obstruent virtues.  It is seldom used.
  Laserpitium siler.  The systematic name of the
 heartwort.  Seseli; Siler montanum.   Sermountaiu.
 tThe seeds and roots of this plant, which grows iu the
 southern parts of  Europe, are directed as officinals.
 -They have an agreeable smell, and a warm, glowing,
 aromatic taste; and though neglected in this country,
 do not appear to be deservedly so.
   LATERAL.  (Lateralis; from lotus,  the  side.)
 On the side.  A term in general use, applied to part
 of tlie body, operations, and to flower-stalks,  when
 situated on the side of a stem or stalk; as in  Erica
 vagans.
   Lateral operation.  A name given to an opera-
 tion   One mode of cutting for the stone, because it is
 performed on the  side of the pelvis.  See Lithotomy
   Lateral sinus. See Sinus.                .
   LATERITIOUS. (Lateritius, from later, a brick.)
 A term applied to the brick-like sediment occasionally
 deposited in-the urine of people afflicted with fever.
   LA'TEX.   (Z.at«z, quod m  vents  terra lateat.)
Water, or Juice.  A term  sometime* applied to tM
blood, as being the spring or  source of all the hu-
mours.
  La'thyris.  (From XaBta, to forget; because ft was
thought to affect the memory.)  A term given by tome
author to a species of lithymal or spurge, commonly
known by  the name of Tithymalus latifolius, the
broad-leaved spurge, and called by some also  Cata-
putia.
  LATHYRUS.  (A name adopted from Theophras
tus, whose XaBvpos, appears evidently to be like ours.
something ofthe pea or vetch kkid, though It is Impos-
sible precisely to  determine what.)  The nnme of a
genus of plants in the Linnxau system.  Class, Uiadel-
phia; Order, Deeandria.  The vetch.
  Lati'bulum. (From lateo, to lie hid.)  The fomes
or hidden matter of infectious diseases.
  LATISSIMUS. A term applied to a muscle from
its great breadth.
  Latissimus colli.  See Plalysma myvides.
  Latissimus dorsi. Aniscalptor, of Cowper. Dorst-
lumbo sacro humeral, of Dumas.  A muscle of the
humerus, situated on the jiosterior part of the trunk.
It is a very  broad, thin, and, for the most part, fleshy
muscle, which is  placed immediately under the skin.
except where it is covered by the lower extremity or
the trapezius.  It  arises  tendinous from the posterior
half of the upper edge of the  spine  of the os ilium,
from tlie spinous processes of the os sacrum and lum-
bar vertebra:, and from five or six, and sometimes from
seven, and even eight, of the lowermost ones of the
back; also  tendinous and fleshy from the upper edges
and external surface ofthe four inferior false ribs, near
their cartilages, by as many distinct slips.   From these
different origins the fibres of the muscle run in different
directions;  those  from  the ilium and  false ribs run
almost perpendicularly upwards; those from the sa-
crum and lumbar vertebra;, obliquely upwards and
forwards; and those from the vertebra; ofthe  back,
transversely outwards nnd  forwards, over the inferior
angle of the scapula, where fhey  receive a small thin
bundle of fleshy  fibres,  which arise tendinous from
that angle, and are inserted with th* rest of the mus-
cle, by a strong, flat, and  thin tendon, Of about two
Inches in length, into the forepart of the pesterior edge
of the groove observed  between the  two tuberosities
of the os humeri,  for lodging the tendon Of the long
head of the biceps.  In dissection, therefore, this mus-
cle ought not to be followed to its insertion, till some
of the other muscles of the os humeri have been first
raised.  Its use is to pull  the os humeri downwards
and backwards, and to turn it upon its axis.  Riolanus,
from its use on certain occasions, gave it the name of
ani terser.  When we raise ourselves upon our hands,
as in rising from off an artn-ehair, we may easily per-
ceive the contraction of this muscle.  A bursa mucosa
is found between the tendon of this musele and the os
humeri, into which it is inserted.
  Lauca'nia.  (From Xavta, to receive: so called be-
cause it receives and conveys food.)  The oesophagus.
  LAU'DANUM.  (From  laus, praise: so  named
from its valuable properties.)  See Tihtluta epii.
  LAUMONITE. Diprismatic zeolite.
  LAUREL.  See Laurus.
  Laurel, cherry.  See Prunus lanroeerosus.
  Laurel, spurge. See Daphne laureola,
  LAUREOLA.   (Dim. of laurus, the laurel: named
from ils resemblance to  the  laurel.)  See  Daphne
laureola.
   Lauro-cerasus.   (From laurus, the  laurel, nnd
terasns, the  cherr/-tree:  so  called because  it has
leaves like the laurel.)   See Prunus  laurocerasus.
   Lauro'sis.  (So called from Mount Laurus,  where
there were silver  mines.)  The spodium of silver.
  LAURUS.  (From laus, praise; because it was
usual to crown the headsof eminent men with branches
of it.)  1. The name of a genus of plants In the Lin-
nean system.  Class, Enneandria; Order, Monogynia
The laurel.
  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe sweet bay. See
Laurus nobilis.
   Laurus  camphora.   The systematic  name  of the
camphire-tree.  Lauras—foliis  triplinerdis lanesa-
lato-vvatis.  It affords the stibstaiice called Camphora;
Comphura; Caf;  Cafar; Ligaturavcnerie; Caphoru;
Capur; Alkosor; Altesor.  Camphire, or camphor,  la
a peculiar concrete substance prepared by distillation 
LAO
LAU
The tree is indigenous and grows abundantly.  The
camphire is found to lodge everywhere in the inter-
stices of the fibres of the w ood, pith, and knots of the
tree.  The crude camphire, exported from Japan, ap-
pears in small grayish  pieces, and is intermixed with
various extraneous matters; in this state it is received
by the Dutch, and purified by a second sublimation; it
is then formed into loaves, iu which state it is sent to
England.
   "Purified camphor is a white concrete crystalline
substance, not brittle, but easily crumbled, having a
peculiar consistence resembling that  of spermaceti,
but harder. It has a strong lively smell, and an acrid
taste;  is so volatile as totally to exhale when left ex-
posed in a warm air; is light enough to swim on water;
and is very inflammable, burning with a  very white
flame and smoke, without any residue.
   The roots of zedoary, thyme, rosemary, sage, the
inula hellenium, the anemone, the pasque flower or
Pulsatilla, and other vegetables, afford camphor by dis-
tillation.  It is observable,  that all these plants afford
a much larger quantity of camphor, when the sap has
been suffered to pass to the concrete state by several
months' drying.  Thyme and peppermint, slowly dried,
atford much camphor; and Achard has observed that
a smell of camphor is disengaged when volatile oil of
fennel is treated with acids.
   Kind, a German chemist, endeavouring to incorpo-
rate muriatic acid gas with oil of turpentine, by putting
this oil into the vessels in which tlie gas was received
when extricated, found the oil change, first yellow,
then brown, and, lastly, to be almost wholly coagulated
into a crystalline mass, which comported itself in every
respect like camphor.  Tromsdorf and  Boullay con-
firm this.   A small quantity of camphor may be ob-
tained from oil of turpentine by simple distillation at
I-.  very  gentle beat   Other essential oils, however,
Bffi»rd more.  By evaporation in shallow vessels, at a
heat not exceeding 57° F.,  Proust obtained from oil of
lavender .25, of sage .21, of marjoram .1014, of rose-
nary .0625. He conducted tlie operation on a pretty-
large scale.
  Camphor is not soluble in water in any perceptible
degrees,  though it communicates its smell  to that
fluid, and may be  burned  as it  floats  on its surface.
It is said,  however,  that  a surgeon at Madrid has
effected its solution in water by means of llie carbo-
nic acid.
   Camphor may be  powdered by moistening it with
alkohol, and triturating it  till dry.  It  may be formed
into an emulsion by previous grinding with near three
times its weight of almonds, and afterward gradually
adding the water.   Yelk  of egg  and mucilages are
also effectual for this purpose;  but sugar does not
answer well.
  It has been observed  by Romieu, that small pieces
of camphor floating on water have a rotatory motion.
  Alkohol, ethers, and oils, dissolve camphor.
  The addition of water to the spirituous or acid solu-
tions of camphor, instantly separates it.
  Hatchett has particularly examined the action  of
sulphuric acid on camphor.  A hundred grains of cam-
phor were  digested in an  ounce of concentrated sul-
phuric acid for two days.   A gentle heat was then ap-
plied, and the digestion continued for two days longer.
Six ounces of water were then added,  and the whole
distilled to  dryness.  Three grains of an essential oil,
-aving a mixed odour of lavender and peppermint,
ca sie over with the water.  The residuum being treated
twice with two ounces of alkohol each time, fifty-
three  grains of  a compact coal in small fragments
remained undissolved.  The alkohol, being evaporated
in  a water-bath, yielded forty-nine grains of a blackish-
brown  substance,  which was bitter, astringent, had
the smell of caramel, and  formed a dark brown solu-
tion with water.  This solution threw down very dark
brown  precipitates, with sulphate of Iron, acetate of
lead, muriate of tin, and nitrate of lime.  It precipi-
tated gold in the metallic state.  Isinglass threw down
tbe whole of what was dissolved  in a  nearly black
precipitate.
  When nitric  acid  is  distilled repeatedly in large
quantities from camphor, it converts it into a peculiar
acid."  See Camphoric acid.
  The  use of this important medicine, in different
diseases, is very considerable.  It has been much em-
ployed, With great advantage, in  fevers of all kinds,
particularly in nervous fevers, attended with delirium
and much watchfulness.  The experienced WerlhOfT
has witnessed its utility in several inflammatory dis-
eases, and speaks highly in favour of ils refrigerant
qualities.  The benefit derived from it in putrid fevers,
where bark and acids are contra-indicated, is remarka-
ble.  In  spasmodic and convulsive affections it is also
of much service, and even in epilepsy.  In chronic
diseases this medicine  is likewise  employed;  and
against rheumatism, arthritis, and mania, we  have
several accounts of its efficacy.   Nor is it less effica-
cious when applied  externally in  certain diseases: it
dissipates inflammatory tumours in a short lime; and
its antiseptic quality, iu resisting and curing gangrene,
is very considerable.  Another  property peculiar to
this medicine, must not,  however, be omitted; the
power it possesses of obviating the strangury that  is
produced by cantharides, when sprinkled over a blister.
The preparations of  camphor are, spiritus camphora,
linimentum camphora, tinctura camphora composita,
and the mistura camphora.   Camphor, dissolved in
acetic acid with some essential oils, forms the aromatie
vinegar.
   Laurus cassia.   Cassia lignea;  Canella malaba
rica; Cassia lignea malabarica; Xylocassia; Canella
malabarica et javensis;  Karva; Canella cubava;
Arbor judaica;  Cassia canella;  Canellifcra malaba-
rica ; Cinnamomum  malabaricum; Calihacha canela.
Wild cinnamon-tree; Malabar cinnamon-tree, or cas-
tia lignea-tree.  Cassia lignea is the bark ofthe Laurus
tree, the foliis triplinerviis lanceolatis, of Linna-us.
The leaves are called folia malabathri in the shops.
The  bark and leaves  abound with the  flavour of
cinnamon, for  which they may  be substituted; but
in much larger  doses,  as  they are considerably
weaker.
   Laurus cinnamomum.   The systematic name of
the cinnamon-tree.   Cinnamomum.  This tree affords
the true cinnamon, which  is  its inner bark.   Jacquin
describes the tree thus:  Laurus  cinnamomum; foliis
trinerviis ovalo-oblongis; nervis  versus apicem cva-
nesccntibus.  Cinnamon bark is one ofthe most grate-
ful of the aromatics; of a  fragrant smell, and a mode-
rately pungent, glowing, hut not fiery taste,  accompa-
nied with considerable sweetness, and some degree of
adstringency.  It is one of the best cordial carminati \e
and restorative spices we are in possession of, and is
generally mixed with the diet of the sick.  The essen-
tial oil, on account of its high price, is seldom used:  a
tincture, simple and  spirituous water, are directed u
be kept in the shops. The watery infusion  of cinna-
mon is given with advantage to  relieve nausea and
check vomiting.
   Laurus culilawan.  The systematic name of the
'plant, the bark of which is called cortex culilnwan in
the  shops.  Cullitlawan;  Cortex caryophylloiiles.
Laurus—foliis triplinerviis  oppositis, of  LimuriiM
This bark very much resembles cinnamon in appear-
ance and properties.
   Laurus nobilis.   The systematic  name of the
sweet bay-tree.   Laurus—foliis  venosis lanceolatis
perennantibus, floribus quadrifidis, of Linnaius.  This
tree is a native of Italy,  but cultivated in our gardens
and shrubberies, as a  handsome evergreen.  The
leaves and berries possess the same medicinal quali-
ties, both having a sweet  fragrant smell, and an aro-
matic adstringent taste.  The laurus of honorary me-
mory, the distinguished  favourite of Apollo, may be
naturally supposed to  have  had no  inconsiderable
fame as a medicine; but its pharmaceutical uses are
so limited in tlie practice of the present day, that this
dignified plant is  now rarely employed, except in the
way of enema, or as an external application: thus the
leaves are directed in the decoctum pro fomenlo, and
the berries in the emplastrum cumini.
  Laurus  pkrsea.   This  species affords the Avigato
pear, which, when ripe, melts in the mouth  like  mar-
row, which it greatly resembles in flavour.   It is  sup-
posed to be the most nutritious of all the tropical fruits,
and grows in vast abundance in the West Indies and
New Spain. The unripe  fruit have  but  little taste;
yet, being very salubrious, are often  eaten  with salt
and pepper. The sailors, when they arrive at the Ha-
vana, and  those  parts, purchase them in great quan-
tities;  and, chopping them into  small pieces,  with
green capsicums, and a little salt, regale  themselves
heartily with them.   They are esteemed also for their 
LAX
LEA
 asstldysenteric qualities, and are prepared in a variety
 of ways for the tables of the rich.
   Laurus sassafras.  The systematic name of the
 sassafras-tree.   Sassafras;  Cornus mas  odorata;
 Lignum pavanum; Anhuiba.  The wood of this tree,
 Laurus—foliis  trilobis integrisquc,  of Linna-us, is
 imported from North America,  in long straight pieces,
 very light, and of a spongy texture, and covered with
 a  rough, fungous bark.  It has a fragrant smell, and a
 sweetish, aromatic, subacrid taste; the  root, wood,
 and bark agree  In their medicinal qualities,  and are
 all mentioned in the pharmacopoeias; but the bark is
 the most fragrant, and thought  lo he more efficacious
 than the woody  part;  and the branches are preferred
 to the large pieces.   The medical  character of this
 drug was formerly held in great estimation, and  publi-
 cations were professedly written on the subject.   It is
 now, however, thought to be of little importance, and
 seldom used but in conjunction with other medicines,
 as a corrector ofthe fluids.  It is an ingredient in the
 decoctum sarsaparilla compositum, or decoctum ligno-
 rvm; but the only officinal preparation of  it is the
 essential oil, which is carminative and stimulant, and
 which may  be given in the dose of two drops to ten.
   LAVA.   The cinders or product of volcanoes.
   Lava'ndula.  See Lavendula.
   LAVENDER.  See Lavendula.
   Lavender, French,   See Lavendula stachas.
   LAVE'NDULA.  (From  lavo, to wash: so culled,
 because, on account of its fragrancy, it was  used iu
 baths.)  1. The  name of a genus of plants in the Lin
 ncean  system.   Class, Didynamia; Order,   Gymno-
 spermia.  Lavender.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the common laven-
 der. See Lavendula spica.
   Lavendula spica.  The systematic name of the
 common  lavender.  Nardus italica.  Lavendula—
foliis sessilibus lanceolato-linearibus margine revolu-
 tis, spica interrupta nuda, of Limueus.  A native of
 the southern parts of Europe,  but cultivated in our
 gardens on  account of the fragrance of  its  flowers.
 Their  taste  is bitter, warm, and somewhat pungent;
 the leaves are weaker and less  grateful.  The essen-
 tial oil, obtained by distillation, is of a bright yellow
 colour, of a very pungent taste, and possesses, if care-
 fully distilled, the  fragrnnce of the  lavender in per-
 fection.  Lavender has been long  recommended in
 nervous debilities, and various affections proceeding
 from a want of energy in the animal functions.   The
 College directs an essential oil, a simple spirit, and a
 compound tincture, to be kept in the shops.
   Lavendula stachas.  The systematic name of
 the Frencii  lavender.   Stadias; Stachas arabica;
 Spica b+tulana; Stucadore.  This plant is much less
 gratef ™n smell and flavour than the common laven-
 der, to which it is allied in its properties.
   LA'VER.  (From lavo, to wash: so named because
 it  is found in brooks, where it is constantly washed by
 the stream.)
   1. The brook-lime.
   2. The English name of a species of fucus which is
 eaten as a delicacy.
   LAVIPE'DIUM.  (From  lavo, to wash, and  pes,
 the foot)  A bath  for  the feet.
   LAWSONIA.   (After Mr. Lawson, a Scotchman,
 who published an  excellent account of his voyage to
 Carolina, containing much information concerning the
 plants  of that country.)   The  name of a genus of
 plants  in the Linnrean system.  Class,  Octandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
   Lawsonia inermis.  The systematic name of the
 true alkanna.   Alkanna  vera; alkanna  orientalis.
 An oriental plant; the Lawsonia—ramis  inermibus,
 of Linmeus; principally employed, in its native place,
 as a dye.  The root is the officinal part; which,  how-
 ever, is rarely met with in the shops.   It possesses ad-
 stringent properties, and may be used as a substitute
 for the anchusa.
   LAXATI'VA.  (From laxo, to  loosen.)   Gentle
 purgatives.                    ,          ., .,
   LA XA'TOR.  (From laxo, to loosen: so called from
 iu office to relax.)  A name applied  to muscles, the
 office of which is  to relax parts into which  they are
 inserted.                             .   ,
   LaxatoR tympani.  Externus mallei, of Albinus;
 Anterior mallei, of  Winslow; Obliquus auris, of
 Douglas;  Externus auris vel  laxator internus, ot
      iO
Cowper; and Spheni salpingo mallien, ot Dumas.  A
muscle of the internal ear, that draws the malleus
obliquely forwards towards its origin;  consequently Ilia
membrana tympani is made less concave, or is relaxed.
  LAXUS.   Lax or diffused.  Applied by botanists in
opposition to rectus and stridus ; as In the stem of tbe
Bunias cakile, or sea rocket, the stem of which is de-
scribed as caulis laxus.
  LAZUL1TE.  See Azurite.
  LA'ZULUS.  (From a-.ul, Arabian.)  A precious
stone, of a blue colour.   See Lapis lazuli.
  LEAD.  Plumbum.  A  melal found in considerable
quantity in many parts of the earth, in different states,
seldom, if at all, in the metallic state.  It is found in
that of oxide, red lead ore, mixed with a portion of iron,
clay, and other earths.  The colour of thisore is nurorn
red, resembling red arsenic.  It is found in small lumps,
of  an  indeterminate figure,  and  also  crystallized in
four-sided rhomboidal prisms.
  Combined with carbonic acid, it forms the sparry lead
ore, so called because it has the texture and crystalliza-
tion of certain spars.  There are a great many varieties
of this kind.  It is found also  united with sulphuric
phosphoric,  arsenic,  molybdic,  and  chromic  acids.
Lastly, lead  is found mineralized by sulphur, forming
what'is called galena (sulphuret of lead), which is by
far its most abundant  ore.  This ore,  which is very
common, is found both in masses and crystals.  The pri-
mitive form  of its crystals is a cube.  Its colour isof a
bluish lead gray.  It has a considerable metallic lustre, its
texture is foliated.  It stains the fingers, and often feels
greasy. It contains in general a minutequantity of silver.
  Properties of  Lead.—Lead is of a bluish-white co-
lour, and very brilliant when fresh cut.  It is malleable.
It soon tarnishes In the atmosphere.  It may easily be
cut with a  knife,  and  stains the  fingers  bluish-gray
when  rubbed.   It fuses at 612° Fahr. and renders
other more  refractory metals fusible.  It becomes vit-
rified in a strong and continued  heat, and vitrifies
various other metals.  It is the least elastic of oil the
metals. It is very laminable, but it possesses very little
ductility.  Its specific gravity Is 11.435.  It crystallizes
by cooling in small octahedra. When fused in contact
with air, its surface first becomes yellow, and then red.
It unites by fusion with phosphorus and sulphur.  The
greater part  of the acids act upon it.  The sulphuric
acid requires the assistance of a boiling heat.  Nitric
acid is decomposed by it Muriatic acid acts very weakly
on it. Acetic acid dissolves it.  Fluoric acid attacks it by
heat, and slightly in the cold. It combines with other
metals, but few of its alloys are applied  to  any  use.
When combined with mercury, it forms a crystallizable
alloy which  becomes fluid when triturated with  that
of bismuth.
  Method of obtaining Lead.—In order to obtain lead
in a great way, tbe ore is picked from among the extra-
neous matter with which it was naturally mixed.  Itis
then pulverized and washed. It is next roasted in a
reverberatory furnace, in which  it Is to he agitated, in
order tobring thewholeincontactwlththe air. When
the external parts begin to soften, or  assume the form
of a paste, it is covered with charcoal, the mixture is
stirred, and the heat increased gradually; the lead then
runs on all sides, and is collected at the bottom of the
furnace, which is perforated so as to permit the metal to
flow into a receptacle defended by a lining of charcoal.
  The scoriae remaining above in the furnace still re-
tain a  considerable proportion  of lead;  in  order to
extract it, the scoriae must he fused  in a blast furnace.
The lead is by that means separated, and cast into lion
moulds, each of which contains a portion called a pig
of lead. These pigs are sold under the name of ore lead.
  In order to  obtain perfectly pure lead, the lead of
commerce may be dissolved in pure nitric acid, and the
solution be decomposed by adding to it,  gradually, a
solution of sulphate  of soda, so long as « precipitate
ensues.  This precipitate, which is sulphate  of lead,
must then be collected on a filter, washed repeatedly in
distilled water, and then dried.  In order to reduce it
to its metallic state, let it be mixed with two  or three
times its weight of black flux, Introduce the mixture
into a crucible, and expose it briskly to a red heat.
  "There are certainly two, and perhaps three oxides
Of lead :—
  1. The  powder  precipitated  by potassa from the
solution or the nitrate of lend, being  dried, forms iha
yellow protoxide   When  somewhat  vitrified, it con. 
LEA
LEA
 ■tvtntes litharge, and  combined  with carbonic  acid,
 white-lead or ceruse.
   2.  When massicot has been exposed  for about 48
 hours to  the flame of a reverberatory furnace, it be-
 comes red-lend, or minium.
   3. If upon 100 parts of red-lead  we digest nitric acid
 ofthe sp. gr. 1.26,  92.5 parts will  be  dissolved, but 7.5
 of a dark brown powder will remain insoluble.  This
 is the peroxide of lead.
   Chloride of lead is formed, either by placing lead in
 chlorine, or  by  exposing the muriate to a moderate
 heat.  It  is  a semi-transparent,  grayish-white mass,
 somewhat like horn, whence the old name of plumbum
 cerueum.
   The iodide is easily formed, by  heating the two con-
 stituents.  It has a fine yellow colour.  It precipitates
 when we pour hydriodate of potassa into a solution of
 nitrate of lead.
   The salts of lead have the protoxide for their base,
 and are distinguishable by  the following general cha-
 racters :—
   1. The  salts which  dissolve in water, usually give
colourless solutions, which have an astringent sweetish
taste.
  2. Placed on charcoal they all yield, by the blowpipe,
a button of lead.
  3. Ferroprussiate of potassa occasions in their solu-
 tions a white precipitate.
  4. Hydrosulphuret of potassa, a black precipitate.
  5. Sulphuretted  hydrogen, a black  precipilate.
  6. Gallic acid, and infusion of galls, a  white pre-
 cipitate.
   7. A plate  of zinc, a white precipitate, or metallic
 •ead.
   Most of the acids attack lead.  The sulphuric does
 not act upon  it, unless  it  be concentrated and  boiling.
 Sulphurous  acid gas escapes during this process, and
 the acid is decomposed.  When the distillation is car-
 ried on to dryness, a saline white mass remains, a
small portion  of which is soluble in water, and is the
sulphate of lead;  it affords crystals.  The residue of
 the white mass is an insoluble sulphate of lead.
  Nitric acid acts strongly on lead.
  The nitrate solution, by evaporation, yields tetrahe-
 dral crystals, which are  white, opaque, and  possess
 considerable  lustre.
   A subnitrate maybe formed in pearl-coloured scales,
 by boiling in  water equal  weights of the nitrate and
 orotoxide.
   Muriatic acid acts directly on lead by heat, oxidizing
 It, and dissolving part of its oxide.
  The acetic acid dissolves lead and its oxides: though
 probably the  access of air may  be  necessary to the
 solution of the metal itself in  this acid, white-lead, or
 ceruse, is made by  rolling leaden plates spirally up,
 so as  to leave the space of about an inch between each
 coil, and placing them vertically in earthen pots, at the
 bottom of which is 6ome good vinegar.  The pots are
 to be covered, and exposed for a  length of time to a
 gentle heat in a sand-bath, or by bedding them iu dung.
 The vapour of the vinegar, assisted by the tendency
 of the lead to combine with the oxygen which is pre-
 sent, corrodes the lead, and converts the external por-
 tion into a white substance which comes off iu flakes,
 when the lead is uncoiled.  The plates are thus treated
 repeatedly, until they  are  corroded through.  Ceruse
 is  the only white used  in oil paintings.  Commonly it
 ■s  adulterated with a mixture of chalk in the shops.  It
k.  'y be dissolved without difficulty in the acetic acid,
an ' affords a  crystallizable salt, called sugar of lead,
from its sweet taste  This, like all the preparations of
lead, is a deadly poison.  The common sugar of lead Is
an  acetate;  and Goulard's extract, made  by  boiling
litharge in vinegar, a subacctate.  The power of this
Bait, as a coagufator of mucus, is superior to the other.
If a bit of zinc be suspended by brass or iron wire, or a
thread, in a mixture of water and the acetate of lead,
the lead will be revived and form  an arbor saturni.
  The acetate, or sugar of lead, is usually crystallized
in needles, which have a silky appearance.
  The subacetate crystallizes in plates.  The sulphu-
ret, s'llphate, carbonate,  phosphate, arseniate, and
chromate of lead are found  native.
  When  lead is alloyed with an  equal weight of tin,
or perhaps even  less, it ceases  to  be acted on by
vinegar.   Acetate  and subacctate of lead in solution,
bas been used as external applications to inflamed sur-
faces, and scrofulous sores, and as eye-washes.  Tn
some extreme cases of hemorrhagy from the lungs and
bowels, and uterus, the former salt has been prescribed,
but rarely, and iu minute doses, as  a corrugant or as-
tringent.  The colic ofthe painters, and that formerly
prevalent in certain counties of England, from the lead
used  in  the cider presses, show the very deleterious
operation ofthe oxide, or salts of this metal, when ha-
bitually  introduced into the  system in the minutest
quantities at a time.  Contraction of the thumbs, pa-
ralysis of the hand, or even of the extremities,  have
not unfrequently supervened.  A course of sulphuretted
hydrogen waters, laxatives, of which sulphur, castor
oil, sulphate of magnesia, or calomel, should be pre-
ferred, a mercurial course, the hot sea-bath, and elec-
tricity, are the appropriate remedies.
  Dealers in wines have occasionally sweetened them,
when acescent, with litharge or its salts.  This delete-
rious adulteration may be detected by sulphuretted
hydrogen water, which will throw down the lead in
the state of a dark brown sulphuret.   Or, subcarbonate
of ammonia, which is a very delicate test, may be em-
ployed to precipitate  the  lead  in the state of a white
carbonate ; which, on being washed aud digested with
sulphuretted hydrogen water,  will  instantly become
black. If the white precipitate be gently heated, it will
become yellow, and, on charcoal before the blowpipe,
it will yield  a  globule of lead.  Chromate of potassa
will throw down from saturnine solutions, a beautiful
orange-yellow powder.  Burgundy wine, and all such
as contain tartar, will  not hold  lead in solution, in
consequence of the insolubility of the tartrate.
  The proper counter-poison for a dangerous dose of
sugar of lead, is a solution of Epsom or Glauber salt,
liberally swallowed; either of which medicines in-
stantly converts the poisonous acetate of lead into the
inert and innoxious sulphate.   The sulphuret of potas-
sa, so much extolled  by  Navier, instead of being an
antidote, acts itself as a poison on the stomach.
  Oils dissolve the oxide of lead, and become thick and
consistent; in which state they are used as the  basis
of plasters, cements for water-works, paints, &c.
  Sulphur readily dissolves lead in the dry way, and
produces a brittle compound, of a deep gray colour and
brilliant  appearance, which is much less fusible than
lead itself; a property which is common to all the com-
binations of sulphur with the more fusible metals.
  The phosphoric acid, exposed to heat together with
charcoal and lead, becomes converted into phosphorus,
which combines with the metal.  This combination
does not  greatly differ from ordinary lead: it is mal-
leable, and easily cut with a knife; but it loses its bril-
liancy more speedily than  pure lead ; and when fused
upon charcoal with the blowpipe, the phosphorus burns,
and leaves the lead behind.
  Litharge fused with common salt decomposes it; the
lead unites with the muriatic acid, and forms a yellow
compound, used as a pigment.  The same decompo-
sition takes place in the humid way, if common salt be
macerated with litharge; and the solution will contain
caustic alkali.
  Lead unites  with most of  the metals.   Gold and
silver are dissolved by it  in a slight red heat.   Both
these metals are said to be rendered  brittle by a small
admixture of lead, though lead itself is rendered more
ductile by a small quantity of  them.  Platina forms a
brittle compound with  lead;  mercury  amalgamates
with it;  but the lead is separated from the  mercury by
agitation, in the form of an impalpable black powder.
oxygen being at the same time absorbed.  Copper and
lead do not unite but with a strong heat.  If lead be
heated so as to boil and smoke, it soon dissolves pieces
of copper thrown into it; the mixture, when cold, is
brittle.  The union of these two metals is remarkably
slight; for, upon exposing tlie mass to a heat no greater
than that in which lead melts, the lead almost entirely
luns off  by itself.  This process is  called  eliquation.
The coarser sorts of lead,  which owe their  brittleness
and granulated texture to an  admixture  of copper,
throw it up to the surface  on being melted by a small
heat.  Iron does not unite with lead, as long  as  both
substances retain their metallic form.  Tin unites very
easily with this metal, and forms a compound, which
is  much  more  fusible than lead by itself, and is, for
this reason, used as a solder for lead.  Two parts of
lead  and one of tin, form an  alloy more fusible than
eithe.- metal alone: this is the solder of the plumbers 
LEA *                                          LEA
Bismuth combines readily with  lead, and  affords a '
metal of a fine close grain, but very brittle.  A mixture
of eight parts bismuth, five lead, and three tin, will
melt in u heat which is not sufficient lo cause water to
boil. Antimony forms a brittle alloy with lead.  Nickel,
cobalt, manganese, and zinc, do not unite with lead by
fusion."
  The preparations of lead used in medicines are:—
  1.  Plumbi subcarbonas.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  2.  Oxidum plumbi rubrum.  See Minium.
  3.  Oxidum plumbi semivitreum.  See Lithargyrus.
  4.  Acetas plumbi.   See Plumbi acetas.
  5.  Liquor plumbi acetatis. See Plumbi acetatis liquor.
  6.  Liquor plumbi acetatis dilutus. SeePlumbi acetatis
liquor dilutus.
  Lead, while.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  LEAF.  Foliurd.  A laminar  expansion of a plant
generally of a green colour.
  It  is difficult, however, to define this universal and
important organ of vegetables.
  They are considered as the respiratory organs of
plants.
  Leaves are, for the most part,  remarkable for their
expanded  form;  their  colour is almost universally
green, their internal  substance  pulpy and vascular,
sometimes very succulent, and their upper and under
surfaces differ commonly in hue, as well as in kind or
degree of roughness.
  In discriminating the species of plants, a knowledge
of the various forms of leaves  is of the utmost im-
portance.   Botanists,  therefore,  have paid  particular
attention to their names, which are derived either from
their origin, distribution, situation, direction, insertion,
form, base, point, margin, surface, distribution of its
vessels, nerves, expansion, substance, duration, com-
position, &c.
  A  leal consists of a thin and expanded part, which,
in common language, is named  the  leaf, and a stalk
called the  petiole or petiolus.  The surface of a  leaf,
superficies, or pagina, is distinguished into the upper
part, or face, and  the under part, or back, of the leaf.
The base,  or origin  of the leaf, is that  part next the
stem or branch; the apex is the termination of the leaf;
the  margin or edge,  the circumference;  the  disk,
discum, is  the middle part of the surfaces within  the
margin.
  From their origin, we have the following terms :—
  1.  Seminal; folia  semmalia,  which are the  first
leaves of the majority of plants, proceeding from seeds
that have  more than one seed-lobe;  they  aie seen in
Raphanus  sativus, and Cannabis sativa.
  2.  Radical, which  spring directly from the root; as
in Leontodon taraxacum, and Viola odorata.
  3.  Cauline, or stem-leaf.  The Valeriana phu  has
its radical leaves undivided, and the cauline leaves
pinnate.
  4. Ramial, or branch-leaf, which are only described
when they differ from those of the stem.  The Sison
ammi has its radical leaves, linear; its cauline, setous;
and  its branch leaves, tripinnate.
  5. Axillary, when  seated on joints or axilla;; as In
Parlhenium integrifolium.
  6. Floral, when next the flower, and like the other
leaves; as in Loniceracaprifolium.
   From tiieir distribution on the stem and branches,
leaves are named,
  7. Alternate, when not in pairs, and are given off in
various directions, one after another; as iu Malva ro-
tundifolia.
  8. Opposite, when they appear directly on opposite
Bides of the stem, in pairs; as in Lamium album, and
Urtica dioica.
  9.  Two-ranked; folia disticha, which implies that
they spread in two directions, and yet are not regularly
opposite at their  insertion ; as in Cupressus disticha,
Taxus baccata, Pinus picea, and Lonicera symphori-
carpos.
   10. Bifarial, that is, two-ranked, but given  off from
the side only of the branch; as  in Carpinus  betulus,
aud Fagus sylvatica.
   11.  Unilateral, looking to one side only ; as in Con-
vallaria inultiflora.
   12. Scattered, irregular or without any order; as in
Reseda luteola, and Sedum reflexum.
   13. Decussate, crossing each  other in pairs; cross-
 like ;  as in Euphorbia lathyris, and Crassula tetra-
gona.
       12
  14. Imbricate, like tiles upon a house;  as fn Copree-
sus sempervirens, and Aloe spirnhs.
  15. Fasticulate, or tufted, when several spring from
the same  point; as in Pinus larix, and Berberis vul-
garis.
  16.  stellate, star-leaved, whirled ; several leaevs
growing in a circle round the stem, without any refer-
ence to the precise  number; ns in  Rubia tlnctorum,
Lilium martagon, Asperula odorata.   In large natural
genera it  is necessary to mention the number; as in
Galium.
   17.  Remote, when at an unusual distance from each
other.
   18.  Clustered; crowded together; as in Antirrhinum
linaria, and Trientalis europea.
   19.  Binal, when there'is only two on  a plant; as in
 Galanthus  nivalis,  Scilla  bifolia,  and Convallaria
 tnagalis.
   20.  Ternal, three together; as in Verbena triphylla.
   21.  Quaternal,  Quinal, Sec, when  four, five, or
more  are situated together; as  in various species of
 Erica.
   From their determinate direction, leaves are distin
guished into,
   •£i.  Close-pressed;  adpressa; when their upper sur
 face is close to the stem ; as in Thlaspi campestris, and
 Xeranthemuin sesamoides.
   23.  Erect, when nearly  perpendicular, or forming a
 very acute angle with the stem ; as in Juncus articu-
 latis, and Bryum unquiculatum.
   24.  Spreading,  forming a moderately acute angle
 with the stem ;  as in Atriplex portulacoides, Nerium
 oleander, and Veronica beccabunga.
   25.  Horizontal, spreading in  the greatest possible
 degree; as in Gentiana  campestris, and Pelargonium
 patulum.
   20.  Ascending,  rising gently, so as to be somewhat
 arched; as in Geranium nitifolium.
   27.  Recurved,  reflexed,  curved  backward; as in
 Eiica retorta, and Bryum pellucidum.
   28.  Reclined, depending, hanging downward towards
the earth; as in  Cichorium Intybus, and Leonurus
cardiaca.
   2!).  Oblique, twisted, so that one part Is vertical, the
other  horizontal; as Allium obliquum, and Fritallaria
obliqua.
   30.  Adverse, the upper surface turned to the meri-
 dian, not the sky; as in Lactuca scariola.
   31.  Resupinate, or reversed, when the upper surface
 is turned downward ; as in Alstromeria  pelegrina, and
 Stcelie prostrata.
   32.  Revolute, having a spiral apex; as  Dianthus
 carlhusianorutn, and barbatus.
   33.  Rooting, sending rootlets  into the earth; as As-
 plenium rhizophylla.
   34.  Floating  on the surface ofthe  water; us in
 Potamogeton natans, and Nymphtea alba.
   35.  Submersed,  demersed, immersed, under water;
 as Hottonia palustris, and Ranunculus aqualilis.
   From their insertion, into,
   36.  Petiolate, leaves on  footstalks; as Prunus cera-
sus, and Verbascum nigrum.
   37.  Sessile, without footstalk, lying immediately on
 the stem ; as  in Saponaria officinalis, and Pinguicula
 vulgaris.
I   38.  Adnate, the upper surface adhering a little way
to the branch; as in Xeranihemum veslitum.
   39.  Decurrent, when a lamellar part of the leaf runs
 down the stem, or branch; as  in Carduus spinosus,
 and Verbascum thapsus.
   40.  Connate,  when two opposite  leaves  embrace,
 and are united at their bases ; as in Cerastium perfo-
 liatum, and Dipsacus laciniatus.
   41.  Connato-perfoliate, when the union is in the
 whole or nearly tlie whole breadth of the leaves, so as
 to give the two leaves the appearance of being united
 inlo but one leaf; as in Eupatorium perfoliatum, and
 Lonicera  dioica.   Connate leaves are, in lome in-
 stances, united by a membrane, which, stretching from
 the margins of the opposed leaves, near the base, forms
 a kind of pitcher around the stem, in wbich the rain is
 retained;  as in Dipsacus fullontuiii.
   42.  Embracing, clasping tiie stem with their bases;
 as in Carduus marianus, and Papaver somniferum.
   43.  Vaginate, sheathing the stein at their bases, as in
 Canna indica, and Polygonum bistorts.
   44.  Peltate, when the footstalk  is inserted, not into 
LEA                                            LEA
 the basis, but into the disk of the leaf, as in Drosera
 peltata, and Tropxolum majus.
  45. Perfoliate, when the stem runs through the leaf;
 as iu Bupleurum rotundifolium, and Uvularia perfo-
 liata.
  46. Articulate, one leaf growing out of the apex of
 another;  as Cactus opuntia, and Cactus ficus indica.
  From the basis of the leaf, it is called,
  47. Cordate, heai t-shaped, or ovate, hollowed out at
 the base; as Arctium lappa, and Tamus communis.
 ■ 48.  arrow-shaped, triangular,  hollowed out very
 much  at the base;  as Rumex  acetosa, and Sagittaria
 sagittil.ilia.
  49.  Hastate,  halberd-shaped, triangular, hollowed
 out at the base and sides, but with spreading lobes; as
 in Arum maculatum, and Rumex acetosella.
  50. Rcntform, kidney-shaped, a short, broad, round-
 ish leaf, the base of which is hollowed out; as Asarum
 europeum, and Glecoma hederacea.
  51. AuricUd,  furnished  at its base with a pair of
 leaflets, properly distinct, but occasionally joined with
 it; as in Citrus aurantium.
  Linnxus uses tho term appendiculatum, which is
 correct.
  52. Unequal, the  basis larger on one side than  the
other;  as in Tilia europea, and Piper tuberculatum.
  The  form of the  apex of a  leaf,  gives rise  to  the
following names.
  53. Acute, sharp, ending in an acute angle, which is
 common to a great number of plants; example in  Li-
 num angustifolium, and Campanula trachelium.
  54. Acuminate, pointed,  having a taper, or  awl-
 shaped point; as  Arundo phragmitis, and Syringa
 vulgaris.
  55. Cuspidate, or mucronate, sharp pointed, tipped
with a rigid  spine,  as in the thistles, and Ficus reli-
giosa.
  56.  Obtuse, blunt,  terminating in a segment of a
circle:  as  Rumex obtusifolius, and Hypericum quad-
 rangulum.
  57. Retuse, ending in a broad, shallow notch ; as in
Ervum ervilta, and Rumex dieynus.
  58. Pramorse, jagged pointed, as if bitten off; very
 Dlunt, with various irregular notches; as in Hibiscus
priemorsus, and Swartz's genus Aeride.
  59. Truncate, an abrupt leaf, with the extremity  cut
off, as it were, by a transverse line ;  as in Liriodendron
 tulipifera.
  60. Dedaleous, with a broad, incised, and crisp
 apex ;  as in Asplenium scolopendrum.
  61. Emarginate, nicked, having a small notch at  the
 summit;  as Hydrocotile vulgaris,  and Euphorbia  tu-
 berosa.
  62 Summit-cut,—folia apice incisa;  as in Glinko
biloba.
  63. Cirrhose, tipped with  a tendril; as in Lathyrus
arliculatus, and Gloriosa superba.
  64. Tridentate, three-toothed; an obtuse point,  be-
 set  with three teeth; as in Buchcra auhiopica, and
 Genista tridentata.
  65. Ascidiate, or  pitcher-leaf, a cylindrical tube,
 filled with water; as in Nepenthes distillatoria, and
 Saracenia.
  The  names derived from the marginof the leaf, are,
  66. Entire, not divided;  as in Tragopogon pratense,
 and porrifolium.
  67. Very entire, integcrrima, the  margin  void  of
 irregularity;  as Citrus aurantium.
  68. Undulate,  when the disk near the  margin  is
 waved obtusely up and down ; as in Panicum hirtel-
lum, and Reseda lutea.
  69. Crenate, notched, when the teeth are rounded,
and  not directed towards either end of the leaf; as in
Betonica officinalis, and Scutellaria galericulata.
  70. Doubly crenate, the greater teeth, notched with
smaller ones; as in Salvia  sclara, and Ranunculus
auricomus.
  71. Serrate, when the teeth are sharp, and resemble
those of a saw, pointing towards the extremity of the
leaf; as in Sedum telephium.
  72. Acutely serrate; as in Thymus acinos.
  73. Obtusely serrate; as in Ballota nigra.
  74. Doubly serrate, having a series of smaller serra-
tures intermixed wilh the larger; as in Rubus frutico-
eus, and Campanula tracheliiini.
  75. Dentate, toothed, beset with projecting, horizon-
 tal,  rather distant, teeth of its own substance; as tlie
 lower leaves of the Centaurea cyanus, and Campanula
 irachcliura.
  76  Jagged, irregularly cut or notched,  especially
 when otherwise also divided; as in Salvia Ethiopia,
 and Senecio squalidus.
  77. Cartilaginous-edged,  hard, and hoary:  as in
 Saxifraga callosa, and Yucca gloriosa.
  78. Prickle-edged,  beset with  prickles; as in Car-
 duus lanceolatus, and Ilex aquifolium.
  79. Fringed, bordered with soft parallel hairs; as in
 Sempervivum tectorum, and Galium cruciatum.
  From tlie openings, or sinuses, in the margin.
  80. Sinuuted, «.ut as  it were into  rounded, or wide
 openings;  as in Quercus robur, and Alcea rosea.
  81. Repand, wavy, bordered with numerous angles
 and segments of circles, alternately;  as in Menyanthes
 nymphoides, and Erysimum alliaria.
  82. Pinnatifid, cut transversely into several oblong
 parallel segments; as in Centaurea calcitrapa, and
 Scabiosa arvensis.
  83. Bipinnatifid, doubly pinnatifid; as in Papaver
 argemone.
  84. Lyrate, lyre-shaped, cut into  several  tranverse
 segments, gradually larger towards the extremity of the
 leaf, which is rounded; as in Geum urbanum, and Ery-
 simum barbarea.
  85. Pandunform, fiddle-shaped, oblong, broad at the
 two extremities, and contracted  in the middle; as in
 Rumex pulcher, and Convolvulus panduratus.
  86. Runcinate, lion-toothed, cut  into several trans-
 verse, acute, segments, pointing backwards; as in Le-
 ontodon taraxacum, and Erysimum officinale.
  87. Laciniate, cut into numerous irregular portions;
 as in Ranunculus parviflorus, and Geranium columbi-
 num, and Cotyledon laciniata.
  88. Squarrose, the margin beset with a rough fringe;
 as in Centaurea calcitrapa, and Carduus marianus.
  89. Partite, deeply divided nearly to the  basis;  as
 in Helleborus viridis; bipartite, tripartite, and multi-
 partite, according tc the number of the divisions.
  90. Trifid, divided into three ; as in Bidens tripartita.
  91. Quinquifid,  divided into five; as in Geranium
 maculatum.
  92.  Multifid, the margin of round leaves  cut from the
 apex  almost lo the base, without  leaving any great in-
 termediate sinuses; as in Aconitum  napellus, and Cu
 cumis colocynthis.
  From the angles in the margin  of the leaf,
  93.  Rounded, the margin not having any angle.
  94.  Angulate, the margin having acute angles.
  a. Triangular;  as in Chenopodium bonus henricus,
 and Atriplex hortensis.
  b. Quinqueangular; as in Geranium peltatum.
  c. Septangular; as in Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  95. Rhomboid,  trapeziform, or  approaching to a
 square;  as in Chenopodium vulvaria,  and Trapn
 natans.
  96.  Quadrangular, with four  angles; as in Lirio
 dendron tulipifera.
  97.  Deltoid, trowel-shaped, having three angles, of
 which the terminal one is much farther from the base,
 than  the lateral ones; as in  Mesembryanthemum del-
 toideum, and Populus nigra.
  98.  Lob ate, when the margins of deep segments are
 rounded, hence:
  a. Two-lobed; as in Bauhinia porresta.
  b. Three-lobed;  as in Anemone hepatica.
  c. Five-lobed;  as  in  Humulus lupulus, and  Acer
 pseudo-platanus.
  99.  Palmate, cut into several oblong, nearly equal
 segments, about half way, or rather more,  towards the
 base,  leaving an entire space like the palm ofthe hand;
 as in Passiflora ccerulea, and  Alcea ficifolia.
  From the figure of the circumference, are derived the
following names:
  100. Orbiculate, circular, the length and breadth of
which are equal, and the circumference  in an even
circular line; as in Cotyledon orbiculata and Hydroco-
tyle vulgaris.
  101. Subrotund, roundish;  as in Pyrola, and Malva
rotundifolia.
  102. Oblong, three or four times longer than broad;
as in Musasapieiitum, and Elajagtms orientalis.
  103.  Ovate, of  the shape of  an  egg,  cut length
wise,  the  base being rounded, and  broader than th*
extremity;  as  in Origanum vulgare,  and Inula he
leniuru.
                                         13 
LEA
LEA
  rM.  Obovate, of the feme figure, with the broader
end  uppermost; as in  Primula veris, and Samulus
valerandu
  104*. Oval, ovate, but each end has the same round-
ness; as in Rhus catinus, and Mammea americaua.
  105.  Elliptical, oval, the longitudinal diameter being
greater than the transverse.
  106.  Parabolic,  oblong,  the  summit narrow and
round ; as in Marrubium pseudodictamnus.
  107.  Cuneiform, wedge-shaped, broad and abrupt at
the summit, and tapering down  to the base; as Saxi-
fragacuneifolia, and Iberis semperflorens.
  108.  Spatulate, of a roundish figure, tapering to an
•blong base;  as in Cotyledon spuria, and Cucubalus
otites.
  109.  Lanceolate, of  a narrow, oblong form, tapering
towards each end; as in PI ant ago lanceolata.
  110.  Linear, narrow, with parallel sides; as in Se-
necio linifolius.
  111.  Capillary, long, fine, and flexible, resembling a
hair; as in Anethum fceniculum, and Graveolens.
  112.  Setaceous, bristly; as in  Asparagus officinalis,
and Scirpus setaceus.
  113.  Acerose, needle-shaped, linear,  and evergreen,
generally acute and rigid; as in Pinus sylvestris, and
Juniperus communis.
  From the difference of the surface of leaves:
  114.  Glabrous, smooth, without  roughness; as tbe
leaves of most plants.
  115.  Nitid, smooth and  shining; as in Laurus no-
bilis, and Canna indica.
  116.  Lucid,  as  if covered with  a  varnish;  as  in
Angelica lucida, and Royena lucida.
  117.  Viscid, covered with a clammy juice: as  in
Senecio viscosus, and Erygeron viscosum.
  118.  Naked, without bristles, or hairs; as the leaves
of many plants.
  119.  Scabrous, or asperous,   with little roughness
visible, as  well as tangible; as  in  Morus nigra, and
Humulus lupulus.
  120.  Punctuate, dotted, perforated with little holes;
as in Hypericum perforatum.
  121.  Pertuse, bored,  naturally  having large perfora-
tions; as in Dracontium pertusum.
  122.  Maculate, spotted;  as in  Orchis maculata, and
Pulmonaria officinalis.
  123.  Coloured, being of  any  other  than  a green
colour; as  in Amaranthus tricolor, and Atriplex hor-
tensis rubra.
  124.  Hoary, having  a whitish mealy surface;  as in
Populus alba.
  125.  Lincate, having superficial lines: asinScripus
marittmus.
  126.  Striate, marked with coloured lines; as in Pha-
laris arundinacea.
  127.  Sulcate, farrowed, having broad and deep fur-
rows; as in Digitalis ferruginea.
  128.  Rugose, tugged; as in Salviasclara.
  129.  Bullate, blistered, a greater degree of the last;
as in Brassica oleracea.
  130.  Papulous, or vesiculous,  covered with hollow
vesicles ; as in Mesembryanthemuin crystallinum.
  131.  Papillose, or Varicose, covered with solid wart-
like tubercles; as in Aloe margaritifera.
  132.  Glandular, covered with small  glandiform
bodies; as in Salix alba, and Prunus padus.
  From the distributions of the  vessds on the surface
ofthe leaf,
  Nerves are white, elevated chords, which originate
from the base ofthe leaf.
  A rib is the middle nerve, thick, and extending  from
the basis to the apex of tbe leaf.
  Veins are anastomosing vessels which are given off
from the costa or rib.
  Tiie greater clusters of vessels are generally called
nervi or costa, nerves or  ribs, and the smaller vena,
whether they are  branched or  reticulate,  simple or
otherwise.
  133.  A nervous or ribbed leaf is where they extend in
simple lines from the base to the point; as in tlie Con-
vaUaria, and Helianthus annuus.  The Laurus  cam-
phora isan example of a trinerve; the Smilax tetragona
has five nerves; the Dioscorea scptemloba, seven.
  134.  When  a pair of large ribs branch off from the
main one above the base, and run in  a straight  line
towards the apex, as in Helianthus tuberosus, the leaf is
■aid to bu triple nerved.
      14
  135. When two go from the base and four from thai
costa in a straight line, it is termed folium  quint up I,
nervum.
  136. Venous, veiny, when the vowels by which tho
leaf is nourished are branched,subdivided, and more or
less prominent, forming a net-work over either, or both
its  surfaces; as  in  Clusia venosa,  and Verbascum
lychritis.
  137. Avenial, or veinless, when without veins; as ia
Clusia alba, and rosea.
  138. Enervous, ribless, when  no nerve is given off
from  the base;  as in Asperula levigata.
  The terms from tiie expansion ofthe leaves are,
  139. Flat, as most leaves are.
  140. Concave, hollow, depressed in the middle; as in
Saxifraga stolonifera.
  141. Convex, the reverse of the former;  as  in Oey-
muni basilicum majus.
  142. Canaliculate, channelled, having a longitudinal
furrow ;  as in Plantago maritima.
  143. Cucullate, hooded, when the edges meet in the
lower parts, and expand in the upper;  as in  Geranium
cucullatum, and that curious genus Saracenia.
  144. Plicate,  plaited, when the disk of the leaf, espe-
cially towards  the  margin, is acutely folded  up and
down; as in Ihe Malvas, and Alchemilla vulgaris.
  145. Undulate, waved, when ihe disk near the margin
is waved obtusely up  and down;  as in  Reseda lutea,
and Ixia  undulata.
  146. Crisp, curled, when the border of the  leaf be-
comes more expanded than  the  disk, so  as  to grow
elegantly, curled,  and  twisted; as in Malva crispa.
  From the internal substance:
  147. Membranaceous, when there  is  scarcely any
pulp between the external membranes ofthe leaf; as in
Citrus aurantium, and the leaves of many plants.
  148. Thick, the membranes being rather more than
usually firm; as in Sedum telepbium.
  149. Cameous,  fleshy, of a thick substance, as In all
those  called succulent plants;  as Crassula lactea,  and
Sempervivum tcctorum.
  150. Pulpy, very thick, and of the consistence of a
plumb; as in Mesembryantbemum verruculatum.
  151.  Tubular, hollow within;  as in  Allium cepa.
The leaf  of the Lobelia dortmanua is very peculiar, In
consisting of a double tube.
  152.  Compact, not hollow.
  153. Rigid, easily broken  on being bent; as in Sta-
pelia.
  The thick leaves, folia crassa,  afford  the following
distinctions:
  154. Gibbous, swelling on one side, or both, from
excessive abundance of pulp; as in Crassula cotyledon,
and Aloe retusa.
  155. Round, cylindrical; as in Allium schcenoprasum,
and Salsola sativa.
  156. Subulate, awl-shaped, tapering from a thicklsh
base to a point;  as in Allium ascalonicum, and  Narcis-
sus jonquilla.
  157. Compressed,  flattened laterally; as in Cacalia
ficoides.
  158. Depressed, flattened vertically; as hi Crassula
tetragona.
  159. Triquetral, thick and  triangular; as In Buto-
mus umbellatus.
  160.  Tetragonal, quadrangular and awl-shaped; as
in Gladiolus trislis.
  161.  Lingulate, tongue-shaped, a  thick,  oblong,
blunt  figure, and a little convex on its inferior surface;
as in Mesembryantbemum lingulforme.
  162. Ancipital, two-edged; as in Typha latifolia.
  163. Ensiform, sword-shaped, two edges tapering
to a point, slightly convex on both surfaces, neither of
which can  properly be called upper or  under; as in
Iris germanica,  and Gladiolus communis.
  164. Carinate, keeled, when the bark Is loafitudinally
prominent; as in Allium carinatum,  mad Narcissus
biflorus.
  165. Acinaciform, scimitar-shaped, compressed with
one thick and straight edge, the other tWn sad curved;
as in  Mesembryantbemum acinacifoirnei
  166. Dolabriform, hatchet-shapel tmrmtcd with
a very prominent dilated keel, wd» eylindncal base;
as in MesembryanthenuuD dolabfrmrrfce. _
  167. Undnate, hooked, fl*t #*?$ ft"?0"***1 *'*«■
sides,  and turned back at Jfee raxj fornpsj a. nook.
  When  the   shape  of meuiBrantceous   leaves ta 
LEA
LED
  imperfect, the particle sub ia attached, as *u4-sessile,
  »ui-ovate, sui-pilous, &c.
    When the shape is  reversed, by the [prefixing the
  preposition ob,  as oft-cordate,  when  the point is in-
  serted inlo the petiole, o4-ovate, &c.
    From the coadunation, leaves are designated by pre-
  fixing the prominent shape, as lanceolato-ovate; as in
  Nicotiana tabacum: and ovato-lanceolate, lanceolate,
  but swelling out in the middle; as in Saponaria offi-
  cinalis.
    From their duration, leaves are termed,
    168. Deciduous, falling off at the approach of winter,
  as in most European trees and shrubs.
    169. Caducous, falling off in tbe middle of summer.
    170. Perennial, green the whole year, and falling
  off as the new ones appear.
    171. Persistant, lasting many  years, and always
  green; as in Pinus and Taxus.
   All the foregoing terms belong to simple leaves, or
  those which have one leaf only  on the petiole or foot-
  stalk.
   The following regard  compound leaves, or such as
 consist of two or  any greater number of foliola, or
 leaflets, connected by a common footstalk.
   172.  Digitate, fingered,  when several leaflets pro-
 ceed from the summit of a common footstalk; as in
 Trifolium pratense.
   173.  Pinnate, when several  leaflets proceed late-
 rally from one footstalk,  instead of being supported at
 the top;  as in Acacia pseudacacia.
   A digitate leaf is called, after its mode of digitation,
   174.  Conjugate, or yoked, when there is one pair of
 leaflets, or pinna;  as in  Zygophilluin fabago.
   175.  Binate, when the pair of leaflets unite some-
 what at their base; as in Lathyrus sylvestris.
   176.  Ternale, where there are three leaflets;  as in
 Trifolium pratensis, and Oxalis acetosella.
   177.  Quinate, there being five leaflets; as in Poten-
 tilla reptans, and Lupinus albus.
   178. Septenate, with seven;  as in ^Esculus hippo-
 castanum.
   179. Novenate, nine; as in Sterculia fcetida.
   180. Pedate, a peculiar kind of leaf, being ternate,
 with its lateral leaflets compounded in their forepart;
 or a leaf with a bifid footstalk, divided into two di-
 verging branches, with  an intermediate leaflet, and
 each supporting two or more lateral leaflets on their
 anterior edge; as in Helleborus niger.
   181. Articulate, jointed, when one, or a pair of leaf-
 lets, grows out of the summit of another, with a sort
 of joint;  as  in Cactus ficus indica, and Fagara tra-
 godes.
   Pinnate leaves  are called from their  number of
pinna,
   182. Bipinnate,  or duplicato-pinnate, doubly pin-
 nate ; as in Tanacetum vulgare.
   183. Tripinnate, or triplicato-pinnate, three pinnate;
 as  in Scandix odorata.
   From the  number of  pairs,  pinnate leaves are
 termed,
   184. Biguga; as in Mimosa nodosa.
   185. Triguga; as in Cassia emarginata.
   186. Quadriguga; as in Cassia Iongisiliqua.
   187. Quinquiguga; as in Cassia occidentalis.
   188. Multiguga; as in Cassia javanica.
  The difference in the termination of a pinnate leaf,
   189. Impari-pinnate, with an odd or terminal leaflet;
as Rosa centifolia.
   190. Abrupti-pinnata, with a terminal leaflet, as in
Orobus tuberosus.
  191. Cirrhosi-pinmate, when furnished with a ten-
dril in place of an odd leaflet; as in the pea and vetch
tribe.
  From the mode of adhesion of  the leaflets arise,
  192.  Oppositely-pinnate, when the leaflets are oppo-
site, or hi pairs. as in Sium angustifolium.
  193. Alternately-pinnate, when alternate; as in Vi-
cia sativa.
  194.  Interruptedly-pinnate, when the principal leaf-
lets are arranged alternately with an intermediate
series of smaller ones; as in Spiraea ulmaria.
  195. Decurrently-pinnate, when the leaflets are de-
current ; as in Eryngium campestre.
  198. Jointedly-pinnate,  with apparent joints in the
common footstalk; an in Fagara tragodes.
  187. Potibloto-pinnate, the leaflets on footstalks; as
in Roblnia pseudacacia.
    198.  Alate-pinnate, when the footstalk has  little
  wings between the leaflets.
    199.  Sessile-pinnate,  with leaflets within any pe-
  tiole.
    200.  Conjugate-pinnate, confluent: the leaflets grow-
  ing somewhat together at their margins.
    From their bipinnation, pinnate leaves are,
    201.  Bigeminate, two-paired;  as in Mimosa unguis
  catc.
    202.  Trigeminate, or  triplicato-geminate,  thrice-
  paired ; as in Mimosa tergemina.
    From the tripinnation,
    203. Doubly-ternate, or dvphcato-ternate, when the
  common footstalk supports tnese  secondary petioles on
  its apex, and each of these supports three leaflets; as
  in Epimedium alpinum.
    204.  Triternate, or  triplicato-ternate, when  the
  common petiole supports on  its apex three secondary
  footstalks, each of which supports three ternary one
  and every one of these three leaflets; as in Aquilegia
  vulgaris, and Fumaria enneaphylla.
    205.  Multiplicato-pinnate,  there being more than
  three orders;  as in Ruta hortensis.
    Pinna are the leaflets of pinnate leaves.
    206. Pinulla, the leaflets  of the double and triple
  range nf pinnate leaves.
    LE/E'NA.  (From Xtatva, a lioness.)
    1. The lioness.
    2. The name of a plaster, so called  from  its great
  power.
    LEAKE,  John, was born in Cumberland, and, after
  qualifying himself as a surgeon  in London, travelled
  to Portugal and Italy. On his return he settled  in  the
  metropolis, and published a dissertation on the Lisbon
  Diet Drink.  He not  long after became  a  licentiate of
  the College of Physicians, and  began to lecture on
  Midwifery.  In 1765, he originated  the plan for  the
  Westminster Lying-in Hospital, and purchased a piece
 of ground for the  purpose.   His death  occurred in
 1792.   He published a volume of  " Practical Observa-
 tions  on Child-bed Fever;"  " Medical Instructions,
 concerning the Diseases of Women;" in two volumes,
 which passed through several editions; and  some
 other works.
   LE CLERC, Daniel, was born at Geneva, in 1652.
 His father being professor in the Greek language, in-
 structed him in the rudiments of knowledge, and gave
 him a taste for researches into antiquity. He after-
 ward studied at different universities, and took his me-
 dical degree at Valence, at the age of 20.  Returning
 to his native city, he  soon got into considerable prac-
 tice ; which  he at length relinquished  in  1704, on be-
 ing appointed  a member of the  council of state, and
 that  he might complete his various  literary under-
 takings, which had already greatly distinguished him
 His death occurred in  1728.  He had published, in con-
 junction with  Mangets, a "Bibliotheca Anatomica,"
 in two volumes, 1685.  But his most celebrated work
 is the " Histoire de Ia Medecine," from  the earliest
 times to that of Galen, which evinces immense erudi-
 tion.  He afterward added a plan for continuing it to
 the middle of the 17th century.   But Dr.  Freind has
 completed this part of the task on a much better me-
 thod.  Le Clerc also published an account of certain
 worms occurring in men and animals.
   LE  DRAN,  Henry Francis, was born at Paris, in
 1685, and educated under his father, who had acquired
 reputation  as an operator, particularly in removing
 cancers of the breast.   The young surgeon turned  his
 attention principally to lithotomy, which be performed
 in  the lateral  method, and made some valuable im-
 provements;  which he communicated to the public in
 1730, giving an accurate description of the parts: the
 work was favourably received, has been frequently
 reprinted, and translated into most modern languages.
 His surgical observations contain also much valuable
 practical  matter:  and  his  Treatise   on Gun-shot
 Wounds is remarkable for the bold and successful
 measures which he adopted. He published likewise a
 Treatise on Operations, another called  Surgical Con-
 sultations, and sent several papers of considerable
 merit to  the  academy of surgeons, which appear  in
 their memoirs.  He died in 1770.
  LE'DUM.   (A name  adopted   from  the Greeks.
 whose XrjSov  is generally believed to be a species of
 Cistus.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Lin
mean system.  Class Decandria;  Order, Monogynia 
LEE
LEG
  Ledum  palustre.  The  systematic name of the
Rosmarinus sylvestris, and  Cistus ledon of the shop*.
The plant  has a bitter subastringent taste, and was
formerly used in Switzerland in the place of hops.  Its
medicinal use is confined lo the Continent, where it is
occasionally given in tlie cure of  hooping-cough, sore
throat, dysentery, and examheniatoiis disi ases.
 [" LEE, Arthur, M. D. was a native of Virginia, and
brother to Richard Henry Lee the celebrated patriot of
the revolution.  Dr. Lee received his classical educa-
tion at Edinburgh, and afterward  studied medicine in
that University.   As soon as he was graduated he re-
turned to his native state, and settled at Williamsburgh,
where he practised medicine for several years; but af-
terward abandoned the profession, went  to England,
and commenced tlie study of the law in the Temple.
  He soon after entered into political life, and rendered
important services to his country during the Revolu-
tionary war.  To the abilities of the statesman, he is
Baid to have united the acquisitions of the scholar.  In
the year 1775, Dr. Lee was in London as the agent of
Virginia, and lie presented in August the second petition
to the king.  All his exertions were now directed to the
good of his country.  He was appointed minister to
France in 1776; and he was for many subsequent years
engaged in the affairs of the public until the close of
life, which, after  a shorl illness, took place December
14th, 1792, at Urbanna, in Middlesex county, Virginia.
  He was a man  of  uniform patriotism, of sound un-
derstanding, of great probity, of  plain maimers and
strong passions.  During his residence in England
for a number of years he was indefatigable in his exer-
tions to promote tbe  interests of his country. He was
a member of the American Philosophical Society.   He
published  the Monitor's Letters in vindication of the
colonial rights in 1769;  Extracts  from  a  letter to the
President of  Congress in answer  to  a  libel by Silas
Deane, 1780; and observations on certain commercial
transactions in France laid before Congress, 1780."—
Thach. Med. Biog.   A.1
  LEECH.   Hirudo.  A genus of insects of the order
Vermes.  The body  moves  either forward or back-
ward.  Tiiere are several species, principally distin-
guished by their colour; but thai  most  known lo me-
dical  men  is  the hirudo medicinalis,. or  medicinal
leech,  which grows  to  the  length of  two or three
inches.   The body  is  of a blackish-brown colour,
marked on the back with six yellow spots, and edged
with a yellow line ou each side;  but both tbe spots
and lines grow faint, and almost disappear at some
seasons.  The head is smaller than  the tail, which fixes
■tself very firmly  to any thing the creature pleases.  It
is viviparous, and produces but o.ie young one  at a
time, which is in the mouth of July. It is an inhabitant
of clear running waters, and  is well known for its use
in  bleeding.  The species most nearly approaching
this, and wbich it is necessary to distinguish,  is the
hirudo sanguisuga,  or  horse-leech.  This is  larger
than tlie former; its skin is smooth and glossy; the
body is depressed, the back is dusky; and the belly U
of a yellowish-green,  having  a  yellow lateral margin.
It inhabits stagnant waters.
  The leech's head is armed with  a sharp instrument
that makes  three wounds at once.  They are three
sharp tubercles, strong enough to cut through the skin
of a man, or even of  an ox, or  hor.-e.  The mouth is,
as it were, the body of the pump, and the tongue, or
fleshy  nipple,  the sucker.   By the working of  this
piece of mechanism, the blood is made to rise up to the
conduit which, conveys it to tbe  animal's stomach,
which  is a membranaceous skin, divided into twenty-
four small  cells.   The  blood which is  sucked  out is
Viere  preserved  for  several  months, almost without
coagulating-, and  proves a store of provision for the
animal.  The nutritious ports, absorbed  after digestion
by animals, need npt  in this to be disengaged from the
heterogeneous substances; nor indeed is there an anus
discoverable in the leech; mere transpiration seems to
be all that it petforuis, the matter fixing  on the suiface
of the body, and afterward coming off in small threads.
Of this, an experiment may be tried, by pulling a leech
into oil, where it keeps  alive for  several days; upon
being  taken out, and put into waler, there appears to
loosen from  its body a kind of slough, shaped like the
creature's body.   The  organ  of respiration though
unascertained, seems to be situated in the mouth ; for
it, like an insect,  it drew breath through vtnt holes, it
       It)
would not subsist in oil, as, by It, these would be
stopped up.
  The hirudo medicinalis is tlie only species used in
medicine; being applied to the skin in order to draw
off blood.  Wilh Ihis view they arc employed to bleed
young children, and fbr tlie purposes of topical bleeding,
in cases of inflammation, fullness or pain.  They may
be employed  in every case where topical bleedings are
thought necessary, or where  venesection cannot be
performed.  If the leech does not fasten, a drop of
sugared milk is put on the spot it is wished  to fix on;
or a little blood is drawn by menus of a slight puncture,
after wbich it immediately settles.  The leech, when
fixed, should be watched, lest it should find its way into
the anus, when used for the hemorrhoids, or penetrate
into the cesophagus,  if employed to draw the gums;
otherwise it might fix upon the stomach, or intestines.
In such  a cose, the  best and  quickest  remedy  is to
swallow some salt; which is the method practised to
make it loose its hold, when it sucks longer than  is
intended.  Vegetable or volatile alkali, pepper, or acids,
also make it leave the part on which it was applied.
Cows and horses have been known to receive leeches,
when drinking, into the throat; and the usual remedy
is to force down  some salt, which mokes  them fall oft".
If it  is intended that the leech  shall draw a larger
quantity of blood, the end of the tail is cut off; and it
then sucks continually, to make up the loss it sustains.
The discharge occasioned by the puncture of a leech
after  the  animal falls off, is usually of  more service
than the process itself.  When too abundant, it is easily
stopped with brandy, vinegar, or other styptics, or With
a compress of dry linen  rags, bound strongly on tbe
bleeding orifice.  They are said to be very restless be-
fore a change of  weather, if confined in glasses, and to
fix themselves above  the water on the approach  of a
fine day.
  Ab these little animals are depended on for the re-
moval of very dangerous diseases,  and as they often
seem capriciously determined to resist the endeavours
made  to cause them to adhere, the following directions
are added, by which  their assistance may, with snore
certainty, be obtained.  '
  The introducing a hand, to which any ill-flavoured
medicine adheres,  into the  water in which  they are
kept, will  be often  sufficient to deprive  them of life;
the application of a small quantity of any saline matter
to their skin, immediately occasions the  expulsion of
the contents of their stomach;  and what is most to our
purpose, tbe least flavour of any medicament that has
beeu applied remaining on the skin, or even the  accu-
mulation of the matter of perspiration,  will prevent
them from fastening.  The skin should, therefore, pre-
vious  to their application,  be very carefully cleansed
from any foulness, and moistened with a little  milk.
The method of applying them  is by retaining them to
the skin by a small wine-glass, or the bottom of a large
pill-box when ./ley will, in general,  in  a little  time,
fasten  themselves to  the skin.  On their removal, the
rejection of the  blood they have drawn may be ob-
tained by the application  of salt  externally : but it ts
to be remarked, that a few giains of salt  are sufficient
for this purpose ; and that covering them with it, as is
sometimes done, generally destioys them.
  LEEK.  See Allium porrum.
  Le'gna.  (From Xtyvov, a fringed edge.)  The ex
tremities of the pudenda muliebria.
  LEGU'MEN.   (.From  lego, to  gather:  so called
because they are usually gathered by the hand.) A
legume.  A  peculiar solitary fruit of the pea  kind
formed of two oblong valves, without any longitudina.
partition, and bearing tlie seeds along one of its mar-
gins only.
  From tbe figure, the legumen is called,
  1. Teres, round; as in Phaseolus radiatus.
  2. Lineare; as in Phaseolus vexillatus.
  3. Compressum ; as in Pisum sativum.
  4. Capitatum ; as in Phaseolus tnvngo.
  5. Aciniforme; as in Phaseolus lunatus.
  6.  Ovatum; as in Lotus hirsutus, and gracus.
  7. Inflatum, a cavity filled with air; as in Astraga-
lus vesicarius, and exscapus.
  8. Cuchlcatum, spiral; as in Medicago polymorpha,
and marina.
  9. Lunatum;  as in Medicago falcala.
  10.  Obcordatvm; as in Poly gala,
  11.  Cvntortum; as ui Jttditago sativa. 
LEM
LLO
   .   Quadrangulatum ; as in Dolychos tetragonolo-
hus.
  13. Canah'<;u«aciMn,theuppcrsuturedeepiyhollowed;
as in Lathyrus sativus.
  14. Isthmis inlerceptum; as in Coronilla.
  15. Edunatum ; as in Glycyrrhiza echinata.
  16. Rhombeum;  as in Cicer arietinum.
  From its insertion,
  1.  Pendulum; as in Phaseolus vulgaris.
  2.  Pedicellatum; as in Viseia sapium.
  From ils.Biibstanee,
  1.  Membranaceum ; as in Phaseolus vulgaris.
  2.  Carnosum; as in Cynometra cauliflora.
  3.  Coriaceum,  dry and fleshy; as in Ceratonia sili-
f no, and Lupinus.
  From the number of seeds,
  I.  Monospermum; as in Medicago lupulina.
  2.  Dispermum;  as in Glycine tomentosa.
  3.  Trispermum ; as in  Trifolium reflexum.
  4.  Tdraspermum ; ns in Trifolium repens.
  5.  Polyspermum ; as in Trifolium lupinaster.
  ["  Legumine is a particular vegetable principle, ob-
tained by M. H.  Braconnot, from pease.  When well
washed it resembled paste; exposed to heat it liquefied
without coagulating.  Iodine, mixed with it in water,
appeared to dissolve.  It was insoluble in boiling water,,
and produced a deep blue colour wilh starch."—Web.
Man. of Chem.   A.j
  LEGUMINOUS.  Appertaining to a legume.
  Lei'chen.  See  Lichen.
  Leiknte'ria.  See Lienteria.
  LEIPOPSY CHIA.  (From  Xttirta, to  leave, and
ipyXV, life.)  A swoon.  See Syncope.
  LieiPOr-Y'RiA.   (From Xttiria, toleave, and irvp, heat.)
An ardent fever, in which the internal parts are much
heated, while the external parts are cold.
  LEIPOTHY'MIA. (From Xttttia, to leave, and Svuos,
the mind.)  See  Lipothymia.
  Le'me.   (From  Xa, much, and  pvio, to wink.)  A
constant winking of the eyes.
  LEMERY, Nicholas, was born at Rouen in 1645,
and brought up to Ihe business of pharmacy.  He went
to Paris at the age of 21 to .improve himself, particu-
larly in chemistry;  and then travelled  for some years :
after which, in 1672, he began to give chemical lectures
at Paris, and became very popular.  Three years after
he published  his " Cours de Chymie," which passed
rapidly through numerous editions; and so great was
his reputation, that he acquired a  fortune  by the sale
of his preparations, some of which he kept secret.   In
1681,  he was interdicted from lecturing on account  of
his religious principles, and took shelter in this country;
but shortly after obtained the degree of doctor of phy-
sic at Caen, and got considerable practice in the French
metropolis; the  revocation of the edict of Nantes,
however, forbidding this employment  also, he was  re-
duced to such difficulties, that he at length adopted the
Catholic religion.  He  then  flourished  again, and in
1697   published his " Pharmacopee Universale,"  fol-
lowed the year  after by his " Dictionnaire Universel
des Drogues simples," which, though wilh many im-
perfections, proved of considerable utility.   On  the
re-establishment  of the Academy of Sciences, he was
made associate chemist, and read before that body his
papers on antimony, which were printed in 1707.  He
died  in 1715.
  LEMERY, Louts, son of the preceding, was born at
Paris in 1677, and  intended for the law, but adopted
such a partiality for his father's pursuits, that be was
allowed lo indulge  it, and graduated in his  native city
in 1696.  Two years after, he was admitted into the
Academy of Sciences; and in 1708 began to lecture on
chemistry, in the  royal garden:  he  was  appointed
physician to the HAtel Dieu in 1710; and twelve years
after  purchased  the office of King's physician, which
soon led him to the appointment of consulting physician
to the Queen of Spain.  In 1731 he was appointed
professor of chemistry in the royal garden;  and subse-
quently communicated several papers  to the Academy
of Sciences, which appeared in their Memoirs.  He
published also " Traite des Aliments," which was fre-
quently reprinted;" A Dissertation on the Nourishment
of Bones, refuting the Idea of its being effected by the
Marrow; and " Three Letters on the Generation  of
Worms."   He died in 1743.
  Lemithocho'rton.  See CoralBnacorsicana.
  Lemma.  (From Xtria, to decorticate,)
                                         Ii
   1. The bark of a tree.
   2. The skin.
   Le'mnius.  (From Lemnos, whence it is brought.)
 See Bole.
   LEMON.  See Citrus.
   Lemon scurvy-grass.  See Cochlearia pffidnalis
   LENIE'NTIA.  (From lenio, to  assuage.;  Medi-
 cines which abate irritation.
   LENITIVE.  (From lenis, gentle.) Medicines which
 gently palliate diseases.  A gentle purgative.
   Lenitive electuary.  A preparation composed chiefly
 of senna and some aromaticsy witb  the pulp of taina
 rinds.   See  Confectio senna.
   LENS.  (A lentore; from itsglutinous quality.)  1
 The lentil.   See Ervum lens.
   2. See Crystalline lens.
   LENTICULA.  (Dim. of lens, a lentil.)
   1. A smaller sort of lentil.
   2. A freckle, or small  pustule, resembling the seeds
 of lentil.
   LENTICULAR.  (Lenticularis ;  from lentieulaire,
 doubly convex.)   A surgical instrument employed for
 removing the jagged particles of bone from the edge of
 Ihe perforation made in the cranium with the trephine
   LENTICULA'RIA.  (From lenticula.)  A species
 of lentil.
   LENTI'GO.   (From lens, a lentil: so named from
 its likeness to lentil-seeds.)  A freckle cm the skin.
   LENTIL.  An annual vegetable of the pulse kind,
 much  used  for improving the flavour of soups.  See
 Ereum lens.
   LENTI'SCUS.  (From lentesco, to become clammy;
 so called from the gumminess of its juice.) •  The nias-
 tich-tree.
   LE'NTOR.  (From lentus,  clammy.)   A viscidity
 to siziness of any fluid.
   LEONI'NUS.  (From leo, the lion.) An  epithet of
 that sort of leprosy called leontiasis.
   LEONTI'ASIS.  (From Xtiav, a lion:  so called be-
 cause  it is said lions are subject to it.)  A species of
 leprosy resembling the elephantiasis.
   LEONTODON.  (From Xtiav, the lion, and oSovs, a
 tooth: so called from its supposed resemblance.)   The
 name  of a genus of plants in the  Linnean system.
 Class,  Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia aqualis.   The
 dandelion.
   Leontodon taraxacum.  Dens leonis.  The dan-
 delion or pissabed.   Leontodon—caule squamis infema
 refiexis, foliis  runcinatis, denticulatis,  lavibus, of
 Linnaeus. The young leavesof this plant in a blanched
 state have the taste of endive, and make  an excellent
 addition to those plants  eaten early in tbe spring as
 salads; and Murray informs us, that at Gofittingin, the
 roots are roasted  and substituted for coffee by the
 poorer inhabitants, who find that an  infusion prepared
 in this way, can hardly lie distinguished from that of
 the coffee-berry.   The expressed juice  of dandelion is
 bitter and somewhat acrid; but that of the root is bit-
 terer, and possesses more  medicinal power than any
 other part of the plant.  It has been long in repute as a
 detergent and aperient, and its diuretic effects may be
 inferred from the vulgar name it bears in most of the
 European languages,  quasi  lecti minga et urinaria
 kerba  dicitur;  and  there are various proofs of its
 efficacy in jaundice, dropsy, consumption, and some
 cutaneous disorders.  The leaves, roots, flowers, stalks,
 and juice  of dandelion,  have  all been separately
 employed for  medical  purposes, and  seem to differ
 rather in degree of strength than in any essential  pro-
 perty ; therefore the expressed juice, or a strong decoc-
 tion of the roots have most commonly been prescribed,
 from one ounce to four, two or three times a-day.  The
 plant should be always used fresh; even extracts pre-
 pared from it appear to lose much of their power by
 keeping.
   LEONTOPO'DIUM.  (From Xtiav, a lion, and vovs,
 a foot: so named from its supposed resemblance.)  The
 herb lion's foot, or Filago leontopodium.
   LEONU'RUS.  (From Xtiav, a lion, and ovpa, a tail:
 so named from its likeness.)  1. The name of a genua
 of plants in the Linnrean system.  Class, Didynamia;
 Order, Gymnospermia.  Lion's tail.
  2.  The name, In some pharmacopoeias, for the lion'i
 tail.  See Leonurus cardiaca.
   Leonurus cardiaca.   The  mother-wort.  Agri-
palma  gallis; Marrubium;  Cardiaca crispa; Leo
 %w    -foliis caulinis lanceolatis, tnicbis, of Linneus
                                         17 
LL,P
LEU
Tbe leaves of this plant have a disagreeable smell and
s bitter taste, and are said to be serviceable iu disorders
qf tbe stomachs of children, to promote the uterine dis-
charge, and to allay palpitation of the heart
  Leopard's bane. Sec Arnica montana,
  LEPIDIUM.   (From Aeirij, a scale: so named from
its supposed usefulness iu cleansing the skin from
scales and impurities.)   The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaiau  system.  Class Tetradynamia ; Order,
Siliculosa.
  Lepidium  ibkris.   Iberis; Cardamantica.  Scia-
tica cresses.  This plant possesses a warm, penetrating,
pungent taste,  like  unto other cresses, and  is recom-
mended as an antiscorbutic, antiseptic,  and stomachic.
  Lepidium  sativum.  Nasturtium hortense.  Dit-
tander. This  plant possesses  warm,  nervine,  and
stimulating qualities, and is given as an antiscorbutic
antiseptic,  and stomachic, especially by the lower
orders.
  Lepidosarco'ma.  (From Xtnts, a scale,  and oap\,
flesh.)  A scaly tumour.
  LEPIDOSES.  (From Xtns-Sos, squama, a scale.)
Tbe name of a genus  of diseases   Class, Eccritica;
Order, Acrotica; in  Good's Nosology.  Scale-skin.
It contains  four  species, Lepidusis  pityriasis, lepri-
asis, psoriasis,  icthyasis.
  LE'PISMA.  (From Aurijo), to decorticate.)  Decor-
tication. A peeling off of the skin.
  LEPORINUS.  (From lepus, a hare.)   Leporine or
hare-like.   Applied  to  some malformations, diseases,
and  parts,  from  their  resemblance  to labium lepori-
num, Sec
  LE'PRA.  (From Xarpot, scaber, vel asper ex squam-
matis decedenlibus; named from its appearance.) The
leprosy.  A disease in the  class  Cachexia, and order
Impetigines, of Cullen.  Dr. Willan describes this dis-
ease as characterized  by  scaly  patches, of different
sizes, but having  always nearly  n circular  form.  In
this country, three varieties of the  disease  ure observed,
which lie has described under the names of Lepra vul-
garis, Lepra alphas, Lepra nigricans.
  X.  The'Lepra vulgaris, exhibits first small distinct
elevations of the cuticle, which ure  reddish and shin-
ing,  but never  contain  any fluid ; these  patches con-
tinue to enlarge gradually, till they nearly  equal  the
dimensions of a crown-piece.  They have always an
orbicular, or oval form; are covered with dry scales,
and surrounded by a red border.  The scales accumu-
late on them, so  as to form a thick prominent crust,
which is quickly reproduced,  whether  it full off spon-
taneously, or may have been forcibly detached.  This
species of lepra sometimes appears first at the elbow, or
en tne forearm; but more generally about the knee.  In
the latter cose, the primary patch forms immediately
below tbe patella; within a few weeks, several other
scaly circles appear along the  fore part of the leg and
thigh, increasing by degrees till they come nearly into
contact.  The  disease is then often stationary for a
considerable length of time.   If il advance farther, the
progress is towards the hip and  loins;  afterward to
the  sides,  bask,  and shoulders,  and about tbe same
time to the arms and hands.   In the greater number of
cases, tlie hairy scalp is the part last affected ; although
the circles formed unit t emaiu  for some time distinct, yet
tliey finally unite, and cover the whole surface ou which
tbe hair grows  with a white scaly incrustation.  This
appearance is attended, more especially in hot weather,
with a troublesome  itching,  and with a watery  dis-
charge for several hours, when any portion of the crust
is detached, which  takes place  from very  slight  im-
 pressions.  The pubes in adults is sometimes affected
in the same manner as the head: and if  the subject be
a female, there is usually an internal pruritus  pudendi.
 In some cases of the disorder,  the nails, both of the
 fingers and  toes, are thickened, and  deeply  indented
 longitudinally.  When the lepra extends universally, it
 becomes highly disgusting in its appearance, and incon-
 venient from the stiffness and torpor occasioned by it
 in the limbs.  The disease, however, even in this ad-
 vanced stage, is  seldom disposed to terminate sponta-
 neously.  It continues nearly in the same state for seve-
 ral  years, or sometimes during  the whole  life of the
 person affected, not being apparently connected with
 anv disorder ofthe constitution.         .,_,,.
   2. Lepra alphas.  The scaly patches  in  the alphos
 are smaller than those of the lepra  vulgaris,  and  also
 differ from tlicin in having their central parts depressed
        18
or indented.  This disorder usually begins about tho
elbow, with distinct,eminent asperities, of a dull red
colour, and not much longer than papilla;.  These, in a
short lime, dilate lo nearly tlie size  of a silver penny.
Two or three days afterward, the central past ot  them
suffers a depression, within which small white  pow-
dery scales may be observed. The surrounding border,
however, still  continues to be raised, but retaius the
same size, and the  same red colour as at fust.  The
whole of the forearm, and sometimes the back of the
hand, is spotted wilh  similar  patches: they seldom
become confluent, excepting round  the elbow, which,
in that case, is covered with a uniform crust.  This af
lection appears in the same manner upon  the joint of
tlie knee, but without spreading far  along the thigh or
leg.  Dr. Willan has seldom seen  it on the trunk of
the body, and never on the face.  It is a disease of
long duration, and  not less difficult to cure than the
foregoing species of lepra: even when the scaly patches
have been removed by persevering in the use of suita-
ble applications, the cuticle still remains red, tender, and
brittle, very slowly recovering its usual texture.  The
alphos, as above described, frequently occurs in this
country.
  3. The Lepra nigricans differs little from the lepra
vulgaris, as to its form and distribution. Themosi strik-
ing difference is in the colour of the  patches, which are
dark and livid.  They appear first on the legs and fore-
arms, extending  afterward to the  thighs, loins,  neck,
and hands.  Their central part is not depressed, as in
the alphos.  They are somewliatsmaller in size Ihan the
patches ofthe lepra vulgaris, and not only is the bordei
livid or purplish, but the livid colour of the base like-
wise appears through the scaly incrustation, which is
seldom very thick.  It  is further to be observed, that
the scales are  more easily detached than in the othei
forms of lepra, and  that the surface remains longer ex-
coriated, discharging lymph, often  with  an intermix-
ture  of blood,  till a new  incrustation forms,  which is
usually hard, brittle, and irregular. The lepra  nigri-
cans, affects  persons whose occupation  is attended
with much fatigue, and  exposes them to cold or damp,
and to a precarious  or  improper mode of diet, as sol-
diers, brewers, labourers, butchers, stage-conchmen,
scullermnn, aie; some women are also liable to it, who
are habituated to poor living and constant hard labour.
  Lepra gracorum.   The lepra vulgaris, alphos, and
nigricans have all been  so denominated.  See Lepra.
  LEPRIASIS.  (From Xtirpos, scaber.)  The specific
name of a species of leprosis in Good's Nosology, which
embraces tlie several kinds of leprosy.
  LEPROSY.  See Lepra.
  Leptu'ntica.  (From  Xtirros, thin.)   Attenuating
medicines.
  Lepty'smus.  (From  Xtirros, slender.)  Attenua-
tion, or the making a substance less solid.
  LEPUS.  The name of a genus of animals of the
order Glires, in the class Mammalia.  The hare.
  Lepus cuniculus.   The systematic  name of  the
rabbit, the flesh of which, when young and  tender, is
easy of digestion.
  Lepus ttmidus.   The systematic name of the com-
mon hare ; the flesh of which is considered as a deli-
cacy, and easy of digestion.
  Le'ros.   (From Xnotta, to trifle.)   A slight de-
lirium.
  LETHARGY.  (Lethargus;  from XnBn, forgetful-
ness: so called because with it the  person is forgetful.)
A heavy and  constant sleep, with scarcely any inter-
vals of waking; when awakened, the person answers,
but ignorant or forgetful of what ne said, immediately
sinks into the same state of sleep.  It is considered as
an imperfect apoplexy, and is mostly symptomatic.
   Lethe'a.  The name of the poppy
   LETTUCE.  See Lactuca.
   LEUCACA'NTHA.   (From Xewtof,  white, and
axavda, a thorn: so named from  ils white blossom.)
The cotton-thistle.
   LEUCA'NTHEMUM.  (From  Xtvtcos, white, and
avBtuos, a flower: so called from its white floret.)  See
 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
   LEUCA3MUS.  (AtvKoauot, whiteness: so named
from its appearance.)  The specific name, Epichrosis
leucasmus, veal skin, in Good's Nosology, for the Viti-
ligo of Willan.
   LEUCE.   (AtvKos,  white.)  A  species of leprosy
 See Alphus. 
LEU
LEV
  LEUCELE'CTEUM.   (From XevKos, white, and
ifXtKTpov, amber.l   White amber.
  LEUCINE  (From Xtvxos, white; from its appear-
ance.)   The name given by Braconnot to a white
pulverulent matter obtained by digesting equal parts
of beef  fibre and sulphuric acid together, and alter
separating the fat, diluting the acid mixture, and satu-
rating with chalk, filtering and evaporating.  A sub-
stance tasting like ozmuzome Is thus procured, which
is to  be  boiled in different portions of alkohol.  The
alkohoiic solutions, on cooling, deposite the white pul-
verulent matter, or leucine.
  Leucola'chanum.  (From Xcvkos, white, and Xaxa-
vov, an herb: so named from its colour.) The Valeriana
sylvestris.
  LEUCO'MA.  (From Xcvkos, white.)  Leucomaand
albugo are often used synonymously, to denote a white
opacity of the cornea of tlie eye.  Both of them, ac-
cording  to Scarpa, are essentially different from  the
nebula, for they are not the consequence of chronic
ophthalmy, attended with varicose veins, and an effu-
sion of a milky serum into the texture of the delicate
continuation of the conjunctiva over the cornea, but
are the  result of violent acute ophthalmy.  In this
state, a dense coagulating lymph is extravasated from
the arteries; sometimes  superficially, at other times
deeply, into the substance of the cornea.  On other
occasions, the disease-consists of a firm callous cicatrix
on this membrane, the effect of an  ulcer, or wound,
with  loss of substance.   The  term albugo, strictly
belongs to the first form of the disease; leucoma, to the
last, more particularly when the opacity occupies the
whole, or the chief part, of the cornea.
  LEUCONYMPH-rE'A. (From Xcvkos. white, and
vvpipaia, the water-lily.)  See Nymphaa alba.
  LEUCOPHA'GIUM.   (From  XtvKos,  white,  and
qmyta, to eat.)  A medicated white food.
  LEUCOPHLEGMA'SIA. (From Xcvkos, white, and
tbXtypa, phlegm.1  Leuco-phlegmatic. A tendency in
the system to a dropsical state known by a pale colour
of the skin, a flabby condition of the solids, and a re-
dundancy of serum in the blood.
  LEUCO PIPER. (From Xivkos, white, and irtirtpt,
pepper.)   White pepper.  See Piper nigrum.
  LEUCORRHCfi'A.  (From XevKos, white, and pcoi,
to flow.)  Fluor albus.   The whites. A secretion of
whitish or milky mucus from the vagina of women,
arising from debility and not from the venereal virus.
This disease is marked by the discharge of a thin white
or yellow matter from the uterus and vagina, attended
likewise with some degree of foetor, smarting in making
water, pains in the back and loins, anorexia and atro-
phy.  In some cases, the discharge  is of so acrid  a
nature,  as to produce effects on  those who are con-
nected with the woman, somewhat similar to venereal
matter, giving rise to excoriations about the glans penis
and  prasputium, and occasioning  a weeping from the
urethra.
  To distinguish leucorrhcea from gonorrhoea, it will
be very necessary to attend to the symptoms.  Iu the
latter the running is constant, but  in a small quantity;
there is much ardor  urina;, itching of the  pudenda,
swelling of the labia, increased inclination to venery,
and very frequently an enlargement ofthe glands in the
groin; whereas, in the former the discharge is irregular,
and in considerable quantities, and is neither preceded
by, nor accompanied  with, any inflammatory affection
of the pudenda.
   Immoderate coition, injury done to the parts by diffi-
cult and tedious labours, frequent miscarriages, immo-
derate flowings of the  menses, profuse evacuations,
poor diet, an abuse of tea, and  other causes, giving
rise to general debility, or to a laxity of the parts more
immediately concerned, are those which  usually pro-
duce the whites, vulgarly so called, from the discharge
being commonly of a milky white colour.
   Fluor  albus, in some cases, indicates tbat there  is a
disposition to disease  in the uterus, or parts connected
with it, especially where the quantity of the discharge
>is very copious, and its quality highly acrimonious.  By
some the disease has been considered as never arising
from debility of the  system, but as being always a
primary affection of the uterus.  Delicate wonren,
with lax fibres, who remove from a cold climate to a
warm one, are very apt  to be attacked with it, without
the  parts having previously sustained  any kind  of
Injury
                                        11 a
  The disease shows itself by an irregular discharge
 from the uterus and vagina of a fluid which, in differ-
 ent women, varies much in colour, being either of a
 white, green, yellow, or brown hue.  In the beginning,
 it is, however, most usually white and pellucid, and in
 the progress of the complaint  acquires the various dis-
 colorations, and different degrees of acrimony, from
 whence proceeds a slight degree of smarting in making
 water.  Besides the discharge, the patient is frequently
 afflicted with severe and constant pains in the back and
 loins, loss of strength, failure  of appetite, dejection of
 spirits, paleness of the countenance, chilliness, and
 languor.   Where the disease has been of long con-
 tinuance, and very severe, a slowTever, attended with
 difficult respiration, palpitations, faintings, and swell-
 ings of the lower extremities,  often ensues.
  A perfect removal of the disorder will at all times be
 a difficult matter to procure; but it will be much more
 so in cases of long standing, and where the discharge
 is accompanied with a  high  degree of acrimony.  In
 these cases, many disorders, such as prolapsus  uteri,
 ulcerations of the organ, atrophy, and dropsy, are apt
 to take place, which in the end prove fatal.
  Where the disease terminates  in death, the internal
 surface of the uterus appears, on dissection, to be pale,
 flabby, and relaxed; and where organic affections have
 arisen, much the same appearances are to be met with
 as have  been noticed under the head of menorrhagia.
  LEUCO'RRHOIS.  (From  Xtvxos, white, and ptta,
 to flow.)  A discharge of mucus from  the urethra 01
 vagina.
  LEVA'TOR. (From levo,  to lift up.)  A muscle,
 the office of which is to lift up the part to which it is
 attached.
  Levator anquli  oris.   Abducens  labiorum, of
 Spigelius; Elevator labiorum communis, of  Douglas-
 Caninus, of Winslow,  and Sus maxillo labial, of Du
 mas.  A muscle situated above the mouth, which draws
 the corner of the mouth upwards, and makes that part
 of the cheek  opposite to the chin  prominent,  as in
 smiling.   It arises thin and fleshy from  the hollow of
 the superior maxillary bone, between the root of the
 socket of the first grinder and  the foramen infra orbita-
 ritim, and is inserted into the  angle of the mouth and
 under lip, where it joins with its antagonist.
  Levator ani.  Levator magnus, seu internus, of
 Douglas; Pubo coccigi annulaire, of Dumas.  A mus-
 cle of the rectum.  It arises from the os pubis, within
 the pelvis, as far up as the upper edge of the foramen
 thyroideuin, and joining of the os pubis with the os
 ischium, from the thin tendinous membrane that covers
 the obturator internus and coccyga-us muscles, and from
 the spinous process of the ischium.  From these origins
 all round the inside of  the pelvis, its fibres run down
 like rays from the circumference to a centre,  to be
 inserted into  the sphincter ani, acceleratores urintc.
 and anterior part of the two  last bones of the os coc-
 cygis, surrounding the extremity of the rectum, neck
 of the bladder, prostrate gland, and part of the vesi-
 cula; seminales.  Its fibres, joining  with those  of its
 fellow, form a funnel-shaped hole, that draws the rec-
 tum upwards after the evacuation  of the fa;ces, and
 assists in shutting it. The levatores ani also sustain
 the  contents of the  pelvis, and  assist in ejecting ihe
 semen, urine, and contents ofthe rectum, and perhaps,
 by pressing upon the veins, contribute  greatly to the
 erection of the penis.
   Levator labii inferioris. A muscle of the mouth
 situated below the lips.  Levator menti, of Albinus.
 Incisivus inferior, of Winslow.   Elevator labii infe-
 rioris proprius, of Douglas.  It arises from the lower
 jaw, at the roots of the alveoli of two incisor teeth and
 the cuspidatus, and is inserted into tlie under lip and
 skin of the chin.
   Levator labii superioris al*q.ue nasi.  Elevator
 labii superioris proprius, of  Douglas;  Incisivus late-
 ralis et pyramidalis, of Winslow.  A  muscle of the
 mouth and lips, that raises the upper Up towards the
 orbit, and a little outwards; it serves also to draw the
 skin of the nose upwards and outwards, by which the
 nostril is dilated.  It arises by two distinct origins; the
 first, broad and fleshy,  from  the external part of the
 orbitar process of the superior maxillary bone, imme
 diately above the foramen infra orbitarium; the second,
 from the nasal process of the superior maxillary bone,
 where it  joins the os frontis. The first portion is in
. serted into the upper lip and orbicularis muscle, the 
LIB
LIC
second into tbe upper lip and outer part of the  ala
nasi.
  Levator labii superioris PRorRius.  Musculus
incisivus.  A muscle of the upper lip.  It arises under
the edge of tlie orbit, and is inserted into the middle of
the lip.
  Levator oculi.  See Rectus superior oculi.
  Levator palati.  A muscle situated between  the
lower jaw  and the os hyoides  laterally.   Levator
palati mollis, of Albinus;  Petrosalpingo-slaphilinus,
vd salpingo-staphilinus internus, of Winslow; Sal-
pingo-stapkilinus, of Valsalva; Pterigo-staphilinus ex-
ternus vulgo, of Douglas; Sphtno-slnphilinus, of Cow-
per. It arises tendinous and fleshy from the extremity
of tlie petrous  portion of the temporal bone, where it
is perforated by the Eustachian tube, and also from  the
membraneous part of the same tube, and is inserted into
the whole length of the velum pendulum palati, as far
as  the root of the uvula, and unites with its fellow.
Its use is to draw the velum pendulum palati  upwards
and backwards, so as to shut the passage from  the
fauces into the mouth and nose.
  Levator palati mollis.  See Levator palati.
  Levator paLpkbra: superioris.   Aperiens pal-
pebrarum rectus; Apertor oculi.   A proper muscle of
the upper eyelid, that opens the eyes, by drawing  the
eyelid upwards.  It arises from the tipper part of  the
foramen opticum of  the sphenoid  bone,  above  the
rectus superior oculi, near the trochlearis, and is  in-
serted by a broad thin tendon into the cartilage that
supports ihe upper eyelid.
  Levator parvos.  See Transverus perinei.
  Levator scapul.k.  A muscle situated on the pos-
terior part of the neck, that pulls the scapula  upwards
and a  litis; forwards.  This name, which was first
given to it by Riolanus, has been adopted by  Albinus.
Douglas calls it elevator seu musculus patientia; and
Winslow, annularis, vulgo levator proprius.  It is a
long muscle, nearly'two inches in breadth, and is situ-
ated obliquely under the anterior edge of ihe trapezius.
It arises tendinous and fleshy from the transverse pro-
cesses of the four and sometimes five superior vertebra;
colli, by so many distinct  slips, wbich soon  unite to
form a  muscle' that runs  obliquely downwards and
outwards, and is inserted  by a flat tendon  into the
upper angle of the scapula.  Its use is to raise the
scapula upwards and a little forwards.
  LEVIGATIO.V  ILavigatio; from lavigo, to make
smooth.)  The reduction of-a hard substance, bytri-
ture, to an impalpable powder.
  LEVI'STICUM.  (From levo, to assuage: so called
from the relief it gives in  painful flatulencies.)  See
Ligusticum levisticum.
  LEVRET, Andrew, a French  Rurgeon and accou-
cheur, was admitted into the Royal Academy of Sur-
gery, at Paris, in 1742.  He obtained  considerable  re-
putation by the improvements which he made in some
of the instruments used in difficult cases, and by the
great number of pupils whom he instructed.  He was
employed  and honoured with official appointments  by
all the female branches of the royal family.   He pub-
lished several  works, which went  through  various
editions and translations, mostly on obstetrical sub-
jects; but there  is one on the Radical Cure of Polypi
in different parts of the body.
  LEXIPHA'RMACA.   (From  Xiryia, to  terminate,
and tpappaxov,  poison.)   Medicines which resist  or
destroy the power of poison.
  LEXIPY'RETA.  (From Xnyia, tomake cease, and
rt icroj, a fever.)  Febrifuge medicines.
  Liba'dium.  (From XiSagio, to make moist: so called
because it grows in watery places.)   The less cen-
taury.  See Chironia centaurium.
  LIBANO'TIS.   (From XtSavos, frankincense:  so
called from its resemblance in smell to frankincense.)
Rosemary.
  H'BANUS.  (From Libanon, a mountain in Syria,
where it grows.)  1. The Pinus cedrus,  or cedar  of
Lebanon.
  2. The frankincense tree, or Finns abies.
  LIBER.  Bark.  Immediately under the cuticle  of
plants and trees is a succulent cellular substance, for
the most part of a green colour, at least of the leaves
and branches, called by Du Haniel enveloppe cellulaire,
and by Mirbel tissue herbaci.  Under this is the bark,
consisting of but one layer in plants or branches only
ass year old.  In tbe older branches and  trunks  of
     SO
 trees, it consists of as  many layers as they are years
 old, the innermost being called the liber; and it Is this
 layer only that tlie essential vital functions are carried
 on for  the lime  being, after which it Is pushed  out-
 wards with the cellular integument, and becomes, like
 Unit, a lifeless crust.—Smith.
   Li'bos.  (From XtiSta, to  distil.)  A rheum or de-
 fluxion from the eyes, or nose.
   LIBU'RNUM.  (From Liburnia, the country where
 it flourished.)  The mealy-tree.  See Viburnum lan-
 tana.
   LICETO, Fortunio, was son of a Genoese physi-
 cian, and born in 1577.  After prosecuting with dili
 gence the requisite studies, he settled at Pisa at the age
 of twenty-two, and soon obtained ihe professorship of
 philosophy there; and in  1009 he received a similar
 appointment atPadua.  Thence, after twenty-seven
 years, he removed to Bologna, being disappointed of
 the medical chair; but on a vacancy occurring in 1645,
 he was induced,  by the pressing invitations made to
 him, to accept llie office, in which lie continued till his
 death in 1657.  He was a very  copious writer, having
 published above fifty treatises on different subjects, and
 displayed much erudition; but no great acuteness or
 originality.  His  treatise,  "De Monstrorum  Causis,
 Natura, et Differentiis," is best known, and shows him
 to have been  very credulous;  which appears farther
 from  his belief, that the  ancients had a  method of
 making lamps, which should burn for ever without a
 fresh supply of fuel, and that such had been found in
 sepulchres.
   LI'CHANUS.  (From Xaxia, to lick: so called be-
 cause it is commonly used in  licking up any thing.)
 The forefinger.
   LICHEN.  (Atixnv, or Xtxiv, a tetter, or  ring-
 worm.)  Tetter, or ringworm.
   1. The  name of a disease, defined,  by Dr. Willan,
 an extensive eruption of papula; affecting adults, con-
 nected with internal disorder,  usually terminating in
 scurf, recurrent, not contagious.   The varieties of
 lichen he considers under the denominations of Lichen
 simplex, Lichen agrius, Lichen pilaris, Lichen lividus,
 and Lichen tropicus.
  The Lichen simplex usually commences with head-
 ache,  flushing of the face, loss of appetite, general
 languor, and increased quickness ofthe pulse.  Distinct
 red papula; arise first about the  cheeks and chin, or on
 the arms; and, in the course of three or four days, the
 same appearance takes place on the neck, body,  and
 lower extremities, accompanied with  an unpleasant
 sensation of tingling, which is  somewhat aggravated
 during the night.  In about a week, the colour of the
 eruption fades, and  the cuticle  begins to separate; the
 whole surface is at length covered with scurvy exfolia-
 tions, which are particularly large, and continue longest
 in the flexures of the joints.  Tbe duration of the com-
 plaint is seldom in any two cases alike; ten, fourteen,
 seventeen, or sometimes twenty days intervene between
 the eruption and the renovation of the cuticle.  The
 febrile state, or rather the state  of irritation at the be
 ginning of this disorder, is seldom considerable enough
 to confine the patient to the house.  After remaining
 five or six days, it is generally relieved on the appear-
 ance of the  eruption.  This, as well  as some other
species of the  lichen, occurs about the beginning of
summer, or in  autumn, more especially affecting per-
sons of a weak and irritable habit; hence women are
more liable to it than men.  Lichen simplex Is also a
frequent sequel of acute diseases, particularly fever
and catarrhal inflammation, of which it seems to pro-
duce a crisis.   In these cases  the eruption has been
termed, by medical writers, scabies  critica.  Many
instances of it !are collected under that title by Sau-
vages, Nosol. Method.   Class  x.  Order 5.  lmpeti-
gines.
  The Lichen agrius is preceded  by nausea, pain in
the stomach, headache, loss of strength,  and deep-
seated  pains in the limbs, with fits of coldness and
Bhivering; which symptoms continue several days, and
are sometimes relieved by the papulous eruption.  The
papula; are distributed in clusters, or often in large
patches, chiefly on  the  arms,  the upper part of the
breast, the neck, face, back and sides ofthe abdomen,
tbey are of a vivid red colour, and have a redness, or
some degree of inflammation, diffused round them to
 a considerable extent, and attended witb itching, beat,
and a painful tingling.  Dr. Willan has observed, In 
LIC
LIC
 one or two cases where It was produced from  impru-
 dent exposure to cold, that an acute disease ensued,
 with great quickness of the pulse, heat, thirst, pains
 of the bowels, frequent vomiting, headache, and deli-
 rium.  After these symptoms had continued ten days,
 or somewhat longer, the patient recovered, though the
 eruption did not return.  The diffuse redness connect-
 ing the papula;, and the tendency to become pustular,
 distinguish the lichen agrius from  the lichen simplex,
 and the other varieties of this complaint, in which the
 inflammation does  not extend beyond tlie basis of the
 papula;, and terminates in scurf, or scales.
   Lichen pilaris.   This is merely a modification  of
 the first species of lichen, and, like it, often alternates
 with complaints of  the head, or stomach,  in irritable
 habits.   The peculiarity of the eruption is, that the
 small tubercles or asperities appear only at the roots
 of the hairs of the skin, being probably occasioned by
 an enlargement of their bulbs, or an unusual  fulness
 of the blood-vessels distributed to them.  This affec-
 tion is distinguishable from the cutis anserina, by its
 permanency, by its red papula;, and by the troublesome
itching or  tingling which  attends iu  If a part thus
affected be violently rubbed, some of the  papula; en-
large to the size of wheals, but the  tuniour soon sub-
Bides again.   The  eruption continues  more  or less
vivid for about ten days, and terminates, as usual, in
small exfoliations of the  cuticle,  one or which sur-
 rounds the base of each hair.  This complaint,  as
 likewise the lichen agrius, frequently occurs in persons
 accustomed to drink largely of spirituous liquors un-
 diluted.
   Lichen lividus.   The papula;  characterizing this
 eruption  are of a dark red, or livid hue, and somewhat
 more permanent than in the foregoing species of lichen.
 They appear chiefly on the  arms and legs, but some-
 times extend to other parts of the body.  They are
 finally succeeded, though at very uncertain periods, by
slight exfoliations of the cuticle, after which a fresh
 eruption  is not preceded or attended by  any febrile
symptoms.   It principally affects persons of a weak
 constitution, who live on a poor diet, and are engaged
 in laborious occupations.  Young persons, and often
 children  living in confined situations, or  using little
 exercise,  are also subject to the lichen lividus;  and in
 them, the papula; are generally intermixed with pete-
 chia!, or larger purple spots, resembling vibices.  This
 circumstance points out ihe affinity of the lichen lividus
 with the purpura, or land scurvy, and the connexion
 is further proved by the exciting causes, which are the
 same in both complaints.   The same method of treat-
 ment is  likewise successful in both  cases.  They
 are  presently cured by  nourishing food, moderate
 exercise in the open air, along with the use of Peru-
 vian bark and vitriolic acid, or the  tincture of muri-
 ated steel.
   Lichen  tropicus.   By  this term is expressed  the
 prickly heat, a papulous eruption, almost universally
 affecting Europeans settled in tropical climates.  The
 prickly heat appears without any preceding disorder
 of the constitution.  It consists of numerous papula;,
 about the size of a small pin's head, and elevated  so
 as to produce  a considerable roughness  on the skin.
 The papula; are of  a vivid red  colour, and often ex-
 hibit an  irregular form, two or three of them being
 in many places united together; but no redness or in-
 flammation extends  to the skin in the interstices of the
 pupulre.
  2.  The name of a genus  of plants (applied  by the
 Romans  to a plant which was supposed  by them to
cure  the lichen, or tetter,)  in the  Linnsan system.
Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Alga.   There are several
Bpecies, some of which are used in medicine.
  Lichen aphthosus.  Muscus camatilis.  This plant
 is said to have a decided good effect in some com-
 plaints of the intestines, but is not used in the practice
of this country.
  Lichen caninus.  The systematic name ofthe ash-
coloured ground liverwort.  Lichen cinereus terrestris;
 Muscus  caninus.   This cryptogamous plant  has a
weak, faint smell, and a sharpish taste.  It was for a
long tune highly extolled as a medicine of singular vir-
 tue!  in preventing and curing that  dreadful disorder
 which is produced by the bite of rabid animals, but it is
now deservedly forgotten.
  Lichen cinereus terrestris. See Lichen caninus.
  Lichen cocoifkrus.  See Lichenpywidatus.
   Lichen islandicus  Tlie medicinal qualities of this
 plant have lately been so  well established at Vienna,
 that it is now admitted into the materia medica of the
 London pharmacopoeia.  It is extremely mucilaginous,
 and to the taste  bitter, and somewhat astringent.  Its
 bitterness, as well as tlie purgative quality which it
 manifests in its recent state, are in a great measure dis-
 sipated on drying, or  may be  extracted by  a slight
 infusion in water; so that the  inhabitants of Iceland
 convert it into a tolerably grateful  and  nutritive food.
 An ounce of this lichen, boiled a quarter of an hour in
 a pint of water,  yielded seven ounces of a mucilage as
 thick as that procured by the solution of one part of
 gum-arabic in three of water.
   The  medical  virtues of this  lichen were probably
 first learned from the Icelanders, who employ it in its
 fresh state as a laxative; but when deprived of this
 quality, and  properly prepared, we are  told that it is
 an efficacious remedy in consumptions, coughs, dysen-
 teries, and diarrhceas.  Scopoli seems to have been the
 first who, of late  years,  called the attention of phy-
 sicians  to this remedy in consumptive disorders: and
 further instances  of its success are  related by Herz,
 Cramer,  Tromsdorff",  Ebeling, Paulisky, Stoll,  and
 others,  who bear  testimony lo its efficacy in most of
 the other complaints above mentioned.  Dr. Herz says,
 that since he first used the lichen in dysentery, he found
 it so successful, that he never had occasion to employ
 any other remedy; it must be observed, however, that
 cathartics  and emetics were always repeatedly  ad-
 ministered before he had  recourse to the  lichen, to
 which he also occasionally added opium. Dr. Crichton
 informs us, that during  seven  months' residence  at
 Vienna, he had  frequent opportunities of seeing  the
 lichen islandicus tried in phthisis pulmonalis at  the
 general hospitals, and confesses, "that it by no means
 answered the expectation he had formed of it."   He
 adds, however, " from what I have seen, I am fully
 convinced in  my own mind, that there are only two
 species  of this disease where this sort of lichen  pro-
 mises a cure.  The two  species I hint at are the
 phthisis hsmoptoica, and  the  phthisis pituitosa, or
 mucosa.  In  several cases of these, I have seen  the
 patients so far get the better of their complaints as to
 be dismissed  the hospital cured, but whether  they re-
 mained long so or not, I cannot take upon me to say."
 That this lichen strengthens the digestive powers, and
 proves extremely nutritious, there can be no doubt; but
 the great medicinal efficacy attributed to it at Vienna,
 will not readily be credited at London.  It is commonly
 given in the form of a decoction: an ounce and a half
 ofthe lichen being boiled in a quart of milk.  Of this,
 a teacupful  is directed to be drank frequently in the
 course ofthe day.   If milk disagree with the stomach,
 a simple decoction ofthe lichen  in water is to be used.
 Care ought to be taken that it be boiled over a slow
 fire, and not longer than a quarter of an hour.
   Lichen  plicatis.  The systematic name  of the
 muscus arboreus.  This plant, we are informed by the
 great  botanist Linnieus, is applied by the Laplanders
 to parts which are excoriated by a long journey. It is
 slightly  astringent, and is applied with that intention to
 bleeding vessels.
   Lichen pulmonarius.  The systematic name ofthe
 officinal muscus pulmonarius quercinus.  Pulmonaria
 arborea.  This subastringent and rather acid plant
 was once in high estimation in the cure of diseases of
 the lungs,  especially coughs, asthmas,  and catarrhs.
 Its virtues are similar, and in no way inferior, to those
 of the lichen islandicus.
  Lichen pyxidatus. The systematic name of tha
 cup-moss.  Muscus  pyxidatus; Musculus pyxoides
 terrestris; Lichen pyxidatus major. These very com
 mon little plants, Lichen coccifcrus, and pyxidatus, ot
 Linnaeus, for both are used indifferently, are employed
 by the common  people in  this country in the cure of
 hooping-cough, in the form of decoction.
  Lichen roccella.  The systematic name  of tha
 roccella of the shops. Roccella.  It has been employed
 medicinally with success in allaying the cough attend
 ant on phthisis, and in hysterical coughs.  The princi
 pal use  is as a blue dye.  It is imported to us as it'
gathered:  those who prepare it for the use of the dyer,
grind it between  stones, so as thoroughly to bruise, burt
not to reduce it into powder, and then moisten it occa-
sionally  with a strong spirit of urine, or urine itself
mixed with quicklime: in  a few days it acquires a 
LIF
LIQ
 purplish-red, and at length a blue colour; in the first
 state it is called archil, in the latter lacmus or litmus.
   Litmus is used in chemistry as a test, either staining
 paper wilh it, or by infusing it in water, when it is very
 commonly, but with great impropriety, called tincture
 of turnsole.  The persons by whom this  article was
 prepared formerly, gave  it the name of turnsole, pre-
 tending that it was extracted from the turnsole heliotro-
 pium tricoccum,  in  order to keep its true  source a
 secret.  The tincture should  not be too strong, other-
 wise it will have a violet tingej which, however, may
 be removed by  dilution.  The light of the sun turns it
 red even in close vessels.  It  may be made with spirit
 instead of water.   This tincture, or paper stained with
 it, is presently turned red by acids; and if it be first
 reddened by a small quantity of vinegar, or some weak
 acid, its blue colour will be restored by an alkali.
   Lichen  saxatilis.  The systematic name  of the
 muscus cranii  humani.   Usnea.   This moss,  when
 growing on the human skull, was formerly in high es-
 timation, but is now deservedly forgotten.
   LI'EN.  (From Xttos, soft, or smooth.)  The spleen.
 See Spleen.
   Lien sinarum.  The Faba  segyptia.  See Nymphaa
 nelumbo.
   LIENTE'RIA.  (From Xttos, smooth, and tvrtpov,
 the intestine.)   Lientery.  See Diarrhaa.
   LIEUTAUD, Joseph, was born at Aix, in Provence,
 in 1703.  A taste for botany induced him to travel into
 the countries which Tournefort had visited: and lie
 brought back many  plants unnoticed by that distin-
 guished botanist: this gained  him great applause, and
 he obtained the reversion of the chairs of Botany and
 Anatomy, which  his maternal uncle had  long  filled.
 He was  also appointed  physician  to the hospital  at
 Aix, which led him to turn  his attention chiefly  to
 anatomy.  His  audience  soon became numerous, and
 in 1742 he published a syllabus, entitled, " Essais Ana-
 tomiques," which was many times reprinted, with im-
 provements.  He communicated also several papers
 on morbid anatomy, and on physiology, to the Academy
 of Sciences, of which he was elected a corresponding
 member.  In 1749 he went to Versailles, Sennc having
 obtained for him the appointment of physician to the
 Royal Infirmary;  which act of friendship is ascribed to
 a liberal  private communication of some errors com-
 mitted by Scnac. He there continued his investigations
 with great zeal, and was soon elected assistant anato-
 mist to the Royal Academy, which  he presented with
 many  valuable memoirs   He also  printed a volume,
 " Elementa Physiologis," composed for his class  at
 Aix.  In 1755 he was nominated physician to the  royal
 family, and 20 years after, first physician to Louis XVI.
 In 1759  his "Precis de  la Midecine Pratique," ap-
 peared, which  went through several  editions;  and
 seven years after, his " Precis de la Matitke Midicale."
 But his most important work, which still ranks high in
 the estimation  of physicians, is  entitled, " Historia
 Anatomico-Medica," in 2 vols, quarto, 1767, contain-
 ing numerous dissections of morbid  bodies.  His death
 occurred in 1780.
  L1EVRITE.   Yenite.   A blackish green-coloured
 mineral,  composed of silica,  alumina, lime, oxide of
 iron, and oxide of manganese, found in primitive lime-
 stone, along with epidote, quartz, etc. in the isle of Elba.
  LIFE.  A peculiar condition, or mode of existence,
 of living beings.  Surrounding matter is divided into
 two great classes, living and dead.  The latter is sub-
ject to physical  laws, which the former also obeys in
 a  great degree.  Living matter exhibits also physical
 properties, which are found  equally in dead matter.
 But living bodies are endowed likewise with a  set of
 properties altogether different from these, aud contrast-
 ing with them  in a very remarkable way; these are
 called  vital properties, actions, powers, faculties, or
 forces.  These  animate living matter  so  long  as  it
 continues alive, and are the source of the various phe-
 nomena which  constitute the functions of the  living
 animal body, and which distinguish iu history from
 that of dead matter.  The study of life is tbe object of
 the science of physiology, which includes an inquiry
 into the properties that characterize living matter, and
 an investigation of the functions  which the various
 organs, by virtue  of these properties, are enabled to
 execute.  Tbe vital principle diffused throughout these
 organs induces a mode of union in the elements, widely
cUoering from that which arises from the common laws
 of chemical affinity.  By the aid of this principle, na-
 ture produces the animal fluids, as blood, bile, semen,
 aud the rest, which can never be produced by the art
 of chemistry.  But if, in consequence of death, the
 laws of vital  attraction, or affinity, cease to operate,
 then the elements, recovering their physical properties,
 become again obedient to the common laws of chemi-
 cal affinity, and enter into  new combinations, from
 which  new principles, in the process of putrefaction.
 are produced.  Thus the' hydrogen, combining  itself
 with the azote, forms volatile alkali;  and the carbu-
 retted hydrogen, with the azote, putrid air, into which
 the whole body is converted.  It also appears  from
 hence,  why organized bodies alone,  namely, animal
 and vegetable, are subject lo putridity; to which inor-
 ganic or mineral substances are in no degree liable, the
 latter not being compounded  according to the laws of
 vital affinity,  but only according to  those of chemical
 affinity.  For  the fatiscence, or resolution of pyrites,
 or sulphuret of iron, in atmospheric air, is not putre-
 faction, but only the oxygen, furnished  by the air, com-
 bining with the sulphur, and  forming iron and sulphate
 of iron.
   The  life of  an  animal body appears  to be three-
 fold.
   1. Its chemical life, which consists in that attraction
 of the elements, by which the vital principle, diffused
 through Ihe solids nnd fluids, defends all the parts of
 the  body from putrefaction.  In this sense it may be
 said, that every atom of our body lives chemically, and
 that life is destroyed by putrefaction  alone.
   2. Its physical life,  which consists in the irritability
 of the parts. This physical property remains for some
 time after death. Thus the heart or intestines removed
 from the body, while still warm, contract themselves
 on the application of a stimulus.  In like manner the
 serpent or eel,  being cut  into pieces,  each part moves
 and palpitates for a long time afterward. Hence these
 parts may be said to live physically, as long as they are
 warm and soft.
   3. Its physiological life, consists  in the action of
 inorganic parts proper to each, as  the action of the
 heart and  vessels; so that these actions ceasing, the
 body is said to be physiologically dead.  The physiolo-
 gical life ceases first, next tlie  physical, and finally the
 chemical perishes.
   LIGAMENT.  (Ligamentum; from ligo, to bind.)
 An elastic and strong membrane connecting the extre-
 mities of the moveable bones.  Ligaments are divided
 into capsular, which  surround joints like a hag, and
 connecting ligaments.  The  use  of the capsular liga-
 ments  is to connect the extremities of the moveable
 bones, and prevent the efflux of synovia; the external
 and internal connecting ligaments strengthen the union
 of the extremities ofthe moveable bones.
   Lioamentum annulare.   The angular ligament.
 A strong ligament on each ankle and each wrist.
   Ligamentum arteriosum. The ductus arteriosus
 of the fcetus becomes a ligament after birth, which is
 so called.
   Lioamentum ciliare.  Behind  the  uvea of the
 human  eye, there arise out of the choroid membrane,
 from the ciliary circle, white complicated stria;, cover-
 ed with a black matter.   The fluctuating exuemities
 of these striae  are  spread abroad even  to the  crys-
 talline  lens, upon which they lie, but are not affixed.
 Taken together, Ihey are called ligamentum dliare.
  Ligamentum denticulatum.  A  small ligament
 supporting the  spinal marrow.
  Ligamentum fallofu- The round ligament of the
 uterus has been so called.  See also Ligamentum pou-
parti.
  Ligamentum interobseum.  The ligamuit uniting
 the radius and ulna, and also that between the  tibia
 and fibula.
  Ligamentum latum.  The broad ligament of the
 liver, and that of the uterus.   See Liver and Uterus.
   Ligamentum Nueu.t.   A  strong  ligameet  at the
 neck, which proceeds from one spinous praMsa to an-
other.
  Lioamentum ovarii.  The thick,  round portion of
 the broad ligament of the uterus,  by wbich the  ova-
rium is connected with tlie uterus.
  Ligamentum pouparti. Fallopian ligament Pou
part's ligament A ligament eitending from the ante-
rior superior spinous process of the ilium to the crista
of the os pubis. 
LIG
L1G
  Lwahemtttm. rotttndum.  The round ligament of
the uterus.  See Uterus.
  LIGATURE.  (Ligatura; from ligo, to bind.)  A
thread, or silk, of various thickness, covered wilh
white wax, for the purpose of tying arteries, or veins,
or other parts.  Ligatures should be round and  very
firm, so as to allow their being tied with some force,
without rusk of breaking.
  The immediate effect of a tight ligature on an artery
is to cut through  its middle  and internal coats, a cir-
cumstance that tends very much to promote the adhe-
sion of the opposite sides of the vessel to each other.
Hence the form and mode of  applying a/ligature to an
artery  should be such as are  most certain of dividing
the above  coats of the vessel in the most favourable
manner.  A broad flat ligature  does not promise  to
answer the purpose in the best manner;  because  it is
scarcely possible to tie it smoothly round  the artery,
which  is very likely to be thrown  into folds, or to  be
  uckered by it, and consequently to have an irregular
  ruised wound made in its middle and internal coats.
A ligature of an irregular form is likely to cut through
these coats more completely at some parts  than  al
others; and if it does not perfectly divide them no ad-
hesion  can take place, and secondary haemorrhage will
follow.  A fear of tying the  ligature too  tight  may
often lead to the same consequences.
  LIGHT.  Lux. The nature of light has occupied much
ofthe attention of philosophers, and numerous opinions
have been entertained concerning it.  It has been some-
times considered as a distinct  substance, at other times
as a quality; sometimes as a cause, frequently as an
effect;  by some it has been considered as a compound,
by others as a simple substance.  Philosophers of the
present day are mostly agreed as to the independent
existence of light, or the cause by which we see.
  Nature of light.—Light is that which'proceeds from
any body producing the sensation of vision, or percep-
tion of other bodies, by depicting an image of external
objects on  the retina of the eye.  Hence it announces
to animals the presence of the bodies which surround
them, and enables them to distinguish these bodies into
transparent, opaque, and coloured.  These  properties
arc so essentially connected with the presence of light,
that  bodies lose them in the dark, and become undis-
tinguishable.
  Light is regarded by philosophers as a substance con-
sisting  of a vast number of exceedingly  small parti-
cles, which are actually projected from  luminous bo-
dies, and which probably never return  again to the
body from which tbey were emitted.
  It  is universally expanded through space. It exerts
peculiar actions, and is obedient to the laws of attrac-
tion, and other properties of matter.
  Explanation of certain termt of light.—In order
to facilitate the doctrine of light, we shall shortly ex-
plain a few terms made use of by philosophers when
treating of it; namely,
  A  ray of light is an exceedingly small portion  of
light as it comes from a luminous body.
  A  medium is a body which affords a passage for the
rays of light.
  A  beam of light is a body of parallel rays.
  A  pencil of rays is a body of diverging or converging
rays.
  Converging rays are rays which tend to a common
point.
  Diverging rays are those which come from a point,
and continually separate as Ihey proceed.
  The rays of light are parallel, when the lines which
they describe are so.
  The  radiant point is the point from which diverging
rays proceed.
  The focus is the point to which the converging rays
are directed.
  Sources of light.—Light is emitted from the  sun
the fixed stars, and other luminous bodies.  It is  pro-
duced  by percussion,  during electrization, combus-
tion, and in various other chemical processes.
  Why the sun  and stars are constantly emitting light,
is a question which probably will for ever baffle hu-
man understanding.
  The  light emitted during combustion  exists previ-
ously, either combined wilh  the combustible body,  or
with the substance  which supports the combustion.
The light liberated during chemical action, formed
• constituent part of tbe bodies which act on each other
  Chemical properties of light—The chemical effects
of light have much engaged the attention of philoso-
phers.   Its influence upon animal, vegetable, and other
substances, is as follows:
  1.  On vegetables.—Every body knows that most of
the discous flowers follow the sun in his course ; that
they attend him to his  evening retreat, and meet his
rising lustre in  the morning with the same unerring
law.  It is also well known that the change of position
in the leaves of plants, at different periods of the day,
is entirely owing to the agency of light, and tbat plants
which  grow in  windows, in the inside of  houses, are,
as it were, solicitous  to turn their leaves  towards the
light.  Natural philosophers have long been aware of
the influence  of light on vegetation. It was first ob
served thai plants  growing in tlie shade, or darkness,
are  pale  aud without colour.   The  term  etiolation
has been given lo this phenomenon, and tlie plants, in
which  it  takes place, are  said  to be etiolated,  or
blandied.  Gardeners avail themselves of the  know-
ledge of this fact, to furnisfuour tables witb white and
tender vegetables.  When the plants have attained a
certain height, they compress the leaves, by tying them
together, and by these means  (or by laying earth over
them,) deprive ihemof the contact of light: and thus
it is  that our while celery, lettuce, cabbages,  endive,
&c. are obtained.   For the same reason, wood is white
under the green bark; and roots are less coloured than
plants; some of them alter their taste, &c.; they even
acquire a deleterious quality when suffered to grow
exposed to light. Potatoes are of this  kind.   Herbs
that grow beneath  stones, or in places utterly dark, are
white, soft, aqueous, and of a mild and insipid taste.
The more plants  are  exposed to the  light, the more
colour they acquire.   Though plants are capable of
being  nourished exceedingly well in the dark, and in
that state grow much more rapidly than in the sun,
(provided the air that surrounds them is fit for vegeta-
tion,) they are colourless and unfit for use.
  Professor Davy found, by experiment, that red rose-
trees, carefully excluded from  light,  produce  roses
almost while. He likewise ascertained that this flower
owes its colour to light entering into its composition;
that pink, orange, and yellow flowers Imbibe a smaller
portion of light than red ones, and that white flowers
contain no light. But vegetables are not only indebted
to the light for their colour:  taste and  odour are like-
wise derived  from  the same source.
  Light contributes greatly to the maturity of fruits
and seeds.  This seems lo be the cause why, under the
burning sun of Africa, vegetables are in general more
odoriferous, of a stronger taste,  and more abounding
with resin.  From  the same cause it happens, that hot
climates seem to be the native countries of perfumes,
odoriferous fruits,  and aromatic resins.
  The action of light is so powerful on the organs of
vegetables, as to cause them lo pour forth torrents of
pure air  from  the surface  of their leaves  into  the
atmosphere, while exposed to the sun; whereas, on
the contrary, when in the shade, they emit an  air of a
noxious quality.   Take a  few handfuls of fresh-
gathered leaves of mint, cabbage, or any other plant;
place them in a hell-glass, filled with fresh water, and
invert it into a basin with the same fluid.  If the whole
be then exposed to the direct rays of tlie sun, small air
bubbles will appear on the surface of the leaves, wbich
will  gradually grow  larger, and  at  last detach them,
selves  aud become collected at Ihe surface of Ihe wa
ter.  This is oxygen gas, or vital air.
  All plants do not emit this airwith the same facility;
there are some which yield it tbe moment  the sun acts
upon them; as the  jacobcea or ragwort, lavender, pep-
permint, and some  other aromatic plants.  The leaves
afford more air when attached to the plant than when
gathered; the quantity is also greater, the fresher and
sounder they are, and if full grown and collected during
dry weather.  Green plants afford more air than those
which  are of a yellowish or white colour.  Green fruits
afford likewise oxygen gas ; but it is not so plentifully
furnished by those  which are ripe.  Flowers in general
render  the air noxious.  The Nasturtium  indicum, in
the space of a few hours, gives out more air than is
equal to the bulk of all iu leaves.  On the contrary, it
a like bell-glass, prepared in tbe some manner,  be kept
in the dark, another kind of air will be disengaged, of
an opposite quality.
  There >s not a substance which, in well-closed glass 
LIU
L1M
 vessels, and exposed to the sun's, light, does not expe-
 rience some alteration.
   Camphor, kept in glass bottles, exposed to light, crys-
 tallizes into the most beautiful symmetrical figures, on
 that side of the glass which is exposed to the light
   Yellow wax, exposed to the light, loses its colour and
 becomes bleached.  Gum guaiacum, reduced to pow-
 der, becomes green on exposure to light  Vegetable
 colours, such as those of  saffron, logwood, &.c. become
 pale, or white,  &c.
   2.  On animals.—The  human being is equally de-
 pendent on the influence  of light.   Animals in general
 droop when deprived of light, they become unhealthy,
 and even sometimes die.  When a man has been long
 confined in a dark dungeon  (though well  aired), his
 whole complexion becomes sallow; pustules, filled with
 aqueous humours, break out on his skin; and the per-
 boii, who  has  been  thus deprived  of  light,  becomes
 languid, and frequently dropsical.  Worms, grubs, and
 caterpillars, which live in the earth, or in wood,  are of
 a whitish colour;  moths, and other insects ofthe night,
 are  likewise distinguishable from those which fly by
 day by the want of brilliancy in their colour.  The dif-
 ference between those insects, in northern and southern
 parts, is still more obvious.
  The parts offish which are exposed to light, as the
 back, fins, Sec are uniformly coloured, but  the  belly,
 which is deprived of light, is white in all of them.
  Birds which  inhabit  the  tropical countries have
 much brighter plumage than those of the north.  Those
 parts of the birds which are not exposed to the light are
 uniformly pale.  The feathers on the  belly of a bird
 are generally pale, or  white;  the back, which  is ex-
 posed  lo the light, is almost  always coloured;  the
 breast, wbich is particularly exposed to light  in most
 birds, is brighter than the belly.
  Butterflies, and various other animals of  equatorial
 countries, are brighter coloured than those of the polar
 regions.  Some  of the northern animals are even darker
 in summer  and paler in winter.
  3.  On other  substances.—Certain  metallic oxides
 become combustible when exposed to light;  and  acids,
 as the nitric, Sec are decomposed by us contact, and
 various other substances change their nature.
  Light carbonated hydrogen.   See Carburetted hy-
 drogen gas.
  LIGNEUS.   Woody.   Applied in botany to  pods,
 barks, &.c. which are of a hard membraneous, or woody
 texture; as the strobilus of the Pinus sylvestris.
  LI'GNUM.  Wood.
  Lignum agallochi  veri.  See Lignum aloes.
  Lignum aloes.  Lignum agallochi veri; Agalluge;
Agallugum; Lignum aquila; Lignum calambac;
Lignum aspalathi;  Xylo aloes;  Agallochum; Ca-
lambac.  Aloes  wood.  The tree, the wood  of which
bears this name, is not yet scientifically known.  It is
by some supposed to be the Excaaria  agallodia, the
bark as well as the milk of which is purgative.   It is
imported from  China in  small, compact, ponderous
pieces, of a yellow rusty brown colour, with black or
purplish veins, and  sometimes of  a black colour.   It
has a bitterish resinous taste, and a slight aromatic
smell.  It is used to fumigate rooms in eastern countries.
  Lignum aq.uilj:.  See Lignum aloes.
  Lignum aspalathi. See Lignum aloes.
  Lignum calamdac  See Lignum aloes.
  Lignum  campecbense. (Campechensis: so called
 because it was brought from Campeachy, in the bay of
 Honc/uras.   See Hamatoxylon campechianum.
  Lionum indicum.  See  Guaiacum.
  Lknum moluccense.   See Croton tiglium.
  Lignum  nephriticum.   See Guilandina moringo.
  Lignum pavana.  See Croton tiglium.
  [Lignum quassia.  See Quassia amara.  A.]
  Lignum rhodium.  See Aspalathus Canariensis.
  Lignum sanctum.  See Guaiacum.
  Lickum  SAKTALi  rubri.  See Pterocarptu santa-
linut
  Lignum sappan. See Hamatoxylon campechianum.
  Lignum  serpentum.   See  Opkioxylum  serpenti-
num.
  |"Lignum vits:  The tree which  produces this
 wood "rows hi  the West  Indies and tropical parts of
 America.   It attains to the height of forty feet, and its
trunk is four or five feet in circumference.
  Lignum vita is brought  in logs or masses, consisting
of a dark greenish heart, covered with a yellowish al-
burnum.  It is exceedingly hard, sinks in watsr, bas
little smell except when heated, and possesses a bluer
and pungent taste.
  The  medicinal properties of the wood are princi-
pally derived from its resinous particles.  It is, however,
used as an ingredient in some decoctions, to which il
imparts a certain portion of extractive matter of a tonic
and stimulating  nature.  It was formerly much cele-
brated as an aiitisyphilitic.  The hardness and solidity
of lignum vita; render it of great Importance in the
mechanic arts."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  LIGULA.  (Ligula,asliau.) 1. The clavicle.
  2. The glottis.
  3. The name of a measure and a weight
3.  Ajiienus of the Mollusc* order.
5.  The
   5. The small transparent membrane on the margin
 ofthe sheath and base ofthe leaves of grasses.
   LIGULATUS.  Shaped like a straw or ribband; a
 term applied to a kind of floret of a compound flower,
 which is so shaped; as those of the Tragopogon and
 Taraxacum.
   LIGUSTICUM.  (Atyve-ixov  of  Dioscorides;  so
 called from Liguria, iu Italy, its native country.)  The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class Pentandria; Older,
 Digynia.
 . Ligusticum levisticum.   The systematic name
 of lovage.  Levisticum.  The odour of this plant, Li-
 gusticum—foliis multiplicibus, foliolis superne incisis,
 of LiuruEus, is very strong,  and particularly ungrateful;
 its taste is warm and aromatic.  It abounds with a yel-
 lowish gummy resinous juice,  very much resembling
 opoponax.  Its virtues are supposed to be similar to
 those of angelica and masterwort, in expelling flatu-
 lencies, exciting sweat, and opening obstructions; there-
 lore it is chiefly used in hysterical disorders and uterine
 obstructions.  The leaves, eaten in salad, are accounted
 emmenagogue.   The root, wbich is less ungrateful than
 the leaves, is said to possess similar virtues, and may
 be employed in pewder.
   LIGU'STRUM.  (From ligo,  to  bind: so named
 from its use in making bands.)
   1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnrean
 system.  Class, Diandria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name  of the herb privet
 The Ligustrum vulgare.
   LI'LALITE.  The mineral lipidolite.
   LILIACEUS.  (From lilium, a lily.)  Liliaceous, or
 resembling the lily.
   Liliace je.  The name of an  order of plants in Lin-
 naeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting of
 such as have liliaceous corolla;, and a three-lobed stig-
 ma ; as colchicum, lilium, crocus, Sec
   LILIA'GO. (Diminutive of lilium, the Illy: sonamed
 from tbe resemblance of its flower to tbat of a lily.)
 Liliastrum.  Spiderwort.   The Anthericum liliae-
 trum of Linnxus, formerly said to be alexipharmic and
 carminative.
   LI'LIUM.  (From Xtios, smooth, graceful: so named
 from the  beauty of its leaf.)  The name of a genus of
 plants in the Linnrean system.  Class, Hexandria;
 Order, Monogynia.  The lily.
  Lilium album.  The white lily.  See Lilium can-
 didum,
  Lilium candidum.   The systematic name of  the
 white lily.  Lilium album.  Lilium—foliis  sparsis,
corollis campanulatis, intus glabris,  of Linneus.
The roots  are  directed by the Edinburgh  pharma-
copoeia ; they are  extremely mucilaginous, and chiefly
used,  boiled in milk and water, in emollient and sup-
purating cataplasms, to inflammatory tumours.  These
lily-roots afford a good substitute, in times of scarcity,
for bread.  The distilled water has  been sometimes
used as a cosmetic.
  Lilium convallium.  Sec Convallaria majalis.
  Lilium martagon.  The martagon lily.  Linnaeus
tells us that the root of this plant forms a part of lh«
ordinary food of the Siberians.
  LILY.   See Lilium  and  Nymphaa.
  Lily, May.   See Convallaria majalis.
  Lily, water.  See Nymphaa alba,  and Nymphaa
lutea.
  Lily, white.  See Lilium candidum.
  Lily of the valley. See Convallaria majalis.
  LIMATU'RA.  (From lima, a file.)  File  dust or
powder.
  Limatura ferri.  Steel filings are considered  as
possessing stimulating and strengthening qualities, and 
LIM                                            LIN
awexUbited in worm cases, ataxia, leucorrhcea, diar-
rhoea, chlorosis, &c.
  LI'MAX.  (From limus, slime: so named from its
sKminess.)   Coc/tlea terrestris.   The  snail.   This
animal abounds with a viscid slimy juice, which is
readily given out by boiling, to milk or water, so as to
render them thick and glutinous.  These decoctions
are apparently very nutritious and demulcent, and are
recommended in consumptive cases and emaciations.
  LIMBUS. The brim or border.  Applied to a part
of the corolla in botany.  See Corolla.
  LIME.   Calx. 1. Tbe oxide of calcium, one of the
primitive  earths.  It is found in great abundance in
nature, though never pure, or in an uncombined slate.
It is always united to an acid, and very frequently to
the carbonic acid,  as  in chalk,  common  lime-stone,
marble, calcareous spar, &c.  It is contained in the
waters of the ocean; it is found in vegetables;  and is
the basis of the bones, shells, and other hard parts of
animals.  Its combination with sulphuric acid is known
by the nameof sulphate of lime (gypsum, or plaster of
Paris).  Combined with flouric acid it constitutes fluate
of lime, or Derbyshire spar.
  Properties.—Lime is in solid masses, of a white
colour, moderately hard, but easily reducible to powder.
Its  taste is bitter,  urinous, and burning.  It changes
blue cabbage juice to a green.  It is unalterable by the
heat of our furnaces.  It splits and falls into powder in
the air, and loses its strong taste.   It is augmented in
weighl and in size  by slowly absorbing water and car-
bonic acid from the atmosphere.  Its specific gravity is
2.3.   It combines with phosphorus by heat.  It unites
to sulphur both in the dry -and humid way.   It absorbs
sulphuretted hydrpgen gas.   It unites with some of the
metallic oxides.  Its slaking by water is attended with
heat, hissing, splitting, and swelling up, while the water
is partly consolidated and partly converted into vapour;
aud the lime is reduced into a very voluminous dry
powder, when it has been sprinkled with only a small
quantity of water.  It is soluble when well prepared
in about 450 parts of water.  It unites to acids.  It ren-
ders silex and alumine fusible, and more particularly
these two earths together.
  Method  of obtaining Lime.—Since the carbonic acid
may be separated  from tbe native carbonate of lime,
this becomes a means of exhibiting the lime in a state
of tolerable purity.  For this purpose, introduce into
a porcelain, or earthen retort, or  rather into a tube of
green glass, well coated over with lute, and  placed
across a furnace, some powdered Carara  marble, or
oyster-shell powder.  Adapt to its lower extremity a
bent tube  of glass, conveyed under a bell.  If we then
heat the tube, we obtain carbonic acid gas;  and lime
will be found remaining in the tube or retort.
  The burning of lime in the large way, depends on
the disengagement of the carbonic acid by heat;  and,
as lime is  infusible in our furnaces, there would  be no
clanger from too violent a heat, if the native carbonate
of lime were perfectly pure; but as this  is seldom the
case, an extreme degree of beat produces a commence-
ment of vitrification in the mixed stone, and enables it
to preserve its solidity, and it no longer retains tbe
qualities of lime, for it is covered with a sort of crust,
which prevents the absorption of the water when it is
attempted to  be slaked.   This is called  over-burnt
lime.
  In order to obtain lime in a state of great purity, the
following method may be had recourse to.
  Take Carara  marble, or oyster-shells; reduce them
to  powder, and dissolve  the powder in pure acetic
acid; precipitate the solution by carbonate of ammo-
nia.  Let tlie precipitate subside, wash  it repeatedly
in distilled water,  let it dry, and then expose  it to a
white heat for some hours.
  The acetic acid, in this operation, unites to the lime,
and forms  acetate of lime, disengaging at the same
time  the carbonic acid, which flies off in the gaseous
state: on  adding to the acetate of lime carbonate of
ammonia, acetate  of ammonia, and  an artificial car-
bonate of lime  are  formed; from the latter the car-
bonic acid is again expelled, by exposure to heat, and
the lime is left behind in a state of perfect purity. See
Calx.
  2. A fruit like a small lemon, the juice of which is a
very strong acid, and very much used in tbe making
of  punch.  Externally, the same acid is applied in the
cutaneous affections of warm climates, and also as a
remedy against the pains that precede the appealance
of yaws.  See  Tilia.
  Lime, chloride of.  The bleaching salt or bleach-
ing powder, sold under the name of oxymuriate of
lime.
  LIMESTONE.  A  genus of minerals which Pro-
fessor Jameson divides into the four following species:
  1. Rhombspar.  2.  Dolomite.  3. Limestone.  4.
Arragonite.
  Limestone has twelve sub-species.
  1. Foliated limestone.  Of this there are two kinds,
calcareous spar, and foliated granular limestone.
  2. Compact limestone, of which  there  are  three
kinds, common compact limestone, blue Vesuvian, and
rosestoue.
  3. Chalk.
  4. Agaric-mineral, or Rock milk.
  5. Fibrous limestone, to which belong the satin spar
and the fibrous calc-sinter.
  6. Tufaceous limestone, or calc-tuff.
  7. Pisiform limestone, or peastone.
  8. Slatespar.
  9. Aphrite.
  10. Luculite, of which there  are three kinds, com-
pact, prismatic, and foliated.
  11. Marie, of which there  are  two species, the
earthy and compact.
  12. Bituminous marie slate.
  Limestone, bituminous.  See Bituminous limestone.
  LIME-TREE.  See Tilia.
  Lime-water.   See Calcis liquor.
  LI'MON.   (Hebrew.)  See Citrus medica
  LIMO'NIUM.   (From  Xtiptav, a green field; so
called from  its  colour.)  This name has been applied
to,
  1. The Valeriana rubra.
  2. The Polygonum fagopyrum.
  3. The Pyroli rotundifolia.
  4. More commonly  to the sea-lavender, or Statict
limonium, of Linneus, which is said to possess astrin-
gent properties.
  LIMO'NUM.   (From  Xtipiav, a green field: so
called from the colour of its unripe fruit.)  The lemon-
tree.  See Citrus medica.
  LIMOSIS.  (From  Xiuosv hunger.)  The name of
a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class, Cali-
aca; Order, Enteric a.  Morbid appetite.  It has seven
species, viz.  Limosis ovens, expers, pica, cardialgia,
flatus, emesis, dyspepsia.
  LINACRE,  Thomas, was  born  at Canterbury,
about the year 1460.   After studying at Oxford, ho
travelled to Italy, where he acquired a perfect know-
ledge of the Latin and Greek languages;  and after-
ward devoted his attention to  medicine and  natural
philosophy at Rome.  On his return, he graduated at
Oxford, and gave lectures there on physic, as well as
taught the Greek language.  His reputation soon be-
came so high, that he was called to court by Henry
VII. who  not only intrusted him with the education
of his children, but also appointed him his physician;
which office he likewise enjoyed under his successor
Henry VIII.  He appears  in this monarch's reign to
have stood, above all rivalship, at the head of his pro-
fession ; and evinced his attachment to its interests, as
well as to the public  good, by founding medical lec-
tures at the two universities, and obtaining the institu-
tion, in 1518, of the royal college of physicians in Lon-
don.  The practice of medicine was then occupied by
illiterate monks and empirics, who were licensed by
the bishops,  whence much mischief must have arisen.
A corporate body of regularly bred physicians  was
therefore established,  in whom was vested the sole
right of examining and admitting persons to practice,
as well as of examining apothecaries' shops.  Linacre
was the first president, which office he retained during
tbe remainder of his  life;  and, at his death,  in 1524,
bequeathed  his  house to the college.  He had relin-
quished practice, and  entered into holy orders, about
five years before, being greatly afflicted with the stone,
which was the cause of his dissolution. In his  literary
character, Linacre  stands eminently  distinguished,
having been one of the first to intioduce the learning
of the ancients into this country.  He translated seve-
ral of the most valuable works of Galen into Lat'n;
Bad his style is remarkable for its purity and elegance;,
be mad  indeed devoted great time to Latin composi-
tion, on which he published  a large  pbilosonii,t.sj 
LIN
LIN
 treatise.  His professional  skill  was universally al-
 lowed among his contemporaries, as well as the ho-
 nour and humanity with which he exercised the medi-
 cal  art;  and tbe celebrated Erasmus has bestowed
 upon him the highest commendation.  lie was buried
 in St. Paul's Cathedral, where a monument was after-
 ward erected to his memory, with a Latin inscription,
 by Dr. Caius.
   LIN AGROSTIS.  (From Xtvov, cotton, and ayptarts,
 grass: so called from the softness of its texture.)  Cot-
 ton-grass.  The Eriophorum of Linueeus, four species
 of which are found iu Britain.
   LINANGI'NA.  (From  linum, flax, and ango, to
 strangle:  so called because, if it grows among flax or
 kemp, it  twists round it, and chokes it.)  The herb
 uodder.  The Cuscuta europaa of Liiitueus.
   LINA'RIA.  (From linum, flax:  named from the
 resemblance  of its leaves to those of flax.)  See An-
 tirrhinum linaria.
  LI NCTUS.  (Linctus, us. m.; from lingo, to lick.)
 Lohoc; Kdegma; Elexis; Elegma; Eclectos; Eclei-
 tos;  illinctus.   A loch, a lambative.   A term  in
 pharmacy, that is  generally applied to a soft and some-
 what oily substance, of the consistence of honey,
 which is licked ofl' the spoon, it  being too solid and
 adhesive to be taken otherwise.
  LI'N/EA.  (From  linum, a thread.)  This term is
 applied  to some parts which have a thread or line-like
 appearance, as the long tendinous appearance of the
 muscles in the abdomen, Sec.
  Linea  alba.   Linea centralis.   An  aponeurosis
 that extends from the scrobiculus cordis straight down
 to the navel, and from thence to the pubes.   It is
 formed  by the tendinous fibres of the internal oblique
 ascending and the external oblique descending muscles,
 and  the transversalis, interlaced wilh those of the op-
 posite side.
   Linea semilunares.   The  lines  which  bound
 the outer  margin  of the recti  muscles, formed  by the
 union ofthe abdominal tendons.
  Linea  transversa.   The lines which cross the
 recti muscles of the abdomen.
  LINEARIS.   Linear.   Applied to  leaves, petals,
 leaf-stalks, seeds, &.C. of plants,  which are narrow,
 with parallel sides, as the leaves of most grasses, those
 of the Narcissus, Pseudo-narcissus, and the petals of
 the Tussilago farfara, leaf-stalk of the Citrus me-
 dica, and seeds of the Crudandla.
  L1NEATUS.   Lineate.   See Linearis.
  LI'NGU A.  (From lingo, to lick up.)   The tongue.
 See  Tongue.
  Lingua avis.   The seeds of the Fraxinus, or ash,
 are  so called, from their supposed resemblance to a
 bird's tongue.
  Lingua canina. So called from  the resemblance
 of its leaves to a dog's tongue.  See Cynoglossum.
  Lingua cervina.  See Asplenium Scolopendrium.
  LINGUA'LIS.  (From lingua, the tongue.)  Basio-
 glossus, of Cowper.  A muscle of the tongue. It arises
 from the  root of  the tongue laterally,  and runs for-
 ward between the hyo-glossus and genio-glossus, to be
 inserted into the tip of the tongue, along with part of
 the stylo-glossus.   Its use is to contract the substance
 of the tongue, and to bring it backwards.
  LINGUIFORMIS.   See Lingulatus.
  LINGULATUS. (From lingua, a tongue.) Tongue-
 shaped.  A term applied to a leaf of a thick, oblong,
 blunt figure, generally cartilaginous at the edges: as in
 the Mesembryanthemum linguiforme.
  LINIMENT. See Linimenlum.
  LINIME'NTUM.  (From lino, to  anoint)  A lini-
 ment.  An oily substance of a mediate  consistence,
 between an ointment and oil, but so tbin  as lo drop.
 The following are some of the most  approved forms.
  Linimentum aruginis.   Liniment of verdigris,
 formerly called oxymel teruginis, mel B"gyptiacum, and
 unguentum ffgypliacum:—Take  of verdigris,  pow-
 dered, an ounce; vinegar, seven fluid ounces; clarified
 honey, fourteen ounces.  Dissolve the verdigris in the
 vinegar, and strain it through a linen  cloth; having
 added the honey,  gradually  boil It down  to a proper
 consistence.
  Linimentum ammonia fortius.  Strong liniment
 of ammonia.—Take of solution of ammonia, a fluid
 ounce; olive oil, two fluid ounces.  Shake them toge-
ther  until they unite.  A more powerful stimulating
application than the former, acting as a rubefacient
      96
 In pleurodynia,  indolent  tumours,  stiffness of the
 joints, and anthritic pains, it is to be preferred to the
 milder one.
   Linimentum ammonia sibcarbonatis.  Liniment
 of subcarbonate of ammonia, foimerly called linimen-
 tum ammonia; and linimentum volatile.—Take of so-
 lution of subcarbonate of ammonia, a fluid ounce; olive
 oil, three fluid ounces.  Shake them together until
 they unite.  A stimulating liniment, mostly used to
 relieve rheumatic pains, bruises, and paralytic uunib-
 ness.
   Linimentum aqua  calcis.  Liniment  of  lime-
 water.  Take of  lime-water, olive oil, of each eight
 ounces;  rectified  spirit of  wine, one ounce.  Mix.
 This has been long in use  as an application to burns
 and scalds.
   Linimentum camphora.  Camphor liniment. Take
 of camphor, half an ounce; olive oil, two fluid ounces.
 Dissolve the camphor  in  the oil.   In .retentions  of
 urine,  rheumatic  pains, distentions of the abdomen
 from ascites, and tension of the skin from abscess, this
 is an excellent application.
   Linimentum camphors; compositum.   Compound
 camphor liniment.  Take of camphor, two ounces;
 solution of ammonia, six fluid ounces; spirit of laven-
 der, a  pint.  Mix the solution of ammonia with the
 spirit in a glass retort; then, by tlie heat of a slow fire,
 distil a pint Lastly, in this distilled liquor dissolve
 the camphor.  An elegant  and useful stimulant appli-
 cation in paralytic, spasmodic, and rheumatic diseases.
 Also, for bruises, sprains, rigidities ofthe joints, incipi-
 ent chilblains, &c. &c.
   Linimentum hydrargyri.   Mercurial  liniment.
 Take of strong mercurial  ointment, prepared lard, of
 each four ounces, camphor an ounce; rectified spirit,
 fifteen minims; solution of ammonia, four fluid ounces.
 First powder  the camphor, with the  addition of the
 spirit, then rub it with the mercurial  ointment and the
 lard;  lastly, add  gradually the  solution of ammonia,
 and mix the whole together.  An excellent  formula for
 all surgical cases,  in which the object is lo quicken the
 action of the absorbents, and gently stimulate the sur-
 faces of parts.  It is a useful application for diminish-
 ing the indurated state of particular muscles, a pecu-
 liar affection every now and then met with in practice*
 and it ia peculiarly well calculated  for lessening the
 stiffness and chronic thickening often noticed in the
 joints.  If it be frequently  or  largely applied, it af-
 fects the  mouth more rapidly than the mercurial oint-
 ment.
   Linimentum opiatom.   A resolvent anodyne em-
 brocation, adapted to remove indolent tumours of the
 joints,  and  those weaknesses  which remain  after
 strains and chilblains before they break.
   Linimentum saponis  compositum.   Compound
 soap liniment.  Linimentum saponis.  Take of hard
 soap, three ounces; camphor, an ounce: spirit of rose-
 mary, a pint.  Dissolve  the camphor in the spirit, then
 add the soap, and macerate in the heat of a Band-bath,
 until it be  melted.  The basis of this form was first
 proposed by Riverius, and it is  now commonly used
 under the name of opodeldoc.  This is a more pleasant
 preparation, to rub parts affected with rheumatic pains,
 swellings of the joints, &c. than any of the foregoing,
 and at the  same  time not inferior, except where a
 rubefacient is required.
  Linimentum saponis cum opio.  Soap liniment,
 with opium. Take of compound soap liniment, six
 ounces; tincture of opium,  two ounces.   Mix.  For
dispersing indurations and swellings, attended  witb
 pain, but no acute  inflammation.
  Linimentum terebinthina.   Turpentine liniment.
Take of resin cerate,  a  pound; oil of turpentine, half
 a pint.  Add the  oil of turpentine to the cerate, pre
 viously melted, and mix.   This  liniment  is very com
 monly applied to  burns, and was first introduced by
 Mr. Kentish, of Newcastle.
  Linimentum terebinthina vitriolicum. Vitri-
olic liniment of turpentine. Take of olive oil, ten
ounces; oil of turpentine,  four ounces; vitriolic acid,
three drachms.  Mix.  This  preparation is said to be
efficacious in chronic affections of the joints, and in
the removal of long-existing effects of sprains and
 bruises.
  Liniment of ammonia.  Bee Linimentum ammonim.
  Liniment of camphire.  See Linimentum camphora,.
  Liniment of mercury.  See JUstmentitM hydrargyri, 
LIN
LIP
  lAniment of turpentine.   See Linimentum tsrebin.-1
thina.
  Liniment of verdigris.  See Linimentum aruginis. \
  LINNiE'A.  (So named  in honour of Linnams.)
The name of a genus of plants in the Linna:au system.
Class, Didynamia; Order, Angiospermia.
  Linnaa  borealis.  The systematic name of the
plant named in  honour of  the  immortal Linnsus,
which has  a bitter, subastringent taste, and is used in
some places in the form of fomentation, to rheumatic
pains, and  an infusion with milk is much esteemed in
Switzerland in the cure of sciatica.
  LINNjEUS, Charles, was born in Sweden, in 1707.
He derived at a very early age from his father, that at-
tachment to the  study of nature, by which  he after-
ward so eminently distinguished himself.   He was in-
tended for the church, but made so little improvement
in the requisite learning, tbat this was soon abandoned
for the profession of medicine.  He appears  to have
had  a singular inaptitude  for learning  languages;
though he was sufficiently versed in Latin.  His scanty
finances much embarrassed  his progress  at  first; but
his taste for botany at length having procured him the
patronage of Dr. Celsius, professor of divinity at Upsal,
he was enabled to pursue his studies to more advan-
tage,  hi 1730, he was appointed to give  lectures in
the botanic garden, and  began to compose  some of
those works, by which he  rendered his favourite science
more philosophical,  and more popular than it had
ever been before.  Two  years afterward he was com-
missioned  to make a tour through Lapland,  of which
he subsequently published an interesting account; and
having learned the art of assaying metals, he  gave lec-
tures on this subject also on his  return.   In 1735, he
took his degree in physic at Harderwyck, and in his
inaugural dissertation advanced a strange  hypothesis,
that  intermittent fevers are owing  to particles of clay,
taken in with the food, obstructing the minute arteries.
Soon after this,  his Systema Naturas first appeared;
which was greatly enlarged and improved in numerous
successive  editions.  In  Holland,  h'e fortunately ob-
tained the support of a Mr. Clifford, an opulent banker,
whereby he was enabled to visit England  also; but
his great exertions afterward impaired his  health, and
being attacked with a severe intermittent, he  could not
resist the desire, when somewhat recovered, of return-
ing to his native country.  Arriving there  in 1738, he
settled at Stockholm, where his reputation soon pro-
cured him some medical practice, and the appointment
of physician to the navy, as well as lecturer on botany
and mineralogy;  a literary society was also established,
of which he was the first president, and by which nu-
merous volumes of transactions have since been  pub-
lished.  In 1740, he was chosen professor  of  medicine
at Upsal, having been admitted a member  of that aca-
demy on his return to Sweden; he also shared with Dr.
Rosen the botanical duties, and considerably  improved
the garden; he was afterward made secretary, and on
some public occasions did the honours of the univer-
sity.  He received likewise marks of distinction from
several foreign societies.  About the year 1746, he was
appointed  Archiater;  and it became an object of na-
tional interest to make additions to his collection from
every part  of the world.  A systematic treatise on the
Materia  Medica  was  published by him in 1749; and
two years  after  his Philosophia Botanica, composed
during a severe fit of the gout, in which  he  supposed
himself to  have  derived great benefit from  taking a
large quantity of wood strawberries.  This was soon
followed by his  great work, the  Species  Plantarum;
after which he was honoured with the order of the Polar
Star, never before conferred  for literary  merit; and
having declined a splended invitation to Spain, he was
raised to the rank of nobility. In  1763  his son was
allowed  to assist him  in the botanical duties.  About
this time  he  published  his  Genera Morborum, and
three years after  his  Clavis Medietas.  His medical
lectures, though  too theoretical, were very  much es-
teemed ; but he had declined general practice on his
establishment at  Upsal.  As he advanced in life, the
fatiguing occupations  in which he was  engaged im-
paired his  health, notwithstanding his temperate and
regular habits; and at length brought on  his dissolu-
tion  ill 1778.  This was regarded as a  loss to the
nation, and even to the world.  About ten  years after,
a society, adopting his name, was formed In this coun-
try,  which has published many valuable  volumes of
transactions, and the president purchased Linneus ■
collections of his widow; similar institutions have also
been established in other parts of the world.
  Linnaan s\ stem.  This name is applied particularly
to that  arrangement of plants, which Linnseus has
founded on the fructification or sexes of plants.  See
Sexual system of plants.
  LINOSPE'RMUM.  (From Xivov, flax, and tnrcpua,
seed.)  See Linum usitatissimum.
  Linozostris.   A name given by the ancient Greek
writers to two plants, very different from one another.
The one is the  Mercurialis, or British mercury; the
other the Epilinum,  or dodder.
  LINSEED.  See Linum usitatissimum.
  LINT.  See Linteum.
  LI'NTEUM.  Lint.  A soft, woolly substance, made
by scraping old linen cloth, and employed in surgery aa
the common dressing in all cases of wounds and ulcers,
either simply or covered with different unctuous sub-
stances.
  Lf NUM.  (From Xttos, soft, smooth: so called from
its soft, smooth texture.)   1. The name of a genus of
plants  in  tlie  Linna;an  system.  Class, Pentandria.
Order, Pentagynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common flax.
See Linum usitatissimum.
  Linum  catharticum.  Linum minimum; Chama-
Hum. Purging  flax, or  mill-mountain.  This small
plant, Linum—foliis oppositis ovato-lanceolatis, caule
dichotomo, corollis acutis, of Linneus,  is an effectual
and safe cathartic.  It has a bitterish and disagreeable
taste.  A  handful infused in half a pint of  boiling
water is the dose for an adult.
  Linum usitatissimum.   The systematic name of
the common flax. Linum sylvestre.  Linum—calyci-
bus capsulisque mucronatis, petalis crenatis,  foliis
lanceolatis alternis, caule subsolitario,  of Linnaeus.
The seeds of this useful plant, called linseed, have an
unctuous, mucilaginous, sweetish taste, but no remark-
able smell; on  expression they yield a large quantity
of oil, which, when carefully drawn without the appli-
cation  of heat,  has no particular taste  or flavour:
boiled in water, they yield a large proportion of strong
flavourless mucilage, which is in use as an emollient or
demulcent In cough, hoarseness, and pleuritic  symp-
toms, that frequently prevail in catarrhal affections
and it is likewise recommended in nephritic pains ana
stranguries.  The meal ofthe seeds is also much used
externally, in emollient and maturating  cataplasms.
The expressed  oil is an  officinal  preparation, and is
supposed to  be of a more he'aling and balsamic nature
than the other oils of this class: it has, therefore, been
very generally employed in pulmonary complaints, and
in  colics and constipations of the bowels.  The cake
wbich  remains after the expression of the oil, contains
the farinaceous part of the seed, and is used in fatten-
ing cattle under the name of oil-cake.
   I,ion-toothed leaf.  See Runcinatus.
   LI'PARIS.  (From Xiiros, fat:  so named from its
unctuous quality.)  See Pinguicula.
   LIPAROCE'LE.   (From Xiiros, fat, and KijXn, a tu-
mour.)   That species of sarcocele in which the sub-
stance constituting the disease very much resembles fat.
   LIPOMA.   (From Ai7roj, fat.)   A solitary, soft,
unequal, indolent tumour, arising from a luxuriancy of
adeps in the cellular membrane.  The adipose struc-
ture forming the tumour is sometimes diseased towards
its centre, and more fluid than the rest.   At other times
it does not appear to differ in any respect from adipose
membrane, except in the enlargement of the cells con-
taining the fat.  These tumours are always many years
before they arrive at any size.
   LIPOPSY'CHIA. (From Xetiria, to leave, and ipvxv,
the soul, or life.)  A swoon, or fainting.  See Syncope
   LIPOTHY'MIA.   (From Xttiria, to leave, and Ovuos,
the mind.)  Fainting.  See Syncope.
   LIPPITU'DO.  (Prom lippus, blear-eyed.)   Epi-
phora; Xerophthalmia.   Blear-eyedness.  An  exuda-
tion of a puriform humour from  the margin of the
eyelids.  The  proximate cause is a deposition of acri-
mony on the glandula; meibomiana; in  Ihe margin of
the eyelids.  This humour in the night glues the tarsi
of the  eyelids together.   The margins of the  eyelids
are red and tumefy, are irritated, and excite pain.  An
opthalmia, fistula lachrymalis, and sometimes an ectro
pium, are the consequences.  The species of the lippl
tudo are, 
LIQ
LIS
   1. Lippitudo infantum, which is familiar to children,
 particularly of an acrimonious habit  The lippitudo of
 infants is mostly accompanied with tinea,  or  some
 scabby eruption, which points out that the disease
 originates, not from a local, but general or  constitu-
 tional affection.
   2. Lippitudo adultorum, or senilis.  This arises from
 various  acrimonies, and is likewise common to hard
 drinkers.
   3. Lippitudo venerea, which arises from a suppressed
 gonorrhoea, or fluor albus, and is likewise observed of
 children born of parents with venereal complaints.
   4. Lippitudo scrophulosa, which accompanies  other
 scrofulous symptoms.
   5. Lippitudo scorbutica, which affects the scorbutic.
   Lipy ria.   (From Xsiirta, to leave, and imp, heat.)
 A sort of fever, where tlie heat is drawn to tbe inward
 parts,  while the externals are cold.
   LIQUIDA'MBAR.  (From liquidum, fluid, and am-
 bar, a fragrant substance, generally taken for amber-
 gris; alluding to the aromatic liquid gum which distils
 from this tree.) The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnxan system.  Class, Monada ; Order, Polyandria.
   Liquidamear styraciflua.  The systematic name
 ofthe tree which affords both the liquid amber and sto-
 rax liquidat or liquid storax.  The  liquid amber is a
 resinous juice of a yellow colour, inclining to red, at
 first about the consistence of turpentine, by age hard-
 ened into a solid brittle mass.  It is obtained by wound-
 ing the bark  of this tree, which is described  by Lin-
 nsus  the  Liquidambar—foliis palmato-angulatis ;
foliis  indivisis, acutis.   The juice has a moderately
 pungent, warm, balsamic taste, and a  very  fragrant
 smell, not unlike  that of the Styrax calamita height-
 ened by a little ambergris.  It is seldom used medi-
 cinally.  The Styrax liquida is also obtained from this
 plant by boiling.  There are two sorts distinguished by
 authors; the one the purer part of the resinous matter,
 that rises to the  surface in  boiling, separated  by a
 strainer, of the consistence of honey, tenacious like tur-
 pentine, of a reddish or ash-brown colour, moderately
 transparent of an acrid unctuous taste and n fragrant
 smell,  faintly resembling that of the solid styrax, but
 somewhat disagreeable.  The other, tlie more impure
 part, which remains on the strainer, untransparcnt, and
 in smell and taste much weaker than the former. Their
 use is chiefly as stomachics, in the form of plaster.
  LIQUIFACTION.  A chemical term, in some in-
 slances synonymous with fusion, in others with the woid
 deliquescence, and in others with the word solution.
  LldUIRI'TIA.   (From liquor, juice, or from di-
 koris, Welsh.) See Glycyrrhiza.
  LIQUOR. A  liquor.  This term is applied in the
 last editions  of the London  Pharmacopoeia  to  some
 preparations, before improperly called waters; as  the
 aqua ammonia, Sec.
  Liquor  acetatis plumbi.  See Plumbi  acetatis
''liquor.
  Liquor  acetatis plumbi dilutus.   See  Plumbi
 acetatis liquor dilutus.
  Liquor  sjthereus vitriolicus.   See JEther sul-
 phuricus.
  Liquor aluminis compositus.  Compound solution
 of alum.   Take of  alum, sulphate  of  zinc,  of each
 half an ounce; boiling water two pints.  Dissolve at
 the same time the alum and sulphate of zinc in the
 water, and then  strain the solution through paper.
 This water was long known in our shops under the
 title of Aqua aluminosa batcana.  It  is used for cleans-
 ing and healing ulcers and wounds, and  for removing
 cutaneous eruptions, the  part being bathed with it hot
 three or four times a-day.  It is sometimes  likewise
 employed as a collyrium ; and as an injection in fluor
 albus and gonorrhoea, when not accompanied  with
 virulence.
  Liquor ammonia.  See Ammonia.
  Liquor ammonia acetatis. See Ammonia acetatis
 liquor.
  Liquor ammonia carbonatis.  See Ammonia sub-
 carbonatis liquor.
  Liquor ammonia subcarbonatis. See Ammonia
 subcarbonatis liquor.
  Liquor of ammonia.  See Ammonia.
  Liquor amnii.   All that fluid which is contained in
 tbe membranaceous ovum surrounding the fcetus in
 uter,  is caued by the general name of the waters, the
 water of the amnion, or ovum, or liquor amnii.  The
       28
quantity, in proportion to the size of the different parol
of the ovum, is greatest by far in early pregnancy. At
the time of parturition, in some cases, il amounts to or
exceeds four pints ; and, in others, Il is scarcely equal
to as many ounces.  Il is usually iu iho largest quantity
when the child has been some time dead, or is born in
a weakly state.  This fluid Is generally transparent,
often milky, and sometimes of a yellow or light-brown
colour, and very different in consistence;  and tliese
alterations seem to depend upon the state ofthe consti-
tution of  the parent  It docs not coagulate Willi heat,
like the serum of the blood, and  chemically examined,
it is found to be composed  of phlegm, earthy matter,
and sea-salt, in  different proportions in different sub-
jects,  by  which the varieties in its  appearance and
consistence are produced.  It has been supposed to be
excrementitious;  but  it is  generally thought  to be
secreted from the internal surface of the ovum, and lo
be  circulatory as in other cavities.  It was formerly
unagined that the fcetus was nourished by this fluid, of
which it was said  to  swallow some part frequently;
and it was then asserted, that the qualities ofthe fluid
were adapted for its nourishment But there have been
many examples of children born without any passage
to the stomach; and a few of children in which the
head was wanting, and which have nevertheless ar-
rived at the full size.  These cases fully prove that this
opinion is not just, and that there must be some other
medium  by which the child is nourished, besides the
waters.   The incontrovertible uses of this fluid are, to
serve  the purpose of affording a soft bed for ihe resi-
dence of  the fcetus, to which it allows free motion, and
prevents  any external injury  during pregnancy; and
enclosed in the membranes, il procures the most gentle,
yet efficacious, dilatation of the os uteri, and soft parts, at
the time of parturition. Instances have been recorded,
in which the waters of the ovum are said to have been
voided so early as in  the sixth  month of pregnancy,
without prejudice either to the child  or parent.  The
truth of these reports  seems to  be doubtful; because
when the membranes are  intentionally  broken, the
action of the uterus never fails to come on, when all
the  water is evacuated. A few cases  have occurred to
me, says  Dr. Denman,  in practice, which might have
been construed to be of this kind; for there was s daily
discharge of some colourless fluid from the vagina, for
several months  before delivery; but there being no
diminution ofthe size  of the abdomen, and the waters
being regularly discharged at the time of labour, it was
judged that some lymphatic vessel near the os uteri had
been ruptured, and did not close again till tlie patient
was delivered.  He also met with one case, in which,
after the expulsion of  the placenta, there was no san-
guineous discharge, but a profusion  of lymph,  to the
quantity  of several pints, in a few hours after delivery:
but the patient suffered no inconvenience  except from
surprise.
  Liquor antimonii  tartarizati.   See Antimonii
tartarizati liquor.
  Liquor arsenicalis.  See Arsenicalis liquor.
  Liquor calcis.  See Calcis liquor.
  Liquor cupri ammoniati.  See Cupri ammoniati
liquor.
  Liquor ferri alkalini.  See Ferri alkalini liquor.
  Liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis.  See Hydrar
gyri oxymurias.
  Liquor mineralis  anodynus hoffmanni.   Hoff
mann's anodyne liquor.  See Spiritus atheris sulphu-
rici compositi.
  Liquor potassa.  See Potassa liquor.
  Liquor subcarbonatis  potassa.  See Potassa
subcarbonatis liquor.
  Liquor volatilis cornu cervi.   This preparation
of the fluid volatile alkali, commonly termed hartshorn
is in common use to  smell at in faintings, Sec  See
Ammonia subcarbonas.
  LIQUORICE.  Sec Glycyrrhiza.
  Liquorice, Spanish.  See  Glycyrrhiza.
  LIRELLA.  (A diminutive of lire, a ridge between
two furrows.)  Acharius's name for  the black letter-
like receptacles of the  genus Opegrapha.
  LISTER, Martin, was born about 1638, of a York-
shire family, settled in Buckinghamshire, which pro-
duced many niedical practitioners of  reputation  ; and
his  uncle  Sir Matthew Lister, was physician toCharlee
I. and president of the college. After  studying at
Cambridge, where be was made fellow of St. John's 
LIT                                             LIT
college, by royal mandate, he travelled to the Continent
for improvement  On his return, in 1670, he settled ot
York, where he practised for many years with consi-
derable success.  Having communicated many papers
ou  the natural history aud antiquities of the north of
England to the Royal Society, he was elected a fellow
of thai body ; and he likewise enriched theAshmolean
Museum at Oxford.  He came by the solicitation of
his friends to London in 1684, having received a diplo-
ma ut Oxford; and soon after was admitted a fellow of
the College .of Physicians.  In  16'Jri he  accompanied
the embassy'to France, and published an account of
this journey on his return.  He was made physician to
Queen Anne about three years before his death, which
happened iu the beginning  of 1712.   He wrote on the
English  medicinal waters, on  small-pox,  and some
other diseases; but bis  writings, though containing
some valuable  practical  observations, are marked by
too much hyiwihesis aud attachment to ancient doc-
trines ; and he particularly condemned the cooling plan
of treatment iu febrile diseases, introduced by the saga-
cious Sydenham.  His reputation is principally founded
on his researches in natural history and comparative
anatomy, on which  be  published  several separate
works, as well as nearly forty papers in the Philoso-
phical Transactions.
  LiTHAGO'GA.  (From XiBos, a stone, and  ayia, to
bring away.)  Medicines which expel the stone.
  LITHARGE.  See Lithargyrus.
  Litharge plaster.  See Emplastrum lithargyri.
  LITHARGYRUS.    (From  XiBos, a  stone, and
apyupof, silver.)  Lithargyrum.  Litharge.  An oxide
of lead, in  an imperfect state of vitrification.  When
silver is refined by cupellation with lead, this latter
metal, which  is scorified, aud causes the scorification
of the imperfect metals alloyed with the silver, is trans-
formed into a matter composed of small, seniiuanspa-
reni, shining plates, resembling mica; which is litharge.
Litharge is more or less white or red, according to the
metals with which the silver is alloyed.  The white is
called litharge of silver; and the red has been  impro-
perly called litharge of gold. See Lead, and  Plumbi
subacetatis liquor.
  L1T11IA. (Lithia, from Xidtios, lapideus.) Lithion;
Lithina.   1. A new alkali.  It was discovered by
Arfredson, a young chemist of great merit, employed
in  the laboratory of Berzelius.  It  was found  in a
mineral from the mine of Uteu in Sweden called peta-
lite by D'Andrada, who  first distinguished it.  Sir H.
Davy demonstrated by Voltaic electricity, that the basis
of this alkali is a metal, to which the name of  lithium
bas been given.
  Bernelius gives the following simple process as a test
for lithia in minerals:—
  A fragment of the mineral, the size of a pin's head,
is,to be heated with a small excess of soda, ou a piece
of platinum foil, by a blowpipe for a couple of minutes.
The stone  is decomposed, the soda liberates the lithia,
and the excess of alkali preserving the whole  fluid at
this temperalure, it spreads over the foil, and surrounds
tbe decomposed mineral.  That part of the platinum
near  to  the  fused alkali becomes of a dark  colour,
which is more intense, and spreads over a  larger sur-
face, in proportion as there is more lilhia in the mineral.
The  oxidation of the platinum does not take place
beneath the alkali, but only around it, where the metal
is in contact with both air and lithia.   Potassa destroys
tbe reaction of tbe platinum on the lilhia, if the lithia
be not redundant.  The  platina resumes  its metallic
surface, after having been washed and heated.
  Caustic  lithia  has a very sharp, burning taste.  It
destroys the cuticle of the tongue like potassa.  It does
not dissolve with great facility in water, and  appears
not to be much more soluble in hot than in cold water.
In this  respect it has an analogy with lime.   Heat is
evolved during its solution in water.
  When exposed to  tlie air it does not  attract moist-
ure but absorbs carbonic acid, and becomes opaque.
When exposed for an hour to a white heat in a cover-
ed  platinum  crucible, its bulk does not appear to be
diminished: but it has absorbed a quantity of carbonic
acid.
  2. The name of a genus of diseases  in Good's No-
Bology.   Class, Eccritica; Older, Catotica. Urinary
calculus.
  Ll'THIAS.  A lithiote, or salt, formed by the union
of the lithic  acid or acid of the stone sometimes found
in the bladder of,animals with salifiable bases; thus
lithiate of ammonia, Sec
  LITHl'ASIS.  (From XSos, a stone.)
  1.  The formation of store or gravel.
  2.  A tumour of the eyelid, under wbich  is a hard
concretion resembling a stone.
  LITHIC ACID.  (Acidum lithicum; from XiBos, a
stone,  because it is obtained from the stones  of the
bladder.)  Addum uricum.  This was discovered in
analyzing human calculi, of many of which it consti-
tutes the greater part, and of some, particularly that
which  resembles wood in appearance, it forms almost
the whole.  It is likewise present in human urine, and
in that of the camel.  It is found in those arthritic
concretions commonly called chalkstones.   It is often
called uric acid.
  The  following  are the results of Scheele's experi-
ments on calculi, which were found to consist almost
wholly of this acid.
  1.  Dilute sulphuric acid produced no effect on the
calculus, but Die concentrated  dissolved it; and the
solution, distilled to dryness, left a  black coal, giving
off sulphurous acid fumes.  2. The muriatic acid,
either diluted or concentrated, had no effect on it even
with ebullition.  3.  Dilute nitric acid attacked it cold;
and with the assistance of heat, produced an efferves-
cence and red vapour, carbonic acid was evolved, and
the calculus was entirely dissolved.  The solution was
acid, even when saturated with the calculus, and gave
a beautiful red colour to the skin in half an hour alter
it was  applied; when evaporated, it became of a blood-
red,  but the colour was destroyed by adding a drop of
acid:  it did  not precipitate muriate of barytes, or
metallic solutions, even with the addition of an alkali;
alkalies rendered it more yellow, and if superabundant,
changed it by a strong digesting heat to a rose colour;
and  this mixture  imparts a similar colour to Ihe skin,
and  is  capable of precipitating sulphate of iron black,
sulphate of copper green, nitrate of silver gray, super-
oxygenated muriate of mercury, and solutions of lead
and  zinc, white.  Lime-water produced in the nitric
solution a white precipitate, wbich dissolved  in the
nitric and muriatic acids without effervescence, and
without destroying their acidity.  Oxalic acid did not
precipitate it.  4. Carbonate of potassa did not dissolve-
it, either cold or hot, but a solution of perfectly pure
potassa dissolved it even cold.  The solution was yel-
low ; sweetish to tbe taste; precipitated by all the acids,
even the carbonic;  did not render lime-water turbid;
decomposed and  precipitated solution of iron brown,
of copper gray, of silver black, of zinc, mercury, and
lead, white;  and exhaled a smell of ammonia.   5.
About 200  parts of lime-water dissolved the calculus
by digestion, and lost its acrid taste.  Tbe solution was
partly  precipitated by acids.  6.  Pure water dissolved
it entirely, but it was necessary to boil for some time
300  parts with one  of the  calculus in powder.  This
solution reddened tincture of litmus, did not render
lime-water turbid, and  on cooling deposited in small
crystals almost the whole of what it had taken up.   7.
Seventy-two grains distilled in a small glass retort over
an open fire, and gradually brought to a red  heat, pro-
duced  water of ammonia  mixed wilh a little animal
oil, and a brown sublimate, weighing 28 grains, and 12
grains of coal remained, which preserved its black
colour on red-hot iron in the open air.  The brown
sublimate was rendered white by a second sublimation;
was destitute  of smell, even when moistened by an
alkali; was acid to the taste;  dissolved in boiling
water, and also in  alkohol, but in less quantity; did
not precipitate lime-water; and  appeared to resemble
succinic acid.
  Fourcroy has found, that this acid is almost entirely
soluble in 2000 times its weight of cold water, when
the powder is repeatedly treated with it.   From his
experiments he infers, that it contains azote, with a
considerable portion of carbon, and but little hydrogen,
and  little oxygen.
  Of its combinations with the basis we  know but
little.
  Much additional information has been obtained;
within these few years on Ihe nature and habitudes of
the lithic acid.  Dr. Henry wrote a medical thesis, and;
afterward published a paper  on the subject,  in the-
second volume of the  new series of the Manchester
memoirs, both of which contain many important facts.
He procured the acid in the manner above described 
LIT
LIT
by Fourcroy.  It has the form of white shining plates,
which are denser than water.  Has no taste nor smell.
It dissolves in about 1400 parts of boiling water.  It
reddens the infusion  of litmus.   When  dissolved in
nitric acid, and evaporated to dryness, it leaves a pink
sediment  The dry acid is not acted  on nor dissolved
by the alkaline carbonates, or sub-carbonates.  It de-
composes soap when assisted by heat;  as it does also
the alkaline sulphurets and hydrosulphurets.  No acid
acts on it, except those that occasion its decomposition.
It dissolves  in hot solutions of potassa and soda, and
likewise in  ammonia, but  less readily. The lithates
may be formed, either by mutually saturating the two
constituents, or we may dissolve the acid in an excess
of base, and we may then precipitate by carbonate of
ammonia.   The lithates are all tasteless, and resemble
in appearance lithic acid itself. They arc not altered
by exposure  to the atmosphere. They are very sparing-
ly soluble in water.   They are decomposed by a red
heat, which destroys the acid.  The lithic acid is pre-
cipitated from these salts by all the acids, except the
prussic and  carbonic.   They are decomposed by the
nitrates, muriates, and acetates of barytes, strontites,
lime, magnesia, and alumina.  They are precipitated
by all the metallic solutions except that of gold.  When
lithic acid is exposed to heat, the products are car-
buretted hydrogen, and carbonic  acid, prussic acid,
carbonate of ammonia,  a sublimate, consisting of am-
monia combined with a peculiar acid, which has the
following properties:—
   Its colour  is yellow, and it has a cooling, bitter taste.
It dissolves readily in water, and in alkaline solutions,
from which  it is not precipitated by acids.  It dissolves
also sparingly in ajkohol.  It is  volatile, and when
sublimed a second Ume, becomes much whiter.   The
watery solution reddens vegetable blues, but a very
small quantity of ammonia destroys this properly.  It
does not cause effervescence with alkaline carbonates.
By evaporation  it yields permanent crystals, but ill
defined, from adhering animal matter.  These redden
vegetable blues.   Potassa, when added to these crys-
tals, disengages ammonia.  When  dissolved in nitric
acid, they do not leave  a red  stain, as happens with
uric acid; nor does their solution in water decompose
the earthy salts,  as happens with alkaline lithates (or
urates).   Neither hns it any  action  ou the salts of
copper, iron, gold, platinum, tin, or mercury.  With
nitrates of silver, and mercury, and acetate of lead, it
forms a while precipitate, soluble in nn excess of nitric
acid.   Muriatic  acid occasions no precipitate in the
solution of these crystals iu water.  These properties
Bhow, that the acid of the sublimate is  different from
the uric, aud from every other known acid.  Dr. Austin
found, that by repeated distillations lithic acid was re-
solved into ammonia, nitrogen, and prussic acid.
  When lithic acid is projected into a flask with chlo-
rine, there is formed, in a little time, muriate of ammo-
nia, oxalate  of ammonia, carbonic acid, muriatic acid,
and  malic acid; the same results are obtained by
passing chlorine through water, holding this acid in
suspension.
  LITHIUM.  The metallic basis of lithia. See Lithia.
  LITHOlDKc'.  (From XiBos, a stone, and rir5os, a
likeness: so  called from its hardness.)  The petrous
portion of the temporal bone.
  Litho'labum.  (From XiBos, a stone, and XauSavia,
to seize.)  An instrument for extracting the stone from
the bladder.
  LITHO'LOGY.  (Lithologia; from XiBos, a stone,
and  Xoyos, a discourse.)  A discourse, or treatise on
stones.
  Lithoma'rga. See Lithomarge.
  LITHOMARGE.  Stone marrow.   A mineral, of
which there are two kinds, the  friable and the in-
durated.
  LITHONTRIPTIC.  (Lithontriptitus; from XiBos,
a  stone,  and Tpifiui,  to  bear  away.)   Lithontryptic.
From the strict sense and common acceptation of the
word, this class of medicine should comprehend such
as possess a power of dissolving calculi in the urinary
passages.  It is, however, doubted by many, whether
there be in nature any such substances.  By this term,
then, is meant those substances which possess a power
of removing a disposition in the body to the  formation
of calculi.   Tbe researches of modern chemists have
proved, that these calculi consist mostly of a peculiar
acid, named the lithic or uric acid.   With this sub
      30
stance, tlie alkalies arc capable of uniting, and form-
ing a soluble compound ;  and these are, nrrordlngly.
almost the sole lithontriptics.  From the exhibition or
alkaline remedies, the symptoms arising from stone In
the bladder are very generally alleviated; and they
can be given lo such an extent that  the urine becomes
very sensibly alkaline, and is even capable of exerting
a solvent power on these concretions.  Their adminis-
tration, however, cannot  be continued to this extent
for any length of time, from the irritation they produce
on the stomach and  urinary organs.  The use, there-
fore, ofthe alkalies, as solvents, or lithontriptics, Is now
scarcely ever attempted; they are employed merely to
prevent the increase of the concretion, and to palliate
the painful symptoms, which they do apparently by
preventing tbe generation of lithic acid, or the Repara-
tion  of it by the kidneys; the urine is thus rendered
less irritating, and the surface of the calculus is allowed •
lo become smooth.
  When the alkalies are employed with this view, they
are generally given neutralized, or with excess of car-
bonic acid. This renders them much less irritating
It at the same time, indeed, diminishes their solvent
power; for the alkaline carbonates exert no action on
urinary calculi; but they are still capable of correcting
that acidity in the prims vis, which is the cause of llie
deposition ofthe lithic acid from the urine, and, there-
fore, serve equally to palliate the disease.  And when
their acrimony is thus diminished, their use can be
continued for any length of lime.
  It  appears, from the experiments of Fourcroy and
others, that some other ingredients of calculi, as well
as the lithic acid, are dissolved  by  the caustic alkali,
and various experiments have shown, that most calculi
yield to its power. It is obvious, however, that what
is taken by the mouth is subject to many changes in the
alimentary canal, and also the lymphatic and vascular
systems; and in this way it must be exceedingly diffi
cult to get such substances (even were they not liable
to alterations)  in  sufficient quantity into the bladder.
Indeed, there are  very few authenticated cases of the
urine being so changed os to become a menstruum for
the stone.  Excepting the case  of Dr. Newcombe,
recorded  by Dr. Whytt, the instance of Mr. Home is
almost the only one.  Though lithontriptics, however,
may not  in general dissolve the stone in the bladder,
yet it is an incontrovertible fact, that they frequently
mitigate the pain: and to lessen such torture as that
of the stone in the bladder, is surely an object of no
little importance.  Lime was  long  ago known as  a
remedy tor urinary calculi, and different methods were
employed to administer it.  One of these plans fell into
the hands of a  Mrs. Steevens, and her success caused
great anxiety for the discovery of the secret.  At last
Parliament bought the secret for the  sum of 5000/.  In
many instances, stones which had been unquestionably
felt, were no longer to be discovered; and as the same
persons were examined by surgeons of the greatest skill
and eminence, both before and after the exhibition of
her medicines, it was  no wonder that the conclusion
was drawn,, that  the  stones  really were dissolved.
From the cessation of such success, and; from its now
being known thai  the stones are occasionally protrhded
between the fasciculi ofthe muscular fibres ofthe Mad-
der, so as to be lodged in a kind of cyst on the oulsTde
of the muscular coat, and cause no longer any grlty-
ances, surgeons of the present day are inclined to suspect
that this must have happened in Mrs. Steevens's cases.
This was certainly what happened in one ofthe cases
on whom the medicine had  been tried. It is evident
that a stone, so situated, would not any longer produce
irritation, but  would also be quite indiscoverable by
the sound, for, in fact, it is no longer in the cavity of
the bladder.
  As soap was, with reason, supposed to increase the
virtues of the lime, il led to the use of caustic alkali,
taken in  mucilage, or veal broth.   Take of pure po-
tassa, 5 viij; of quick-lime, 5 iv; of distilled water, IbiJ.
Mix  them well together in a large bottle, and let them
stand for twenty-four hours.  Then pour off the ley,
filter it through paper, and keep it in well-stopped vials
for use.  Of this, the dose is from thirty drops to 3 ij,
which is  to lie repeated two or three limes a-day, in a
pint of veal broth, early in the morning, at noon, and
in the evening.  Continue this plan for three or four
months, living, during the course, onjuch things as
least counteract the effect of the medicine. 
LIV                                             LIV
  The common fixed  alkalies, or carbonated alkali,
and the acidulous soda-water, have  of late been used
as lithontriptics.  Honey has also been given; and Mr.
Home, surgeon at the Savoy, has recorded its utility in
his own and in his father's cases. Bilters have like-
Wise been tried.
  Dismissing all theories, lime-water, soap, acidulous
soda-water,  caustic, alkali, and bitters, are  useful in
cases of stone.   Of the soap, as much may be taken as
the stomach will bear, or as much as will prove gently
laxative; but of the lime-water, few can take more
than  a pint daily.
  The acidulous soda-water may be taken in larger
quantities, as it is more agreeable.
  There is  a remedy celebrated in Holland, under the
name of liquor lithontriptica Loosii, which contains,
according to an accurate analysis,  muriate of lime.
This, professor Hufeland recommends in the following
form:
         B; Calcis muriate 3j.
           Aqua; distillate,  | ij. ft. solutio.
  Thirty drops are to be taken  four times a-day, which
may be increased as far as the  stomach will bear.
  For curing stone patients,  little  reliance  can be
placed iu any lithontriptics hitherto discovered, though
they may rationally be given, with a  confident hope of
procuring an alleviation of the  fits of pain attending
the presence of stone in the bladder.  After  all, the
only certain method of get ting rid of the-calculus is the
operation.  See Lithotomy.
  ["Lithontriptor.   (From  XiBos, a  stone,  and
Spvnrio, to  break.)  The name of an instrument, in-
vented by Dr. Civialo of Paris, for reducing calculi in
the bladder into small particles or a  powder, which is
voided with  the  urine, and lithotomy thus rendered
unnecessary. The lithontriptor consists of a straight
silver catheter, of considerable diameter, and enclosing
anotiier of steel, the lower extrcmiiy of which consists
of three branches, calculated to grasp the stone on with-
drawing the steel cathetera short way within the outer
one, when they become approximated.  The cavity of
the inner catheter is capable of admitting a steel rod,
to which may  be affixed, at the surgeon's option, a
simple quadrangular drill, or a strawberry-shaped file,
or a trephine. By means of a spring, the latter part of
the apparatus Is pressed evenly inwards, and it is made
to revolve with velocity through the medium of a bow,
after the manner of a common hand drill."—Coop.
Sur. Die A.l
  LITHONTRY'PTIC.  (From XiBos, a stone, and
Spvirjta, to break.)   See Lithontriptic.
  LITHOSPERMUM.  (From XiBos, a stone,  and
trncpua, seed; named from the hardness of its seed.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of common gromwell.
See Lithospermum  officinale.
  Lithospermum officinale.  The systematic name
of the officinal gromwell.  The seeds of this  officinal
plant, Lithospermum—seminibus lavibus, corollis vix
calycem  superantibus, foliis lanceolatis, of Linneus,
were formerly supposed, from their stony hardness, to
be  efficacious  in calculous and  gravelly disorders.
Little credit is  given to their lithontriptic character,
-/et tiwy are  occasionally used as diuretic for clearing
•he urinary passages, and for obviating strangury, in
the form of emulsion.
  LITHO'TOMY.  'Lithotomia; from Xifloc, a stone,
and rtuvia, to cut.)   Cystomia.  The operation of cut-
ting into the bladder, in order to  extract  a stone.
Several methods have been recommended for perform-
ing this operation, but there are only two which  can
be practised  with any propriety.  One is, where the
operation is  to be  performed  immediately above the
pubes, in that part of the bladder which is not covered
with  peritonaeum,  called the high  operation.  The
other, where it is done in the perineum, by laying open
tlie neck and lateral part of the bladder, so as to allow
ofthe extraction ofthe stone, called the lateral opera-
tion, from the prostate gland ofthe neck ofthe bladder
being laterally cut
1  LITMUS.   The beautiful  blue prepared  from a
white lichen.  See Lichen roccello.
  Li'tron.   See Nitre.
  Li'tus.  A liniment.
  LI'VER.  (Hepar, f,irap.}  A large viscus, of a deep
red coloiu of great size and weight, situated under the
diaphragm,  in  the right hypochondrium, its smaller
portion occupying part of the epigastric region.  In the
human body, the liver  is divided into two principal
lobes, the right  of which is by far the greatest.  They
are divided on tlie upper side by a broad ligament, and
on ihe other side by a considerable depression or fossa.
Between  and below these two lobes is a smaller lobe,
called  lobulus spigelii.  In describing this viscus, it is
necessary to attend to seven principal circumstances:—
its ligaments; its surfaces; its margins; its tubercles;
its fissure; its sinus; and the pori biliarii.
  The ligaments of  the liver  are five in number, all
arising from the peritoneum.  1. The right lateral
ligament, which connects the thick right lobe with the
posterior part of the diaphragm.  2.  The left lateral
ligament, which connects the convex surface and mar-
gin of  tlie left lobe with the diaphragm, and, in those
of whom the liver is very large, with the oesophagus
and spleen.   3.  The broad or middle  suspensory liga-
ment, which passes from  tbe diaphragm into the con
vex surface, and separates the right  lobe of the  liver
from the left. It descends from above through the large
fissure to the concave surface,  and is then distributed
over the whole liver.  4.  The round ligament, which
in adults consists of the umbilical vein, indurated into
a ligament.   5.  The coronary ligament.
  The liver has two  surfaces, one superior, which is
convex and smooth, and one inferior, which is con-
cave,  and lias  holes and depressions to receive, not
only the contiguous  viscera,  but the vessels running
into the liver.
  The margins of the liver are also two in number;
the one, which  is posterior and superior is obtuse, the
other,  situated anteriorly and inferiorly, is acute
  The tubercles of the liver are likewise two in num-
ber, viz. lobulus anonymus, and lobulus caudalus, and
are found near  the vena porta;.
  Upon looking on the concave surface of this viscus,
a considerable fissure is obvious, known by the name
of the fissure of the liver.
  In order to expose the sinus, it is  necessary to re-
move the gall-bladder, when a considerable sinus, be
fore occupied by the gall-bladder, will be apparent.
  The blood-vessels of the liver are the hepatic artery,
the vena  portie, and the vena cava; hepatica;, which
are described under their proper names.  The absor-
bents of the liver are very numerous.  The liver has
nerves, from the great intercostal and  eighth  pair,
which arise from the hepatic plexus, and proceed along
wilh the hepatic artery and vena porta; into the sub-
stance of the liver.   With regard to the substance of
the liver, various opinions have been entertained.  It
is,  however, now pretty well  ascertained to be a  large
gland, composed of lesser glands connected together by
cellular structure.  The small glands which thus com-
pose the substance of the  liver, are  termed penicilli,
from the arrangement of the  minute ramifications of
the vena porta; composing each gland, resembling that
of the  hairs of a pencil.  The chief  use of this large
viscus  is  to supply a fluid, named bile, to the intes-
tines, which  is  of the utmost importance in chylifica-
tion.   The small penicilli perform this function by a
specific action  on the blood they contain, by which
they secrete in their very minute ends the fluid termed
hepatic bile;  but whether they pour it into what is
called  a follicle, or not, is yet undecided, and is the
cause of the difference of opinion respecting the sub-
stance  of the liver.   If it be secreted into a follicle, the
substance is truly glandular, according to the notion of
the  older anatomists: but if it  be secreted merely into
a small vessel, called a  biliary pore (the existence of
which  can be demonstrated) corresponding to the end
of each of tbe penicilli, without any intervening  folli-
cle,  its  substance is then, in their opinion, vascular. Ac-
cording to our  notions in the present day, in either
case, the liver is said to be glandular; for we have the
idea of a gland  when any arrangement of vessels per
forms the office  of separating from the blood a fluid or
substance different in its nature from the blood.   The
small vessels which  receive the bile secreted by the
penicilli, are called pori biliarii; these converge toge-
ther throughout the substance  of the liver towards its
under surface, and, at  length, form one trunk, called
ductus  hepaticus, which conveys the bile intoeither the
ductus communis choledochus, ot ductus cysticus.  See
Gall bladder.
  Liver, inflammation of.  See Hepatitis. 
LOB
LON
  Liver of sulphur.  See Potassa sulphuretum.
  LIVERWORT.  See Marchantia polymorpha.
  Liverwort, ash-coloured.  See Lichen caninus.
  Liverwort, ground.  See Lichen caninus.
  Liverwort, Iceland.  See Lichen islandicus.
  Liverwort, noble.   See Marchantia polymorpha.
  Ll'VOR.  (From liveo, to be black and blue.) Livid-
uess.  A black mark, from a  blow.   A dark circle
under the eye.
  LIX.   (From Xij, light.)  Woodash.
  LIX'IVIAL.  Salts are so called which are extract-
ed by lixiviation.
  LIXIVIATION.   (Lrzivialis;  from hx, woodash.)
Lessive.  The process employed  by  chemists of dis-
solving, by means of warm water, the saline and solu-
ole particles of cinders, ihe residues of distillation and
combustion, coals, and natural earths.  Salts thus ob-
tained are called Lixivial salts.
  LIXI'VIUM.  (From lix, woodash.)  The liquor in
which  saline and soluble  particles of the residues of
distillation and combustion are dissolved.
  Lixivium saponarium.  See  Potassa liquor.
  Lixivium  tartari.  See Potassa subcarbonatis
liquor.
  LOBATUS.  (From lobus, a lobe.)  Lobed.  Ap-
plied to  leaves which have the margins of the seg-
ments lobed, as in  Anemone hepatica, and to such as
are lobed like the vine thistle, and many geraniums.
  LOBB, Theophilus, practised  as  a physician in
London with considerable reputation, and left several
works on medical topics.  He died in 1763, in the85th
year of his age.  He wrote on fevers, small-pox, and
some other diseases; but his most  celebrated publica-
tion was, " A Treatise on  Solvents of the Stone, and
on  curing the Stone and the  Gout  by Alimenu,"
which passed through several editions,  and was trans-
lated into Latin aud French; he considered the mor-
bid matter of an alkaline nature,  and  vegetable acids
as the remedy.  He  was author also of " A Compen-
dium of the Practice of Physic," and of several papers
in the Gentleman's Magazine.
  Lobed leaf.  See Lobatus.
  LOBE'LIA.  (Named in honour of Lobel, a botan-
ist.) 1. The name  of a genus  of plants in the Lin-
nean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Monogamia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the blue lobelia.
See Lobdia syphilitica.
  Lobelia syphilitica.  The systematic name of the
blue lobelia of tlie pharmacopoeias. The root is the
part directed by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for me-
dicinal use; in taste it resembles tobacco, and is apt io
excite vomiting.  It  derived  the name of syphilitica
from iu efficacy in the cure of syphilis, as experienced
by the North American Indians, who considered it as
a specific in that disease, and with whom it was long
an  important  secret,  which was purchased  by Sir
William Johnson, and since  published  by  different
authors.  The method of employing this medicine is
stated as follows: a decoction  is  made of a handful
of the roots in three measures of water.  Of this half
a measure is taken in the morning fasting, and repeated
in the evening; and  the dose is gradually increased,
till  iu purgative effecu become  too violent, when the
decoction Ts to be intermitted for a day or two, and then
renewed, until  a  perfect cure is effected. During the
use of this medicine, a proper regimen is to be enjoined,
and ihe ulcers are also to be frequently washed with
the decoction, or if deep and foul, to be sprinkled with
the pow der of the inner bark of the New-Jersey tea-
tree, Ceanothus   americanus-   Although the plant
thus used is said to cure  the disease in a very short
time, yet it is not found tbat the antisyphilitic powere
of the lobelia have been confirmed in any instance of
European practice.
  [Lobelia inflata.  See Indian tobacco.  A.]
  LOBULUS.  (Dim. of lobus, a lobe.)   A  small
lobe, as lobulus spigelii.
  Lobulus accessorius.  See  Tsobulus anonymus.
  Lobulus anonymus. lobulus accessorius anterier-
quadratus.  The anterior point of the right lobe of tlie
liver.  Others define it to be tbat space of the great
lobe between the fossa of the umbilical vein and gall-
bladder, and  extending forward from tbe fossa for the
lodgment of the vena porte, to the anterior margin of
the'liver.
  Lobulus  caudatus. Pioeessus caudatus-  A tail-
like process of the liver, sketching downward from the
middleof the great right lobe to the lobulus spigeU. i'
is behind the gall-bladder, and between the foam vena
portarum, and the fissure for the lodgment of the vena
cava.
  Lobtius  SPIGELII.   Lobulus posterior; Lobulus
posticus papillatus.  A lobe of the liver between the
two greater lobes, but rather belonging to the right
great lobe.   From  its situation deep behind, and from
its having a perpendicular papilla-like projection, it Is
called lobulus posterior, or papillatus.  To the left side
it has tbe Assure for the lodgment of the ductus veno-
sus; on the  right, the fissure for the vena cava; and
above, it has the great transverse fissure of the liver,
for the lodgment of the cylinder ofthe porta; obliquely
lo the right, and upwards, it has a connexion with th«
lower concave surface of the great lobe, by the pro
ceasus caudatus, which Winslow calls one of the rooif
of the lobulus spigelii.  It is received into the bosom
of the less curve of the stomach.
  LOCA'LES.   (Locales, the plural of localis.)  The.
fourth class of Cullen's Nosology, which comprehends
morbid affections tbat are partial, and  includes eight
orders, viz. dysesthesias, dysorexie, dyscinesie,  apo-
cenoses, epischeses, tumores, ectopia, and dialyses.
  LOCA'LIS.  Local.  Belonging to a part and not
the whole.   A  common division of diseases is into
general  and local.
  Localis membrana. The pia mater.
  LOCHIA.  (From Xoxtoia,  to  bring forth.)  The
cleansings.   The serous, and for llie most part green-
coloured, discharge that takes place from  the uterus
and vagina of women, during the first four days after
delivery.
  LOCHIORRHCE'A.   (From Xox'a,  and  ptia,  tt
flow.)   An excessive discharge of the lochia.
  LOCKED-JAW.  See  Tetanus.
  LOCULAMENTUM.   In botany means tbe space
or cell between the valves and partitions of a capsule,
distinguished from their number into unilocular, bilo-
cular, Sec.  See Capsula,
  LOCUSTA.  A term  sometimes  applied to  the
spikelet of grasses.  See Spicula.
  LOGWOOD.  See Hamatoxylon campechianum.
  LOMENTACEA3.  (From lomentum; in allusion
to the pulse-like nature of the plants in question, bo as
to keep in view their analogy with the paptiieuacea.)
The nume of an order of plants in Linnssuste Ffsgv
ments of a Natural Method, consisting of sucks* bov*
a bivalve pericarpium or  legume, and not  papttiona*
ceous corolla; as Cassia, Fumaria, Ceretonia, Jtc.
  LOMENTUM.   1. A word used by old Writers en
medicine, to express a meal made of beans, or bread
made of this meal, and used as a wash.
  2. A bivalve pericarpium, divided into cells by very
small partitions, never lateral like those of the legume
  From  its figure it is termed,
  1. Articulatum, when the partitions are visible ex-
ternally  ; as in Hedysarum argenteum.
  2. Moniliforme, necklace-like, consisting of anxuiv
ber of little globules;  as in Hedysarum moliferum.
  3. Aculeatum; as in Hedysarum onobrychis.
  4. Crystatum; as in Hedysarum caput galli.
  5. Isthmis interceptum, when the cells  are much
narrower than the joints; as in Hippocrepis.
  6. Corticosum, the  external bark being woody, and
the inside pulpy; as in Cassia fistula.
  LOMMUJS, Jodocus,  was born  in  Guelderland,
about the commencement of the 16th century.  Having
received from his father a good classical education, he
turned  his attention  to medicine, which he studies)
chiefly at Paris.  He practised for a considerable time
at Tonrnay, where he was pensionary phyeieian in
1557;  and, three years after, he removed to Brussels.
The period of his death is not known.  He left three
small works, which are still valued  from the purity
and elegance of their Latinity;  a Commentary on
Celsus;  Medicinal Observations, in three books; and
a Treatise on the Cure of Continued Fevers; the two
latter  having been  several times reprinted and trans-
lated.
  LOMONITE.  Diphrismatic zeolite.
  LONCHI'TlS.   (From Xoyxn, a lance:  »° named
hecause the leaves resemble the head of a lance.)  The
herb spleenwort.  The Ceterach officinalis.
  Lonoa'm-m.  (From  longus, long: so named from
its lemrth.)   The intestinum rectum.
  LONGING.  A  desire  peculiar  to the female, tm* 
LOU
LOW
only during pregnancy, and those states in which the
uterine discharge is suppressed.
  LONGISSIMUS.  The longest. Parts are so named
from their length, compared to that of others; as loit-
gissimus dorsi, tec
  Lonqissimus  dorsi.  Lumbo dorso trachelien, of
Dumas.  This muscle, which  is somewhat  thicker
th n llie sacrolumbal, greatly resembles it, however,
in iu  shape and extent, and arises, in common with
that muscle, between it and lite spine.   It ascends up-
wards ulong the spine,  and is inserted by small double
tendons into the posterior and inferior part of all the
transverse processes  of the vertebre of the back, and
sometimes of the last vertebra of the neck.  From its
ouuide it sends off" several bundles of fleshy fibres, in-
terspersed with a few tendinous filaments,  which are
usually inserted  into the lower edge of the ten upper-
most ribs, not far from  their tubercles,  in some sub-
jecu, however, they are found inserted in a less num-
ber, and in others, though more rarely, into every one
of the  ribs.   Towards  the upper part  of this muscle
is observed a broad and thin portion of fleshy fibres,
which  cross and intimately adhere to the fibres of the
lonqissimus dorsi. This portion arises from the upper
and posterior part of the transverse processes of tlie
live or  six uppermost vertebre of the back, by as many
tendinous origins, and is usually inserted by six tendi-
nous and fleshy slips, into the transverse processes of
the six inferior vertebre of  the neck.  This portion is
described, by Winslow  and  Albinus, as a distinct mus-
cle ;  by the  former under  the name of transversalis
major  colli,  and by the latter  under that  of trans-
versalis cervices. But iu fibres are so intimately con-
nected  with  those of the longissimus dorsi, that it may
very properly be  considered as  an appendage to the
latter.  The use of thU muscle is to extend the verte-
bre of the back, and to keep the trunk of the body
erect;  by means of iu appendage, it likewise serves tu
turn tlie neck obliquely backwards, and a little to one
side.
  Longissimus manus.  See Flexor tertii internodii
pollicis.
  Longissimus oculi.  See Obliquus  superior oculi.
  LONGITUDINAL.  Longitudinalis. Parts are so
mined from their direction.
  Longitudinal sinus.   Longitudinal sinus  of  the
dura mater.   A  triangular canal, proceeding in  the
falciform process of  the dura mater, immediately un-
der the bones of the skull, from the crista galli to the
tentorium, where it branches into the lateral sinuses.
The longitudinal  sinus  has a number of trabecule or
fibres crossing it.   Iu use 'is to receive  the blood
from the  veins of the pia mater, and convey it into the
lateral  sinuses, to be carried through the internal jugu-
lars to  the heart
  LO'NGUS.  Long.  Some paru arc so named from
their comparative length; as longus colli, Sec.
  Lonous  colli.  Pra dorso  cervical, of Dumas.
ThU is a pretty considerable muscle, situated close to
the anterior and lateral part of the vertebre of the
neck.  Iu outer edge is in part covered by the rectus
Internus major.  It arises tendinous and fleshy within
the thorax, from the bodies ofthe three superior verte-
bra; ofthe back, laterally;  from the bottom and fore-
part of the transverse processes of the first and second
Vertebre of the back, and  of the last vertebre of the
neck:  and likewise from the upper and anterior poinu
of the  transverse processes of the sixth, fifth, fourth,
and third vertebre of the neck, by as many small dis-
tinct tendons; and is inserted tendinous into the fore-
part ofthe second vertebra ofthe neck, near iu fellow.
'Phis muscle, when it acu  singly, moves the neck to
one side; but when both act, the neck is brought di-
rectly forwards.
  LONI'CERA.  The  name of a genus of plants In
the Linnean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Jlfo-
nogynia.
  Lonicera diervilla.  The systematic name of a
species of  honeysuckle.   Diervilla.   The  young
branches  of  this species, Lonicera—racemis termina-
libus, foliis  serratis, of Linneus, are employed  in
North America as a certain remedy in gonorrhoea and
suppression of urine.  It has not yet been exhibited in
Europe.
  Lonicera  periclimrnum.   Honeysuckle.  This
bcnutiful  and connnon plant was formerly used in the
lure  of asthma, for  cleansing soidid ulcers, and re-
 moving diseases of the skin, virtues It does not flow
 appear to possess.
   LOOSENESS.  Sec Diarrhaa.
   LO'PEZ.  Radix lopeziana; Radix indica lopeti
 ana.   The root of an unknown tree* growing, accord-
 ing to some, at Goa.  It is met with in pieces of differ-
 ent thickness, some at least of two inches diameter*
 The  woody part is whitish, and  very light; softer)
 more  spongy, and whiter next the bark, including a
 denser, somewhat reddish, medullary part  The bark
 is rough,  wrinkled, brown,  soft,  and, as  it  Werei
 woolly, pretty thick, covered with a thin paler Cuticle.
 Neither the woody nor conical part has any remarka-
 ble smell or taste, nor any appearance of resinous mat
 ter.   It appears thai this medicine has been remarka-
 bly effectual in stopping colliquative diarrhoeas, which
 had resisted the usual remedies.  Those attending the
 last stage of consumptions were particularly relieved
 by its u>e.  It seemed  to  act, not by an astringent
 power, but by a faculty of restraining  and appeasing
 spasmodic and inordinate motions of  the intestines.
 Dr. Gaubius,  who  gives  this account, compares its
 action to that  of Simarouba, but thinks it more effica-
 cious than this medicine.
   Lopez-root.   See Lopez.
   Lopeziana  radix.  See Lopei.
   Lopha'dia.   (From Xoipos,  the  hinder part of the
 neck.)  Lophia.  The first vertebra of ihe neck.
   LORDOSIS.  (From XopSos, curved, bent.) An
 affection af the spine, in which it is bent inwards.
   Lo'rica.  (From lorico, to crust over.)  A kind of
 lute, with which vessels are coated before they are put
 Into the fire.
   LORICA TION.  Coating.  Nicholson recommends
 the- following composition for the coating of glass ves-
 sels, to prevent their breaking when exposed to heat
 Take of sand and clay, equal paru; make them into a
 thin paste, with fresh blood, prevented from coagu*
 lating by agitation, till it is cold, and diluted with wa-
 ter; add to this some hair, and powdered glass; with
 a  brush,  dipped in  this mixture, besmear the glass,
 and when this layer is dry, let the same operation be
 repeated twice, oroftener, till the coat applied is ubout
 one-third part of an inch in thickness.
   LORRY, Anne-Charles, Was born near Paris, in
 1725.   He studied and practised as a physician, with
 unremitting zeal and peculiar modesty, and obtained
 a high reputation.   At 23, he was admitted doctor of
 medicine  at Paris,  and  subsequently became  doctor-1
 regent of the faculty. He was author of several works,
 some of which still maintain their value; particularly
 his Treatise on Cutaneous Diseases, which combines
 much erudition and accurate observation, with great
 clearness of arrangement, and perspicuity of language.
 Ho died in 1783.
   LOTION.  (Lotio; from lavo,  to wash.)  Ah ex-
 ternal fluid application.  Lotions are usually applied
 by wetting linen in them, and keeping  it on the part
 affected.
   LO'TUS.  (From Xia,  to desire.)   1. A  tree, f'<«j
 fruit of which was said to be so delicious as to innks
 those  who tasted it forsake all other  desires; hence
 the proverb, Aiatov tifrayov, latum gustavi: I  have
 lasted lotus.
  2. The name of a genus of plants in the LifinteaM
 system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order, Decandria.
  LOUIS, Anthony, was horn at Metz, in 1723.  Ha
 attained great reputation as a surgeon, and was ho>
 noured with numerous  appointments,  and marks^of
 distinction, as well in Iris own as in foreign countries.
 He wrote the surgical part of the " Encyclope-die,'' find
 presented several interesting papers to the Royal Aca*
demy  of Surgery, of which he was secretary: besides
 which, he was author of several works on  nnatomi*
cat, medical, and other subjecU.  In a memoir, on the
 legitimacy of retarded births, he maintains that the
detention ofthe foetus, more than ten days beyond the
ninth  month, is physically impossible.
  LOVAGE.   See Ligusticum levisticum.
  LOVE-APPLE.   See Solanum lycopersicum
  LOWER, Richard, was horn in Cornwall, hIirIH
the vear 1631.   He graduated at Oxford, and having
materially assisted the celebrated  Dr.  Willis, in his
dissections, he was  introduced into practice  by thai
physician.  In  1665,  lie published a defence of Willis's
 work on Fevers, displaying much learning and Ing*
 nuity.  Bui hid most Important ptrfoiitKiuec \yitah 
LL'M
LUN
titled,  " Tractalus de Corde, item de motu et  calorc
Sanguinis, et  Chyli  in  eum trausitu,"  printed four
years after.  He demonstrated  the dependence  of the
motions of the henrt upon tlie  nervous influence, and
referred the red  colour of arterial blood lo the  action
of the air in the lungs; he also  gave an account of his
experiments, made at Oxford  "iu February, 1665, on
the transfusion  of blood  from one  living animal to
another, of which an abstract had befoie appeared in
the Philosophical Transactions.  He afterward prac-
tised this upon an insane person, before tlie Royal So-
ciety, of which he was admitted a fellow in 1667, as
well as of ihe  College of Physicians.  The reputation
acquired by these, and some other minor publications,
procured him  extensive practice, particularly after the
death of Dr. Willis, but his political opinions brought'
him inlo discredit at court, aud he declined considera-
bly before the close of his life, in 1691.  The operation
of transfusion  was soon exploded, experience  having
shown  that  it  was  attended with pernicious  conse-
quences.
  Loxa'rturos.  (From Xv\os, oblique, and apBpov, a
joint.)   Loxarthrus.   An obliquity of the joint, with-
out spasm or luxation.
  LOXIA.  (From Xv\ps, oblique.) The specific name
in the genus Entasia of Good's Nosology, for wry neck.
[" Also, in Ornithology, the name of  a genus of birds,
including the Grosbeaks, or Crossbills, of which there
are numerous species."  A.]
  LUCULLITE.  A species of limestone.
  Lu'dus helmontii.  Ludus paracelsi.  The waxen
vein.   A stony matter said to be serviceable in calculus.
  LUDVVIG, Christian Theophilus, was born in
Silesia in 1709, and educated for the medical profes-
sion.  Having a strong bias towards natural history, he
went on an expedition to the north of Africa: and soon
alter his return, in 1733, he became professor of medi-
cine at Leipsic.  The first thesis defended there under
his presidency  related to Ihe manner in which  marine
plants  are nourished; which he  showed not to be by
the root, as is llie case in tlie generality of the vegetable
kingdom.  He  afterward published several botanical
works, in which he  finds many objections to the Lin-
mran arrangement, rather preferring that of Rivinus;
buton very unsatisfactory grounds. Elementary works
were likewise written by him on the different branches
of medical knowledge.  A more important work is
entitled "Adversaria Medico-practica," in three octavo
volumes.  He  has given an account of his trials of
Stramonium and Belladonna in epilepsy, by no  means
favourable to either.   He died in 1773.
  LUES.   (Lues,is. f.; from Xuui, to dissolve, because
 l produces dissolution.)   A pestilence, poison, plague.
  Lues deifica.  One of the many pompous names
formerly given to epilepsy.
  Lues keurodes.  A typhus fever.
  Lues venerea.  The plague of Venus, or the vene-
real disease.  See Syphilis.
  LUISINUS, Louis, was born at Udina, where he
obtained considerable  reputation  about the middle of
tbe 16th century.  He translated  Hippocrates's  aphor-
isms into Latin hexameters: and published a treatise
on regulating the affections of the mind by moral phi-
losophy and tlie medical  art: but his most celebrated
work is entitled " Aphrodisiacus," printed at Venice, in
two folio volumes: the first containing an account of
preceding  treatises on syphilis, the  second compre-
hended principally the manuscript works on the sub-
ject which had not then been committed to the press.
  LU'JULA.  (Corrupted or contracted from Allelu-
jah, Praise the Lord; so called  from iu many virtues.)
See Oxalis ascetosella.
  LUMBA'GO.  (From lumbus, the loin.) A rheu-
matic  affection of the muscles about the loins.  See
Rheumatisvius.
  LUMBAR.  Lumbalis.  Belonging to the loins.
  Lumbar abscess.   Psoas  abscess.  A  species of
arthropuosis, that receives iu name from the situation
in which the matter is  found, namely, upon tlie side
of the  psoas muscle, or between that and the  iliacus
interims.  Between these muscles, there lies a quantity
of loose cellular membrane, in which an inflammation
often takes  place, either spontaneously or from me-
chanical injuries. This terminates ii. an abscess that
can  procure no  outlet but by  a ciicuitous course iu
which  it generally produce- irreparable mischief, with-
out any violent symptoms occurring to  alarm the
      34
patient.  The  abscess  sometimes  forms a swelling
above  Poupart's ligament:  sometimes below It; ana
frequently the  matter glides under the fascia nf the
thigh.  Occasionally, it makes its way through Ilio
sacro-ischiatic  foramen, and ussunies ralher Die ap-
pearance of a  fistula in ano.  The unensint-s* in the
loms, and tlie impulse communicated to ihe tumour by
coughing, evince lhat the disease arises in the lumbar
region; but  it must be  confessed, lhat we can hardly
ever know the  existence of the disorder, before the  tu-
mour, by presenting itself externally, leads us to such
information.  The lumbar abscess is sometimes con-
nected with  diseased vertebra;, which may either be a
cause or effect of the collection of matter.  Thediseaw,
however, is  frequently unattended wilh this complica-
tion.
  The  situation  of the symptoms of lumbar abscess
renders this affection liable  to  be mistaken for some
other, viz. lumbago and nephritic pains, and, towards
iu termination, for crural or femoral hernia.  The first,
however, is not attended with the shivering that occurs
here; and nephritic complaints arc generally discover-
able by attention lo the state of the urine.  The dis-
Unclion from crural hernia is more difficult.  In both,
a soft inelastic swelling is felt in the same situation;
but in hernia, il is attended with obstructed fu;ces,
vomiting, Sec. and its appearance is  always sudden,
while the lumbar tumour Is preceded by various com-
plainU before iu appearance in the thigh.  In n hori
zonlal posture, the abscess also totally disappears, while
the hernia does not.
  Lumbar regions.  The loins.
  Lumbaris externus.  See Quadratus lumborum.
  Lumbaris internus.   See Psoas magnus.
  LUMBRICALIS. (Lumbricaiis musculus ;  from
its resemblance  to the lumbricus, or earth worm.)   A
name given  to some muscles from their resemblance t<
a worm.
  Lumbricalis manus. Fidicinales. Flexor primi  in
ternodii digitorum manus, vel perforatus lumbricalis,
of Cowper; Anuli tendino-phalangiens, of Dumas-
The small flexors of the fingers which assist the bend-
ing the fingers when the long flexors are in full action
They arise  thin and fleshy  from the outside of Hit
tendons ofthe flexor profundus, a little above the lowe.
edge of the carpal ligaments, and are  inserted by Ions
slender tendons into the ouler sides of the broad ten
dons of the interosseal muscles, about the middle of  tin
first joinU ofthe fingers.
  Lumbricales pedis.  Ptantitendino-phalangien, o"
Dumas.  Four muscles like  the former, that mcrcas
tlie flexion of the toes, and draw them inwards.
  LUMBRl'CUS.   (A" Lubricitate ; from iu slipper!
ness.)  Ascaris lumbricoides ; Lumbricus teres  Tin
long round worm.   A species of worm which inhabit,
occasionally the  human intestines.  It has three nip
pies at its head, and a triangular mouth in Its middle
Its length is from four to twelve inches, and its thick
ness, when twelve inches long, about that of a goosi-
quill.  They are sometimes solitary, at  other time-
very numerous.   See tVorms.
  Lumbricus terrestris.  Vermis terrestris.  Th
earth worm. Formerly given  internally when driw
and pulverized as a diuretic.
  Lu'mbus veneris.  See Achillea millefolium.
  LU'NA.   (Luna, a.  t.; a lucendo.)  1. The moot
  2.  The old alcheinistical name of silver.
  Luna cornea.  Muriate of silver.
  Luna plena.   A term used by the old alchemists, i i
the transmutation of metals.
  Lunar caustic.  See Argenti nitras.
  LUNA'RE OS.  One of the bones of the wrist.
  Lunaria  rediviva.  Bulbonach of the German*
Satin and honesty.  It was formerly esteemed as *
warm diuretic.
  LUNA'TICUS.   (From Inna the moon; so called
because the  malady returns, or is aggravated, or influ-
enced by the moon.)
  1.  A lunatic.
  2.  A disease which appears to be influenced by  tha
moon.
  LUNG.  Pulmo.  The lungs are two viscera situated
in the dust, by means of which we breathe.  The lung
in the  right  cavity of the chest is  divided into threu
lobes, that in the left cavity into two.  They hang in
the chest, attached at their superior part to the neck,
by means of the trachea, and  arc separated by  tha 
Lua
LYC
mediastinum.  They are also attached to the heart by
means of the pulmonary vessels.  The substance of
the lungs is of four kinds,  viz. vesicular, vascular,
bronchial, and parenchymatous.  The vesicular sub-
stance is composed of the air-cells.  The vascular in-
Vesu  those cells like a net-work.  The  bronchial is
formed by the ramifications of the bronchia throughout
the lungs, having the air-cells at their extremities ; and
the spongy substance that connecu these paru is termed
the parenchyma.  The lungs are covered with a fine
membrane, a reflection  ofthe pleura, called pleura
pulmonalis.  The  internal surface of the air-cells is
covered with a very fine, delicate, and sensible  mem-
brane, which is continued from the larnyx through the
trachea and bronchia.  The  arteries of the lungs are
the bronchial, a branch  of the  aorta, which carries
blood to the lungs  for their nourishment; and the pul-
monary,  which circulates the blood through  the air-
Cells to undergo a certain change.  The pulmonary
veins return the blood that has undergone this change,
by four trunks, into the left auricle of* the heart.   The
bronchial  veins terminate in  the Vena azygos.   The
nerves of the  lungs are from the eighth pair and great
intercostal. The absorbents  are of two orders; the
superficial, and deep-seated: the former are more readily
detected than  the latter.  The glands of these viscera
are called bronchial.  They are muciparous, and situ-
ated about the bronchia.   See Respiration.
  LUNG WORT. Sec Pulmonaria officinalis.
  LUNULATUS.  Crescent-shaped,  or half-moon-
like :  a term applied to leaves, pods, &c. which  are so
shaped, whether the points are  directed towards the
stalk, or from it; as in the leaves of Passiflora lunula,
aud legumen of Medicago foliat a.
  LU'PIA.  (FroniXvirsw, to molest.)
  1. A genus  of disease, including encysted tumours,
•he contents of which are very thick, and sometimes
solid ; as meliceris, atheroma, steatoma, and ganglion.
  2. (From lupus, a wolf: so called because it does not
cease to destroy the part it seizes.)   A malignant ulcer
Which eau away'the soft paru on which it appears,
laying bare tbe bones and cartilages, and which is
equally fatal with  the cancer.
  LUP'INUS.  (So called by Pliny and  other ancient
Writers.   Professor Martin says the  word owes its
origin to Lupus, a wolf, because planU of this  genus
ravage the ground by overrunning it, after the manner
of that animal.  It is also derived  from Xunij,  grief:
whence Virgil's epithet, tristes lupini;  from  the fan-
ciful idea of iu acrid juices, when tasted, producing a
sorrowful appearance on the countenance.) The name
of a genus of planu.  Class, Diaddphia, Order, De-
candria.
  2. Under this term the white lupin is  directed in
Borne pharmacopoeias.
  Lupinus albus. The systematic name of the white
lupin.  The seed,  the ordinary food of mankind  in the
days of Galen and Pliny, is now forgotten.   Its fari-
naceous and bitter meal is occasionally  exhibited to
remove worms from the intestines, and made into poul-
tices to resolve indolent tumours.
  LUPULIN.  Lupuline.  The name given by Dr.
Ives, of New York, to an impalpable yellow powder, in
Which he believes the virtue of the hop to reside, and
which may be obtained by beating and sifting the hops
used  in brewing.   It appears to be peculiar to llie fe-
male plant, and is probably  secreted by the neciaria.
In preserving beer from the acetous fermentation, and
in communicating an agreeable flavour to it, lupulin
was found to be equivalent to ten times iu weight of
hop leaves.
  LU'PULUS. (From Xvvq, dislike: so named frbm
its bitterness.)  See Humulus.
  LU'PUS.   1. The wolf, so named from its rapacity.
  2.  The cancer is also bo called, because it eau away
the flesh like a wolf.
  Lurid*.  The  name of an order of plants m Lin-
nxus's Fragmenu of a  Natural Method, consisting of
those which  prove some deadly poison; the corolla
mostly  monopetalous; as Datura, Solanum,  Nico-
tiana.                             .
  Lustra'qo.  (From  lustro, to expiate: so  caned
because it was used in the ancient purifications.) Flat
or base vervain.
  LUSUS.  A sport.
  Lusus vatchc.  A  sport of nature , a moniier.
Fee Monster.
  LUTE.  See Lutum.
  Lu'tea corpora.  See Corpus luteum.
  LUTE'OLA.  (From lutum, mud ; because it growl
in muddy places, oris of the colour of mud.)  See
Reseda luteola.
  LU'TUM.   (From  Xvtos,  soluble.)   Camcnlvm.
Mud.  Lute.  A  composition  with which  chemical
vessels are covered, to preserve ttlern from the violence
of the fire, and to close exactly their joinings to each
other, to retain  the substances  Which  they contain
when they are volatile and reduced to vapour.
  LUXATION.   (Luxatio; from luxo, lo put out of
joint.)  A dislocation of a bone from its proper cavity.
  Lyca'nche.  (From Xvxos,  a wolf,  and ayx<a, to
strangle.)  A species of quincy,  in which the patient
makes a noise like the howling of a wolf.
  Lvcanthro'pia. (From Xvxos,  a wolf, and avBpiatros,
a man.)  A species of Insanity, in which the patients
leave their houses in the night, and wander about like
wolves, in unfrequented places.
  LY'CHNIS.   (From Xvxpos,  a  tr>™h; because the
ancients used its leaves rolled up  for torches.)  1. A
name of several  vegetable productions.
  2. The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Decan
dria; Order,  Pentagynia.
  Lychnis segetum.  See Agrostemma githago.
  LYCHNOIDES.   (From lychnis, the name of a
plant, and tiSos,  resemblance.) Like the herb lychnis.
  Lvciinoides segetum.  See Agrostemma githago.
  LYCO'CTONUM. (From Xvkos, a wolf, and xreivia,
to slay : so called because it was the custom of hunt-
ers to secrete it in raw flesh, for the purpose of de*
stroying wolves.) The Aconitum lycodonum.
  LYCOPE'KDON.  (From Xvkos, a wolf, tnatttpSoi,
to break wind: so named because it was supposed to
spring from the  dung of wolves.)  1. The name of a
genus of  plants in the Linnsan system.  Class, Cryp-
togamia ; Order, Fungi.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the puff-bal*.  See
Lycoperdon bovista.
  Lycoperdon bovista.  Tha  systematic  name of
the puff-ball.  Crepitus lupi.  A round or egg-shaped
fungus, the Lycoperdon; subrolundum, lacerato dehis-
cens, of Linmcus; when fresh, of a white colour, with
a very short, or scarcely any pedicle, growing in dry
pasture grounds.   When young,  it is sometimes cover-
ed with tubercles on the outside, and is pulpy within.
By age it becomes smooth externally, and dries inter-
nally into a very fine, light, brownish  dust, which is
used by the common people to stop haemorrhages.  See
Lycoperdon.
  Lycoperdon tuber.  The systematic name of the
truffle.  Tuber cibarium, of Dr. Withering.  A solid
fungus of a globular figure, which grows under the
surface of the ground without any rooU or the access
of light, and attains a size from a pea to the  largest
potato.  It has a rough, blackish coat, and is destitute
of fibres.  Cooks are well acquainted with fu use and
qualities.  It  is  found in woods and pastures in' some
parts  of  Kent, but is not very common in England.
In France and Spain, truffles  are  very  frequent, and
grow to a much larger size than they do here. In these
places the peasants find it worth their while to search
for them,  and they train  up dogs and swine for this
purpose, who, after they  have  been inured to their
smell by their masters frequently placing them in their
way, will  readily scrape them up as they ramble the
fields and woods.
  LYCOPE'RSICUM.   (From Xuicoc,  a wolf, and
irtpcrtKov, a peach: so called from its exciting a violent
degree of lust.)   Lycopersicon,  Wolf's peach.  Love-
apple.  See Solanum lycopersicon.
  LYCOPODIUM.  (From Xvkos, a wolf, and irovs,
a foot: so called  from its supposed resemblance.)  1,
The name of a  genus of plants  in the Linnamn sys-
tem.  Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Musci.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of  the club-moss. See
Lyccpodium clavatum.
  Lycopodium clavatum.  The systematic name of
the club-moss. Wolfs claw.  Muscus davatus. This
plant affords a great quantity of pollen, which Is much
esteemed in some places to sprinkle on young children,
to prevent, and in the curing parts which are fretting.
A decoction of tfie herb is said to be a specific in the
cure of the plica polonica.
  Lycopodium l-»lago.  The  systematic  name of
the upright club  mess.  Muscus crcclus. The decoo- 
LYM                                            LYM
  tion of this plant acts violently as a vomit and a pur-
  gative, and was formerly on that account employed to
  produce abortions.
    LYCO'PSIS.  (From  Xxxos, a  wolf, and oipis, an
  aspect: so called from its being  of the  colour of  a
  wolf,  or  from the circumstance of the flowers being
  ringent,  and having the appearance of a grinning
  mouth.   The herbage is also furnished, says Ambro-
  sinus, with a sort ot rigid hairiness similar to the coat
  of a wolf.)  1. The name of a genus of plants.  Class,
  Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
\   2. The pharmacopceial name of the Wall-btigloes,
* Echium agyptiacum, the Asperugo agyptiaca of Wil-
  denow.
    LY'COPUS. (From Xvkos, a wolf, and ttouc, a foot:
  so named from iu likeness.)  The name of a genus of
  planu in  tlie Linnaean system.    Class, Diandria;
  Order, Monogynia.  Wolfs-claw,  or  water hoar-
  hound.
    Lycopus  europeus.   This plant is sometimes used
  as an  astringent.
    [Lycopus viroinica.  See Bugle weed.  A.]
    Lydian stone.  A flinty slate.
    Lyoi'smus.  (From Xvyt(,ia, to distort.)  A disloca-
  tion.
    Ly'gus.   (From Xvyi^ta, to bend: so called from iu
  flexibility.)  The agnus castus.
    LYMPH.  Lympha.  The liquid contained in  the
  lymphatic vessels.  Two processes may be employed
  lo procure lymph.   One is to lay bare a lymphatic ves-
  sel, divide it, and receive the liquid that flows from it;
  but this  is a method difficult to execute, and besides,
  as the lymphatic vessels arc  not always filled with
  lymph, it is uncertain: the other consisu in letting an
  animal fast during four or five days, and then extract-
  ing the fluid contained in the thoracic duct.
    The liquid obtained in  cither way  has at  first  a
  slightly opaline rose colour.  It has a strong spermatic
  odour; a salt taste; it  sometimes presenU a slight
  yellow tinge, and at other times a red madder colour.
    But lymph does not long remain liquid ;  it congeals.
  Iu rose colour becomes more deep, an immense num-
  ber of reddish filaments  are developed, irregularly ar-
  borescent, and very analogous in appearance  to  the
  vessels spread in the tissue of organs.
    When we examine carefully the moss of lymph thus
  coagulated, we find it formed of two paru; the  one
  solid, and forming  a great many cells, in which  the
  other remains in  a liquid state.  If the solid part be
  separated, the liquid congeals again.
    The quantity of lymph  procured from  one  animal
  is but small; a dog of a large size  scarcely yields an
  ounce.  IU quantity appears to increase according to
  the time of fasting.
    The solid part of the lymph, which may be called
  dot, bas much analogy with tbat of the blood.   It be-
  comes scarlet-red by the contact of oxygen gas,  and
  purple when plunged in carbonic acid.
    This specific gravity of lymph U to that  of distilled
  water as 1022-28: 1000 00.
    Chevreuil analyzed the lymph of the dog:
      Water,..............................926-4
      Fibrin,..............................0042
      Albumen.............................  Cl-0
      Muriate of Soda,.....................    C.l
      Carbonate of Soda,...................    18
      Phosphate of Lime,.................i
      Phosphate of Magnesia,.............  >    0-5
      Carbonate of Lime.................J

                Total.......................10000

    Its  specific gravity is greater than water;  in con-
  sistence, it is thin  and somewhat viscid.  The quan-
  tity in the human body appears to be very great, as the
  system of the lymphatic vessels forms no small pari
  of it   lu constituent principles appear to be albumi-
  nous water and a little salt.  The  lymphatic  vessels
  absorb this fluid from the tela cellulosa of the whole
  body, from all the viscera and the  cavities of the  vis-
  cera ; and convey  it to the thoracic duct, to be mixed
  with the chyle.  •
    The use of the lymph is  to return the  superfluous
  nutritious jelly from every part, and to mix ilwiih the
  ehyle in tlie thoracic duct, there to be further convert-
  ed into the nature  of the animal: and, lastly, it  has
  mixed with it the superfluous aqueous vapour, wbich
        36
is effused into the cavities of the cranium, thorax, ab-
domen, Sec
  LYMPHATIC.    (Lymphatitus;  from  lymph;
lymph.)  1. Of the nature of lymph.
  2.  An absorbent  vessel, that carries a transparent
fluid, or lymph.  The lymphatic vessels of the human
body are small and transparent, and originate in every
pariof tlie body.  With the lacteal vessels of the in-
testines, they form what is termed the  absorbent sys-
tem.  Their termination is in the thoracic duct.  See
Absorbent, Lacteal,  and Thoracic duct.
  Lymphatics of the head and neck— Absorbents are
found on the scalp and about the viscera of the neck,
which  unite  into a considerable branch, that accom-
panies  the jugular  vein.  Absorbents have not been
detected  in  the human brain:  yet there can be no
doubt of there  being such vessels:  it is probable tha!
they pass out of the  cranium through  llie  canalis
caroticus and foramen lacerum in basi cranii, on each
side, and join the above jugular branch, which passes
through some glands as It proceeds inlo the chest to ihe
angle of the subclavian and jugular veins.
  'ihe  absorbents from the  right side of the head and
neck, and from the right arm, do  not run across ihe
neck, to unite with the great trunk of the system; they
have an  equal opportunity  of dropping their contenu
into the angle between the right subclavian and the
jugular vein.   These  vessels  then uniting,  form  a
trunk, which  is little more than nn inch, liny, some-
times not a quarter of an inch, in length, but which has
nearly as great a diameter  as tlie proper trunk of tbe
left side.
  This vessel lies upon the right  subclavian vein, and
receives a very considerable number of lymphatic ves-
sels ; not only does it receive the  lymphatics from the
right side of the head, thyroid gland, neck, &.c. and the
lymphatics of the arm, but it receives also those from
the right  side of the thorax and diaphragm, from the
lungs of this side, and from the parts supplied by the
mammary artery. Both in this and in the great trunk,
theie arc many valves.
  Of the upper extremities.—The absorbcnU of the
upper extremities arc divided into superficial and deep-
seated.  The  superficial absorbents ascend under the
skin  of the hand in every direction to the wrist, from
whence a branch proceeds upon the posterior  surface
of the  fore-arm to  the head of the  radius, over the
internal condyle of the humerus, up to the axilla,
receiving several branches as it proceeds.   Another
branch proceeds from  the wrist along the anterior part
of the fore-arm, and forms a net-work, with a branch
coming over the ulna from the posterior part, and as-
cends on the inside of  the humerus to the glands ofthe
axilla.   The  deep seated absorbents accompany the
larger blood-vessels, and pass through two glands about
tbe middle of the humerus, and ascend to the glands
of the axilla.   The superficial and deep-seated absor-
bents having passed through the axillary glands, form
two trunks, which unite into one, to be inserted with
the jugular absorbents into the thoracic duct, at the
angle formed  by the union of the subclavian with the
jugular vein.
  Lymphatics of the inferior extremities.—These are
also superficial and deep-seated.  The superficial ones
lie between  the skin and muscles.  Those of the toes
and foot form a branch, which ascends upon the back
of the  foot, over the tendon of the crursus  anticits,
forms with other branches a plexus above the ankles.
then proceeds along  the tibia over the knee, sometimes
passes through a gland, and  proceeds up the inside  of
the thigh, to the subinguinal glands.  The deep-seated
absorbents follow the course  of the arteries, and uc
company the  femoral artery, in which course they pass
through some glands  in the leg and above the knee,
and  then proceed  to some dteep-seafed subinguinal
glands.  The absorbents from about the e-* t ;rnal parts
of the pubes,  as the  penis and perineum, and from the
external parts of the pelvis, in general, proceed to the
inguinal glands.  The subinguinal and inguinal glands
send forth several  branches", which pass through the
abdominal ring into the cavity of the abdomen.
  Of the abdominal and thoradc vicera.—The absor-
bents of the lower extremities accompany the external
iliac artery, where they are  joined by many brancheu
from the uterus, urinary bladder, spermatic chord, and
some branches accompanying the internal iliac artery-
Ihey then ascend to the  sacrum, where they fesrm » 
MAC
MAC
plexus, which proceeds  over the psoas muscles, and
meeting with the lacteals of the mesentery, form  the
thoracic duct, or trunk of the absorbenu, which is of a
serpentine form, about the size of a crow-quill, andruns
up the dorsal vertebre, through the posterior opening
of the diaphragm, between the aorta and vena azygos,
to the angle formed by the union of the left subclavian
and  jugular veins.  In  this course  it receives:—the
absorbents of the  kidneys,  which arc superficial  and
deep-seated, and  unite as they  proceed  towards the
thoracic duct:  and the absorbents of  the spleen, which
are upon iu peritoneal coat, and unite with those of
the pancreas:—a branch from the plexus of  vessels
passing above and below the duodenum, and formed
by the absorbenu of the stomach, which come from the
less  and  greater curvature, and are  united about the
pylorus with those of ihe pancreas  and  liver, whicli
converge from  the external  surface and internal parts
towards the porta of the liver, and also by several
branches from the gall-bladder.
  Use of lymphatics.—The office  of these vessels is
to take up substances  which are  applied to  their
mouths; thus the vapour of circumscribed cavities, and
of the cells of the cellular membrane, are removed by
the lymphatics of those paru ; and thus mercury and
other substances are taken into the system when rubbed
on the skin.
  The principle by which this absorption takes place,
is a power inherent in the mouths of absorbing vessels,
a vis insita, dependent on the high degree of irritability
of their internal membrane by which the vesseU con-
tract and propel the fluid forwards.  Hence the use of
this function appears to be of the utmost importance,
viz. to supply the blood with chyle;  to remove the su-
perfluous vapour of circumsbribed cavities, otherwise
dropsies, as hydrocephalus, hydrothorax, hydrocardia,
ascites, hydrocele, Sec  would constantly  be taking
place: to remove the superfluous vapour from the cells
of the cellular-membrane dispersed  throughout every
part of the body, that anasarca may not take place: to
remove the hard and soft  parte of the  body, and to
convey into the system medicines which are applied to
the surface of the body.
  Lymphatic glands.  Glandula lymphatica.   See
 Conglobate gland.
  Litpo'ma.  See Lipoma.
  LY'RA.   (From  Xvpa, a lyre, or musical instru-
ment.)   PsaUerium.  The triangular medullary space
between the posterior crura of the fornix of the cere-
brum, which is marked with prominent medullary
fibres that give the appearance of a lyre.
  LYRATUS.   (From lyra, a musical instrument.)
Lyrate  or lyre-shaped. A leaf is so named which is
cut into transverse segmenU, generally longer towards
the extremities of the leaf, which  is rounded as  in
Erysimum barbaria.
  Ly'rus.  (From lyra, the lyre: so called because iu
leaves are divided like the strings of a lyre.) See Ar-
nica montana.
  Lyswy'ia.   (From Xuui, to loosen, and yvtov, a
member.)   The relaxation of limbs.
  LYSIMA'CHIA.   (From Lysimachus, who first dis-
covered it.) The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
nscan system.  Class, Pentandria ;  Order, Monogynia.
  Lysimachia  numulaRia.  The systematic name of
the money-wort.  Nummularia; Hirundinaria;  Cen-
timorbia.   Money-wort. This plant is very common
in our ditches.  It was formerly accounted vulnerary ;
and was said to possess antiscorbutic and restringent
qualities.   Boerhaave looks upon  it as  similar to a
mixture of scurvy-grass witii  sorrel.
   Lysimachia purpurea.   See Lythrum salicaria.
   LYSSA.  (Avtroa, rabies.)  The specific name in
Good's  Nosology for hydrophobia.   Entasia lyssa.
   Lyssode'ctus.   (From Xvaaa,canine madness, and
SaKvvpi, to bite.)  One who is mad in consequence of
having been bitten by a mad animal.
   LYTHRODES.   See Scapolite.
   LY'T HRUM.  (From XvBpov, blood: so called from
its resemblance in  colour.)   The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Dodccandria;
Order, Digynia.
   Lythrum salicaria. Lysimachia purpurea.  The
systematic name of the common or purple willow-herb.
The herb, root, and flowers possess a considerable
degree of astringency, and are used medicinally in the
cure of diarrhoeas  and dysenteries, fluor  albus, and
haemoptysis.
   LYTTA.  (The  name of a genus of insecu.)  See
 Cantharis.
M
       MThis letter has two significations. When herbs,
    • flowers, chips, or such-like substances are or-
dered in a prescription, and M. follows them, it signifies
manipulus, a handful;  and when several ingredients
have been directed, it is a contraction of misce; thus,
m.f. haust. signifies mix and let a draught be made.
  Maca'ndon.  (Indian.)  A tree growing in Malabar,
the fruit of which is roasted  and eaten as a cure for
dysenteries, and in cholera morbus, and other com-
plaints.
  Macapa'tli.  Sarsaparilla.
  Macaxocotli'pera.  The name of a tree in the
West Indies, the fruit of which is sweet and laxative.
A decoction of the bark of this tree cures the itch, and
tlie powder thereof heal ulcers.
  MACBRIDE,  David, was  born  in  the county of
Antrim, of an ancient Scotch family, in 1726.  After
serving his  apprenticeship to  a surgeon, he went into
the navy, where he remained some years.  At this
period  he was led to investigate particularly the treat-
ment of scurvy, upon which  he afterward published
a treatise.  Alter the peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, he at-
tended the lectures in  Edinburgh and London; and
about the end of 1749, settled in Dublin as a surgeon
and accoucheur, but his youth and modesty  greatly
retarded his  advancement at first.  In 1764, he  pub-
lished  his  Experimental Essays,  which were every
where  received with great applause; and the University
of Glasgow conferred on hnu a Doctor's degree.  For
several years after this he gave  private lectures on
physic; which he published in 1772:  this work dis-
played great acuteness of observation, and very philo-
sophical views of  pathology; and contained a new
arrangement of diseases, which appeared to Dr. Cullen
of sufficient importance to be introduced into his systeic
of nosology.  His merit being thus displayed, he go-
intovery extensive practice; indeed, he was so muct
harassed, that he suffered for some time an almost tota
incapacity for sleep; when an  accidental cold  brough
on high fever and delirium, which  terminated his ex
istence towards the close of 1778.
  MACE.   See Myristica moschata.
  Macedonian parsley.  See Bubon macedonienm.
  Macedoni'sium semen.  See Smymium olusatrum.
  Ma'cer. (From masa,  Hebrew.)  Grecian macer
or mace.   The root which is imported from Barbary by
this name, and is supposed to be the simarouba, and it
said to be  anti-dysenteric.
  MACERA'TION.   (Maceratio; from macero, to
soften by water.)  In a pharmaceutical sense, this term
implies an  infusion either with or without heat, wherein
the ingredients are intended to be almost wholly dis-
solved in order to extract their virtues.
  Macero'na.  See Smymium olusatrum.
  Mach*'rion.  Macharis.   The amputating knife
  MACHA'ON.   The proper name  of an  ancient
physician, said to be one of the sons of Aesculapius;
whence some authors  have fancied to dignify their
own inventions with his name, as particularly a col-
lyrium, described by Scribonius, intituled,  Asclepias
Machaonis; and hence ilso, medicine in general is by
some called Ars Machaonia.
  Machiname'ntum aristionis.   A machine for re
during dislocation. 
MAG
MAQ
   JdA'CIES.  Emaciation.  See Atrophy and Tabes.
   MA'CIS.  Mace.   See Myristica.
   MACKAREL.  This  delicious fish is the Scomber
 scomber of Linneus.  When fresh it is of easy diges-
 tion, and very nutritious.   Pickled and salted, it be-
 comes hard and difficult for the stomach to manage.
   (The Scomber genus forms a family of fish, most of
 which are remarkable for their beauty and elegance,as
 well as for their qualities of being generally good food.
 The New-York markets  are supplied with abundance
 of mackarel in their season.  There are  eight species
 frequenting tlie ocean and waters adjacent to this city,
 and they are all eatable; some of them, however, are
 more abundant than others.  We have the following,
 vis
        Scomber grex,
                 vernalls,
                 plumbeus,
                 duc.tor,
                 crysos,
                 maculatus,
            ..    zonatos, and
                 sarda.—A.]
   MACQ.UER,  Joseph,  was born  at Paris, in 1710,
 where he became doctor of medicine, professor of phar-
 macy, and censor royal.  He was likewise a member
 of some foreign  academies, and conducted the  medi
 cal and chemical department of the Journal  des Sea-
 vans.  He pursued chemistry, not so much with a view
 of multiplying pharmaceutical preparations,  as had
 been mostly the case before, but, rather as a branch of
 natural philosophy ; and gained a considerable reputa-
 tion by publishing several  useful and popular works
 on the subject.   The most laborious of these was  a
 dictionary in two octavo volumes; subsequently trans-
 lated into English by lieir, with great improvements.
 He published also " Formula; Medicamentoruin Magis-
 traliuni,"  and had a share  in the composition of the
 Pharmacoptria Parisieusis of 1738.   His death occur-
 red in 17^4.
   MACROCE PHALUS.   (From paxpos, long, and
 xttbaXn, tiie head.)   The name of a whale fish.  See
 Physttcr microcephalus.
   MACRUPHVSOCE'PHALUS. (From/iaxpof, long,
 $vais, nature, and xeibaXi}, the head, so called from  the
 length ofthe head.)   One who has a head unnaturally
 long and  large.   This word, according to Turton, is
 only used by Ambrose Pare.
   MACRO'PIPEK.  (from paxpos, long, and ntirtpi,
 pepper.)  See 1'ijnr longum.
   MACkOIW'lE'A.   (From paxpos. long, and irvtia,
 to breathe.)  A  difficulty ot' breathing, where the  in-
 spirations are at long intervals.
   MA'CULA.   A spot, a permanent discoloration of
 some portion of the skin, often with a  change of its
 texture, but not connected  with any disorder of  the
 constitution.
   Macula matricis.  A mother's mark.  SeeMavus
 materim?.
   -MACL'LATUS.   Spotted:   applied  in botany to
 Stems, petals, Ace. as the stem of the common  hem-
 lock, Conium maculatum; the petals of the Digitalis
 purjiurea-
   Mad-apple. See Solanum mclongena.
   MADARO'SIS.  (From pabos, bald, without hair.)
 A detect or loss of eyebrows or eyelashes, causing a
 disagreeable  deformity, and painful  sensation of the
 eyes, in a strone Ii2i.1t.
  MADDER. SeeRubia.
  MADNESS.   See Melancholia, and Mania,
  Mildness, canine.   See  Hydrophobia.
  MA'DOR.  Moisture.  A sweating.
  MADREl'ORA.  Madrepore.  1.  A genus in natu-
 ral history, of the class, Vermes; and order, Zoophyta.
 An animal resembling a Medusa.
  2.  A species of coral.  It consisu of carbonate  of
 lime, and  a little animal membraneous substance.
  MaGATTI.Cjesar, was born in 1579, in the dutchy
of Reggio.   He distinguished himself by his early pro-
 ficiency in philosophy and medicine at Bologna, where
 fie graduated in his  lbtlt year; and afterward went
to Rome.  ReUirnirig at last to bis native country, he
 soon acquired so much reputation in his profession,
that he was invited, as professor of surgery, to Ferrara ;
 find after greatly distinguishing himself in that  capa-
city, he was induced, during a severe illness, to enter
 biio the fraternity of Capuchins.  He still continued,,
      33
 however, to practise, and acquired the confidence of
 persons of the first rank, especially the duke of Modena
 But suffering severely from the stone, he underwent an
 operation  at Bologna in 1647, which he did not long
 survive.  He was author of a considerable improve-
 ment in the art of surgery, by his work entitled, "De
 rsra Medicatione Vulncruni," condemning the use of
 tents,  and recommending a  simple, easy method  of
 dressing, without the irritation of frequently cleansing
 and rubbing the tender granulations: and in nn appen-
 dix he refutes  tlie notion of gun-shot wounds being
 envenomed, or attended with  cauterization.   He after-
 ward  published a defence of this work against some
 objections'of Sennertus.
   Maqda'leon.  (From uaooio, to  knead.)  A mass
 of plaster, or other composition, reduced to a cylindri-
 cal form.
   Magella'nicus cortex.  See Wintera aromatica.
   MA'GISTERY.  (Magisterium; from magister, a
 master.)  An obsolete term used by ancient chemists
 to signify a peculiar and secret method of preparing
 any medicine, as it were, by a masterly process.  The
 term was also long applied to all precipitates.
   MAGISTRA'LIA.  (From magister, a master.)  Ap-
 plied, by way of eminence, lo such  medicines  as are
 extemporaneous, or in common use.
   Maqistra'ntia.  (From magistro, to rule: bo called,
 by way of eminence, as exceeding all others in virtue.)
 See Imperatoria.
   MA'GMA.    (From   pacroia,  to blend  together.)
 Ecpiesma.  1. A thick ointment.
   2. The faeces of an ointment after tlie thinner pans
 are strained off.
   3. A confection.
   MA'GNES.   (From  Magncs, its inventor.)   The
 magnet, or loadstone.    A muddy iron ore, in which
 the iron is modified in such  a manner as to afford a
 passage to  a fluid called the magnetic fluid.  The mag-
 net exhibits certain phenomena; it is known  by its pro-
 perty of attracting steel  tilings, and is found in Au
 vergne, iu Biscay, in Spain, in Sweden, and Siberia.
   Magnus arsenicalis. Arsenical magnet.  It is a
 composition of equal parts of antimony, sulphur, and
 arsenic, mixed and melted together, so us to become a
 glassy body.
   Magnes epilepsia:.   An old and obsolete name  of
 native cinnabar.
   MAGNE'SIA.  1. The ancient chemists gave this
 name to such substances  as they conceived lo have the
 power of attracting any  principle from  the air.   Thus
 an earth which, on being exposed to the air, increased
 in weight,  and  yielded vitriol, they called  magnesia
 vilriolata: and later chemists, observing in  their pro-
 cess for obtaining magnesia, that nitrous  acid  was
 separated, and an  earth left  behind, supposing it had
 attracted the acid, called it  magnesia  nitri, which,
 from iu colour, soon obtained the name of magnesia
 alba.
   2. The name of one of the primitive earths, having
 a metallic basis, called magnesium,  It has been found
 native in the state of hydrate,
   Magnesia may be obtained by pouring into a solu-
 tion of iu sulphate a solution  of subcarbonate of soda,
 washing the precipitate, drying jt, and exposing it to a
 red heat.  It is usually procured in commerce, by act-
 ing on magnesian limestone with the impure muriate
 of magnesia, or bittern of the sea-salt manufactories.
 The muriatic arid  goes to the lime, forming a soluble
 Bait, and leaves  behind the magnesia of both the bit-
 tern and limestone.  Or  the bittern is decomposed by
 a  crude subcarbonate of ammonia, obtained from the
 distillation of bones in iron cylinders. Muriate of am.
 monia and subcarbonate of  magnesia  result.   The
 former is evaporated to dryness, mixed with chalk, and
 sublimed.   Subcarbonate of ammonia is thus recover-
 ed, with which  a new quantity of bittern may be de-
 composed ;  and thus, in  ceaseless repetition, forming
 an elegant and economical process.   100 paru of crys-
 tallized Epsom salt, require for complete decomposition
56 of subcarbonate of potassa, or 44 dry subcarbo-
 nate of soda, and yield 16 of pure magnesia  after cal-
cination.
  Magnesia U a white, soft powder.  Its sp. p-. is 2.3
by Kirwan.  It renders the syrup of violcte, and infu-
sion of red  cabbace, green, and reddens  turmeric.  It
is infusible, except by the bydroxygen blow-pipe. It has
scarcely any taste, and no smell.  It is nearly insoluble 
MAG
MAG
in water; but It absorbs a quantity of that liquid wilh
the production of heat.  And when it is thrown down
from the sulphate by a caustic alkali, it  is combined
with water constituting a  hydrate, which, however,
separates at a red heat  It contains  about one fourth
iu weight of water.
  When magnesia is exposed to the air, it very slowly
attracu carbonic acid.  It combines with sulphur, form-
ing a sulphuret.
  The metallic basis, or magnesium, may be obtain-
ed  in the state  of amalgam with mercury by elecui-
zation.
  When magnesia is strongly heated in  contact with
2 volumes of chlorine, this gas is absorbed, and 1  vo-
lume of oxygen is disengaged.  Hence it is evident that
there exists a combination of magnesium and chlorine,
or a true chloride.  The salt called  muriate of mag-
nesia, is a compound of the chloride and water.  When
it is aeted on by a strong heat, by far  the greatest part
of the chlorine unites to the hydrogen of tiie water,
and rises in  the form of muriatic acid gas; while the
oxygen of the decomposed water  combines with  the
magnesium to form magnesia.
  Magnesia is often associated with lime  in minerals,
and their perfect separation becomes  an intetesting
problem in analysis.
  Properties.    Pure  magnesia does not form with
water an adhesive ductile mass.   It  is in the form of
a very white  spongy  powder, soft to the touch, and
perfectly tasteless. It is very slightly  soluble in water.
It absorbs carbonic acid gradually from the atmosphere.
It changes very delicate blue vegetable colours to green.
Iu attraction to the acids is weaker than those of the
alkalies.  Its salts are partially decomposed by ammo
nia, one part of the magnesia being  precipitated, and
the other forming a triple compound.  Iu specific gra-
vity is about 2.3.  It is infusible even by the most  in-
tense heat;  but when mixed with some  of  the other
earths it becomes fusible.   It combines with sulphur.
It does not  unite to  phosphorus or carbon.   It is not
dissolved by alkalies in the humid way.  When heated
strongly, it becomes phosphorescent.  With the dense
acids it becomes ignited.  With all the acids it forms
salts of a bitter taste, mostly very soluble.
  The magnesia ofthe present London Pharmacopoeia
was formerly called Magnesia calcinata; usla ; pura.
It is directed to be made thus:—Take of carbonate of
magnesia, four ounces; burn it in a very strong fire,
for two hours, or until  acetic acid being dropped  in,
extricates no bubbles of gas.  It is given as an absorb-
ent, antacid, and eccoprotic, in cardialgia,  spasms, con-
vulsions, and tormina of the  bowels  of infants; pyro-
Bis, flatulencies, and other diseases of the prima; via;;
obstipation, leucorrhoea, rickeu, scrofula, crusta lactea,
and podagra.   The dose is from half a  drachm to a
drachm.
  Magnesia calcinata.  See Magnesia.
  Magnesia, hydrate of.   A mineral found in New
Jersey, consisting of magnesia and water.
   [" The structure of this new and interesting mineral
Is very distinctly foliated;   and  the  folia; frequently
radiate from  a centre.   Their lustre is  more or  less
shining and pearly; and they are somewhat.elastic.
  The laminae when separate are transparent; in  the
mass only semi-transparent; and  by exposure to  the
weather, Iheir surface becomes dull and opaque.
   It U soft, and may be scratched by  the finger nail,
like talc.  It  slightly adheres to the tongue; and its
■p. gr. is 2.13.  IU colour is  white, often tinged with
green; iu powder is a pure white.
   It becomes opaque and friable before the blow-pipe,
and its weight is diminished.  In diluted sulphuric acid,
it nearly dissolves without  effervescence,  and yields a
limpid solution extremely bitter to the taste.  Accord-
ing to Prof. Bruce, to whom we  are indebted for a
knowledge  of this mineral, it is composed of  pure
magnesia 70, water 30.
   It is sufficiently distinguished from talc by iu solu-
bility in acids.
   It is found at Hoboken, New-Jersey, in veins, a few
lines to two inches in thickness; they traverse serpen-
tine in various directions,  and, near the sides of  the
veins, the serpentine is sometimes intermixed with the
foliae of the magnesia."—Cleav. Min.
   Specimens of thU hydrate, or native magnesia, have
also been found in the veins of the serpentine at Hobo-
ken, and on Staten Island,  in a pulverulent form, aud
when collected has the appearance of the magnesia
alba of the shops, a specimen of which is in my pos-
session.  A.]
  Magnesia usta.  See Magnesia.'.
  Magnesia vitriolata.  See Magnesia sulphas.
  Magnesia:subcarbonas. Magnesiacarbonas; Mag-
nesia alba.  Subcarbonate of Magnesia.  The London
College direct it to be made as follows:—Take of sul-
phate of magnesia, a pound; subcarbonate of potassa,
nine ounces; water, three gallons.   Dissolve the sub
carbonate of potassa in three pints  of the water, and
strain; dissolve also the sulphate of magnesia separately
in five pints of the water, and strain;  then add the rest
of the water to this latter solution, apply heat, and
when it boils, pour in the former solution, stirring them
well  together;  next, strain through  a  linen  cloth;
lastly, wash the powder repeatedly with boiling water,
and dry it upon bibulous paper, in a heat of 200°.  It
is in form of very fine powder, considerably resembling
flour in iu appearance and feel;  it has no sensible
taste on the tongue;  it gives  a faint greenish colour  to
the tincture of violeu,  and converts turnsole to  a blue.
It is employed medicinally as an absorbent, antacid,
and  purgative, iu doses from half a drachm to two
drachms.
  Magnesia sulphas. Sulphas magnesia; Sulphas
magnesia purificata;  Magnesia vitriolata;  Sal ca-
tharticus  amarus.   Sal calharticum amarum.  Sul-
phate of magnesia.   Epsom  salt.  Bitter purging salt.
  The sulphate of magnesia exists in several minera.
springs, and in sea-water.
  It is from  these saline solutions that the salt is ob-
tained ; the method generally adopted for obtaining it
is evaporation,  which causes the salt to crystallize in
tetrahedral prisms.   It has  a very bitter taste, and is
soluble in its own weight of water at 60°, and in three-
fourths of iu weight of boiling water.  Sulphate of
magnesia, when perfectly pure, effloresces; but lhat
of commerce generally contains foreign salts, such  as
the muriate of magnesia, which renders it so deliques-
cent, tli at it must be kept in  a close vessel or bladder.
By the action of heat it undergoes  the watery  fusion,
and  loses its water of crystallization, but does not part
with its acid.  One hundred pans of crystallized sul-
phate of magnesia consist of 29.35  paru of acid, 17 of
earth, and 53.65 of water.  The  alkalies, strontian,
barytes, and all the salts formed  by these salifiable
bases, excepting the alkaline  muriates, decompose sul-
phate  of  magnesia. It is  also decomposed by the
nitrate, carbonate, and muriate of lime.
  Epsom salt is a mild and gentle purgative, operating
with sufficient efficacy, and in general with ease and
safety, rarely occasioning any gripes, or the other in-
conveniences of resinous purgatives.   Six or eight
drachms may be dissolved in a proper quantity of com-
mon water ;  or four, five, or  more in a pint or quart of
the  purging  mineral waters.  These solutions  may
likewise be so managed, in  small doses,  as to produce
evacuation from the other etnunctories;  if the  patient
be kept warm, they increase  perspiration,  and  by
moderate exercise  in  the cool air,  the  urinary dis-
charge. Some allege that this salt has a peculiar effect
in allaying pain, as in colic, even independently  of
evacuation.
  It is, however, principally used for the preparation
ofthe subcarbonate of magnesia.
   [Magnesian limestone.  This is amagnesian car-
bonate of lime, of which  there  are two varieties;
common magnesian limestone, or bitter-spar, and do-
lomite ; both of which have been found  iu abundance
in Pennsylvania, New-VTork, and Connecticut.  Some
of the quarries supplying this limestone may hereafter
become important in the manufacture of Epsom salu,
or sulphate of magnesia.  A.]
   MAGNESITE.  A yellowish gray or white mineral,
composed of magnesia, carbonic acid, alumina, a ferru-
ginous manganese, lime, and water, found in serpentine
rocks, in Moravia.
   MAGNESIUM.  The metallic basis  of magnesia.
See Magnesia.
   MAGNET.  See Magnes.
   MAGNETISM.  The property which iron possesses
of attracting or repelling other iron, according to cir-
cumstances, that is, similar poles of magneu repel, but
opposite poles attract each other.
   Magnetism, animal.  A  sympathy lately supposed,
,by some persons, to exist between  the magnet and the
                                          <I9 
MAL
MAL
 human body;  by means of wh:elt the former hecame
 capable of curing many diseases in an unknow n way,
 somewhat resembling the performances ofthe old ma-
 gicians.  Animal magnetism is now entirely exploded.
   Magnum os.  The  third bone  of the lower row of
 bones of the carpus, reckoning from the thumb towards
 the little finger.
   MAGNUS.  The term is applied to parts from their
 relative size; and to diseases and remedies from their
 Importance; as magnum os, magnus morbus, magnum
 dei donutn, &.c.
   Magnum pei ponux.  So Dr. Mead calls the Peru-
 vian hark.
   Mao nus morbus.  The great  disease.  So Hippo-
 crates calls the epilepsy.
   Maoy'daris.  The root ofthe laserwort
   Mahagoni.  See Atriefr7ij'a.
   Mabaleb.  A species of Prunus.
   Mahmou'dy.  Scammonium.
   MAIDENHAIR.  See Adianthum,
   Maidenhair, Canada.  See Adianthum pedatum,
   Maidenhair, common.  See Asplenium trichomanes.
   Maidenhair, English.  See Adianthum.
   Maidenhair, golden.  See Polytrichum.
   Maidenhair-tree.  Ginan itsio- The Ginko biloba.
 In China and Japan, where this tree grows, the fruit
 acquires the size of a damask plumb, and contains a
 kernel resembling that of our apricot.  These kernels
 always make part ofthe desert at all public feasu and
 entertainments.  Tbey are said to promote digestion,
 and to cleanse the stomach and  bowels.  The oil is
 Used at the table.
   Majanthemum.  See Convallaria majalis.
   MAJORA'NA.  (Quodmense Maio floreat, because
 it  flowers in May.)   See Origanum majorana.
   Majorana syriaca.  See Teucrium marum.
   MA'LA.  (From malus, an apple: so called from iu
 roundness.)  A prominent part  of the cheek.  See
 Jug ale os..
   Mala  «thiopica-  A species  of love-apple.  See
 Solanum lycopersicum.
   Mala Assyria.  The citron.
   Mala aurantia.  Seo Citrus aurantium.
   Mala cotonea.  The quince.
   Mala insana mora.  See Solanum mclongena-
   Malabar plum.  See Eugenia jambos.
   Malabathri oleum.  Oil of cassia.
   Malaba'turinum.  (From  paXafiaBpov,  malaba-
 tflrum.) Ointment of malabathruin. It is compounded
 of myrrh, spikenard, malabathruin, and many other
 aromatic ingredients.
   Malara'tiirum.  (yiaXaiaBpov: from Malabar, in
 India, whence  it was brought, and betre, a leaf, Ind.)
 See Laurus cassia.
  Ma'laca radix.  See Sagittaria alexipharmaca.
   Malacca bean.  See Avicennia tomentosa.
  Mi/lacue. (Malache, es. f.; from uaXaxos, soft : so
Balled from tho  softness of iu leaf.)  The mallow.  See
Moloa.
  MALACHITE,  (From paXaxn, the mallow: from
Its resemblance in colour to the mallow.)  Mountain
 blue, a carbonate of copper ore found in Siberia.
  MALACHOI.ITE.  See Sahlile.
   Mala'cia. (From paXaxto"'. a ravenous fish.)  De-
 praved appetite, when such things are coveted as are
 pot proper for food.  See Pica.
  M ALACO'STEON. (From paXaxos, soft, and o$-tov,
 J. bone.)  A softness of the bones.  Mollitics ossium.
 A  disease ofthe bones, wherein they can  be bent with-
 out fracturing them, in consequence either of the inor-
 dinate absorption nf the phosphate of lime, from which
 their  natural solidity is derived, or else of this matter
 pot being duly secreted and deposited in their fabric.
 In rickets, the  bones only yield and become distoried
 by slow degrees; but in. the present disease they may
 bb at once bent in any direction. The mollifies ossium
 ft  rare, and  iu causes not well understood-   All the
 cases of mollifies ossium yet on  record have proved
 fatal, and no means of cure are yet known.  On dissec
 tion of those who have died, all the bones, except tbe
 teeth, have been found unusually soft, so that scarcely
 any of them could resist tbe knife, the periosteum has
 been found thicker  than usual, and the bones have
 been found to contain  a great quantity of oily matter
 apd little earth.
  MalaVtica.  (From paXaatna, to soften-)  Emol-
 lient medicines,
      40
   Malaopve tta.  Grains of paradise.
   Ma i.abi > i t-A.  Grains of paradise.
   MAI.A'GMA.  (From paXaocia, to soften.)  A poul
tice.
   MalamiRIS.  A epecies of Piper.
   MALA'RIA.  The name in Italy of an endemic in-
termittent, which  attacks people In ihe neighbourhood
of Rome, and especially about the Pontine marshes,
which have often  been drained to carry off the decom-
posing animal and vegetable materials that spread their
Aria cattica, as it is called, over tlie whole of the cam-
pagna.
   [The  Malaria of Rome is an infected atmosphere
arising from marsh-miasmata, producing an endemip
disease.  We have, in the United States, many similar
instances of malaria producing also local and endemic
diseases. The Pontine marshes in the neighbourhood
of Rome are very  extensive, and infecl the atmosphere
over a large tract of country.   Lancisi has ably de-
scribed the condition and effecu of the marsh-miasma
of Rome, in his  work De noxiis paludum effiuviis.
The Malaria returns annually during the height of the
warm season, and is destroyed with the approach of
winter, producing  In this country what we call a sea-
sonable disease. The term marsh-miasma, lias become
rather unfashionable, as perhaps iu meaning is too
indefinite, but it is not more so than Malaria.  In fact
they both mean tbe same  thing, or the same state of
the atmosphere, both producing seasonable, mid local
or endemic diseases.  One is an Italian word, meaning
bad air, or a sickening state of the atmosphere.  Mias-
ma is a Greek word, from ptaivia, to infect importing
a polluted, corrupted, or infected slate of tbe atmos
phere.   A.]
   Malarum ossa.  See Jugate os.
   MA'LATE.  Malas.   A salt formed by the union
of the malic acid, or acid of  apples with salifiable
bases; thus malate of copper, malatc of lead, Sec
   Ma'le.  The arm-pit.
  Male fern.  See Polypodium filix mas.
   Male orchis.  See Orchis mascula.
   Mule speedwell.   See Veronica officinalis,
  MALIC ACID.  Acidum malicum.  This acid is ob.
tained by saturating the juice of apples with alkali,
and pouring in the  acetous solution of lead, until  it
occasions no more  precipitate.  The precipitate is then
to be  edulcorated  and  sulphuric acid poured on it,
until the liquor has  acquired a fresh acid taste, with
out any  mixture of sweetness.  The whole is then to
be filtered, to separate the sulphate of lead. The fil-
tered  liquor is the  malic  acid, wbich is very pure,
remains always in a fluid state, and cannot be rendered
concrete.  See Sorbic acid.
  MALIASMUS.   (From  uaXiS, cutaneous vermina
tion.)  Breeding animalcules on the skin, as the louse,
flea, tick, &c.
  MALI'GNANT.  (Malignus; from malus.)  A
term which may be applied to any disease, the  symp-
toms of which are  so  aggravated as to threaten the
destruction ofthe patient.   It is frequently used to sig-
nify a dangerous epidemic.
  Malignant fever.  See Typhus.
  Malignant sore  throat.  See Cynanehe maligna.
  MA'LIS.   (MaXic, and paXtaouos, are Greet iiouns
composing cutaneous vermination.)   The nan*  of  a
genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class, Ecsn liea,
Order, Acrotica.   Cutaneous vermination.   It has six
species, vix. Malis pediculi; pulicis ; acari ; filaria,
astri; gordii.
  MALLEABILITY.  (Malleabilitas; frommalleus,
a hammer.)  The  property which several metals pos-
sess of  being extended under tiie hammer into thin
plates, without cracking.  The thin  leaves of silver
and gold are the best examples of malleability.  See
Ductility.
  Malleamothe.   Pavette; Pavate; Erysipelas eu
rans arbor.  A shrub which grows in Malabar.  The
leaves, boiled in palm oil, cure the impetigo;  the root,
powdered and mixed with ginger, is diuretic.
  MALLEATIO.   A species of St Vitus's dance, In
which the person  has a convulsive  action of one or
both hands, which strike the knee like a hammer.
, Mallei anterior.   See Laxalor tympani.
  Mallei externus.  See Laxalor tympani.
  Mallei internus.  See Tensor tympani.
  MALLEOLUS.  (Dim. of malleus, a mallet: so
called from  iu supposed resemblance to a mallet; 
MAL
MAL-
The ankle, distinguished into external and internal, or
malleolus externus and internus.
  MALLEUS. (Malleus quasi molleus; from mollio,
to soften; a  hammer.)  A bone of the  internal ear is
so termed from iu resemblance.   It is distinguished
into a head, neck, and manubrium.   The head  is
round, and  incrusted with a thin cartilage, and an-
nexed to another bone of the ear, the incus, by gingly-
mus.  Iu neck is narrow, and situated between the
head and manubrium, or handle; from which a long
slender  process arises, adheres to a furrow in the au-
ditory canal, and is continued as far as the fissure in
the articular cavity of the temporal bone.  The ma-
nubrium is  terminated by an enlarged  extremity, and
connected to the membrana tympani by a short conoid
process.
  MALLOW.  See Malva.
  Mallow, round-leaved.  See Malva rotundifolia.
  Mallow, vervain.  See Malva alcea.
  Malograna'tum.   (From  malum,  an apple, and
granum, a grain: so named from iu grain-like seeds.)
The pomegranate.
  MALPIGHI, Marcello, was born  near Bologna,
in 1628.   He went  through  his  preliminary studies
with great eclat, and especially distinguished himself
by  his zealous pursuit of anatomy.   His merit pro-
cured biin, in  1653, the degree of doctor  in medicine,
and, three years after, the appointment  of professor of
physic, at Bologna; but he was soon  invited to Pisa,
by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. However, the air of
this place injuring his health, which was naturally de-
licate, he was obliged, in 1659, to return to his office at
Bologna.  Three years after, lie was  tempted  by the
magistrates  of Messina to  accept the medical profes-
sorship there; but his Uttie deference to ancient au-
thorities involved  him in controversies with his col-
leagues, which forced him to return again to Bologna,
in 1666.  His reputation rapidly extended throughout
Europe, as  a  philosophical  inquirer, and  he was
chosen a member  of the  Royal  Society of London,
which afterward  printed  his works at their own ex-
pense.  In 1691, Pope Innocent XII., on his election,
chose Malpighi for his chief physician and chamber-
lain, when  he removed to Rome; but, three  years
after, he was carried off by an apoplectic stroke.  He
joined, with an indefatigable pursuit of knowledge, a
remarkable degree of candour and modesty; and ranks
very high among the philosophers of the physiological
Bge in which he lived.  He was the first to employ the
microscope  in examining tbe circulation of the blood;
and the same instrument assisted him in exploring tlie
minute structure of various organs, as  is evident from
his first publication on the lungs, in 1661; and this was
followed by successive treatises on many other paru.
In  1669, his essay,  " De  Formatione  Pulli in  Ovo,"
was printed at London, with his  remarks on the silk-
worm, and on the conglobate glands: much light was
thrown by these investigations on the  obscure subject
of generation, and other important poinu of physio-
logy.   He was thence led to the consideration  of the
structure and functions of plants, and evinced himself
an original,  as well as a very profound observer.  His
" Anatome  Plantarum"  was  published by the  Royal
Society, in  1675 and 1679, with some observations on
the incubation of the egg.  His only  medical  work,
" Consultatiorum Medirinalium Centuria Prima,"  did
not appear  till 1713: he was  not  distinguished as  a
practitioner, but deserves praise for pointing out the
mischief of bleeding, in the malignant  epidemics
which prevailed in Italy in his time.
  MALPI'GHIA.  (So named in honour of Malpighi,
the celebrated vegetable anatomist.)   The name of a
genus  of p!anu in the Linnaean system. Class, De-
candria; Order, Trigynia.
  Malpighia glabra.   The systematic name of a
tree which affords  an esculent cherry.
  MALT.  Grain  which has become sweet, from the
conversion  of iu starch into sugar, by an incipient
growth or  germination,  artificially induced,  called
malting.
  Ma'ltha.  (From uaXaoma, to  soften.)   Maltha-
cedes.  1. A medicine softened and tempered with wax.
  2. The name of  the mineral  tallow of Kirwan,
which resembles wax, and is said to have been  found
on the coast of Finland.
  Maltha'ctica.  (From paXBaKtiia, to soften.)  Emol-
lient medicines.
  Maltheohum,  Common salt
  MA'LUM.  1. A disease.
  2. An apple.
  Malum mortuum.  A disease that appears  in the
form of a pustule, which sooii forms a dry, brown,
hard,  and broad crust.  It is seldom attended with
pain, and remains fixed for a long lime before it can
be detached.  It is mostly observed on the tibia  and os
coccygis, and sometimes the face.
  Malum pilars.  See Plica.
  MA'LUS.  See Pyrus malus.
  Malus indica.  Bilumbi  biting-bing, of Bontius.
The Malus indica—frudu pentagono, of Europeans.
It is carefully cultivated in the gardens of the East In-
dies, where it flowers throughout the year.  The juice
of the root  is cooling, and drank as a cure for  fevers.
The leaves, boiled nnd made into a cataplasm with
rice, are famed  iu all soru of tumours, and  the juice
of the fruit is used in almost all external heats, dipping
linen rags in it, and applying them to the parts. It is
drank, mixed with arrack, to cure diarrhoeas; and the
dried  leaves,  mixed with  betel leaves,  and given in
arrack, are said  to promote delivery.  The ripe  fruit is
eaten  as a delicacy, and the unripe made into a pickle
for the use of the table.
  MA'LVA.  (Malva quasi molva; trommollis, soft:
named from the softness of ite leaves.)  1. The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,
Monadelphia; Order, Polyandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common mal-
low  See Malva sylvestris.
  Malva  alcea.  Malva verbenaca.   The vervain
mallow. This plant is distinguished from the common
mallow by iu leaves being jagged, or cut in about the
edges.  It agrees in virtues with the other  mallows,
but it is the least mucilaginous of any.  This,  like to
the other mallows, abounds  with a mucilage,  and is
good for pectoral drinks.
  Malva arborea.  See Alcea rosea.
  Malva rotundifolia. Round-leaved mallow. The
whole herb and root possess similar virtues to the com-
mon mallow.  See Malva sylvestris.
  Malva sylvestris.  The systematic name of the
common mallow.   Malva vulgaris; Malva—caule
eredo herbaceo, foliis septemlobatis acutis, pedunculis
petiolisque  pilosis.   This  indigenous  plant  has  a
strong affinity to the  althaea, both in a botanical and
a medical  respect.  See  Althaa,  The  leaves and
flowers are principally used in  fomentations, cata-
plasms, and emollient enemas.  The internal  use of
the leaves seems to be wholly superseded by the radix
althaea.
  Malva verbenaca.  See Malva alcea.
  Malva vulgaris.   See Malva sylvestris.
  Malvavi'scus.  (From malva, the  mallow, and
viscus,  glue:  so named from its viscidity.) See Al-
thaa officinalis.
  MALVERN.  The village of Great  Malvern has,
for many years, been celebrated for a spring of re-
markable purity, which has acquired ihe name of the
holy well, from the reputed sanctity of iu waters, and
the real and extensive benefit long derived in various
cases from  its use.
  The holy well water,  when first drawn, appears
quite  clear  and  pellucid, and does not become sensibly
turbid on  standing.   It  possesses somewhat of an
agreeable pungency to the taste; but this is not consi-
derable. In other respects it does not  differ in taste
from pure good water.
  The contenu of Malvern holy well are:—some car-
bonic acid, which is  in an uncombined state, capable
of acting upon iron, and of giving a little taste to tlie
water;  but the exact quantity of which has not been
ascertained:—a  very small  portion  of  earth, either
lime or magnesia, united with the carbonic and ma-
rine acids; perhaps a little neutral alkaline salt, and
a very  large proportion of water:—for wc may add,
that, the carbonic acid perhaps excepted, the  foreign
matter is less than that of any spring-water which we
use.  No iron or metal of  any kind is found in  it,
though  there ure chalybeates in the neighbourhood.
  It is  singular that, notwithstanding  its  apparent
purity, this water is said  not to keep well,  and soon
acquires a fcetid smell, by standing in open vessels.
  Malvern  water, like many others, was at first only
employed as an external application; and this,  indeed
is still its principal use,  though it is extended, with 
MAM
MAIN
   some  advantage,  to a  few internal diseases.  It has
   been found highly efficacious in painful and deep ul-
   cerations,  the consequence of a scrofulous habit of
   body, and  which are always attended with much local
   irritation, and often general fever.  Applied to the sore,
   it moderates the profuseuess of the discharge, correcte
   the foelor,  which so  peculiarly marks  a caries of the
   bone, promotes tlie granulating process, and a salutary
   exfoliation of the carious part; and by a long perse-
   verance in this course, very dangerous and obstinate
   cases  have at last been cuied.  Inflammation of the
   eye, especially the ophthalmia, which  is so trouble-
   some in scrofulous habiu, often yields to this simple
   application, and we find, that, for a great number of
   years, persons afflicted with sore eyes have been in the
   habit of resorting to Malvern holy well.  Another order
   of external diseases, for which this water  is greatly
   celebrated, is cutaneous eruptions; even those  obsti-
   nate cases of dry desquamations, lhat frequently fol-
   low a  sudden application of cold in  irritable  habiu,
   are often cured by this remedy.  Where the skin is hot
   and dry, it remarkably relieves the intolerable itching
   of herpetic disorders, and  renders the surface of the
   body more cool and perspirable.  It appears,  however,
   from a nice observation  of Dr. Wall, thai this method
   of treatment is  not  so  successful in  the cutaneous
   eruptions of very lax leucophlegmatic habits, where
   the extremities  are cold and the circulation languid;
   but that it succeeds best where there is unusual irrita-
   tion of the skin, aud where it is apt to break in painful
   fissures, thai ooze out a  watery acrid lymph.  On the
   first application of this water to an inflamed surface, it
   will often,  for a  time, increase the pain and irritation,
   but these effecu go off in a few days.
     The great benefit arising from using Malvern waters
   as an external remedy, In diseases of the skin and sur-
   face of the body, has led to ils employment iu some
   internal disorders,  and often with considerable advan-
   tage.   Of these, the most important are painful affec-
   tions of the kidneys and  bladder, attended  wilh the
   discharge of bloody, purulent or fcetid urine, the hectic
   fever, produced by scrofulous ulceration of tbe lungs,
   or very extensive and irritating sores on the surface of
   the body, and also fistulas of lung standing, that have
   been neglected, and have become constant and trouble-
   some sores.
     The Malvern water is in general a perfectly safe ap-
   plication, and may be used with ihe utmost freedom,
   both as an external dressing for sores, and as a common
   drink.
     The internal use of Malvern  waters  is sometimes
   attended at first with a slight nausea, and not unfre-
   quently, for the first day or  two, it  occasions some
   degree of drowsiness, vertigo, or slight pain ofthe head,
   which  comes on a few minutes after drinking it. These
   symptoms  go off' spontaneously,  after  a few days, or
   may readily  be  removed  by a mild purgative.  The
   effecu  of this waler on the bowels are not at all  con-
   stant ;  frequently it purges briskly for a few  days, but
   it is not uncommon for the body to be rendered costive
   by its use,  especially, as  Dr. Wall observes, with those
   who are accustomed to malt liquors.   In all cases, it
   decidedly increases the flow of urine, and the general
   health  of the patient   The duration of a course of
   Malvern waters must vaiy very  considerably on ac-
   count of the different kinds of disease for which this
   spring is resorted to.
    Mame'i.  The  mammoe, momin,  or  toddy-tree.
   This tree is found in different paru of the West Indies,
   but those on the Island of Hispaniola are  the  best.
   From incisions made in the branches, a copious dis-
   charge of pellucid liquor is obtained, which is called
'  momin, or toddy-wine. It must be drank very sparingly,
   «esuse of iu very diuretic quality.  It is esteemed as
* Tim effectual preservative from the stone, as also a sol-
   ttut of it when generated.   There are two species.
    HAMTLLA.  (Diminutive of mamma, the breast)
   1. The breast of man.
    2. The nipple of the male and  female breasU.
    Mami'ra.  It is said,  by Paulus ./Egineta, to be the
   root of a plant which U  of a detergent quality.  Some
   think it is the root  of  the doronicum;  but what it
   really is cannot be ascertained.
    MA'MMA.  See Breast.
    MA'MMARY.   Belonging to tbe breast
    Mammary artery.  Arteria  mammillaris.   The
   internal mammary artery is a branch of the subclavian,
        42
 aud gives off the mediastinal, thymal, and pericardial
 arteries.   The external mammary U a  branch of llie
 axillary artery.
  Mammary vein.   Vena mamillaris.  These vessels
 accompany the arteries, and evacuate their blood into
 the sulx-lavian vein.
  MAMMEA.  (So called from iu vernacular oppella
 tion in the  West Indies, mamci, and allowed by Lin-
 iiteus, because of iu alfiniiy lo mamma, abreast, allud-
 ing to the shape of iu  fruit)  The name of u genus
 of plants.  Class, Puhiandna; Order Monogynia.
  Mammea  americana.  The systematic name of a
 tree, which affords a delicious fruit called mammea.   Il
 has  a very  grateful flavour when ripe, aud is much
 cultivated in Jamaica, where it is generally sold in the
 markeu for one of the best fruits of the island.
  MAN.  Homo.  Man is compounded of solids, fluids,
 a vital principle,  and,  what distinguishes him  from
 every other animal, a soul.  See Animal.
  Ma'ncoron. According to Oribasius, a  kind  of
 sugar found  in a sort of cane.
  Mancura'na.  See Origanum vulgare.
  MANDIBULA.   (From mando, to  chew.)   The
jaw.  See Maxilla inferior.
  MANDRAGORA.    (From  navSpa,  a  den,  and
 ayttpio, to collect;  because it grows about caves and
 dens of beasts; or from the German  man  dragen,
 bearing man.)  See Atropa mandragora.
  Mandragori'tes.   (From  uavSpayopa, the man-
 drake.)  Wine, in which the  roots of the  male man-
 drake are infused.
  MANDRAKE.   See Atropa mandragora.
  MANDUCA'TOR.   (From manduco,  lo chew.)  A
 muscle which assisu in the action of chewing.
  Ma'nqa.  (Indian.)  The mango-tree.
  MANGANESE.  This  metallic substance  seems
 after iron, to  be the  most frequently diffused meia
 through the  earth; iu ores are very common.  As u
 peculiar metal, it was first noticed by Gahn and Scheele,
 in the years 1774 and 1777.  It is always found in the
state of an oxide, varying in the degree of oxidiseinent.
 La Peyrouse affirmed that he had found  manganese in
 a metallic stale; but there was probably  some mistake
 in his observation.  The ores are distinguished into
gray oxide of manganese, black  oxide of manganese,
reddish white oxide of manganese, and carbonate of man-
ganese.  All these combinations have an earthy tex-
 ture ;  they are very ponderous; they occur both amor-
 phous and crystallized; and generally contain a  large
 quantity  of iron.   Their colour is  black,  blackish-
 brown, or gray, seldom white.  They soil the fingers
 like soot.  They are sometimes crystallized in prisms,
 tetrahedral, rhomboidal, or striated.
  Properties.—Manganese is of a whitish gray colour.
 Its fracture is granulated, irregular, and uneven.  It  is
 of a metallic brilliancy, which it, however, soon  loses
 in the air.  Its specific gravity is about 8.  It is very
 hard, and extremely brittle. It is one of the most refrac-
 tory metals,  and most difficult to fuse, requiring at least
 160° of Wedgwood's pyrometer.  Its attraction of oxy-
 gen is so rapid, tbat exposure to the air  is sufficient to
 render it red, brown, black, and friable, in a very short
 time; it can, therefore, only  be kept  under water, oil,
 or ardent spiriu.  It  is the most combustible of all the
 metals.  It decomposes water by means of heat, very
 rapidly, as well as the greater part of the metallic ox-
 ides.  It decomposes sulphuric acid.   It is soluble in
 nitric acid.  It is fuBible with earths, and colours them
 brown, violet, or red, according to iu state of oxidise-
 inent.  It frees from colour glasses tinged by iron.  It
does not  readily unite with sulphur.  It combines
 with phosphorus.   It unites with gold, silver, and cop-
 per, and renders them brittle.  It unites to arsenic in
 close vessels, but does not enter into union with  mer-
 cury.
  Manganese, heated in oxygen or chlorine, takes fire
 and forms an oxide or chloride. It has been thought dif-
 ficult to decide on the oxides of manganese.
  According to Sir H. Davy there are two oxides only,
 the olive and the  black;  Mr. Brande has three, the
 olive, dark  red, and  black;  Thenard has four, the
 green, the white (iu the slate of hydrate), the chesnut-
 brown, and  tbe black; Berzelius has five, the first gray
 the second green, the third and fourth aie not well de-
 fined, and the fifth U the black.
  Two oxides, however, are well defined.
  1. The first oxide may be obtained by dissolving com 
MAN
MAIS
 tnon black manganese in sulphuric or.nitric acid, add-
 ing a little sugar, and  precipitating by solution of po-
 tassa.  A white powder is obtained, which being heated
 to redness out of the contact  of air, becomes yellow,
 puce-coloured, and, lastly, red-brown.   To be pre-
 served, it should be washed iu boiling water, previously
 freed from air, aud then dried by distilling off the moist-
 ure in  a retort  filled with hydrogen.  The dark olive
 oxide,  when examined in large quantities, appears al-
 most black; but when spread upon white paper, its
 olive tint is apparent. It takes  fire when  gently heated,
 increases  in weight and acquires a browner tint.  It
 slowly absorbs oxygen  from ihe  air, even at common
 temperatures.   It dissolves in  acids withoat efferves-
 cence.   The white powder obtained above, is the hy-
 drated  protoxide.  The different tints which it assumes
 by exposure to air,  are  supposed by Sir H. Davy to de-
  Send on the formation of variable quantities of the
  lack-brown oxide, which probably retains the water
 zmtained in the white hydrate, and is hence deep
 puce-coloured.
   2. The black peroxide.  Its  sp. gr. is 4.  It does not
 combine with any of the acids.  It yields oxygen when
 heated; and by intense ignition passes in a great mea-
 sure into the protoxide.
   Method of obtaining Manganese.—This metal is ob-
 tained by mixing the black oxide, finely powdered, with
 pitch;  making it into a ball,  and putting this into a
 crucible, with powdered charcoal, one-tenth of an inch
 thick at the sides, and one-fourth of an inch deep at the
 bottom. The  empty space is  then to be filled with
 powdered  charcoal; a cover is  to be  luted on;  and the
 crucible exposed, for an hour, to the strongest ileal that
 can be  raised   Or, digest  the  black oxide of manga-
 nese repeatedly, with the  addition of one-sixteenth of
 Biigar,  in  nitric acid;  dilute the mixture  with three
 times its bulk of water; filter  it, and decompose it by
 the addition of potassa ; collect the precipitate, form it
 into a paste with oil, and  put  il into a crucible, well
 lined with charcoal.  Expose the crucible for at least
 two hours to the strongest heat of a forge.
   MANGANESIC  AOLD.  (Acidum  manganesium;
 from  manganese, iu base.) Chevillott and Edwards
 have ascertained that the  carnelion mineral, which is
 formed  by igniting  a mixture of the black oxide of
 manganese and nitre, has tin  property  of making a
 neutral manganesate of potassa.
   Mangel wursel.  The  root of scarcity.  The Beta
 hybrida of Linnaeus.   A plant of great importance, as
 a substitute for bread in periods of famine.  It is culti-
 vated here as green  food  for  cattle, especially milch
 cows.   It has not, however, succeeded  so well in this
 country as in Germany.
   MANGET, John Jambs, was born at Geneva in
 1652.  He originally studied for the clerical profession,
 but after five years' labour, his inclination to niedical
 pursuiu prevailed, and he made such progress, wilhout
 the aid of any teacher, that he was admitted to the de-
 gree of doctor at Valence in 1678.  He then commenced
 practice in his native city, and obtained  considerable
 reputation, and refused many invitations  to go toother
 countries.   In 1699 lie was appointed chief physician
 to Frederick III. afterward first King of  Prussia.  In
 his literary labours he was indefatigable  even to the
 end of his life, which terminated in his  91st year.
 Among the numerous works of compilation, executed
 by him, originality is not to be expected;  nor are they
 remarkable for  judgment  or   accuracy,  though still
 sometimes useful for  reference.  He published ample
 collections on almost every  subject connected with me-
 dicine,  besides  improved  editions of the works of
 others;  but the  most important of his productions is
 entitled  " Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Medicorutn veterum
 et  recentiorum," at  which  he laboured when at least
eighty years of age.
  MANGI'FERA. (From mango, the name of the fruit
which it bears.)  The name of a genus of  planu in the
Linnaean system.   Class Pentandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.  The Mango-tre;.
  Mangipera indica.   The systematic name of the
 mango-tree, which is cultivated all over Asia.  Man-
 ?oes. when ripe, are juicy,  of a good flavour, and so
 ragrant as  to perfume the  air to a considerable dis-
 tance.   T'.ey are eaten either raw or preserved with
 •ugar.   Their taste  is so luscious, that  they soon pall
the appetite.  The unripe fruits are pickled in the milk
qf tbe cocoa-nut, that has stood until sour, with salt,
  capsicum, and garlick.  From the expressed juice is
  prepared a wine;  and the remainder of the kernel can
  be reduced to an excellent flour for the making of bread
    MANGO.  See Mangifera indica.
    Mangostana.   See Garcininmangostana.
    Mangosteen.   See Garcinia mangostana.
    MANIA.   (From patvoyiai,  to  rage.)   Raving oi
  furious madness.   A genus of disease in the class Neu
  roses;  and order Vesania, of Cullen.  The definition
  of mania is delirium, unaccompanied with fever; but
  ihis does not seem  altogether correct, as a delirium
  may prevail without any frequency of puUe or fever;
  as happens sometimes with women in  the hysteric
  disease.  In mania, the mind is not perfectly masterof
  all iu  functions;  it  receives impressions  from  the
  senses,  which  are very different from those produced in
  health;  the judgment and memory are  both lost, or
  impaired, and the irritability of the body is much  di-
  minished, being capable, as is supposed,  of resisting the
  usual mobid eff'ccU of cold, hunger, and watching, and
  being likewise less susceptible of other diseases than
  before.
    Mania may be said to be a false perception of things,
  marked by an  incoherence, or raving, and a resistance
  of the passions to the command of the  will, accom-
  panied,  for the most part, with a violence of action,
  and furious resentment at restraint.
    There are two  species of madness, viz. the melan-
  cholic and furious.
    Madness is occasioned by affections of the mind, such
  as anxiety, grief, love, religion, terror, or enthusiasm;
  the frequent and uncurbed indulgence in any passion,
  or emotions, and by abstruse study.   In short it may be
  produced by any thing that affects the mind so forcibly
  as to take off iu attention from all other affairs.  Vio-
  lent exercise, frequent intoxication, a  sedentary life,
  the suppression of periodical and occasional discharges
  and  secretions, excessive evacuations,  and paralytic
  seizures, are likewise enumerated  as remote causes
  Certain  diseases of the febrile kind have been found to
 occasion madness, where their action  has been very
  violent.   In some  cases it proceeds from an hereditary
 predisposition.   Two constitutions are particularly the
 victims  of madness; the sanguine and melancholic;
 by the difference of which iu appearance is somewhat
 modified.  Each species of mania is accompanied with
 particular symptoms.  Those which attend on the
 melancholic are sadness, dejection  of  spirits, and iu
 attendanu.  Those which accompany  an attack  of
 furious madness, are severe pains in the head, redness
 of the face, noise in the ears, wildness of the counte-
 nance, rolling and  glistening of the eyos, grinding  of
 the teeth, loud roaring, violent  exertion  of strength,
 absurd incoherent discourse,  unaccountable malice  to
 certain persons, particularly to the nearest relatives and
 friends, a dislike to such places and scenes as formerly
 afforded particular pleasure, a diminution of the irrita-
 bility of  the body, with respect to the morbid effecu of
 cold, hunger, and watching, together with a full, quick
 pulae.
   Mania comes on at different periods of life; but, in
 the greater number of cases, it makes  its attack be-
 tween thirty and forty years of age.  Females appear
 to be more subject to mania than males.
   Dissections of maniacal cases, Dr. Thomas observes,
 most  generally show an  effusion  of water into the
 cavities of the brain; but in some cases,  we are able to
 discover evident marks of  previous Inflammation, such
 as thickening and opacity  of the tunica  arachonoides
 and pia mater.  In a few instances, a pretematual hard-
 ness of the substance of the brain.
   From Dr. Greding's observations, It appears that the
 skulls of the greater number of such persons are com
 monly very thick.   Some  he found of a  most extraor-
 dinary degree of thickness;  but it appears that  the
 greater number of insane people die of atrophy and
 hydrothorax.
  The treatment of madness ispartly corporeal, partly
 mental.  The leading indications under tlie first head
 are: to diminish vascular or nervous excitementwhen
 excessive, as in mania;  to increase them when defec-
 tive, as in melancholia;  at the same time guarding
 against the several exciting causes, and removing any
 obvious fault in the constitution, or in particular parts,
 by which the brain may be sympathetically affected.
 Among the most powerful means of lessening excite-
ment is the abstraction of blood, which, freely practised 
MAN
MAR
has been often an effectual remedy In recent cases and
robust habits;  but repeated small bleedings aie rather
likely to confirm the diseo.se; and iu those who  have
long laboured under it ihe object should  merely  be to
obviate dangerous accumulation in the  bead, by occa-
sionally withdrawing the  requisite  quantity locally.
Purging is much more  extensively applicable: where
the strength will admit, it may  be useful to make very
large evacuations in this way; and in all  cases it
should be anile to procure regular discharges from the
bowels, which arc generally torpid.  Calomel is mostly-
proper, as it may evacuate bile more freely, and  have
other beneficial effects; but it usually requires the as-
sistance of oilier cathartics.  The application of cold
to ihe head is materially serviceable under increased
excitement and some have advised it to the body gene-
rally ; at any rale, the accumulation of heal should be
avoided, and  the  antiphlogistic regimen steadily ob-
served.  Emetics have  sometimes had n good effect,
especially as influencing tlie mind of tbe patient; but
to diminish excitement,  and induce diaphoresis, it will
generally lie better to give merely nauseating doses;
and occasionally their operation may be promoted  by
the tepid bath; even the hot bath has been found use-
ful, producing  great relaxation, and rendering the pa-
tient more tractable.  Digitalis  may be employed with
advantage from iu sedative power, exerted especially
on the circulation, pushing it till some obvious effect is
produced.   Narcotics, particularly opium, have  been
much used, but certainly are not indiscriminately pro-
per ;  where there is fulness of the vessels of the head,
they may even do mischief; and where organic disease
exists, they will probably only palliate:  whenever re-
sorted to, file dose should be large, such as may induce
sleep, and if no mitigation of tlie disease appear, it may
be belter not to persevere in them.  Camphor lias been
sometimes decidedly useful carried gradually to a very
considerable  extent.   Blisters and other means of
lessening fulness and irritation in the brain, should not
be neglected, where circumstances indicate their use.—
In the melancholic, on the  other hand, where there is
rather a deficiency  of excitement,  it is  necessary to
direct u more generous diet, nutritious and easy of
digestion,  as  the  stomach is  usually  weak, with a
moderate quantity of some fermented liquor, and medi-
cines of a tonic or even  stimulant nature, especially
ammonia, to relieve flatulence and Acidity.  Attention
should be paid to the bowels, and to maintain the
function of the skin, Sec.   The utility of ihe cold bath
seems questionable  in  melancholies; though it may
occasionally arrest a paroxysm of mania.   Regular
exercise  may contribute  materially to  improve the
health;  and even hard labour has been often signally
useful in a convalescent stale, particularly to those ac-
customed to it.  If the mental derangement supervened
on the stoppage of any evacuation, or tbe metastasis
of any  otber disorder; or appear connected with a
scrofulous or syphilitic taint; proper remedies to restore
the former, or remove the latter, should be exhibited :
and in some instances trepanning has relieved the  brain
from local  irritation.  In  the management of the in-
sane, it is necessary to inspire a certain degree of awe
from a conviction of superior power, and at the  same
time seek to gain their confidence  and affection by
steadiness  and humanity.  Some restraint  is  often
necessary for the  security of the patient, or of others,
carefully watching,  or  even confining them, if they
threaten the lives of their atlendanu.  When they
refuse to take food, or medicine, or any tiling wbich
appears absolutely necessary,  coercion is  proper, or
sometimes these caprices may be overcome by strata-
gem; or exciting  uneasy sensations by tbe motion of
a swing, whirling chair, &c.   In order to remove any
deranged  association of ideas, it will be right to en-
deavour to occupy  their minds with some  agreeable
and regular train of thought,  cheerful music, poetry,
narrative, the elementary pans of geometry, &c. ac-
cording lo their previous inclinations; to lead  them
gradually to their former habiu, and the society of
their friends, engage them in rural sports, take them to
public amusements, the watering places, Sec. but wilh
as little appearance  of design as possible.
   Maniouetta.  See Amomum granum Paradisi.
   MA'NIHOT.  See Jatropha manihot.
   MANI'PULCS.  (Quod manum impleat, because it
Alls tbe band.)  A handful.
   Majmapd'msram.  A common  tree  in the  West-
      44
Indies, the  flowers of which are distilled,  and lbs
waters used against inflammation of the eyes.
  MA'NNA.  (Fromhiumo, a gift,Syrian ; It being tlis
food given bv God to the children of Israel in the w il
demess;  or  from miihua, what is it 7 an exclamation
occasioned  by their wonder at iu appearance.)  Sic
Fraxinus ornus.
  Manna briqantiaca.  A species of manna brought
from the  neighbourhood of Brinnconois, iu Dauplnny.
  Manna calahrina.  Culabrian mnnnn.
  Manna canulata.  Flaky manna, or manna con-
creted on straw, or chips.
  Manna thuris.  A coarse powder of olibnnum.
  Mannipkra  arbor.  (From  manna,  and  fero, to
bear.)  Sec Fraxinus ornvs.
  Manso'rius.   (From mande, to chew.)  Tlie mas-
seter muscle.
  Manti'i.e. The name of a bandage.
  MANUS.  The hand.  This consisu of the carpus,
metacarpus, mid fingers.
  Ma'nus del  1.  A name of a resolvent plaster, de-
scribed by Lemery.
  2. An old  name of opium.
  MAPLE.  See Acer pseudoplatanus, and acer sat-
charinum.
  Mara'nda.  A species of myrtle, growing in Ihe
island  of Ceylon, a decoction of the leaves of  which
is said to be  excellent against the venereal disease.
  MARA'NTA.  1. The name of a genus of plants
in the  Linnxan system.   Class, Monandria;  Order,
Monogynia.
  2. The name of the Indian arrowroot, of  which
there  are three species, the Arvndinacea, Galanga,
and Comesa, all of them herbaceous, perennial exotics
of the Indies, kept here in hot-houses for curiosity;
they have thick, knotty, creeping roots, crowned with
long, broad,  arundinaceous leaves, ending in poinU,
and upright stalks half a yard  high, terminated by
bunches of monopetalous, ringent, five-parted flowers.
They are propagated by parting the rooU in spring, and
planting  thein  in  pou of light rich earth, nnd then
plunging them in the bark-bed.
  Maranta arundinacea.  The root of this species,
commonly called arrow-root, is used by the Indians to
extract the  virus  communicated by  their  poisoned
arrows, from whence  it has obtained iu name.  It Is
cultivated in gardens and provision-grounds  in tlie
West Indies; and  tlie starch is obtained from it by the
following process:—The roots, when a year old, nre
dug up, well washed in water, and then beaten in a
large deep wooden mortar, to a pulp; this is thrown
into a large tub of clean water: the whole is then well
stirred, and  tbe fibrous part wrung out by the hands.
and  thrown away.  The milky liquor being  passed
through a hair sieve, or coarse cloth, is suffered to settle,
and the clear water drained off.   At the bottom of the
vessel Is a  white  mass, which is again mixed with
clean water, and drained:  lastly, the mass is dried on
sheeu in the sun, and is pure starch.
  Arrov-root contains, in small bulk, a greater propor
tion of nourishment than any other yet known.  The
powder, boiled in water, forms a very  pleasant trans-
parent jelly, very superior to that of sago or tapioca,
and is much recommended as a nutritious diet for chil-
dren and invalids.  The jelly is made in the following
manner:—to a dessert spoonful of powder, add as n i ueh
cold water as will make it into a paste; then pour on
half a  pint of boiling water: stir it briskly, and boil it
a few  minutes, when it will become a  clear smooth
jelly ; a little sugar  and sherry wine may he added lor
debilitated patienu, but for infants a  drop or two of
essence of  caraway-seeds  or  cinnamon,  is  prefer-
able, wine being very  liable to become acescent in the
stomachs of infants, and thus disagree with the bowels.
Fresh milk,  either alone or diluted with water, may be
substituted for the water.  For very debilitated frames,
and especially for ricketty children, tliis jelly, blended
with an  animal jelly, as  that of the stag's horn (ra-
sura cornu  cervi), affords a more nutritious diet than
arrow-root alone, which may be done in the following
manner:—Boil half an ounce of stag's born shavings,
in a pint of water, for fifteen  minutes; then  strain
and odd  two dessert-spoonfuls of arrow-root  powder,
previously well-mixed with a tea cupful of water; stir
them briskly together, and boil them for a few minutes.
If tbe  child should be much troubled with flatulency,
two or three drops of essence of caraway-sesda, or a 
MAR
MAR
 little grated nutmeg may be added; but for adults,
 port wine, or brandy, will answer best
   Maranta galanga.  The smaller galangal.   The
 roou of this plant are used medicinally; two kinds of
 galangal  are mentioned in the pharmacopoeias; the
 greater galangal obtained from the Kampferiagalanga
 of Linnaius, and the smaller galangal, the root of the
 Maranta galanga; caulino simplici foliis lanceolatis
 subsessilibus of Linnteus. The dried root is brought
 from China, in pieces from an inch to two in length,
 scarcely  half so thick, branched, full of knou and
 joints, with several circular rings of a reddish-brown
 colour on the ouuide, and brownish within. It has an
 aromatic smell, not  vrry grateful, and an unpleasant,
 bitterish, hot, biting taste.  It was formerly much used
 as a warm stomachic bitter, and generally ordered
 in bitter infusions.  It is now,  however, seldom em-
 ployed.
   MARA'SMUS.   (From  uapatvta,  to grow lean.)
 Emaciation.  1. A wasting away of the flesh, without
 fever or apparent disease.  See Atrophia.
   2.  The name of a genus of diseases in Good's Noso-
 logy.  Class, Hamatica;  Order, Dysthdica.  Emaci-
 ation.  It embraces four species, viz. Marasmus atro-
phia, dimactericus, tabes, phthisis.
  Maraturi'tes.   (From uapaBpov,  fennel.)  A vi-
 nous infusion of fennel; or wine impregnated with
 fennel.
  MARATHROPHY'LLUM.  (From papaBpov, fen-
 nel, and ibvXXov, a leaf: so named because iu leaves
 resemble those of the common fennel. See Ptuceda-
 num officinale.
   Mara'thrum.  (Froni/iapaiviii, to wither: so called
 because  iu stalk  and flowers wither in the autumn.)
 See Anethum faniculum.
   Maraturum sylvestre.  See Peucedanum  offici-
 nale.
   MARBLE.  A species of limestone or carbonate of
 lime.  Powdered  marble is used iu pneumatic medi-
 cine, to give out carbonic acid gas.
   MARCASITE.   See Bismuth.
   MARCESCENS.  Withering, decaying: applied to
 tlie perianths of the Pyrus communis, and Mespilus
 germanica.
   MARCHANTIA.   (Named  after Marchant,  who
 wrote several Essays on the Memoirs of the Academy
 of Science, 1713.)   The  name of a genus of plants.
 Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Alga.
   Marchantia polymorpha.  The systematic name
 of the liverwort.  Hepatica terrestris ; Jecoraria. A
 plant very common in this country.  It has a penetra-
 ting  though mild pungency,  and bitter taste, sinking,
 as it were, into the tongue.  It is recommended as an
 aperient, resolvent, and antiscorbutic ; and, though sel-
 dom used in this country, appears to be a  plant of no
 inconsiderable virtue.
   MARCO'RES.   (Marcores,  pi. of  marcor; from
 marceo,  to  become lean.)   Universal  emaciation.
 The first order in the class Cachexia,  of Cullen's No-
 sology.
   MARESTAIL.   See Hippuris vulgaris.
   MARGARITA.  (From  margahth, Rab.)   The
 pearl.  1. The pearl.  Perla ; Unio.  A small, calca-
 reous concretion,  of a bright transparent whiteness,
 found on the inside of tlie shell, Concha margaritifera
 of Linna;us, or mother-of-pearl fish.  Pearls are very
 highly prized.  Tbey consist of alternating concentric
 layers of membrane and carbonate of lime.  They
 were formerly exhibited as antacids.
  2.  A tumour upon the  eye resembling a pearl.
   MARGARITIC ACID.  (Acidum margariticum ;
 from mangarita, the pearl: so called from iu  pearly
 appearance.)   Margarie  acid.   When we  immerse
 soap made of pork-grease and potassa in a large quan-
 tity of water, one  part is dissolved, while another part
 is precipitated in  the form of several brilliant pellets.
 These  are separated, dried, washed in a large quantity
 of water, and then dried on a filter.   They are now
 dissolved in boiling  alkohol, sp.gr. 0.820, from wliich,
 as it  cools, the pearly substance falls down pure.   On
 acting on this with dilute muriatic acid, a substance of
 a peculiar kind, wliich Chevreuil, the discoverer, calls
 margarine, or margarie acid, is separated.  It must be
 well washed with water, dissolved in boiling alkohol,
 from which  it is  recovered  in  the same crystalline
 pearly form, when the solution cools.
   Mitrgaric acid is pearly white, and tasteless,  its
smell is feeble,  ani  a little similar to that of melted
wax.  Iu specific gravity is  inferior to water.  It
melu at 134° F. ir.to a very limpid, colourless liquid,
which crystallizes, on cooling,  into brilliant needles of
the finest white. It is insoluble in water, but very
soluble in alkohol, sp. gr. 0.800.  Cold margarie acid
has no action on the colour of litmus; but when heated
so as to soften without melting, the blue was redden-
ed.  It combines with the salifiable bases, and  forms
neutral compounds.   Two orders of margarates are
formed, the margarates and the supermargaratee, the
former being converted into the latter, by pouring a
large quantity of water on them.   Other fau besides
that of the hog yield this substance.
  That of man  is obtained under three different forms.
1. In very fine long  needles, disposed in flat stars.  2.
In very fine and very short needles, forming waved
figures, like those of the margarie acid of carcasses.  3.
In very large brilliant crystals disposed in stars, simi-
lar to the margarie  acid  of the hog. The margarie
acids of man and the hog resemble each other; as do
those of the ox  and  the sheep; and of the goose and
the jaguar   The compounds, with the bases, are real
soaps.  The solution in alkohol affords the transparent
soap of this country.
  MARIGOLD. See Calendula officinalis.
  Marigold, marsh.  See Caltha palustris.
  MARINE. (Marinus ; from mare, the sea.)  Ap«
pertaining to the sea.
  Marine acid.  See Muriatic  add.
  Marine salt.  See Soda murias.
  Maripe'ndam.  A plant in the island of St Do-
mingo : a distilled water from the tops is held in great
esteem against pains in the stomach.
  MARI'SCA.  An excrescence about tiie anus, or the
piles in a state of tumefaction.
  Mari'sicum.  The Mercurialis fruticosa.
  MARJORAM.  See Origanum.
  MARJORA'NA.  See Origanum.
  MARLE.  See Limestone.
  MARMALADE. The pulp of quinces, or any other
fruit boiled into a consistence with honey.
  Marmary'g.-e.  (From  pappaipta, to shine.)  An
appearance of sparks, or coruscations, flashing before
the eyes.
  Marmola'ria.  (From  marmor, marble: so named
because it  is spotted like  marble).  See Acanthus
mollis.
  MARMOR.   Marble.
  Marmor metalicum.   Native sulphate of barytes.
  Marmora'ta aurium.   (From marmor, marble.)
The wax of tlie ear.
  Marmo'reus  Tartarus. The  hardest  species  of
human calculus.
  Marmorige.   An  affection  of  the eyes, in which
sparks and flashes of fire are supposed to present them
selves.
  Maroco'stinum.   A  purgative extract made  of
the marum  and costus; originally made by Minde-
rerus.
  MARROW.  Medulla.   Tbe fat substance secreted
by the small arteries of its proper membrane; and con-
tained in the medullary cavities of the long cylindrical!
bones.  See  Bone.
  Marrow, spinal.  See Medulla spinalis.
  Marrubia'strum.   The Balote  nigra,  or slinking;
hoarhound.
  MARRUBIUM.   (From  marrob, a bitter juice,
Heb.)  Hoarhound.   1. The name of a genus of plants
in the  Linna?an system.  Class, Didynamia; Order,
Gymnospcrmia.
  2.  The pharmacopceial name of the common hoar-
hound.  See Marrubium vulgare.
  Marrubium album.  See Marrubium vulgare.
  Marrubium alysson.   Alyssum.   Galen's  mad-
wort.  It is supposed  to be diaphoretic.
  Marrubium aquatkum.  Water hoarhound; opeir-
ing, corroborant.
  Marrubium  hispanicum, or Spanish hoarhound.
See Marrubium  verticillatum.
  Marrubium nigrum kostidum.  The black, stink-
ing hoarhound, or Balote nigra.
  Marrubium vkrticilgatum. Marrubium hispani-
cum.  The Sideritis syriaca^or base hoarhound.
  Marrubium vulgare.   The systematic name  of
the common  hoarhound.  Marrubium album; Marru-
bium—dentibus  calijein.', setactis uncinatis of Lin-
                                        •15 
MAR
MA3
 ns>us.   The leaves of  this indigenous plant have a
 moderately strong smell of the aromatic kind, but not
 agreeable;  which, by  drying, is  improved;  and in
 keeping for some months is, in great part dissipated ;
 their taste  U very bitter, penetrating, diffusive, and
 durable in the mouth. That hoarhound possesses some
 share of medicinal power, may be inferred from iu
 sensible qualities; but iu virtues do not appear to be
 clearly ascertained.  It  is a favourite remedy with the
 common people in coughs and asthmas.  The  usual
 dose is from half an  ounce to an  ounce, in infusion,
 two or three times a day.   The dose of the extract is
 from gr. x. to 3 ss.
  MARS   The mythological and alchemistical name
 of iron.
  Mars alkalizatus.   One of the alkalies with an
 admixture of iron.
  Mars saccharatus.  Iron mixed with starch and
 melted sugar.
  Mars solubilis.  Ferrum tartarizatum.
  Mars sulphuratus.   Iron filings, and sulphur de-
 flagrated.
  Marseilles hart-wort.  See Seseli tortuosum.
  Marsh-mallow.   See  Althaa officinalis.
  Marsh trefoil.  See Menyanlhes trifoliata.
  MARSUPIA'LIS.    (From marsupium, a purse:
 so named from iu resemblance.)  See Oititrater in-
 ternus.
  Martagon lily.  See Lilium martagon.
  MARTIAL.  (Martialis; from Mars, iron.) Some-
times used to express preparations of iron, or such as
 are impregnated therewith; as the Martial Regulus
of antimony, &c.
  Martial ethiops.  The protoxide of iron.
  Martial salts.  Salu  of iron.
  Martta'tum unguentum.   Soldiers'  ointment.
 Ointment of laurel, rue, marjoram, &c.
  Ma'rtis  limatura pr.eparata.   Purified filings
of iron.
  MARTYN,  John, was bom in 1699.  His father,
being in a mercantile station in London, he was in-
 tended to succeed in Ihis, wliich he does not appear to
 have neglected; but hu taste for literature led him to
devote  much of the night to study.  His  partiality,
however, was particularly directed to botany, and he
made many experiments on the germination of seeds,
sec  When  about 22 years of age, he became secre-
tary of a botanical society, and proved one of iu most
active members: three  years after, he was admitted
into the Royal Society, and  many of his papers ap-
peared in the  Philosophical  Transactions,  of which
 he subsequently took a part in the abridgment  At
 what period he changed to the medical profession is
 not known.  In 1726, he published his tables of offici-
 nal plants, disposed according to Ray'ssystem. Having
 given public lectures on botany in London with much
 approbation, he was  thought qualified to  teach  that
 science at Cambridge; and accordingly, in the follow-
 ing year, he delivered the first course  ever heard in
 that university.  In 1730,  he entered at Emanuel col-
 lege, with an intention  of graduating in physic; but
 this was soon  abandoned on his marriage, and  from
 the necessary attendance to his profession in London.
 On the death of the botanical professor at Cambridge,
 Mr. Martyn was appointed to succeed him  in the be-
 ginning of 1733; but  he continued  lecturing only two
 or three years, owing to the want of sufficient encou-
 ragement and especially of a botanic garden there.  In
 1741, he published a splendid quarto addition of Virgil's
 Georgtcs, in which much new light was thrown on the
 natural history of that author.   Dr. Halley having
 assisted him in the astronomical part;  this was fol-
 lowed by the Bucolics, on the Eame plan. In 1732, he
 retired from practice, and about nine years after re-
 signed his professorship in favour of his son, the Rev.
 Thomas  Martyn; in consequence of whose election
 he  presented his botanical library, of above 200 vo-
 lumes, with  his drawings, herbarium, Sec to the  uni-
 versity.  He died in 1768.
  MA'RUM.   (From  mar,  Hebrew for  bitter: so
 named from ru taste.)   Several species of leucrium
 were so named.
  Marum creticum.  See Teucrium marum.
  Marum syriacum.   (From  mar, bitter, Hebrew.)
 See Teucrium marum.
  Marum verum.   See Teucrium mamm.
  Marum vuloare.  See Thymus maitichina.
      46
  Ma rvisvm.  Malmsey wine.
  M.VSCHALE.   MutrxaXii. The armpit.
  Maschali ster.  (From /laoxaAijijp.)  The second
veilebia of the back.
  M ASCULUS.   There are two sexes of animals and
vegetables, the male and  ihe  female.  The male of
animals is distinguished by his peculiar genital organs,
and the analogy is carried to vegetables.  A flower ia
called a male flower, which has stamina only, which
are reckoned by the sexuolisu to be the male organ.
  Ma'slach.   A  medicine of the opiate kind,  in use
among the Turks.
  Maspetum.  The leaf of the asafoetida plant.
  MA'SSA.   (From paatna, to  blend  together.)   A
mass.  A term generally applied to the compound out
of which pills are to be formed.
  Massa carnea  jacobi sylvii.  See Flexor longus
digitorum pedis.
  Ma'ssalis.  An old name for mercury.
  MASSE'TER.  (From paoaaopai, to chew; because
it assisU in chewing.)  '/.igmnato-maxtllaire, of Dumas.
A muscle of the lower jaw, situated on the side of the
face.   It is  a short, thick muscle, which  arises, by-
fleshy and tendinous fibres, from  the lower edge of the
malar process of the maxillary bone, the  lower hori-
zontal edge of  the os mala;, and the lower edge  of the
zygomatic process of the temporal  bone, as far back-
wards as the eminence belonging to the articulation of
the lower jaw. From some little interruption  in the
fibres of this muscle, at their origin, some writers de-
scribe it as arising by two, and others by three, distinct
portions, or heads. The two layers of fibres, of which
it seems to be composed, cross each other as they de-
scend,  the external layer extending backwards, and
the internal one slanting forwards.   It is inserted into
the basis ofthe coronoid process, and into all that part
of ihe lower jaw which supports the coronoid and con-
dyloid  processes.   Its use Is to raise the lower jaw,
and, by means of  the above-mentioned decussation, to
move il a little forwards and backwards in  the act of
chewing.
  MASSICOT. The yellow oxide of lead.
  Ma'ssoy cortex.  See Cortex massoy.
  MASTERWORT.   See Imperatoria.
  MASTIC.  See Pistachio lentiseus.
  MASTICATION.  (Masticatio; from  mastico,  to
chew.)  Chewing. A natural function. It embraces
the seizing, catching,  or taking the food, the chewing
and the insalivation.  The organs for taking in  food
are the superior extremities and the mouth.
  The mouth is the oval cavity formed above,  by the
palate and the upper jaw; below, by the tongue and
the lower jaw; on the sides, by the cheeks; behind, by
the velum of the palate and the pharynx; and in front
by the lips.
  Tiie dimensions of the mouth are variable in  differ-
ent persons, and are susceptible of an enlargement  in
every direction; downwards, by lowering tiie tongue
and separating the jaws; transversely, by the disten-
tion of the cheeks, and from the front backward, by
the motion of the lips, and of the velum of the palate.
  The jaws determine most particularly the form and
dimensions of the  mouth; the superior  jaw makes an
essential pan of the face, and moves only along with
the head; on tbe contrary, the inferior possesses a very
great mobility.
  The jaws are furnished with small, very hard bodies,
called teeth.
  The edge ofthe socket is covered with a thick layer,
fibrous, resisting, denominated gum.
  We ought to consider in the parts that contribute  to
the apprehension of aliments, the muscles  that move
Ihe jaws, and particularly the inferior.   The same
thing takes place with the tongue, the numerous mo-
tions of which have a great influence on the dimen-
sions of the mouth.                      .   .  .
  Mechanism of the taking of food.—Nothing is sim
pier than the taking in of alimenu: it consisu  m the
introduction of alimentary substances into the mouth
For this  purpose  the hands seize  the  alimenu, and
divide them into  small portions susceptible of being
contained in the  mouth, and introduce them into  it
either directly or by means of proper instruments.
  But, in order to their being received into this cavity,
the jaws must separate; in  other words, the mouth
opens.
  In many eases, when the food is rrtrooaced into th* 
MAS                                            MAS
mouth, the Jaws come together to retain it, and assist
in mastication, or deglutition; but frequently the ele-
vation of the inferior jaw contributes to tbe taking of
the food.   We have an example of it when one bites
into fruit: then  the incisors are thrust into the ali-
mentary substance  in opposite directions, and, acting
as the blades of scis3ors,they detach a portion ofthe mass.
  This motion is produced, principally by the contrac-
tion of the elevated muscles of the lower jaw, which
represenU a lever ofthe third kind, the power of which
is at the insertion of the elevating muscles, the point
of support at the articulation temporo-maxillary, and
tlie resistance iu the substance upon which the teeth
act.   The volume  of the  body placed  between the
incisors has an influence upon the force by which  it
may be pressed.  If it is small, the power will be much
greater, for all the elevating muscles are inserted  per-
pendicularly to the  jaw, and the whole of their fore;
is employed in moving the  lever that it represents;  if
tlie volume of the body is such that it can hardly enter
the mouth, though it presents very little resistance, the
incisors will not enter it, for the masseter, the temporal,
and the internal pterygoid muscles, are inserted very
obliquely into the jaw, whence resulu the loss  of the
greater part of the force that they develope in contract-
ing.  When the efforu of the muscles of the jaws are
not sufficient  to  detach a  portion of the alimentary
mass, the hand so acU upon it as to separate it from
the portion retained by the teeth.  On the other hand,
the posterior muscles of the neck draw the head strong-
ly back, and from the combination of these efforts re-
sulu the separation of a portion of the food  which
remains in the mouth.  In this mode the incisors and
eye  teeth are generally employed; the grinders are
rarely used.  By the succession of these motions of
taking food the mouth is filled, and on account of the
suppleness of the cheeks, and  the  easy depression of
the tongue, a considerable quantity of  food may  be
accumulated  in it.
  When the mouth is full, the velum  of the palate is
lowered, its inferior edge is applied upon the most dis-
tant part of the base of the tongue, so that all commu-
nication is intercepted between the mouth and the pha-
rynx.
  Independently of what wc have said ofthe mouth, in
respect to taking the food, to conceive iu uses in masti-
cation and insalivation, it is useful  to remark  that
fluids abound in the mouth proceeding from different
sources.  First, the  mucous membrane which covers
iu sides secretes an abundant mucosity; numerous
isolated, or agglomerated follicles that are observed  in
tlie interior of the  cheeks, at  the junction of the lips
with the gums, upon the back of the tongue, on the an-
terior aspect  of the velum and  the uvula, pour  con-
tinually the liquid that they form into the internal sur-
face of the mouth.  The same thing takes place with
mucous glands, which exist in  great number in the in-
terior ofthe cheeks and palate.
  Lastly, there is poured into the mouth, the saliva se-
creted by six glands, three on  each side,  and which
bear the name of parotid, sub-maxillary, and sub-lin-
gual.  The first, placed between tlie external ear and
the jaw, have each a secreting canal  which opens on
the level of the second small  superior grinder; each
maxillary gland has one which terminates on the sides
ofthe ligaments ofthe tongue, near which those ofthe
sub-lingual glands open.
  These fluids are probably variable in their physical
and  chemical properties according to the organs by
which they are formed;  but the distinction has not yet
been established by chemistry by direct  experiments:
the mixture under the name of saliva has been exactly
analyzed.
  Among the alimentary substances deposited  in the
mouth, the one sort only traverse this cavity without
suffering any change ;  the others, on the contrary, re-
main a considerable time in it, and undergo important
modifications. The first are the soft  soru of food, or
nearly liquid, of which the  temperature is little differ-
ent from that ofthe  body; the second are tlie alimenu,
which are hard, dry, fibrous,  and those whose tem-
perature  is more or less different from what is proper
for the animal economy.  They are both in common,
however, appreciated by the organs of taste in passing
through tlie mouth.
  We may attribute to  thrge  principal  modifications
the changes that tlie food undergoes iu  the mouth: 1st,
change of temperature; 2d, mixture with the fluids thai
are pouted  into the mouth, and sometimes dissolution
in these fluids; 3d, pressure more or less strong, and
very often division, which bruising destroys the  cohe-
sion of their parts.  It is besides easily and frequently
transported from  one part  of this cavity to another.
These three modes of change do not take place suc-
cessively, but simultaneously, by mutually  favouring
each other.
  The change of  temperature of the food retained in
the mouth is evident; the sensation which it excites in
it is sufficient to prove this.  If it has a low tempera-
ture, it produces  a vivid impression of cold, which
continues until it lias absorbed the caloric necessary to
bring it near lo  the temperature of the sides of the
mouth ; the contrary takes place if the temperature is
higher than that of the mouth.          .
  It is the same with our judgment on tins occasion, as
with that which relates to the temperature of bodies
which touch the skin; we join to it,  unknown to us, a
comparison with  the temperature of the atmosphere
and with that of the bodies which have been previously
in contact with the mouth;  so that a body preserving
the same degree of heat will appear to us alternately
hot or cold, according to the temperature of  the bodies
formerly in the mouth.
  The change of temperature that the food undergoes in
the mouth is only  an accessary phenomenon; iu tritu-
ration and  iu mixture more or  less  intimate with the
fluids poured into this cavity, are what merit particular
attention.
  As soon as an aliment is introduced into the mouth,
it is pressed  by the tonrjue, applying  it against the
palate, or against  some other  part of the sides of the
mouth.  If the aliment is soft, if its parts cohere but
little, this simple pressure is enough to break it;  if the
alimentary substance U composed of liquid  and  solid,
the liquid is expressed by this pressure, and the solid
part only remains in the mouth.  The tongue produces
the effect, of which we speak, so much better in pro-
portion as  its membrane  is muscular, and as a  great
number of muscles are destined to move it.
  It  might astonish us that tlie tongue, which is so soft,
could be capable of breaking a body offering even small
resistance; but, on the one hand, it hardens in con-
tracting, like  all the muscles, and, besides, it presents
under the mucous membrane which covers iu superior
aspect, a dense and thick fibrous layer.
  Such are the phenomena that take place if the food
has but little resistance; but if it presenU a eonsidera
ble resistance, it then undergoes the action of the mas-
ticating organs.
  The essenlral agents of mastication are the muscles
that move  the jaws, the tongue, the cheeks, and the
lips: the maxillary bones and the teeth serve only aa
simple instruments.
  Though  the motions of both jaws  may contribute to
mastication, it is  produced  almost always by those of
the inferior one.   This bone may lie lowered, raised,
and  pressed strongly against the upper jaw;  carried
forward, backward, and even directed a little towards
the sides.   These different motions are produced by the
numerous muscles which are attached to the jaw.
  But the jaws could never have produced  the neces-
sary effect in mastication if they had not been furnished
with teeth, the physical properties of wliich are par
ticularly suited to this digestive action.
  [There are exceptions to all rules, and although teeth
are absolutely necessary in general, yet it is within our
knowledge that a man, who has followed the coasting
trade from  New-York, never had any teeth, and  could
eat crackers, ship-bread, or any hard substance, break-
ing and chewing it with his gums, as well as any one
with teeth.  A.]
  Mechanismof mastication.—Tor the commencement
of mastication, the inferior jaw must be lowered, an
effect which is produced  by the relaxation  of its ele-
vating, and the contraclion of its depressing muscles.
The food must then be  placed between  the dental
arches, either by the tongue or some other agent; the
inferior jaw is then raised by the masseter, internal
pterygoid, and temporal muscles, the intensity of whose
contraction depends upon  the resistance of the  food.
This being  pressed between  two  unequal surfaces
whose  asperities  fit into each other, is divided into
small portions, the number of which  is in proportion to
tlie facility with wliich thev have given way. 
MAS
MAT
  But a motion of this kind reaches only a part of the
food contained in the mouth, and it must be all equally
divided.  This takes place by the successive motions
of tbe inferior jaw, and by the contraction ofthe mus-
cles ofthe cheeks, of those ofthe tongue and lips, which
bring  the food between  the  teeth successively and
promptly during the separation of the jaws, that it may
be bruised when they come together.
  When the alimentary substances are soft and easily
bruised, two or three masticatory motions are sufficient
io divide  all that is in the mouth;  the three kinds of
teeth are employed in it.   A longer continued mastica-
tion is necessary when the substances are more resist-
ing, fibrous, or tough:  in this case we chew onljrwith
the molares, and often  only with one side at a tiffifc, i*
allow the other to rest.   In employing the grinders
there is an advantage of shortening the arm of the lever
represented by the jaw, and by so doing of rendering it
more advantageous for the power that moves it.
  In the mastication, the teeth have sometimes to sup-
port very considerable  efforts, wbich would inevitably
shake, or else displace them, were it not for the extreme
solidity of their articulation with the jaws.  Each root
acu like  a wedge, in transmitting to  tlie sides of the
sockeu Ihe force by which it is pressed.
  The advantage of the conical form of the roou is not
doubtful.   By reason of this form, the force by which
the tooth is pressed, and which tends  to thrust it inlo
the jaw, is decomposed; one part tends to separate the
sides of the sockeu, the other to lower them; and the
transmission, instead of being carried to the extremity
of the root, which could not have failed to take place
in a cylindric form, is distributed over all the surface
of the socket.  The grinders that have more considera-
ble  efforts to  sustain,  have a  number of roou, or at
least one very large.  The incisors and eye teeth, that
have only one small root, have never any great pres-
sure to support.
  If the gums had not presented a smooth surface and
a dense tissue, placed as tbey are round the neck of the
teeth and filling their intervals, they would have been
torn every instant; for, in the mastication of hard and
irregular substances, they are constantly exposed to the
pressure of their edges and angles. This inconvenience
happens whenever their tissue  becomes soft, as in scor-
butic affections.
  During the time of mastication the mouth is shut be-
hind by the curtain of  the palate, the  anterior surface
of which is pressed against the base of the tongue; tbe
food is retained before by the teeth nnd the lips.
  Insalivalion of the aliments.—Whenever we have
an appetite, the view of food determines a considerable
afflux of saliva into  the mouth; in some people it is so
strong as to  be projected to  the distance of several
feet.
  While the alimenu are bruised and triturated by
the masticating organs, they imbibe, and  are  pene-
trated completely by tlie fluids that are poured into the
mouth, and particularly by the saliva.  It is easy to con-
ceive that the division ofthe food  and  the numerous
displacemenU that  it suffers during mastication, sin-
gularly favour iu mixture with the mucous and sali-
vary juices.
   Most of the alimentary substances submitted to the
action of the mouth are dissolved or suspended wholly
or in part  in the saliva, and immediately they become
proper for being introduced into the stomach, and are
forthwith swallowed.
   On account of iu viscosity, the saliva absorbs air, by
Wbich il is swept in the different motions necessary for
mastication; but  the quantity of air  absorbed in this
circumstance is inconsiderable, and has been generally
exaggerated.
   Of what use Is the trituration of food and its mixture
with the saliva? Is it a simple division which renders
 Ihe alimenu more proper for the alterations which they
 undergo in the stomach,  or do they suffer the first de-
 gree of animalization in the mouth t On this point there
 is nothing certain known.
   Let us remark that mastication and  insalivation
 change the savour and odour of the food; that masti-
 cation, sufficiently prolonged, generally renders diges-
 tion  more quick  and easy; that °n  the contrary,
 people who do not chew their food, have often on this
 account very painful and slow digestion.—Magendie's
 Physiology.                                       i
  MASTICATORY.  (Masticatorium; from mastico,
to chew.)   A medicine intended for chewing.
  MA'STICHE.  (From paoaia, to express.)  See Pis-
tacia lentiscus.
  Mastich-herb.   See  Thymus mastichina.
  Mastich, Syrian.  See  Teucrium marum.
  Mastich-tree.  See Pistacia lentiscus.
  Mastich wood.  See Pistacia lentiscus.
  Mastichel*'um.   (From  pa^ixn, mastich,  and
tXaiov, oil.)  OH of mastich.
  Masti'china.  (Diminutive of mastiche.)  See Thy-
mus mastichina.
  Masticot. See  Massicot.
  Ma'stix.  See Pistacia lentiscus.
  MASTODY'NIA.   (From  ua?os, a  breast,  and
or5«ri7,  pain.)  Nacta. Phlegmon of the  breast of
women.  This disease may take  place at any period
of life, but it most commonly affects those who give
suck. It is characterized by tumefaction, tension, heat,
redness, and  pain;  and comes sometimes  in both
breasts, but most commonly in one. Pyrexia generally
attends  the  disease.   It  is sometimes  very  quickly
formed, and in general without any thing preceding to
show it; but now and then a slight shivering is the
forerunner.  This disease terminates  either in resolu-
tion, in suppuration, or scirrhus.  If the disease is left
to itself, it generally terminates in suppuration.
  The causes which give  rise to this disease, are those
which give rise to most  of the phlegmasia;, as cold,
violent blows, &c.  In women who are lying-in, or
giving suck, it mostly arises either from a suppression
of the lochia, or a retention of milk.  Mastodynia is
often of long continuance; it is a very painful disease,
but is seldom fatal, unless when absolutely neglected,
when it may run into scirrhus, and finally cancer.  The
termination of the disease by gangrene is never to be
apprehended, at least few, if any, have seen the disease
terminate in this way.
  MASTOID.  (Mastoideus;  from  pas-os, a  breast,
and tiSos, resemblance.)  1. Those processes of bones
are so named that are shaped like  the nipple of the
breast, as  the  mastoid process of the temporal bone,
&c.
  2.  The name of a muscle.  See Sterno-clddo-mas
toideus.
  Mastoid foramen.   A hole in the temporal bone of
the skull.
  Mastoideus lateralis.  A name for the complexus
muscle.
  Matali'sta radix.  A root said  to  be imported
from America, where  it  is given as a purgative, its
action being rather milder than that of jalap.
  MA'TER.   (Marnp, a mother:   so called  by the
Arabians,  who thought they gave origin to all other
membranes of the body.)  1. Two membranes of the
brain had this epithet given them.  See Dura mater,
and Pia mater.
  2.  A name of the herb mugwort, because of its virtue
in disorders ofthe womb.
  Mater  herbarum.  Common  mugwort.   See Ar-
temisia vulgaris.
  Mater metallorum.  Quicksilver.
  Mater perlarum.   See Margarita.
  MATE'RIA. A term  given to a substance tbat is
selected for a particular experiment or purpose, which
is expressed by adding the name of that purpose;
hence materia medica, materia chemica, Sec
  Materia medica.   By this term   is  understood  a
general class of substances, both natural and artificial,
which are used in the cure of diseases.
  Cartheuser,  Newman,  Lewis, Gleditsch, Lmnaeus,
Vogel, Alston, Bergius, Cullen, Murray, Paris, in his
excellent work on pharmacology, and other writers on
the Materia Medica, have been at  much labour to con-
trive arrangemenu of these articles.   Some have dis-
posed them according to their natural resemblances;
others according  to their real or supposed virtues;
others according to their active constituent principles.
These arrangements have their peculiar advantages.
The first may be preferred by the natural historian, the
second by the physiologist and the last by thechemiBi.
The pharmacopoeias, published by the Colleges of Phy
sicians  of London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, have the
articles of the Materia Medica arranged in alphabetical
order; this plan is also adopted by almost all the cob
linenUI pharmacopoeias; 
MATERIA MEDICA.
 Dr. Cullen has arranged the Materia Medica as fol-
ows:—
   {Nutriments, which are
               Food,
               Drinks,
               CondimenU;
   Medicines which act on the
     ' Solids,
                      Simple, as
                            Astringents,
                            Tonics}
                            Emollients,
                            Corrosives;
                      Living, as
                            Stimulants,
                            Sedatives,
                                  Narcotics,
                                  Refrigerants,
                            Antispasmodics.
    L Fluids,
              The following  is a list of articles which
'Producing a change of
   fluidity,
          Attenuants,
          lnspissants.
   Mixture,
          Correctors of Acrimony
              Demulcents,
              Antacids,
              Antalkalines.
              Antiseptics.
 Evacuants; viz.
              Errhines,
Expectorants,
Emetics,
Cathartics,
Diuretics,
Diaphoretics,
Emmenagogues.
  I. NUTRIMENTS.
a. Fruits.
  a. Fresh, sweet, acidu-
        lous, as
  Prunes
  Oranges
  Lemons
  Raspberries
  Red and black currants
  Mulberries
  Grapes, &c.
  b. Dried, sweet, acidu
     lous, as
  Raisins
  Currants
  Figs.
Q. Oleraceous Herbs.
  Water-cresses
  Dandelion
  Parsley
  Artichoke.
y. Roots.
  Carrot
  Garlick
  Satyrion.
 S. Seeds and Nuts.
  Almonds,  sweet   and
     bitter
  WalnuU
  Olives.
  II. MEDICINES.
 1. Astringents.
  Red rose
  Cinquefoil
  Tormentil
  Madder
  Sorrel
  Water-dock
  Bistort
  Fern
  Pomegranate
  Oak-bark
  Galls
   Logwood
   Quince
  Mulberry
  Sloe
  Gum-arabic
  Catechu
  Dragon's blood
  Alkanet
  Balaustine flower
  St. John's wort
  Millefoil
  Plantain
  Convallaria
  Bear's berry.
 2. Tonics.
  Gentian
  Lesser centaury
  Quassia
   Simarouba
   Marsh trefoil
  Fumitory
   Camomile
   Tansy
  Wormwood
  Southernwood
  Sea-wormwood
  Water-germander
  Virginian snake-root
  Leopard's bane
  Peruvian bark.
3. Emollients.
  Columniferous,
  Marsh mallow
  Mallow.
  Farinaceous,
  Quince-seeds
  Famugreek-seed
  Linseed
  Various emollients,
  Pellitory
  Verbascum
  White lily.
4. Corrosives.
5. Stimulants.
  Verticellated,
  Lavender
  Balm
  Marjoram
  Sweet marjoram
  Syrian herb mastich
  Rosemary
  Hyssop
  Ivy
  Mint
  Peppermint
  Pennyroyal
  Thyme
  Mother of thyme
  Sage.
  Umbellated,
  Fennel
  Archangel
  Anise
  Caraway
  Coriander
  Cumin
  Dill
  Saxifrage.
  Siliquose,
  Horseradish
  Watercress
  Mustard
  Scurvy-grass.
  Alliaceous,
  Garlick.
  Coniferous,
  Fir        ,
  Juniper.
  Balsamics,
  Venice turpentine
  Common turpentine
  Canada balsam
  Copaiba balsam
  Tolu balsam
  Balm of Gilead,
  Resinous,
  Guaiacum
  Ladanum
  Storax
              L I
come under the preceding
  Benzoin.
  Aromatics,
  Cinnamon
  Nutmeg
  Mace
  Clove
  Allspice
  Canella
  Cascarilla
  Black pepper
  Long pepper
  Indian pepper
  Ginger
  Lesser cardamom
  Zedoary
  Virginian snake-root
  Ginseng
  Aromatic reed.
  Acrids,
  Wake-robin
  Pellitory
  Stavesacre.
 6. Narcotics.
  Rhaadaceous,
  White poppy
  Red poppy.
  Umbellated,
  Hemlock
  Water hemlock.
  Solanaceous,
  Belladonna
  Henbane
  Tobacco
  Bitter-sweet
  Stramonium
   Varia,
  Laurel
  Camphor
  Saffron
  Wine.
 7. Refrigerants.
  Fruiu of plants
  Acidulous herbs and
     roou.
 8. Antispasmodics.
  Fatid herbs,
  Wormwood
  Fcetid goosefoot
  Cumin
  Pennyroyal
  Rue
  Savine.
  Fatid gums,
  Asafoetida
  Galbanum
  Opoponax
  Valerian.
 9. Diluents.
  Water.
10. Attenuants.
  Alkalies
  Sugar
  Liquorice
  Dried fruits.
11. Inspissakts.
  Acids
classes:—
   Farinaceous and muc?
     laginous demulcents
 12. Demulcents.
   Mucilaginous,
   Gum arabic
    ----tragacanth.
   Farinaceous,
     as
   Starch
   Bland oils.
 13. Antacids.
   Alkalies and earths.
 14. Antalkalines.
   Acids.
 15. Antiseptics.
   Acid parts of planu
   Acescent herbs
   Sugar
   Siliquose planU
   Alliaceous planU
   Astringents
   Bitters
   Aromatics
   Essential oils
   Camphor
   Gum resins
   Saffron
   Contrayerva
   Valerian
   Opium
   Wine.
 16. Errhines.
   Asarabacca
    Whits hellebore
   Water iris
   Pellitory.
 17. SlALAGOOUES
   Archangel
   Cloves
   Masterwort
   Tobacco
   Pepper
   Pellitory.
 18. Expectorants
   Ivy        »
   Hoarhound
   Pennyroyal
   Elecampane
   Florentine orris-root
   Tobacco
   Squill
   Colufoot
   Benzoin
    Storax
   Canada balsam
   Tolu balsam.
 19. Emetics.
   Asarabacca
   Ipecacuan
   Tobacco
   , Squill
   Mustard
   Horseradisb
   Bitters.
 20. Catharticus.
   Milder,
                49 
MATERIA MEDICA.
Mild acid fruus
Cassia pulp
Tamarind
Sugar
Manna
Sweet rooU
Bland oils
Damask rose
Violet
Polypody
Mustard
Bitters
Balsamics.
Acrid,
Rhubarb
Seneka
Broom
Elder
   Castor oil
   Senna
   Black hellebore
   Jalap
   Scammony
   Buckthorn
   Tobacco
   White hellebore
   Coloquintida
   Elaterium.
21 Diuretics.
   Parsley
   Carrot
   Fennel
   Pimpinel
   Eryngo
   Madder
   Burdock
  The following  is the arrangement of the Materia
Medica, according to J. Murray, in his Elements of
Materia Medica and Pharmacy.
  a. General stimulants.

             «.  Diffusible jLTp'asmodic,

            •.Permanently^.

  • Local stimulanu.     Emetics
                        Cathartics
                        Emmenagogues
                        Diuretics
                        Diaphoretics
                        Expectorants
                        Sialagogues
                        Errhines
                        Epispastics.
  c. Chemical remedies.   Refrigerants
                        Antacids
                        Lithontriptics
                        Escharotics.
  B. Mechanical  remedies. Anthelmintics
                        DemulcenU
                        Diluents
                        Emollients.
  Under the head of Narcotics are included—
  Alkohol.   Ether. Camphor.  Papaver somniferum.
Hyoscyamus niger.  Atropa belladonna.   Aconitum
napellus.  Conium maculatum.  Digitalis  purpurea.
Nicotiana labacum.   Lactuca virosa.  Datura stra-
monium.  Rhododendron chrysanthemum.  Rhustoxi
codendron.   Arnica  montana.  Slrychnos nux  vo-
mica.  Prunus lauro-cerasus.
  Under  the second  class, Antispasmodics, are in-
cluded—Moschus. Castoreum. Oleum animate em-
pyreumaticum.  Petroleum.  Ammonia.  Ferula asa-
foetida.  Sagapenum.  Bubon  galbanum.   Valeriana
officinalis.  Crocus sativus.  Melaleuca leucadendron.
  Narcotics used as Antispasmodics—
  Ether.  Camphor.  Opium.
  Tonics used as Antispasmodics—
  Cuprum.   Zincum.  Hydrargyrus.  Cinchona.
  The head of Tonics embraces—
  I. From the mineral kingdom,
  Hydrargyrus.  Ferrum.  Zincum. Cuprum.  Ar-
senicum.   Barytes.  Calx.  Acidum nitricum.  Oxy-
murias potassa:.
  2. From the vegetable kingdom,
  Cinchona officinalis. Cinchona caribcea.  Cinchona
floribunda.  Cusparia. Aristolochia serpentaria.  Dors-
tenia  contrayerva.   Crown  eleutheria.   Calumba.
Quassia  excelsa. Quassia simarouba.   Swietenia
febrifuga. Swietenia mahagoni. Gentiana lutea. An-
themis nobilis.  Artemisia absinthum.  Chironia cen-
taurium.  Marrubium vulgare.  Menyanthes trifoliata.
Centaurea benedicta.  Citrus aurantium.  Citrus me-
dica.   Laurus cinnamomum.  Laurus cassia.  Ca-
nella  alba.   Acorus calamus.  Amomum zinziber.
Kiempferia rotunda.  Santalum album.  Pterocorpus
tantalinus.  Myristica moschata.  Caryophyllus aro-
maticus.  Capsicum annuum.  Piper nigrum.  Piper
longtim.  Piper cubeba.  Myrtus pimenta.  Amomum
rejicns.  Carum  carui.  Coriandrum sativum.  Pim-
pinella  anisum.   Anethum  feniculum.   Anethum
graveolens.  Cuminum cyminum.  Angelica airhan-
gellca.   Mentha piperita.  Mentha viridis. Mentha
pulcgium.  Hysopus officinalis.
  The class of Astringents comprehends the follow-
   Contrayerva
   Serpentaria
   Sage
   Water germander
   Guaiacum
   Sassafras
   Seneka
   Vegetable acids
   Essential/)il
   Wine
   Diluents.
23. Emmenaooouii
   Aloes
   Fcetid gums
   Fcetid plants
   Saffron.
   Bltter-sweetl
   Wake-robin
   Asarabacca
   Foxglove
   Tobacco
   Rue
   Savine
   Snakeroot
   Squill
   Bitters
   Balsamics
   Siliquoss
   Alliacete.
22. DIAPHORETICS.
   Saffron
   Bitter-sweet
   Opium
   Camphor
  1.  From the vegetable kingdom,
  Quercus   robur.  Quercus  cerris.   Tormentilla
erecta.  Polygonum bistorta. Anchusa tinctoiia.  Hs
matoxylon campechianum.   Rosa gallicn.  Arbutus
uva  ursi.   Mimosa  catechu.   Kino.   Pterocarpus
draco.   Ficus indica.   Pistachia lentiscus.
  2.  From the mineral kingdom,
  Acidum sulphuricum.  Argilla.  Supersulphas ar-
gilla; et potassa;.  Calx. Carbonas calcis.  Plumbum.
Zincum. Ferrum. Cuprum.
  The articles which  come under tbe head of Eme-
tics, are
  1.  From the vegetable kingdom,
  Calliocca  ipecacuanha.  Scilla maritima.  Anthe-
mis nobilis.  Sinapis  alba.  Asarum europamm.  Ni
coliana  tabacum.
  2.  From the mineral kingdom.
  Anlimonium.   Sulphas zinci.  Sulphas cupri.  Sub
acetas  cupri.  Ammonia.   Hydro-sulphuretum am
monia;.
  Cathartics include
  Laxatives. Manna.  Cassia fistula.  Tamarindu*
indica.   Ricinus communis.  Sulphur.  Magnesia.
  Purgatives.   Cassia senna.  Rheum  palmatum
Convolvulus jalapa.  Helleborus niger.  Bryonia alba
Cucumis colocynthis.   Momordica elaterium.  Rham
nus catharticus.   Aloe perfoliata.  Convolvulus scam
monia.    Gambojia gutta.    Submurias  hydrargyri
Sulphas  magnesia;. Sulphas soda;.  Sulphas potassa)
Supertartras polassa;.   Tanrns potassa; etsed.-e.  Mu
lias soda;.  Terebinthina veneta.  Nicotiana tabacum
  The medicinesarranged under Emmenagogues, are
  1. From the class of Antispasmodics.
  Castoreum. Ferula asafoetida.  Bubon galbanum.
  2. From the class of tonics.
  Ferrum.  Hydrargyrus.   Cinchona officinalis.
  3. From the class of Cathartics.
  Aloe.  Helleborus niger.  Sinapis alba. Rosmarlnu
officinalis.  Rubia tinctorum.  Ruta graveolens.  Ju
niperus sabina.
  The class of Diuretics includes,
  1. Saline diuretics.
  Supertartras potassa;.  Nitras potassa;. Murias am
monia-.  Acetas potassa;.  Potassa.
  2. From the vegetable kingdom,
  Scilla maritima.   Digitalis purpurea.  Nicotiana ta
bacum.  Solanum dulcamara.  Lactuca virosa.  Col
chicum  autumnale.   Gratiola officinalis.  Spartium
scoparium.   Juniperus communis.  Copaifera  offici-
nalis. Pinus balsamea. Pinus larrx.
  3. From Ihe animal  kingdom,
  Meloe vesicatorius.
  Under the class Diaphoretics, are,
  Ammonia.  Murias  ammonia;.  Acetas  ammonia;.
Citras ammonia;.  Submurias hydrareyri.  Antimoni-
um.  Opium. Camphor. Cuaiacum officinale. Daphne
mezereum.   Smilax sarsaparilla.  Laurus sassafras.
Cochlearia armoracia.  Salvia officinalis.
  The class Expectorants comprehends,
  Antimonium.   Ipecacuanha.  Nicotiana tabacum
Digitalis purpurea.  Scilla maritima.  Allium sativum.
Polygala senega.  Ammoniacum.   Myrrha.   Styrax
benzoin.   Styrax officinalis.   Toluifera balsamum.
Myroxylon peruiferum. Amyris gileadensis.
  The articles of the class Sialagooues are  Hydrar-
gyrus.   Anthemis pyrethrum.   Arum maculatum.
Amomum zinziber.   Daphne  mezereum.  Nicotiana
tabacum.
  The class of Errhines are, Iris florentina.  iEscu 
MATERIA MEDICA.
ros hippocastanum.  Origanum majorana.  Lavendula
■pica.  Assarum europaeum.  Veratrum album.  Ni-
cotiana tabacum.  Euphorbia officinalis.
  In the class Epispastics, and Rubefacients are
Meloe  vesicatorius.   Ammonia   Pix Burgundica.
Sinapis alba.  Allium sativum.
  Refrigerants are constituted by the following ar-
ticles.  Citrus aurantium.  Citrus medica.   Tamarin-
dus indica.  Acidum acetosum. Supertartras potassa;.
Nitras potassae.  Boras soda;.
  The list of articles that come under the  class Ant-
acids  are, Potassa.  Soda.  Ammonia. Calx.  Car-
bonas calcis. Magnesia.
  In the class Lithontriptics are, Potassa.  Carbo-
nas  potassa;.  Soda.  Carbona6 soda;.  Sapo albus.
Calx.
  In the class  Escharotics are,  Acida mineralia.
Potassa.  Nitras argenti.  Murias antimonii.  Sulphas
cupri.  Acetas cupri.  Murias hydrargyri.  Subnitras
hydrargyri.  Oxydum arsenici album.  Juniperus sa-
bina.
  In the class Anthelmintics are, Dolichos pruriens.
Ferri limatura.  Stanuum pttlveratum. Olea europaea.
Artemisia santonica. Spigelia marilandica.  Polypo-
dium filix mas. Tanacetum vulgare. Geoffrcea inermis.
Gambojia gutta.  Submurias hydrargyri.
  Demulcents are, Mimosa nilotica.  Astragalus tra-
gacantbus.  Linum usitatissimum.  Althaea officinalis.
Malva sylvestris.  Glycyrrhiza glabra.  Cycas circi-
nalis.  Orchis mascula.  Maranta arundinacea.  Tri-
ticum  hybernum.   Ichthyocolla.    Olea   europaea.
Amygdalus communis.  Sevum ceti.   Cera.
  Water is the principal article of the class Diluents ;
and as for the last class,  Emollients, heat conjoined
with moisture is the principal, though all unctuous ap-
plications may be included.
The New London Pharmacopoeia presents us with the following
Abietis resina
Absinthium
Acacia; gummi
Acetosae folia
Acetosella
Acetum
Acidum aceticum fortius
Acidum citricum
Acidum sulphuricum
Aconiti folia
Adeps
ASrugo
Allii radix
Aloes spicata; extractum
Althaea; folia et radix
Alumen
Ammoniacum
Ammonia; murias
Amygdala amara et dulcis
Amylum
Anethi semina
Anisi semina
Anthemidis floris
Antimonii sulphuretum
Antimonii vitrum
Argentum
Armoracia; radix
Arsenicum album
Asara folia
Asafoetida; gummi resina
A venae semina
Aurantii bacca;
Aurantii cortex
Balsamum peruvianum
Balsamum tolutanum
Belladonna; folia
Benzoinum
Bismuthum
Bistorta radix
Cajuputi oleum
Calamina
Calami radix
Calumba
Camphora
Canella; cortex
Cantharis
Capsici baccs
Carbo lignl
Cardamines  flores
Cardamomi semina
Caricae fructus
Carui semina
Caryophilli
Caryophyllorum oleum
Cascarilla; cortex
Cassia; pulpa
Castoreum
Catechu extractum
Centaurii cacumina
Cera alba
Cera flava
Cerevisia; fermentum
Cetaceum
Coccus
Colchici radix et semina
Colocynthidis pulpa
Conii folia et semina
Contrayerva radix
Copaiba
Coriandri semina
Cornua
Creta
Croci stigmata
Cubeba
Cumini semina
Cupri sulphas
Cusparia; cortex
Cydonia: semina
Dauci radix
Dauci semina
Digitalis folia et semina
Dolichi pubes
Dulcamara; caulis
Elaterii pepones
Elemi
Euphorbia; gummi resina
Farina
Fceniculi semina
Ferrum
Filicis radix
Fucus
Galbani gummi resina
Gallte
Gentiana; radix
Glycyrrhiza; radix
Granati cortex
Guaiaca resina et lignum
Haematoxyli lignum
Helenium
Hellebori foetidi folia
Hellebori nigri radix
Hordei semina
Humuli strobili
Hydrargyrum
Hyoscyami folia et semina
Ipecacuanha; radix
Jalapa; radix
Juniperi baccae et semina
Kino
Krameria; radix
Lactuca
Lavendula; flores
Lauri baccs et folia
Lichen
Limones
Limonum cortex et oleum
Linum catharticum
Lini usitaiissimi semina
Magnesia; subcarbonas
Magnesia; sulphas
Malva
Manna
Marmor aloum
Marrubium
Mastiche
Mel
Cinchona; lancifolia, cordifolis et Mentha piperita
  oblongifolia; cortex              Mentha viridis
Cinnaraomi cortex                Menyanthes
Cinnaraomi oleum                Mezerei cortex
L5
list for the Materia Medica :—
 Mori bacca;
 Moschus                *
 Myristicas nuclei et oleum expression
 Myrrha
 Olibanum
 Olivae oleum
 Opium
 Opopanacis gummi resina
 Origanum
 Ovum
 Papaveris capsules
 Petroleum
 Pimenta; baccae
 Piperis  longi fructus
 Piperis  nigri bacca;
 Pix abietina
 Pix liquida
 Pix nigra
 Plumbi subcarbonas
 Plumbi oxydum semivitreum
 Porri radix
 Potassa impura
 Potassae nitras
 Potassaesulphas
 Potassae supertartras
 Pruna
 Pterocarpi lignum
 Pulegium
 Pyrethri radix
 Quassia; lignum
 Quercus cortex
 Resina  flava
 Rhamni bacca;
 Rhei radix
 Rhoeados petala
 Ricini semina et oleum
 Rosa; canina; pulpa
 Rosse centifoliae petala
 Rosce gallicae petala
 Rosmarini cacumina
. Rubiae radix
 Ruta; folia
 Sabina; folia
 Saccharum
 ---------purificatum
 Salicis  cortex
 Sagapenum
 Satnbuci flores
 Sapo durus et mollis
 Sarsaparilla; radix
 Sassafras lignum et radix
 Scammoneae gummi resina
 Scilla; radix
 Senegae radix
 Senn<e folia
 Serpentaria; radix
 Sevum
 Simarouba; cortex
 Sinapis semina
 Sodaemurias
 Sodae subboras
 Sodte sulphas
 Soda impura
 Spartli  cacumina
 Spigelia; radix
 Spiritus rectificatus et tenuktf
 Spongis
                        S) 
MAT                                             MAX
Btramonll folia et semina
Stsunum
Stsphisagris semina
Styracis balsamum
Succinum
Sulphur et sulphur sublimatum
Tabaci folia
Tamarindi pulpa
Taraxaci radix
Tartarum
Terebintliina Canadomls
-----------Chia
■-----------vulgaris
Terebintliina: oleum
Testae
Tiglii oleum
Torinentillae radix
Toxicodendri folia
Tragacantha
Tussilago
Valerians radix
Veratri radix
Ulmi cortex
Uvae passse
Uvtrj ursi folia
Zincum
Zingiberis radix.
  Materia perlata.  If, instead of crystallizing  the
salts contained in the liquor separated from diaphoretic
antimony, an acid be poured into it, a white precipi-
tate is formed, which is nothing else but a very refrac-
tory calx of antimony.
  Matzriatu'ra.  Castellus explains morbi materia-
tura to be diseases of intemperance.
  MATLOCK.  A village in Derbyshire.  It affords a
mineral water of  tlie acidulous class: which issues
from a limestone rock, near the banks of the Derwent.
Several of the springs  possess a temperature of Go0.
MaUock  water scarcely  differs from common  good
Bpring water, in sensible properties.  It is  extremely
transparent, and exhales no vapour, excepting in cold
weather.  It holds little or no excess of aerial particles;
it curdles soap when first taken up, but it loses this effect
upon  long keeping, perhaps from the deposition of iu
calcareous salu;  it appears to  differ very little from
good spring  water when tasted: and its effects seem
refcrrible to  its temperature.  It is  from this latter  cir-
cumstance that it  forms a proper lepid bath for the ner-
vous and irritable, and those of  a debilitated  constitu-
tion ;  hence it is usually recommended alter the use of
Bath  and Buxton waters, and as  preparatory to sea-
bathing.
  MATRICA'LIA.  (Matricalis;  from  matrix,  the
womb.)  Medicines appropriated  to disorders of ihe
uterus.
  MATRICA'RIA.  (From matrix,  the womb:   so
called from iu uses in disorders of the womb.) 1. The
name of a genus  of plants  in  the Linua:an system.
Class, Syngenesia ;  Order, Polygamia superflua.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the Matricaria par-
thenium.  See Matricaria parthenium.
  Matricaria chamomilla.  Chamamelum vulgare;
Chamomilla nostras;  Leucanthemum of Dioscorides.
Common wild corn, or dog's camomile.  The plant di-
rected under this name in the  phamacopceias, is  the
Matricaria—receptaculis conicis  radiis  patcntibus ;
squamis  calycinis,  margine. aqualibus, of LimiSEUs.
Iu virtues are similar to those of the parthenium,  but
in a much inferior degree.
  .Matricaria parthenium.  The systematic  name
of the fever-few.  Parthenium febrifuga.  Common
fever-few, or febrifuge, and often, but very improperly,
feather-few.  Mother's wort. The leaves and floweis
of Ihis plant,  Matricaria—foliis  compositis, planis;
foliolis ovalis, incisis; pedunculis ramosis, have a
Btrong, not agreeable smell, and  a moderately bitter
taste, both which they communicate by warm infusion,
to water and rectified spirit The watery infusions,
inspissated, leave an extract of considerable bitterness,
and which discovers also a saline matter, both to the
taste, and in a more sensible manner by throwing up to
the surface small  crystalline efflorescences in keeping.
The peculiar flavour of the malricaria exhales in  the
evaporation, and impregnates the distilled  water, on
which also a quantity of essential oil is found floating.
The quantity of spirituous  extract, according to Car-
theuser's experiments,  is only about one-sixth  the
weight of the dry leaves, whereas the watery extract
amounts to near one-half. This plant is evidently the
Parthenium of Dioscorides, since  whose lime it  has
been very generally employed  for medical  purposes.
In natural affinity, it ranks with camomile and lansy,
aud iu sensible qualities show it to be nearly allied to
them in iu medicinal character.   Bergius states iu vir-
tues to be tonic, stomachic, resolvent, and  emmena-
gogue. It has been given successfully as a vermifuge,
and for  the cure  of intermittents; but iu use is most
celebrated in female disorders, especially  in  hysteria;
and hence it is supposed to have derived the name of
matricaria.   Its smell, taste, and analysis, prove it to
be  a medicine of  considerable activity; we may, there-
fore, say, with  Murray—Ranus  hodie prwscribitur,
 quam debetur.
       Set
  Matrisy'lva.   See Asperula.
  MATRIX.  (Man?p)  1. The womb   See Uterus.
  2. The earthy  or stony matter which  accompanies
ores, or envelopes them in the earth.
  Matrona'lis.  (From matrona, a matron:  so called
because its smell  is grateful to women.)  The violet.
  MATTIIIOLUS, Peter Andrew, was born at Si-
enna in 1501.  He went  to study the law at Padua;
hut disliking thai pursuit he  turned  his  attention to
medicine.  His father's death Interrupted him in his
progress; but having conciliated  the good opinion of
the professors, the degree of doctor wasconferred upon
him  before his departure.  He speedily  found ample
employment in his native place, but afterward went
to Rome, and in  1527 to the court of the prince bishop
of Trent  During  his residence of  fourteen years
there, he acquired such general esteem, that on his re-
moval, men, women, and children, accompanied him,
calling  him  their father and benefactor.  At Gorizta,
where he then settled as public physician, he likewise
experienced  n signal mark of gratitude;  a fire having
consumed all  his furniture, the people flocked to hiui
next day with presenU, which more than compensated
his loss, and the magistrates advanced him a year's sa-
lary.  After twelve years, he accepted  an invitation to
the Imperial court where he was highly honoured, and
created aulic counsellor: but finding the weight of age
pressing upon him, he retired to Trent, where lie shortly
died of the plague in 1577.   He  left  several works,
chiefly relating to the virtues of plants: and that, by
which he principally distinguished himself, was a Com-
mentary  on the  writings  of Dioscorides.  This  was
first published in  Italian, afterward translated by him
into Latin, wilh plates, and passed through numerous
editions.   He certainly contributed much to lay the
foundation of botanical science,  though  he  was  not
sufficiently scru pulous in consulting the original sources,
and examining the plants themselves.
  MATURA'NTIA.    (Maturans ;  from  matvro, to
ripen.)   Medicines which promote the  suppuration of
tumours.
  MATURATION.    (Maluratio; from mature,  to
make ripe.)   A  term  in  surgery, signifying  that pro-
cess which succeeds inflammation, by wliich pus is col-
lected in an abscess.
  MAUDLIN.   See Achillea ageratum.
  MAURICEAU, Francis, was born at  Paris, where
he studied surgery with great industry  for many years,
especially at the HAtel-Dieu. He had acquired so much
experience iu midwifery, before he commenced public
practice, that he  rose almost at once to the head of his
profession.  His  reputation was  farther increased by
his writings, ami maintained  by  his prudent conduct
during a scries of years, after wliich he retired into the
country, and died in 1709. He published several works,
relating to the particular  branch  of the art which lie
practised,  containing  a great  store of  useful  facts,
though not well arranged, nor free from the false rea-
soning prevalent in his time.
  Mauro-marson.  See Marrubium,
  Maw-worm.  See Ascaris.
  MAXI'LLA.  (From naaaaia, to chew.) The Jaw,
both upper and lower.
  Maxillare inferius os.  Maxilla inferior. Man-
dibula.  The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which, in
iu figure, may be compared to a horse-shoe, Is at first
composed of two distinct bones; but these, soon after
birth, unite together at the middle of the chin, so as to
form only one bone.   The superior edge of this bone
has, like tbe upper jaw, a process, called the  alveolar
process.  This, as well as that of the upper jaw, to
which it is in other respects a good deal similar, is like
wise furnished with cavities for the reception of the
teeth.  The posterior part of the bone, on each side,
rises perpendicularly into two processes, one of wbicb
U called the coronoid, and tbe other the condyloid pro- 
MAX
MAT
 cess.  The first of these U the highest: it is thin and
 pointed ;  and the temporal muscle, which is attached
 to it serves to elevate the jaw.  The condyloid process
 is narrower, thicker, and shorter than the other, termi-
 nating in an oblong, rounded head, which is formed for
 a moveable articulation with the cranium, and  is re-
 ceived inlo tlie forepart of the fossa described in the
 temporal bone.  In this joint there is a moveable car-
 tilage, which, being more closely connected to tbe con-
 dyle than to the cavity, may be considered as belonging
 to the former.  This moveable cartilage is connected
 with both tbe articulating surface ofthe temporal bone
 and the condyle of the jaw, by distinct ligaments aris-
 ing  from its edges all  round.  These attachments of
 the cartilage are strengthened, and the whole articula-
 tion secured, by an exiernal ligament, which is com-
 mon to both, and wliich is fixed to the temporal  bone,
 and to the neck of the condyle.  On the inner surface
 of the ligament, which attaches  the cartilage to the
 temporal bone, and backwards in tbe cavity, is placed
 what is  commonly called  the gland  of the joint; at
 least the ligament is there found to be much more vas-
 cular than at any other port At the  bottom of each
 coronoid process, on its inner part, is a foramen, or ca-
 nal,  wliich extends under the roou of all the teeth, and
 terminates at the outer surface of the bone near the
 chin.  Each of these  foramina affords a passage to an
 artery, vein, and nerve, which send off branches to the
 several teeth.
  This bone is capable of a great many motions. The
 condyles, by sliding from the cavity towards the emi-
 nences on each side,  bring the jaw  horizontally for-
 wards, as in the action of biting; or the condyles only
 may be brought forwards, while the rest of the jaw is
 tilted backwards,  as  is the case when the mouth is
 open.  The condyles  may  also slide alternately back-
 wards and forwards from the cavity to the eminence,
 and  vice versa; so that while  one condyle advances,
 the other moves backwards, turning the  body of Ihe
jaw  from side  to  side, as in grinding the teeth.  The
 great use of the cartilages seems lo be that of securing
 the articulation, by adapting themselves to the different
 inequalities iu these several motions of the jaw, and to
 prevent any injuries from friction.   This last circum-
 stance is  of great importance where there is so much
 motion, and, accordingly, this cartilage is found in the
 different tribes of  carnivorous animals, where  there
 is no eminence and cavity, nor  other apparatus for
 grinding.
  The alveolar processes  are formed of an external
 and internal plate, united together by thin bony parti-
 tions, which divide the processes at the forepart of the
jaw, into as many sockeu as there are teeth.  But, at
 the posterior part, where the teeth have more than one
 root, each root has a distinct cell.   These processes in
 both jaws, begin to be formed with the teeth, accom-
 pany them  in their growth, and disappear when the
teeth fall.   So that the  loss ofthe one seems constantly
 to be attended with the loss of the other.
  Maxillare superius os.  Maxilla superior.  The
 Euperior  maxillary bones constitute the most consider-
 able portion of the upper jaw, are two in number, and
 generally remain distinct through life.  Their figure is
 exceedingly irregular, and  not  easily to be described.
 On each of these bones are observed several eminences.
 One of these is at the upper and forepart of the bone,
 and, from iu making  part  of tbe nose, is called the
 nasal process.   Internally, in  the  inferior portion of
 this process, is a fossa, which, with tbe os unguis, forms
 a passage  for the  lachrymal duct.  Into this nasal
 process, likewise, is inserted tlie short round tendon of
 the musculus orbicularis  palpebrarum.  Backwards
and outwards, from the root of the nasal process, the
bone helps to Ibrm  the lower side of the orbit, and this
part is therefore called the orbitar process.  Behind
this  orbitar process, the bone forms a considerable tu-
berosity, and, at tbe upper part of this tuberosity, is a
channel, which is almost a complete hole.   In this
channel passes a branch of the fifth  pair of nerves,
which, together with a small artery, is transmitted to
the face through the external orbitar  foramen, which
opens immediately under tlie orbit.  Where ihe bone
ou each side is joined to theos malae, and helps to form
the cheeks, is observed what is called the  malar pro-
cess.  The lower and anterior paru of the bone make
a kind of circular  sweep, in which are the alveoli, or
sockets for the  teeth; this  is called the alveolar pro-
1 cess.  Thisalveolar processhas posteriorly a consider
; able tuberosity on its internal  surface.   Above this
 alveolar process, and just behind the fore-teeth, is an
 irregular hole, called the foramen incisivum, which,
 separating into two, and sometimes more holes, serves
 to transmit  small  arteries and  veins, and a  minute
 branch of  the fifth pair  of nerves to  the nostrils.
 There are two horizontal lamellae behind  the alveolar
 process, which, uniting together, form part of the roof
 of the mouth, and divide it from the nose.  This par-
 tition, being seated somewhat higher than the lower
 edgeof ihe alveolar process, gives the roof of themouth
 a considerable hollowness. Where the ossa maxillana
 are united to each other,  they project somewhat for-
 wards, leaving between them a furrow, which receives
 the inferior portion of the septum nasi. Each of these
 bones is hollow, and forms a considerable sinus under
 iu orbitar part.  This sinus, which is usually, though
 improperly, called antrum Highmorianum, is lined with
 the piluitory membrane.  It answers the same purposes
 as the other sinuses of  the nose, and communicates
 with the nostrils by an opening,  wbich appears to be a
 large one in tlie skeleton, but which, in the recent sub-
 ject, is much smaller.  In  the fcetus, instead of these
 sinuses, an oblong depression only is observed at each
 side of the nostrils, nor is the tuberosity of the alveo-
 lar process then formed.   On the side of the palate, in
 young subjecu, a kind of fissure may be noticed, which
 seems to separate the portion of the bone which con-
 tains the dentes incieores from that which contains the
 denies canini.  This fissure is sometimes apparent till
 the sixth year, but after that period it in general wholly
 disappears.
   The ossa maxillaria  not only serve to  form the
 cheeks, but likewise the palate, nose, and orbiu; and,
 besides their union with each other, they are connected
 with the greatest part of the bones ofthe face and crani-
 um, viz. wilh the ossa nasi, ossa malarum, ossa unguis,
 ossa palati, os frontis, os sphenoides, and os ethmoides.
   M AXILLARIS.  (From maxilla; the jaw.)  Max-
 illary : appertaining to the jaw.
   Maxillary artery.  Arteria maxillaria.  A branch
 of the external carotid.   The external maxillary is ihe
 fourth branch of the carotid ; it proceeds anteriorly,
 aud gives off the facial or mental, the coronary of the
 lips, and the angular artery.  The internal maxillary
 is the next brunch of the carotid; il gives off the spheno-
 maxillary, the inferior alveolar, and the spinous artery.
   Maxillary gland.    Glandula maxillaris.   The
 gland so called is conglomerate, and situated under the
 angles of the lower jaw.   The excretory ducu of these
 glands are called Wartbouian, alter their discoverer.
   Maxillary nerve.  Nervus  maxillaris.  The su-
 perior and inferior  maxillary nerves are  branches of
 the fifth pair, or trigemini.  The former is divided into
 the sphenopalatine, posterior alveolar, and the  infra-
 orbital nerve.  The latter is divided into two branches,
 the internal lingual, and one, more properly, called the
 inferior maxillary.
   [May-apple.  See Podophyllum peltatum.  A.]
   May-lily.  See Convallaria majalis.
   May- weed. See Anthemis cotula.
   MA VERNE, Sir Theodore.  Turquet de, Baron
 D'Aubonne, was born at Geneva in 1573,  and gradu
 ated at Montpelier.   He then went to Paris, and, by
 the influence of  Riverius, was  appointed in 1600 to
 attend tlie Duke de  Rohan, in his embassy  to the diet
 at Spire ; and also one of tie physicians in ordinary to
Henry IV.  On his return, he settled in Paris as physi-
cian, and gave lectures in anatomy and pharmacy, in
which he strongly  recommended various chemical
remedies: this drew on him the ill-will of the faculty,
and he was anonymously attacked as an enemy to Hip-
pocrates  and Galen, wlience in  his "Apologia," he
cleared himself from this imputation, making also some
severe strictures on his opponents.  They consequently
issued a decree against consulting wilh him; but the
esteem of the king supported him against this perse-
cution, and he would have been appointed first physi-
cian,  had he not refused to embrace the Catholic
religion.  After the assassination of Henry  IV. in 1610,
he received an invitation from James I. of England, to
whom  he had been introduced three years  before: he
accepted the office of his first physician, and passed the
remainder of his life in this country. He was ad-
mitted to the degree of doctor in both universities, and
into the College of Physicians,  and met  with vary
• 
                       MEA

 general respect  He incurred some obloquy, indeed, on
 the death of the Prince of Wales, having differed In
 opinion from the other physicians, but his conduct ob-
 tained the written approbation of the king and council.
 He was knighted in 1624, and honoured with the ap-
 pointment of  physician to the two succeeding mo-
 narchs; and accumulated a large fortune by nis exten-
 sive  practice.  He died in 1655, and bequeathed his
 library to the College of Physicians.  Several papers,
 written by bim, were published after his death: among
 which are the cases of many of his distinguished
 palienu, well drawn up.
   MAYO W, John, was born in Cornwall in 1645.  He
 studied at Oxford, and took a degree in civil law, but
 afterward  changed to medicine, whicli he  practised
 chiefly at Bath; but he died in London  at the age of
 34.  These are the only records of the life of a  man,
 who went before his age in his views of chemical phy-
 sioiogy, and anticipated, though obscurely, some of the
 most remarkable discoveries in pneumatic chemistry,
 which have since been made.  He published at Oxford
 in 1669 two  tracts, one on Respiration, the other on
 Rickeu; which were reprinted  five years after with
 three  additional dissertations, one on the Respiration
 of the Fcetus in Utero et Ovo, another on Muscular
 Motion and the Animal Spirits, and the remaining one
 on Saltpetre and the Nitro-afirial Spirit.  On this latter
 his claim  above-mentioned chiefly resu, the existence
 of the nitro-aorial spirit being proved by many ingeni-
 ous experiments, as a constituent of air, and of nitre,
 the food of life and flame, agreeing with the oxygen of
 modern chemisu.   Much vague speculation, indeed,
 occurs in the work: but he clearly maintains  that this
 spirit is absorbed by the blood iu the lungs, and proves
 the source of the animal heat, as also of tlie nervous
 energy and of muscular motion.  He likewise antici-
 pated the mode of operating with aerial fluids in vessels
 inverted over water, and transferring them from one
 to another.
   Mays, Indian.  See Zea mays.
   MEAD.  1. The name of a physician, Dr. Richard,
 bom near London in 1673.  After studying some time
 at Leyden, and in different ports of Italy, he graduated
 at Padua in 1695. Then returning to his native country,
 he settled in practice, and met with considerable  suc-
 cess.   His first publication, " A Mechanical Account of
 Poisons," appeared in 1702, and displayed much inge-
 nuity ; though he afterward candidly retracted some of
 his opinions, as inadequate to explain the functions of
 a living body.  He was soon after elected a member of
 the Royal Society, and in the following year physician
 to St.  Thomas's Hospital.  In  1704, he published a
 treatise, maintaining the influence of the sun and moon
 on the human body, arguing from the Newtonian theory
 of the  tides, and the changes effected by those bodies
 in tlie atmosphere.  In  1707, he received a diploma
 from Oxford,  and about four years after he was ap-
 pointed to read  the anatomical lectures at  Surgeons'
 Hall, which he continued for  some  time with great
 applause.  In 1714, on the death of his patron Dr. Rad-
 cliffe, he took his house, and being then a fellow of the
 College of Physicians,  and having  been called  into
 constitution, in the last illness  of Queen Anne, when
 he displayed superior judgment, he seems to have been
 regarded among the first of the  profession,  and  soon
 after, from his extensive  engagements, resigned his
 office at St. Thomas's Hospital.  The plague raging at
 Marseilles in  1719, he was officially  consulted on the
 means  of prevention, which led lo a publication by him,
 in the  following year, decidedly maintaining iu infec-
 tious nature, which had been questioned in France, and
 recommending suitable precautions:  this work passed
 rapidly through many editions.   In 1721, he superin-
tended the  experiment of innoculaling tlie  small-pox
 in the persons of some criminals; and his report being
 favourable, the practice was rapidly diffused.   He was
soon after engaged in a controversy  with Dr. Middle-
 ton, concerning the condition of physicians among the
Romans, which was, however, carried on in a manner
honourable to both parties. About the same period Dr.
Freind  having been committed to the Tower  for his
political sentiments, Dr. Mead obtained his liberation
in a spirited manner, and presented him a considerable
sum, received from his patienu  during his  imprison-
ment.   In 1737, he was appointed physician inordinary
to George II. and his professional occupations became
so extensive, that he had no leisure for writing.  It was
                      MEC

 not till 20 years after, therefore, that he printed his
 treatise uu Small-pox and Measles, written in  n  pure
 Latin style, with a translation in the same language of
 Rhazes' Commentary on llie former disease.  In 1749,
 he published a treatise on  the Scurvy, ascribing the
 disease to moisture and putridity, and recommending
 Mr. Sutton's ventilator, which was, in consequence of
 his interposition, received into tlie navy.  His " Medl-
 cina Sacra," appeared in the same year, containing
 remarks on  the diseases monlioned in the Scripture.
 His lost work was a summary of his  experience, en-
 titled  "Monita et Pruecepla  Medica," in 1751 ; it was
 frequently reprinted, and translated into English.   His
 life terminated in 1754; and  a monument  was erected
 to him in Westminster Abbey.  He distinguished him-
 self, not only in his profession, but he was tbe greatest
 patron of science and polite literature of his time; and
 he made an ample collection of scarce and valuable
 books, manuscripts, and literary curiosities;  to which
 all respectable persons had free access.
  2. An old English liquor made from the honey-combs,
 from wliich honey has been drained out by boiling in
 water, and then fermenting.  This is often confounded
 with metheglin.
  Meadow crowfoot.  See Ranunculus acris.
  Meadow, queen of the.   See Spiraa ulmaria.
  Mcado w saffron. See Colchicum.
  Meadow saxifrage.  See Peucedanum silaus.
  Meadow sweet.  See Spiraa ulmaria.
  Meadow thistle, round leaved.   See  Cnicus ole-
 raceus.
  MEASLES.  See Rubeola.
  MEASURE.  The English measures of capacity,
 are according to the following table:

  0iseegqau,a0«"oWine-,"ea-SUre,}f'>-«l«-^
  One quart, -              two pinU.
  One pint,  -              28.875 cubic inches.
  The pint is subdivided by chemisu and apothecaries
 into 16 ounces
  MEA'TUS.  An opening which leads to a canal or
 duct.
  Meatus auditorius externus. Tiie external pas-
 sage of the ear is lined with the common integuments,
 under  which are a number of glands,  whicli secrete
 the wax.  The use of this duct is lo admit the sound
 to the tympanum, which is at iu extremity.
  Meatus auditorius internus.  The  internal au
 ditory  passage is a small bony canal, beginning inter-
 nally by a longitudinal orifice at the posterior surface
 of the  petrous portion of the temporal  bone, running
 towards the vestibulum and  cochlea, and  there being
 divided into two less cavitieB by an eminence.    The
 superior and smaller of these is the orifice ofthe aque-
 duct of Fallopius, which receives the  portio dura of
 the auditory nerve: the other  inferior and larger cavity
 is perforated by many small holes, through which the
 portio  mollis of the  auditory nerve passes into the
 labyrinth.
  Meatus c£cus.  A passage  in  the throat to the
 ear, called Eustachian tube.
  Meatus cuticulares.  The pores of the skin.
  Meatus  cyst«cus.  The gall-duct.
  Meatus urinarius. In women, this is situated ia
 the  vagina, immediately below the symphisis of the
 pubes,  and behind the  nymphs.   In men, it is at the
 end of  the glans penis.
  Mecca balsam.  See Amyris gileadensis.
  MECHOACAN. See Convolvulus mechoacanna.
  Mechoaca'nna.   (From Mechoacan, a  province in
 Mexico, whence it is brought.)  See Convolvulus  me-
choacanna.
  Mechoacanna nigra.  See Convolvulus jalapa.
  Me'con.  (From mhos, bulk: so named from tha
 largeness of iu head.)  The papaver, or poppy.
  MECONIC ACID.  (Acidum mcconicum; so called
from ptjKiav, the poppy, from which it is procured.)
This acid U a constituent of opium.  It was discover-
ed by Sertuerner, who procured it in  the following
way: After precipitating tbe  morphia, from a solution
of opium, by ammonia, he added to the residual fluid
a solution of the muriate of barytes.  A precipitate is
in this way formed, which is supposed to be a quadru-
 ple  compound of barytes,  morphia, extract, and  tha
meconic acid.  Tbe extract is removed by alkohol,  and
the  barytes by sulphuric acid; when the meconic acid
is left,  merely in combination with a  portion of  the
• 
MED
MED
morphia; and from this  it is purified by successive
solutions and evaporations.  The acid, when sublimed,
forms long colourless needles; it has a strong affinity
for tire oxide of iron, so as to take it from the muriatic
solution, and form with it a cherry-red precipitate.  It
forms a crystallizable salt with lime, which is not de-
composed by sulphuric acid; and what is curious, it
seems to possess no particular power over the human
body, when  received into  the stomach.  The essential
salt of opium, obtained In Derosne's original experi-
ments, was probably the meconiate of morphia.
  Robiquet has made a useful modification of the pro-
cess for extracting meconic acid.   He treats the opium
with magnesia, to separate ihe morphia, while meco-
niate of magnesia is also formed.  The magnesia is
'emoved by adding muriate of  barytes,  and the ba-
rytes is afterward separated by  dilute sulphuric  acid.
A larger proportion of meconic acid is thus obtained.
  Me'conis.   (From  uixiav, the  poppy: so called
because iu juice is soporiferous,  like the poppy.)  The
lettuce.
  MECO'NIUM.  (From pnxiav, the poppy.)  1.  The
inspissated juice of the poppy.   Opium.
  2. The green excrementitious substance that is found
in the large intestines of the foetus.
  MEDIAN.  Medianus.  This term  is applied to
vessels, &c. from their situation  between others.
  Median nerve. Tbe second  branch of the brachial
plexus.
  Median vein.  The situation of the veins of the
arms is  extremely different in  different individuals.
When a branch proceeds near  the  bend of the  arm,
inwardly from the basilic vein, it is termed the basilic
median; and when a vein is given off from the cepha-
lic in the like manner, it is termed the cephalic median.
When  these two veins are present, they mostly unite
just below the bend of the arm, and the common trunk
proceeds to the cephalic vein.
  Media'num.  The Mediastinum.
  MEDIASTl'NUM.  (Quasi in medio stans, as being
in the  middle.)  The  membraneous septum, formed
by the duplicature of tbe pleura, tbat divides the cavity
of tbe chest into two paru.  It is divided into an ante-
rior and posterior portion.
  Mediastinum cerebri.  The falciform process of
the dura mater.
  ME'DICA.  (Medicus; from  medico, to heal.)  1.
Belonging to medicine.
  2.  (From Media, its native soil.)  A sort of trefoil.
  MEDICA'GO.   (So called by Tourneforte;  from
medica, which is indeed the proper name ofthe plant—
pnSiKi], of Dioscorides.)   The  name of a genus of
plants  in the  Linnaean system.   Class, Diadelphia;
Order,  Decandria.  The herb trefoil.
  MEDICAMENTA'RIA.  Pharmacy, or the art of
making and  preparing medicines.
  MEDICAMENTUM.  (From medico, to heal.)  A
medicine.
  MEDICA'STER.  A pretender to the knowledge of
medicine: the same as quack.
  MEDICI'NA.   (From medico, to heal.)  Medicine.
1. The medical art: applied to the profession generally.
  2  Any substance that  is exhibited with a view to
cure or allay the violence of a disease.  It is also  very
frequently made  use of  to express the healing art,
when  ii comprehends  anatomy, physiology, and pa-
thology.
  Medicina dijetetica.   That department of medi-
cine wliich regards the regulation of regimen, or the
non-naturals.
  Medicina diasostica.  That part of medicine which
preserves health.
  Medicina  gymnastica.   That part of medicine
which  relates to exercise.
  Medicina hermetica.  The  application of chemi-
cal remedies.
  Medicina prophylactica  That part of medicine
wbich  relates to preservation of  health.
  Medicina tristitije.  Common saffron.
  MEDICINAL.   (Medicinalis;  from medicina.)
Medicinal, having a power to  restore health, or re-
move disease.
  Medicinal days.   Such days were so called by
some writers, wherein the crisis  or change is expected,
so as to forbid the use of medicines, in  order to  wait
nature's effort, and require all the assistance of art to
help forward, or prepare the humours for such a crisis:
but it is most properly used for those days wherein
purging, or any other evacuation, is most conveniently
complied with.
  Medicinal hours.   Are those wherein it is  sup-
posed that medicines may be taken to the greatest ad-
vantage, commonly reckoned in the morning  fasting,
about an hour before dinner, about four hours after
dinner, and  at going to bed; but in acute cases, tbe
times are to be governed by the symptoms and aggra-
vation of the distemper.
  Medina.   A species of ulcer, mentioned by Para-

  MEDINE'NSIS VENA.   (Medinensis; so called
because it is frequent at Medina, and improperly called
vena for vermis; and sometimes nervus medinensis,
and no  one knows why.)  Dracunculus; Gordius
medinensis, of Linnaeus.  The muscular hair worm.
A very singular animal, which, in some countries, in-
habits the cellular membrane between the skin and
muscles. See Dracunculus.
  MEDITU'LLIUM.    (From medius, the middle.)
See Diplol.
  Me'dius  venter.   The middle venter, the thorax,
or chest.
  MEDLAR.  See Mespilus.
  MEDU'LLA.  (Quasi in medio ossis.)  1. The mar
row.  See Marrow.
  2. The pith or pulp of vegetables.  The centre or
heart of a vegetable within the wood.   "This," says
Dr. E. Smith, " in parts most endowed with  life, as
roots and young  growing stems or branches, is a tole-
rably firm juicy substance, of a uniform texture, a/id
commonly a pale green or yellowish colour.  In many
annual stems the petal, abundant  and very juicy while
they are growing,  becomes little more than a web,
lining the hollow of the complete stem; as in some
thistles.   Concerning the nature and functions of this
part various opinions have been held.  Du Hamel con-
sidered it as merely cellular substance, connected with
what is  diffused through the whole plant, combining
iu various parts, but not performing any remarkable
office in the vegetable economy.   Linnsus, on the con-
trary, thought it the seat of life, and source of vegeta-
tion ; that iu vigour was the main cause ofthe propui
sion of  the  branches, and that tbe seeds were more
especially formed from it.  This latter hypothesis is
not better founded than his idea of the pith  adding
new layers to the wood.  In fact, the  pilh is soon ob-
literated in the trunk of many trees; which, neverthe-
less, keep increasing  for a long series of years, by
layers of wood, added every year from the bark,
even after the heart of the tree is become hollow from
decay.
  Some considerations have led  Sir James Smith to
hold a medium opinion between  these two extremes.
There is in certain respects, he observes, an analogy
between the medulla of planis and the nervous system
of animals.   It  is  no less assiduously protected than
the spinal marrow or principal nerve.   It is branched
off and diffused through the plant, as nerves are through
the animal;  hence  it is not absurd to presume that it
may, in  like manner, give life and vigour to the whole,
though by no means any more than nerves, tbe organ
or source of nourishment.
  It is certainly most vigorous and abundant in young
and growing branches, and must be supposed to be sub-
servient, in some way or other, to their increase.
  Mr. Lindsay, of Jamaica, thought he demonstrated
the medulla in tbe leafstalk of the Mimosa pudiea, or
sensitive plant.
  Knight supposes the medulla may be a reservoir of
moisture, to supply the leaves whenever an excess of
perspiration  renders such assistance necessary, but it
should be recollected that all the  moisture in the me-
dulla of a whole plant is, in some cases, too little to
supply one hour's perspiration of a single leaf, and it is
not found that the moisture of the medulla varies, let
the leaves be ever so flaccid
  3. The white substance of tlie brain is called me-
dulla, or the medullary part, to distinguish it from the
cortical.
  Medulla cassije.  The pulp of the cassis flstularis.
See Cassia fistularis-
  Medulla oblongata.  Cerebrum elongatum.  The
medullary substance that lies within the cranium, upon
the basillary process of the occipital bone. It is formed
by the connexion of the crura cerebri and crura cere-
• 
MEL                                             MEL
belli, and terminates in the spinal marrow.  It has se-
veral  eminences, viz.  pons varolii, corpora pyrami-
dalis, and corpora olivaria.
  Medulla spinalis. Cerebrum dongatum JEon. The
Bpinal marrow.  A continuation ofthe medulla oblon-
gata, which descends into the specus vertebralis from
the foramen magnum occipitale, to the third vertebra
of the loins, where it terminates in a number of nerves,
which, from their resemblance, are called cauda equina.
The spinal marrow is  composed, like ihe brain, of a
cortical and medullary substance; the former is placed
internally.  It is covered by a continuation of the dura
mater, pia mater, and tunica arachnoidea. Tbe use of
tiie spinal marrow Is to give off, through the lateral or
Intervertebral  foramina, thirty pairs of nerves, called
cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral nerves.
  MEDULLARY. (Medullaris; from medulla, mar-
row.)  Like unto marrow.
  Medullary substance.   The  white or internal
substance of the brain is so called.   See Cerebrum.
  MEDELLIN.   The  name given  by Dr. John to the
porous pith ofthe sun-flower.
  MEERSCHAM. Kessecil of Kirwan.   A mineral
composed of silica, magnesia,lime-water, and carbonic
acid, of a yellowish  and grayish white  colour,  and
greasy feel,  and soft when first dry.  It  lathers  like
soap, and is used by the Tartars for washing. In Tur-
key they make tobacco  pipes from meerschaum, dug in
Natolia and near Thebes.
  Meoalospla'nchnus.  (From  ptyas,  great, and
0TrXayxV0Vi a bowel.)   Having some of the viscera en-
larged.
  MEGRIM.  A species of headache; a pain gene-
rally affecting one side of the head, towards the eye, or
temple, and arising from the state ofthe stomach.
  MEIBOMIUS, Henry, was born  at Lubeck in 1638.
After studying in different universities, he graduated at
Angers, and afterward  was  appointed professor of me-
dicine at Helmstadt, where  he continued till his death
in 1700.  He published  several works, and commenta-
ries on those of others.  That which chiefly illustrates
his name is entitled " De Vasis Palpebrarum novis,"
printed in 1666.   He seems to have contemplated a
history of medicine, and published a letter on the sub-
ject, which indeed his father had begun;  but the diffi-
culties which  he met with in investigating the medi-
cine ofthe Arabians, arrested his progress.
  Meibomiits's glands.  Meibomii glandula.  The
small  glands which are situated between the conjunc-
tive membrane of the eye and the cartilage ofthe eye-
lid, first described by Meibomius.
  MEIONITE.  Prismatico-pyramidal felspar.  This
mineral occurs along with ceylanite, and nepheline, in
granular limestone, at Monte Somna, near Naples.
  MEL. Honey. A substance collected by bees from
the nectary of flowers, resembling sugar in its elemen-
tary properties.  It has a white or yellowish colour, a
soft and grained  consistence, and  a saccharine and
aromatic smell.  It is supposed to consist of sugar, mu-
cilage,  and an acid.  Honey is an excellent food, and a
softening and  slightly  aperient remedy: mixed with
vinegar, it forms  oxymel, and is used in various forms,
in medicine and  pharmacy.  It is particularly recom-
mended to  tlie asthmatic, and those subject to gravel
complaints, from iu detergent nature.  Founded upon
the popular opinion of honey, as a pectoral  remedy, Dr.
Hill's balsam of honey,  a quack medicine, was once in
demand; but this, besides honey, contained balsam of
Tolu, or gum benjamin, iu solution.
  Mel acetatum.  See Oxymel.
  Mel  boracis.  Honey of borax.—Take of borax,
powdered, a drachm; clarified honey, an ounce.  Mix.
This preparation is found very useful in aphthous affec-
tions of the fauces.
  Mel dkspumatum.  Clarified honey.   Melt honey
in a water bath, then remove the scum.
  M*l Ross:.  Rose honey.—Take of red-rose petals,
dried, four  ounces;  boiling water,  three pints; clari-
fied honey, five pounds. Macerate the rose  petals in the
water for six hours, and strain; then add the honey to
the strained liquor, and, by means of a water-bath, boil
it down to a proper consistence.  An admirable prepa-
ration for the base of various gargles and collutories. It
may also be  employed with advantage,  mixed with
extract  of bark, or other medicines, for children who
have a natural disgust to medicines.
  Mel scill.s.  See Oxymel scilla
      56
  Me'la.  (From (iaw, to search.)  A probe.
  MELJE'NA. (From ucXas, black.) The black vomit.
The black disease.  McXaiva  yovoof, of the Greeks.
Hippocrates applies this name to two diseases.   In the
first, the patient vomits black bile, which Is sometimes
bloody and sour; sometimes he throws up a thin sa-
liva ;  and at others a green bile, &c.   In the second,
the patient is as described in llie article Morbus niger.
See Morbus niger.
  [The Malaria which produces intermittent, remittent,
and other fevers, occasionally becomes so powerful, or
produces such  a  corrupted, or infected state of the
atmosphere, as to induce black vomiting, and yellow
fevers, as was long since noticed by Hippocrates.
  " The morbus regius, or Icterus, of the first section
of his Coan Prognostics, Is undoubtedly febrile yellow-
ness, and not idiopathic  jaundice.  The epithet o{v{,
acute, is repeatedly applied by Hippocrates to denote a
febrile jaundice, which soon destroys life, in contradis-
tinction to the other kinds, which are of a more chronic
type, and less fatal.   The like interpretation  is to be
put upon the sixty-third aphorism of tlie third book,
which declares a yellowness (ixrcpot) supervening in
fevers, on the seventh, ninth, or fourteenth  day, to be
a good symptom,  provided  there is no hardness in
the region of the liver.  In the sixty-second aphorism,
he clearly means to be understood in the same manner,
when he says that yellowness (ixrtpoi again) appearing
in  fevers before the seventh day, is an unfavourable
symptom.  A similar meaning must be intended in the
ninth section of his book on Crises, where it is laid
down as a maxim, that' in burning fevers, a yellow-
ness (iKTtpos) breaking out on the fifth day, and ac-
companied by hiccough, is  a fatal sign.'   (Ev roioi
xavaotoiv tav eirtytvtiTat ixrtpos xai Xv\n ittpttratia tovrt,
BavariaSts viros'potpat XauBavovrai-)
  Let this sentence be particularly considered.   In the
whole catalogue  of diseases,  there is none but  that
commonly called yellow fever to which this aphorism
can properly be applied.  And it would be exceedingly
difficult, in so  few words, to give a more expressive
delineation of the disease in question.  In the third
section of the same book, he declares that ycllowqess
appearing on, or after the seventh day, denotes  a criti-
cal  sweating.  In contradistinction to all which is the
case mentioned in the forty-second  aphorism of the
sixth book, in which it is stated, that an indurated liver
following a  yellowness, is  an unfavourable  occur-
rence, because it is a case of idiopathic  jaundice, con-
nected with a very morbid condition of that important
viscus.   Yellowness, as a symptom of fever,  is men-
tioned in other places.  I shall mention but  one more,
and that bears so direct an application to the subject,
that it is impossible to mistake its meaning.   It is from
his  book De Ratione Vidus in Morbis acutis.  In a
bilious fever, yellowness coming on with shivering be-
fore the  seventh day, terminates the  fever; but  if it
come on abruptly (or unseasonably) without shivering,
it is mortal.   (Ev miperia xoXiaSti, irpo tjjc tSSopns, pt/a
piytos iKTtpos tirtytvoptvos, Xvn rov -rtvpvrov; avsv 61
!>iytos rrv tirytvrflai, t\ia riav xaiptav, dXiBptov.)
  It will not appear  strange that Hippocrates should
have been acquainted with tbe disease called yellow
fever, if we attend to the following  account of the
Phasians, delivered in his book on  air, water, and
situation.
  " As to the inhabitants of Phasis, their country is
marshy, hot, watery, woody, and subject to  many vio-
lent showers at all seasons.   They  also live in tbe
marshes, in houses or huu, built in the water, of wood
and reeds; seldom walk to the city or the market, but
pass from place to  place, as they have many canals
and ditches, in  boats cut out of one  piece of timber.
The waters they drink are hot and stagnant, corrupted
by the sun, and supplied by the rain.  The river Phasis
itself is the most stagnant of all rivers, and the stream
the gentlest.  The fruits they have there never come to
perfection, but are cramped in  their growth, and, as it
were, effeminated by the vast quantity of water.  The
air  of the country is also thick, and misty from so
much water.  For these reasons the Phnsians differ in
their appearance from other people; for they are large
and thick to a prodigy, without any  sign of joint or
vessel.  Their colour is  a pale yellow like lhat  in a
jaundice." Tip- St xp»'*f UXPV 'xovoiv, otcnrtp is*
ixrtpov txoptvoi-
  Having found these fsett in the works of  the father
• 
MEL
MEL
 of physic, I turned over bis pages with a view of find-
 ing whether he knew any thing of black vomiting.  I
 soon found the phrases ptXaiva x°^1, black bile, ptXava
 tutrov, black vomit, and utXaviav tucjov, the vomiting
 of black  matter.  In the twelfth section of his prognos-
 tics, heatfinus, that if tbe matte vomited be of a livid or
 black  colour, it betokens ill.  So in the first section of
 the first book of his Cean Prognostics, he enumerates
 black vomiting among a number of the most desperate
 symptoms.  And also in the fourth section of the same
 book, he considers It ek-green, livid, and black vomit-
 ing, as omens  of sad import.  (£i Sn tin to tv/icvucvov
 irpaeoctScs, V nnXiov, n ptXav, av n rov"]tiav Tiav XP<*pa
 riav, voui\tiv xl1 irovypov tirat.)  The passage iu the
 eleventh paragraph of the first book of his Predictions
 indicatesstrougly the unfavourable issue of a fever after
 black  vomiting. Tlie connexion between black vomit-
 ing and death is noticed likewise in the third paragraph
 of the second section of his Coan Prognostics.  The
 Baine symptom is mentioned in the first  paragraph of
 the first section of the same book.  And you will find
 tbe like to occur iu the fourth paragraph of tlie third
 section.
  I have  confined  myself in  citing the works of Hip-
 pocrates to some ofthe passages  which contain pointed
 facu and opinions, relative to a yellowness of the skin,
 and a vomiting of dark or black  matter in fevers.  My
 object  is, to show  that  these are by no means new
 symptoms: that ihey existed in the days of Artaxerxes,
 certainly among the Greeks, and probably among the
 Persians; that they had been observed more than 2000
 years ago by one of the most careful of men in the
 southern  parU  of Europe; and of course, since they
 existed so long before the voyage of Columbus, there is
 no need  of resorting to the stale and delusive notion
 that the fevers with these symptoms are of modern ex-
 istence, and imported solely  from America.  Unfor-
 tunately,  fevers with these accompaniments were long,
 long before, found lo prostrate the strength end shorten
thelifeof man.   This subject may be further illustrated
 by recollecting that Hippocrates  practised physic, for a
 considerable portion of his life, in paru of Greece, situ-
 ated nearly in tlie same parallel of latitude with  those
 in North America where the yellow fever has exhibited
 its greatest ravages," and where  it has  always been a
 seasonable  and  local  disease and  not contagious.—
 Med. Repos. A.]
  Mulaina nosos.  See Melana.
  MELALEU'CA.  (From ptXas, black, and Xcvkos,
 while: so named by Linnaeus, because the  principal,
 and indeed original, species was called leucadendron,
 and arbor alba; words synonymous with iu appel-
lation in  the Malay tongue, Caja-puti, or wiiite tree,
but it is  not known why the idea of black  was asso-
ciated with white.)   The name  of a genus of plants in
the Linnxan system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Ico-
sandria.
  Melaleuca  leucadendron.  The systematic name
of Ihe plant which is said to afford  the cajeput oil.
 Oleum cajeputa ; Oleum IVittnebianum ; Oleum vola-
 tile melaleuca; Oleum cajeput. Thunberg says cajeput
oil has the  appearance of inflammable spirit, is of a
green colour, and so completely volatile, that it evapo-
 rates entirely, leaving no residuum ; its odour is ofthe
 camphoraceous kind, with a terebinthinate admixture.
 Goetz  says it is limpid, or rather yellowish.  Il is a
 very powerful  medicine, and in high esteem in India
 and Germany,  in the character of a general remedy in
chronic and painful diseases:  it is used for  the same
 purposes for which we employ the officinal aethers, to
 which  it  seems  to have a considerable  affinity; the
cajeput, however, is more potent and pungent; taken
Into the stomach,  in the dose of five or six drops, it
heats and stimulates the whole system, proving, at the
same time, a very  certain diaphoretic, by which pro-
bably the good effects it is said to have in dropsies and
intermittent fevers, are to be  explained.  For iu effi-
racy in various convulsive and spasmodic complaints,
it is  highly esteemed.  It has  also been usecf both in-
ternally and externally, with much advantage, in se-
veral other obstinate disorders:  as palsies, hypochon-
driacal, and hysterical affections, deafness,  defective
vision,  toothache, gout, rheumatism, Sec  The dose is
from two to six, or even twelve drops. The tree which
affords this oil, by distillation of its leaves,  generally
 was  supposed to be  the Melaleuca leucadendron of
 Linneus, but it appears from the specimens of the tree
 producing the true oil, sent home from India, by Chris-
 topher Smith, that it is another species, which is there-
 fore named Melaleuca cajaputi.
    MELAMEMA.   (From  ptXas,  black, and  atpa,
 blood.)  A term applied to blood when  it is of a mor-
 bidly dark colour.
   MELAMPHY'LLUM.   (From  usXas, black, and
 tbvXXov,  a leaf: so  named from the blackness of iu
 leaf.)  See Acanthus mollis.
   MELAMPO'DIUM.  (From Melampus, the  shep-
 herd who first used it.)  Black hellebore.  See Helle-
 borus  niger.
   Melanago'ga.  (From ptXas, black, and ayia, to ex-
 pel.)  Medicines which purge off black bile.
   Melanchlo'rus.  MeXayx^iapos- I*  A livid colour
 ofthe skin.
   2. The black jaundice.
   MELANCHOLIA. (From utXas, black, and xoXn,
 bile; because Ihe ancients supposed that it proceeded
 from a redundance of black bile.)   Melancholy mad-
 ness.  A disease in the class Neuroses, and order Ve-
 sania, of Cullen, characterized by erroneous judg-
 ment, but not merely respecting health, from imaginary
 perceptions, or recollection influencing tbe conduct and
 depressing the mind with ill-grounded fears; not com-
 bined with either pyrexia or comatose affections; often
 appearing without dyspepsia, yet attended with  cos-
 tiveness, chiefly in persons of rigid fibres and torpid in-
 sensibility.  See Mania.
   MELANITE.  A velvet-black coloured mineral in
 roundish or  crystallized grains, found  in a rock at
 Frascate near Rome.
   MELAWO'MA.  (From ptXas, black.)  Melanosis.
 A rare disease which is found  under the common in-
 tegumenu, and in the viscera, in the form of a tuber-
 cle, of a dark soot-bjack colour.
   MELANO'PIPER.  (From ptXas, black, and irtirtct
 pepper.)  See Piper nigrum.
   Melanorriuzon.   (From ptXas, black, and pi$a, a
 root.)  A species of hellebore with  black roou.  See
 Helleborus niger.
   MELANO'SIS.  See Melanoma.
   Melante'ria.   (From ueXas, black: so called be-
 cause it is used for blacking leather.) Green vitriol, or
 sulphate of iron.
   Melanthel«'um.  (From ptXas, black, and cAaiov,
 oil.)  Oil expressed from the black seeds of the Nigella
 sativa.
   Mela'nthium.  (From ptXas, black:  so named from
 iu black seed.)  The Nigella  sativa, or  herb fennel
 flower.
   ME'LAS.  (From utXas, black.)  Vitiligo nigra;
 Morpha nigra; Lepra maculosa nigra.   A disease
 that appears upon the skin in black or brown spoU,
 which very frequently penetrate deep, even  to tha
 bone, and do not give any pain, or uneasiness.  It is a
 disease very frequent in, and  endemial  to, Arabia,
 where it is supposed to he produced by a peculiar mi-
 asma.
  MELA'SMA.   (Prom  ptXas, black.)   Melasmus.
 A disease that appears not unfrequently upon the tibia
 of  aged persons, in  form  of  a  livid black  spot,
 which, in a  day or two, degenerates into a very foul
 ulcer.
  MEL ASPE'RMUM. (From ptXas, black, and airtp-
pa, seed.) See Nigella sativa.
  MELASSES.  Treacle. The black empyreumatic
syrup which exisu in raw suear.
  MELASSIC ACID.  The "acid present in melasses,
which  has been thought a peculiar acid by some ; by
others, the acetic.
  Me'lca.  (From aptXyia, to milk.) Milk.  A food.
made of  acidulated milk.
  Me'le.  (From paw, to search.)  A probe.
  MELEA'GRIS.  (From  Meleager, whose  sisters
were fabled to  have been turned into this bird.)  1
The guinea fowl.
  2.  A species of fritillaria:  so called  becouse its
flowers arc spotted like a guinea-fowl.
  Melege'ta.  Grains of paradise.
  Meleguetta.  Grains of paradise. See Amomum
granum paradisi.
  Melei'os.  (From Melos, the island where it is
made.)  A species of alum.
  MELI.  MtXi.  Honey. See Mel.
  Mkliceria.  See Meliceris.
  MELI'CERIS.  (From jisAi, honey, and wpoj, wax.'
• 
MEL
MEM
Mdieeria.  An encysted tumour, the contenu of which
resemble honey in consistence and appearance.
  Meli'craton.   (From utXt, honey, and xcpavvvpt,
to mix.)  Wine impregnated with honey.
  Meligei'on.  (From ptXi,  honey.)   A foetid hu-
mour, discharged  from ulcers attended with a caries
of the bone, of the consistence of honey.
  MELILOT.  See Mdilotus.
  MKLILOTUS.  (From /itXi, honey, and Xtaros, the
lofw: so called from iu smell, being like that of ho-
my.)  See Trifolium mdilotus officinalis.
  Melime'lum.  (From ptXt, honey, and prjXov, an
apple: so named from its sweetness.)  Paradise apple,
tiie produce of a dwarf wild apple-tree.
  Meli'num.   (From ptXov,  an  apple.)  Oil made
from the flowers, or the fruit of the apple-tree.
  MELIPHY'LLUM.   (From /icXi, honey, and  tbvX-
Xov, a leaf: so called from the sweet smell of  its  leaf,
or because bees gather  honey  from it.)  See Melissa.
  MELISSA.  (From ptXtaoa, a bee;  because  bees
gather honey  from it.)   The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system.  Class, Didynamia; Order,
Gymnospermia.  Balm.
  Melissa calamintha.  The systematic name of
the  common   calamint.   Calamintha;  Calamintha
vulgaris; Calamintha  officinarum;  Melissa—pedun-
culis axillaribus, dichotomis, longitudine foliorum, of
Linnaeus.  This plant  smells strongly like wild mint,
though more agreeable; and is often used by the com-
mon people, in form of tea, against weakness of the sto-
mach, flatulent colic, uterine obstructions, hysteria, &.C.
  Melissa citrina.   See Melissa officinalis.
  Melissa grandiflora. The systematic name of
the mountain calamint   Calamintha magno flore;
Calamintha montana.   This plant has  a moderately
pungent  laste, and a more agreeable aromatic  smell
than the common calamint, and appears to be more
eligible as a stomachic.
  Melissa nepeta.  Field calamint.  Spotted cala-
mint  Calamintha anglica; Calaminthapulegii odore ;
Nepeta  agrestis.   It  was formerly used as  an  aro
matic.
  Melissa officinalis.    The  systematic name of
balm.   Citrago;  Citraria:  Melissophyllum; Melli-
tis ; Cedronella ;  Apiastrum ; Melissa citrina;  Ero-
tion.  A native of the southern paru of Europe, bill
very common in our gardens. In iu recent state, it
bas a roughish aromatic taste, and a pleasant smell of
the lemon  kind.  It was formerly much esteemed in
nervous diseases, and very generally recommended in
melancholic and hypochondriacal affections; but, in
modern practice, it is only employed when prepared as
tea, as a grateful diluent drink in fevers, Sec.
  Melissa turcica.  See Dracocephalum moldavica.
  Melissophy'llum.   (From ptXiaoa, baum,  and
ibvXXov, a leaf.) A species of melittis, with leaves re-
sembling baum.   See Melittis melissophyllum.
  Meliti'smus.    (From ptXi, honey.)  A  linctus,
prepared with honey.
  MELITTIS.   (From ptXirla, which, in the Attic
dialect,  is the name of a  bee; so that this word  is, in
fact, equivalent to Melissa, and was adopted  by Lin-
naeus, therefore, for the bastard balm.)   The name of
a genus of plants.  Class, Didynamia; Order, Gym-
nospermia.  Bastard balm.
   Melittis   melissophyllum.     The  systematic
name of the  mountain balm,  or nettle.  Sophyllum.
This elegant  plant is seldom used in the present  day;
it is said to be of  service in  uterine obstructions and
calculous diseases.
  Melitto'ma.  (From ptXi,  honey.)  A confection
made with honey.  Honey-dew.
  Melizo'mum. (From utXi, honey, and \iapos, broth.)
Honey-broth.   A  drink  prepared  with honey, like
mead.
  Mella'go.   (From  mel, honey.)   Any medicine
which bas the consistence and sweetness of honey.
  MELLATE. A compound of  mellitic acid,  with
salifiable bases.
  Melliceris. See Meliceris.
  Mellilo'tus.  Sec Mdilotus.
  Melli'na.   (From  mel, honey.)   Mead. A sweet
drink prepared with honey.
  MELLI'TA.  (From mel, honey.)  Preparations of
honey.
  MELLITE.  Mellilite.  Honey-stone.  A  mineral
of  a  boney-yellow colour,  slightly resino-electric
by friction, hitherto found  only at Atern,  In Th*>
riiejia.
  MELLITIC ACID.   (Acidum melliticum   from
mellilite, the honey-stone, from whicli it is obtained.)
" Klaprolh discovered in the mellilite, or honey-stone,
what he conceives to be a peculiar acid of  the vegeta-
ble kind, combined with alumina.  This acid is easily
obtained by reducing the stone to powder,  and boiling
it in about seventy times its weight of water; when
the acid will dissolve, and may be separated from  the
alumina by filtration.  By evaporating the solution, it
may be obtained in the form of crystals. The follow
ing are its characters :—
  It crystallizes in fine needles or globules by tlie union
of these, or small prisms.  Its taste is at first a sweet-
ish-sour, which leaves a bitterness behind.  On a plate
of hot metal it is readily decomposed, and dissipated
in copious  gray fumes, which  affect  not the smell,
leaving behind a small quantity of ashes, that do not
change  either  red  or blue tincture of litmus.  Neu-
tralized by potassa  it crystallizes in groups of  long
prisms:  by soda,  in cubes, or triangular laminae, some-
times in groups, sometimes single; and by ammonia,
in beautiful prisms with six planes, which soon lose
their transparency, and acquire a silver-white hue". If
the mellitic acid be dissolved in lime-water, and a solu-
tion  of  calcined  strontian or barytes be dropped into
it, a white precipilate is thrown down, which is redis-
solved on adding muriatic acid.  With a  solution of
acetate of barytes, it produces likewise a white preci-
pitate, which nitric acid redissolves.  With solution
of muriate  of barytes, it produces no precipitate, 01
even cloud;  but, after standing some time, fine trans
parent neodly crystals are  deposited.   The mellitic
acid produces no change in  a solution of nitrate of
silver.  From a solution of nitrate of mercury, either
hot or cold, it  throws down a copious white precipi
tate, which an addition of nitric acid immediately re-
dissolves.  With nitrate of iron, it gives an  abundant
precipitate of a dun-yellow colour, which  may be re
dissolved by muriatic acid.   With a solution of ace
tate of lead, it produces an abundant precipitate, Im-
mediately redissolved  on adding nitric acid.  With
acetate of copper, it gives a grayish-green  precipitate;
but it does not affect a solution of muriate of copper.
Lime-water, precipitated by it,  is immediately redis-
solved on adding nitric acid."—Ure's Chem. Did.
  ME'LO.  See  Cucumis melo.
  Meloca'rpus.  (From pnXov, an apple,  and xapiros,
fruit: from  its resemblance  to an apple.)  The fruit
of the aristolochia, or its roots.
  ME'LOE.  An insect called the blossom-eater.  A
genus of the order Coleoptera.  Some of iu species
were formerly used  medicinally.
  Meloe  vesicatorius.  See Cantharis.
  [Meloe vittata, or  potato-fly. See Cantharides
vittata.  A.J
  M ELON.  See Cucumia melo.
  Melon, musk.  Sec Cucumis melo.
  Melon, water.  See Cucurbita citrullus.
  Me'lon.   M17X0V.  A disorder of the eye, in which
the ball of the eye is pressed forward from the socket.
  MELO'NGENA.  Mala insana.  Solanum pomife-
rum.  Mad-apple.  The Spaniards and Italians eat it
in sauce and  in sweetmeau.  The taste somewhat
resembles citron.  See Solanum melongena.
  Melo'sis.  MnXiaots-  A term which frequently oc-
curs in Hippocrates, De Capitis Vulneribus, for that
search into wounds wbich  is made by surgeons with
tbe probe.
  Melo'tis.   Mr/Xomc.   A little probe, and that par-
ticular instrument contrived to  search or  cleanse the
ear with, commonly called Auriscalpium.
  MELO'THRIA.  (A name borrowed by Linneus
in his ' Horlus Cliffortianus; from the ui/Aia&pov, of
Dioscorides.)  The name of a genus of plants.  Class,
 Triandria; Order,  Monogynia.
  Melothria pendula.  The systematic name ofthe
small creeping cucumber plant.  The American bry-
ony.  The inhabitantt  of the West Indies pickle the
berries of this plant, and use them as we do capers.
  Melyssophyllum.  (From ptXiaoa, balm, and ipvX
Xov, a leaf.)  See Melittis.
  MEMBRANA.  See Membrane.
  Membrana  hyaloidea.   Membrana arachnoidea
The transparent  membrane which includes  the vltrsr
ous humour of the eye. 
MEN
MEN
  Membrana pupillaris.  Velum pupilla.  A very
delicate membrane of a thin and vascular texture, and
au ash colour, arising from tile internal margin of the
iris, and totally covering the pupil  in tlie foetus before
tbe sixth month.
  Membrana  ruyschiana.   The celebrated  anato-
mist Ruysch discovered  that the choroid  membrane
of the eye was composed  of two  laminae.  He gave
the  name of membrana ruyschiana to the internal
lamina, leaving the old name of choroides to the ex-
ternal.
  Membrana  sciineideriana.  The very vascular
pituitary membrane which  lines the nose and its cavi-
ties ; secretes the mucus of that cavity, and is the bed
of the olfactory nerves.
  Membrana tympani.  The membrane covering the
cavity of the drum of the ear, and  separating il from
the meatus auditorius externus.   It is of an oval form,
convex below the middle,  towards the hollow of the
tympanum, and concave  towards the meatus audito-
rius, and convex above the meatus, and concave to-
wards the hollow ofthe tympanum.  According to the
observations of anatomists, it consists of six lamina; ;
the first and most external,  is a production of the epi-
dermis ; the second is a production of the skin lining
the auditory passage ;  the third is cellular membrane,
in which the vessels form  an  elegant net-work; the_
fourth  is shining, thin, and transparent, arising from
the periosteum of the meatus ; the fifth is cellular mem-
brane, with a plexus of vessels like the third; and the
sixth lamina, which  is the innermost, comes from the
periosteum of  the  cavity  of the  tympanum.   This
membrane, thus composed of  several  lamina1, has
lately been discovered to  possess  muscular fibres.
  MEMBRANACEUS.  Membranaceous: Applied  to
leaves, pods, &c. of a thin  and pliable texture, as the
leaf  of the Magnolia purpurea, and several capsules,
ligaments, &c.
  MEMBRA NOLO'GIA.   (From membrana, a mem-
brane, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  Membranology. That
which  relates to the common integumenu  and mem-
branes.
  MEMBRANE.  Membrana,   1.  In  anatomy.   A
thin expanded substance, composed of cellular texture,
the elastic fibres of which are so  arranged and woven
together, as  to  allow of  great  pliability.  The mem-
branes of the body are various, as  the skin, peritoneum,
pleura, dura mater, &c. Sec.
  2.  In botany.  See Testa.
  MEMBRANO'SUS.  See Tensor vagina femoris.
  Membra'nus.  See Tensor vagina femoris.
  Memo'ria os.  See  Occipital  bone.
  MEMORY.   Memoria.  The brain is not only capa-
ble of perceiving sensations, but it possesses the faculty
of reproducing those it bas already perceived.  This
cerebral action is called remembrance, when the ideas
are reproduced which have not been long received :  it
it is called recollection  when  the ideas are  of an
older date.  An old man who recalls the evenu of his
youth, has recollection; he who  recalls the sensations
which be had last year, has memory, or remembrance.
  Reminiscence is an idea  produced which one does
not remember having had before.
  In childhood  and  youth, memory is very vivid  as
well as sensibility: it is therefore at this age, lhat the
greatest variety of knowledge is acquired, particularly
that sort which does not require much reflection; such
as history,  languages, the descriptive  science,  &c.
Memory afterward weakens along  with age: in adult
age it diminishes; in old age it fails almost completely.
There  are, however, individuals who  preserve their
memory to a very advanced age ; but if this does not
depend on great exercise, as happens with actors, it
exisu often only to the detriment of the other intellec-
tual  faculties.
  The sensations are recalled with ease in proportion
as they are vivid.  The remembrance of internal sen-
sations is almost always confused;  certain diseases of
the brain destroy the memory entirely.
  MENACHANITE.  A mineral  of a grayish black
colour, found accompanied wilh fine quartz sand  in
the bed of a rivulet, which enters the valley of Manac-
can, in Cornwall.
  MENAGOGUE.  See Emmenagogue.
  MENDO'SUS.  (From mendax, counterfeit.)  This
term is used, by some, iu  the same sense as spurious,
or illegitimate;  Mendcsa costa false or spurious ribs;
Mendosa sutura, the squamous suture, or bastard
suture of the skull.
  MENILITE.  A sub-species of indivisible quartz.
It is of two kinds, fie brown and the gray.
  Meningo'phylax.  (From pnvty\, a membrane,and
(pvXaaaia,  to guard.) . An instrument  to guard the
membranes  of the brain, while  the  bone is  cut, or
rasped, after the operation of the trepan.
  ME'NINX.  (From ptvta, to remain.)  Before the
time of Galen, meninx was Ihe common term of all the
membranes  of the body, afterward it  was appropri-
ated to those of tlie brain.  See Dura mater, and Pia
mater.
  MENISPERMIC ACID.  (Acidum menispermicum ;
from menispermum, the name of the plant in the ber-
ries of which it exisU.)  The seeds of Menispermum
cocculus being macerated for 24 hours in 5 times  their
weight of water, first cold, and then boiling hot, yield
an infusion,  from which solution of subacetate of lead
throws down  a lnenispermate of lead.   This is to be
washed and drained, diffused through water, and de-
composed by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
The liquid, thus freed from lead, is  to be deprived  of
sulphuretted hydrogen by heat, aud then forms solution
of menispermic acid. By repeated evaporations and
solutions in  alkohol, it loses iu  bitter taste, and be-
comes a purer acid.   It occasions no precipitale  with
lime-water;  with nitiate of baryies it yields a  gray
precipitate;  with nitrate of silver, a deep  yellow; and
with sulphate of magnesia, a copious precipitate.
  MENISPE'RMUM.  (From  pnvn, the moon,  and
atreppa, seed, in allusion to the crescent-like form  of
the seed.)   Moon-seed.  The name of a genus  of
plants.  Class, Diacia; Order, Dodecandria.
  Menispermum  cocculus.  The systematic name
of the plant, the berries of which are well known  by
the name of Cocculus indicus.   Indian berries, or In-
dian cockles; Coccus indicus;  Coccvla officinarium;
Cocci orientates.  The berry, the produceof the Menis-
permum—foliis cordatis, retusis, mucronatis ;  cauls
lacero, of Linnaeus, is rugous and kidney-shaped, and
contains a white nucleus.  It is brought from Malabar
and the East  Indies. It is  poisonous if swallowed,
bringing on  nausea,  fainting, and convulsions.  The
berries possess an inebriating quality; and are supposed
to impart that power to most of the London porter.
While green, they are used  by the Indians to catch
fish, which they have the power of intoxicating and
killing.  In the same  manner they catch birds, making
Ihe berry into a paste, forming it into small seeds, and
putting these in places where they frequent.  A pecu-
liar acid called menispermic, is obtained from these
berries.
  By  recent  chemical analysis, this seed is  found to
contain, 1st, about one-half of its weight of a concrete
fixed oil; 2rf, an albuminous vegeto-animal substance;
3d,  a peculiar colouring  matter; 4th,  one-fiftieth  of
picrotoxia;  5th, one-half iu weight of fibrous matter;
6th, bimalate of lime and potassa; 7fA,  sulphate  of
potassa; 8fA, muriate of potassa; 9rA, phosphate  of
lime; 10th, a littleiron and silica.  It is poisonous; and
is frequently employed to intoxicate or poison fishes.
The deleterious ingredient is the Picrotoxia.
  The poisonous principle called picrotoxia, is obtained
in the following way  : " To  the filtered decoction  of
these  berries, add acetate of lead, while any precipitate
falls.  Filter and  evaporate the liquid cautiously to
the consistence of an  extract.  Dissolve in alkohol
of 0.817,  and evaporate the  solution to dryness   By
repeating the solutions and  evaporations, we at last
obtain a substance equally soluble in water and alko
hoi.   The colouring  matter  may oe removed by agi
tating it witb a little water. Crystals of pure picrotoxia
now fall, which may be washed with a little alkohol.
  The crystals are four-sided prisms, of a white colour,
and intensely bitter taste.  They are soluble in 25 times
their weight of water, and are not precipitable by any
known reagent.  Alkohol, sp. gr. 0.8)0, dissolves one-
third of its weight of picrotoxia.  Pure sulphuric ether
dissolves two-fifths of its weight.
  Strong sulphuric acid dissolves  it, but not when
much diluted.  Nitric acid converts it inlo oxalic acid.
It dissolves and neutralizes  in acetic acid, and  falls
when this is  saturated with an alkali.  It may, there-
fore be regarded as  a  vegcto-alkali itself.  Aqueous
potassa  dissolves  it,  without evolving any smell of
ammonia. It acU as  an intoxicating poison. 
MEN
MEN
   Sulphate of picrotoxia must be formed by dissolving
 picrotoxia in dilute sulphuric acid, for the strong acid
 chars and  destroys il.   The  solution crystallizes on
 cooling.  The sulphate of picroliixia dissolves in 120
 times its weight of boiling water.  The solution gradu-
 ally lets fall me salt in tine silky filaments disposed in
 bundles, and possessed of great beauty.
   .Virralc of picrotoxia.  -Nitric  acid, of the specific
 gravity 1.38, diluted with twice ils weight of water, dis-
 solves when assisted by heat, the fourth  of iu weight
 of picrotoxia.   When this solution is evaporated to
 one-half, it becomes viscid, and on cooling is converted
 into a transparent mass, similar to a solution of gum-
 arabic.   In this state the nitrate of picrotoxia is acid,
 and exceedingly bitter.
   Muriate of picrotoxia. M uriatic acid, of the specific
 gravity 1.145,  has little action on picrotoxia.  It dis-
 solves it when assisted by heat but does not become
 entirely saturated. Five paru of this acid, diluted with
 three times iu weight of water, dissolve about one part
 of picrotoxia at  a strong boiling  temperature.  The
 liquor, on cooling, is converted into a grayish crystal-
 line mass, composed of confused  crystals.   When
 these crystals are well washed, they are almost  desti-
 tute of tasle, and feel elastic under the teeth.
  Acetate of picrotoxia. Acetic acid dissolves picro-
 toxia very well, and  may be nearly saturated with it
 by the assistance of a boiling heat.   On cooling, the
 acetate precipitates in well-defined prismatie'rieeaies.
 This acetate is soluble in fifty times iu weight of boil-
 ing water.
  MENORRHAGIA.   (From pnvia, the menses, and
pirywpi, to break out.) Hamorrhagia uterina. Flood-
 ing.  An immoderate flow of the menses, or uterine
 haemorrhage. A genus of diseases in the class Pyrexia,
 and order Hamorrhagia, of Cullen, characterized by
 pains iu the back, loins, and belly, similar lo those of
 labour, attended with a preternatural flux of blood from
the vagina, or  a discharge of menses, more copious
than natural.  He distinguishes six species:—
  1. Menorrhagia rubra; bloody, from women neither
 with child nor in child-birth.
  2. Menorrhagia alba, serous; the fluor albus.  See
 Leucorrhaa.
  3. Menorrhagia vitorium, from some local disease.
  4. Menorrhagia lochialis, from  women after  de-
 livery.  See Lochia.
  5. Menorrhagia abortus.  See Abortion.
  6. Menorrhagia nabothi, when there is  a serous dis-
 charge from the vagina In pregnant women.
  This disease seldom occurs before the age of puberty,
 and is often an attendant on pregnancy.  It is in gene-
 ral a  very dangerous disease, mure particularly if it
occur at  the latter period, as it U then often so rapid
and violent as to destioy the female  in  a very short
 time,  where  proper  means  are  not soon  adopted.
Abortions often give rise to floodings,  and at any
period of pregnancy, but more usually before the fifth
month than at any other time.  Moles, in consequence
of an imperfect conception, becoming detached, often
 give rise lo a considerable degree of hemorrhage.
  The causes wliich most frequently give rise to flood-
 ings, are violent exertions of strength, sudden surprises
 and frighu, violent fits of passion, great uneasiness of
 mind, uncommon longings during pregnancy, over  ful-
 ness of blood, profuse evacuations, general weakness
of the system,  external injuries, as blows and  bruises,
 and the death of the  child, in consequence of which
 the placenta becomes partially or wholly detached from
 the uterus, leaving the  mouths of the vessels of the
 latter, wbich anastomosed with those of the former,
 perfectly open.  It is necessary to distinguish between
 an approaching miscarriage and  a common flooding,
 which may be readily done by inquiring whether or not
 the haemorrhage  has proceeded  from  any  evident
 cause, and  whether it flows gently or is accompanied
 witJi unusual pains.  The former  usually arises from
 some  fright, surprise, or accident, and does not flow
 gently and  regularly   but bursu out of a sudden, and
 again stops all. at once, and also is attended with severe
 pains in the back and llie bottom of the belly; whereas
 the latter ii marked with no such occurrence.  The
 further a woman is advanced in pregnancy, the greater
 will be the danger if floodings take place, as the mouths
 •f tbe vessels  are much enlarged  during the last stage
 ef pregnancy,  and of course a quantity  will be dis-
 charged in a short time.
      eo
•
   The treatment must differ according lothe particular
 causes of the disease, and  according to tlie  different
 states of constitution under which  it occurs.  The
 haemorrhage is more frequently of the active kind, and
 requires tlie  antiphlogistic plan to be strictly enforced,
 especially obviating the accumulation of heat in every
 way, giving cold acidulated drink, and using cold local
 applications;  the  patient must remain quiet  in the
 horizontal posture; the diet be of the lightest and  least
 stimulant description; and the bowels kept freely open
 by cooling laxatives, as tbe neutral salu, Sec   It  may
 be sometimes advisable  in  robust, plethoric  females,
 particularly in the pregnant state, lo take blood at an
 early period, especially where there Is much pain with
 a hard pulse; digitalis and antimonials in  nauseating
 doses would  also be proper under such circumstances.
 But where the discharge is  rather of a passive  cha-
 racter,  tonic  and astringent medicines ought to be
 given: rest and the horizontal position are equally ne-
 cessary, costiveness must be  obviated, and  cold  astrin-
 gent applications  may be  materially useful,  or the
 escape of the blood may be prevented mechanically.
 In alarming cases, perhaps the most powerful internal
 remedy is the superacetate of lead,  combined with
 opium; which latter is often indicated by the irritable
 state of the  patient.  A  nourishing diet, with  gentle
 exercise in a carriage, and the prudent use  of the cold
 bath, may contribute  to restore the patient, when the
 discharge has subsided.
   Me'nsa.  The second lobe ofthe liver was so called
 by the ancients.                                 M
   MENSES. (From mensis, a month.)  See Menstru-
 ation.
   Menses, immoderate flow  of the.  See  Menor.
 rhagia.
   Menses, interruption of.  See Amenorrhaa.
   Menses, retention of.  See Amenorrhaa.
   Mensis philosophicus.  A philosophical, or chemi
 cal month.  According to some, it is  three days  and
 nights;  others say it is ten; and there are who reckon
 it to be thirty or forty days.
   MENSTRUATION.  (Menstmatio ; from menses.)
 From the uterus of every healthy woman who is not
 pregnant, or who does not give suck, there is a discharge
 of a red fluid,  at certain periods,  from the time of
 puberty to the approach of old age; and from the periods
 or returns of this discharge  being monthly, it is called
 Menstruation.   There are several exceptions to  this
 definition.  It is said that some  women  never men-
 struate ;  some menstruate while ihey continue to  give
 suck; and others nre said to menstruate during preg-
 nancy ; some are said to menstruate in early infancy,
 and others in old age; but sucli discharges, Dr.  Denman
 is of opinion, may, with more  propriety, be  called
 morbid, or symptomatic; and certainly  the definition
 is generally true.
   At whatever time of life this discharge comes on, a
 woman is said to be at puberty: though of this stale it
 is a  consequence, and not a cause.  The early  or late
 appearance of the menses may depend upon the climate,
 the constitution, the delicacy or hardness of living, and
 upon the manners nf those with whom young women
 converse.  In Greece, and  other hot countries,  girls
 begin to menstruate at eight nine, and ten  years of
 age; but, advancing to the northern climates, there is
 a gradual protraction ofthe time till we come to Lap-
 land, where women do not menstruate tiH tbey arrive
 at maturer age, and then  in small quantities, at  long
 intervals, and sometimes only in the summer.  But it
 they do not menstruate according to the genius of the
 country, it is said they suffer equal inconveniences as
 in warmer climates, where  the quantity dischargedls
 much greater, and the periods shorter.  In this country,
 girls begin to menstruate from the fourteenth  to the
 eighteenth year of their age, and  sometimes at a later
 period, without any signs of disease; but if  they aie
 luxuriously educated, sleeping upon down beds,  and
 sitting in  hot rooms, menstruation usually  commences
 at a more early period.
   Many changes in the constitution and appearance of
 women are produced at the time of their^irst beginning
 to menstruate.  Their complexion is Unproved, their
 countenance is more expressive and animated, their
 attitudes graceful, and their conversation  more intel-
 ligent and agreeable;  tbe lone of their voice becomes
 more harmonious, their whole frame, but particularly
.their breasu, are expanded and  enlarged, and their 
MEN
MEN
minds are no longer engaged in childish pursuiu and
amusements.
  Some  girls  begin  to menstruate without any pre-
ceding indisposition ;  but there are generally appear-
ances or symptoms which indicate the change which is
about to take place.  These are usually more severe
at the first lhan in the succeeding periods;  and they
are similar to those produced by uterine irritation from
other causes, as pains in the back and inferior extremi-
ties, complaiuu of the viscero, wilh various hysteric
and nervous  affections.  These commence  with the
first disposition to menstruate, and continue till the dis-
charge comes on, when  they abate, or disappear, re-
turning however  with considerable violence in some
women, at every period during life.  The  quantity of
fluid discharged at each evacuation, depends upon the
climate,  constitution,  and manner  of living; but it
varies  in  different women  in the same climate, or in
the same woman  at different  periods; in this country
it amounts to about five or six ounces.
  There is also a great difference  in the time required
for the completion of each period of menstruation.  In
some women the discharge returns precisely to a day,
or an hour, and in others there is avariation of several
days without inconvenience.  In some it is finished in
a few hours, and in others it continues from one to ten
days; but the intermediate lime, from three to six days,
is most usual.
  There  has been an  opinion, probably derived  from
the Jewish legislature, afterward adopted  by the Ara-
bian physicians, and  credited in other countries, that
the menstruous blood  possessed some peculiar malig-
nant properties.  The. severe regulations which  have
been made in some countries for the conduct of women
at the time of menstruation; the expression used, Isaiah,
chap. xxx. and in Ezekiel: the disposal of the blood
discharged, or of any tiling contaminated with  it;—
the complaints of women attributed to its retention :—
and the effects enumerated by grave writers, indicate
the most dreadful apprehensions of its baneful influ-
ence.   Under  peculiar circumstances  of health,  or
6tates of the uterus, or in hot climates, if the evacuation
be slowly made,  the  inenstrunus  blood may become
more acrimonious or offensive than the common mass,
or any other secretion from it; but in this country and
age no malignity is suspected, the  menstruous woman
mixes in society as at all  other times, and there is no
reason for thinking otherwise than that this discharge
is ofthe most inoffensive  nature.
  At the approach of old age, women cease to men-
struate ; but the time of cessation  is commonly regu-
lated by the original early or late  appearance of the
menses.  With those who began to menstruate at ten
or twelve years of age, the discharge will often cease
before they arrive at forty;  but if the first appearance
was protracted to sixteen  or eighteen years of age,
independently of disease, such women may continue
to menstruate till they have passed the fiftieth, or even
approach the sixtieth year of their age.   But the most
frequent time of the cessation of the menses in this
country, is between the forty-fourth and forty-eighth
year; after  which women never bear children.  By
this constitutional regulation of the menses, the propa-
gation  of the species  is in  every country confined to
the most  vigorous part of life; and had it been other-
wise,  children  might  have become parents, and old
women might have had children when they were unable
to supply them with proper or sufficient nourishment.
See Catamenia.
  ME'NSTRUUM.  Solvent. All liquors are so called
which  are used as dissolvents, or to extract the virtues
of ingredients by infusion, decoction, Sec.   The princi-
pal menstrua made use of in Pharmacy, are water, vi-
nous spiriu, oils, acid,  and alkaline liquors.  Water is
the mensrrvum, of all salts, of vegetable gums, and of
animal jellies.  Of the first it dissolves only a  deter-
minate quantity, though of one kind of salt more than
of another;  and being thus saturated, leaves any addi-
tional quantity of the  same salt  untouched.  It is ne-
ver saturated with the two latter, but unites readily
with any  proportion  of them, forming, with different
quantities, liquors of different consistencies.  It  takes
up likewise, when assisted by trituration, the vegeta-
ble gummy resins, as ammoniacum and myrrh; the so-
lutions of which, though  imperfect that is, not  trans-
parent, but turbid  and of a milky hue, are nevertheless
applicable to valuable purposes in medicine.  Rectified
spirit of wine is the menstruum ofthe essential oils and
resins of vegetables; of the pure distilled oils of ani
mals, and of soaps, though it does not act upon the ex-
pressed oil, and fixed alkaline salt, of which soap is
composed.  Hence,  if soap contains any superfluous
quantity of either the oil or salt, it may, by means of
this menstruum, be  excellently purified therefrom.  It
dissolves, by  the assistance of heat, volatile  alkaline
salu, and more readily the  neutral ones,  composed
either of fixed alkali and the acetic acid, as tlie sal diu-
reticus, or of  volatile alkali and the nitric acid.  Oils
dissolve vegetable  resins and balsams, wax, animal
fats, mineral  bitumens, sulphur, and certain  metallic
substances, particularly lead.  The expressed oils are,
for most of these bodies, more powerful menstrua than
those obtained  by distillation ; as the former are more
capable of sustaining,  without  injury, a strong heat,
wliich  is,  in  most cases, necessary  to enable  them to
act.  All acids  dissolve alkaline salts, alkaline earths,
and  metallic  substances.  The different acids  differ
greatly in their  action upon these last: one dissolving
some particular metals, and another others.   The ve-
getable acids  dissolve a considerable quantity  of zinc,
iron, copper, and tin; and extract so much from the me-
tallic part of antimony as to become powerfully emetic;
they likewise dissolve lead,  if previously calcined  by
fire; but more  copiously if corroded  by their steam.
The muriatic acid dissolves zinc, iron, and copper; and
though it scarcely acts on any other metallic substance
in the common way of making solutions, it may never-
theless be artfully combined with them all.  The cor-
rosive  sublimate and antimonial caustic of the shops,
are combinations of it wilh the oxides of mercury and
antimony, effected  by applying the acid in the  form of
fume, to the subjecu at the same time  strongly heated.
The nitric acid is the common menstruum of all metal-
lic substances, except gold and antimony, which are so-
luble only in a mixture ofthe nitric and "muriatic.  The
sulphuric acid easily dissolves zinc, iron, and  copper;
and may be  made to corrode or imperfectly  dissolve
most of the other  metals.  Alkaline  lixivia  dissolve
oils, resinous substances, and sulphur.   Their power is
greatly  promoted  by  the addition of  quicklime,  in-
stances of which occur in the preparation of soap and
in the common caustic.  Thus assisted, they reduce the
flesh,  bones,  and other solid parts  of  animals, into
a gelatinous matter.   Solutions  mode in water and
spirit of wine, possess the virtue of the body  dissolved-
while oils generally sheathe its activity, and acids and
alkalies vary iu quality.  Hence watery and spirituous
liquors arc the  proper menstrua of the native virtues
of vegetable and animal matters.  Most of the forego-
ing solutions  are easily effected, by pouring the men-
struum on the body to be dissolved, and suffering them
to stand together for some time, exposed to  a  suitable
warmth. A strong heat is generally requisite to enable
oils and alkaline  liquors to  perform their office;  nor
will acids act on some metallic bodies without iU as-
sistance.  The  action of watery aud  spirituous men-
strua is likewise expedited by a moderate heat, though
the quantity  which they afterward  keep dissolved, is
not,  as some suppose,  by this means increased.  All
that heat occasions these to  take up,  more than they
would  do in  a  longer time in the cold, will, when the
beat ceases, subside  again.   The action of acids  on
the bodies which  they dissolve, is generally accompa-
nied with heat,  effervescence, and a copious discharge
of fumes.  The fumes which arise during the dissolu-
tion of some  metals, in the  sulphuric acid, prove  in-
flammable ; hence, in the preparation of the artificial
vitriols of iron and zinc, the operator ought to  be care-
ful, especially where the solution is made in a  narrow-
mouthed vessel, lest, by  the imprudent approach of a
candle, the exhaling vapour be set on  fire.  There is
another species  of solution in which the moisture of air
is the menstruum.  Fixed alkaline  salts, and those of
the neutral kind,  composed of alkaline salu and cer-
tain vegetable acids, or of alkaline earths, and any acid
except  the sulphuric; and some metallic salts, on being
exposed for some time to a moist air, gradually attract
its humidity,  and at length become liquid.  Some sub-
stances, not dissoluble in water in its  grosser  form, as
the butter of antimony, are easily liquefied by this slow
action of the  aerial moisture.  This  process is termed
Deliquation.  The cause of solution assigned  by some
naturalists, namely, the  admission of the fine  particles
of one body into the pores of another, whose figure fit* 
MEN
MER
them for their reception, Is not just, or adequate, but
hypothetical and ill-presumed; since  it is found that
some bodies will dissolve Iheir own quantity of others,
as water does of Epsom salt, alkohol of essential oils,
mercury of metals, one metal of another, &c. whereas
the sum of the pores or  vacuities  of every body must
be necessarily less than the  body itself,  and conse-
quently those pores cannot receive a quantity of matter
equal to the body wherein tbey reside.
  How a menstruum can suspend bodies much heavier
than iuelf, which very often happens, may be con-
ceived  by considering, that the parts of no fluids can be
so easily separated, but they will a little resist or retard
the descent of any heavy bodies through them; and
that this resistance is, catcris paribus, still proportional
to the surface of the descending bodies.  But tlie sur-
faces of bodies do by no means increase or decrease
in tbe same proportion as their solidities do: for the so-
lidity increases as the cube, but the surface only as the
square of the  diameter; wherefore it is  plain, very
Biuall bodies will have much larger surfaces, in propor-
tion to  their solid contenu, than larger bodies will, and
consequently, when grown exceeding small, may easily
be buoyed up in the liquor.
  MENTA'GRA.  (From mentum, the chin, and aypa,
a prey.)  An eruption about the chin, forming a tena-
cious crust like lhat on scald heads.
  MENTHA. (From Minthe, the harlot who was
changed into this herb.)  Hedyosmus of the Greeks.
The name of a genus of planU in the Linnaean system.
Class, Didynamia; Order, Gymnospermia.   Mint.
  Mentha  aquatica.  Menthastrum; Sisymbrium
menthrastrum; Mentha rotundifolia palustris.  Wa-
termint.   This plant  is frequent in  most meadows,
marshes, and on the banks of rivers.  It is less agree-
able than the spearmint,  and in taste bitterer and more
pungent.  It may be used with the same intentions as
the spearmint to which, however, it is much inferior.
   Mentha cataria.   See Nepeta cataria.
   Mentha cervina.  The systematic  name of the
hart's  pennyroyal.  Pulegium cervinum.  This  plant
possesses the virtues of pennyroyal in a very great de-
gree ; but is remarkably unpleasant.  It  is seldom em-
ployed but by  tlie country people, who substitute it for
pennyroyal.
  Mf.ntha crispa.  Colymbifera minor; Achillea age-
ratum.  This species of mentha  has a strong and fra-
 rant smell, its taste  is  warm, aromatic, and slightly
 itter.   In flatulence of tlie prima; vise, hypochondri-
acal  and hysterical affections, il is  given with ad-
vantage.
  Mentha piperita.  The systematic and pharmaco-
pceial name of peppermint   Mentha  piperitis;  Men-
tha—floribus capitatis, foliis  ovatis petiolatis, stami-
nidus corolla brevioribus, of Linnaeus.  The sponta-
neous  growth of this plant is said to be peculiar to
Britain.  It has a more penetrating smell than any of
the other miuu;  a strong pungent taste, glowing like
pepper, sinking, as it  were, into  the tongue,  and fol-
lowed  by a sense of coolness. The stomachic, anti-
spasmodic, and carminative properties of peppermint
render it useful in flatulent colics, hysterical affections,
retchings, and other  dyspeptic symptoms, acting as a
cordial, and often producing an immediate relief.  Its
officinal preparations are an essential oil, a simple wa-
ter, and a spirit.
  Mentha piperitis.  See Mentha piperita.
   Mentha pulegium.  The systematic name  of the
pennyroyal.   Pulegium; Pulegium regale; Pulegium
latifcilium glechon. Pudding-grass. Mentha—floribus
verticillalis, foliis ovatis obtusis subcrenatis, caulibus
subteretibus repentibus,  of Linnaeus.   This plant is
considered as  a  carminative, stomachic, and emme-
nagogue; and  is in very common use in hysterical dis-
orders.   The officinal preparations of pennyroyal are,
a simple water, a spirit, and an essential oil.
  Mentha saracenica.   See Tanacetum balsamita.
   Mentha sativa.  See Mentha viridis.
  Mentha spicata.   See Mentha viridis.
  Mentha viridis.  Spearmint   Called also Mentha
vulgaris; Mentha spicata; Mentha—spicis oblongis,
foliis lanceolatis nudis serratis sessilibus, staminibus
corolla longioribus, of Linnaeus.   This plant  grows
wild in many parts of England.  It is not so warm to
the taste as peppermint,  but has a more agreeable fla-
vour, and is therefore preferred for culinary purposes.
Iu medicinal qualities are similar to  those of pepper-
mint; but the different preparations of the former
though more pleasant,  are, perhaps, less efficacious.
The officinal preparations of spearmint are an essen-
tial oil, a conserve, a simple water, and a spirit
  Menthastrum.   (Diminutive of  mentha.)   See
Mentha aquatica.
  Me'nti levator.  See Levator labii inferioris.
  ME'NTULA.   (From matah, a staff, Heb.)  The
penis.
  Mentula'qra.   (From  mentula, the penis,  and
aypa, a prey.)  A disorder of the penis, induced by a
contraction of the erectores musculi, and causing lm
potence.
  MENYA'NTHES.  The name of a genus of planU
in the Linnaean system. Class, Pentandria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Menyanthes trifoliata.   The systematic name
of the buck-bean.   Trifolium paludosum:  Trifolium
aquaticum;  Trifoliumfibrinum;  Menyanthes.  Wa-
ter trefoil, or buck-bean.  Menyanthes—foliis ternatis,
of Linnaeus.  The  whole plant is so extremely bitter,
that in some countries  it is used as a substitute for
hops, in the preparation of malt liquor.   It is some-
times employed in country places as an active eccopro-
tic bitter in hydropic and rheumatic affections.  Cases
are related of iu good effects in some cutaneous dis-
eases of the herpetic and seemingly cancerous kind.
  MEPHITIC.  Having a disagreeable noxious Bmell
or vapour.
  Mephitic add.   The carbonic acid.
  Mephitic air.  See Nitrogen.
  MEPHITIS.   (From nigiAuA.it*., a blast, Syr.) A
poisonous exhalation.
  MERCURIALI, Girolamo, was bom at Torli, in
Romagna, in 1530.  After taking the requisite degrees,
he settled as a physician in his native town; and  was
delegated, at the age of  32, on some public business to
Pope Pius IV. at  Rome.  He evinced so  much talent
on  this  occasion,  that  he was particularly invited to
remain there; which he accepted, chiefly as it enabled
him to pursue his favourite  studies lo more advantage.
He produced, in  1569, a learned and elegant work,
" De  Arte  Gymnastics," which was  many times re-
printed ; and the reputation of this procured him the
appointment to the first medical chair at Padua.  In
1573, he was called to Vienna  to attend  the emperor
Maximilian II., and was so successful, that he returned
loaded  with valuable presents, and honoured with the
dignities of  a knight and count palatine.  In 1587, he
removed to Bologna, which is ascribed to a degree of
self-accusation, In consequence of  an error of judg-
ment, into which he had been  led, in pronouncing a
disease, about which he was consulted at Venice, not
contagious,  whence much  mischief had arisen.  His
reputation, however, does not  appear to have  materi-
ally suffered from this; and  he was invited, in 1599, by
the grand duke of Tuscany, to Pisa; but  shortly after,
a severe calculous affection prevented the execution of
his duties, and he retired to his native place, where his
death happened in 1606.  He was a voluminous writer,
and, among many other publications, edited a classified
collection ofthe works of Hippocrates, with a  learned
commentary ; but he was too much bigoted to ancient
authority and hypothesis.  He wrote on the diseases of
the skin, those peculiar to women and children, on
poisons, and several other subjecu.
  MERCURIA'LIS.  (From  Mercurius,  its disco-
verer.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Dicecia; Order, Enneandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the French mercury
See Mercurialis annua.
  Mercurialis  annua. The systematic name of the
French mercury.  The  leaves of this plant have no
remarkable smell, and very little taste.  It is ranked
among the emollient oleraceous herbs, and is  said to
be  gently aperient.  Its principal  use bas been in
clysters.           '
  Mercurialis  Montana.  See Mercurialis perennis.
  Mercurialis  perennis.  The systematic name of
dog's mercury.   Cynocrambe;  Mercurialis montana
sylvestris.   A poisonous plant, very common in our
hedges.  It  produces vomiting  and purging, and the
person  then goes to sleep, from which be does not
often awake.
  Mercurialis  sylvestris.   See Mtrcurialia pa-
Tennis. 
MER
MER
  MERCURIUS.   (So called from some supposed
•elation it bears to the planet of that name.) Mercury.
Bee Mercury.
  Mercurius acetatus.  See Hydrargyrus acetatus.
  Mercurius alkalizatus.  See Hydrargyrum cum
creta.
  Mercurius calcinatus.  See Hydrargyri oxydum
rubrum.
  Mercurius chemicorum.  Quicksilver.
  Mercurius cinnabarinus.  See Sulphuretum hy-
drargyri rubrum.
  Mercurius  corrosivus.   See Hydrargyri  oxy-
murias.
  Mercurius corrosivus ruber.  See Hydrargyri
nitrico- oxydum.
  Mercurius corrosivus  sublimatus.   See  Hy-
drargyri oxymurias.
  Mercurius dulcis sublimatus.  See Hyrdargyri
submurias.
  Mercurius bmeticus flavus.  See Hydrargyrus
vitriolatus.
  Mercurius mortis.  See Mercurius vita.
  Mercurius  pracipitatus albus. See Hydrargy-
rum pracipilatum album.
  Mercurius pracipitatus  dulcis.  See Hydrar-
gyri submurias.
  Mercurius  pracipitatus  ruber.  See Hydrar-
gyri nitrico-oxydum.
  MERCURY.  Hydrargyrum; Hydrargyrus ; Mer-
curius.  A metal  found in five different states in na-
ture.  1. Native, (native mercury,) adhering in small
globules to the surface of cinnabar ores, or scattered
through the  crevices, or over the surfaces of different
kinds of stones.  2. It  is found united to silver, in the
ore called amalgam of silver,  or native amalgam of
silver.  This ore  exhibits thin places,  or grains; it
sometimes crystallizes in  cubes,  paralleloprpeda, or
pyramids.  Its colour is of a silver white, or gray ; iu
lustre is considerably metallic.  3. Combined with sul-
phur, it constitutes native cinnabar,  or  sulphuret of
mercury.  This  ore  is  the most common.  It is fre-
quently found  in veins, and sometimes crystallized in
tetrahedra, or three-sided pyramids.  Its colour is red.
Its  streak metallic.  4. Mercury oxidized, and united
either  to  muriatic or sulphuric  acid, forms  the ore
called horn quicksilver, or corneous  mercury.  These
ores are,  in general, semi transparent, of a gray or
white colour,  sometimes crystallized, but more fre-
quently in grains.  5. United to oxygen, it  constitutes
the ore called native oxide of mercury. Mercurial ores
particularly  abound in  Spain, Hungary, China, and
South America.
  Properties.—Mercury, or quicksilver, is the only one
of the metals that  remains fluid at the ordinary tem-
perature of the atmosphere,  but when its temperature
is reduced to—40 degrees below 0 on Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer; it assumes a solid form.  This is a degree
of cold, however,  that  only occurs in  high northern
latitudes,  and, in  our climate, mercury cannot be ex-
hibited in  a solid state,  but by means of artificial cold.
When rendered solid,  it possesses both  ductility and
malleability.  It crystallizes in octahedra, and  con-
tracu strongly during congelation.  It is divisible into
very small globules.  It presents a convex appearance
in vessels to which it has little attraction, but is con-
cave in those to which  it  more strongly adheres.  It
becomes electric and phosphorescent by  rubbing upon
gloss, and by agitation in a vacuum.  It is a very good
conductor of caloric, of electricity, and of galvanism.
The specific gravity of mercury is 13.563.  Although
fluid, iu opacity is equal to that of any other metal,
and iu surface, when clean, has  considerable lustre.
Iu colour  is white, similar lo silver.  Exposed to the
temperature of somewhat above 600° Fah. it is vola-
tilized.  When agitated in the  air, especially in contact
with viscous fluids, it becomes converted into a black
oxide.  At a temperature nearly the same as that  at
which it  boils,  il absorbs about 14 or 15 per cent, of
oxygen, and then  becomes changed into a  red crystal-
lizable oxide, which is spontaneously reducible by light
and caloric at a  higher  temperature.  The greater
number of the acids act upon mercury, or are at least
capable of combining  with its oxides.  It combines
with sulphur  by trituration,  but more intimately by
heat   It  is acted  on by the  alkaline sulphurets.  It
combines  with many of the mctnls; these  compounds
are brittle, or soft, when the mercu-y is in large pro-
portion.   There is a slight union between mercury
and phosphorus. It does not unite with carbon, or tbe
earths.
  Method of obtaining Mercury.—Mercury may lie ob
tained pure by  decomposing cinnabar, by  means  of
iron filings.  For that  purpose, take two parts of red
sulphuret of mercury  (cinnabarV reduce  it to powder,
and mix it with one of iron filings, put  the mixture
into a stone reton,  direct the  neck of it  into a bottle,
or receiver, filled with water, and apply heat.  The
mercury will then be obtained in a state of purity.
  In this  process,  the sulphuret of mercury, which
consists of sulphur and mercury, is heated in contact
with iron, the sulphur quits the mercury and  unites
to the iron, and the mercury becomes disengaged ; the
residue in the retort is  a sulphuret of iron.
  Mercury is a  very useful article both in the cure of
diseases and the aru.   There is scarcely a disease
against which  some of its  preparations are not exhi-
bited : and over the venereal disease it possesses a
specific power.  It  is considered to have first  gained
repute in curing this disease,  from the good effects it
produced in eruptive diseases.  In the times immedi-
ately following the  venereal disease, practitioners only
attempted to employ this remedy with timorous cau-
tion, so that, of several of their formula;, mercury
scarcely  composed a fourth part, and few cures were
effected.   On the other  hand, empirics who noticed
the little efficacy of these small doses, ran into the
opposite extreme, and exhibited mercury in such large
quantities, and with such little care, that most of their
patienU became suddenly attacked with the most vio-
lent salivations, attended with dangerous consequences.
From these two very opposite modes of practice, there
originated such uncertainty respecting what could be
expected from  mercury, and such fears of the conse-
quences which  might result from its employment, that
every plan was eagerly adopted which offered the least
chance of cure  without having recourse to this mi-
neral.  A medicine, however, so powerful, and whose
salutary  effecu were seen  by attentive practitioners,
amid  all  its inconveniences,  could not  sink into
oblivion.  After efforts had been made to  discover a
substitute for it, and it was seen how little confidence
those  means deserved on  which the highest  praises
had been lavished,  the attempu to discover ils utility
were renewed.  A  medium was pursued, between the
too timid methods of those physicians who had first
administered it, and the inconsiderate boldness of the
empirics.  Thus the causes from which  both  parties
failed were  avoided;  the  character of the medicine
was  revived in a  more durable way, and from this
period iu reputation has always been maintained.
  It was about this epoch that mercury began to be in-
ternally given :  hitherto it  had only been  externally
employed, which  was done in three manners.  The
first, was in the form of liniment, or ointment; the
second,  as a plaster;  and the third, as a fumigation.
Of the three methods just described, only the first is at
present much in use, and even this is very much alter-
ed.  Mercurial  plasters are now only used as topical
discutient applications to tumours and indurations.
Fumigations, as anciently  managed, were liable to
many objections, particularly from its not being possi-
ble to regulate the quantity of mercury to be used, and
from the effect of the vapour on the organs of respira-
tion   frequently occasioning  trembling,  palsies,  Sec
Frictions  with  ointment have always been regarded
as the most efficacious mode of administering mercury.
   Mercury is carried into the constilution in the same
way as other substances, either by being absorbed from
the surface of the body,  or  that of the alimentary
canal.  It cannot, however, in all cases, be taken imo
the constitution in both ways, for sometimes  the ab-
sorbents olithe skin will  not readily receive it; at
least  no effect  is  produced, either on the disease or
constitution, from  this mode  nf application.  On the
other band, the internal absorbenu will, sometimes,
not take up the  medicine, or, at least, no  effect is pro-
duced either on the disease or constitution.  In many
liersons,  the bowels can hardly bear mercury at all;
and it should then be given in the mildest form possi-
ble, conjoined with such medicines as will lessen or
correct its violent effects, although not iu  specific ones,
on the constitution.  When mercury can  be thrown
into the constitution with propriety, by  the external
method, it is preferable to the internal plan ; because 
MER
MER
the skin Is not nearly so essential to life as tlie stomach,
and u therefore in itself capable of bearing much more
than the stomach.   The constitution is  also less  in-
jured. Many courses of mercury would kill the patient
if the medicine were only given internally, because it
proves hurtful  to the stomach and intestines, when
given iu any form, or joined wilh the greatest cor-
rectors.
  Mercury has two effecu: one as a stimulus on  the
constitution and particular paru, the other as a specific
on  a diseased action  of the whole body, or of paru.
The latter action can only be computed by the disease
disappearing.
  In giving mercury in the venereal disease, the first
attention should be to the quantity, and iu visible effecu
in a given time; whicli, when brought to a proper pitch,
arc only to be kept up, and the decline of the disease
to be watched;  for by this we judge of the invisible
or specific effecu of the medicine, and know what  va-
riation in the quantity may be necessary.  The visible
effects of mercury affect either the whole constitution,
or some parts capable of secretion.  In the first, it pro-
duces universal irritability, making it more susceptible
of all impressions.   It quickens the pulse, increases ils
hardness,  and occasions  a kind of temporary fever.
In some constitutions  it operates like a poison.   In
some it produces a hectic fever; but such effecu com-
monly diminish on the patient becoming accustomed
to the medicine.
  Mercury often produces pains like those of rheuma-
tism, and nodes of a scrofulous nature.  The quantity
of mercury to be thrown in for the cure  of any vene-
real complaint must be proportioned to the violence
of the disease.  A small quantity used  quickly, will
have equal effecu to those of a large one employed
slowly ; but if these effecu are merely local, that is,
upon the glands of the mouth, the constitution at large
not lieing equally stimulated, the effects  upon the  dis-
eased parts must be less, which may be known by  the
local disease not giving way in proportion lo the effecu
of mercury on some particular part. If it be given in
very small quantities, and  increased gradually, so as to
steal insensibly on the constitution, a vast quantity at
a time may at length be thrown in, without any vUible
effecu at all.
  The constitution, or paru, are more susceptible of
mercury al first than afterward.
  Mercury occasionally attacks the bowels, and causes
violent purging, even of blood.  This effect is remedied
by  intermitting the use of the medicine, and exhibiting
opium.  At other limes, it is suddenly determined to
the mouth, and produces inflammation, ulceration, and
an  excessive  flow of saliva.  To obtain relief in  this
circumstance, purgatives,  nitre, sulphur, gum-arabic,
lime-water,  camphor, bark, sulphuret of potassa, blis-
ters, Sec. have been  advised.  Pearson, however, does
not place much confidence  in  the efficacy of such
means; and, the mercury being  discontinued for a
time, he recommends the patient to be freely exposed
to  cold air,  with  the occasional  use  of cathartics,
mineral acids, Peruvian bark, and the assiduous appli-
cation of astringent gargles.  The most material  ob-
jection  (says Pearson) which I foresee against  the
method of  treatment  I  have  recommended,  is  the
hazard  to which the patient will be exposed Of having
the saliva suddenly checked,  and of suffering some
oilier disease in consequence of it.
  The hasty suppression of a ptyalism may be followed
by  serious inconveniences, as violent pains, vomiting,
and general convulsions.
  Cold liquids taken into  the stomach, or exposure of
the body to tbe cold air, must be guarded against during
a course of mercury.  Should a suppression of  the
ptyalism  take place, from any act of indiscretion, a
quick introduction of mercury should be had recourse
lo, with the occasional use of the warm bath.
  Mercury,  when  it  falls on  the mouth, sometimes
produces  inflammation, which now and then termi-
nates in  mortification.   The ordinary operation of
mercury does not permanently injure the constitution ;
but occasionally,  the impairment  is very material;
mercury may even produce local diseases, and retard
tlie cure of chancres, buboes, and certain effecuof the
lues venerea, after the poison has been destroyed.   Oc-
 casionally mercury acu on the system as  a poison,
 quite unconnected with  iu agency as  a remedy,  and
 neilber proportionate to tbe inflammation ofthe mouth
      64
nor actual quantity of the mineral absorbed.  Pearson
has termed this morbid state of tlie system crethtsmus
it Is characterized by great depression  of strength, a
sense of anxiety about the pnecordia, irregular action
ofthe heart, frequent sighing, trembling, a small, quick,
and  sometimes intermitting pulse, occasional vomit-
ing, a pale contracted countenance, a sense of cold-
ness ; but the tongue is seldom furred, and neither tho
natural nor vital functions ore much disturbed.  When
this effect of mercury takes place, the use  of mercury
should be discontinued, whatever  may be the stage,
extent, or violence of the venereal  disease.  The pa-
tient should be exposed to a dry and cool air, in such a
way as not to give fatigue; in this way, the patient will
often recover in  ten or fourteen  days.  In the  early
stage, the crcthismus may often be averted by leaving
oft'the mercury, nnd givingcamphor mixture with vola-
tile alkali.  Occasionally, the use of mercury brings
on a peculiar eruption, which has received the names
of mercurial rash, eczema mercutiale, lepra mercuri-
alis, mercurial disease, and erythema uiercuriale.
  In order that mercury should act on the human body,
it is necessary that it should be oxidised, or combined
with an acid.  The mercury contained in the unguen-
tum hydrargyri,  is an oxide. This,  however, is the
most simple and least combined form of all its prepara-
tions, and hence  (says Mr. S. Cooper), It not only ope-
rates with more mildness on the system, but with more
specific effect on the disease.  Various salts of mercury
operate more quickly when given internally than mer-
curial frictions;  but few practitioners of the present
day  confide in the internal  use of  mercury alone;
particularly when the venereal  virus  has produced
effems in consequence of absorption.  Rubbing in mer-
curial ointment  is the mode of affecting the system
with mercury in the present day; and, as a substitute
for this  mode of applying mercury, Mr. Abernethy re-
commends the mercurial fumigation, where the patient
has not strength to rub in ointment, and whose bowels
will not bear the internal exhibition of it.
  The preparations of mercury now in use are,
  1.  Nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri.
  2. Oxydum hydrargyri cinereum.
  3.  Oxydum hydrargyri rubrum.
  4. Oxy-murias hydrargyri.
  5. Submurias hydrargyri.
  6. Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum et nigrum.
  7. Hydrargyrum cum creta.
  8. Hydrargyrum precipitatum album.
  9. Hydrargyrum purilicatum.
  Mercury, dog's. See  Mercurialis.
  Mercury, English. See Chenopodium bonus henricus
  Mercury, French.  See Mercurialis.
  Meroba'lanum. (From ptpos, a part, and (iaXavttov,
a bath.)  A partial bath.
  MEROCE'LE.  (From ptpos, the thigh, and *ijXtj, a
tumour.)  A femoral hernia.  See Hernia.
  Me'ron. ,Mnpos-  The thigh.
  MERRET, Christopher, was born at Wlnchcombe
in 1614.   After  graduating at Oxford, he settled  in
London, became a fellow of the College of Physicians,
and one  of the original members of the Philosophical
Society, which, after the Restoration, was called the
Royal Society.  He appears to have had a considerable
practice, and reached his 81st year.  His first publica-
tion was a Collection of Acu of Parliament, &c.  in
proof of the exclusive Rights ofthe College, printed
in 1660;  which  afforded  the basis of Dr. GoodaH's
history:  this was followed nine yeais after by " A
Short View of the Frauds of Apothecaries." which
involved him in much controversy.   He published also
a Catalogue of the Natural Productions of this Island,
of which the botanical part is best *xecuted; and he
communicated several papers to the Royal Society.
  ME'RUS.  Applied to several things in the same
sense as  genuine, or unadulterated; as merum vinum,
neat wine.
  MERY, John, was born at Vatan, in  France,  in
1645.  His father being a surgeon, he determined upon
tbe same profession, and went accordingly to the Hdtel
Dieu at  Paris, where he studied with  extraordinary
ardour, even passing the  night in dissection in his bed-
room.    In 1681  he was appointed  to the  office  of
queen's surgeon ; and two years  after, surgeon-major
to the invalids.   Soon after this  he was chosen  to
attend the Queen of Portugal, who died, however,
before his arrival; and  he refused very advantageous 
MES
MES
offers to detain  him at that, as well as the  Spanish
court.   He was now received into the Academy of
Sciences, nnd shortly after sent on a secret journey to
England; then chosen to attend upon the Duke of Bur-
gundy, who was a child. But these occupations were
irksome to him, and he even shunned private practice,
and general society, devoting  himself to the duties of
the hospital of Invalids, and to  the dissecting-room.
In 1700, he was appointed  first surgeon to the Hdtel
Dieu, which  gratified his utmost ambition;  and he
declined repeated solicitations to give lectures  there on
anatomy.   He procured, however, the  erection of a
theatre for the sludenU, where they might have more
regular instruction.  It was a  great part of Ihe labour
of bis life to form an anatomical museum, yet he did
not estimate these researches too highly, and was very
Blow in framing, or in receiving, new theories concern-
ing the animal economy.  About the age of 75, he sud-
denly lost the use  of his legs, after which his health
declined, and he died in 1722.  Besides many valuable
communications to the Academy of Sciences, he pub-
lished a description of the ear; Observations on Frdre
Jacques's Method of Cutting for the Stone, the general
principle of which he approved; a tract on the Foetal
Circulation, controverting the received  opinion, that
part of the blood passes  from  the right to the  left ven-
tricle, through the foramen ovale, and even assigning
it an opposite course; and physical problems, concern-
ing the connexion of the fcetus with the mother, and
its nutrition.
  Mesara'um.  (From utcros, the middle, and apata,
the belly.1  The mesentery.
i  MESEMBRYA'NTHEMUM.  (So called from the
circumstance of iu  flowers  expanding at  midday.
The name of a vast  genus of planU.  Class, Icosan-
dria ; Order, Pentagynia.
  Mesembryanthemum crystallinum.  The juice
of this plant, in a dose of four spoonfuls every two
hours, it is asserted, has removed an obstinate spas-
modic affection of tlie  neck  of  the bladder, which
would not yield to other remedies.
  MESENTERIC.  Mesentericus.  Belonging to the
mesentery. See Mesentery.
  Mesenteric artery.  Arteria mesenterica.  Two
branches of the aorta in the abdomen  are so called.
The superior mesenteric is the second  branch; it is
distributed upon the mesentery, and gives off the supe-
rior or right colic artery.  The inferior  mesenteric is
the fifth branch of the aorta;  it sends off the  internal
hsemorrhoidal.
  Mesenteric  glands.    Glandula  mesenterica.
These are conglobate, and are situated here and there
in  tlie  cellular membrane  of the  mesentery.   The
chyle from the intestines passes through these glands
to the thoracic duct.
  Mesenteric  nerves.   Nervorum plexus mesente-
ricus.  The superior, middle, and lower mesenteric
plexuses of nerves are formed by the branches of the
greai intercostal nerves.
  Mesenteric veins.   Vena mesenterica.  They all
run into one trunk, that evacuates  iu blood into the
vena portie.   See Venaporta.
  MESENTERI'TIS.  (From ptotvltpiov, the mesen-
tery.)  An inflammation ofthe mesentery.  See Peri-
tonitis.
  ME'SENTERY.   (Mesenterium; from ptoos, the
middle, and afltpov, an intestine.)   A  membrane in
the cavity of the abdomen attached to the vertebrae of
the loins, and to which  the intestines adhere.  It is
formed of a duplicature of the peritonaeum, and con-
tains within it adipose membrane, lacteals, lymphatics,
lacteal  glands, mesenteric arteries, veins, and nerves.
Its use is to sustain the intestines in such  a manner that
they possess both mobility and firmness; to  support
and conduct with safety the blood-vessels, lacteals, and
nerves; to fix the glands, and give an external coat to
the intestines.
  It consists of three parU: one uniting the small in-
testines, whicli receives the proper name  of mesentery;
another connecting the colon, termed mesocolon; and
a third attached to the rectum, termed mesorectum.
  MESERAIC.  The same as mesenteric.
  Mese'rion.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Mksi're.   A disorder of the liver, mentioned by
Avicenna, accompanied with a sense  of heaviness,
tumour, inflammation, pungent pain, and blackness of
 he tongue.
                                       Mm
  MESOCO'LON.   (From ptoos, the middle, anfl
xiaXov, the colon.}  The portion of the mesentery to
which the colon is attached.  The mesentery and me-
socolon are the most  important of all the productions
of the peritonaeum.  In the pelvis, the peritonaeum
spreads iuelf shortly before tlie rectum.  But whera
that intestine becomes loose, and forms the semilunar
curve, the peritonaeum  there rises considerably from
the middle iliac vessels, and region of the psoas muscle,
double, and with a figure adapted for receiving tbe hol-
low colon.  But above,  on  the  left side, the colon is
connected with almost no intermediate loose produc-
tion to the peritonaeum,  spread upon the psoas muscle,
as high as the spleen, where this part of the perito-
naeum, which gave a coat to th,e colon, being extended
under the spleen, receives and sustains  thai viscus in
a hollow superior recess.
  Afterward the peritonaeum, from the left  kidney,
from the interval between the kidneys,  from the large
vessels, and from the right kidney, emerges forwards
under the pancreas, and forms a broad and sufficiently
long continuous production, called the transverse me-
socolon, which, like a partition, divides the upper part
of the abdomen, containing the stomach, liver, spleen,
and pancreas, from the  lower part.  The lower plate
of this transverse production is continued  singly from
the right  mesocolon lo the left, and serves as an exter-
nal coat  to a pretty large portion of the  liver, and de-
scending part of the duodenum.  But the upper plate,
less simple in the course, departs from the lumbar peri-
tonaeum  at tlie kiduey,  and region of the vena cava,
farther to the  right than the duodenum, to which it
gives  an  external membrane, not quite to the valve of
the pylorus; and beyond this intestine, and beyond the
colon, it  is joined with the lower plate,  so that a large
part of  the duodenum lies within  the  cavity of the
mesocolon.  Afterward, in the  region of the liver, the
mesocolon is inflected, and descending over the kidney
of the same side much shorter, it includes the right of
the colon, as far as the intestinum caecum, which resU
upon fhe iliac  muscle and the appendix, which is pro-
vided with a peculiar long curved mesentery." There
the mesocolon  terminates, almost at the bifurcation of
the aorta.
  The whole of the mesocolon and of the mesentery
is hollow, so that the  air may be forced in between iu
two laminae, in such a manner as to expand them into
a bag. At  the place where it sustains  the colon, and
also from part  of the intestinum rectum, the mesoeo-
lon, continuous with the outer membrane of the intes-
tine, forms itself into small slender bags,  resembling
the omentum,  for the most part  in pairs, with their
loose  extremities  thicker and bifid, and  capable of
admitting air blown in between the plates ofthe meso-
colon.
  MESOCRANIUM.  (From ptoos, ihe  midd!e,and
xpaviov, the skull.)  The crown of the head, or vertex.
  MESOGA'STRIUM.   (From ptoos, the middle, and
yas-r/p, the stomach.)  The concave part of the stomach,
which attaches itself  to the adjacent parU.
  MESOGLO'SSUS.    (From ptoos, the middle, and
yXiaaaa, the tongue.)  A muscle inserted in the middle
of the tongue.
  MESOME'RA.  (From ptoos, the middle, and pnpos,
the thigh.)  The parts between the thighs.
  MESOMPHALIUM.  (From ptoos, the middle, and
opdsaXos,  the navel.)   The middle of the navel.
  MESO'PHRYUM.   (From ptoos, the middle, and
otbpva, the eyebrows.)  The part between the eye-
brows.
  MESOPLEU'RUM.  (From ptoos, the middle, and
irXtvpov, a rib.)  The space or muscles between the
ribs.
  MESORE'CTUM.  (From psoas, the middle,  and
rectum, the straight gut.)  The portion of peritonaeum
which connecu the rectum of the pelvis.
  MESO'THENAR.   (From ptoos, the middle,  and
Btvap, the palm of the band.) The muscle situated in
the middle of the palm of the hand.
  MESOTICA.  (From ptoos, medius.)   The name
of an order of diseases in the class Eccritica, in Good's
Nosology.  Diseases affecting the parenchyma.   Its
genera are  the following:  Polysarcia;  Empkyma;
Parostia; Cyrlosis ;  Osthcxia.
  MESOTYPE.  Prismatic zeolite.  A species of the
genus  zeolite.
  ME'SPILUS.  (On tv ria ptaia  iriXos, because it
                                        65 
MET
MET
Das a cap or crown in the middle of it.)  1. The name
of a genus  of planU in the Linnaean system.  Class,
Icosandria; Order, Pentagynia.
  ■2.  Tlie pharmacopceial name of the medlar.   See
Mcspilus germanica.
  Mespilus germanica.  The systematic  name of
the medlar-tree.  This fruit, and also its  seeds, have
been used medicinally.  The immature fruit is  ser-
viceable in checking diarrhoeas;  and the  seeds were
formerly esteemed in allaying the pain attendant on
nephritic diseases.
  MESUE, one of  the  early physicians  among  the
Arabians, was bom in the province of Khornsan,  and
flourished in the beginning of the ninth century.   His
father was an apothecary at Nisaboar.  He was edu-
cated in  the profession of physic by Gabriel, the  son
of George Backtishua, and through his favour was ap-
pointed physician to the hospital of his native city.
Although a Christian, he was in great favour with
several successive Caliphs, being reputed the ablest
scholar and physician of his age.  When Haroun al
Roschid appointed his son viceroy of Khorasan, Mesue
was nominated his body physician,  and was placed
by him at the head of a college of learned men, which
he instituted there.  When Almammon succeeded to
the throne  in 813, he brought Mesue to Bagdad,  and
made him  a professor of medicine  there, as well as
superintendent of the great hospital, w liich offices he
filled a great number of years.  He was also employed
in transferring the  science of the Greeks  to his own
country, by translating their works.  He is supposed
by Freind to have written  in the Syriac tongue.   He
was author of some works, which are cited by Rhazes,
and others, but appear to have perished; for those now
extant in his name do not correspond with these cita-
tions, nor with the character given  of them by Haly
Abbas, besides that Rhazes is quoted in them, who
lived lohg  after Mesue: they probably belonged to
another physician ofthe same name, who is mentioned
by Leo Africanus, and  died in tlie beginning of the
eleventh century.
  META'BASiS.  (From ptraSaivia, to digress.)   Jlfe-
tabole.  A  change of remedy, of practice, or disease;
or any change  from one thing to another, either in
the curative indications, or  the symptoms  of a  dis-
temper.
  Meta'bolk.  See Metabasis.
  METACARFAL.  Belonging to the metacarpus.
  Metacarpal bones.   The  five longitudinal bones
that are  situated between the wrist and the  fingers;
they are distinguished into the metacarpal bone of the
thumb, forefinger, See.
  METACA'RPUS.   (From utra, after, and  xapiros,
the wrist)   Metacarpium.   That  part of  the nana
whicli is between the wrist and the fingers.
  Metaca'rpeus.   A muscle of the carpus.  See Ad-
ductor metacarpi minimi digiti manus.
  Metacera'sma.  (From pera,  after, and xtpavvvut,
to mix.)   Cerasma.   A mixture tempered  with  any
additional substance.
  METACHEIRrxrg.  (From ptraxnp&ia,  to  per-
form by the hand.)  Surgery, or any manual operation.
  Metachork'sis.   (From ptrax<aptia,  to digress.)
The translation of a disease from one part to another.
  Metacine'ma.  (From pera, and xivtia, to remove.)
A distortion of tlie pupil of tlie eye.
  Mktaco'ndylus.  (From ptra, after, and kovSvXos,
n knuckle.)  The last joint of a finger, which contains
tbe nail.
  Meta'liaoe.   (From /irraXXar7<i>i to  change. A
change In the state or treatment of a disease.
  METALLU'RGIA.  (From ptraXXov, a metal, nnd
spyov, work, labour.)  That part of chemistry which
concerns the operations of metals.
  METALS.  The most numerous class of undecom-
pounded chemical bodies, distinguished by the follow-
ing general characters:—
  1. They possess a  peculiar lustre, whicli continues
in the streak, and in their smallest fragments.
  2. They are fusible by heat; and iu fusion retain
their kistre and opacity.
  3. They are all, except selenium, excellent conduc-
tors, both of electricity and caloric.
  4. Many of them may be extended under  the ham-
mer, and are  called  malleable; or under the rolling
press, and arc called  laminable; or drawn into wire,
and are called ductile.   This capability of extension
depends, in some measure, on a tenacity peculiar to
the metals, and which exlsu in the different species
wilh very different degrees of force.
  5. When their saline  combinations are electrized,
the metals separate at the resino-electric or  negative
pole.
  6.  When exposed to the action of oxygen, chlorine,
or iodine, et an  elevated temperature, they generally
take tire; and, combining with one or other of these
three elementary dissolvents ia definite proportions,
are converted into earthy or saline-looking bodies,
devoid of metallic  lustre and ductility, called oxides,
chlorides or iodides.
  7.  They are capable of combining in their molted
state with each other, in almost every proportion, con-
stituting the important  order  of  metallic alloys; in
which the characteristic lustre and tenacity are pre-
served.
  8.  From this brilliancy and opacity conjointly, they
reflect the greater part of the light  which falls on their
surface, and hence  form excellent mirrors.
  9.  Most of them combine  in  definite  proportions
with sulphur and phosphorus, forming bodies frequent-
ly of  a semi-metallic aspect:  and others unite wilh
hydrogen, carbon,  and boron, giving rise to peculiar
gaseous or solid compounds.
  10.  Many of the  metals are capable of assuming, by
particular management, crystalline forms; which are,
for the most part, either cubes or octohedrons.
  The relations ofthe metals ofthe variousobjects of
chemistry, are so complex and diversified, as to render
their classification a task of peculiar difficulty.
  The first 12 are malleable; and so are the 31st and
32d, in their congealed state.
  The first 16 yield oxides, wliich are neutral salifi-
able bases.
  The metals 17,18,19, 20, 21, 22, and 23, are acidifi-
able  by combination with oxygen.  Of the oxides of
the rest, up to the 30th, little  is known.  The remain-
ing metals form, with oxygen, the alkaline and earthy
bases.
  All the metals are found in the bowels of the earth,
though sometimes they are on the surface.  They are
met with in different combinations with other matters,
such as sulphur, oxygen, and acids; particularly with
the carbonic, muriatic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids.
They are also  found  combined with each other, ond
sometimes, though rarely, in  a pure metallic state, dis-
tinguishable by the naked eye.
  In their different states of combination, they are said
to be mineralized, and are called ores.  The ores of
metals are, for the most part,  found in nature in moun-
tainous  districts; and always in such as form a con-
tinued chain.  There are mountains which consist en-
tirely of iron ore, but, in general, the metallic part of a
mountain bears a very inconsiderable proportion to iu
bulk.  Ores are  also met within the cavities or crevices
of rocks, forming what  are  termed veins, which are
more easily discovered in  these situations than when
they lie level in plains.
  The metallic matter of ores  is  very generally in-
crusted, and intermingled with some earthy substance,
different  from the rock in which the vein is situated ;
which Is termed its matrix.  This, however, must not
be confounded  with the mineralizing substar»-e with
which the metal is combined, such as sulphur, fee 
MET
ML1"
General Table of the Metals.
	Sp. gr.	Precipitants.		Colour of Precipitates by		
NAMES.			Ferroprussiate of potassa.	Infusion of galls.	Hydrosulphurets.	Sulphuretted hydro-gen.
1 Piantioum	21.47	Mur. Amnion.	0	0		Black met. powd.
2 Gold	19.30	$ Sulph. iron i Nitr. mercury Common salt	Yellowish-white	Green; met	Yellow	Yellow
3 Silver	10.45		White	Fellow-brown	Black	Black
4 Palladium	118	?rus. mercury	Deep orange		Hackish-brown	Black-brown
5 Msrcury	13.6	Common salt Heat	White passing to yellow	0range-yellow	5rownish-black	Black
6 Copper 7 Iron	8.9	iron	Red brown	Brown	Black	Do.
	7.7	Succin. soda	Blue, or white	Protox. 0.	Black	0
		with perox.	passing to blue	Perox. black		
8 Tin	7.29	2or. sublim.	White	0	Protox. black Perox. yellow	Brown
9 Lead	11.35	Sulph. soda	Do.	White	Black	Black
10 Nickel	8.4	Sulph. potassa ?	Do.	Gray-white	Do.	0
11 Cadmium	8.6	Zinc	Do.	0	Orange-yellow	Orange-yellow
12 Zinc	6.9	Alk. carbonates	Do.	0	White	Yellowish-white
13 Bismuth	9.88	Water	Do.	Yellow	Black-brown	Black-brown
14 Antimony	6.70	J Water 5 Zinc	With dilute solu-tions white	White from water	Orange	Orange
15 Manganese 16 Cobalt	8.	Tab-, pot	White	0	White	Milkiness
	8.6	Alk. carbonates	Brown-yelbw	Yellow-white	Black	0
17 Tellurium 18 Arsenic 19 Chromium	6.115 18.35? > 5.76 ? 5.90	1 Water I Antimony Nitr. lead Do.	0 Whits Green	Yellow Brown	Blackish Yellow Green	Yellow
20 Molybdenum	8.6	Do.?	Brown	Deep brown		Brown
21 Tungsten	17.4	Mur. lime?	Dilute acids		Chocolate	
22 Columbian!	6.6?	Zinc or inf. galls	Olive	Orange		
23 Selenium	4.3?	J Iron } Sulphite amm.				
24 Osmium	?	Mercury		Purple passing lo deep blue	0	
25 Rhodium	10.65	Zinc?	0			
26 Iridium 27 Uranium 28 Titanium	18.68 9.0 ?	Do.? Ferropr. pot Inf. galls.	0 Biown-red Grass-green	0 Chocolate Red-brown	Brown-yellow Grass-green White	0 0 0
29 Cerium	?	Oxal. amm.	Milk-white	0		0
30 Potassium	0.865	1 Mur. plat. i Tart. acid.	0	0	0	
31 Sodium	0.972					
32 Lithium						
33 Calcium						
34 Barium						
35 Strontium						
36 Magnesium						
37 Yttrium						
38 Gtucinum						
39 Aluminum						
40 Thorinum						
41 Zirconium 42 Silicium	1					--------1
  METAMORPHO'PSIA.  (From ptrapopibiaois,  a I
change, and 0uV(c, sight.)  Visus  defiguratus.  Dis-
rigured vision/It is a defect  in vision, bv winch per-
sons perceive objects changed in their figures.  The

'^Mdamorphopsia  acuta,  when objects  appear
much larger than their size.           ..„„„„„
  a.  Metamorphopsia  diminuta,  when objects appear
diminished in size, arising from the same causes as the

'0TMetamorpkoPsia  mutans, when objects seem  to
be in motion f to the vertiginous and intoxicated per-
sons, every thing seems to stagger.
  4. Metamorphopsia tortuosa seuflexuosa, when ob-
'ects appear tortuous, or bending.
  5. Metamorphopsia inversa, when aU objects appear

  6. Metamorphopsia imaginaria, is the vision of a
thing not present, as may be observed in the delirious,
and in maniacs.                  ...
  7. Metamorphopsia from a remaining impression
it hanDens to those who very attentively examine ob-
 ecSOcularly in a great  light, for some time after

toK^niLerrFr3om-,£ra, after, and irovs, the
foot 1   The metatarsus.
  Mbta'phrenum.   (From psroyafter, and to«, the
diaphragm )   That part of the back which is behind

%Soro?oiB'sis.  (From ptra, TOpoJ, a duct, and
 roul,tl make.)  A change in the pores of «*ebody.
   Met«.pto'sis.  (From ptrairinria, to  digress.)   A
 change from one disease to another.
   METASTASIS.   (From  ptdiornpi, to change, to
 translate^) The translationof a disease from oneplace
 to another.                               ,„  ,_.„_
   Metasy'ncmcis.   (From  ^roimyicpiKu,  to  trans
 mute)  Any change of consi-tution.
  METATARSAL.  Belonging to the metatarsus.
  Metatarsal bonks. The five longitudinal bones
between the tarsus and the toes; they are disunguished
into the metatarsal bone of the great-toe, fore-toe, Sec.
  METATA'RSUS.  (From ptra, after, and rapoos,
the tarsus.)  That part of the foot between the tarsus
and toes.
  Metf/lla nux.  See Strychnos nux vomica.
  METEORISMUS.   (From ptrtiapos, a vapour.)  1.
A dropsy of the belly, accompanied by a considerable
distention from wind in the bowels.        .....
  2  A tympanitic state  of the  abdomen, that takes
place in acute diseases suddenly and unexpectedly, as
does the appearance of a meteor in the heavens.
  METEOROLITE.   Meteoric stone.   A  peculiar
solid compound of earthy and metallic matters, of sin-
gular aspect and composition, which occasionally de-
scends from the atmosphere; usually from the bosom
of a luminous meteor.
  Metbo'ros.  (Mtrtiapos; from ptja, arid attpia, to
elevate.)   Elevated, suspended, erect, sublime, tumid.
Galen expounds pains of this sort, as  being those which
affect the peritoneum, or other more superficial parts
of the body: these are opposed to the more deep seated

""rLETHE'GLIN.  A drink prepared from honey by
fermentation.  It is often confounded with mead,  it
 fmade in the following way.  Honey, one hundred
weTght; boiling water, enough to fill a thirty-two gal-
lon cask, or half a hogshead: stir it well for a day or
two, then add yeast and ferment.  Some boil the honey
in water with one ounce of hops to each, gallon 1for an
hour or two, but this boiling hinders its fermentation
   Mbthkmeri'nus.  (From ptra, and nptpa, a aay.)

Aefo'Dn,cfeMEDicisK.   That practicet which™
conducted  by rules, such as are taught by ^enand
his followers, in opposition to the empirical practice 
MIC
MIL
   ME'TIIODUS. (From utra, and oSos, a way.) The
 nnihod, or ratio, by wuich  any operation or cure i*
 conducted.
   Mbto'win.  .Mcruiirioc   1. American sumach, a
 Fpccies of Rhus.
   2. A name of the bitter almond.
   B. An oil, or an  ointment, made  by Dioscorides,
 which was thus called because it had galbanum iu it,
 which was collected from a plant called Metopium.
   Meto'pium.   Mtriairtov.   An ointment made of
 galbanum.
   Mkto'pom.   (From ptra,  after, and oiuV, the eye.)
 The forehead.
   Mkto'sis.  A kind of amaurosis, from an excess of
 short-sightedness.
   ME'TRA.  (From unrnp,  a mother.)  The womb.
 See Ctrrus.
   METRE'NCH VTA.  (From unrpa, the womb, and
 tyxvia, to pour into.)  Injections into the womb.
   METRE'NCHYTES. (From porno, the womb, and
 tyxvia, to pour  in.)  A syringe to inject fluids into the
 womb.
   METRITIS. (From pnrpa, the womb.) Inflamma-
 tion ofthe womb.  See Hysteritis.
   METROCE'LIS.  (Metrocdis, idis. f.; from pnrnp,
 a mother, and  xnXis, a  blemish.) A mole, or mart,
 impressed upon the child by the mother's  imagina-
 tion.
   METROMA'NIA.  A rage for reciting verses.  In
 the Acta Societalis Medics Havniensis, published 1779,
 is an account of a tertian attended with remarkable
 symptoms; one of which was  the metro-mania, by
 which the patient  spoke  verses extempore,  having
 never before had the least taste for poetry; when the
 fit was off, ihe patient became stupid, and remained so
 till the return  of the paroxysm,  when  the  poetical
 powri s returned again.
   METROPTOSIS.  (From pnrpa, the uterus, and
 iwr*lia, to fall down.) •  Prolapsus uteri.  The descent
 of the uterus through the vagina.
   Metkorriia'gia.  (From pnrpa,  Ihe  womb, and
 pnyvvpi, to break out)  An  excessive discharge from
 the womb.
   ME'U.  See JEthusa meum.
   ME'UM.  (From pttiav, less: so called, according to
 Minshew, from its diminutive  size.)  See JEthusa
 meum.
   M '-I'M ATHAMANTicuM.  See JEthusa meum.
   Mexico seed.  See Ricinus.
   Mexico tea.  See Chenopodium ambrosioides.
   MEZEREON.  See Daphne mezereum.
   MEZE'REUM. (A word of some barbarous dialect.)
 Mezereon.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Mezereum acetatum.  Thin slices of the bark of
 fresh mezereon  root ate to be steeped for twenty-four
 hours in common vinegar.  Some practitioners direct
 this application  to issues, when a discharge from them
 cannot be encouraged by the common means.  It ge-
 nerally answers this purpose very effectually in the
 rourse  of one night, the pea being removed, and a
 small portion of the bark applied over the opening.
 See Daphne gnidium.
  MIA'SMA.  (Miasma,  tis. n.; from piatvia, to in-
 fect.)   Miasma  is a Greek word,  importing pollution,
 corruption, or defilement generally; and  contagion a
 Latin word, importing the application of such miasm
 or corruption  to the body by the medium of touch.
 There  is, hence, therefore, says Dr. Good, neither pa-
 rallelism nor antagonism, in tlieir respective significa-
 tion.-. ;  there is nothing that necessarily connects them
 either disjunctively, or conjunctively.  Both  equally
 apply to the animal and vegetable worlds, or to any
 source  whatever of defilement or touch; and either
 may be predicated of the other; for we may speak cor-
 rectly ofthe miasm of contagion, or of contagion pro-
 duced by miasm.  See Contagion.
  MICA.  A species of mineral which Professor Jame-
son subdivides into  ten sub-species, viz. mica, pinite,
lepidollte, chlorite, green earth, talc, nacrite, potstone,
steatite, and figure stone.
  Mica comes in abundance from Siberia, where it is
used for window glass.
  Microco'smic bezoar.  See Calculus.
  Microcosmic  salt.  A triple salt of soda, ammonia,
 and phosphoric  acid obtained from urine, and much
 used in assays with the blow-pipe.
  MicRnLitutoNYMrHjE'A. (Froinpixpos,small,Xtvxos,
 white, and mpibaia, the water-lily.)  The small white
 water-lily.                        •
   MICRONYMPH.E A.   (From  iiiirpoc,  small, nnd
 vvuibaia. the water-lily.)  The smaller water-lily.
   MICllO'ftCHIS.  (From pixpos, small, and opvis, a
 testicle.)  One whose testicles are unusually small.
   MICROSPHYXIA.  (From /mepoe,  small, and
 a<bv\is, the pulse.)   A debility and smullness of the
 pulse.
   [MIDDLETON, Peter, M.D.  This gentleman, a
 native of Scotland,  flourished in the profession  of
 medicine in the city nf New-York about the middle of
 the last century, and was one of the very few medical
 men  of this country, who, at that early period, were
 distinguished equally for various and profound learn-
 ing and  great professional  talents.  He, with Dr. .1.
 Bard, in 1750,  dissected a human  body, and injected
 the blood-vessels, which was the  first attempt  of the
 kind  to be found on medical record in America, and in
 1767 he proffered his services  for  carrying into effect
 the establishment of a new medical school  in the city
 of New-York, of which he was  appointed first pro-
 fessor of Physiology and Pathology, and afterward was
 the instructer  in Materia Medica.
   In his profession he was lenrned and liberal, and his
 whole life was a practical illustration of his doctrines.
 He wrote an able letter on the croup, addressed to Dr.
 Richard Bayley, wliich was published in the Medical
 Repositoiy, Volume  IX.  He was also  author of a
 Medical Discourse, or Historical Inquiries into the an-
 cient  and present state of Medicine, the substance of
 which was delivered  at the opening of the Medical
 School of New-York ; it was published in 1769, and ia
 an honourable  specimen ;of  his talents and attain-
 ments.
   This  highly respectable  man,  for  a  considerable
 period, struggled with an impaired state of health, in-
 duced by the  tolls of a laborious  practice, and  after
 enduring the severest bodily suffering for more tban ten
 months, from  a  stricture ano  scirrhous  state of the
 pylorus, died  in the  city of New-York, in 1781."—
 Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
   MIDRIFF.  See Diaphragma.
   MIEMITE.  A mineral found atMiemo in Tuscany,
 and other places.  There are two kinds, the granular
 and prismatic.
   Mi'oma.  (From uiyvvia, to mix.)  A confection, ot
 ointment.
   Miora'na.   A corruption of hemicrania.
   MILFOIL.  See Achillea millefolium.
   MILIA'RIA.  (From milium, millet: so called be-
 cause the small vehicles upon the skin resemble millet-
 seed.) Miliary fever.  A genus of disease in the claw
 Pyrexia, and  order Exanthemata, of Cullen, charac-
 terized by  synochus;  cold stage  considerable: hot
 stage  attended  with anxiety and frequent sighing; per-
 spiration of a strong and peculiar smell;. eruption, pre-
 ceded by a sense of pricking, first on the neck and
 breast, of small red pimples, which in two days become
 white vesicles, desquamate,  and  are succeeded by
 fresh pimples.  Miliary fever has been observed  to af-
 fect both sexes, and persons of all ages and constitu-
 tions : but females, of a delicate habit, are most  liable
 to it, particularly in child-bed.  Moist variable weather
 is most favourable to its appearance, and it occurs
 most usually in the spring and autumn.  It is by some
said to be a contagious disease, and has beeu known to
 prevail epidemically.
  Very violent symptoms, such as coma, delirium, and
 convulsive fits, now and then  attend miliary fever, in
 which case it is apt to prove fatal.  A numerous erup-
 tion indicates  more danger than a scanty one.  The
 eruption being  steady is to be considered as more fa-
 vourable than  its frequently disappearing and  coming
out again, and it is more favourable when tbe places
 covered with the eruption appear swelled and stretched
 than when tbey remain flaccid.  According to the se-
 verity ofthe symptoms, and depression of spirits, is the
danger greater. See also Sudamina,
  Mili'olum.  (Diminutive of Bitfium, millet) A small
tumour on the  eyelids, resembling in size a millet-seed.
  MILITA'RIS. (From miles, a soldier: so called  from
its efficacy in curing fresh wounds.)   See Achillea mil-
lefolium.
  Militaris herba.   See Achillea millefolium.
  MILIUM.   (From mille, a thousand.  An ancient
 name  for a sort of corn or grass, remarkable for Urn 
MIL
MIL
abundance of its seeds.)  The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnean system.   Class,  Triandria.
Order, Digynia.
  2. (From milium, a millet-seed.)  A very white and
hard tubercle, in size and colour  resembling a millet-
wed.  Its seat is immediately under the cuticle, so that,
when  pressed,  the contents escape appearing of an
atheromatous nature.
  Milium solis.  See Lithospermum.
  MILK.  Lac.  A fluid secreted by peculiar glands,
end designed to nourish animals  in the  early part of
their life.  It is of an opaque white colour, a mild sac-
charine taste, and a slightly  aromatic smell.   It is se-
parated immediately from the blood, in the breasts or
udders of female animals.  Man, quadrupeds, and ce-
taceous animals, are the only creatures  which afford
milk.  All other animals are destitute of the organs
which secrete this fluid.  Milk differs greatly in the
several animals.
  The following are the general Properties of animal
and human milk:—
  Milk separates spontaneously into cream, cheese, and
serum of milk; and that sooner  in  a warm  situation
than in a cold one.  In a greater temperature than that
of the  air, it acesces and coagulates, but more easily
and quicker by the addition of acid  salts, or  coagula-
ting plants.  Lime-water coagulates milk imperfectly.
It is not coagulated by pure alkali; which indeed dis-
solves  its caseous part.  With carbonated alkali the
caseous and cremoraceous parts of milk are changed
into a liquid soap, which separates in the form of
white flakes; such milk, by  boiling, is changed into a
yellow and then into a brown colour.  Milk, distilled to
dryness, gives  out  an  insipid water, and  leaves a
Whitish brown  extract,  called the  extract of milk;
which, dissolved in water, makes a milk of less value.
Milk fresh drawn, and often  agitated in a warm place,
by degrees goes into the vinous fermentation, so that
alkohol may  be drawn over by distillation, which is
called  spirit of milk.  It succeeds quicker if yest be
added  to the milk.  Mares' milk, as it contains the
greatest quantity ofthe sugar of milk, is best calculated
for  vinous fermentation.
  The Principles of milk, or its integral parts, are,
  1. The Aroma, or odorous volatile principle, which
flies off from fresh-drawn milk in the form of visible
vapour.
  2. Water, which constitutes  the greatest part of
milk.  From  one pound eleven ounces of water may
be  extracted  by distillation.  This water, with  the
sugar of milk, forms the  serum ofthe milk.
  3. Bland oil, which, from  its lightness, swims on the
surface of milk after standing, and forms the cream of
milk.
  4. Cheese, separated by coagulating milk, falls to the
bottom ofthe vessel, and is the animal gluten.
  5. Sugar, obtained from the serum of milk by evapo-
ration.  It  unites the caseous and butyraceous  part
with the water ofthe milk.
  6. Some  neutral salts, as the  muriate of potassa
and muriate  of lime, which are  accidental, not being
found  at all times, nor in every milk.  These princi-
ples of milk differ widely in respect to quantity and
quality, according to the diversity ofthe animals.
  The aroma of the milk is of so different an odour,
that persons accustomed to the smell, and those whose
olfactory nerves are very sensible, can easily distin-
guish whether milk be that ofthe cow, goat, mare, ass,
or human.  The same may be said of the serum of the
milk, which is properly the  seat  of the aroma.  The
serum of milk is thicker and more copious in the milk
ofthe sheep and goat, than in that of the ass, mare, or
human milk.  The butter of goats' and cows' milk is
easily  separated, and will not again unite itself with
the butter-milk. Sheep's butter is soft, and not of the
consistence of that obtained from the cow and goat.
Asses', mares',  and human  butter, can  only be sepa-
rated in the form of cream ; which cream, by the as-
sistance of heat, is with ease again united to the milk
from which it is separated.  The cheese of cows' and
goats'  milk is solid and elastic, that  from asses and
mares soft, and that from sheep's milk almost as soft
as  gluten.  It is never separated spontaneously from
the milk of a woman but only by art, and is wholly
fluid.  The serum abounds most in human, asses', and
mares' milk.   The milk of  the cow and goat contain
 ess, and that of the sheep least of all.  The sugar of
milk is in the greatest quantity  in  the  mares'  and
asses',  and somewhat less in the human milk.
  When milk is left to spontaneous decomposition, nt
a due temperature, it is found to be capable of passing
through the vinous, acetous, and putrefactive fermen-
tations. It appears, however, probably on account of
the small quantity of alkohol it affords, that the vinous
fermentation lasts a very short time, and can scarcely
be made to  take  place in every part  of the fluid at
once, by the addition of any ferment.  This seems to
be the reason why the Tartars, who make a fermented
liquor,  or wine, from mares' milk, called koumiss, suc-
ceed by using large quantities at a time, and agitating
it  very frequently.  They add, as a ferment, a sixth
part of water, and an eighth part of the sourest cow's
milk they can  get, or  a smaller portion  of koumiss
already prepared: cover the vessel with a  thick cloth,
and let it stand in a moderate warmth for 24 hours :
then beat it with a stick, to mix the thicker and thinner
parts, whicli have separated; let it stand again 24
hours, in a high narrow vessel, and repeat the heating,
till the liquor is perfectly homogeneous.  This liquor
will  keep  some months,  in close vessels, and a cold
place;  but must be well mixed by beating, or shaking,
every time it is used. They sometimes extract a spirit
from it by distillation.  The Arabs prepare a similar
liquor by the name of leban, and tbe Turks by that of
yaourt. Eaton informs us, that, when properly pre-
pared,  it may be left to stand till it  becomes quite dry:
and  in  this state  it is kept in bags, and  mixed with
water when wanted for use.
  The saccharine  substance, upon  which the ferment-
ing property of milk depends, is held in solution by the
whey,  which remains after tlie separation of the curd
in making cheese.  This is separated by evaporation
in the large way,  for pharmaceutical purposes, in va
rious parts of Switzerland.  When the whey has been
evaporated by heat, to the consistence of honey; it is
poured  into proper moulds, and  exposed to dry in the
sun. If this crude sugar of milk be dissolved in water,
clarified with whites of eggs, and evaporated  to the
consistence of Byrup, white crystals,  in the form  of
rhomboidal parallelopipedons, are obtained.
  Sugar of milk has a faint saccharine taste, and is
soluble in  three or four parts of water.  It  yields by
distillation the  same products that other sugars do,
only in somewhat different proportions.  It is remarka-
ble, however, that the empyreumatic oil has a smell
resembling flowers of benzoin.  It contains an acid
frequently called the saccolactic;  but as it is common
to all mucilaginous substances, it is more  generally
termed mucic.   Sec Mucic acid.
  Milk, according to Berzelius, consists of,
    Water.............................928.75
    Curd, with a little cream............  28.00
    Sugar of milk......................  35.00
    Muriate of potassa   ................   1.70
    Phosphate of potassa...............    0.25
    Lactic acid, acetate of  potassa, with )    fi qq
      a trace of lactate of iron........j
    Earthy phosphates..................   0.30
1000.00
  Milk, asses'.  Asses' milk has a very strong re-
semblance to human milk  in colour, smell, and con-
sistence.  When left at  rest for a sufficient time, a
cream forms upon its surface, but by no means in such
abundance as on women's milk.  Asses' milk differs
from cows' milk, in its cream being less abundant and
more insipid; in its containing less curd; and  in its
possessing a  greater proportion of sugar.
  Milk, cows'. The milk  of women, mares, and
asses, nearly agree in their qualities; that of cows,
goats, and sheep, possess properties rather different.
Of  these,  cows' milk  approaches  neprest  to that
yielded by the female breast, but differs very much in
respect to the aroma; it contains a larger proportion
of cream  and  cheese,   and less  serum than hu-
man milk; also less sugar  than  mares'  and  asses'
milk.
  Cows' milk forms  a very essential part of human
sustenance, being adapted to every s'ale and age of
the body;  but particularly to infants, after  being
weaned.
  Milk, ewes'. This resembles almost precisely that
of the  cow; its cream,  however, is more abundant,
                                         bii 
MIL                                              MIL
and yields a butter not so consistent as cows' milk
butter.  It makes excellent cheese.
  Milk, boats'.  It resembles  cows',  except  in  its
greater consistence: like that milk, it throws up abun-
dance of cream,  from which  butler  is  easily ob-
tained.
  Milk, human.  The white, sweetish  fluid, secreted
by the glandular fabric of the breasts of women.  The
secretory organ  is constituted by the great conglome-
rate glands situated in the fat of both breasts, above
the musculus  pectoralis major.  From each acinus,
composing a mammary gland, there arises a radical of
a lactiferous or galactiferous duct.  All these canals,
gradually converging, are terminated without anasto-
mosis, in the papilla; of the breasts,  by many orifices,
which, upon pressure, pour forth milk.  The smell of
fresh-drawn milk is peculiar, animal, fatuous, and not
disagreeable.   Its taste sweetish,  soft, bland, agreea-
ble.  The specific gravity is greater than that of wa-
ter, but  it is lighter than blood; hence it swims on it.
Its colour is white and opaque.  In consistence it is
oily and aqueous.  A drop, put on  the  nail, flows
slowly down, if the milk be good.
  Time of SecrUion.—The  milk most frequently be-
gins to be secreted  in the last months of pregnancy;
but, on tbe third day  after delivery, a serous milk,
..ailed Colostrum,  is separated; and at length pure
milk is  secreted very copiously Into the breasts, that,
from" Its abundance often  spontaneously drops from
the nipples.
  If the secretion of milk be daily promoted by suck-
ling an infant,  it often continues many years, unless a
fresh  pregnancy supervene.  The  quantity usually
secreted within twenty-four hours,  by  nurses, is va-
rious, according as the  nourishment  may be more or
less chylous.  It appears  that  not  more than two
pounds of milk are obtained from five or six pounds
of meat.  But there have  been  known nurses who
have given from their breasts two, or even more than
three pounds, in addition to that which their child has
sucked.  That the origin of the milk is derived from
chyle carried with the blood of the mammary arteries
into the glandular fabric of the breasts, is evident from
ils more copious secretion a little after  meals;  its di-
minished secretion from fasting;  from  the smell and
taste of food or medicines in the secreted milk; and,
lastly, from its occasional spontaneous acescence; for
humours perfectly animal become putrid.
  The milk of a woman differs:  1. In respect to food.
The milk of a woman who suckles, living upon vegeto-
animal  food, never acesces nor coagulates spontane-
ously, although exposed for many weeks to the heat
of a furnace.  But it evaporates gradually in an open
vessel, and the last drop continues thin, sweet, and
bland.  The reason appears to be,  that the caseous
and cremoraceous  parts cohere  together by means of
the sugar, more intimately than in  the milk of ani-
mals, and do not so easily separate; hence its aces-
cence is prevented.  It does acesce, if mixed or boiled
with vinegar, juice of lemons, supertartrate of potassa,
dilute sulphuric acid, or with the human stomach.  It
is coagulated  by the acid  of salt, or nitre, and by an
acid gastric juice of the infant; for infants often vomit
up the coagulated milk of the nurse. The milk of a
suckling woman, who lives upon vegetable food only,
like cows' milk, easily and of its own accord acesces,
and  is acted upon by all coagulating substances  like
the milk of animals.  2. In respect of the time of di-
gestion.  During the first hours of digestion, the chyle
Is crude, and the milk less subacted;  but towards the
twelfth hour  after eating, the chyle  is changed  into
blood, and then the milk becomes yellowish and nau-
seous, and is spit out by the infant.  Hence tbe best
time for giving suck is about the fourth or fifth hour
after  meals.  3. In respect of the time  after deliveiy.
The milk secreted immediately after delivery is serous,
purges the bowels of the infant, and is called colos-
trum.  But in the following days it becomes thicker
and  more pure, and  the longer a nurse  suckles,
the thicker tbe milk is secreted; thus new-born infants
cannot retain the milk of a nurse who has given suck
for a twelvemonth, on account of its spissitude.  4.
In respect of  food and medicines.  Thus, if a nurse
eat garlic, the milk becomes highly impregnated with
its odour, and is disagreeable.  If she indulge too freely
in the  use of wine or beer, the  infant becomes ill.
From giving a purging medicine to a nurse, the child
also is purged; and, lastly, children affected with tor-
mina ofthe bowels, arising from acids, are often cured
by giving the nurse animal food.  5. In respect of the
affections of the mind.  There are frequent examples of
Infants being seized with convulsions, from sucking
mothers irritated by anger.  An infant of one year old,
while he sucked  milk  from his enraged mother, on a
sudden was seized with a fatal luemorrhage, and died.
Infants at the breast in a short time pine away, if the
nurse be afflicted with grievous care;  and there are
also infants who, after every coition of the mother,
or even if she menstruate, are taken ill.
  The use  of the mother's  milk  is, 1. It affords the
natural aliment to the new-born infant, as milk differs
little from  chyle.  Those  children are the slronge-t
who are nourished the longest by the mother's milk.
2. The colostrum should not be rejected; for it relaxes
the bowels, which, in  new-born infants, ought to' be
open, to clear them of the meconium.  3. Lactation
defends tlie mother from  a dangerous reflux  of the
milk into  the blood, whence lacteal metastasis, and
leucorrhcea, are so frequent  in lying-in women, who
do not give suck. The motion of the milk also being
hastened through tlie  breast by the sucking  of the
child, prevents the very  common induration  of the
breast, which arises in consequence of the milk being
stagnated.  4. Men may live upon milk, unless they
have been accustomed to the drinking  of wine.  For
all nations, the Japanese alone excepted, use milk, and
many live upon  it alone.
  Milk, mares'.  This is thinner  than  that  of the
cow, but scarcely so thin as human milk. Its cream
cannot be  convened  into butter  by agitation. The
whey contains sugar.
  Milk-blotches.   An  eruption of white  vesicles,
which assume a dark  colour, resembling tbe blacken-
ing of the small-pox, and are succeeded by scabs pro-
ducing an ichorous matter, attended with considerable
itching.   It generally appears on the forehead and
scalp, extending  half over the face, and at times even
proceeding farther.  The period of its attack  is th«
time of teething; and  it is probably the same disease
as the crusta lactea.
  Milk-fever. See Puerperal fever.
  Milk-teeth,  See Teeth.
  Milk-thistle.  See Carduus marianus.
  MILK-VETCH.  See Astragalus excapus
  MILK-WORT.  See Polygala vulgaris.
  Milkwort, rattle-snake root.  See Polygala senega,
  MILLEFOLIUM.  (From mills, a thousand, and
folium, a leaf: named from its numerous leaves.) See
Achillea millefolium.
  Millemo'rbia.  (From mills, a thousand, and mor-
bus, a disease: so called from its use in many diseases.)
See Scrophularia nodosa.
  Mille'ped£.  See Oniscus asellus.
  MILLE'PES.   (From mille, a thousand, and pes, a
foot: named from their numerous feet.)  See Oniscus
asellus.
  [MILLER, Edward, M.D., was a native'of Dover,
in the state of Delaware.   He was bom on the  9th of
May, 1760.   Dr. Miller, in  the year  1784,  commenced
the practice of medicine in the village of  Frederica, a
short distance from his native town, in Delaware; but
soon afterward removed to Somerset county, in Mary-
land. Here also his stay was short.  In 1786 he re-
turned to  Dover, and entered on the  practice of his
profession in  his native place.
  In 1796 he removed  from Dover to the city of New-
York.  Here he  soon conciliated the esteem and confi-
dence of his medical brethren; and notwithstanding the
many disadvantages under which a stranger engages
in Ihe competition for  medical practice in a great city,
he succeeded beyond his most sanguine expectations.
His business, in a few months, became such as to afford
him an ample support, and continued to become more
and more extensive until his death.
  In a few weeks after his removal to New-York, Dr
Miller, in connexion with  his friends, Dr. MitchiU and
the late Dr. Elihu H. Smith, formed the plan of i peri-
odical publication to be devoted to medical  science.
Their prospectus was  issued in November of thai year
(1796); and in  the  month of August,  1797, the first
number of the work  appeared under the title  of the
"Medical  Repository."  The commencement of this
publication undoubtedly forms  an era in  the literary
and medical  history' of our  country.  No work of a 
MIN
MIN
 similar kind had ever appeared in the United States.
 Its influence in exciting and recording medical inqui-
 ries, and in improving medical science, soon became
 apparent.  It led to the establishment of other similar
 works in different parts of our own country as well as
 of Europe; and may thus, with great truth, be  said to
 have contributed more largely, than any other single
 publication, to that taste for medical investigation and
 improvement, which has been for a number of years
 so conspicuously and rapidly advancing on this side of
 the Atlantic. Dr. Miller lived to see the fifteenth vo-
 lume of this work nearly brought to a close, and rejoiced
 in the generous competition which it had been so evi-
 dently the means i  exciting.
   At the close  of tue  season  of 1805, in  his official
 character as resident physician,  he addressed  to his
 excellency Governor Lewis a report of the rise, pro-
 gress, and termination of the yellow fever. To this
 detail he added an exhibition and defence of  the
 doctrine concerning the origin of yellow fever, which,
 after much inquiry and long experience, he had adopted.
 This report was shortly afterward laid before the pub-
 lic; and has been pronounced by good judges,to be
 one of the  most luminous,  forcible, comprehensive,
 and satisfactory defences of the doctrine which it sup-
 ports, that ever appeared, within the same compass, in
 any language.
   He fell a victim to an inflammatory attack upon the
 lungs, which, after symptoms  of  convalescence, de-
 generated into a typhus fever, which put an end to his
 valuable life on the  17th day of March, 1812, in the
 52d year of his age.
   Dr. Miller's published writings were not  numerous.
 A  few of them  were originally printed in detached
 pamphlets ;  but the greater part first appeared in the
 Medical Repository.   Since his decease they have been
 collected and reprinted in one large octavo volume.
   Tbe moral and social qualities  of Dr. Miller were
 worthy of no less praise than his talents, learning, and
 professional skill.  His humanity and practical benefi-
 cence were  no  less conspicuous.  These were mani-
 fested throughout his professional life, and especially
 in his attendance on the  poor and  friendless,  to  an
 extent truly rare.
   His delicacy in conversation has been seldom equal-
 led, perhaps never exceeded.  Nothing ever escaped
 from his lips, even in his most unreserved moments, to
 which the most refined and scrupulous might not listen
 without offence.
  Nor was his temperance less conspicuous than his
 delicacy.   He not only avoided the use  of ardent
 spirits, with  a scrupulousness which to  some might
 appear excessive, but he was unusually sparing, and
 even abstemious, in  the use of every kind of drink
 stronger than water.  He rejected the use of tobacco
 in every form, not only as an odious and  unhealthy
 practice, but also as a most insidious provocation to the
 love of drinking.— Thach. Med. Biog.  A.]
  MILLET. See Panicum miliaceum.
  Millet, Indian.  See Panicum italicum.
  MLLL-MOUNTALN.  See Linum catharticum.
  Milpho'sis.  MiAfWic.  A  baldness of the  eye-
 brows.
  Mi'ltos.   MiXtoc.  Red-lead.
  MILTWASTE.  See Asplenium ccterach.
  Milzade'lla.  (From milza, the Spanish for the
 spleen: so called from its supposed virtues in diseases
 of the spleen.)   The herb  archangel.  See Angelica
 archangelica.
  MIMO'SA. (From mi'rau*, an actor, or Imitator,
 meaning a sort of imitative plant, the motions of which
 mimic the sensibility of animal life.)  The name of a
 genus of plants in the Linmean system.  Class, Poly-
gamia ; Order, Monacia.  The sensitive plant.
  Mimosa catechu.  The former name of the tree
 which affords catechu.  SeeAcaria catechu.
  Mimosa nilotica.  See Acacia vera.
  Mimosa Senegal.  The systematic  name of the
tree from which the gum Senegal exudes.  The gum is
 brought from the country through which the  river
Senegal runs, in loose  or single drops, much larger
 than gum-arabic.  It is  similar in virtue  and quality
 to the gum-arabic, and the gum which exudes in this
 climate from the cherry-tree.  See Acacia vera.
  Mindererus spirit.  Sec Ammonia acetatis liquor.
  MINERAL.  (Mineralis;  from  mina, a mine of
 metal.)   A substance wliich does no. possess organiza-
 tion, or is not produced by an organized body, belongs
 to the division of the production of nature called mi-
 nerals.   Among this varied class of materials, which
 require the attention of the chemist and manufacturer,
 many are compounded of such principles, and formed
 under such circumstances and situations in the earth,
 that it  is difficult to distinguish them without having
 recourse to the test of experiment; several are formed
 with considerable regularity as  to the proportion of
 their principle, their fracture, their colour, specific
 gravity, and figure of crystallization.
   Mineral bodies wliich  enter into the composition of
 the globe,  are classed by  mineralogists  under  four
 heads:—1. Earths.  2. Salts.  3. Inflammable fossils ;
 and, 4.  Metals and their ores.  Under the term earths,
 are arranged stones and'earths, which  have no taste,
 and do not bum when heated with contact of air.
   Under the  second, salts, or those saline substances
 which  melt in water  and do  not burn, they require,
 according to Kirwan, less than two hundred times their
 weight of water to dissolve them.
   By inflammable fossils are to be understood all those
 minerals not  soluble in water, and exhibiting a flame
 more or less evident when exposed to fire in contact
 with air.
   The fourth class, or ores, are compound bodies.  Na-
 ture has bestowed their proper metallic appearance on
 some substances, and when this is the cose, or they are
 alloyed  with other metals, or semi-metals, they are
 called native  metals.  But such as are  distinguished,
 as tbey commonly are, in mines,  in combination with
 some other unmetallic substances, are said to be mine-
 ralized.  The substance that  sets  them in that state, is
 called the mineralizer, and the compound of both an
 ore.  For example, in the common ore of copper,  this
 metal is found oxidized, and the oxide combined wilh
 sulphur.  The copper may be  considered as mineral
 ized with oxygen  and sulphur, and the  compound of
 the three bodies forms an ore of copper.
   [MINERALS, arrangement of.   The systematic
 arrangement of minerals  by writers on the subject
 differs very materially.  The only elementary work
 on mineralogy published in this country is by Parker
 Cleaveland, professor in  Bowdoin College, State of
 Maine.   As it is a work highly creditable to the author,
 and much approved as a standard work, we give a tabu-
 lar view of bis arrangement.

               TABULAR VIEW.*
  CLASS. 1.—Substances not metallic, composed en-
            tirely, or in part, of  an Add.
   This class contains four orders.  In the first order,
 the acid is free or not combined; in the second,  it is
 combined with an alkali; in the third, with an earth or
 earths;  and in the fourth, with  both an alkali and an
 earth.  Hence the presence of  an acid, provided it be
 not united to a metallic base, characterizes this class.
          ORDER I.—Acids not combined.
   The base of the acid determines the genus.  All the
 species in this order have oxygen, as a common ingre-
 dient, so combined with a base, as to produce an acid
                    GENUS I
 Spec 1. Sulphuric acid.
      2. Sulphurous acid.
                   GENUS H.
 Spec. 1. Muriatic acid.
                   GENUS  ILL
      1. Carbonic acid.
                   GENUS  IV.
      1.  Boracic acid.
            ORDER II.—Alkaline salts.
  These salts are composed of an  alkali, united to an
 acid.  Hence an alkali, so combined as to form a salt,
 characterizes  this  order.   Each  alkali  designates a
 genus.
            GENUS I.—AMMONIA
 Spec 1. Sulphate of Ammonia.
      2.  Muriate of Ammonia.
            GENUS U.—POTASH.
      1. Nitrate of Potash.

 • In the tabular view, tubtptcia are distinguished from varutiu
by their position  in the column.  A number of species, recently
discovered, and concerning wliich little is yet known, are alphabet i-
tally arranged in  an appendix  to the earthy class. Those species
which have never been analyzed, are marked by an asterisk.  Those
species which are printed in Italics, have not hitherto been observed
 in ciyitals. nor even with a crystalline structure. 
                       MIN

              GENUS III.—SODA.
Bnc. 1.  Sulphate of Soda.
      2.  Muriate of Sods.
      3.  Carbonate of Soda.
      4.  Borate of Soda.
           ORDER III.—Earthy Salts.
  These  consist of an earth, or of earths, united to an
acid.  Hence an earth, so combined as to form a salt,
characterizes this order. Each geuus is determined by
the earth it contains.
               GENUS I.—Barytes.
                        SUBSPECIES
                                AND VARIETIES
Brie. 1.  Sulphate of Barytes.                      •
                                 lamellar
                                 columnar
                                 radiated
                                 fibrous
                                 concreted
                                 granular
                                 compact
                                 earthy
                             fetid
      2.  Carbonate of Barytes.
           GENUS II.—STRONTIAN.
Spec. 1.  Sulphate of Strontian.
                                 foliated
                                 fibrous
                             calcareous
      2.  Carbonate of Strontian.
           GENUS  HI.—LIME.
Spec. 1.  Arseniate of Lime.
      2.  Nitrate of Lime.
      3. Phosphate of Lime.
                                 Apatite.
                                 Asparagus stone.
                                 fibrous
                                 amorphous
                             siliceous
      4. Fluate of Lime.
                                Fluor spar.
                                compact
                                earthy
                             argillaceous
      5. Sulphate of Lime.
                             Selenite.
                                massive
                             Gypsum.
                                fibrous
                                granular
                                compact
                                branchy
                                Bnowy
                                earthy
                             Plaster  stone.
     6. Anhydrous Sulphate of Lime.
                                sparry
                                compact
                             silico- anhydrous
     7 Carbonate of Lime.
                             calcareous spar
                               ^crystallized
                                laminated
                             granular
                            fibrous
                            compact
                               coarse grained
                            Chalk.
                            Agaric Mineral.
                               Fossil Farina.
                            concreted
                               Pisolite.
                               Oolite.
                               calcareous sinter
                               Tufa.
                            Argentine.
                               Silvery chalk.
                            magnesian
                               common
                               Dolomite.
                            siliceous
                            Madreporite.
                            Calp.
                            fetid
                            bituminous
                            ferruginous
                            Brown spar.
                      MIN

                        subspecies
SPtC.                           AND VAH1ET1E1.
                             Marl.
                                 indurated
                                 common
                             Bituminous marlite.
      8. Arragonite.
                                 fibrous
                                 coralloldal
      9. Siliceous Borate of Lime.
                                 Botryolite.
           GENUS TV.—MAGNESIA.
Spec. 1. Sulphate of Magnesia.
      2. Carbonate of Magnesia.
      3 Borate of Magnesia.
      4. Fluate of Magnesia.
           GENUS  V.—ALUMINE.
Spec. 1.  Mellate of Alumine.
ORDER IV.—Soft* with an alkaline and earthy bass.
Spec. 1. Alkaline sulphate of Alumine.
      2. Fluate of Soda and Alumine.
      3. Glauberite.
     CLASS II.—Earthy compounds, or stones.
  The minerals which  belong to this class, are com-
posed chiefly  of earths, combined wilh  each other:
they frequently contain some metallic oxide, and some'
times an alkali,  or acid.
Alumine, si-<
lex and fluor-^ Spec. 1.  Topaz^
Ic acid.
n-i


  f
Alumine
nearly pure.
Alumine and (
water.      j

Alumine and
magnesia.

Alumine and
silex.

Alumine, si-
lex and lime. \
Alumine, si- j
lex and zinc. (
Ittria& silex. j
Zirconia and j
silex.        (
Siiez nearly <
pure.
         Pyonite.
 2. Sapphire.
         perfect
             blue
             violet
             red
             yellow
             limpid
         Corundum.
             Adamantine spra
             Emery.
 3. Disaspore.
 4. Wavellite.
 5. SpineUe.
         Ruby.
         Ceylanlte.
 6. Fibrolite.
 7. Cyanite.
 8. Staurotide.

 9. Chrysoberyl.

10. Gahnite.

11. Gndolinite.
12. Zircon.

         Jargon,
         Hyacinth.
13. Quartz.
         common
            limpid
            smoky
            yellow
            blue,
            rose red
            irrsed
            aventurine
            milky
            greasy
            radiated
            tabular
            granular
            arenaceous
            pseudomorphous
         Amethyst
         Prose.
         ferruginous
            yellow
            red
            greenish
        fetid
        Cat's eye.
        Chalcedony.
            common
            Cacholong
           Carnelion.
           Sardonyx.
           plasma! 
MIN
MIN
Spec. 14.
     15.
     16.

     17.
     18.
     19.
     20.
   SUBSPECIES
         AND VARIETIES.
       Hyalite.
       Heliotrope.
       Chrysoprose
       Opal.
           precious
           common
           Hydrophane.
           Girasole.
           Semi-opal.
       Flint.
           swimming
       Hornstone.
       Silicicalce.
       Buhrstone.
       Jasper.
           common
          striped
          Egyptian
 Tripoli.
Porcellanite.
Siliceous Slate.
           Basanite.
Petrosilex.
Clinkstone.
Pumice.
 Obsidian
           vitreous
           Pearlstone.
Pitchslone.
Spodumen.
Lepidolite.
Mica.
           laminated
           lamellar
           prismatic
Leucite.
Fettstein.
Lapis Lazuli.
     Lazulite.
Schor.
           common
           Tourmaline.
           Indicolite.
           Rubellite.
Andaluzite.
Feldspar.
31. Jade.
common
Adularia.
opalescent
aventurine
Petuntze.
granular
compact
      Nephrite.
      Saussurite.
      Axestone.
Emerald.
Euclase.
Basalt.
precious
Beryl.
          columnar
          tabular
          globular
          amorphous
* Wacke.
Dipyre.
Scapolite.
Wernerite.
Axinite.
Garnet.
          precious
          Pyrope.
          common
          Melanite.
       manganesian
Aplome.
Epidote.
          Zoisite.
          Skorza.
       manganesian
Cinnamon Stone.
Allochroite.
Idocrnse.
♦Meionite.
Spec
       SUBSPB' C1EB
            AM D VARIETIES!
47. Byssolite.
48. Prehnite.
Silex, alu-
mine, lime,  *
and water.  1
Silex, alu
mine, soda,
and muriatic
acid
■I
tic f
Silex, alu-
mine, alkali,
and water.

Silex, lime,
and cerium.
Silex, lime,
and iron.
Silex, lime,
and water.
Silex, bary-
tes, alumine,
and water.

Magnesia
and silex.
Silex, mag-
nesia,& lime. '
Silex,magne
sia, alumine,-
and lime.
Silex, magne-
sia, and alu-<
Silex & alu-
mine.
49. iEdelite.
50. Stilbite.
51. Zeolite.
crystallized
Koupholite.
fibrous
               mealy
               Crocalite.
               Needlestone.
52. *Laumou ite
53. 'Melilite.


54. Sodalite.


55. Natrolite.
56. Analcinu.  :.
57. Bildstein  ,
58. Nacrite.
59. Chabasie  .

60. Allenite.

61. Yenite.
62. Schaalst  ain.
63. Ichihyoi  ihthalmite

64. Harmot ome.

65. Chrysol  ite.
               common
               Olivine.
66. Labrad or Stone.
67. Tremo lite.
               common
68. Asbesl .us.
fibrous
Baikalite.

Amianthus
common
Mountain Cork;
ligniform
compact
73.
Diops  ide.
Sahli te.
Amis .nthoide.
Augi te.
            common
            Coccolite.
Hon  iblende.
        common
            Basaltic
            lamellar
            fibrous
            slaty
        Actynolite.
            common
74. Dii  Ulage.
acicular
               granular
               resplendent
               Bronzite.
75. *I Jade.
76. N: ative Magnesia.
77. JH 'ognesiie.
               Keffekil.
               Argiilo-murite.
    . -Serpentine.
               precious
               common
78.


79.   Steatite


80.


81  . Chlorite
Talc.
!. Sommite.
I. Anlhophyllite.
1. Finite.
common
Potstone

common
indurated

common
slaty
foliated
Green earth.
73 
MIN
MIN
Spec 85. Argillaixous Slate.
Claystoni'..
Clay.
     88. Alum-stonr.
        Appendix.
     80. *Bergmanite.
     90. *Chusite.
     91. *Fuscite.
     92. *Gabromlt:
     93. *Hafiyene.
     94. *Iolite.
     95. *Petnlite.
     96. *Pseudo-sonimite.
     97. *Sideroclepte.
     98. "Spinellane.
     99. *Spintlicre.
          CLASS Ul.—Combustibles.
Spec. 1. Hydrogen G as
SUBSPECIES
     AND VARIETIES.

      Argillite.
      Shale.
      Novaculite.
      Aluminous Slate.
      graphic
Native Argill.
Collyrite.
Kaolin.
Cimolite.
adhesive
Potter's
Lithomarge.
Fuller's Earth.
Bole.
Reddle.
Yellow Earth.
Umber.
Sulphur.
Bitumen.
Amber.
Diamond.
Anthracite.
7. Graphite.


8. Coal.



0 Lignite.
carburetted
sulphuretted


    Naptha.
    Petrolium.
    Maltha.
    elastic
    Asphaltum.
Retinasphaltum.
slaty
granular
conchoidal
columnar

foliated
granulat

cannel
slaty
coarse

Jet.
brittle
Bituminous Wood.
brown
earthy
     10. Peat.
                              fibrous
                              compact
              CLASS TV.—Ores.
              GENUS I.—GOLD.
Spec. 1. Native Goid.
           GENUS II.—PLATINA.
Spec 1. Native Platina.
            GENUS UL—SILVER,
Spec. L Native silver.
                          auriferous
      2. Antimonial Silver.
      3. Arsenical Silver.
      4. Sulphuret of Silver.
      5. Sulphuretted Antimonial Silver.
                          brittle
      6. Black Silver
      7. Carbonate of Silver.
      8. Muriate of Silver.
                          argillaceous
Spec  1.
       2.
       3.
Spec 1.
      2.
                SUBSPECIES
                    ANO VARIETIES.
  GENUS IV— MERCURY.
Native Mercury.
Argental Mercury.
Sulphuret of Mercury.
                      common
                      fibrous
                  bituminous
Muriate of Mercury.
    GENTS V.—COPPER.
Native Copper.
Sulphuret of Copper.
                      psetidomorphou
Pyritous Copper.

Gray Copper.
variegated
Spec.  1.
       2.
                  arsenical
                  antimonial
Red Oxide of Copper.
                      foliated
                      capillary
                     compact
                  ferruginous
Azure Carbonate of Copper.
                      earthy
Green Carbonate of Copper.
                      fibrous
                      compact
                      earthy
                  ferruginous
Dioptase.
Muriate of Copper.
                      sandy
Sulphate of Copper.
Phosphate of Copper.
Arseniate of Copper.
                      obtuse octaedral
                      acute octaedral
                      foliated
                      prismatic
                      fibrous
                  ferruginous
     GENUS VI.—IRON.
Native Iron.
Arsenical Iron.
                  argentiferous
3. Sulphuret of Iron.
                        common
                        radiated
                        hepatic
                     magnetic
                     arsenical
4. Magnetic Oxide of Iron.
                        Native magnet
                        Iron sand.
5. Specular Oxide of Iron.
                     micaceous
6. Red Oxide of Iron.
                        scaly
                        Hematite.
                        compact
                        ochrey
7  Brown Oxide of Iron.
                        scaly
                        Hematite.
                        compact
                        ochrey
8. Argillaceous Oxide of Iron.
                        columnar
                    ,    granular
                        lenticular
                        nodular
                        common
                        Bog ore
Carbonate of Iron.
Sulphate of Iron.
Phosphate of Iron.
Arseniate of Iron.
Chromate of Iron.
foliated
earthy
Green iron earth.
crystallized
granular
amorphous 
MIN
MIN
Spec
                   SUBSPECIES
                         ANO VARIETIES.
       GENUS VII.—LEAD.
1. Native Lead.
2. Sulphuret of Lead.
                        common
                        compact
                        fibrous
                    antimonial
                    argento-antimonial
                    argento-bismuthal
3. Oxide of Lead.

4. Carbonate of Lead.
earthy

crystallized
acicular
columnar
       5. Carbonated Muriate of Lead.
       6. Sulphate of Lead.
       7. Phosphate of Lead.
                               acicular
                           arseniated
                           bluish
       8. Arseniate of Lead.
       9. Chromate of Lead.
      10 Molybdate of Lead.
              GENUS VUI.—TIN.
Spec. 1. Oxide of Tin.
                               fibrous
       2. Pyritous Tin.
              GENUS IX.—ZINC.
Spec.  1. Sulphuret of Zinc.
                               yellow
                               brown
                               black
                               fibrous
       2. Red Oxide of Zinc.
       3. Siliceous Oxide of Zinc.
                               foliated
                               common
       4. Carbonate of Zinc.
       5. Sulphate of Zinc.
             GENUS  X.—NICKEL.
Spec.  1. Native Nickel.
       2. Arsenical Nickel.
       3. Oxide of Nickel.
            GENUS XI.—COBALT.
Spec. 1. Arsenical Cobalt.
2.  Gray Cobalt.
3.  Sulphuret of Cobalt.
4  Oxide of Cobalt.
dull
black
brown
yellow
Site.
5. Sulphate of Cobalt.
6. Arseniate of Cobalt.
                        acicular
                        earthy
                    argentiferous
   GENUS  XIL— MANGANESE.
1. Oxide of Manganese.
                        radiated
                        compact
                        earthy
                    ferruginous
2. Sulphuret of Manganese.
3. Carbonate of Manganese.
4. Phosphate of Manganese.
     GENUS  XUI.—ARSENIC.
1. Native Arsenic.
                        concreted
                        specular
                        amorphous
2. Sulphuret of Arsenic.
Oxide of Arsenic
Realgar.
Orpiment
                           SUBSPECIES
                                AND VARIETIES
           GENUS  XIV.—BISMUTH
 Spec 1.  Native Bismuth.
       2.  Sulphuret of Bismuth.
       3.  Oxide of Bismuth.
           GENUS XV— ANTIMONY
 Spec 1.  Native Antimony.
                           arsenical
       2.  Sulphuret of Antimony.
                               radiated
                               foliated
                               compact
                               plumous
       3.  Oxide of Antimony.
                               earthy
       4.  Sulphuretted Oxide of Antimony
          GENUS XVL — TELLURIUM.
 Spec. 1.  Native Tellurium.
                           auro-argentiferous.
                           auro-plumbiferous.
           GENUS XVH.—CHROME.
        GENUS XVIII.—MOLYBDENA.
 Spec. 1.  Sulphuret of Molybdena.
          GENUS XIX.— TUNGSTEN.
 Spec 1.  Calcareous Oxide of Tungsten.
       2.  Ferruginous Oxide of Tungsten.
           GENUS XX.—TITANIUM.
 Spec 1.  Red Oxide of Titanium.
       2.  Ferruginous Oxide of Titanium.
                               Menachanite;
                               Nigrine.
                               Iserine.
       3.  Silico-calcareous Oxide of Titanium
       4.  Octaedral Oxide of Titanium.
           GENUS XXL— URANIUM
 Spec. 1.  Black Oxide of  Uranium.
       2.  Green Oxide of Uranium.
                               crystallized
                               earthy
         GENUS XXH.—COLUMBIUM.
 Spec 1.  Oxide of Columbium.
                               ferruginous
                               Ittrious
           GENUS XXin.—CERIUM.
Spec. 1.  Oxide of Cerium.
  Mineral caoutchouc. See Caoutchouc.
  Mineral oil.  Petroleum.
  Mineral pitch. Bitumen.
  Mineral poisons. See Poisons.
  Mineral salts.  See Salts.
  Mineral waters.  Aqua minerales.  Aqua medt-
cinales.   Waters holding minerals in solution are
called mineral waters. But as all water, in a mineral
state, is impregnated, either more or less, with some
 mineral substances, the name mineral waters, should
 be confined to such waters as are sufficiently impreg-
nated with mineral matters to produce some  sensible
effects on the  animal economy, and either to cure or
prevent some of the diseases to which the human body
is liable.  On  this account, these waters might be with
much more propriety called medicinal waters, were not
the name  by  which they are commonly known too
firmly established by long use.
  The mineral waters  which are the most  esteemed,
and consequently  the most resorted to for the cure of
diseases, are those of,
 1. Aix.
 2. Barege.
 3. Bath.
 4. Bristol.
 5. Buxton.
 6. Borset.
 7. Cheltenham.
 8. Carlsbad.
 9. Epsom.
10. Harrowgate:
11. Hartfell.
12. Holywell.
13. Malvern.
74. Matlock.
15. Moffat.
16. Pyrmont.
17. Scarborough.
18. Spa.
19. Seidlitz.
20. Sea-water.
21. Seltzer.
22. Tunbridge.
23. Vichy, and others of
  less note.
  For the properties and virtues of these, consult their
respective neads.
                                       75 
A SYNOPTICAL TABLE, showing  the Composition  of  MINERAL WATERS.
CLASS.	NAME.	Highest Tempe-rature.	Conlaini<l in an English Wine Pint of 28.875 Cubic Inches.						
			Azotic Gas.	Carbonic Acid Gas.	Sulphuretted Hydrogen.	Carbonated Soda.	Neutral Purging Salts.	Selenite and Earthy Carbonates.	Oxide of Iron.
		Fahrenheit.	Cubic Inches.	Cubic .'itches.	Cubic Inches.	Grains.	Grains.	Grains. Grains.	
Simple cold • - - <	Malvern			uncertain	none	none	uncertain	uncertain	none
	Holywell				none	none	uncertain	uncertain	none
Simple thermal - - <	Bristol	740	uncertain	3.75	none	none	2.81	3.16	none
	Matlock	66°		uncertain	none	none	uncertain	uncertain none	
	Buxton	820	0.474	uncertain	none	none	0.25	1.625	none
Simple saline • • - <	Seidlitz			1.	none	none	185.6	6.68	none
	Epsom				none	none	40.1	8.7	none
	Sea				none	none	237.5	6.	none
Highly carbonated alkaline	Seltzer			17.	none	4.	17.5	6.	none
Simple carbonated chalybeate	Tunbridge		0.675	1.325	none	none	0.344	0.156	0.125
Hot carbonated chalybeate	Bath	116°	1.7	1.1	none	none	10.1	10.1	uncertain
Highly carbonated chalybeate <	Spa			12.79	none	1.47	4.632	1.47	0.56
	Pyrmont			26.	none	none	7.13	23.075	0.56
Saline, carbonated chalybeate <	Cheltenham		uncertain	5.687	uncertain	none	62.125	6.85	0.625
	Scarborough			uncertain	none	none	20.	10.	uncertain
Hot, saline, highly carbonated > chalybeate - • - l	Vichy	130O?		uncertain	none	uncertain		uncertain	uncertain
	Carlsbad	165<>		uncertain	none	11.76	47.04	4.15	uncertain
Vitriolated chalybeate	Hartfell				none	none	none	none	4.815*
Cold sulphureous • . )	Harrowgate		0.875	1.	2.375	none	91.25	3.	none
	Moffat		0.5	0.625	1.25	none	4.5	none	none
Hot, alkaline, sulphureous - j t	Aix	143<>		uncertain	uncertain	12.	5.	4.75	none
	Borset	1320		uncertain	uncertain	uncertain	uncertain		none
	Barege	120O			uncertain	2.5	0.5	uncertain	none
• That is. 2,94 contained in the sulphate of Iron, (this salt when crystallized, contsuning 28 per cent of oxide of Iron, accordini to KirsranO »»» 1-875 addibonal of oxide of iron. 
MIN                                              MIN
   Fourcroy divides all mineral and medicinal waters
 Into nine orders, viz.
     1. Cold acidulous waters.
     2. Hot or thermal acidulous waters.
     3. Sulphuric saline waters.
     4. Muriatic saline waters.
     5. Simple sulphureous waters.
     6. Sulphurated gaseous waters.
     7. Simple ferruginous waters.
     8. Ferruginous and acidulous waters.
     9. Sulphuric ferruginous waters.
   Dr. Saunders  arranges  mineral  waters into the fol-
 lowing classes:
     1. Simple cold.
     2.   ..   thermal.
     3.   ..   saline.
     4. Highly carbonated alkaline.
     5. Simple carbonated chalybeate.
     6. Hot carbonated chalybeate.
     7. Highly carbonated chalybeate.
    8. Saline carbonated chalybeate.
    9. Hot saline highly carbonated chaly oeate.
   10. Vitriolated chalybeate.
   II. Cold, sulphureous.
   1'2.  Hot, alkaline, sulphureous.
  In order to present the  reader, under one point of
 view, wilh the most conspicuous features in the com-
 position of the mineral waters of this and some other
 countries, the preceding Synoptical Table has been sub-
joined, from Dr. Saunders's work on mineral waters.
  The reader will please to observe,  that  under the
 head of Neutral Purging Salts, are included the sul-
 phates of soda and magnesia, and the muriates of lime,
 soda, and magnesia.   The  power which the earthy
 muriates may  possess of acting on the intestinal canal,
 is not quite ascertained, but, from their great  solu-
 bility, and from  analogy with salts, with similar com-
ponent parts, we may conclude that this forms a prin-
cipal part of their operation.
  The reader  will likewise observe, that where the
spaces are left blank, it signifies that we are ignorant
whether  any of  the substance at the head of the co-
lumn is contained in the water; that the word none,
implies a certainty of the absence of that substance:
and the term uncertain, means that the substance  is
contained, but that the quantity is not known.
  Dr. Henry,  in his epitome of chemistry,  gives the
following concise and accurate account for the analysis
of mineral waters:
  Water is never presented by nature in a state of com-
plete purity.   Even when collected as  it descends in
the form of rain, chemical tests detect in it foreign in-
gredients.  And when it has been absorbed by the
earth, has traversed its different strata, and is returned
to us by springs, it is found to have acquired various
impregnations.  Tbe readiest method of judging of
tie contents of natural waters, is by applying what are
termed tests, or reagents, i. e. substances which, on
being added to a water, exhibit by the phenomena they
produce, the nature of the saline and other ingredients.
For example, if, on adding an infusion of litmus to any
water, its colour is changed to red, we infer that the
water contains an uncombined  acid;  if this  change
ensue even after the water has been boiled, we judge
that  the acid is a fixed and not a volatile one; and if,
on adding the muriate of barytes, a precipitate falls
down, we safely conclude that the peculiar acid present
in tbe water is either entirely or in part the sulphuric
acid.   Dr. Henry first enumerates tiie  tests  generally
employed in examining mineral waters, and  describes
their application, and afterward  indicates  by what
particular tests the substances generally found in wa-
ters may be detected.
   A. Infusion of Litmus.  Syrup of  Violets, ire.
  As the infusion of litmus is apt to spoil by keeping,
some solid litmus should be kept.  The infusion is pre-
pared by steeping this substance, first bruised  in a mor-
tar, and tied up in a thin rag, in distilled water, which
extracts its blue colour.  If the colour of the infusion
tends too much to purple, it may be amended by a drop
or two of pure ammonia; but of this no more should
be added than what is barely sufficient, lest the delicacy
of the test should be impaired.  The syrup of violets
is not easily obtained pure.   The genuine syrup may
be distinguished from the spurious by a solution of
corrosive  sublimate,  which changes the former to
green, while It reddens the latter.  When it  can be
 procured genuine, it is an excellent test of acids, and
 may be employed in the same manner as the infusion
 of litmus.  Paper stained with the juice of the marsh
 violet, or with that of radishes, answers a similar pur-
 pose. In staining paper for the purpose of a lest, it
 must be used unsized; or, if sized, it must previously
 be washed with warm water;  because the alum which
 enters into the composition of the size will otherwise
 change tbe vegetable colour to a red.
   Infusion of litmus  is a test of most uncombined
 acids.
   If the infusion redden the unboiled but not the boiled
 water under examination, or if the red colour occa-
 sioned by adding tbe infusion to a recent water, return
 to blue on boiling, we may infer that the acid is a vola-
 tile one, and most  probably the carbonic acid.  Sul-
 phuretted hydrogen gas, dissolved in water, also red-
 dens litmus, but not after boiling.  To ascertain whether
 tlie change be produced by carbonic acid, or sulphuuret-
 ted hydrogen, when experiment  shows that the red-
 dening cause is volatile, add a little lime-water.  This,
 if carbonic acid be present, will occasion a precipitate,
 which will dissolve with effervescence,  on adding a
 little muriatic acid.  Sulphuretted hydrogen may also
 be contained in the same water, which will be ascer-
 tained by the tests hereafter to be described.
   Paper tinged with  litmus is also reddened by the
 presence of carbonic acid, but regains its blue colour
 by drying.  The mineral and fixed acids redden it per-
 manently.  That these acids, however, may produce
 their effect, it is necessary that they should be  present
 in a sufficient proportion.
   Infusion of litmus reddened by vinegar—Spirituous
 tincture of Brazil-wood—Tincture of turmeric and
 paper stained with each of these three substances—
 Syrup of violets.  All these different tests have one
 and the same object.
   1. Infusion of litmus reddened by vinegar, or litmus
 paper reddened by vinegar, has its blue colour restored
 by alkalies and pure earths, and by carbonated alkalies
 and earths.                              \
  2. Turmeric paper  and tincture are changed to a
 reddish brown by alkalies, whether  pure or  carbo-
 nated, and  by pure earths; but not by carbonated
 earths.
  3. The red infusion of Brazil-wood, and paper stain-
 ed  with it,  become blue by alkalies and earths, and
 even by the latter, when dissolved by an excess of car-
 bonic acid.  In the last-mentioned case, however, the
 change will  either cease to appear or be much less re-
 markable, when tbe water has been boiled.
  4. Syrup of violets, when pure, is by the same causes
 turned green, as also paper stained with the juices of
 violets, or radishes.
               B. Tincture of Galls.
  Tincture of galls  is tlie test generally employed for
 discovering iron, with  all the  combinations of which
 it produces a black tinge, more  or less  intense,  ac-
 cording to the  quantity of iron.  The iron, however,
 in order to be detected by this test, must be in the state
 of red oxide, or, if oxidated in a less degree, its effects
 will not be apparent, unless after standing some time
 in contact with air.   By applying this test before and
 after evaporation or boiling, we  may know whether
 the iron be held in solution by carbonic acid, or  a fixed
 acid; for,
  1. If it produce its effects before the application of
 heat, and  not afterward, carbonic acid is the solvent
  2. If after, as well as before, a mineral acid  is the
 solvent.
  3. If, by the boiling, a yellowish powder be precipi-
 tated, and yet galls continue to strike the water black
 afterward, the iron, as often happens, is dissolved both
 by carbonic acid and a fixed acid.  A neat mode of ap-
 plying the gall test was used by Klaproth, in his analy-
sis ofthe Carlsbad water.  A slice of the  gall-nut was
suspended by a silken thread, in a large bottle of the re-
cent water;  and so small was the quantity of iron,
that it could only be discovered in water fresh from the
spring.
                C. Sulphuric Acid.
  1. Sulphuric acid discovers, by a slight effervescence,
 the presence of carbonic acid, whether uncombined or
 united with  alkalies, or earths.
  2. If lime be present, whether pure or uncombined
 the addition of sulphuric acid, occasions, after a few
 days, a white precipitate. 
MIN
MIN
  3. Barytes Is precipitated instantly In tlie form of a
white powder.
  4. Nitrous and muriatic salts,  on adding sulphuric
acid and applying heat, are decomposed;  and if a stop-
per, moistened with pure ammonia, be  held  over the
vessel, white clouds appear.  For distinguishing whe-
ther nitric or muriatic acid be present,  rules will  be
given hereafter.
              Nitric and Nitrous Add.
  These acids, if they occasion effervescence, give the
same indications as the  sulphuric  The nitrous acid
has been recommended as a test distinguishing between
hepatic waters tbat contain sulphuret of potassa, and
those that only contain sulphuretted hydrogen gas.   In
the former case a precipitate ensues on adding nitrous
acid, and a very foetid smell arises;  in the latter, a slight
cloudiness only appears, and tlie smell of  the water be-
comes less disagreeable.
           D. Oxalic Acid and Oxalates.
  This acid is a most delicate test of lime, which it se-
parates from all its combinations.
  1. If a water which is precipitated by oxalic acid,
becomes milky on adding a watery solution of carbonic
acid gas, or by blowing air through it by means of a
quill, or glass tube, we may infer  that pure lime (or
barytes, which has never yet been found pure in water)
is present.
  2. If the oxalic acid occasion a precipitate before but
not after boiling, the lime is dissolved by an excess of
carbonic acid.
  3. If, after boiling, by a fixed  acid:  a considerable
excess of any of the mineral acids, however, prevents
the oxalic acid  from occasioning a precipitate, even
though lime  be present; because some acids decompose
the oxalic, and others,  dissolving the oxalate of lime,
prevent it from appearing.
  The oxalates of ammonia, or of potassa,-(which may
easily be formed by saturating their respective carbo-
nates with a solution of oxalic acid,) are not liable to
the above objections, and are preferable, as  reagents,
to the uncombined acid.  Yet even these oxalates fail
to detect lime when supersaturated with muriatic or
nitric acids; and if such an excess be present, it must
De saturated before adding the test with pure ammonia.
Fluate of ammonia is the best test of lime.  It is made
by adding carbonate of ammonia to diluted fluoric acid.
     E. Pure Alkalies and Carbonated Alkalies.
   1. The pure fixed alkalies precipitate all earths and
metals, whether dissolved by volatile or fixed menstrua,,
but only in certain states of dilution:  for example,
sulphate of  alumine may be present in  water, in the
proportion of 4 grains to 500, without being discovered
by pure fixed alkalies.  As  the alkalies precipitate so
many substances, it is evident they cannot  afford any
precise information when employed as reagents.  From
tbe colour of the precipitate, as it approaches to pure
white, or recedes from it, an experienced eye will judge
that the precipitated earth contains less or more  of the
metallic admixture.
  2. Pure fixed alkalies decompose all salts with basis
of ammonia, which becomes evident by its smell, and
also by the  white fumes it exhibits when a stopper is
brought near it, moistened with muriatic  acid.
  3. Carbonates of potassa and soda have similar  ef-
fects.
  4. Pure ammonia precipitates all earthy and metallic
salts.  Besides this property, it also imparts  a deep blue
colour to any liquid that contains copper  in a state of
solution.
  Carbonate of ammonia has the same properties, ex-
cept that it does not precipitate magnesia  from its com-
binations.  Hence, to ascertain  whether this earth be
present in any solution, add the carbonate of ammonia
till no further precipitation ensues, filter the liquor, and
then add pure ammonia.  If any precipitation now oc-
curs, we may infer the presence of magnesia.
                  F. Lime- Water.
  1. Lime-water is applied for the purposes of a test,
chiefly  for detecting carbonic acid.  Let any liquor,
supposed to contain this acid, be mixed with  an equal
bulk of lime-water.  If carbonic acid be present, either
free or combined, a precipitate will  immediately ap-
pear, which, on adding a few drops of muriatic acid,
will immediately dissolve with effervescence.
  2. Lime-water will immediately show  the  presence
of corrosive suhlimate,  by a brickdust-coloured sedi-
meut.   If arsenic be present iu any liquid, lime-water,
when addeJI, will occasion a precipitate, consisting of
lime nnd  arsenic, whicli  is viry ditlicullly soluble in
water.  This precipitate, when mixed up with oil, and
laid on hot coals, yields tlie well-kuowu garlic smell of
arsenic.
    G. Pure Barytes,and its  Solution in Water..
  1.  A solution of pure barytes is even more effectual
than lime-water, in detecting the presence of carbonic
acid, and is much more portable and convenient; since
from the crystals of this earth, the solution may at any
time be prepared.  In discovering fixed  air, the solution
of barytes is used similarly to lime-water; and, if this
acid be present, gives,  in like manner,  a precipitate so-
luble with effervescence in muriatic acid.
  Pure strontites has similar virtues as a lest.
                    H. Metals.
  1.  Of the  metals, silver and mercury are tests of tha
presence of  sulphurets, and of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas.  If a  little quicksilver be put into a bottle, contain-
ing water impregnated with either of these substances,
its surface soon  acquires a black film, and, ou shaking,
a blackish powder separates from it.  Silver is imme-
diately tarnished from  the same cause.
  2.  The  metals also  may  be used as tests of each
other, and on the principle of elective  affinity.  Thus,
for example, a polished Iron plate, immersed in a solu-
tion of sulphate of copper, soon acquires a coat of this
metal, and the same in other similar examples.
                I. Sulphate of Iron.
   This is the only one of the sulphates, except that
of silver,  applicable to the purposes of a test.  When
used in this view, it is generally employed to ascertain
the presence of oxygenous gas, of which a natural wa-
ter may contain a small quantity.
  A water suspected to contain this gas, may be mixed
with a little recently  dissolved sulphate of iron, and
kept corked up.   If an oxide of iron be precipitated in
the course of a few days, the water may be inferred lo
contain oxygenous gas.
      Sulphate, Nitrate, and Acetate of Silver.
  These  solutions are, in some measure, applicable to
the same purpose.
  1.  They are  peculiarly adapted  to the discovery of
muriatic acid  and muriates.  For  the silver, quitting
the nitric or other acid, combines  with the muriatic,
and forms a flaky precipitate,  which at first is white,
but, on exposure to the sun's light, acquires a violet co-
lour.   This  precipitate Dr. Black states to contain, in
1000 parts, as much muriatic  acid as would  form 425
parts and a  half of crystallized muriate of soda, which
estimate scarcely differs at all  from that of Klaproth.
A precipitation, however, may arise from other causes,
which it may be proper to slate.
  2. The  solutions of silver in acids are precipitated by
carbonated  alkalies and earths.  The agency of these
may be prevented by previously adding a few drops of
the same acid in which the silver is dissolved.
  3. The  nitrate and acetate of silver  are decomposed
by the sulphuric and  sulphurous acids; but this may
be prevented by adding previously a few drops of nitrate
or acetate of barytes, and after allowing the precipitate
to subside, the  clear liquor may be decanted, and the
solution of  silver added.  Should  a precipitation now
take place, the presence of muriatic acid, or some one
of its combinations, may be  suspected.  To obviate
uncertainty, whether  a precipitation  be owing to sul-
phuric or muriatic acid, a solution  of sulphate of silver
may be employed, which is affected only by the latter
acid.
  4. The  solutions of silver are precipitated by extract-
ive matters; but in this case also the precipitate is dis-
coloured,  and is soluble in nitrous acid.
          K. Nitrate  and Acetate of Lead.
  1. Acetate of lead,  the  most eligible of these two
tests, is precipitated by sulphuric  and muriatic acids;
but as, of both  these, we  have much better indicators,
it is not necessary to enlarge on its application to this
purpose.
  2. The  acetate is also a test of sulphuretted hydro-
gen and sulphurets of alkalies, which occasion a black
precipitate; and if a  paper, on which characters are
traced with  a solution  of acetate of lead, be  held over
a portion of water containing a sulphuretted  hydrogen,
they are soon rendered visible.
  3.  The  acetate of lead is employed in the discovery
of uncombined  boracic acid, a very rare ingredient of
waters.  To ascertain whether this be present, some 
MIN                                             MIS
 cautions are necessary.  The uncombined alkalies and
 earths (if any be suspected; must be saturated vvitn
 acetis acid.  The sulphates must be  decomposed by
 acetate or nitrate of barytes, and the muriates by ace-
 tate or nitrate of silver.  The filtered liquor, if boracic
 acid be  contained in it, will give a precipitate soluble
 in nitric acid of the specific gravity of 1.3.
 L.   Nitrate of Mercury, prepared with and without
                       heat.
  This solution, differently prepared, is sometimes em-
 ployed as a test.  But, since other tests answer the
 same purposes more effectually, it is not absolutely ne-
 cessary to hove these tests.
    M. Muriate, Nitrate, and Acetate of Barytes.
  I. These solutions ore all  most delicate tests of sul-
 phuric acid, and of its combinations, with which they
 give a white  precipitate, insoluble in  dilute muriatic
 acid.  They are decomposed, however, by carbonates
 of alkalies; but the precipitate occasioned by these is
 soluble in dilute muriatic and nitric acid wilh efferves-
 cence, and may even be  prevented  by adding pre-
 viously a few drops of the acid contained in the bary-
 tic salt.
  One hundred grains of dry sulphate of barytes (ac-
 cording to Klaproth, p. 168,) contain about 45 one-fifth
 of sulphuric acid of the specific gravity 1850, according
 to Clayfield, 33 of acid of sp. gr.  2240; according  to
 Thenard, after calcination about 25.  These estimates
 differ very considerably. From Klaproth's experiments,
 it appears that 1000 grains of sulphate  of barytes indi-
 cate 595; desiccated sulphate of soda, or 1415 of the
 crystallized salt.  The same chemist  has shown that
 100  grains ofisulphate of barytes are produced by the
 precipitation of 71 grains of sulphate of lime.
  2. Phosphoric salts also occasion a  precipitate with
 these tests, which is soluble in muriatic acid without
 effervescence.
        N. Prussiates of Potassa and Lime.
  Of these two the prussiate of potassa is the most eli-
 gible.  When pure it does not speedily assume a blue
 colour on the addition of acid, nor does it immediately
 precipitate muriatic barytes.  Prussiate of potassa is a
 very sensible test of iron, with the solutions of which
 in acids  it produces a Prussian blue  precipitate, in
 consequence of a double elective affinity. To render
 its effect more certain, however, it may be  proper to
 add  previously, to any water suspected to contain iron,
 a little muriatic acid, with a view to the saturation of
 uncombined alkalies, or earths, which, if present, pre-
 vent the  detection of any minute portions of iron.
  1.  If a  water, after boiling and filtration, dees not
 afford a blue precipitate on the addition of prussiate of
 potassa, the solvent of the iron maybe inferred to be a
 volatile one, and probably the carbonic acid.
  2. Should the precipitation ensue in the boiled water,
 the solvent is  a fixed acid, the nature  of which must
 be ascertained by other tests.
          O. Solutions of Soap in Alkohol.
  This solution may be used to ascertain the compara-
 tive  hardness of waters.  With distilled water it may
 be mixed wilhout producing any change ; but, if added
 to a  hard water, it produces a milkiness, more or less
 considerable as the water is less pure: and  from the
 degree of milkiness,  an experienced eye will judge of
 its quality. The acids, alkalies, and  all earthy and
 metallic salts, decompose soap, and occasion that pro-
 petty in wttcr termed hardness.
                      Alkohol.
  Alkohol, when mixed with any water in the propor-.
 tion  of about  an equal bulk, precipitates all the sorts
 which it  is not capable of dissolving.
          P. Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia.
  This and other sulphurets, as well as water saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogfe, may be employed in de-
tecting lead and arsenic, with the former of which ihey
give  a black, and with the latter a yellowish precipi-
tate.  As lead and arsenic, however, are never found
in natural waters, these tests are not required.
  MiNERA'LIA.  See Mineral.
  MINERALIZE.  Metallic substances are said to be
mineralized when  deprived  of  their usual properties
by combination with some other substance.
  MINERA'LOGY.  Mineralogia. Thatpartofnatu-
ral history which relates to minerals.
  Minim.   See Minimum.
  M IN IMUM.  A minim.   The sixtieth part of a fluid
drachm.   An important change  has  been adopted in
 the last London Pharmacopoeia, for the iBiensuration
 of liquids, and the division of the wine pint, to ensure
 accuracy in the  measurement of quantities of liquids
 below one drachm.  The number of drops contained
 in one drachm  has been assumed lo be silly:  and
 taking water as a standard, this number, though by no
 means  accurate, would still be sufficient for ordinary
 purposes; but when other liquids of less specific gravity
 are used, a much larger number is  required  to fill the
 same measure, as of proof spirit, 140 drops are required
 to equal the bulk  of 60 of water, dropped  from  the
 same vessel. If, therefore, in the composition of me-
 dicines, measures suited to the standard of water were
 used occasionally only, and it was generally assumed
 that 60 drops were equal to one fluid-drachm, and one
 fluid-drachm was substituted for 60 drops prescribed,
 twice the dose intended would  be given.  There are
 further objections to the use of drops ; that their bulk
 is influenced by the quantity of liquid contained in the
 bottle from wliich they fall, by the thickness of tlie lip,
 and even by the inequalities on  the surface of tlie lip
 of the same bottle; that volatile liquids, to which this
 mode is most commonly applied, are thus exposed with
 extensive surfaces, and their evaporation promoted;
 and on all these accounts the adoption of some deci-
 sive, convenient, and uniform substitute became neces-
 sary.   The subdivision of the wine pint has, therefore,
 been extended lo the sixtieth part of the fluid-drachm,
 which is termed minim: and glass measures expres-
 sive of such subdivision, have  been adopted by  the
 college.
  MINIUM.  Red oxide of lead.  See Lead.
  Minium grvecorum.  Native cinnabar
  MINT.  See Mentha.
  Mint, pepper.  See Mentha piperita.
  Mint, water.  See Mentha aquatica.
  MISCARRIAGE.  See Abortion.
  Miserk're mki. (Have compassion on me: so called
 from its unhappy torments.)  The iliac passion.  See
 Iliac passion.
  MISLAW.  See Musa paradisiaca.
  MISLETOE.  See Viscum.
  Misochy'micus.  An enemy to the chemists and
 their enthusiastic conceits.
  MISPICKLE.  Common arsenical pyrites.  A white,
 brilliant, granulated iron ore, composed of iron in com-
 bination with arsenic.
  MISTU'RA.   A mixture.  A fluid composed of two
 or more ingredients.  It is mostly  contracted in pre-
 scriptions thus, mist. e. g. —/. mist,  which means, let
 a mixture be made.
  Mistura ammoniaci. Lac ammoniaci.  Mixture of
 ammoniacum.—Take of ammoniacum, two drachms;
 of water, half a  pint; rub the ammoniacum  with  the
 water gradually  added, till they are thoroughly mixed
  Mistura  amygdal.se.   Lac  amygdala.   Almond
 mixture, or emulsion.—Take of almond confection,
 two ounces; distilled water, a pint: gradually add  the
 water to the almond confection, rubbing them  together,
 till properly mixed ; then strain.
  Mistura  asafostidje.  Lac  asafatida.   Mixture
 of  asafoetida.—Take of  asafoetida, two drachms;
 water, half  a pint;  rub the asafoetida with the water,
 gradually added,  till they are thoroughly mixed.
  Mistura camphors. Camphor mixture.—Take of
 camphor, half a  drachm; rectified spirit, ten  minims ;
water, a pint.  Fiist rub the camphor with the spirit,
 then with the water gradually added,  and strain the
 liquor.  A very  elegant preparation of camphor,  for
delicate stomachs, and those who  cannot bear it in
substance, as an antispasmodic and nervine.   There is
a great loss of camphor in making it as directed by the
 pharmacopoeia.  Water can only  take  up a certain
quantity.  For its virtues, see Laurus camphora.
  Mistura  cornu tjsti.  Decoctum album.   Decoc
tion of  hartshorn.  Take of hartshorn, burnt and pre
pared, two ounces; acacia gum,  powdered, an ounce;
water, three pints.  Boil down to two pints, constantly
stirring, and strain.  This is a much weaker absorbent
than the mistura  creta,  but is much more agreeable to
 most people.  It  forms an excellent drink in fevers  at-
tended with diarrhoea, and acidities of the prima; vis.
  Mistura CRETiE.  Chalk mixture.—Take of pre
 pared chalk, half an  ounce;  refined sugar, three
 drachms; gum-arabic, powdered, half an ounce; water,
 a pint.   Mix.  A very useful and pleasant form of ad-
 ministering chalk as an adstringent aud antacid.  It is 
MOF
MOL
particularly  calculated for children, in whom It allays
the many i lernngcd actions of the prima; via;, which
are produc ed by acidities.  Dose, one ounce to three,
frequently,   t'ee Creta and Carbonas calcis.
  Mistur a fkrri composita.—Take of myrrh, pow-
dered, ad rachm ; subcarbonate of potassa, twenty-five
grains;  rose-water, seven fluid ounces and a half;
sulphate of iron, powdered, a scruple; spirit of nutmeg,
half a fit lid ounce; refined sugar, a drachm.  Rub to-
gether tlje myrrh, the  subcarbonate of potassa  and
sugar; p.nd, during die trituration, add gradually, first,
tlie rose-water and spirit of nutmegs, and last, the sul-
phate of iron.  Pour tlie mixture immediately into a
proper i .'lass bottle, and stop it close.   This preparation
is the celebrated mixture of Dr. Griffiths.   A chemical
deconi position is effected in forming this mixture, a
subcarbonate of iron is formed, and a sulphate of
potassa.
   Mi stura ouaiaci.  Take of guaiacum gum-rcsm, a
dracl ini and a half; refined sugar, two drachms; muci-
lage of acacia gum, two fluid drachms; cinnamon
wat'jr, eight fluid ounces. Rub the guaiacum wilh the
sugar, then with the mucilage; and, when they are
mixed,  pour on the cinnamon-water gradually, rubbing
 therm together.  For its virtues, see Guaiacum.
   Mistuka moscbi.  Take of musk, acacia gum, pow-
dered, refined sugar, of each a drachm: rose-water, six
 fluid ounces.  Rub the musk first with the sugar, then
 with ihe gum, and add the rose-water by degrees.   An
excellent diaphoretic and antispasmodic.   It is by far
 the best way of administering musk, when boluses can-
 not be swallowed. Dose, one ounce to three, frequently.
   Mitliridate mustard.   See Thlaspi campeslre.
   MITHRIDATIUM The electuary called Mithridate,
 from Mithridates, king of Pontus and Bithynia, who,
 experiencing the virtues of the simples separately, af-
 terward combined them; but then the composition
 consisted of but few ingredients, viz. twenty leaves of
 rue, two walnuts, two figs, and a Uttie salt-. of this he
 took a dose every morning, to guard himself against the
 effects of poison.
   MITRAL.  (Mitralis; frommitra, a mitre.)  Mitre-
 like : applied by anatomists to parts which were sup-
 posed to resemble a bishop's mitre.
   Mitral valves.  Valvula mitrales.   The valves
 of the left ventricle of the heart.
   Mi'va.  An ancient term for the form of a medicine,
 not unlike a thick syrup, now called Marmalade.
   MIXTURE.  1. See Mistura.
   2. Mixture in chemistry should be distinguished from
 solution; in the former, the aggregate particles can
 again be separated by mechanical means, and the pro-
 portion of the different particles determined:  but, in
 solution, no  mechanical power whatsoever can sepa-
 rate them.
   Mocha stone.  A species of agate.
   Mo'chila.  (From poxXos, a lever.)  A reduction
 of tbe bones from an unnatural to a natural situation.
   Mo'chlica.  (From  poxXtvia, to  move.)  Violent
 purges.
   MODI'OLUS.  (Diminutive of Modus, a measure.)
 The nucleus, as it were, ofthe cochlea of the ear is so
 termed.  It ascends from the basis of the cochlea to the
 apex.
   Mofdte.   See Nitrogen.
   MOFFAT.  A village situated about fifty-six miles
 southwest of Edinburgh. It affords a cold sulphureous
 water, of a very simple composition; when first drawn,
 it appears rather milky and bluish; the smell is exactly
 similar to that of Harrowgate; the smell is sulphureous
 and saline, without any thing bitter.  It sparkles some-
 what on being poured from one gless to another.
   According to Dr. Garnett's analysis, a wine gallon
 of Moflat water contains thirty-six grains of muriate
 of soda, five cubic inches of carbonic acid  gas, four of
 azotic  gas, and ten of sulphuretted hydrogen, making
 altogether nineteen cubic inches of gas.  Moffat water
 is, therefore, very simple in its composition, and hence
 it produces effects somewhat similar to those of Har-
 rowgate.  It is, perhaps, on this account also that it so
 soon loses the hepatic gas, on which depends the great-
 est part of  its  medicinal power.  The only sensible
 effect of this water is that of increasing tbe flow of
 urine; when it purges,  it appears rather to take place
 from the excessive dose than from its mineral ingre-
  dients.  This water appears to be useful chiefly in cu
  taneous eruptions, and as an external application at an
        86
increased temperature,  scrofula in  ils early  stage
appears to be elevated by il; it is also used as no ex
ternnl  application lo Irritable  ulcere, and  Is nv>m-
mended in dyspepsia, and whcie there is inaction of
the alimentary canal.
  Mogila'lia.  (From poyis, difficulty, and XaXua, to
speak.)  A difficulty of speech.
  MO'LA.   (Hebrew.)   1. The knee-pan:  so named
because it is shaped like a millstone.
  2. A mole, or shapeless muss of flesh  in tlie utei us
See Mole.
  MOLA'RIS.  (From molaris, a grindstone ;  because
they grind llie food.)  A  double-tooth.  See Teeth.
  Molares olandulje.  Molar glands.   Two salival
glands situated on each side of the mouth, between llie
masseter and buccinator muscles, the excretory ducts
of which open near the Inst dens molaris.
  Molares  dentes.  See Teeth.
  MOLASSES.  See Saccharum.       ,
  Molba'vica.  See Dracocephalum.
  MOLE. Mola. By this term authors have intended
to describe different productions of, or excretions from,
the uterus.
  By some it lias been used to signify every Rind of
fleshy substance, particularly those which are properly
called polypi; by others, those only which arc Ihe con-
sequence of  imperfect conception, or when tlie ovum
is in a morbid or decayed slate; and by many, which
is the most popular opinion, every coagulum of blood
which continues long enough in the  uterus to assume
somewhat of an organized form, to  have only the
fibrous part, as it has been called,  remaining, is de-
nominated a mole. There is surely much Impropriety,
says Dr. Denham, in including, under one general
name, appearances  so contrary and substances  so
different.             ,
  1. For an account ofthe first kind, see Polypus.
  2. Ofthe second kind,  which has been defined as an
ovum deforme, as it  is the consequence of conception,
it might more justly be arranged under the  class of
monsters; for though it has tbe appearance of a shape-
less mass of flesh, if examined carefully with a knife,
various parts of a child may be discovered,  lying to-
gether in apparent confusion, but in  actual regularity
The pedicle also by which it is connected to tlie uterus,
is not of a fleshy texture, like that of the polypus, but
has a regular series of vessels like the umbilical cord,
and there is likewise a placenta and membranes con-
taining water. The symptoms attending the formation.
growth, and  expulsion  of this apparently confused
mass from the uterus, correspond with those of a well-
formed child.
  3. With respect to the third sort of mole, an incision
into its substance will discover its  true nature; for,
although the external surface appears at the first view
to be organized  flesh, the  internal part is composed
merely of coagulated blood.  As substances of this kind,
which mostly occur after  delivery, would  always be
expelled by the action of the uterus,  there seems to be
no reason for a particular inquiry, if popular opinion
bad not annexed the idea of mischief to them, and  at-
tributed their formation  or continuance in  the uterus
to the negligence or misconduct of the practitioner.
Hence the persuasion arose ofthe necessity of extract-
ing all the coagula of blood out of the uterus, immedi
ately after the expulsion  of the  placenta, or of giving
medicines to force  them away: but abundant ex-
perience hath  proved,  that  the retention  of  such
coagula is not, under any circumstances,  productive
of danger, and that they are most safely expelled by the
action of the uterus, though at very different periods
after their formation.
  Mo'lle.   Indian mastich^
  MOLLIFICA'TIO. A soTtening: formerly applied
to a palsy ofthe muscles in any particular part.
  MOLLI'TIES. (From  mollis,  soft.)  A softness-
applied to bones, nails, and other parts.
  Mollities ossium. See Malacosteon.
  Mollities unguium.  A preternatural softness of tha
nails:  it often accompanies chlorosis.
  Molucce'nse lignum.   See Croton tiglium.
  MOLYBDATE.  Molybdas.  A salt lormed oy the
union ofthe  molybdic acid with salifiable bases :  thus
molybdateof antimony, See.
  MOLYBDENUM. (From uoXvBSos, lead.)  Molyb-
iitis.   A metal which exists mineralized by  sulphur in
the ore,  called sulphuret  of  molybdena.   This oie_, 
MOL
MON
 vrnicii is very scarce, is so similar in several of its pro-
 perties to plumbago, that they were long considered as
 varieties of the same substance.  It is of a light lend-
 gray colour; its surface is smooth, and feels unctuous;
 its texture is lamellaied; it soils (lie fingers, and marks
 paper bluish-black, or silver-gray.   It may be  cut
 with a knife.  It is generally found in compact masses;
 seldom in particles, or  crystallized.  It is met with in
 Sweden, Spain, Saxony, Siberia, and Iceland.  Scheele
 showed that a peculiar metallic acid might be obtained
 from it; and later chemists have succeeded in reducing
 this acid to the metallic state.  We  are indebted to
 Hatchett for a full and accurate analysis of this ore.
   The native sulphuret of molybdena, is  the  only ore
 hitherto known which  contains this metal.
   Properties of molybdena.—Molybdena is either in an
 agglutinated blackish friable mass, having little metal-
 lic brillancy, or in a black powder.  The mass slightly
 united,  shows,  by  a magnifying glass, small, round,
 brilliant grains.  Its weight is about 8. It is one of the
 most infusible of the metals.  It Is capable  of com-
 bining with a number  of metals  by fusion.   It forms
 with sulphur an  artificial sulphuret of molybdena
 analogous  to  its ore.  It unites also  to  phosphorus.
 The affinity of molybdena for oxygen is very feeble,
 according to Hatchett.  The alkalies have no action
 on molybdena in the moist way, but  it enters readily
 into fusion with potassa and soda.  It is oxidisable by
 boiling  sulphuric acid, and acidifiable  by the  nitric
 acid.  Muriatic acid does not act upon it. It is capa-
 ble of existing in  not  less than four different degrees
 of oxygenation.
   Method of obtaining molybdena.—To obtain molyb-
 dena is a task of the utmost difficulty.  Few chemists
 have succeeded in  producing this metal, on account of
 its great infusibility.  The method recommended in
 general  is the following:—Molybdic  acid is  to be
 formed into a paste with oil, dried at the fire, and then
 exposed to a violent heat in a  crucible  lined with char-
 coal. By this means the oxide becomes decomposed;
 a black agglutinated substance is obtained, very brittle
 under the finger, and  having a  metallic brilliancy.
 This is the metal called molybdena.
   MOLYBDIC ACID.  (Acidum, molybdicum; from
 Molybdenum, its base.)  The native sulphuret of molyb-
 denum  being roasted for some time, and dissolved in
 water of ammonia,  when nitric acid  is added to this
 solution, the molybdic  acid precipitates in fine white
 scales, which become yellow on melting and subliming
 them.   It changes the vegetable blues to red, but less
 readily and  powerfully than the molybdous acid.
   Molybdic  acid has a specific gravity of 3.460.  In an
 open vessel it sublimes into brilliant yellow scales; 960
 parts of boiling water dissolve one of it, affording a pale
 yellow solution, which reddens litmus,  but has no taste.
 Sulphur, charcoal, and several metals, decompose tbe
 molybdic  acid.  Molybdate of potassa is a colourless
 salt.  Molybdic acid gives, with  nitrate of lead,  a
 white precipitate, soluble in nitric acid;  with the ni-
 trates of mercury and silver, a white flaky precipitate;
 with nitrate of copper, a greenish precipitate; with
 solutions of the neutral sulphate  of zinc, muriate of
 bismuth, muriate of antimony, nitrate of nickel, mu-
 riates of gold and platinum, it produces white  precipi-
 tates.  When melted with borax, it  yields a bluish
 colour;  and paper dipped  in  Its solution becomes, in
 the sun, of a beautiful blue.
  The neutral alkaline molybdates precipitate  all me-
 tallic solutions.  Gold, muriate of mercury, zinc, and
 manganese, are precipitated  in the form of a white
 powder; iron and tin, from their solutions in muriatic
 acid, of a brown colour; cobalt, of a rose colour; cop-
 per, blue; and  the solutions  of alum and quicklime,
 white.  If a dilute solution of recent muriate of tin be
precipitated by a dilute solution of molybdate of po-
tassa, a  beautiful blue powder is obtained.
  The concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves a  con-
siderable quantity  of tbe molybdic  acid, tbe solution
becoming of a fine blue colour as it cools, at the  same
time that it  thickens; the colour  disappears again on
the application of heat, but returns again by  cooling.
A  strong heat expels the sulphuric  acid.  The  nitric
 acid has no effect on it; but the muriatic dissolves it in
 considerable quantity, and leaves a dark blue residuum
 when distilled.  With a strong heat it expels a portion
of sulphuric acid from sulphate of potassa.  It also
 disengages the  acid  from  nitre and common salt by
                                        Nn
distillation.   It has some action upon the filings of tha
metals in the moist way.
  Molvbdi'tis.  See Molybdenum.
  Moly'bdos.  (On uoXti tts fiaBos; from its gravity.)
Lead.
  MOLYBDOUS ACID.  Acidum mok/bdosum. The
deutoxide of molybdenum is of a  blue colour,  and
possesses acid properties.  Triturate 2 parts of molyb-
dic acid, with one part ofthe metal, along with a little
hot water, in a porcelain mortar, till the mixture as-
sumes a blue  colour. Digest in 10 parts of boiling
water, filter and evaporate the liquid in a heat of about
120°. The blue oxide separates.  It reddens vegetable
blues, and forms salts with the bases.   Air or water,
when left for some time to act on molybdenum, con-
vert it inlo this  acid.  It consists of about 100 metal to
34 oxygen.
  Moly'za.  (Diminutive of  ptaXv, moly.)   Garlic;
the  head of wbich,  like moly, is  not divided  into
cloves.
  Momiscus.   (From ptapos, a blemish.) That part of
the teeth which is next the gums, and which is usually
covered with a  foul tartareous crust.
  MOMO'RDICA.   (Momordica; from mordeo, to
bite; from its sharp taste.)  The name of a genus of
plants in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Monacia; Or-
der, Syngenesia.
  Momordica  elaterium.  The systematic name of
the squirting cucumber.  Elaterium; Cucumis agres-
tis; Cucumis asininus;  Cucumis sylvestris; Elate-
rium officinarum; Boubalios ;  Charantia; Guarerba
orba.  Wild, or squirting cucumber.   Momordica—
pomis hispidis  cirrhisnullis of Linnaeus.  The dried
sediment from tiie juice of this plant is the  elaterium
of the shops.  It has  neither smell  nor taste, and  is
the  most powerful cathartic  in the whole Materia
Medica.  Its efficacy in dropsies is said to be consider-
able ; it, however, requires  great caution in the exhi-
bition.  From the eighth to the half of a grain should
be given at first, and repeated at proper intervals until
it operates.   The  cathartic  power of this substance
is derived from  a small portion of a  very active prin-
ciple, which Dr. Paris, in   his  Pharmacologia,  has
called Elatin.  From ten grains of elaterium lie ob-
tained,
        Water......................   0.4
        Extractive.................... 2.6
        Fecula....................... 2.8
        Gluten....................... 0.5
        Woody matter................  2.5
        Elatin.......................) 12
        Bitter principle...............\

                                      10.

  MONA'RDA.  (So called  in  honour of Nicholas
Monardes, a Spanish physician  and botanist.)  The
name of a genus  of plants  in the Linnean  system.
Class, Diandria; Order,  Monogynia.
  Monarda fistulosa.  The systematic name of the
purple monarda.  The leaves of this plant have a fra-
grant smell, and  an  aromatic and  somewhat bitter
taste, possessing nervine, stomachic, and deobstruent
virtues.   An infusion  is recommended in the  cure of
intermittent fevers.
  t" The Monarda is a very pungent aromatic, growing
native in the United States, with various other  species,
some of which  resemble il in efficacy.  In different
parts of the country  it is known by the  names of
mountain-balm  and horseinint.  It is a warm diapho-
retic, anti-emetic, and carminative;  used in flatulent
colics, rheumatism, &c.  The distilled oil, according
to Dr. Atlce, is one of the most powerful rubefacients."
—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  MONADE'LPHIA.   (From povos, alone, and altX
(bia, a brotherhood.)  The name of a class of plants in
the sexual system of Linnams,  consisting  of plants
with hermaphrodite flowers, in which all the stamina
are united below into one body  or cylinder, through
which the pistil  passes.
  MONA'NDRIA.  (From povos, alone, and  avnp, a
husband.) The name of a class of plants in tbe sexual
system of Linnaeus,  consisting of plants  with her-
maphrodite flowers, which have only one stamen.
  Mone'lli.  A species of Anagallis.
  MONEY-WORT.   See Lysimachia nummularia.
  MONILIFORMIS.  (Monile, an ornament foi any 
MON
MON
 part of the  body, especially a  necklace  or collar.;
 Moniliform:  applied  lo the pod  of  the Hedysarum
 mandiferum from us necklace appearance.
  Monk's rhubarb.  See Rumex alpinus.
  MONKSHOOD.  See Aconitum napellus.
  MONOCOTYLEDON.   (Frompovos, one, nnd «,-
 rvAirtW, a cotvledon.)  Having one cotyledon.
  MONOCOTYLEDONES.  A tribe of plantswhich
 arc supposed  to have only one cotyledon ; as the gross
 and corn tribe, palms, and tbe orchis family.  See
 Cotyledon.
  MONO'CULT'S.  (Yrom'povos, one, and oculus, nn
 eye.)  Monopia.  1.  A very uncommon  species of,
 monstrosity, in  which  there is but one eye, and that
 mostly above the root of the nose.
  2. Intestinum monoeulum is the name given to tlie
 cecum, or blind gut, by Paracelsus, because it is per-
 forated only at one end.
  [3. A genus of Crustacea, to which belongs the great
 horse-foot  of America, or the  Monoculus Polyphe-
 mus.  A J
  MONGs'CIA.   (From  povos, alone, and otxia, a
 house.)   The name of a class of plants in the sexual
 system of  Linnaeus, consisting of those which have
 male and female organs in separate flowers, but on the
 same plant.
  MONOGY'NIA.  (From povos, alone, and yvvn, a
 woman, or wife.)—Tbe name of an order of plants in
 the sexual system of Linnams.  It contains those plants
 which, besides their agreement iu the classic character,
 have only one style.
  Monohe'mera.  (From povos, single,  and  npcpa, a
 day.)  A disease of one day's continuance.
  MONOICUS.   (From povos,  one,  and oikio,  a
 house.)   Linnaeus calls flowers  monoid, monoeceous,
 when the stamens and pistils are situated in different
 flowers, on the  same  individual  plant; because they
 are confined to one house, as it were, or dwelling; and
 if the barren  and fertile flowers grow from separate
 roots, fiores dioici, or dioecious flowers.
  MoNo'MAcnoN.  The intestinum caecum.
  Monofk'gia.   (From povos, single, and atjywpt, to
 compress.) A pain in only  one side of the head.
  MONOPHYLLUS.   (From povos, one, and tbvXXov,
 a leaf.)  One-leafed: having only one  leaf applied to
 the perianthiuin of flowers;  thus the flower-cup  of
 the Datura stramonium is  monophyUous,  or formed
 of one leaf.
  Mono'pia.  (From povos, single, and ia^p, the eye.)
 See Monoculus.
  MONO RCH1S.  (From  povos,  one,  and opxic,  a
 testicle.)   An epithet  for a person that has  but one
 testicle.
  MONRO, Alexander, was born  in London,  of
 Scotch parents,  in 1697.  His father, who w;is an army
 surgeon, settled afterward at Edinburgh, and took great
 interest in his education.  At a proper age, he sent him
 to attend Cheselden in London, where  lie displayed
 great assiduity, and laid the foundation of his cele-
 brated work on  the bones; he then went to Paris, and
 in 1718 to Leyden, where he received the  particular
 commendation of Boerhaavc.  Returning to Edinburgh
 the following year, he was appointed professor and
 demonstrator of anatomy to the Company of Surgeons,
 and soon after he began to give public lectures on that
 subject, Dr. Alston at the same  time taking up  the
 Materia Medica and Botany.  This may be regarded as
 the opening of that medical school, which hassince ex-
 tended its fame throughout Europe and even to America.
 The two lectureships were placed upon the  university
 establishment in 1720, and others shortly added to com-
 plete the system of medical education ; but  an oppor-
 tunity of seeing practice being still wanting, Dr. Monro
 pointed out in a pamphlet the  advantages of such an
 institution; the  Royal  Infirmary was therefore estab-
 lished, and he commenced Clinical Lecturer on Sur-
gery; and Dr. Rutherford afterward extended the plan
 t» Medical cases.  None of  the new professors contri-
 buted so  much  to tlie  celebrity of this school as Dr.
 Monro, not only by the diligent and skilful  execution
 of the duties of his office, but also by various ingenious
 and useful publications.  He continued his  lectures
 during upwards  of six months annually for nearly forty
 years, and acquired such  reputation,  that students
flockfd to  him  from  the most  distant  parts of  the
kingdom.   His  first and chief work was his " Oste-
ology" in 1726, intended for his pupils; but which
 oecamc very popular, passed through numerous edi-
 tions,  and was translated into  most European  lan-
 guages : he afterward added a concise description of
 tlie nerves, and a very accurate account of the lacteal
 system and thoracic duct,  lie was alio the father and
 active supporter of a society, to which the  public was
 indebted for  six volumes of  " Medical Etways  and
 Observations:" he  acted as  secretary, and  bad the
 chief labour in the publication of these, besides hnviivg
 contributed many valuable papers, especially an elabo-
 rate "Essay  on the Nutrition of the Fretus."  The
 plan of the society was afterward extended, and three
 volumes of " Essays Physical and  Literary" were
 published, in which Dr. Monro has  several  useful
 papers. His last publication was an " Account of tbe
 Success of Inoculation in Scotland."  He left, how-
 ever, several works  in manuscript; of which n short
 "Treatise on Comparative Anatomy," and his oration
 "De Cuticula," have been since given to the public.
 In 1759, Dr. Monro resigned his anatomical choir to his
 son, but continued  his Clinical lectures;  he exerted
 himself also in promoting almost every object of public
 utility.  He was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society
 of London,  and an honorary member of  the  Royal
 Academy of H'trgery at Paris.  He died In 1767.
  MONS.  A mount, or hill.
  Mons veneris.  The triangular eminence immedi-
 ately over the os pubis of women, that is covered with
 hair.
  MONSTER.   Lusus natura.  Dr.  Denman divides
 monsters into, 1st, Monsters from  redundance or mul-
 tiplicity of parts;  2d,  Monsters  from deficiency or
 want of parts; 3d,  Monsters from confusion of purls.
 To these might perhaps be added, without impropriety,
 another kind, in which  there is  neither redundance,
 nor deficiency, nor confusion of parts, but an error of
 place, as in transposition of the viscera.  But children
 born  with  diseases, as  the  hydrocephalus, or their
 effects, as in some cases of blindness, from previous
 inflammation, cannot be properly considered as mon-
 sters, though they are often so denominated.
  Of the first order there may be two kinds; redun-
 dance or multiplicity of natural parts, as of two heads
 and one body, of one head and two bodies, an Increased
 number of limbs, as legs,  arms, fingers, and toes: or
 excrescences or additions to parts of no certain form, as
 those upon the head and other parts of the body.  It
 is not surprising that we should be ignorant  of the
 manner in which monsters  or irregular  birlhs are
 generated  or produced;  though it is probable that the
 laws  by which these are governed are as regular, both
 as to cause and effect, as in common  or natural pro-
 ductions.  Formerly, and indeed till within these few
 years, it was a generally received  opinion,  that mon-
 sters were not primordial or aboriginal, but that they
 were caused subsequently, by the power of  the imagi-
 nation of the mother, transferring the Imperfection of
 some external object, or the mark of something for
 which she longed,  and with wliich she was  not
 indulged, to the child of which  she  was  pregnant;
or by some accident which happened to her during her
 pregnancy.  Such opinions, it is reasonable to  think,
were  permitted to pa9s current, in  order  to protect
 pregnant women from all hazardous and disagreeable
occupations, to screen them from severe labour, and to
procure for them a  greater share of  indulgence  and
tenderness than could be granted to them in the com-
mon occurrences of life.  The laws  and customs of
every civilized nation have, in some degree, established
a persuasion  that there was something sacred  in the
person of a pregnant woman i and this may be right
in several points of view; but these only go a little
way towards justifying the opinion of monsters being
caused by the imagination ofthe mother.  Theopinion
has been disproved by common  observation, nnd by
 philosophy, not perhaps by positive proofs, but by many
strong  negative facts:   as the improbability of any
 child being bom perfect, had such a power existed j
the freedom  of children  from any blemish, their mo-
 thers being in situations most exposed to objects likely
 to produce them; the ignornnce of the mother of any
 thine being wrong in the child, till, from information
 of the fact, she begins to recollect every accident  which
 happened during her precnancy, and assigns the worst
 or the most plausible, as the cause; ihe organization and
 colour of these adventitious substances; the frequent
 occurrence of monsters in the brute creation, in  which 
MON
MOR
the power of the imagination cannot be great; and
the analogous appearances in the vegetable system,
where it does not exist in any degree.  Judging, how-
ever,  from appearances, accidents may perhaps  be
allowed  to have considerable influence in the pro-
duction of montsters of some kinds, either by actual
injury upon parts, or by suppressing or deranging tlie
principle of growth, because, when an  arm, for in-
stance, is wanting, the rudiments of the deficient parts
may generally be discovered.
  MONTMARTRITE.   A mineral compound of sul-
phate and carbonate of lime, that stands the weather,
which common gypsum does not.  It is found at Mont-
martre, near Paris.
  MOONSTONE.  A variety of adularia.
  [" MOORE, William, M. D. This ornament of the
profession and of Christianity, was born at Newtown,
on Long-Island, state of New-York, in 1754.  His father
Samuel,  and his grandfather Benjamin, Moore, were
agriculturists.  He received the rudiments of a clas-
sical education under the tuition of his elder brother,
afterward bishop Moore, and president for many years
of Columbia collegf.  He attended  the lectures  on
medicine delivered by Drs. Clossey and Samuel Bard.
  Iu 1778 he wcAit to London, and thence to Edinburgh.
In 1780  he was graduated doctor of  medicine,  on
which occasion he published his dissertation De Bile.
For more than forty years he continued unremittingly
engaged in the arduous duties of an extensive practice,
particularly in midwifery, estimating his number of
cases at about three thousand.  He died in the seventy-
first year of his age, in April, 1824.
  The medical papers of Dr. Moore may be found in
the American Medical and Philosophical Register, the
New-York Medical  Repository, and tbe New-York
Medical  and Physical Journal.  For  many years Dr.
Moore was president of the  Medical Society  of the
county of New-York, aud an upright and vigilant
trustee of the College of Physicians and Surgeons.
On his death the College recorded their testimony to his
pre-eminent worth."—Thach. Med. Biog.  A.\
  MORBI'LLI.  (Diminutive of morbus, a disease.)
Bee Rubeola.
  MORBUS.  A disease.
  Morbus arquatus.  The jaundice.
  Morbus attonttus.  The epilepsy, and apoplexy.
  Morbus coxarius.  See Arthropuosis.
  Morbus gallicus.  The venereal disease.
  Morbus herculeus.  The epilepsy.
  Morbus indicus.  The venereal disease.
  Morbus infantilis.   The epilepsy.
  Morbus magnus.  The epilepsy.
  Morbus nicer.   The black disease.   So Hippo-
crates named it, and thus described it.  This disorder
is known by vomiting a concrete blood of a blackish
red colour, and  mixed with a large quanty of insipid
acid, or viscid phlegm.  This evacuation is generally
preceded by a pungent tensive pain, in both the hypo-
chondria ; and the appearance of the disease is attend-
ed wilh  anxiety, a compressive pain in the praecordia,
and fainting, which last is more frequent and violent,
when the blood  which is evacuated is foetid and cor-
rupt.  The stomach and the spleen are  the principal,
if not the proper seat of this disease.
   Morbus regius.  The jaundice.
   Morbus sacer.   The epilepsy.
   MORDANT.   In dying, the  substance  combined
with the vegetable or animal fibre, in order to  fix the
dye-stuff.
   Morel.  See Phallus esculenlus.
   Morb'tus. (From  morum, the mulberry.)  A de-
coction of mulberries.
   MORGAGNI, Giambatista, was born at Forli in
1(582.  He commenced his medical studies at Bologna,
and displayed such ardour and talent, that Valsalva
availed himself of his assistance in his researches into
the organ of hearing, and in drawing up his memoirs
on that subject.   He also performed the professorial
duties during the temporary absence of Valsalva, and
by his skill and  obliging  manners procured general es-
teem. He afterward prosecuted  his studies at Venice
 and Padua, and then settled in his native place.  He
soon, however, perceived that this was too contracted a
sphere for his abilities; wherefore he returned to Pa-
 dua, where, a vacancy soon occurring, he was nomi-
 nated, in 1711, to teach the theory of physic.  He had
 already  distinguished himself by  the publication five
years before of the first part of his " Adversaria Ana-
tomies," a work remarkable for its accuracy, ns well
as originality; of which, subsequently, five other parts
appeared.   He assisted Lancisi in preparing for publi-
cation the valuable drawings of Eustachius,  which
came out in 1714.  The following year he was appoint-
ed lo the first anatomical professorship in  Padua; and
from that period ranked at the head of the anatomists
of his time.  He was also well versed in general litera-
ture, and other subjects not immediately connected
with his profession: and honours were rapidly accu-
mulated upon him from every quarter of  Europe.  He
was distinguished by  the particular esteem of three
successive Popes, and by the visits of all the learned
and great, who came into his neighbourhood; and Ills
native  city placed a bust of him in their public hall
during his life, with an honorary inscription.  Though
he had a large family, he accumulated a considerable
property by his industry and economy; and by means
of a good constitution and regular habits, he attained
the advanced age of 90.  Besides the  Adversaria  he
published several other works, two quarto volumes of
anatomical epistles, an essay on the proper method of
acquiring  medical science, which appeared on his ap-
pointment to Ihe theoretical chair, &c.  But that which
has  chiefly rendered  his name illustrious is entitled
" De Sedibus et Causis Morborum," printed at  Venice
in 1760.  It contains a prodigious collection of dissec-
tions of morbid bodies, made by Valsalva and himself,
arranged according to the organs affected. He follow-
ed the plan cf Bonetus; but the accuracy of his  details
renders the collection far superior in value to any that
had preceded it.
  MO'RIA.  (From piapos, foolish.)  The name of a
genus of diseases in Good's Nosology. Class,  Neuro-
tica; Order, Phrenica.  Idiotism.  Fatuity.  It  has
two species, Moria imbecillis, demens.
  Mo'ro.   (From morum, a mulberry.)   A small ab-
scess resembling a mulberry.
  Moro'sis.  (From piapos, foolish.)  See Amentia.
  MOROXYLATE.  A compound of moroxylic acid
with a salifiable basis.
  MOROXYLIC ACID.  (Acidum moroxylicum; from
morus, the mulberry-tree, and  \vXov,  wood; because
it is found on the bark or wood of that tree.)   In the
botanic garden at Palermo,  Mr. Thompson  found  an
uncommon saline substance on the trunk of a white
mulberry-tree.  It appeared as a coating on the surface
of the bark in little granulous drops of a yellowish and
blackish-brown colour, and had likewise penetrated its
substance. Klaproth, who analyzed it, found that its
taste was  somewhat like that of succinic acid; on
burning coals, it swelled up a little, emitted a pungent
vapour scarcely visible to the eye, and left a slight
earthy residuum.   Six hundred  grains of the bark
loaded with it were lixiviated with water, and afford-
ed 320 grains of a light salt, resembling in colour a light
 wood, and composed  of short  needles united in radii.
It was not deliquescent; and though  the crystals did
not form  till the solution was  greatly condensed by
evaporation,  it is not  very soluble, since  1000 parts of
water dissolve but 35 with heat, and 15 cold.
  This salt was found to be  a compound of lime
and a peculiar vegetable acid,  with some extractive
matter.
  To obtain the acid  separate,  Klaproth decomposed
the calcareous salt by acetate of lead, and separated the
lead by sulphuric acid.  He likewise decomposed it
directly by sulphuric acid.  The product was still more
like succinic acid in taste; was not deliquescent; easily
dissolved both in water and alkohol: and did not pre
cipitate the metallic solutions, as it did in combination
with lime. Twenty grains being slightly heated in a
small glass retort, a number of drops of an acid liquor
first came over; next a concrete  salt arose, that ad-
hered flat against tbe top and part of the neck of the
retort in the form of prismatic crystals, colourless and
transparent;  and a coaly residuum remained. The
acid was then washed out, and crystallized by  sponta-
neous evaporation.—This sublimation appears to be
the best mode of purifying the salt, but it adhered too
strongly to the lime to be separated from it directly by
heat without being decomposed.
  Not having a sufficient quantity to determine  its spe-
cific characters, though he conceives it to be a peculiar
acid, coming nearest to ihe succinic both in taste and
other qualities, Klaproth has provisionally given it tha 
MOR                                           MOT
«me of moroxylic, and the calcareous salt containing
It, that of moroxylate of lime.
  MORPHE'A ALBA.  (From poptpn, form.)  A spe-
cies of cutaneous leprosy.  See Lepra alphos.
  MORPHIA.  Morphine.  A new  vegetable alkali,
extracted from opium, of which it constitutes the nar-
cotic principle.   See Papaver somniferum.
  MORPHINE.  Set-  Morphia.
  Morse'llus.  A lozenge.
  Morsulus.  An ancient name for that form of me-
dicine  which was to  be  chewed in  the mouth, as a
lozenge ; the word signifying a little mouthful.
  Mo'rsus diaboli.   The fimbriae of the Fallopian
tubes.
  Mo'rta.   See Pemphigus.
  Mortari'olum.  (Dim. of mortarium, a mortar.)
In chemistry, it is a sort  of mould for making cupels
witb; also a little mortar.  In anatomy, it is the  sockets
of the teeth.
  MORTIFICATION.  (Mortificatio;  from  mors,
death,  and fio, to become.)   Gangrcna; Sphacelus.
The loss of vitality of a part of the body.   Surgeons
divide mortification into two species, the one preceded
by inflammation, the  other without it  In inflamma-
tions that are to terminate in mortification,  there is a
diminution  of power  joined to an  increased  action;
this becomes a cause of mortification, by destroying
the balance of power and action, which ought to exist
in every part.  There  are, however, cases of mortifi-
cation  that do not arise wholly from that as a cause:
of this kind are the carbuncle, and the slough,  formed
in the small-pox pustule.  Healthy  phlegmonous in-
flammation seldom ends  in mortification, though  it
does so when very vehement and extensive.  Erysipe-
latous  inflammation  is observed most frequently to
terminate in gangrene; and whenever phlegmon is in
any degree conjoined  with an erysipelatous affection,
which  it not unfrequently is, it seems thereby to ac-
quire the same tendency, being more difficult to bring
to resolution, or suppuration, than the true phlegmon,
and more apt to run into a mortified state.
  Causes which impede  the circulation of the part
affected, will  occasion mortification, as is exemplified
in strangulated hernia, tied polypi, or a limb being de-
prived  of circulation from a dislocated joint.
  Preventing the entrance of arterial blood  into  a
limb, is also another cause.  Paralysis, conjoined with
pressure, old age, and  ossification of the arteries, may
produce mortification; also cold, particularly if follow-
ed by the sudden application of warmth ;  and likewise
excessive heat applied to a part.
  The  symptoms of mortification that take place after
inflammation are various, but generally as follows:—
the pain and sympathetic  fever suddenly  diminish,
the part  affected becomes soft, and of  a livid co-
lour^ losing at the same time more or less of its sensi-
bility.
  When any part of the body loses all motion, sensi-
bility, and natural heat, and becomes of a brown livid
or black colour, it is said to be affected with sphacelus.
When the part becomes a cold, black, fibrous, sense-
less substance, it is termed a slough.  As long as any
sensibility, motion, and warmth continue, the state of
the disorder is said to be gangrene.   When the part
has become quite cold,  black, fibrous, incapable  of
moving, and destitute of all feeling, circulation, and
life; this is the second stage of mortification, termed
sphacdus.
  When gangrene takes place, the patient is usually
troubled  with a kind of hiccough:  the constitution
always sutlers an  immediate dejection, the counte-
nance assumes a wild cadaverous look, the pulse be-
comes small, rapid, and sometimes irregular; cold per-
spirations come  on, and the patient is often affected
with diarrhoea and delirium.
  MORTON, Richard, was born in Suffolk, and after
taking the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Oxford, offi-
ciated for some  time  as a chaplain: but the intole-
rance of the times, and  his own religious scruples,
compelled him to change for the medical profession.
He was accordingly admitted to his doctor's degree in
1670. having accompanied  the Prince of Orange to
Oxford, as physician to his person.  He afterward set-
tled in London, became a Fellow of the College, and
obtained a large share of the city practice. He died
iu 1698.  His works have had considerable reputation,
and  evince some acuteness of observation, and aeti-
      84
vlty of practice.   They abound, however, with  the
errors of  the  humoral  pathology, which  then pro
vailed;  anil sanction a method of treatment in acute
diseases, which his more able contemporary, Byden
bam, discountenanced, and which subsequent experi-
ence has  generally discarded.  His first publication
was an  attempt to arrange the varieties of consump-
tion, but not very successfully.   His •* Pyretologia"
came out in two volumes, the first in 1601, the other at
an interval of three years; in  this work, especially, the
stimulant treatment of fevers is carried to an unusual
extent, and a  more general  use of cinchona recom
mended.
  MORUM.   See Moms nigra.
  MO'RUS.  (From uavpos, Dlack; so  called from tho
colour of its fruit when ripe.)  The name of a genus
of plants  in the Linnaean  system.  Class,  Monacia;
Order, Tetrandria.  The mulberry-tree.
  Morus  nigra.  The systematic  name of the mul-
berry-tree. Morns—foliis cordatis scabris, of Lin-
naeus.   Mulberries abound with a deep violet-coloured
juice, which, in its general qualities, agrees with that
of the fruits called acido-dulces, allaying thirst,  partly
by refrigerating, and partly by exciting an excretion of
mucus from the mouth and fauces; a similar effect is
also produced in  the stomach, where, by correcting
putrescency, n powerful cause of  thirst is removed.
The London College directs a syrupus niori, which Is
an agreeable vehicle for various medicines.  The bark
of the root of  this tree is said, by Andree, to be  useful
in cases of taenia.
  Mosaic gold. See Aurum musivum.
  Moscha'ta  nux.  See Myristica moschata.
  MO'SCHUS. (Mosch, Arabian.) Musk. See Mos-
chus moschiferus.
  Moscnus moschiferus.  The systematic name of
the musk animal,  a ruminating quadruped, resembling
the antelope.   An unctuous substance is contained in
excretory follicles  about the navel of the male animal,
the strong and permanent smell of which is peculiar to
it.  It is contained in  a bag placed  near the umbilical
region.  The best musk  is  brought from Tonquin, in
China;  an inferior sort from Agria and Bengal, and
a still worse from  Russia.  It is slightly unctuous, of a
black colour, having a strong durable smell and a bit-
ter taste.  It yields part of its active matter to water,
by infusion; by distillation the water  is impregnated
with  its flavour; alkohol  dissolves it, its impurities
excepted.  Chewed, and rubbed with a knife on paper,
it  looks  bright, yellowish, smooth, and free from gritti-
ness.  Laid on a red-hot  iron, it catches flame and
burns almost entirely away, leaving only an exceed-
ingly  small quantity of light grayish  ashes. If any
earthy substances hare been mixed with the musk,
the impurities will discover them.  The medicinal and
chemical properties of musk  and castor are very simi-
lar : the virtues of the former are generally believed to
be more powerful, and hence  musk  is preferred in
cases of imminent danger.   It is prescribed as a pow-
ful antispasmodic, in doses  of three grains or upwards,
even to  half a drachm, in the greater number of spas-
modic diseases, especially  in hysteria and singultus,
and also in diseases of debility. In typhus, it is em-
ployed to remove subeultus tendinum, and other symp-
toms of a spasmodic nature.  In cholera, it frequently
stops vomiting; and, combined with  ammonia, it u
given to arrest the progress  of gangrene.  It is best
given  in the form of bolus.  To children, it is given In
the form of enema, and is an efficacious remedy in
the convulsions arising from dentition.   It is also given
in hydrophobia, and in some forma of mania.
  Mosqui'ta.   (From mosquito,  a gnat,  Spanish.)
An itching eruption of the skin, produced in hot cli-
mates by the bite of gnats.
  Mosy llum.  MoovXXov.  The best cinnamon.
  Mother  of thifme.  See Thymus serpyllum.
  MOTHER-WATER.   When sea-water, or  any
other  solution  containing various salts, is evaporated,
and the crystals  taken out,  there  always remains a
fluid containing deliquescent  salts, and  the impurities,
if present.  This is called the mother-water.
  MOTHERWORT.  See Leonurus cardiaca.
  MOTION.  See Muscular motion.
  Motion, peristaltic. Bee Peristaltic motion.
   MOTO RES OCULORUM.   (Nervi motorcs oculs-
rum:  so called because tbey supply the muscles which
move tbe eye.) The third  pair of nerves of the brain. 
MUC
MUL
    They arise from the crura cerebri, and are distributed
\   on the muscles of the bulb of the eye.
      Moto'rii.  Sec Motores oculorum.
      MOULD.   See Fonlanella.
      Mountain cork.  See Asbestos.
      Mountain green.  Common copper green, a  car-
    bonate.
      Mountain leather.  See Asbestos.
      Mountain parsley, black. See Athamanta oreose-
    linum.
      Mountain soap.  See Soap, mountain.
      Mountain wood.  See Asbestos.
      MOUSE-EAR.   See Hieracium pilosella.
      MOUTH.   Os.  The cavity of the mouth is well
    stnown.  The parts which constitute it  are the com-
    mon integuments, tbe lips, the muscles  of the upper
    and under jaw, the palate, two  alveolar arches, the
    gums, the tongue, the cheeks, and salival glands.  The
    bones of the mouth are  the two superior maxillary,
    two palatine,  the lower jaw, and thirty-two teeth.
    The arteries of  the external parts of the mouth are
    branches of the infra-orbital,  inferior alveolar,  and
    facial arteries.  The veins empty themselves into the
   external jugulars.  The nerves are branches from the
   fifth and seventh pair.   The use of the mouth is for
    mastication, speech, respiration, deglutition, suction,
    and taste.
     MO'XA.  A Japanese word. See Artemisia chinensis.
     Moxa japanica.  See  Artemisia chinensis.
     MUCIC ACID.   (Addum mucicum; from mucus,
    it being obtained from gum.)  " This acid has been
    generally known by the name of saccholadic, because
   it was first obtained from sugar of milk; but as all the
   gums appear to afford it, and the principat acid in
   Bugar of milk is the oxalic, chemists in general now
   distinguish  it by the name of mucic acid.
     It was discovered  by Scheele.  Having poured
   twelve ounces of diluted nitric acid on four ounces of
   powdered sugar of milk  in a glass retort on a sand
   bath, the mixture became gradually hot, and at length
   effervesced violently, and  continued to do so for a con-
   siderable time after the retort was taken from the fire.
   It is necessary,  therefore, to use  a large retort, and
   not to lute  the  receiver too tight.   The effervescence
   having nearly subsided, the retort was again placed on
   the sand heat, and the nitric acid distilled off, till  the
   mass had acquired a yellowish colour.  This exhibit-
   ing no crystals, eight  ounces more of the same acid
   were added, and the distillation repeated, till the yel-
   low colour of tbe fluid disappeared.  As the fluid was
   inspissated  by  cooling, it was redissolved in eight
   ounces of water, and filtered.   The  filtered liquor
   held oxalic acid in solution, and seven drachms and  a
   half of white powder remained  on the  filter.  This
   powder was the acid under consideration.
     If one part of gum  be heated  gently with two of-
   nitric acid, till a small quantity of nitrous gas and of
   carbonic acid is disengaged, the dissolved mass will
   deposite on cooling the mucic acid.   According to
   Fourcroy and Vauquelin,  different gums yield from 14
   to 26 hundredths of this acid.
     This pulverulent acid is soluble in about sixty parts
   of hot water, and, by cooling, a fourth  part separates
   in small shining scales, that grow white in the air.  It
   decomposes the muriate of "barytes, and both the  ni-
   trate and muriate of lime.  It acts very little on  the
   metals, but forms with their oxides salts scarcely solu-
   ble.  It precipitates the nitrates of silver,  lead,  and
   mercury. With potassa it forms a salt soluble in eight
   parts of boiling water, and crystallizable  by cooling.
   That of soda requires but five parts of water, and is
   equally crystallizable.  Both these salts are still more
   soluble when the acid is in excess.  That of ammonia
   is deprived of its base  by heat.  The salts of barytes,
   lime, and magnesia, are nearly insoluble."
     MUCILAGE.  Mucilago.  An aqueous solution of
   gum.  See Gum.
     MUCILAGINOUS.  Gummy.
     Mucilaginous extracts.  Extracts that readily
   dissolve in water, scarcely at all in spirits of wine, and
   undergo spirituous fermentation.
     MUCILA'GO.  (Mucilage.)  See Gum.
     Muciiaoo ACACliB.   Mucilage  of acacia.  Muci-
   lago gummi arabici.—Take of acacia gum, powdered,
   four ounces; boiling water, half a pint.  Rub the gum
   with the water, gradually added, until it incorporates
   inlo a mucilage.  A demulcent preparation, more fre-
 quently used to combine medicines, than in any other
 form.
   Mucilago  amyli.  Starch mucilage.—Take of
 starch, three drachms; water, a pint.  Rub the starch,
 gradually adding the water  to it; then boil until it in-
 corporates into a mucilage.  This preparation is mostly
 exhibited with opium, in the form of clyster in diar-
 rhoeas and dysenteries, where the tenesmus arises from
 an abrasion of the mucus of the rectum.
   Mucilago arabici gummi.  See Mucilago acacia.
   Mucilago  seminis cydonii.  See Decoctum cy-
 donia.
   Mucilago  tragacantha.   Mucilage of  traga-
 canth, joined with syrup of mulberries, forms a plea
 sant demulcent, and may be exhibited to children, who
 are fond of it.  This mucilage is omitted in  the  last
 London Pharmacopoeia, as  possessing no superiority
 over the mucilage of acacia.
   Mucoca'rneus.   In M. A. Severinus, it is an epithet
 for  a tumour, and  an abscess,  which  is partly  fleshy
 and partly mucous.
   MUCOUS.  Of the nature of mucus.
   Mucous acid. See Mucic acid.
   Mucous  glands.  Glandula mucosa.   Mucipalous
 glands.  Glands that secrete mucus, such as the glands
 of the Schneiderian membrane of the nose, the glands
 of the fauces, oesophagus, stomach, intestines, bladder,
 urethra, &c.
   MUCRONATUS.  (From mucro, a sharp point.)
 Sharp-pointed.  See Cuspidatus.
   MUCUS. (From pv\a, the mucus of the nose.}  A
 name given to the two following substances.
   1.  Mucus, animal.  One ofthe primary fluids of an
 animal body, perfectly distinct from gelatin, and  ve-
 getable mucus.  Tannin,  which is a delicate test for
 gelatin, does not affect mucus.  " This fluid is transpa-
 rent, glutinous, thready, and of a salt  savour; it red-
 dens paper  of turnsole, contains a great deal of water,
 muriate of  potassa and soda, lactate of lime, of soda,
 and  phosphate of lime.  According to Fourcroy and
 Vauquelin,  the mucus is the same in all the  mucous
 membranes. On the contrary,  Berzelius thinks  it va-
 riable according to the points from which it is  ex-
 tracted.
   The mucus forms a layer of greater or less thickness
 at the surface of the mucous membranes, and it is re-
 newed with more or less  rapidity; the water it con-
 tains evaporates under the  name of mucous exhalation ;
 it also protects these membranes against the action of
 the air, of the aliment, the different glandular fluids,
 &c.; it is, in fact, to these  membranes nearly  what
 the epidermis is to the skin.   Independently of this
 general use, it has others that vary according to the
 parts of mucous membranes. Thus, the mucus  of the
 nose is favourable to the smell, that of the mouth gives
 facility to the taste, that of the stomach and the  intes-
 tines assists in the digestion, that of the genital and
 urinary ducts serves in the generation and the secre-
 tion of the urine, Sec
   A great part of the mucus is  absorbed again by the
 membranes which secrete it; another part is carried
 outwards, either alone, as  in  blowing the nose,  or
 spitting,  or  mixed with the  pulmonary transpiration,
 or else mixed with the excremental  matter  or the
 urine, &c.
   Animal mucus differs from that obtained from the
 vegetable kingdom,  in not  being soiuDle in water,
 swimming on its surface, nor  capable of mixing oil
 wilh water, and being soluble in mineral acids, which
 vegetable mucus is not.
   2.  Mucus, vegetable.  See Gum.
   MUGWORT  See Artemisia vulgaris.
   Mugwort, China.  See Artemisia chinensis.
   Mu la.   Pustules contracted  either by heat or cold.
   MULBERRY.  See Moms Nigra.
   MULLEIN.  See Verbascum.
   Mu'lsum.  See Hydromeli.
   MULTI'FIDUS SPINAS. (From multus, many, and
findo,  to divide.)    Transverso-spinalis  lumborum;
 Musculus sacer; Semi-spinalis internus, sive trans
 verso spinalis dorsi ; Semi-spinalis, sive transversa
 spinalis colli, pars interna, of Winslow.   Ti-ansver
 salt's  lumborum  vulgo sacer ;  Transversalis dorsi,
 Transvcrsalis colli, of Douglas.  Lumbo dorsi spinal^
 of Dumas.   The generality of anatomical writers  have
 unnecessarily multiplied the muscles of the spine, and
 hence their  descriptions of these parts aie confused, 
MUR
MUR
nnd difficult to be understood.  Under the name of
mult\fidus  spina,  Albinus  has, therefore, very  pro-
perly included those portions or muscular flesh, inter-
mixed  wilh tendinous fibres, which  lie close to the
posterior part of the spine, and which Douglas  and
Winslow have described  as three distinct muscles,
under the names of transversales, or transverso-spi-
nales, of the loins, back, and neck.  The mullifidus
opine arises tendinous and fleshy from the  upper con-
vex surface ofthe os sacrum, from the posterior adjoin-
ing part of  the ilium, from  the oblique and transverse
processes of all the lumbar vertebra-, from the trans-
verse  processes of all tlie  dorsal vertebra;, and from
those of the cervical vertebrae, excepting the three first.
From all these origins the fibres of the muscles run in
an oblique direction, and are inserted, by distinct  ten-
dons, into the spinous processes of all the vertebrae <if
the loins and back, and likewise into  those of the six
inferior vertebrae ofthe neck.  When this muscle  acts
singly, it extends the back obliquely, or moves it to one
side;  when both muscles act, they extend Ihe vertebra;
backwards.
  MULTIFLORUS. Many-flowered.  Applied to the
flower-stalk of plants, which is so called when it bears
many flowers; as the Daphne laureola.  See Peduncu-
lus.
  Multifo'rmi OS.  See Ethmoid bone.
  Mil LTIPES. (From multus,many, andpes, a foot.)
1. The wood-louse.
  2. The polypus.
  3. Any animal having more than four feet.
  ML'MPS.  See Cynaneheparotideo.
  Mundicati'va.   (From mundo,  to cleanse.)  Mun-
dificantia.  Medicines wliich purify and cleanse away
foulness.
  Mundifica'ntia.  See Mundicativa.
  Mu'nqos.  See Ophiorrhizamungos.
  MURA'LIS.  (From murus, a wall; so called be-
cause it grows upon walls.) Pellitory. See Parietaria.
  MURA'RIA.   (From murua,  a wall:  because it
grows  about  walls.) A species of maiden-hair:  the
Asplenium  mur ale.
  Ml'RIACITE.   Gypsum.
  MURIAS.  A muriate, or salt, formed by the union
of the muriatic acid with salifiable bases; as muriate
of ammonia, Sec.
  Murias ammonia.  See Sal ammoniac.
  Murias antimonii. Butter of antimony. Formerly
used as a caustic.
  Murias baryta.  See Barytes.
  Murias calcis. Sec Calx.
  Murias  ferri.  Ferrum salltum;  Oleum martis
per ddiquium.  This .preparation of iron is styptic and
tonic, and  may be given  in chlorosis, intermittents,
rachitis, &c.
  Murias ferri ammoniacalis.   See Ferrum ammo-
niatum.
  Murias  hydrargyri.   There are two muriates of
mercury.   See  Hydrargyri submurias, and Hydrar-
gyri oxymurias.
  Murias hydrargyri ammoniacalis.  See Hydrar-
gyrum pracipitalum album.
  Murias  hydrargyri  oxygenatus.  See Hydrar-
gv—' oxymurias.
  Murias potass je.  Alkali vegetabile s allium;  Sal
digestivus; Sal febrifugus Syloii.   This salt is ex-
hibited with *\. ^arne intention as the muriate of soda,
and was formerly in high estimation in the cure of in-
termittents, &.C.
  Murias potass je oxygenatus.  Chlorate of potassa.
The oxygenated muriate of potassa has lately been ex-
tolled  in the cure of the  venereal disease.  It is ex-
hibited in doses of from fifteen to forty giains in the
course of a day.  It increases the  action of the heart
and  arteries, is supposed to oxygenate the blood, and
prove  of great service in  scorbutus,  asthenia,  and
cachectic diseases.
  Murus  bobm.   See Soda murias.
  Murias  stibu.  See Murias antimonii.
  MURIATIC.   (Muriaticus ;  from  muria, brine.)
Belonging to sea salt.                       i
  Muriatic acid.  Acidum muriaticum.  The Hydro-
chloric of the French chemists.  Let six parts of  pure
and well dried sea salt be put into a glass retort, to the
beak of which is luted, in a horizontal direction, u long
glass lube  artificially refrigerated, and containing  a
quantity of ignited muriate of lime-   Upon the  salt
pour at intervals five parts of concentrated oil of vitriol,
through a syphon funnel, fixed air-tight, In the lubnlure
of the retort.  The free end of tbe long tube being re-
curved, so as to dip  Into the  mercury of a  pneumatic
trough, a gas will issue, which, on coming  in  contact
with the air, will form a visible cloud, or haze,  pre-
senting, when viewed in a vivid light, prismatic colours.
This gas is muriatic acid.
  When received in glass jars over dry mercury, it ii
invisible, and possesses all the mechanical properties ot
air.  Its odour is pungent and peculiar.   Its taste  acid
and corrosive. Its specific gravity, according to Sii H.
Davy, is such, that  100 cubic inches weigh 39 grains,
while by estimation, he says, they ought to be  38.4 gr.
If an inflamed taper be immersed in it, it is instantly
extinguished.  It is destructive of animal life;  but the
irritation produced by it on the epiglottis scarcely per-
mits its descent into the lungs.  It is merely changed iu
bulk by alterations of temperature ; it  experiences no
change of state.
  When potassium, tin, or zinc, is heated in  contact
with this gas over  mercury, one half of the  volume
disappears, and the remainder is pure  hydrogen.   On
examining the solid  residue, it is found to be a metallic
chloride.  Hence muriatic acid gas consists of chlorine
and hydrogen, united in equal volumes.   This view of
its nature was originally given by Scheele, though ob-
scured by twins derived from the vague and visionary
hypothesis of phlogiston.  The Frencii  school after-
ward introduced the belief lhat muriatic  acid gas was
a  compound of an unknown radical and water; and
that chlorine consisted of this radical and oxygen.   Sir
H. Davy has proved, by decisive experiments, that in
the present state of our knowledge, chlorine must be re-
garded as a simple substance; and muriatic acid gas,
as a compound of it with hydrogen.
  Muriatic acid, from its composition, bas been termed
by Lussac the hydrochloric acid; a name objected to by
Sir H. Davy. It was prepared by the older chemists in
a very rude  manner, and was called by them spirit of
salt.
   In the ancient method, common salt was previously
decrepitated, then ground wilh dried clay, and kneaded
or wrought with water to a moderately stiff consistence,
after which  it was divided inlo  balls of  the size  of a
pigeon's egg; these  balls, being  previously  well dried,
were put into a retort, so as to fill the vessel two-thirds
full; distillation being then proceeded upon, the  mu-
riatic acid came over when the heat was raised lo  igni-
tion. In this process eight or ten parts of  clay lo one
of salt are  to be  used.  The retort must be of stone-
ware well coated, and the furnace must be of that kind
called reverbcrstory.
   It was formerly thought, that the salt was merely di-
vided in this operation by the clay, and on this account
more readily gave out its acid : but there can be little
doubt, that the effect is produced by the silicious earth,
which abounds in large proportions in all natural clays,
and  detains  the alkali of the salt by combining  with it.
   Sir H. Davy first gave the just explanation of this de-
composition. Common salt is a compound of sodium
and  chlorine.  The  sodium may be conceived  to com-
bine with the oxygen of the  water in the earth, and
with the earth itself, to form a vitreous compound;
and  the chlorine to unite with  the hydrogen of the
water, forming muriatic acid gas.  ' It  is also easy,'
adds he,' according to these new ideas, to explain the
decomposition of salt by moistened litharge, the theory
of which has so much perplexed tbe most acute  che-
mists.   It may be conceived to be an instance  of com-
pound affinity; the chlorine is attracted by tbe lead,
and tbe sodium combines with the oxygen of ihe  li-
tharge, and wilh water, to form hydrate of soda, which
gradually attracts carbonic acid from the air.   When
common salt is decomposed  by oil of vitriol, it  was
usual to explain  the phenomenon by saying, that the
acid, by its superior affinity, aided by heat, expelled tile
gas, and united to the soda.  But as  neither muriatic
acid nor soda exists  in common salt, we  must  now
modify the  explanation, by saying tbat  the water of
the oil of vitriol is first decomposed, its oxygen unites to
the  sodium  to form soda, which is seized on by the
sulphuric acid, while the chlorine combines with the
hydrogen ofthe water, and exhales iu tlie form of mu-
riatic acid gas.'
   As 100 parts of dry sea salt are capable of  yielding
62 uarts bv  weight of muriatic acid gas, these ought, to 
MUR                                            MUR
afford, by economical management, nearly 221 parts of
liquid  acid, specific gravity 1.142, as prescribed by the
London College,  or 200  parts of acid sp. gr. 1.160, as
directed  by  the  Edinburgh  and Dublin Pharmaco-
poeias.
  The ancient method of extracting the gas from salt
is now laid aside.
  The English manufacturers use iron stills for this dis-
tillation, with earthen heads: the philosophical che-
mist,  in making the add of commerce, will doubtless
prefer glass.   Five parts by weight of strong sulphuric
acid are to be added to six of decrepitated sea salt, in a
retort, the upper part of which is furnished with a tube
or neck, through which the acid is to be poured upon
the salt. The aperture  of this  tube must be closed
with a ground stopped immediately after the pouring.
The sulphuric acid immediately combines with the al-
kali, and expels the muriatic acid in the form of a pe-
culiar air, which is  rapidly absorbed by water.   As
this combination and disengagement take place with-
out the application of heat, and the aSrial fluid escapes
very rapidly, it is necessary to arrange and lute the ves-
sels together before the sulphuric  acid is added, and not
to make any fire in the furnace until the disengagement
begins to slacken;  at which time it must be very gra-
dually raised.  Before the modern improvements in
chemistry were made, a great part of the acid escaped
for want of water to combine with; but by the use of
Wolfe's apparatus the  acid air is made to pass through
water, in which it is nearly condensed, and forms mu-
riatic acid  of double the weight of the  water, though
the bulk of this fluid is increased one-half only.  The
acid condensed in the first receiver, which contains no
water, is of a yellow colour, arising from the impuri-
ties of the salt.
  The marine acia in commerce has a straw colour:
but this is owing to accidental impurity;  for it does not
obtain in the acid produced by the  impregnation of
water with the aeriform acid.
  The muriatic acid is one of those longest known, and
come of its compounds  are  among  those salts with
which we are most familiar.
  The muriates, when in a state of dryness, are actu-
ally chlorides, consisting of chlorine and the metal;
yet they may be conveniently treated of  under the title
muriates.
  The muriate of barytes crystallizes in tables bevelled
at the edges, or in octahedral pyramids applied base to
base.  It is soluble in five parts of water at 60°, in still
less at a boiling heat, and also in alkohol. It is not al-
tered in the air, and but partly decomposable by heat.
The sulphuric acid separates its base; and the alkaline
carbonates and sulphates decompose it  by double affi-
nity.   It is best prepared by dissolving the carbonate in
dilute muriatic acid ;  and if contaminated with iron
or lead, which occasionally happens, these may be se-
parated by the addition  of a small quantity of liquid
ammonia, or by boiling and stirring the solution with a
little  barytes.  Goettling recommends  to prepare it
from the sulphate of barytes; eight parts of which, in
fine powder, are to be mixed with two  of muriate of
soda, and one of charcoal powder.   This is to be
pressed hard into a  Hessian crucible, and exposed for
in hour and a half to a red heat in a wind furnace.
The  cold mass, being  powdered, is to be boiled a mi-
nute  or two in sixteen parts of water, and then filtered.
To this liquor muriatic acid is to be added by little and
little, till sulphuretted  hydrogen  ceases  to be evolved.
It is  then to be filtered, a little hot water to be poured
on the residuum, the liquor evaporated to a pellicle,
filtered again, and then set to crystallize. As the mu-
riate of soda is much more soluble than the muriate of
barytes, and does not separate by cooling, the muriate
of barytes will crystallize into  a perfectly white salt,
and leave the muriate of soda in the  mother water,
which may be evaporated repeatedly till no more mu-
riate of barytes is obtained.  This salt was first em-
ployed in medicine by Dr. Crawford, chiefly in scrofu-
lous complaints and cancer, beginning with doses of a
few drops  of the saturated solution twice a day, and
increasing it  gradually,  as far as forty or fifty drops in
some instances.  In large doses  it excites nausea, and
has deleterious effects.   Fourcroy  says it  has been
found verv successful in scrofula in France.  It has
likewise been recommended as a vermifuge; and :t has
been given with much  apparent advantage even to very
young children where the usual symptoms of worms
occurred, though  none were ascertained to be present
As a test of sulphuric acid it is of great use.
  The muriate of potassa, formerly known by  the
names of febrifuge salt of Sylvius, digestive salt, and
regenerated sea salt, crystallizes in regular cubes, or in
rectangular parallelopipedons;  decrepitating on  the
fire, without losing much of their acid, and acquiring a
little moisture from damp air, and giving it out again in
dry.   Their taste  is saline and bitter.  They are solu-
ble in thrice their weight of cold water, and in but little
less of boiling water, so as to require  spontaneous
evaporation for crystallizing. Fourcroy recqmmends,
to cover the vessel with gauze, and suspend hairs in it,
for the purpose of obtaining regular crystals.
  It  is sometimes prepared in decomposing sea salt by
common potassa  for the purpose  of obtaining  soda;
and  may be  formed by the direct combination of its
constituent parts.
  It is decomposable by the sulphuric and nitric acids.
Barytes decomposes it,  though not completely;  and,
both silex  and alumina decomposed it partially in the
dry way.  It  decomposes the earthy nitrates, so that it
might be used in saltpetre manufactories lo decompose
the nitrate of lime.
  Muriate of soda or common salt, is of considerable
use in the arts, as well as a necessary ingredient in our
food.  It crystallizes in  cubes, which are sometimes
grouped together in various ways, and not unfrequently
form hollow quadrangular pyramids.   In the fire it de-
crepitates, melts,  and is at length volatilized.  When
pure, it is not deliquescent.  One part is  soluble in 2£
of cold water, and in little less of hot, so that it cannot
be crystallized but by evaporation.
  Common salt is found in large masses, or in rocks
under  the earth,  in England and elsewhere.  In the
solid form  it  is called sal gem, or  rock salt.  If it be
pure and transparent, it  may be immediately used in
the stale in which it is found; but if it contain any im-
pure earthy particles, it should be previously freed from
them.  In some countries it is found in incredible quan-
tities, and  dug up like metals from the bowels of the
earth.   In this manner bas this salt been dug out of tbe
celebrated  salt mines near Bochnia and Wieliczka, in
Poland, ever since the middle of the 13th century, con-
sequently above these 500 years, in such amazing quan-
tities, that sometimes there have been 20,000 tons ready
for sale. In these mines, which are said to reach to
the  deplh  of several hundred fathoms,  500 men are
constantly  employed. The pure and transparent salt
needs no other preparation than to be beaten to small
pieces or ground in a mill.  But that which Is more im-
pure must be elutriated, purified, and boiled.  That
which is quite impure, and full of  small stones, is sold
under the name of rock salt, and is applied to ordinary
uses.  It may likewise be used for strengthening weak
and poor briiie-springs.
  The waters of  the ocean every where  abound with
common salt, though in different  proportions.    The
water of the  Baltic sea is said to contain one sixty-
fourth of its weight of salt; that  of the sea between
England and Flanders contains one thirty-second part;
lhat on the coast of Spain one-sixteenth part;  and
between the tropics it is  said, erroneously, to contain
from an eleventh to an eighth part.
  The water of the sea contains, besides the common
salt, a considerable proportion of muriate of magnesia,
and some sulphate of lime, of soda, and potassa.   The
former is the chief ingredient of the remaining liquid
which is left after the extraction of the common  salt,
and is called  the mother water.   Sea water, if taken
up near  the surface, contains also the putrid remains
of animal  substances, which render  it nauseous,  and
in a long-continued calm cause the sea to stink.
  The whole art of extracting salt  from waters which
contain  it, consists  in evaporating the water in the
cheapest and most convenient manner. In England, a
brine composed of sea-water, with the addition of rock
salt, is evaporated in large shallow iron boilers; and the
crystals  of salt are taken out in baskets.  In Russia,
and probably in other northern countries, the sea-wa
ter is exposed to freeze; and the ice, which is almost
entirely fresh, being taken out, the remaining brine  is
much  stronger, and is evaporated by boiling.   In the
southern parts of Europe, the salt-makers take advan
rage of spontaneous evaporation.  A flat  piece  of
ground near the  sea is chosen, and banked round, to
prevent its being overflowed at high water.  The space 
MUR
MLR
 within the banks is divided by low walls Into several
 compartments, which successively communicate with
 each other.  At flood tide, the first of these is filled
 with sea-water, which, by remaining a certain time,
 deposites its impurities, and loses part of its aqueous
 fluid.  Tbe residue is then suffered to run into the next
 compartment, and the former is again rilled as before.
 From  the second compartment, orter a due time, the
 water is transferred into a third, which is lined with
 clay, well  rammed and levelled.  At this  period, the
 evaporation is usually brought to that  degree, that a
 crust of salt is  formed on  the surface of the water,
 which tlie workmen break, and it  immediately falls io
 the bottom.  They continue to  do this until the quan-
 tity  is sufficient to be raked out, and dried In heaps.
 This is called bay salt.
   Besides its use in seasoning our food, and preserving
 meat both for domestic consumption and during the
 longest voyages, and in furnishing us with the muriatic
 acid and soda, salt forms a glaze for coarse pottery, by
 being thrown  inlo the oven where it is  baked; it im-
 proves the whiteness and clearness of glass;  it  gives
 greater hardness to soap; in melting metals it preserves
 their surface from calcination, by defending them from
 the air, and is employed with advantage in some as-
 says ; it is used as a mordant, and for improving certain
 colours, and enters more or less into many  other pro-
 cesses of the arts.
  The muriate of strontian has not long been known.
 Dr. Hope first distinguished it from muriate of barytes.
 It crystallizes  in very slender hexagonal prisms; has
 a  cool pungent   taste, without the austerity  of the
 muriate of barytes, or the  biiterness of the muriate of
 lime; is soluble in 0.75° of water at 60°, and to almost
 any amount in  boiling water;  is likewise  soluble in
 alkohol, and gives a blood-red colour to its flame.
  It has never been found in nature, but may be pre-
 pared in the same way as the muriate of barytes.
  The  muriate of lime has been known  by the names
 of marine selenite, calcareous marine salt, muria, and
 fixed sal ammoniac.  It  crystallizes in hexahedral
 prisms terminated by acute  pyramids.   Its taste is
 acrid, bitter, and very disagreeable. It is soluble  in
 half its weight of cold water, and by heat in its own
 water of crystallization.  It is  one of the most  deli-
 quescent salts known;  and, when  deliquesced, has
 been called oil  of lime.  It exists in nature, but neither
 very abundantly nor  very pure.  It  is formed in  che-
 mical lalioratories, in the decomposition of muriate of
 ammonia;  and Homberg found, that if it were urged
 by a violent heat till  it condensed, on cooling  into a
 vitreous mass,  it emitted a phosphoric light upon being
 struck by any hard body, iu which state  it was called
 Homberg's phosphorus.
  Hitherto it has been little used except for frigorific
 mixtures; and with snow it produces  a very great
 degree of cold.  Fourcroy, indeed, says  he has found
 il of great utility in obstructions of the lymphatics, and
 in scrofulous affections.
  The muriate of ammonia has long been known by
 the name of sal ammonia, or ammoniac.  It Is found
 native in the neighbourhood of  volcanoes, where it is
 sublimed sometimes nearly pure, and in different parts
 of Asia and Africa.  A great deal is carried annually
 to Russia and Siberia from  Bucharian Tartary ; and
 we formerly imported large quantities from Egypt, but
 now manufacture it at home.  See Sal Ammoniac.
  The  salt is  usually in the form of cakes, with a
 convex surface on one side, and  concave on the other,
 from being sublimed into large globular vessels;  but by
 solution it  may be obtained in  regular quadrangular
crystals.   It is  remarkable  for possessing  a certain
 degree of ductility, so that it is  not  easily pulverable.
Its is soluble in 3£ parts of water at 60°, and in little
more than its own weight of boiling water.  Its taste is
cool, acrid, and bitterish.  Its specific gravity is 1.42.
It attracts moisture from the air  but very slightly.
  Muriate of ammonia has  been more  employed in
medicine than it  is at present. It is sometimes  useful
as an auxiliary to the bark in intermittents;  in gargles
it is beneficial, and externally it is a good discutient.
In dying, it improves or heightens  different colours.
In tinning and soldering, it is employed to preserve the
surface of the metals from oxidation.  In assaying, it
discovers iron, and separates l from some of its com-
 binations.
  Tiie muriate of magnesia is extremely  deliquescent,
 soluble in an equal weight of water, nnd difficultly
 crystallizable. It dissolves also in live parts of alkohol.
 It is decomposable by heat, which expels its acid   lis
 taste is intensely bitter.
   With ammonia this muriate forms a triple salt, crys-
 tallizable In little polyhedrons, which separate quickly
 from the water, but are not very regularly formed.   Ita
 taste partakes of that  of both the precetJtaf salts.
 The best mode of preparing it is by mixiBg a solution of
 87 parts of muriate ol ammonia with a solution of 73 of
 muriate of magnesia; but it may be formed by a semi-
 decomposition of either of these  muriates  by tlie Uasn
 of the other,  it  is deconi iiosable by heat, and requires
 six or seven times its weight of water to dissolve il.
   Of the murtute  of glucine  we know  but little,  i.
 appears to crystallize in  very small crystals ; to be de-
 composable by heat; and, dissolved in alkohol and di-
 luted with water, to form a pleasant saccharine liquor
   Muriate of alumina is scarcely crystallizable, ns  on
 evaporation it assumes the state of a thick jelly.  I.
 has an  acid, slyptic, acrid  taste.  It is extremely solu-
 ble  in  water, and  deliquescent.  Fire decomposes  ii
 It may be prepared by directly combining the muriatic
 acid with  alumina; but the acid always remains  iu
 excess.
   The  muriate of zircon crystallizes  in small needles
 which are very soluble, attract moisture, and lose thcii
 transparency in the air.  It has an austere taste, with
 somewhat of acrimony.  It Is decomposable by heal.
 The gallic acid precipitates from  its solution, if it  be
 free from iron, a white powder.  Carbonate of ammo-
 nia, if added  in  excess,  redissolves the  precipilate it
 had before thrown down.
   Muriate of yttria. does not crystallize when evapo-
 rated, but  forms a jelly.  It dries with difficulty, and
 deliquesces.
   Fourcroy observes, that when  silicious stones, pre-
 viously fused with potassa, are treated with muriatic
 acid, a limpid solution is formed, which may be reduced
 to a transparent jelfy by  slow evaporation.   But  a
 boiling  heat decomposes the silicious muriate, and the
 earth is deposited.  Tbe solution is always acid."
  This acid possesses active tonic powers.  In typhus,
 or nervous fevers, although employed on the continent
 with success, it has not  proved so beneficial in this
 country; and when freely used it is apt to determine to
 the bowels.  Externally, the  muriatic acid has been
 applied  in the form of a bath, to the feet, in gout. In
 a late publication, there are accounts of its  successful
 application as a lithontriptic.
  Muriatic acid, oxygenized.   This supposed acid
 was lately  described by Thenard.   He saturated  com-
 mon muriatic acid of moderate strength with deutoxide
 of barium, reduced it into a soft  paste by trituration
 with water.  He  then precipitated the barytes  from
 the liquid, by adding the requisite quantity of sulphnric
 acid. He next took his oxygenized muriatic acid, and
 treated  it with deutoxide of  barium and sulphuric acid,
 to oxygenate it anew.  In this way he charged it with
 oxygen  as often  as 15 times.   He thus obtained  a
 liquid acid which  contained 32 times its volume of
 oxygen  at  the temporature of G8° Fahr. and  at the
 ordinary atmospherical pressure, and only 4$ times its
 volume of  muratic acid, which gives about 28 equiva-
 lent primes of oxygen to one of muriatic  acid.
  This  oxygenized  acid leaves no residuum  when
 evaporated.  It is a very acid, colourless liquid, almost
 destitute of smell, and  powerfully  reddens turnsole.
 When boiled for some time, its oxygen is expelled.
  We ought, however, to regard this apparent oxyge-
 nation of the acid  merely as the conversion of a portion
 of its combined water into deutoxide of hydrogen.
  MURICATUS.   Sharp-pointed:  applied to  seeds,
 as those of the Ranunculus  parviflorus and  Sida
 ciliaris.
  MURRAY, Jonii Andrew, was born at Stockholm,
of a Scotch family, in 1740.  At 16 he was s-ent to
 Upsal, and  had the benefit of the instructions of Lin-
naeus, for whom he ever after entertained the highest
esteem.   In 1759  he took a journey through the
southern provinces of Sweden, and thence to Copen-
hagen ;  and in the following year he went to Goitingen,
where his  brother was professor  of philosopl.y.  In
1763 he took his degree of doctor in medicine, and by
a special license  from the  Hanoverian government,
gave lectures in botany: and in the following spring
he was appointed  extraordinary professor  of medicine 
MUS
MUS
In that university.   From  this period bis reputation
rapidly extended; he was elected a member in the
course of a few years of most of the learned societies
in Europe.  In 1769 he succeeded to the actual profes-
sorship of medicine, and  was  made doctor of the
botanic garden.   He was  still farther honoured by
receiving the title of  the Ordor of Vasa from the King
of Sweden in 1780: and two years afterward by being
raised to the rank of privy counsellor by his Britannic
Majesty.  In 1791 he was attacked with a spurious
peripneumony, which shortly terminated his existence.
He was a man of sound judgment, great activity, and
extensive information.  He composed a great  number
of tracts on various subjects in botany, natural history,
medicine,  pharmacy, and  medical literature.   His
principal work, which occupied a large poruoa of his
time and attention, was on the Materia Medica, under
the title of "Apparatus Medicaminum," iu six octavo
volumes:  indeed, he was employed in correcting the
last for the  press the day  before his death.   In the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Gottingen, there
are many valuable papers  by him, chiefly botanical;
and his descriptions  are deemed models of elegance
and accuracy.
  MU'SA.   (This word is corrupted, or rather refined,
from Mauz, the Egyptian  appellation of this valuable
plant; and is made classical m the works of Linnaeus,
by an allusion to Musa, a  muse; or, with much greater
propriety, to Antonius Musa, tlie physician of Augus-
tus, who, having written  on some botanical subjects,
may justly be commemorated  in  the  above name.)
The name of a  genus  of plants.  Class,  Polygamia;
Order, Moncecia.  Tbe plantain and badana-tree.
  Musa paradisiaca.  Musa; Palma humilis; Ficus
Indica; Bala;   Platanus.  The  plantain-tree.   It
grows spontaneously in many parts of India,  but has
been  immemorially cultivated by the Indians in every
 Karl of the continent  of South America.   It is an
 erbaceous tree, growing to the height of fifteen  or
twenty feet.   The fruit  are nearly of  the size and
shape of ordinary cucumbers, and when ripe, of a pale
yellow colour, of a mealy substance, a little clammy,
with a sweetish  taste, and will dissolve in the mouth
without chewing.  The  whole  spike of fruit often
weighs forty or fifty pounds.  When they are brought
to table by way of dessert, they are either raw, fried,
or roasted;  but, if intended for biead,  they are cut
before they are  ripe, and are  then either roasted  or
boiled. The trees being  tall and slender, the Indians
cut them down to get at the fruil; and in doing this
they suffer no loss, for the stems aie only one year's
growth, and would die if not cut; but the roots con-
tinue, and new stems soon  spring up, which in a year
produce ripe fruit also.  From the ripe plantains they
make a liquor called  mistaw.  When they make this,
tbey  roast the fruit  in their husks, and, after totally
beating them  to a mash,  they pour water upon them,
and, as the liquor is wanted, it is drawn off.  But the
nature of  this fruit is such, that tbey will noi keep long
without running into  a state of putrefaction; and
therefore, in order to reap the advantage of them at
all times, they make cakes of the pulp, and  dry them
over  a slow fire, and, as they stand in need of mistaw,
they  mash the  cakes  in water, and they answer  all
the purposes of  fresh fruit.  These cakes are exceed-
ingly convenient to make this liquor in their journeys,
and they never fail to carry  them for that  purpose.
The  leaves of the tree being large and spacious, serve
the Indians for tablecloths and napkins.
   Musa sapientum.  The systematic  name of the
banana-tree.—Banana, Bananeira; Ficoides; Ficus
indica; Musa frudu cucumerino breviori;  Senoria;
Pacaira.  This  and the plantain-tree are among the
most important productions ofthe earth.   The banana-
tree is cultivated, on  a very extensive scale, in Jamaica;
without the fruit of which, Dr. Wright says, the island
would scarcely be habitable, as no species of provision
would supply their place.  Even flour, or bread itself,
would be  less agreeable, and less able to support the
laborious negro, so as to enable him to do his business,
 or to keep  in health.  Plantains also fatten horses,
 cattle, swine, dogs, fowls, and other domestic animals.
 The  leaves, being smooth and  soft, are employed as
 dre«sings after blisters.   The water from the soft trunk
 Is astringent, and employed by some to check diar.
 rhocas.  Every other part of the tree is useful in dif-
 ferent parts of rural  economy.  The leaves are used as
napkins and tablecloths, and are food for hogs.  Tbe
second sort, musa  sapientum, or banana-tree, differs
from tbe paradisiaca, in having its stalks marked with
dark purple stripes and spots.  The fruit is shorter,
straighter, and  rounder;  the pulp is softer, and of a
more luscious taste. It is never eaten green ; but when
ripe, it is very agreeable, either eaten raw or fried in
slices, as fritters, and is relished by all ranks of people
in the West Indies.  Both the above plants were car-
ried to  the West  Indies from  the  Canary Islands;
whither, it'is believed, tbey had  been brought  from
Guinea, where they grow naturally.
  Musadi.  Sal ammoniac.
  MUSCI'PULA.   (From mus, a mouse, and capio, to
take, being originally  applied to a mousetrap; after-
ward  to a plant; so called from its viscidity, by which
flies are caught as with birdlime.)  A species of lychnis.
  MUSCLE. Musculus.  The parts that are usually
included under this name consist of distinct portions
of flesh, susceptible of contraction and relaxation; the
motions of which, in  a natural and  healthy state, are
subject to the will, and for this reason they are called
voluntary muscles.  Besides these, there are other parts
of the body that owe their power of contraction to their
muscular fibres: thus the heart is  a  muscular texture,
forming what is called a hollow muscle; and the urinary
bladder, stomach,  intestines, Sec. are enabled to act
upon their contents, merely because  tbey are provided
with  muscular fibres; these are  called involuntary
muscles, because their motions are  not dependent on
the will.  The muscles of respiration being in  some
measure influenced by the will, are said to  have a
mixed  motion.   The  names by which the voluntary
muscles are distinguished, are founded on their size,
figure, situation, use, or the arrangement of their fibres,
or their origin and insertion; but, besides these parti-
cular distinctions, there are  certain general  ones that
require to be noticed.   Thus, if the fibres of s muscle
are placed parallel to each other, in a straight direc-
tion, they  form what anatomists term  a rectilinear
muscle; if the  fibres cross and intersect each other,
tbey constitute  a compound muscle; when  the  fibres
are disposed in  the manner of rays, a radiated muscle;
when they are placed obliquely with respect to the
tendon, like tlie plume of a pen, a penniform muscle.
Muscles that act in opposition to each other are called
antagonists; thus every extensor  has a  flexor for his
antagonist, and vice versd.  Muscles that concur in the
same  action are termed congeneres.  The muscle being
attached to the  bones, the latter may be considered as
levers, that are moved in different  directions by the
contraction of those organs.  That end of the muscle
which adheres to the most  fixed part is usually called
the origin; and that which adheres to the more move-
able part, the  insertion of the  muscle.   In almost
every muscle, two  kinds of fibres are distinguished ;
the one soft, of a red colour, sensible, and irritable,
called fleshy fibres, see Muscular Fibre; the other of
a firmer texture, of a white glistening colour, insensible,
without irritability or the power of contracting, and
named tendinous fibres.  They are occasionally inter-
mixed, but the  fleshy fibres generally prevail in  the
belly, or middle part of the muscle, and the tendinous
ones  in the extremities.  If these tendinous fibres are
formed into a round slender cord,  they form what is
called the tendon ofthe muscle; on  the other hand, if
they are spread into a broad flat surface, it is termed an
aponeurosis.
  Each muscle is surrounded by a very thin and deli-
cate covering of cellular membrane, whicli encloses it as
it were like a sheath, and, dipping down into its sub-
stance, surrounds the most minute  fibres we are able
to trace, connecting them  to each  other, lubricating
them by means of the fat which its cells contain in
mure or less quantity in different subjects, and serving
as  a support  to  the  blood-vessels, lymphatics, and
nerves which are so plentifully distributed through the
muscles.   This cellular  membrane, which in no re-
spect differs from what is found investing and connect-
ing the other parts of the body, has been sometimes
mistaken for a membrane, peculiar to  tbe muscles;
and hence we  often find  writers giving it tlie name of
membrana propria musculosa.  The muscles owe the
red  colour which  so particularly distinguishes their
belly  part, to an infinite number of arteries, which are
every where dispersed through the whole of their re-
. ticular substance; for their fibres, after having been
                                          Oft 
MUS                                           MUS
macerated to water,  are  (like all other paru of the
body divested of their blood) found to he of a white
colour.  These arteries usually enter the muscles by
aeveral considerable branches, and tamify so minutely
through their substance, thai we are unable, even witft
the best microscopes, to trace their ultimate branches.
jtuysch fancied that the muscular fibre was hollow,
and a production of  a capillary artery; but this was
merely conjectural.  The veins, for the most part, ac-
company the arteries,  but  are found to be larger and
more  numerous.  The lymphatics, likewise, are nu-
merous, as might be expected from the great propor-
 ion of reticular substance, which is every where found
investing  tbe muscular fibres.  The nerves are dis-
 ributed in such abundance  to every muscle, that the
muscles of the thumb alone are supplied with a greater
proportion of nervous influence than  the largest vis-
cera, as the liver for instance.  They enter the gene
rality of muscles by several trunks, the branches of'
which, like those of the blood-vessels, are so minutely
dispersed  through  the cellular substance,  that their
number and minuteness soon elude the eye, and the
knife ofthe anatomist.  This has given rise to a con-
jecture, as groundless as all  the other conjectures on
this subject, that the muscular  fibre is ultimately ner-
vous.

  A table of the Muscles.—The generality of anatomi-
cal writers have arranged  muscles according to their
several uses;  but this method is evidently defective, as
the same muscle may very often have different and
opposite uses. The method  here adopted is that more
usually followed at  present; they are enumerated in
the order in which they are  situated,  beginning with
those that are placed nearest the integuments, and pro-
ceeding from  these to the muscles that are more deeply
seated.
  [The reader will observe, that all the muscles are in
pairs, except those marked thus.*]

    Muscles of the integuments of the cranium :
    1. Occipito frontalis.*
    2. Corrugator supercilii.
              Muscles of  the eyelids :
    3. Orbicularis palpebrarum.
    4. Levator palpebra superioris.
              Muscles of  tlie eyeball:
    5. Rectus superior.
    6. Rectus inferior.
    7. Rectus internus
    8. Rectus externus.
    9. Obit quits superior.
   10. Obliquus inferior.
           Muscles of the nose and mouth:
   11. Levator palpebra superioris alaque nasi.
   12. Levator labii superioris proprius.
   13. Levator anguli oris.
   14. Zygomaticus major.
   15. Zygomaticus minor.
   16. Buccinator.
   17. Depressor anguli oris.
   18. Depressor labii inferioris.
   19. Orbicularis oris.*
   20. Depressor labii superioris alaque nasi.
   21. Constrictor nasi.
   22. Levator menti vel labii inferioris.
            Muscles of the external ear:
   23. Superior auris.
   24. Anterior auris.
   25. Posterior auris.
   26. Hdicis major.
   27. Hdicis minor.
   28.  Tragicus.
   29. Antitragicus.
   30.  Transversus auris.
            Muscles ofthe internal ear:
   31. Laxator tympani.
   32. Membrana tympani.
   33. Tensor tympani.
   34. Stapedius.
             Muscles of the lower jaw i
   35. Tempo- alls.
   36. Masseter.
   37. Pterygoidcus externus.
   38. Pterygoidcus internus.
    Muscles about tbe anterior part ofthe neck:
   39. Platysma myoides.
   40. Sterns-eUidomastoideus.
      90
   Muscles between the lower jaw and os hyoides i
   41. Digastricus.
   42. Mylo-hyoideus.
   43  Genio-hyoideus.
   44. Genio-glossus.
   45. Hyo-gU'ssus.
   46. Lingualis.
 Muscles situated between the.os hyoides and trunk;
   47. Sterno-hyoideus.
   48. Crico-hyoideus.
   49. Sterno-thyroideus.
   50. Thyro-hyoideus.
   51. Crico-thyroideus.
Muscles between the lower jaw and os hyoides laterally i
   52. Stylo-glossus.
   53. Stylo-hyoideus.
   54. Stylo-pharyngeus.
   55. Circumflexus.
   56. Levator palati mollis.
       Muscles about the entry ofthe fauces:
   57. Constrictor isthmi faucium.
   58.  Palatopharyngeus.
   59. Azygos uvula.*
Muscles situated on the posterior part of the pharynx:
   60. Constrictor pharyngis superior.
   61.  Constrictor pharyngis mediiu.
   62.  Constrictor pharyngis inferior.
         Muscles situated about the glottis i
   63. Crico-arytanoideus posticus.
   64. Crico-arytanoideus lateralis.
   65.  Thyro-arytanoideus.
   66. Arytanoideus obliquus.*
   67. Arytanoideus transversus.*
   68. Thyro-epiglottideus.
   69. Arytano-epiglottideus.
Muscles situated about the anterior part ofthe abdomeni
   70. Obliquus descendens externus.
   71. Obliquus ascendens internus.
   72. Transversalis abdominis
   73.  Rectus abdominis.
   71.  Pyramidalis.
    Muscles about the male organs of generation:
   75.  Dartos.*
   76. Cremaster.
   77. Erector penis.
   78. Accelerator urina.
   79. Transversus perinei.
               Muscles of the anus.
   80. Sphincter ani.*
   81. Levator ani.*
     Muscles of the female organs of generation:
   82. Erector clitoridis.
   83. Sphincter vagina.
         Muscles situated within the pelvis:
   84. Obturator internus.
   85. Coccygeus.
 Muscles situated within the cavity of the abdomen:
   86. Diaphragma.*
   87. Quadratus lumborum.
   88. Psoas parvus.
   89. Psoas magnus.
   90. Iliacus internus.
 Muscles situated on the anterior part ofthe thorax:
   91. Pectoralis major.
   92. Subclavius.
   93. Pectoralis minor.
   94. Serratus major anticus.
Muscles situated  between the ribs,  and within the
                     thorax:
   95. Intercostales externi.
   96. Intercostales interni.
   97. Triangularis.
Muscles situated on the anterior part of the neck, close
                  to the vertebral:
   98.  Longus colli.
   99.  Rectus internus capitis major.
  100. Rectus capitis internus minor.
  101.  Rectus capitis lateralis.
 Muscles situated on the posterior part ofthe trunk -
  102.  Trapezius.
  103.  Latissimus dorsi.
  104.  Serratus posticus inferior.
  105.  Rhomboideus.
  106.  Splenius.
  107.  Serratus superior posticus.
  108.  Spinalis dorsi.
  109.  Levatores costarum. 
MUS
MUS
110. Sacro lumbalis.
111. Longissmus dorsi.
112. Complexus.
113. Trachdo mastoideus.
114. Levator scapula.
115. Semi-spinalis dorsi.
116. Multifldus spina.
117. Semi-spinalis colli.
118. Transversalis colli.
119. Rectus capitis posticus minor.
120. Obliquus capitis superior.
121. Obliquus capitis inferior.
122. Scalenus.
123. Interspinales.
124. Intertransversales.
       Muscles ofthe superior extremities:
125. Supra-spinatus.
126. Jn/ra spinatus.
127. Tares miner.                 •
128. Teres major.
129. Ddloides.
130. Coracobrachialis.
131. Subscapularis.
       Muscles situated on the os humeri:
132. Biceps flexor cubiti.
133. Brachialis internus.
134. Biceps extensor cubiti.
135. Anconeus.
        Muscles situated on the forearm:
136. Supinator radii longus.
137. Extensor carpi radialis longior.
138. Extensor carpi radialis brevior.
139. Extensor digitorum communis.
140. Extensor minimi digiti.
141. Extensor carpi ulnaris.
142. Flexor carpi ulnaris.
143. Palmaris longus.
144. Flexor carpi radialis.
145. Pronator radii teres.
146. Supinator radii brevis.
147. Extensor osds metacarpi pollicis manus.
148. .Eztensor primi internodii.
149. Extensor secundi internodii.
150. Indicator.
151. Flexor digitorum sublimis.
152. Flexor digitorum profundus.
153. Flexor longus pollicis.
154. Pronator radii quadratus.
       Muscles situated chiefly on the hand:
155. Lumbricales^
156. Flexor brevis pollicis manus.
157. Opponens pollicis.
158. Abductor pollicis manus.
159. Adductor pollicis manus.
160. Abductor indicis manus.
161. Palmaris brevis.
162. Abductor minimi digiti manus.
163. Abductor minimi digiti.
164. Flexor parvus minimi digiti.
165. Interossei interni.
 166. Interossei externi.
       Muscles of the inferior extremities:
 167. Pedinalis.
 168.  Triceps adductor femoris.
 169.  Obdurator externus.
 170.  Gluteus maximus.
 171. Gluteus minimus.
 172.  Gluteus medius.
 173. Pyriformis.
 174. Gemini.
 175. Qttodratus/emori*.
          Muscles situated on the thigh:
 176. Tensor vagina femoris.
 177. Sartorius.
 178. Rectus femoris.
 179. Vastus externus.
 180. Vastus internus.
 181. Cruralis.
 182. Semi-tendinosus.
 183. Semi-membranosus.
 184. Biceps flexor cruris.
 185. Popliteus.
            Muscles situated on the lee:
 186. Gastrocnemius externus.
 187. Gastrocnemius internut.
 188. Plantaris.
 189  Tibialis anticus.
  190.  Tibialis posticus.
  191.  Peroneus longus.
  192.  Peroneus brevis.
  193.  Extensor longus digitorum pedis.
  194.  JEztensor proprius pollicis pedis.
  195.  Flexor longus digitorum pedis.
  196.  Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
        Muscles chiefly situated on the foot:
  197.  Extensor brevis digitorum pedis.
  198.  Flexor brevis digitorum pedis.
  199.  Lumbricales pedis.
  200.  Flexor brevis pollicis pedis.
  201.  Abductor pollicis pedis.
  202.  Adductor pollicis pedis.
  203.  Abductor minimi digiti pedis.
  204.  Flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis.
  205.  TransttersaZes pedis.
  206.  Interossei pedis externi.
  207.  Interossd pedis interni.
  MUSCULAR. (Muscularis; from musculus, a mug
cle.)  Belonging to a muscle.
  Muscular fibre.  The fibres that compose the
body of a muscle are disposed in fasciculi, or bundles,
which are easily distinguishable by the naked eye; bu
these fasciculi are divisible into still smaller ones; and
these  again are probably subdivisible ad  in/inituni.
The most minute fibre we are able to trace seems to be
somewhat plaited; these plaits disappearing when the
fibre is put upon  the stretch, seem evidently to be the
effect of contraction, and have probably induced some
writers to assert, that the  muscular fibre  is twisted or
spiral. Various have been the opinions concerning the
structure of these fibres, their form, size, position, and
the nature of  the atoms which compose  them.  A
fibre  is essentially composed of fibrine and ozma-
zome, receives a  great deal of blood, and, at last, one
nervous filament.  The other suppositions  arc all of
them founded only on conjecture, and therefore  we
shall  mention only the principal ones, and this witb a
view rather to gratify the curiosity ofthe  reader, than
to afford him information. Borelli supposes them to be
so many hollow  cylinders, filled with a spongy me-
dullary substance, which he compares to the pith of
elder, spongiosa ad instar sambuci.  These cylinders,
he contends, are intersected  by circular fibres, which
form  a chain of  very minute bladders.  This  hypo-
thesis  has  since been adopted by a great number of
writers, with certain variations. Thus, for instance,
Bellini supposes  the vesicles to be of a rhomboidal
shape; whereas Bemouilli contends that they are oval.
Cowper went so far as to persuade himself that he had
filled these cells  witb mercury; a mistake, no doubt,
which arose from its insinuating itself >nto some of the
lymphatics.  It is  observable, however, that Leeu-
whenoeck says nothing of any such vesicles.   Here, as
well as in many other of her works, Nature seems to
have drawn a boundary to our inquiries, beyond which
no human penetration will probably ever extend.  By
chemical analysis muscle is found to consist chiefly of
fibrine, with albumen, gelatine, extractive, phosphate
of soda, phosphate of ammonia, phosphate and carbo-
nate of lime, and  sulphate of potassa.
   Muscular motion.  Muscular motions are of three
kinds: namely, voluntary, involuntary,  and  mixed.
The voluntary motions of muscles are such as proceed
from an immediate exertion ofthe active powers of the
will: thus the mind directs the arm to be  raised or de-
pressed, the knee to be bent, the tongue to  move, &c.
The involuntary motions of muscles are  those wbich
are performed by organs, seemingly of their own ac-
cord, without any attention of the mind, or  conscious-
ness of its active power: as the contraction and dilata-
tion of the heart, arteries, veins, aDsorbeuts, stomach,
intestines, &c.  The mixed motions are  those which
are in part  under the control of the will, but wbich
ordinarily act without our being conscious of their act-
ing;  and is perceived in the muscles of respiration, the
intercostals, the abdominal muscles, and the diaphragm.
   When a muscle acts, it becomes shorter and thicker;
both its origin and insertion  are drawn towards its
middle.  The sphincter muscles are always in action:
 and so likewise  are antagonist muscles, even when
they seem at  rest.  When two antagonist  muscles
 move with equal force, the part which  they are de-
signed to move remains at rest; but if one of the an-
 tagonist muscles remains at rest, while the other acts,
 the nan is moved towards tlie centre of motion- 
MUS
MUS
   When a muscle is divided, it contracts.  If a muscle
 be stretched to a certain extent, it contracts, and en-
 deavours to acquire its former dimensions, as soon as
 Jie stretching cause ia removed: this takes place in the
 dead body; in muscles cut out of the body, and also in
 parts not muscular, and is called  by the  immortal
 Haller vis  mortua, and by some vis elastica.  It is
 greater in living than in dead bodies, and is called the
 tone, of the muscles.
   When a  muscle is wounded, or otherwise irritated,
 il contracts independent of the will: this  power is
 called  irritability, aud by  Haller vis insita; it is a
 property peculiar  to, and  inherent in, the  muscles.
 The parts of our body which possess this property are
 called  irritable, as the heart, arteries, muscles, Sec to
 distinguish them from those parts which have no mus-
 cular fibres. With regard to the degree of this pro-
 perty,  peculiar  to various ports, the heart is the most
 iritable,  then  the  stomach  and intestines;  the dia-
 phragm, the arteries, veins, absorbents, and  at length
 the various muscles follow; but the degree of irritabi-
 lity depends upon tbe age, sex, temperament, mode of
 living, climate, stale of health, idiosyncrasy, and like-
 wise upon the nature of the stimulus.
   When a muscle is stimulated, either through the
 medium of the will or any foreign body, it contracts,
 and its contraction is greater or less, in  proportion as
 the stimulus applied is greater or  less. The contrac-
 tion of muscles is different according to the purpose to
 be served  by their contraction: thus, the heart con-
 tracts  with a jerk; the urinary  bladder, slowly and
 uniformly; puncture a muscle, and its fibres vibrate;
 and the abdominal muscles act slowly in expelling the
 contents of the rectum. Relaxation generally succeeds
 the contraction  of muscles, and alternates with it.
   " Muscular contraction, such as lakes place in the
 ordinary state of life, supposes the free exercise of the
 brain, of the nerves which enter the muscles, and of
 the muscles themselves   Every one  of these organs
 ought to  receive arterial blood, and the venous blood
 ought not to remain too long in its tissue.  If one of
 these conditions is wanting, the muscular contraction
 is weakened, injured, or rendered impossible.
   Phenomena  of Muscular  Contraction.—When a
 muscle contracts, its fibres shorten, become hard, with
 more or less rapidity, wilhout any preparatory oscilla-
 tion or hesitation; they acquire all at once such an
 elasticity, that they are capable of vibrating, or pro-
 ducing sounds.   The colour of the muscle  does not
 appear to change in the instantof contraction;  but there
 is a certain tendency to become displaced, which the
 aponeuroses oppose.
  There  have  been  discussions  about the size of a
 muscle, in its contracted and relaxed state: the ques-
 tion does not seem to be resolved, in which of these
 states it  is most voluminous; it  is happily of small
 consequence.
  The whole of the sensible phenomena of muscular
 contraction passes  in the muscles; but, to a certainty,
no action can take place without the immediate action
 of the brain and the nerves.
  If the brain of a man, or of an animal, is com-
 pressed, the faculty of contracting the muscles ceases;
 the nerves of a  muscle being cut, it loses all power.
  What change happens in the muscular tissue during
 the state of contraction %   This  is totally unknown.
 In this respect there is no difference between muscular
 contraction and the vital actions, of which no explana-
 tion can  be given.   There  is no want of attempts to
 explain ihe action of the muscles, as well as lhat of
 tlie nerves  and the brain,  in  muscular contraction;
 but none of the proposed hypotheses can be received.
  Instead of following such speculations, which can
be easily invented or refuted, and which ought to be
banished from  physiology, it is necessary to study in
muscular contraction, 1st,  the intensity of  the con-
traction; 2dly,  its  duration; 3dly, its  rapidity; 4thly,
 its extent
  Tbe  intensity of muscular contraction, that is, the
degree  of power with wbich  ihe fibres  draw them-
selves together, is regulated by the action ofthe brain;
it  is generally regulated by tbe will according to cer-
tain limits, which are different in different individuals.
A particular organization of the muscles is favourable
to the intensity of their contraction : this organization
is a considerable volume of fibres, strong, of a deep
red, and striated transversely.  With an equal power
 of the will, these will produce  much more powerfu
 effects than muscles whose fibres are fine, colourless,
 and smooth.  However, should  a very powerful cere-
 bral influence, or a great exertion of the will, be joined
 to such  fibres, the contraction will acquire great in-
 tensity ; so lhat the cerebral  Influence, and the dispo-
 sition of the muscular tissue, are the iwo element* of
 the intensity of muscular contraction.
   A very great cerebral  energy is rarely found united
 in the same individual, with that disposition of the
 muscular fibres which is necessary to produce intense
 contractions; these elements are almost always in an
 inverse  ratio.  When they are  united,  they  produce
 astonishing effects.  Perhaps this union existed in the
 athleta  of antiquity; in our times it is observed in
 certain mountebanks.
   The muscular  power may be carried to a wonderful
 degree by the action of the train alone:  we know the
 strength of an enraged person, of maniacs, and of per
 sons in convulsions.
   The will governs the duration j  the contraction; it
 cannot be carried beyond a certa.n lime, however it
 may vary in different individuals.  A  feeling of weari-
 ness takes place, not  very great at first, but whicli
 goes on  increasing until the muscle  refuses contrac-
 tion.  The quick developement of this painful feeling
 depends  on the intensity of the contraction and the
 weakness of the individual.
   To prevent this inconvenience, the motions of the
 body are so calculated that the muscles act in succes-
 sion, the duration of each being but short: our not be-
 ing able to rest long in  tbe same position is thus ex-
 plained, as an attitude which causes the contraction of
 a small  number of muscles cannot be preserved but
 for a very short time.
   The feeling of fatigue occasioned by muscular con-
 traction soon goes off, and in a short time the muscles
 recover the power of contracting.
   The quickness of the contractions are, to a certain
 degree, subject to cerebral influence: we  have a proof
 of this in our ordinary motions; but  beyond  this de-
 gree, it depends evidently on habit.  In respect of the
 rapidity of motion, there is an immense difference be-
 tween that of a man who touches a piano for the first
 time, and that which the same man produces after
 several years' practice.  There is, besides, a very great
 difference in persons, with regard to the  quickness of
 contractions, either  in ordinary motions or in those
 which depend on habit.
   As to the extent of the contractions, it is directed by
 the will; but it must necessarily depend on the length
 of the fibres, long fibres having a greater extent of con-
 traction than those that are short.
   After what  has been said, we see that the will has
 generally a great  influence on the contraction of mus-
 cles ; it  is not, however, indispensable:  in many cir-
 cumstances motions take place, not only without the
 participation of the will, but even contrary to it; we
 find very striking examples of this in the effects of
 habit, of the passions, and of diseases."
   Muscular powbr.  See hritability.
   MU'SCULUS.   (A diminutive of mus.n mouse;
 from its resemblance to a flayed mouse.)  See Muscle.
   Musculus cutaneus.  See Platysma my aides.
   Musculus  fascije  lat/e.  See  Tensor   vagina
femoris.
   Musculus patientijj.  See Levator scapula. .
   Musculus stapedius.  See Stapedius.
   Musculus supercilii.  See Corrugator eupercilii.
   Musculus tub* Nov*.  See Clrcumflexus.
   MUSCUS.  (Muscus, i. m.; the moss of a tree.)  A
 moss.  A cryptogamous plant, which has  iu fructifica-
 tion contained in  a capsule.                      .
   Mosses are  distinguished, according to the splitting
 of the capsule, into,
   1. Musei frondosi, the capsule of which is opercu-
 lar, having a lid  and the fronds very small.
   2. Musci hepatiri,\\veivnom; the capsules or which
 split into valves, and  the  herbage  is frondose und
 stemless.
   The parts of the capsule of frondose mosses, which
 are distinguished by particular names, are,
   1. The surculus, which bears tlie leaves.
  2. The seta, or fruilstalk, which goes from the sur-
 culus, and supports the theca.
  3. The theca, or capsule; the dry fructification  ad-
 hering to the apex of the frondose stem. 
MUS
MYD
   4. The operculum, or lid, found in the fringe.
   5. The peristoma, peristomium, or fringe, which in
  most mosses borders tbe opening of the theca.
   6. The calyptra, the veil, placed on the capsule like
  an  extinguisher  on a candle; as in Bryum caspi-
  titium.
   7. The perichalium, a slender or squamous mem-
  brane at the base of the fruitstalk.
   8. The fimbria, or fringe, a dentate ring of the oper-
  culum, hy the elastic force of which the operculum is
  displaced.
   9. The epiphragma, a  slender membrane which
  shuts the fringe; as in Polytricum.
   10. The sphrongidium, or columnula; the last co-
  lumn or filament which passes  the middle of the cap-
  sule, and to  which the seeds are attached.
   Mosses are found in the hottest and coldest climates.
  They arc extremely tenacious of life, and, after being
  long dried, easily  recover their health and vigour by
  moisture.  Their  beautiful structure cannot be too
  much admired.  Their species are numerous, and diffi-
  cult to determine.
   MUSCUS.  (From  uocrxps, tender; so called from
 its delicate and tender consistence.)   Moss.
   Muscus arboreus.   See Lichen plicatus.
   Muscus caninus.  See Lichen caninus.
   Muscus clavatcs.   See Lycopodium.
   Muscus cranii humani.  See Lichen jaxatilis.
   Muscus cumatilis.  See Lichen aptlwsus.
   Muscus erectus.  See Lycopodium selago.
   Muscus islandicus.  Iceland moss.  See Lichen
 islandicus.
   Muscus maritimus.  See Corallina,
   Muscus pulmonarius quercinus.   See Lichen
 pulmonarius.
   Muscus pyxidatus.  Cup-moss.   See Lichen pyxi-
 datus.
   Muscus squamosus terrestris.   See  Lycopo-
 dium.
   MUSGRAVE, William, was born in Somerset-
 shire, 1657.   He went to Oxford with the intention of
 studying the law; but he afterward adopted the medical
 profession, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society,
 of which body he was appointed secretary, in 1684.  In
 this capacity  he edited the Philosophical Transactions
 for some time;  be  likewise communicated  several
 papers on anatomical and physiological subjects.  In
 M89 he took  his doctor's degree, and became a Fellow
 of the College of Physicians.  Not long after this he
 settled at Exeter,  where he practised his profession
 with  considerable success for nearly 30 years, and died
 in 1731.  Beyond tbe circle of  his practice, he made
 himself known principally by his two treatises on gout,
 which are valuable works, and were several tunes re-
 printed.  He was also a distinguished antiquary, and
 author of several learned tracts  on tbe subjects of his
 researches in  this way.
  MUSHROOM.   See Agaricus campestris.
  Mu'sia pattrje.  A name for moxa.
  MUSK.  See Moschus.
  Musk, artificial.  Let three fluid drachms and a
 half  of nitric acid  be gradually dropped on one fluid
 drachm of rectified oil of amber,  and well mixed.   Let
 it stand twenty-four hours, then wash it well, first in
 cold,  and  then in  hot  water.   One  drachm of  this
 resinous substance, dissolved in four ounces of rectified
 spirit, forms a good tincture, of which the mean dose
 is twenty minims.  In preparing the above, great atten-
 tion should be given to the washing the resin, otherwise
 it is offensive to the stomach.
  Musk-cranesbill. See Geranium moschatum.
  Musk-melon,   See Cucumis melo.
  Musk-seed.  See Hibiscus abelmoschus.
  MnsuniTTO.   A  variety of our common gnat, the
 Culex pipens  ot Linmeus, which, in the West Indies,
produce small tumours on whatever part they settle
and bite, attended with so high a degree of itching and
inflammation, that the person  cannot refrain from
scratching; by a frequent repetition of which he  not
uncommonly  occasions them to  ulcerate, particularly
if he is of a robust and full habit.
  MUSSITE.  Diopside.
  MUSSENDA.  (The vernacular name of  the ori-
ginal species, in tbe island of Ceylon, which, though of
barbarous origin, has obtained unusual suffrage.) The
name of a genus of plants.   Class, Pentandria; Order,
Monogynia.
    Mtjssenda pondosa.  Ray attributes a cooling pro-
  perty to an infusion or decoction of this plant, which
  the Indians drink by tlie name of beleson.
    MUST.  The juice of the grape, composed of water,
  sugar, jelly, gluten, and bitartrite of polassa.  By fer-
  mentation  it forms wine.
    MUSTARD.  See Sinapis.
    Mustard, hedge.  See Erysimum alliaria.
    Mustard, mithridrats.  See Thlaspi.
    Mustard, treacle.  See Thlaspi.
    Mustard, yellow. See Sinapis.
    MUTICUS.  (From mutilus, without horns)  Beard-
  less, as applied to the arista or awn of planis.   Gluma
  mutica, beardless husks.  See Gluma.
    MU'TITAS.    (From mutus, dumb.)   Dumbness.
  A genus of disease in the  class Locales, and order,
  Dyscinesia of Cullen, wliich he defines an inability of
  articulation.  He  distinguishes three species, viz.
    1.  Mutitas organica, when the tongue is removed or
  injured.
    2.  Mutitas atonica, arising from an affection of the
  nerves of the organ.
    3.  Mutitas surdorum, depending upon being  born
  deaf, or becoming so in their infantile years.
    MUYS, Wyer-Wili.iam, was born at Steenwyk, in
  1682.  His  father being a physician, he was led to fol-
  low  the same profession, aud at 16 commenced bis
  studies al Leyden, whence  he went to Utrecht, and
  took his degree of doctor in 1701.  He  setlled at first
  in his native town, and afterward removed to Arn-
  heim, where he practised with reputation.   In 1709,
  he was elected to the mathematical chair at Franeker,
  where he subsequently filled also those of medicine,
  chemistry and botany.   Tlie House of Orange after-
  ward retained  him as consulting physician, with a
  considerable salary, which he received to the  end of
  his life in 1744.  He had been five times rector  of the
 university of Franeker,  and was a  member of the
 Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin.   His writings
 were partly medical, partly philosophical.  Of the
 former  kind was  a  dissertation, highly commending
 the use of sal ammoniac in intermittents: also a very
 elaborate investigation  of the structure of muscles,
 comprehending an account of all that had been previ-
 ously discovered on llie subject.
   Mu'za.  See Musa.
   MYACA'NTHA.  (From iiuj, a mouse, and axavBa,
 a thorn: so  called because its prickly leaves are used
 to cover whatever is intended to be  preserved from
 mice.)  See Ruscus.
   Mya'gro. See Myogram.
   Mya'grum.  (From fivta, a fly, and aypcvia, to seize,
 because flies are caught by its viscidity.)  A species of
 wild mustard.
   My'cb.  (From pvia, to wink, shut up, or obstruct.)
 1. A  winking, closing, or obstruction.   An obsolete
 term, formerly applied to the eyes, to ulcers, and to the
 viscera, especially the  spleen, where  it imports ob-
 structions.
   2. In surgery, it is a fungus, such as arises in  ulcers
 and wounds.
   3. Some writers  speak of a yellow vitriol, which is
 called Myce.
   Mychthi'smos.   (From iv^ia, to mutter, or groaa;
 In Hippocrates,  it is a  sort  of sighing, or groaning
 during respiration, while the air is forced out of the
 lungs.
   Mycono'ides.   (From pvien, a noise, and tiSos, a
 likeness.)  Applied to an dicer full of mucus, and which
 upon pressure emits a wheezing sound.
  MY'CTER.  The nose.
  MYCTE'RES.   MvKrnpts-  The nostrils.
  Myde'sis.  (From pvSaia, to abound with moisture;
It imports, in general, a corruption of any part from a
redundant moisture.  But Galen applies it particularly
to the eyelids.
  My'don.   (From pvSaia, to grow putrid.)  Fungus
or putrid flesh in a fistulous ulcer.
  MYDRI'ASIS.   (From uvSaia, to abound in moist
ure: so named because it was thought to originate in
redundant moisture-)  A disease of the iris. Too great
a dilatation of the pupil of the eye, with or without a
defect of vision.  It is known by the pupil always  ap-
pearing of the same latitude or size in the light.  Tha
species of mydriasis are,
  1. Mydriasis amaurotica, which, for the most part,
but not always, accompanies an amaurosis.
                                        93 
MYO
MYR
   2. Mydriasis hydrocephalica, which Owes its origin
  to  a  hydrocephalus internus, or dropsy of the ventri-
  cles of the cerebrum.-   It is  not  uncommon among
  children, and  is the most certain diagnostic of the
  disease.
   3. Mydriasis verminosa, or a dilatation of the pupil
  from saburra and worms in the stomach or small in
  testines.
   4. Mydriasis a synechia, or a dilatation of the pupil,
  with a concretion of the uvea with the capsula of tbe
  crystalline lens.
   5. Mydriasis paralytica, or a dilated pupil, from  a
  paralysis of the orbicular  fibres of the iris: it is ob-
  served in paralytic disorders, and from the application
  of narcotics to the eye.
   6. Mydriasis spasmodica,from a spasm of tho recti-
  lineal fibres of the iris, as often happens in hysteric
  and spasmodic diseases.
   7. Mydriasis, from atony of the iris, the most  fre-
  quent cause of which Is a large cataract distending
  the pupil in  its passing when extracted.   It vanishes
  in a few days  after the operation, in general; how-
 ever, it may remain so from over and long-continued
 distention.
   Myla'cris.  (From  miXi;, a grindstone:  so called
 from its shape.1  The patella,  or knee-pan.
   My'le.  MuXr;. 1. The  knee-pan.
   2. A mole in the uterus.
   MY'LO.   (From /ivhr/,  * grinder tooth.)   Names
 compounded with this word belong to muscles, which
 are attached near the grinders; such as,
   Mylo-glossi.  Small muscles of the tongue.
   Mvlo-hyoideus.  Mylo-hyoidien, of Dumas.  This
 muscle, which was first  described  by Fallopius, is so
 called from Its  origin near  tbe dentes molares, and its
 insertion into the os hyoides.   It is  a thin, flat muscle,
 situated between the lower jaw and the os hyoides, and
 is covered by the anterior  portion of the digastricus.
 It arises fleshy, and a little tendinous, from all the inner
 surface of the lower  jaw, as far  back as the insertion
 of the ptcrygoideus internus, or, in other words, from
 between the  last dens molaris and the middle of  the
 chin, where it joins its fellow,  to form one belly, with
 an intermediate tendinous streak, or linea alba, which
 extends from the chin  to the os  hyoides, where both
 muscles are inserted into the lower edge of the basis
 of that bone.  This has induced Riolanus, Winslow,
 Albinus, and others, to consider it  as a single penni-
 form muscle. Its use is to pull the os hyoides upwards,
 forwards, and to either side.
   Mylo-pharyngeus.    See Constrictor pharyngis
 superior.
   My'lon.  See Staphyloma.
   MYOCE'PHALUM.  (From pvia, a fly, and xttp-
 aXn, a head: from its resemblance to the head of a fly.)
 A tumour in the uvea of  the eye.
   M YOCOLLI'TIS.  (From pvs, a muscle, and xotXta,
 a bellv.)  Inflammation of the  muscles of the belly.
   MYODESOPSIA.   (From pvia,  a fly, tiSos, resem-
 blance, and o<]iis, vision.)  A disease of the eyes, in
 which the person sees  black spots, an appearance of
 flies, cobwebs, or black wool, before his eyes.
   MYOLOGY.   (Myologia; from pvs, a muscle, and
 Xoyos,  a discourse.)   The  doctrine of the muscles.
 See  Muscle.
  MYO'PIA.  (From pvia, to wink, and ia\p, the eye.)
 Near-sighted, purblind.  The myopes are considered
 those persons who cannot see distinctly above  twenty
 inches.  The myopia is likewise adjudged to all those
 who cannot see at three, six, or nine inches.  The
 proximate cause  is the  adunation of the rays of light
 in a  focus before tbe retina.   The species are,
  1.  Myopia, from too great a convexity of the cornea.
 The cause of this convexity is either from nativity,
 or a greater secretion of the  aqueous humour:  hence,
 on one day there shall be a greater myopia  than  on
 another.   An incipient hydrophthalmia is the origin
 of this myopia.
  2.  Myopia, from too great a longitude of the bulb.
 This length of the bulb is native, or acquired from a
congestion of the humours in the eye; hence artificers
occupied in minute objects, as the engravers of seals,
 and persons reading much, frequently after puberty be-
come myopes.
  3.  Myopia, from too great a convexity of the anterior
superficies of the crystalline lens.  This ia likewise
from birth.  Tbe image will  so much sooner be formed
  as the cornea or Ions is more convex.   This perfectly
  accounu for Bhort-sigluednuss;  but an  anterior  too
  great convexity of tho cornea Is the  most connnon
  cause.
    4. Myopia, from too great a density of the cornea,
  or humours of the eye.   Optics teach us, by so much
  sooner the rays of light are forced into a focus, as tlie
  diaphanous body is denser.
    5. Myopia, from mydriasis, or too dilated a pupil
    6. Myopia infantilis.  Infants, from the great con-
  vexity of the cornea, are often myopes; but  by  de-
  grees, as they advance in years, they perceive objects
  more remotely, by llie cornea becoming less convex.
    MY'OPS.  (From  pvia, to wink, and wuV, the eye.)
  One who is near-sighted.
    MYO'SIS.  Mviaois-  A disease of the eye  which
  consists in a contraction or too small perforation of the
  pupil.  It is known by viewing tho diameter of the pu-
  pil, which is smaller than usual, and remains so In an
  obscure  place, where, naturally, if not diseased, it di-
  lates.  It occasions weak  sight, or  a vision that  re-
  mains only a certain number of hours in the day ; but,
  if wholly closed, total blindness.  The species of this
  disorder  are,
    1.  Myosis spasmodica,  which is observed in the
  hysteric,  hypochondriac, and iu' other spasmodic and
  nervous  affections; it arises from a spasm of the  or-
  bicular fibres of the iris.
    2.  Myosis paralytica arises in paralytic disorders.
    3.  Myosis infiammatoria, which  arises  from  an  in-
  flammation of the iris or uvea, as in the internal oph -
  thalmia,  hypopium, or wounded eye.
    4.  Myosis, from an accustomed contraction  of the
  pupil.  This frequently is experienced  by those who
  contemplate very minute  objects;  by persons who
  write;  by  the workers of fine needlework;  and  by
  frequent  attention to microscopical inquiries.
   5.  Myosis^ from a defect of the aqueous humour, as
  after extraction.
   6.  Myosis nativa, with which infants are born.
   7.  Myosis naturalis, is a coarctation ofthe pupil  by
 light, or from an intense examination of the  minutest
 objects.   These coarctations of the pupil  are tempo-
 rary, and spontaneously vanish.
   MYOSI'TIS.   (Frompvs, a muscle.)  Inflammation
 of a  muscle.  It is the term given by Sagar lo  acute
 rheumatism.
   MYOSO'TIS.  (Muj,  a  muscle, and owe, taros, an
 ear:  so called because its leaves are hairy, and grow
 longitudinally like the ear of a mouse.) See Hieracium
 pilosella.
   MYOTOMY.  (Myotomia; from pvs, a muscle, and
 rtpvia, to  cut.)   The dissection ofthe muscles.
   MY'RICA.  (A name borrowed  from  the  ancient
 Greeks, whose  pvptxij, however,  appears to be the
 Tamarix  gallica.)  The name of a genus or family of
 plants.  Class, Diacia; Order, Tdrandria.
   Myrica gale. The systematic name of the Dutch
 myrtle or  sweet willow.   Myrtus brabantica; Myrtus
 anglica ;  Myrtifolia  belgiea ;  Gale;  Gagel;  Rus
 sylvestris; Acaron;  Elaagnus;  Elaagnus cordo :
 Chamalaagnus ; Dodonao.  The leaves, flowers, and
 seeds of this plant, have a strong, fragrant smell,  and a
 bitter taste.   They are said to be  used  among the
 common people for destroying moths and cutaneous in-
 sects, and the infusion is given internally as a stoma
 chic and vermifuge.
   [Myrica cerifera.  See  Cera vegetabilis. A.]
   MYRICIN. The ingredient of wax which remains
 after  digestion in alkohol.   It is insoluble also in water
 and aether;  but very soluble in fixed and  volative oils.
   MYRIOPHY'LLON.   (From pvpios, infinite, and
 QyXXov, a  leaf, named from the  number of  ils leaves.)
 The milfoil plant, a species of Achilla?*.   See Achillea
 millefolium.
   MYRISTICA.  Tbe  name of a genus of plants in
 the Linnxan system.  Class, Diacia; Order, Mono-
 delphia.
   Myristica aromatica.  Swan's name of the nut
 meg-tree.
   Myristica moschata.  The systematic name of tha
 tree which produces the nutmeg and mace.
   1. The nutmeg, Myristica nucleus; Nux moschata;
 Nucista ;  Nux  myristica:  t-hrysobalauus Galeni;
 Unguentaria; Assala; Nux aromatica.  The seed,
 or kernel,  of the  Myristica—foliis lanceolatis, fructu
glabra, of Lmusjus. It is a »pice that is well known, 
MYR
MYR
and has been long used both for culinary and medical
purposes.   Distilled  with water they yield a  large
quantity of essential oil, resembling  in  flavour the
spice itself;  after the distillation, an insipid sebaceous
matter is  found swimming on  the water; the decoc-
tion, inspissated, gives an extract of an unctuous, very
slightly bitterish taste, and with little or no ostringency.
Rectified spirit extracts the whole  virtue of nutmegs,
by infusion, and elevates very little of it in distillation;
hence the spirituous extract possesses the flavour of the
spice in an  eminent degree.   Nutmegs, when heated,
vield to the press a  considerable quantity of limpid,
yellow oil.  There are three  kinds of unctuous sub-
stances, called  oil of mace, though really expressed
from the nutmeg.  The best is brought from the East
Indies, in stone jars;  this is of a thick consistence, of
the colour of mace, and has an  agreeable  fragrant
smell;  the second sort, which is paler-coloured, and
much inferior in quality, comes from Holland, in solid
masses, generally flat, and of  a square figure; the
third, which is the worst of all, and usually called
common oil of mace, is  an  artificial composition of
suet, palm-oil,  and the  like, flavoured  with a little
genuine oil of nutmeg. The medicinal qualities of nut-
meg are supposed to be aromatic, anodyne, stomachic,
and astringent; and hence it  has been much used in
diarrhoeas and dysenteries.  To many people, the aro-
matic flavour of nutmeg is very agreeable; they, how-
ever, should be cautioned not to use it in large quan-
tities, as it is apt to affect the head, and even to mani-
fest an hypnotic power in such a degree as to prove ex-
tremely dangerous.   Bontius  speaks of this as a fre-
quent occurrence in  India;  and Dr. Cullen relates a
remarkable instance of this soporific effect of nutmeg,
whicli  fell under his own  observation: and hence
concludes that, in apoplectic  and paralytic cases, this
spice may be very improper.  The officinal prepara-
tions cf nutmeg are a spirit and an essential oil, and
the nutmeg, in substance, roasted to render it more as-
tringent: both  the spice itself and the essential oil
enter several compositions, as the confectio aromatica,
spiritus ammonia aromaticus, Sec
  2.  Mace is the middle bark of the nutmeg.  A thick,
tough,  reticulated, unctuous  membrane,  of  a lively,
reddish-yellow colour, approaching to that of saffron,
which envelopes the shell of the nutmeg.  The mace,
when fresh, is of a blood-red colour,  and acquires its
yellow  hue in drying.   It is dried in the sun, upon
hurdles fixed above one  another, and then, it is said,
sprinkled with  sea-water, to prevent its crumbling in
carrying.  It has a pleasant, aromatic  smell, and a
warm,  bitterish,  moderately  pungent taste.   It is in
common use as a grateful spice, and appears to be in
its general qualities nearly similar to the nutmeg. The
principal difference  consists  in the mace  being  much
warmer, more bitter, less unctuous, and sitting easier on
weak stomaclis.  Mace  possesses qualities similar to
those of nutmeg, but is less astringent, and its  oil is
supposed to be more volatile and acrid.
  Myristica nux.   See  Myristica moschata.
   Myrme'cia.  (From pvpprjt,  a pismire.)   A  small
painful wart, of the size and shape of a pismire.  See
Myrmedum.
   Myrm e'cium.  Amoist soft wart about the size of a
lupine, with a broad base, deeply rooted,  and very
painful.  It grows on tbe palms ofthe hands and soles
of the feet.
   Myro'copum. (From pvpov, an ointment, and/coiroc,
labour.)  An unguent to remove lassitude.
   MYROBALAN.   See Myrobalanus.
   M YROB A'LANUS.   (From pvpos, an unguent, and
taXavos, a nut: so called because it was formerly used
in ointments.)  A myrobalan.   A dried fruit of the
plum kind, brought from the East Indies.  All the my-
robalans have an unpleasant,  bitterish, very austere
taste, and strike an inky blackness with a solution of
Btecl.  They are said to have  a gently purgative as
well as an astringent and  corroborating virtue.  In
this country  they  have been  long  expunged from
the  pharmacopoeias.  Of this fruit there are several
species.                         ...
   My robalanus bellirica.  The bellinc myrobalan.
The fruitisof a yellowish-gray colour, and an irregular
 roundish or oblong figure, about an inch in length, and
three quarters of an inch thick.
   Myrobalanus chebula.   The chebule myrobalan.
 This resembles the yellow in figure and ridges, but is
larger, of a darker colour, inclining to brown or black-
ish, and has a thicker pulp.
  Myrobalanus citrina.  Yellow myrobalan.  This
fruit is somewhat longer than the  belliric, with gene-
rally five large longitudinal ridges, and as many smaller
between them, somewhat pointed at both ends.
  Myrobalanus emblica.  The einhlic myrobalan is
of a dark blackish-gray colour, roundish, about half an
inch thick, with six hexagonal faces, opening from one
another.
  Myrobalanus indica.  The Indian or black myro-
balan, of a deep black colour, oblong, octangular, dif-
fering from all the  others in having no stone, or only
the rudiments of one, from which circumstance they
are supposed to have been gathered before maturity.
  My'ron.  (From pvpia, to flow.)  An ointment, me-
dicated oil, or unguent.
  Myrophy'llum.  Millefolium aquaticum. Water-
fennel.  It is said to be vulnerary.
  MYROXYLON.  (From pvpov, an ointment, and
hiXov, wood.)   The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnaean system.   Class, Diandria;  Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Myroxylon peruiferum. The systematic name of
the tree wliich  gives out the Peruvian balsam.  Bal-
samum peruvianum; Putzochill;  Indian, Mexican,
and American balsam ;  Carbardba, is the name ofthe
tree from which, according to Piso and Ray, it is taken.
It is  the Myroxylon peruiferum,  of Linnaeus, which
grows in the warmest provinces  of  South America,
and is remarkable for its elegant appearance.  Every
part of the tree abounds with a resinous juice; even
the leaves being full of transparent resinous points, like
those of the orange-tree.
  Balsam of Peru is of three kinds: or rather, it is one
and the same balsam, having three several names:  1.
The  balsam of incision; 2. The dry balsam; 3. The
balsam  of lotion.   The virtues of this balsam, as a
cordial, pectoral, and restorative, stimulant, and tonic,
are by some thought to be very great.   It is given with
advantage from 5 to 10 or 15 drops for a dose, in dys-
pepsia,  atonic  gout, in consumptions, asthmas, ne-
phritic complaints,  obstructions  of the viscera, and
suppressions of the menses.  It is best taken dropped
upon sugar.  The yelk of an egg, or mucilage of gum-
arabic, will, indeed, dissolve it; it may, by that way,
be  made into an emulsion; and il is less acrid in that
form than when taken singly.   It is often made an in-
gredient in boluses aud electuaries,  and enters into two
ofthe officinal compositions; the tinctura balsami Pe-
ruviani composita, and the trochisci glycyrrhiza?. Ex-
ternally, it  is recommended as a useful application to
relaxed ulcers, not disposed to heal.
  MY'RRHA.  (A Hebrew word.  Also called staete,
and the worst sort  ergasma.)  A botanical specimen
of  the tree which affords this gum resin  has not  yet
been obtained; but from tlie  account of Bruce, who
says  it very much  resembles the Acacia vera of Lin-
naeus, there can be little doubt  in  referring it to that
genus, especially as it corresponds with the description
of the tree given by Dioscorides.  The tree that affords
the myrrh, which is obtained by incision, grows on  the
eastern coast of Arabia Felix, and in that part of Abys-
sinia which is situated near the Red Sea, and is called
by  Bruce, Troglodyte. Good myrrh is  of a turbid
black-red colour, solid and heavy, of a peculiar smell,
and bitter taste.  Its medicinal effects are warm, cor-
roborant, and antiseptic ; it has been given  as an em-
menagogue in  doses  from 5  to 20 grains: It is also
given in cachexies, and applied externally as an anti-
septic and vulnerary.   In doses ef half a drachm. Dr.
Cullen remarks that it  heated tbe stomach, produced
sweat,  and agreed with tbe balsams  in affecting  the
urinary passages.  It has lately come more into use as
a tonic in hectical cases, and is said to prove less heat-
ing than most other medicines of that class.   Myrrh
dissolves  almost totally in  boiling water,  but as  the
liquor cools, the resinous matter  subsides.  Rectified
spirit dissolves less of this concrete than water; butex-
tracts more perfectly that part in which its  bitterness,
virtues, and flavour reside; the resinous matter which
water leaves undissolved is very bitter, but tbe gummy
matter wliich spirit leaves undissolved is insipid,  the
spirituous solution containing all the active part ofthe
myrrh: it is applied to ulcers, and other external affec-
tions of a putrid tendency; and also as a wash, when
diluted, for the teeth and  gums.   There are several
                                         95 
NAN                                          NAP
preparations of this drug in the London and Edinburgh
PhHrmacoiKEis.
  Mtrriu'ne.  (From uvopa, myrrh: so called  be-
rause it  sinclls like  myrrh.)   Tbe  common myrtle.
Bee Myrtus communis.
  My rrhis. (From iivppa, myrrh:  so named from
iu myrrh-like smell.)  Sweet cicely   See Scandix
aderata,
  Myrsinelx'cm.  (From pvpotrn,  tbe myrtle, and
tXaiov, oil.)  Oil of myrtle.
  Myrtaca'ntha.  (From pvpros,  a  myrtle,  and
axav&a, a thorn: so called from Its likeness to myrtle,
and  from its prickly leaves.)  Butcher's broom.  See
Ruseus.
  Myrti'danum.  (From pvpros, the myrtle.)  An ex-
crescence growing on the trunk of the myrtle, and
used as an astringent.
  Myrtiform oaruncles.  See Caruncula myrtiformes.
  Myrtiform glands.  See Caruncula myrtiformes.
  MYRTI'LLUS.  See Vaccinium myrtillus.
  MYRTLE.  See Myrtus.
  Myrtle, Dutch,  See Myrica gale.
  Myrto cheilides.   (From  pvprov,  the  clitoris,
and xuAoc, a lip.)  The nymphe ofthe female pudenda.
  My'rton.  The clitoris.
  My'rtcm.  (From pvpros, a myrtle.)  A little pro-
minence  in the pudenda of women,  resembling a
myrtle-berry.  It also means the clitoris.
  MY'RTUS.   (From pvppa, myrrh, because of its
smell, or  from Myrrha,  a virgin, who was  fabled to
have been turned  into this tree.)  1.  Tbe name  of a
genus of  plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Ico-
sandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  The pharmacopoeial name of the myrtle.  See
Myrtus communis.
  Myrtus brabantica.  See Myrica gale.
  Myrtus caryophyllata.  The systematic name
of the tree which affords the clove bark.  Cassia cary-
ophyllata.  The bark of this tree,  Myrtus—peduncu-
lis tnfido-mullifioris, foliis ovatis, of Linnaeus, is a
warm  aromatic, of  the smell of clove  spice, but
T*J    In prescriptions this letter is a contraction for
■*■' • numero, in number.
  NACRITE. See Talcite.
  Na'cta.  An abscess of the breast
  NADLESTELN.  An ore of Titanium.
  Na'ducem.  A uterine mole.
  NAS'VUS.  (Navus, i. m.)  A natural mark, spot,
or blemish.
  N«'vus matirnUS.  Macula matricis; Stigma,
Metrocelis.  A mother's mark.  A mark on the skin
of children, which is born with them, and which is
said to be produced by the longing of the mother for
particular things, or her aversion to them; hence these
marks resemble mulberries, strawberries, grapes, pines,
bacon, &c.
  Na'i corona.   A name of the cowage;
  NAIL.  See Unguis.
  Na'kjr.  According to Schenkius this means wan-
dering pains of the limbs.
  NANCEIC  ACID.  Acidum nancdcum.   Zumic
acid.   "An acid called by Braconnot, in honour of the
town of Nancy, where he  lives.  He  discovered it in
many acescent vegetable substances ; in sour rice;  in
putrefied juice of beet-root; in sour decoction of car-
rots, pease, Sec. He imagines that this acid is generated
at tiie same  time as vinegar in organic substances,
when  they become sour.  It is  without colour, does
not crystallize, and has a very acid taste.
  He concentrates the soured juice of the  beet-root till
It becomes almost solid, digests it with alkohol, and
evaporates the alkohoiic solution to the consistence  of
syrup.  He dilutes this with water, and throws into it
carbonate of sine till it be saturated.   He passes the
liquid through a filter, and evaporates till a pellicle ap-
pears.  Tiie combination of the  new acid with oxide
of zinc crystallizes.  After a second  crystallization,
he rediseolves it in water, pours  in an excess of water
      96
weaker, and with a little admixture of the cinnamon
flavour.  It may be used wilh tlie  same views  as
cloves, or einnamon.
  Myrtus communis.  The systematic name of the
common myrtle.
  Myrtus communis italica.   Oxymyrrhtne j Oxy
myrsine.  The berries of this plant arc recommended
in alvine and uterine fluxes, and other disorders from
relaxation and debility.  Thoy have  a roughish, and
not unpleasant taste, and appear to be moderately as-
tringent and  corroborant, partaking also of aromatic
qualities.
  Myrtus pimenta.  The systematic name of the
tree which bears  the Jamaica pepper, or  allspice.
Pimento; Piper caryophyllatum; Cocculi lndi aroma-
tici; Piper chiapa; Amomumpimcnta; Caryophyllus
aromaticus;  Caryophyllus americanus; Piper odora-
tum jamaicense.  Myrtus—floribus trichotoma-pani-
culatis, foliis oblongo-lanceolatis, of Linnu-us.  This
spice, which  was first brought over for dietetic uses,
has been long employed in the shops ns a succedoneum
to the more costly oriental aromatics: it is moderately
warm, of an  agreeable flavour, somewhat resembling
that of a mixture of cloves, cinnamon, nnd nutmegs.
Both pharmacopoeias direct an aqueous and spirituous
distillation to be made  from these berries;  and the
Edinburgh College orders the Oleum cssentiale piperis
jamaicensis.
  MY'STAX.  The  hair which forms the  beard in
man, on each side the upper Up.  Sec Capillus.
  Myu'rus.  An epithet for a sort of sinking pulse,
when the second stroke is less than the first, the third
than the second, &c.  Of this  there  are two kinds:
the first is when the pulse so sinks as not to rise again ;
the other, when it returns again, and rises in some de-
gree.  Both are esteemed bad presages.
   Myxosarco'ma.   (From  p.v\a,  mucus, and  aap\,
flesh.)    Mucocarneus.  A  tumour which is partly
fleshy and partly mucous.
  My'xter.  (From pv\a,  the mucus of the nose.)
The nose or nostril.
of barytes, decomposes by sulphuric acid the barytic
salt formed, separates  the deposite by a filter, and ob-
tains, by evaporation, the new acid pure.
  It forms with alumina  a salt resembling gum, and
with magnesia one unalterable in the air, in little gra-
nular crystals, soluble in (25 parts of water at  66°
Fahr.; with potassa and soda it forms uncryetallizable
salts, deliquescent and soluble in alkohol; with lime
and strontites, soluble granular salts; with barytes, an
uncrystallizable nondeliqnescent salt, having the aspect
of gum ; with white oxide of manganese, a salt which
crystallizes in tetrahedral prisms, soluble in 12 parts of
water at 660 ■ with oxide of zinc, a salt crystallizing in
square prisms, terminated by summits obliquely trim
cated, soluble in 50 parts of water at 66°; with iron, a
salt crystallizing in slender four-sided needles, of spar-
ing solubility, and not changing in the air;  with red
oxide of iron, a white noncrystalline salt; with oxide
of tin, a salt crystallizing in wedge-form octahedron*;
with oxide of lead, an uncrystallizable saB, not deli-
quescent, and  resembling a gum; with  mack oxide
of mercury, a very soluble salt, which crystallizes in
needles."
  NAPE'LLUS.  (A diminutive of napus: so called
because it has a bulbous  root like that of the napus.)
See Aconitum.
  Na'ph* flores.  Orange flowers are sometimes so
called.  See Citrus aurantium.
  NA'PHTHA.  (Naptha, a. f.; vatpBn-)  A native
combustible  liquid or a yellowish white colour, per-
fectly fluid and shining.  It feels greasy, and exhales
an agreeable bituminous smell. It occurs in consider-
able springs on die shores of the Caspian Sea, In Sicily,
and Italy. It is  used  instead of oil, and  differs from
petroleum obtained by distiUlng coal only by its greater
purity and lightness   This miid has been used  as an
external application for removing  old pains, nervous
N 
NAS
NA1
disorders, such as cramps, contractions of the limbs,
paralytic affections, &c.
  Naphtha vitrioli.  See JEther sulphuricus.
  Napifo'lia.  Bore cole. See Brassica.
  Na'pium.  See Laps ana communis.
  [" NAPTHALINE  This substance is one of the
products of the decomposition of coal.  If the distil-
lation be conducted at a very gentle heat, naptha, from
Its greater volatility, first passes over, and afterward
napthaline rises in vapour, and condenses in the neck
of the retort, as a white crystalline solid.
  " Pure napthaline is heavier than water, has a pun-
gent aromatic taste, and a peculiar odour not unlike
that of the narcissus.  It is smooth and  unctuous  to
the touch, is perfectly white, and has a silvery lustre.
It fuses at 180° Fah., volatilizes  slowly at  common
temperatures, and boils at 410° Fall.  It is  not very
readily inflamed, but when set on fire it burns rapidly,
and emits a large quantity of smoke.  It is soluble  in
cold, and dissolves very sparingly in hot water.  Its
projier solvents are alkohol and elher.
  " Sulphuric acid enters into direct combination with
napthaline, and forms a new and peculiar acid, which
Mr. Faraday has described under the name of sulpho-
napthalic acid.
  " Napthaline, according to Dr. Thompson, is a sesqui-
carburet of hydrogen, that is, a compound of 9, or an
atom and a half, of carbon, and 1 atom of hydrogen."
— Webs. Man. Chem.  A.]
  NA'PUS.  See Brassica napus.
  Napus dulcis.  See Brassica rapa.
  Napus sylvestris.  See Brassica rapa.
  Narca'phthum.  A name of the cordial confection.
  NARCI'SSUS.  A genus of plants  in the  Linnaean
system.  Class, Hexandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  NARCOSIS. (From  vapxoia, to stupify.)  Stupe-
faction, stupor, numbness.
  NARCOTIC.  (Narcotictis ; from vapxoia, to stu-
pify.)  A medicine which has the  power of procuring
sleep.  See Anodyne.
  NARCOTINE.  The active principle of  narcotic
vegetables.  See Opium.
  NARD.  See Valeriana celtica.
  Nard, Indian.  See Andropogon nardus.
  Nardo'stachys.    (From vapSos,  spikenard, and
S-ox«f i sage.)  A species of wild sage resembling spike-
nard in its leaves and smell.
   NARDUS.  (From nard, Syrian.) Spikenard.
   Nardus celtica.  Valeriana celtica.
   Nardus indica.  See Andropogon nardus.
   Nardus italica.   The lavendula spica  of  Lin-
naeus.
  Nardus montana. An old name of  asarabacca.
See Asarum europeum.
   Nardus rustica.  An old name of the asarabacca.
See Asarum europeum.
   Narifuso'ria. (From nares, the nostrils, and fundo
to pour.)  Medicines dropped into the nostrils.
   NARIS.  The nostril.  The cavity of the nostrils
is of a pyramidal figure, and is  situated under the
anterior part-of the cranium, in the middle of the face.
 The two nostrils are composed of fourteen bones, viz.
the frontal, two maxillary, two nasal, two lachrymal,
 two  Inferior spongy, the sphenoid,  the vomer, the
 ethmoid, and two palatine bones,  which form several
 eminences and cavities.   The eminences are the sep-
 tum  narium, the cavernous substance of the ethmoid
 bone, called the superior conchas, and the  inferior
 spongy bones.  The cavities are three pair of pituitary
 sinuses, namely, the frontal, sphenoid, and maxillary;
 the  anterior and posterior foramina of the  nostrils;
 the ductus nasalis, tbe sphenopalatine  foramina, and
 anterior palatine foramina. All these parts are covered
 wilh  periosteum, and  a pituitary membrane which
 secretes the mucus of the nostrils.  The  arteries of this
 cavity are  branches of the  internal  maxillary.  The
 veins empty themselves into the internal  jugulars.
 The nerves are branches of the olfactory, ophthalmic,
 and superior maxillary.   The  use of  the nostrils is for
 smelling, respiration, and speech.
   Naris compressor.   See Compressor naris.
   Na'rta.  (Nopro, ex nardi odore, from its smell.)
 A plant used in ointments.
   Narthe'cia.  (From Narthecis, the island where
  t flourished.)  Narthex.  A kind of fennel.
   NASALIS.  (From nasus, the nose.) Appertain-
 ing to the noee.
                                         Oo
  Nasalis labii superioris.  See Orbicularis oris.
  Nasa'rium.  (From nasus, the nose.)  The mucus
of the nose.
  Nasca'le.  (From nasus,  the nose.)   A wood or
cotlon pessary for the nose.
  Nasca'phthum.   Cordial confection.
  Nasi depressor.  See Depressor  labii superioris
alaque nasi.
  Nasi ossa.  The two small bones of the nose that
are so termed from the bridge of the nose.  In figure
they are quadrangular and oblong.
  NASTURTIUM.  (Quod nasum torqucat, because
the seed, when bruising, irritates the nose.)  The name
of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class,
Tetradynamia; Order, Siliquosa.
  Nasturtium aquaticum.  See Sisymbrium nastur-
tium.
  Nasturtium hortense.   See Lepidium sativum.
  Nasturtium indicum.  See Tropaolum majus.
  NA'SUS.  The nose.
  Na'ta.   Natta.  A species of  wen  with slender
pendent neck.  Linnaeus speaks of il as rooted in a
muscle.
  NATANS.  (From nato,  to swim.)  Floating on
the surface of the water: applied to leaves, in opposi-
tion to those which are naturally under, and different,
and  are called demcrsed, immersed,  and submersed;
as in  Potamogeton natans.
  N A'TES.  (From nato, to  flow; because the excre-
ments are  discharged from thein.)  1. The buttocks,
or the fleshy parts upon which we sit.
  2.  Two of ihe eminences, called turberculaquadrige-
mina, of the  brain, are so  named  from their resem-
blance.
  Nates cerebri.  See Tubercula quadrigemina.
  NATROLITE.  A subspecies of prismatic zeolite
or niesotype.
  [" This substance has usually occurred in small, re-
niform, rounded, or irregular masses,composed of very
minute fibres.  The fibres are divergent,  or even radi-
ate from a centre; and are sometimes so very minute
and close, that the fracture appears almost or quite com-
pact. It has little or no lustre.  Sometimes also it pre-
sents minute crystals, especially on  the surface of its
masses, whose forms appear to be  similar to those of
the Zeolite.
   Before  the blow-pipe it easily  melts into a white
glass, which often contains small  bubbles.   In nitric
acid it is reduced, in the course of a few hours, with-
out effervescence, into a jelly somewhat thick.  It
contains silex 48.0, alumine 24.25, soda 16.5, water 9.0,
oxide of  iron 1.75;=99.5  (according to Klaproth).
This result is very similar  to that obtained by Smith
Bon Tennant, from the Zeolite.—Clean. Min.  A.]
   NATRON.   (So called  from  Natron, a lake in
Judaea, where it was  produced.)  Nalrum.  1. The
name formerly given to the  alkali, now called soda.
See Soda.
   2. A native salt, which  is found crystallized in
Egypt, in the lake called Natron, and in the other hot
countries,  in sands surrounding lakes of salt water.
It is an  impure  subcarbonate of soda, and there are
two kinds of it, the common  and the radiated.
   3. The name of an  impure subcarbonate of soda,
obtained by burning various marine plants.  See Soda.
   Natron muriatum.  See Soda murias.
   Natron praparatum.  See Soda subcarbonas.
   Natron tartarisatum.  See Soda tartarizata.
   Natron vitriolatum.  Sec Soda sulphas.
   Na'tulje.  (Diminutive of notes, the buttocks: so
called from their  resemblance.)  The two uppermost
of four small eminences of the brain. See Tubercula
quadrigemina.
   NATURAL.  Appertaining to nature
   Natural  actions.  Those functions ny which the
body is preserved ; as hunger, thirst, &c.  See Actions.
   Natural  history.  A description of the natural
products of the earth, water, or  air; ex. gr. beasts,
birds, fish, insects, worms, plants, metals, minerals, and
fossils; together with such extraordinary phenomena
as at any time appear in the material world, as meteors,
 monsters, Sec.
   Natural  orders.  A division  or arrangement of
 plants, from their external habits or characters.  They
 are
    1. Conifera.              3. Composita.
    2. Amentacta.           4. Aggregata. 
NAT
NEC
   %. Conglomerate.       31. Cvtumni/erts.
   6. Umbellata.           32. Gruinales.
   7. Hederacea.           33. CaryophyUa.
   8. Sarmcntate<e.         34. Colycanthema.
   9. Stellata.             35. Ascirodea.
  10. Cymosa.             36. Coadunata.
  11. Cuc»ir*itaee«.        37. Dumosa.
  12. Lurida.              38. Trihilata.
  13. Camj»ana«««.         39. 7Vicoec<s.
  14. Conlorta.            40. Oleracca.
  15. Rotacea.             41. Scabrida.
  16. Sepiacia.             42. Vapiccula.
  17. Bicomes.            43. Pipirita.
  18. Asperifolia.          44. Scetominea.
  19. Verticillata.          45. Liliacea.
  20. Personata.           46. Ensata.
  21. Rhoeadea.            47. Tripctaloidca.
  22. Putaminca.           48. Orchidea.
  23. Siliquosa.            49. Culmaria.
  24. Paptlionaeea         50. Gramina.
  25. Tomentacea.         51. Palma.
  26. Multisiliqua.        52. Filices.
  27. Senticosa.            53. Musci.
  23. Pomacea.            54. .4Z^-<i!.
  29. Hesperida.           55. Fungi.
  301 Succulenta.
  Natural philosophy.   Physics.   The  science
which  considers the properties of natural  bodies, and
their mutual actions on one another, being contrasted
with moral philosophy or ethics, which treat of the
phenomena of mind and rules of morality.
  NATURA'LIA.    (From  nature, nature.)  The
parts of generation.
  NATURE.  Natura; fromnascor,natus.)  Aterm
variously used.
  1.  It i3 most frequently employed to express the sys-
tem of the world, the assemblage of all created beings,
and in this case is synonymous wilh world, or universe.
  2. That power which is said to be diffused  through-
out the creation, proving and acting in all bodies, and
giving  them  certain properties.  In  this  last sense,
when a personified being is meant, nature is nothing
else but God, acting himself, and according to certain
laws which he himself has fixed.  According lo the
supposition of some,  however,  the principle  called
nature is a  power delegated by the Creator;  as it were,
a middle being between God and created things, which
has been styled Anima mundi; but it does  not appear
that there is any foundation for this hypothesis, or that
any thing is explained by referring the whole series of
second causes lo an intermediate principle, instead of
to one  universal agent.
  3.  In niedical writings, the  expression nature is
usually taken for the aggregate of powers belonging to
any body, especially a living one; as when  physicians
say that, in such a disease nature, left to herself, will
perform the cure.  L may be proper here to observe,
with regard to this phrase of leaving the cure to nature,
that there is a wide difference between suspending for
a time all  interference with  the vital processes, and
neglecting a disease; although to those who are igno-
rant of the principles of medicine, these appear to be
the same thing.
   It would be the perfection of this science to ascertain
upon what  causes healthy and diseased actions depend,
and to what extent either can be affected by human
agency: but at present the judicious physician never
aims art a eure independently of the original powers of
the system, but rather seeks to call them into action,
or, at  most,  to assist when the inherent elasticity of
the vital functions  is insufficient to recover them from
the oppression of disease.   As, for example, when
we allow a wound to heal by the first intention, or
restore the digestive functions by obliging a man to
attend to the rules of diet and exercise, Sec upon which
health  depends; we call upon the  restorative powers
of Nature,  because art, that is to say, human ingenuity,
can  supply nothing equivalent.  Or, again, when, in
the treatment of a diseased joint, rest is  enjoined at
one period on account of inflammation, and perhaps
motion is ordered at  another, to keep up the proper
usesof the part, we show the importance of alternately
interfering  and looking on, as we judge it proper to
chock  the tendency of vital actions, or to trust entirely
 to them.  While to those who are ignorant of these
 principles, tin- practitioner, when really exercising his
 greatest skill, is supposed to be idle.
  NAU'SEA.   (Savcta; from terns,* ship: becatiM
It is a sensation similar to that wliich people experi-
ence upon sailing in a ship.)  Nausiosis.- Nautia.
An inclination tu  vomit without effecting  It; also a
disgust of food approaching to vomiting.  It is an at-
tendant on cnrdiolgia, and a variety of other disorders,
pregnancy. &c. occasioning nn aversion for food, aa
increase of saliva, disgusted ideas at tlie sight of vari-
ous objects, loss of appetite, debility, Sec
  Naisio'sis.  See JVYwsea.
  Nau'tia.  See Nausea.
  NAU'TICl'S.  (Nauticus, a sailor: so called from
the use which sailors make of it in climbing ropes.)
A muscle of the leg, exerted in climbing up.
  NAVEW.  See Brassica  rapa.
  Navew, garden.   See Brassica rapa.
  Navew, sweet.  See Brassica rapa.
  NAVICULA'RE OS.  Naviformis; Nnvicularis;
Os scaphoides; Cymba. A bone  of tlie carpus and
tarsus is so called, from its supposed resemblance to a
boat.
  Navicula'ris.  (From navicula, a little boat.)  See
Navieulare os.
  Navifo'rmis. See JVa»i'c«'are os.
  NEAPOLITAN.  (From  Ncnpolis, or Naples,  be-
cause it was said to have  been first discovered at
Naples, when  the  French were in  possession of it.)
The venereal disease was once so called.
  NE'BULA.   (From veQtXtj.)  1.  A cloudy spot in
the cornea of the eye.
  2. The  cloud-like  appearance  in  the  urine, after it
has been a little time at rest.
  NECK.  Collum.  The parts which form the neck
are divided into external and internal.  The external
parts  are the common integuments, several muscles,
eight pair of cervical nerves, the eighth pair of nerves
of the cerebrum, and the great intercostal  nerve;  the
two carotid arteries,  the two external jugular veins,
and the two internal; the glands of the neck, viz.  the
jugular, submaxillary, cervical, and thyroid.  The in-
ternal parts are the fauces, pharynx, oesophagus, larynx,
and trachea.  The bones of the neck are the seven
cervical vertebrae.
  NECROSIS.  (From vtxpta, to destroy.) This word,
the strict meaning  of which is only mortification, is,
by the general consent of surgeons, confined  lo an af-
fection of the bones.   The death of parts of hones was
not distinguished from carles, by the ancients. How-
ever, necrosis snd  caries are essentially different; for
in  the first, the affected part of the bone is deprived of
the vital  principle; but this  is not tho case when  it is
simply carious.  Caries is very, analogous to ulcera-
tion, while necrosis is exactly similar to mortification
of the soft parts.
  Necrosis ustilaginea.   A painful convulsive con-
traction of the limbs.  See Raphania.
  NE'CTAR.   NtKrap.  A wine made of honey.
  NF.CTA'RIUM.  The nectary.  An nccidenial part
of a flower which does not come under the description
of any of its organs.  It may be defined that part of
the corolla which contains  or which secretes honey,
though it is not necessary to a nectary that  honey be
present
  Scarce a flower can be found that bas not more or
less honey, though it is far from  being universally, or
even generally formed, by an apparatus separate from
the petals.
  In monopetalous flowers, as the Lamium album, the
dead nettle, the tube of the  corolla contains, and  pro-
bably secretes, the  honey without any evident nectary.
  Sometimes the part under consideration is a produc-
tion or elongation ofthe corolla, as in the violet: some-
times indeed of the calyx, as in the garden nasturtium,
Tropaeolum, the coloured calyx of which partakes much
of the nature of the petals.
  Sometimes it is distant from both, either resembling
the petals;  as in  Aquilegia; or more different, as in
Epimedium, Aconitum, Helleborus, Delphinium. Such
at least is the mode in which  Linnaeus and his followers
understand the four last numbered flowers.
   The most indubitable of all nectaries, as actually se-
creting honey, are those of a glandular kind.  In the
natural order of cruciform plant?, composing the class
 Trtradynamia, there are generally four green glands at
the base nf the stamens, as in Dentaria, and Sisym-
brlum; while in  Pelargonium, the nectary is a tube
running down one side of the flower-stalk.  The eie- 
NEP
NEP
  gant Parnassia has a most elaborate apparatus or nec-
  tary.— Smith.
    From the figure of the nectary it is said to be,
    1. Calcurate, or spur-like; as in Aquilegia vulgaris,
  Delphinium ajax, and Antirrhinum linaria.
    2. Cucullate,  hooded;  as in Impatiens balsamina,
  Aconitum, and Asclcpias vincetoxicum.
    3. Foveate, a little depression in the claw of the pe-
  tal , as in Fritillaria impcrialis.
    4. Campanulate; as in Narcissus jonquilla and Pseu-
  donarcissus.
    5. Crown-like; as in Passiflora caerulea.
    6. Pedicellate, resting on a partial flower-stalk; as
  in Aconitum napellus.
    7. A bilabiate tube; as in Helleborus foetidus, and
  Nigella.
    8. Poriform, there being three pores in the germen ;
  as in the Hyacinths.
   9. Squamate, a little scale in the claw; as in Ranunculus.
   10. Glandular, little nectiferous  glands between the
 stamens and pistils; as in Sinapis alba.
    11. Stellate, a double star covering the internal or-
 gans ; as in Stapelia.
   12. Pilous, fine hairy fascicles at the base of the sta-
 mina ;  as in Parnassia palustris.
   13. Bearded; as in Iris germanica.
   14. Forniciform, arched ; small prolongations at the
 opening ofthe corolla, and covering the internal organs;
 as in Symphatum officinale, and Myosotis scorpioides.
   15. Bristle-like,  fine horn-like filaments around the
 internal organs; as in Periploca graeca.
   16. Rotate; as in Cissampelos.
   17. Scrotiforme,  behind the flower; as in Satyrium.
   18. Horn-like, behind the flower; as in Orchis.
   18. Sandaliform,  slipper-like; as  in Cypripedium
 calceolus.
   20. Globose, inverting the  germen ;  as in Mirabilis
 jalappa.
   21. Cyathiform, cup-like; as in Urticaurens.
   22. Conical; as in Utricularia foliosa.
   23. Acidiforme, pitcher-like, a membraneous tube,
 containing water, and behind the flower; as in Ascium
 and Ruyschia.
   24. Calycine, adhering to the calyx, by a spur; as in
 Tropaeolum majus.
   Nkoy'ia.   (Nedys;  from  viscus, the belly.)  The
 intestines.
   NEEDLE ORE.  Acicular bismuth glance.
   Needle-shaped leaf.  See Acerosus.
   Needle zeolite.  See Zeolite.
   NEGRO CACHEXY.  Cachexia africana.  A pro-
 pensity for eating earth, common to males as well aa
 females, in the West Indies and Africa.
   Nel.e'ra.   (Fromvtwpos, furthermost)  The lower
 part of the belly
   NEMORO'SA.   (From nemus, a grove:  so called
 because it grows in  woods.)  A species of wind-flower,
 tlie Anemone nemerosa, of Linnaeus.
   NEP.  See Nepeta.
   Ne'pa theophrasti.  See Spartium  scoparium.
   Nkpk'nthos.   (From vn, neg. and atvdos, grief: so
 called from their exhilarating qualities.)  1. A prepara-
 tion of opium.
   2. A kind of bugloss.
   NEPETA.   (From nepte, German.)   The name of
 a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Di-
 dynamia; Order, Gymnospermiu.
   Nepeta cataria.  The systematic name ofthe cat-
 mint.   Herba  felis;  Mentha felina;   Calamintha;
 Nepctella; Mentha cataria.  The leaves of this plant,
 Nepeta—floribus spicatis ; verticillis; subpedicellatis;
 foliis pdiolatis, cordatis, dentato-serratis, of Linnaeus,
 have a moderately pungent aromatic laste, and a strong
smell, like an admixture of spearmint and pennyroyal.
The herb is rccoininended in uterine disorders, dyspep-
sia, and flatulency
  Nki-ktk'lla.  (Dim. of nepeta.)  The  lesser catmint.
  Ne'phela.  (Dim. of vtibos, a cloud.)   A cloud-like
spot on the cornea of the eye.
  NEPHELOI'DES. (From vvbtXn,  a cloud, and tiSos,
 a likeness.)  Cloudy.  Applied to the urine.
  N'EPHRA'LGIA.  (From veippos, the kidney, and
dXyos, pain.)  Pain in the kidney.
  NEPHRELINE.  Rhomboidal felspar.  This occurs
in drusy cavities along with ceylauite, vesuvian, and
meionite, al Monte Sonuna, near Naples, in drusy ca-:
vities in granular limestone.                          I
                                       Oo2
    NEPHRITE.  Of this mineral there are two species,
  common nephrite, and axe-stone.  The former is of a
  leek-green colour, and occurs in granite and gneiss, in
  Switzerland.  The most  beautiful  come from  Persia
  and Egypt.  See Axe-stone.
    NEPHRITIC.  (Nephriticus; from veippos, the kid-
  ney.)  Of or belonging to  the kidney.
    2. Medicine  is so termed  that is employed  in the
  cure of diseases of the kidneys.
    Nephritic wood.  See Guilandina moringa.
    Nephritica aqua.  Spirituous  distillation of nut
  meg and hawthorn flowers.
    Nephriticum lignum.  See Guilandina moringa.
    NEPHRITIS.  (Nephritis, idis. f. ;  from vttppos, a
  kidney.)  Inflammation of the kidney.  A genus of
  disease in the class Pyrexia and order Phlegmasia, of
  Cullen;  known by pyrexia,  pain in the region  of the
  kidneys, and shooting along  the course of ihe ureter;
  drawing up of the testicles;  numbness of the  thigh;
  vomiting;  urine high-coloured, aud  frequently dis-
  charged ;  costiveness, and colic pains.  Nephritis is
  symptomatic of calculus, gout, &x.
    This  inflammation may be distinguished from the
  colic by the pain being seated  very far back, and  by the
  difficulty of passing urine,  which constantly  attends it;
  and it may be distinguished from rheumatism, as the
  pain is but little influenced or  increased  by motion.
    Nephritis is to be distinguished from a calculus in
  the kidney or ureter, by the symptoms of fever accom-
  panying, or immediately following the attack of pain,
  and these continuing without  any remarkable intermis-
  sion ;  whereas, in a calculus of the kidney or ureter,
  they do not occur until a considerable time after vio-
  lent pain has been felt.  In  the latter case, loo, a numb-
  ness of the thigh, and a retraction of the testicle on the
  affected side, usually takes place.
   The causes which give rise to nephritis are external
  contusions, strains of the back, acrids conveyed  to the
  kidneys in the  course  of  the circulation, violent and
 severe exercise, either in riding or walking, calculous
 concretions lodged in the kidneys or ureters, and expo-
 sure to cold.  In some habits there is an evident predis-
 position to  this complaint, particularly  the gouty, and
 in these there are often translations of the matter to
 the kidneys, which very much imitate nephritis.
   An inflammation  of the kidney is attended with a
 sharp pain on theaffected side, extending along the course
 of the ureter; and there is a  frequent desire to  make
 water, with much difficulty in  making it. The body is
 costive, the skin is dry and hot, the patient feels great
 uneasiness wheti he endeavours to walk, or sit upright;
 lie Ires with most ease on the  affected side, and is ge-
 nerally troubled with nausea and frequent vomiting.
   When the disease is protracted beyond the seventh
 or eighth day, and the patient feels an obtuse pain in
 the part, has frequent returns of chillness and shiver-
 ingSj there is reason to apprehend lhat matter is  form-
 ing in the kidney, and that  a suppuration will ensue.
   Dissections of nephritis show the usual effects of in-
 flammation on the kidney;  and they likewise often dis-
 cover the formation of abscesses, which have destroyed
 its whole substance.   In a few instances, the kidney
 has been found in a scirrhous state.
   The disease is to be treated  by bleeding, general and
 local, the warm bath, or  fomentations  to the  loins,
 emollient clyster, mucilaginous drinks, and the genera]
 antiphlogistic plan. The bowels should be effectually
 cleared at first by some sufficiently active formula; but
 the saline cathartics are considered not so proper,  as
 they may add to the irritation of the kidney.  Calomel
 with antimonial powder, followed by the infusion of
 senna, or the ol ricini, may  be given in preference, and
 repeated occasionally.  It will be right  also  to endea-
 vour to promote  diaphoresis, by moderate doses of an-
 timonials especially.  Blisters  are inadmissible in this
 disease; but the linimentum ammonioe, or other rube-
 facient application, may in some measure supply  their
 place.   Opium will often  prove  useful, particularly
 where the symptoms appear to originate from calculi
 given in the form of clyster,  or by the mouth;  in which
 latter mode of using it, however, it will be much better
 joined with other remedies, which  may obviate its
 heating effect, and determine it  rather to pass off by tha
 skin. A decoction of the dried leaves of ihe  peach
tree is said to have been serviceable in many  cases of
this disease.  In  affections  of  a more chronic nature
where there is a discharge of mucus or pus,  by urins
                                          99 
NER
NER
hi addition to suitable tonic medicines, the uva ursi in
moderate doses, or some of the tcrebinthinate remedies
may be given wilh probability of relief.
  NE'FliROS.   (From vtia,  to  flow, nnd d>tpta, to
bear, as conveying tlie urinary fluid.)  The kidney.
See Kidney.
  NEPHROTOMY.  (JVepArolomt'a,- from veippos, a
kidney, and rtpvia, to cut.)  The operation  of extract-
ing a stone from the kidney.  A proceeding whicli,
perhaps, has never been actually put in practice.  The
cutting into the kidney, the deep situation of this vis-
cus,  and the want of symptoms by wliich the lodg-
ment of a stone in il can be certainly discovered, will
always lie strong objections to tlie practice.
  NERIUM.  (From vtjpos, humid: so called because
it grows in moist places.)  The name  of a genus of
plants  in the  Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
   Nerium  antidysentericum.   The  systematic
name of the tree which affords the Codaga  pala bark.
Gonessi cortex; Codaga pala;  Cortex Bela-aye ; Cor-
tex profluvii.  The bark of the Nerium;—foliis ova-
tis, acuminatis, petiolatis, of Linnaeus.  It grows on
•he coast of Malabar.   It is of a dark black  colour ex-
ternally, and generally covered  wilh a white moss, or
scurf.  It is very little  known in tbe  shops; has an
austere, bitter taste ; and is recommended iu diarrhoeas,
dysenteries, &c. as an adstringent.
  Nerium  tinctorium.   This  tree grows in Hindos-
tan, and, according to Dr. Roxburg, affords indigo.
  Ne'roli  oleum.  Essential  oil of orange flowers.
See Citrus aurantium.
  Nerva'lli ossa.  (From nervus, a nerve.)   The
bones through wliich the nerves pass.
  NERVE.   (Nervus, i. m. from vtiipov.)
  A.   In  anatomy.   Formerly it  meant  a sinew.
This accounts for the opposite  meanings of the word
*crvous, which sometimes means strong, sinewy, and
sometimes weak and irritable. Nerves are long, white,
medullary cords, that serve for sensation.  They ori-
ginate from the brain and spinal marrow; hence they
are distinguished into cerebral and spinal nerves, and
distributed upon the organs of sense, the viscera, ves-
sels,  muscles, and every part that is endowed wilh
sensibility.   The cerebral  nerves are  the  olfactory,
optic, motores oculoruni,  pathetici, or Irochleatores,
trigemini, or divisi,  abducent,  auditory, or acoustic,
par vagum, and lingual.  Heister has  drawn up the
use of these nerves in the two following verses:
  Olfaciens, cernens, oculosque  movens, patiensque,
  G us tans,  abducens,  audiensque,  vagansque,  lo-
      quensque.
The  spinal nerves are thirty pairs, and are divided
into eight pair of cervical, twelve pair  of dorsal, five
pair  of lumbar,  and five of sacral  nerves.  In  the
course of the  nerves  there are a number  of knots:
these are called ganglions; they are commonly of an
oblong shape, and of a grayish colour, somewhat in-
clining to red, which is  perhaps owing to their  being
extremely  vascular.   Some writers have considered
these little  ganglions as so many little  brains.  Lan-
cisi fancied he had discovered muscular fibres in them;
but they certainly are not of an irritable nature.  A
late writer  (Dr. Johnson) imagines they are intended
to deprive  us of the power of the  will over certain
parts, as the heart, for instance; but if this hypothesis
were well founded, they should be met with only in
nerves leading to involuntary muscles; whereas it is
certain  that  the  voluntary  muscles receive nerves
through ganglions.  Dr. Monroe,  from  observing the
accurate intermixture of  the  minute  nerves  which
compose them, considers them  as  new sources of ner-
vous energy.  The  nerves, like the blood-vessels, in
their course through the body, communicate  with each
other, and each of these communications constitutes
what is called a plexus, from  whence branches are
again detached to different parts  of the  body.   The
use of the nerves  is to convey impressions to the brain
from all parts of the system, and the principles of mo-
tion and sensibility from the brain to every part of the
system.  The  manner  in which  this operation is
effected is not yet determined.   The inquiry has been
a constant source of hypothesis iu all ages, and  has
produced some ingenious ideas, and many erroneous
positions, but wilhout  having hitherto afforded much
satisfactory information.   Some  physiologists  have
considered  a trunk of nerves as a solid cord, capable
      100
of being divided into an infinite number of fllameota,
by means of which the impressions of feeling are con-
veyed to the common xensorium.  Oiherg have sup-
posed each fibril lo be a canal, carryinga volatile fluid,
whicli they term the nervous fluid.  Those who con-
tend for their being solid  bodies, are of opinion that
feeling  is occasioned  by vibration; so that,  for in-
stance,  according to this hypothesis,  by pricking the
finger, a vibration would be occasioned in the nerve
distributed through its substance; and the effects of
this vibration, when extended to the sensorium, would
be an excital of pain; but the inelasticity, the  soil-
ness, the connexion, and  the  situation of the uei ves,
are so many proofs that vibration has no share in tbe
cause of feeling.

              A Table of the Nerves.

               Cerebral Nerves.
   1. The first pair, called olfactory.
   2. The second pair, or optic ntrves.
   3. Tbe third pair, or oculorum motores.
   4. The fourtli pair, or pathetici.
   5. The fifth pair, or trigeviini, which gives Off,
  a.  The ophthalmic, or orbital nerve, winch sends,
     1.  A branch  to unite with one from the sixth
       pair, and form tlie greal intercostal nerve.
     2.  The frontal nerve.
     3.  The lachrymal.
     4. The nasal.
  b.  The superior maxillary, which divides into,
     1.  The spheno-palatine nerve.
     2.  The posterior alveolar.
     3.  The infra orbital.
  c The inferior maxillary nerve, from wbich arise,
     1.  The internal lingual.
     2.  The inferior maxillary, properly so called.
   6. The sixtli pair, or abducenles, which send off,
     1.  A branch to unite with one from the fifth, and
       form the grent  intercostal.
   7. Tlie seventh pair, or auditory  nerves: these
arise by two separate beginnings, viz.
     The portio dura, a nerve going to the face.
     The portio mollis,  which is distributed  on the
       ear.
     The portio dura, or facial nerve, gives off the
       chorda tympani, and then proceeds to the face.
   8. The eighth pair, or par vagum, arise  from the
medulla  oblongata, and join with  the accessory of
Willis.  The  par vagum gives off,
     1.  The ri'^Af, and left recurrent nerve.
     2.  Several branches in the chest, to form the car-
       diac plexus.
     3.  Several branches to form the pulmonic plexus.
     *.  Several  branches   to form the  asophageal
      plexus.
     5.  It then forms  in the  abdomen  the stomachic
      plexus.
     6.  The hepatic plexus.
     7.  The splenic plexus.
     8  The renal  plexus,  receiving several branches
       from tbe great intercostal, wbich assists in
       their formation.
     9.  The ninth pair, or lingual nerves, which go
trom the medulla oblongata to the tongue.
                 Spinal Nerves.
  Those nerves are called spinal, which pass' out
through the lateral or intervertebral foramina of the
spine.
  They are divided into cervical,  dorsal, lumbar, and
sacral nerves.
                Cervical Nerves.
  The cervical nerves  are eight  pairs.
  The first are called the  occipital: they arise from
the beginning of the spinal  marrow, pass out between
the margin of the occipital foramen  and atlas,  form a
ganglion on its transverse process, and are distributed
about the occiput and  neck.
  The aecond pair  of cervical nerves send a branch to
the accessory nerve of Willis, and proceed to tlie pa-
rotid gland and external ear.
  The third cervical pair supply the integuments of
the scapula, the cucullaris,  and triangularis  muscles,
and send a branch to form, with others, the diaphrag-
matic nerve.
  The fourth, fifth, sixth,  seventh,  and eighth pair,
all converge to form the brachial plexus, froui wliich
aline the six following 
NKR
NER
 r      NrRVRS OF THK UPPER EXTREMITIES.
   1. The axillary nerve, wnich sometimes arises from
 the radial nerve.  It runs backwards and outwards
 around the neck of the humerus, and ramifies in the
 muscles of the scapula.
   2. The external  cutaneal, which  perforates the ca-
 raco-brachialis muscle, to the bend of the arm, where
 it accompanies the median vein as far as the thumb,
 and is lost in ils integuments.
   3. The internal cutaneal, which descends on the
 inside of the arm, where it bifurcates.   From the bend
 of the arm the anterior branch accompanies the ba-
 silic vein, to be inserted  into the skin of the palm of
 the hand; the posterior branch runs down the internal
 part of the forearm, to vanish in  the skin of the Uttie
 finger.
   4. The median nerve, which accompanies the bra-
 chial artery to the cubit, then passes between the bra-
 ehialis internus, pronator rotundus, and the perforatus
 and perforans, under the ligament of the wrist to the
 palm of the hand, where it sends ofi branches in every
 direction to the muscles ofthe hand, and then supplies
 the digital  nerves, which go to the extremities of the
 UiumMfore, and middle fingers.
   5. The  ulnar nerve,  wliich descends between the
 brachial artery and basilic vein, between the internal
 condyle of the humerus, and the olecranon,  and di-
 vides in the forearm into an  internal and  external
 branch.  Tlie former passes over the ligament of the
 wrist and sesamoid bone, to the hand, where it divides
 into three  branches, two of which go to the ring and
 little finger, and the third forms an arch towards the
 thumb, in the palm of the hand, and is lost in the con-
 tiguous muscles.  The latter passes over the tendon
 of the extensor carpi ulnaris and back of the hand, to
 supply also the two last fingers.
   6. The  radial nerve which sometimes gives off the
 axillary nerve.   It passes backwards, about the  os
 humeri, descends on the outside of  the arm, between
 the brachialis  externus and internus muscles to the
 cubit:  then proceeds between  the supinator  longus
 and brevis, to  the  superior  extremity of the radius,
 giving off various branches to adjacent muscles.  At
 this place it divides into two branches;  one goes along
 the radius, between the supinator longus and  radialis
 internus to the back of the hand, and terminates in the
 'nlerosseous muscles, the thumb and first three fingers;
 the orAer passes between the supinator brevis and head
 of the radius, and is lost in the muscles of the fore-arm.
                 Dorsal Nerves.
   The  Dorsal  nerves  are twelve  pairs in number.
 The first pair gives off a branch to the brachial plexus.
 All the dorsal nerves are distributed to the muscles of
 the back, intercostals, serrati, pectoral, abdominal mus-
 cles, and diaphragm.  The five inferior pairs go to the
 cartilages of the ribs, and are called costal.
                 Lumbar nerves.
  The five pairs of Lumbar nerves are bestowed about
 the loins and muscles, skin of the  abdomen and  loins,
 scrotum, ovaria, and diaphragm.   Tbe second, third,
 and fifth  pairs unite and form the obturator nerve,
 which descends over tho  psoas muscle into the pelvis,
 and passes through the foramen thyroideum to the ob-
 turator muscle, triceps, pecUneus, &c.
   The third and fourth, with  some branches of the
 second pair, form the crural nerve, which passes under
 Poupart's ligament with the femoral artery, sends off
 branches to the adjacent parts, and descends in the di-
 rection of the sartorius muscle to the internal condyle
 ofthe femur, from whence it accompanies the saphena
 vein to the internal ankle, to be lost in the skin of the
 great toe.
  The fifth pair is joined to the first pair of the sacral
 nerves.
                 Sacral Nerves.
  There are five pairs of sacral nerves, all of wliich
arise  from the cauda equina, or  termination of the
medulla spinalis, so called from the nerves  resembling
 the tail of a horse. The first four pairs give off branches
 to the pelvic viscera, and arc afterward united to the
 last lumbar, to form a large plexus, which gives off
  The ischiatic nerve, the largest in the body.   The
 ischiatic nerve,  immediately at its origin, sends off
 branches to the bladder, rectum, and parts of genera-
tion ; proceeds from the cavity of the pelvis through the
Ischiatic notch, between the tuberosity of the ischium
and great trochanter, to the ham, where it is called the
popliteal  nerve.  In  the ham  it divides into two
branches.
   1. The peroneal, which descends on  the fibula, and
distributes many branches to the muscles ofthe leg and
back of the foot.
   2. The  tibial,  which penetrates  the gastrocnemii
muscles to the internal ankle, passes  through  a notch
in the os calcis to the sole of the foot, where it divides
into an internal  and external plantar nerve, wliich
supply the muscles and aponeurosis ofthe foot and the
toes.
         Physiology of the Nervous  system.
   The nervous system, as the organ of  sense and mo-
tion, is connected  with so many functions of the animal
economy, that the study of it must be  of  tbe utmost
importance, and a fundamental part of the  study of the
whole economy.  The nervous system  consists of the
medullary substance of the brain, cerebellum,  medulla
oblongata, and spinalis; and of the same substance con-
tinued into the nerves by which it is distributed lo many
different parts of the body.  The whole of  this system
seems to be properly distinguished into these four parts.
   1. The medullary substance contained in the cranium
and vertebral cavity; the whole of  which seems to
consist of distinct fibres, but without the smaller fibres
being separated from each other by any evident enve-
loping membranes.
   2. Connected with one part or other of this substance
are, the nerves, in which the same medullary substance
is continued; but here more  evidently divided into
fibres, each of which is separated from the others  by
an enveloping membrane, derived from the pia mater.
   3. Parts  of the extremities  of certain nerves,  in
which the medullary substance is divested of the en-
veloping membranes from llie pia mater, and  so situ-
ated as to be exposed to the action of certain external
bodies, and perhaps so framed  as to be affected by the
action of certain bodies only; these are  named the
sentient extremities of the nerves.
   4. Certain extremities of the nerves, so  framed as to be
capable of a peculiar contractility; and, in consequence
of their situations and attachments to be, by their con-
traction, capable of moving most of the solid and fluid
parts of the body.  These are named the  moving ex-
tremities of the nerves.
   These several parts ofthe nervous system are every
where the same continuous medullary substance, which
is supposed to be the vital solid of animals, so constituted
in living animals, and in living systems only, as to admit
of motions being readily propagated  from any one
part to every other part of the nervous system, so long
as the continuity and naturally living state ofthe me-
dullary substance remains.  In the living man there is
an immaterial thinking substance, or mind, constantly
present, and every phenomenon of thinking is  to  be
considered as an affection or faculty ofthe mind alone.
But this immaterial and thinking part of man is so con-
nected with the material and  corporeal part  of him,
and particularly with the nervous system, that motions
excited  in this give occasion to thought, and thought,
however occasioned, gives occasion to new motions in
the nervous system.  This mutual communication,  or
influence, is assumed with confidence as a fact: but the
mode of it we do  not understand, nor pretend to ex-
plain ;  and therefore arc not bound to obviate  the dif-
ficulties that attend any of the suppositions which have
been made concerning it.  The phenomena ofthe ner-
vous system appear commonly in the following order:
The impulse of external bodies1 acts upon the sentient
extremities of the nerves; and this gives occasion  to
perception  or thought, which, as first  arising in the
mind, is termed sensation.  This sensation, according
to its various modifications, gives occasion  to volition,
or the willing of  certain ends to be  obtained by the
motion of certain parts of the body;  and this volition
gives occasion to the contraction of muscular fibres, by
which the  motion of the part required is produced.  As
the impulse of bodies on the sentient  extremities of s
nerve does not occasion any sensation, unless the nerve
between the sentient extremity  and the  brain be free;
and as, in like manner, violition does  not produce any
contraction of muscles, unless  tlie nerve between the
brain and  muscle  be  also  free;  it is concluded from
both these facts that sensation and volition, so far aa
they are connected with corporeal motions, are func
tions of the brain alone; and it is presumed that sensa-
tion arises only in consequence  of external impulse 
NER
NIC
producing motion in the sentient extremities of the
nerves, and  of that motion  being thence propagated
along the nerves of the brain ; and, in like manner, that
the will operating in the brain only, by a motion begun
there, and propagated along the nerves, produces the
contraction of muscles.  From what is now said, we
perceive more distinctly tbe different functions of the
several parts of the nervous  system.  1. The sentient
extremities seem to be particularly fitted to receive the
impressions of external bodies; and according to the
difference of these impressions, and ofthe condition of
tlie senlient extremity itself, to propagate along tlie
nerves motions of a determined kind, which commu-
nicated to the  brain, give occasion to sensation.  2.
The brain seems to be a part fitted for, and susceptible
of, those motions with wliich sensation, and  the whole
consequent operations of thought,  are connected: and
thereby is filled lo form a communication between the
motions excited in the sentient, and those  in conse-
quence arising in the moving extremities ofthe nerves,
which are often remote and distant  from each other.
3. The moving extremities are  so framed as to be ca-
pable of contraction, and of having  this contraction
excited by motion propagated from the brain, and com-
municated to the contractile  fibre.   4. The nerves,
more strictly so called, are to be considered as a collec-
tion of medullary fibres, each enveloped in its proper
membrane, and thereby so separated  from every other,
as hardly to admit of any  communication of motion
from any one to tbe others, and to admit only  of motion
along the continuous medullary substance of the same
fibre, from its origin to the extremities, or contrarywise.
From this view of the parts of the nervous system, of
their several functions and communication wilh each
other, it  appears that the beginning of motion in the
animal economy is generally connected with sensation:
and that the ultimate effects of such motion are chiefly
actions depending immediately upon the contraction
of moving fibres, between which and the sentient ex-
tremities, the communication is by means of the brain.
  B. In botany :  the term nerue is applied to a clustei
of vessels that runs like a rib or chord on certain leaves;
as lhat ofthe Laurus cinnamomum, and Arctium lappa.
  Ne'rvea spongiosa. The  cavernous part ot the
penis.
  NERVINE.   (Ncrvinus; from nervus,  a  nerve.)
Neurotic. That which relieves disorders of the nerves.
All the antispasmodics, and tbe various preparations
of bark and iron
  Nervo'rum resolutio.   Apoplexy ana palsy have
been so considered.
  NERVOSUS.  Nervous.   1.  Applied, in medicine,
to fevers and affections of the nervous system
  2.  In anatomy: lo the structure of parts being com-
posed of, or resembling a nerve.
  3.  In botany: to leaves which have nervelike cords.
  Nervosum os.  The occipital bone.
  NERVOUS.  See Nervosus.
  Nervous consumption.  See Atrophia.
  Nervous diseases.  See Neuroses.
  Nervous fever.  See Febris nervosa.
  Nervous headache.  See Cephalalgia.
  Nervous fluid.   Nervous principle.  The vascu-
larity of the cortical part of  ihe brain, and of the
nerves  themselves,  their  softness,  pulpiness, and
natural humid appearance, give reason to believe that
between the medullary particles  of which they arc
principally composed, a fine fluid is constantly secreted
which may  be fitted to receive and transmit, even
more readily than other fluids do, all impressions which
are made on it.  It appears to exhale from the extre-
mities of the nerves.  The  lassitude and debility of
muscles from too great exercise, and Ihe dulness of the
sensorial organs from  excessive use, would seem to
prove this. It has no smell nor taste; for the cerehrine
medulla  is insipid and inodorous.   Nor has it any
colour, for the cerebrum and nerves are white.  It is of
so subtile a consistence, as never to have been detected.
Its mobility is stupendous, for in less than a moment,
with the consent of the mind,  it is conveyed from the
cerebrum to the m uscles, like the electric mailer.  Whe-
ther the nervous fluid be carried from  the organ of
sense in the sensorial nerves to the cerebrum, and from
thence in the motory nerves  to the muscles, cannot be
positively affirmed.  The  constituent principles of
this  liquid are perfectly unknown, as they cannot be
rendered  visible  by art,  or proved by  experiment
       103
Upon making a ligature upon a nerve, the motion of
the fluid  is interrupted, wbich proves lhat something
corporeal flows through it.  It is therefore a weak  ar-
gument to deny its existence because we cannot see it;
for who has seen the matter of heat, oxygen, azote, and
other elementary bodies, the existence of which, nn
physician  in  the present  day doubts t   The electric
matter, whose action on llie nerves is very great, does
not appear lo constitute the nervous fluid ; for nerves
exhibit no signs  of spontaneous electricity; nor can
it be the magnetic matter, as the experiment of Gavian
with the magnet demonstrates:  nor is it oxygen, nor
hydrogen, nor azote; for the first very much irritates
the nerves, and  ihe other two suspend  their action.
The nervous fluid, therefore, is an  element sui generis,
which exists and  is produced in the nerves only; hence,
like  other elements, it  is only to be known by its ef-
fects.  The pulpous softness of some nerveB, and their
lax situation,  does not allow them  and the brain to  act
on the body  and soul  only by oscillation.  Lastly, a
tense chord, although tied, oscillates. The use of the
nervous fluid is, 1. It appears to be an intermediate sub-
stance between tbe body  and the soul,  by means of
which the latter thinks, perceives, and moves tbe mus-
cles  subservient  to the will.  Hence, the body acts
upon the soul, and the soul upon the body.  2.  It ap
pears to differ from the vital principle; for parts live
and are irritable which want nerves, as bones, tendons
plants, and insects.
  Nei-vous principle.  See Nervous fluid.
  Ne'stis.   (From vis, neg. and toBiia, to  eat; so called
because it is generally found empty.)  The jejunum.
  NETTLE.  See Urlica.
  Nettle, dead.  See Lamium album
  Nettle-rash.  See Urticaria.
  NEURALGIA.  (From vtvpov, a nerve, and aXyos,
pain.) 1. A  pain in a nerve.
  2.  The name of  a genus of diseases, in Good's No-
sology.  Class, Neurotica: Order, Asthdica; nerve-
ache.  It has three species, Neuralgia faciei, pedis,
mamma.
  Neurochondro'des. (From vtvpov, a sinew, xovrjpoj,
a cartilage, aud tiSos, resemblance.)  A hard substance
between a sinew and a cartilage.
  NEUROLOGY.  (Neurologia; from vwpov, a nerve,
and Xoyos, a discourse! The doctrine of the nerves.
  Neuromk'tores.  (From veupov, a nerve, and mj-
rpa, a matrix.)  The psoas muscles are  so cal!«d  by
Fallopius, as being the repository of many small nerves.
  NEURO'SES.  (The plural of neurosis;  from vtv-
pov,  a nerve.)  Nervous diseases. -  The second class
of Cullen's  Nosology is  so  called; it   comprehends
affections  of sense and  motion  disturbed; without
either idiopathic pyrexia, or topical diseases.
  NEUROTICA. (From vtupov, a nerve.)  The name
of a class of diseases in Good's Nosology.   Diseases of
the nervous system.  It comprehends four orders, viz.
Phrenica; JEslhetica; Cinetica;  Systatica.
  Neuro'tica.  (From vtvoov, a nerve.)  Nervous
medicines.
  NEUROTOMY.  (JVeurotomia; from  vtvpov, a
nerve, and  rtpvia, to  cut.)  1.  A  dissection of the
nerves.
  2.  A pnnctureof a nerve.
  NEUTRAL.  A term applied to saline compounds
of an acid and an alkali, which are so called, because
they do not possess the characters of acid or alkaline
Baits; such are Epsom salts, nitre,  and  all the com
pounds of the alkalies wilh the acids.
  NEUTRALIZATION.  When acid  and alkaline
matter are combined in such proportions, that the com-
pound does not change the colour of litmus or violets,
they are said to be neutralized.
  Ne'xus.   (From necto,  to wind.)  A  complication
of substances in one part, as the membrane which  in-
volves the foetus.
  NICHOLS, Frank, was born in London, where  his
father was a  barrister, iu 1699.  After passing through
the usual academical exercises  at Oxford with great
assiduity, he  chose medicine for  his profession; and
pursued a course of dissections wilh so much diligence
and perseverance, as to render himself highly skilful in
this branch of his art.  Hence he was chosen reader of
anatomy in the  university, where he used his utmost
endeavours to introduce a zeal for this pursuit, and
obtained a high reputation.  At the close of his coursa
he made a short trial of practice in Cornwall, and sub 
NIC
NIG
•equent.y paid a visit to the princi pal schools of France
and Italy.  On his return he resumed his anatomical
and physiological lectures in London, which were fre-
quented, not only by  students from  the universities,
but also by many surgeons, apothecaries, and others.
In 1728 lie was chosen a fellow of live Royal Society,
to which he communicated several papers; and shortly
after  he received his doctor's degree at Oxford, and
became a fellow of tlie College of Physicians. In 1734,
he was appointed to read the Gulstonian lectures, and
chose the Heart and Circulation, for his subjects.  In
1743,  he married one of the daughters of the celebrated
Dr. Mead.   About five years atler he was  appointed
lecturer on surgery to the college, and began his course
with a learned and elegant dissertation on the " Anima
Medica," which was afterward  published.  On  the
death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753, Dr. Nichols was ap-
pointed his successor as one of the King's physicians;
which office he held till the death of his Majesty, seven
years  alier.  To a second edition of the treatise, " De
Anima Medica," in 1772, he added a dissertation, " De
Motu  Cordis et Sanguinis in Honiine natoet iron nato."
Weary at length with his  profession, and wishing to
suiieTiutend  the education of his son at Oxford, he re-
moved to that  city: and when the study of the law
recalled his son lo London,  the Doctor took a house at
Epsom, where he passed the remainder of his life in
literary retirement.  He died in 1778.
  Nicked leaf.  See Emarginatus.
  NICKEL.  A metal discovered by Cronstedt in 1751.
though the substance from which  he extracted it was
known in the year 1(194.   Nickel is found iu nature
generally iu the metallic stale, more rarely in that of
an oxide.  Its ores have a coppery-red colour, generally
covered more or less with a greenish-gray efflorescence.
The most abundant ore is that  termed sulphuret of
nickel, or kupfernickd, which is a compound of nickel,
arsenic, sulphuret of  iron, and sometimes cobalt and
copper.  This ore occurs either massive, or dissemi-
nated, but never crystallized; it is of a copper colour,
sometimes yellowish,  white, or  gray.  It exisLs also
combined wilh oxygen, and a little  carbonic acid, in
what  is called native oxide of nickel (nickel ochre); it
then has an  earthy appearance, and is very friable; it
is found coaling kupfernickd, and seems to  originate
from the decomposition of this ore.  It is found  con-
taminated with iron  in (he mineral substance called
martial nickel; this native combination, when fresh
broken, has a lamellated texture; when exposed to the
air, it  soon  turns black, and sometimes exhibits thin
rhomboidal plates placed irregularly over each other.
It is also found united lo arsenic, cobalt, and alumine
iu the ore, called arseniate of nickel.
I- Nickel is  a  metal of great hardness, of a uniform
texture, and of a colour between silver and tin;  very
difficult to  be  purified, and  uiaguetical.  It  even ac-
quires polarity by llie touch.   It is malleable, both cold
and redhot; and is scarcely more fusible than manga-
nese.   Its oxides, when pure, are  reducible by a suf-
ficient heat without combustible matter; and it is little
more  tarnished by heating in contact with  air, than
platina, gold, and  silver.  Ils specific gravity, when
east, is 8?279; when forged, 8.666.
  Nickel is commonly obtained from  its sulphuret, the
kupferuickel of the Germans, in wliich it is generally
mixed also  with arsenic, iron, and  cobalt.  This is
first roasted, to drive off the sulphur and arsenic, then
mixed with  two parts of black flux, put into a crucible,
covered with muriate of soda, and heated in a forge
furnace.  The metal thus obtained, which is still very
impure, must be dissolved in dilute nitric  acid, and
then evaporated to dryness; and after this process has
been  re|ieatod three or four times, the residuum must
be dissolved in a solution of ammonia, perfectly free
from carbonic acid.  Being again  evaporated to dry-
ness,  it is now lo be well mixed with two or  three
parts  of black flux, and  exposed to a violent heat iu a
crucible for  half an hour or more.
  There are two oxides of nickel; tlie dark ash-gray,
and the black.  If potassa be added to the solution of
the nitrate or  sulphate, and tlie  precipitate dried, we
obtain the protoxide.  The peroxide was formed by
Thenard, by passing chlorine through the protoxide
diffused in water.  A black insoluble peroxide remains
at the bottom.
  Little is known of the chloride, iodide sulphuret, or
phosphuret of this metal.
  The salts of nickel possess the  following general
characters.  They have usually  a  green colour, and
yield a white precipitate with ferroprussiate of potassa.
Ammonia dissolves the oxide of nickel.  Sulphuretted
hydrogen and infusion of galls occasion no precipitate.
The hydrosulphuret of polassa throws down a black
precipitate.  Their composition has been very imper-
fectly ascertained.
  Nicophorus.  (From  vikv, victory, and tbepia, to
bear: so called because victors were crowned with it.)
A kind of ivy.
  NICOTIA'NA.  (From Nicott, who first brought it
into Europe.)  Tobacco.
  1. The name of a genus nf plants  in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The former pharmacopoeia! name of the tobacco.
See Nicotiana tabacum.
  Nicotiana  am eric ana.  American  or Virginian
tobacco.  See Nicotiana tabacum.
  Nicotiana minor.  See Nicotiana rustica.
  Nicotiana rustica.  The systematic  name of the
English tobacco.  Nicotiana minor; Priapria;  Hy-
oscyamus luteus.  This plant is much weaker than the
Virginian tobacco, the leaves are chiefly used to smoke
vermin, though they promise, from their  more gentle
operation, to be a safer remedy in some cases than the
former.
  Nicotiana tabacum.  The systematic name of the
Virginian tobacco-plant.  Pettim, by llie Indians;  Ta
liacum; Hyoscyamus peruvianus;  Picelt.  Nicotiana
—foliis lanceolato-ovatis  sessilibus decurrentibus flo-
rentibus acutis,  of Linnaeus, is  the  plant employed
medicinally  It is a  very actiye narcotic and sternu-
tatory.  A decoction of the leaves is much esteemed in
some  diseases of tlie skin, and  is  by some said to be
a specific against the itch. The fumes and the decoc-
tion are employed  in obstinate  constipations of tlie
bowels, and very frequently with success; it is neces-
sary,  however, to caution the practitioner against an
effect mostly produced by its exhibition, namely,  syn-
cope, with cold sweats; and, in some instances, death.
Vauquelin has obtained a peculiar  principle from this
plant, in which its active properties  reside.  See Ni-
cotin.
  NICOTIN.  A peculiar principle obtained by Vau-
quelin, from tobacco.  It is colourless, and has the pe-
culiar taste and  smell of the plant  It dissolves  both
in water and alkohol: it is volatile  and poisonous.
  f" Evaporate the expressed  juice to one-fourth its
bulk; and,  when cold, strain it through fine  linen;
evaporate nearly to dryness; digest the  residue in al-
kohol, filter and  evaporate to dryness;  dissolve this
again in alkohol, and again  reduce it to a dry state
Dissolve the residue in water, saturate the acid whicli
it contains with weak solution of potassa, introduce
the whole into a retort, and distil to dryness, redissolve
and again dissolve three  or four times successively
The nicotin will thus  pass into the receiver, dissolved
in water, from which  solution it may he obtained by
very gradual evaporation."— Webs. Man. of Chem. A.l
  NICTITATIO.  Twinkling,  or  winking of the
eyes.
  NIDULANS.  (From  nidulor, to place in a nest.)
Nidulate: applied to the  seeds of some  fruits, which
are imbedded on their  surface; as those of the straw-
berry.
  NIGE'LLA.  (Quasi nigrella;  from  niger, black:
so named from its black seed.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants  in  the Linnaean
system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Pentagynia.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name  of the plant called
devil-in-a-bush, or fennel-flower.
  Nigella  officinarum. See Agrostemma githago
  Nigella sativa. The systematic name of tlie devil
in-a-bush.  Fennel-flower.   Melanthium; Melasper-
mum.  Il  was  formerly employed  medicinally as an
expectorant and  deobstruent,  but  is now fallen into
disuse.
  Nihella'strum.  (From   nigella, fennel flower.*
See Agrostemma githago.
  NIGER.  Black. Applied  to some parts  and dis-
eases from their colour; as Pigmentum nigrum •
morbus niger.
  NIGHT.  Nox.  Many diseases and plants  have
this for their trivial name, because of some peculii
circumstance  connected  with tbe period;  as  night,
mare  nightshade, Sec
                                        103 
NIT
NIT
  Night-blindness.  See Nyctalopia.
  Nightmare.  See Oneirodynia gravans.
  NIGHTSHADE.   See Solan urn, Phytolacca, and
Atropa.
  Night.'kade, American.  See Phytolacca decandria.
  Nightshade, deadly.  See Atropa belladonna.
  Nightshade, Palestine.  See Solanum sanctum.
  Nightshnde,woody.  See Solanum dulcamara.
  NIGRINE. An ore of titanium.
  Nigri'ties.  (From  niger, black.)    A  caries is
called nigritiesossium, a blackness or the bone.
  Ni'hilum album.  Nihil album.  A name formerly
given to the flowers, or oxide of zinc.
  Ni'nzi radix.  See Sium ninsi.
  Ni'nzin.  See Sium ninsi.
  NIPPLE.  Papilla.  The  small projecting propor-
tion in the middle of the breasts of men and women.
It is much larger in the latter, and has several open-
ings in it,  the excretory ducts of the lacteal glands.
  NIPPLE-WORT.  SeeLapsana.
  NISUS  FORMATIVUS.   (Nisus,  us. m.)  A cre-
ative or formative effort.
  NIT1DUS.  Polished, smooth,  shining: applied in
botany to stems,  Sec.;  as in  the Chaerophyllum syl-
vestre.  See Caulis.
  Nitras  ammonis.  See Ammonia nitras.
  Nitras  argenti.  See Argenti nitras.
  Nitras potassje.  See Nitric acid.
  Nitras  potass* fusus.   Sal  prunella;  Nitrum
tabulatum.  This salt, besides the nitric  acid and po-
tassa, contains a little sulphuric acid.  See Nitric acid.
  Nitras  sodje.   Alkali minerals nitratum; Nitrum
cubicum.  Its virtues are similar to those of nitrate of
potassa, for which it may be safely substituted.
  NITRATE.  (Nitras, atis, f.; from nitrum, nitre.)
A salt formed by the union of the nitric acid, with
salifiable bases; as the nitrate of potassa, soda, silver,
Sec
  Nitrate of potassa.  See Nitric acid.
  Nitrate of silver.   See Argenti nitras.
  NITRE.  N<7pov.  Nitrum; Potassa nitras ; Salt-
petra; Alaurat;  Algali; Aloe;  Baurack; Acusto;
Halinitrum.  The common name for saltpetre or the
nitrate of  potassa.  A perfect  neutral salt, formed by
the union  of the nitric acid with the vegetable alkali,
thence called nitrate of potassa.  Its taste is cooling,
and it does not alter the colour of the syrup of violets.
Nitre exists in large quantities in the earth, and is con-
tinually formed in inhabited places;  it is found in great
quantities  upon walls which  are sheltered  from the
rain.  It is of great use in the arts; it is the  principal
ingredient in gunpowder; and, burned with different
proportions of  tartar, forms  the  substances  called
fluxes.  It is of considerable  importance in medicine,
as a febrifuge, diuretic, and  antiphlogistic  remedy,
in* doses of from  five to twenty grains.  Sec Nitric
acid.
  NITRIC  ACH).  Acidum   nitricum.  "The two
principal constituent parts of  our atmosphere,  when
in certain proportions, are capable, under particular
circumstances, of combining  chemically into one  of
the most  powerful acids,  the nitric.   If these gases
be mixed  in a proper proportion in a glass tube about
a line in diameter, over  mercury, and a series of elec-
tric shocks be passed through them for some hours,
they will form nitric acid; or,  if a solution of potassa
be present with them, nitrate of potassa will be obtain-
ed.   The  constitution of this acid may bo further
proved, analytically, by driving it through a red-hot
porcelain  tube, as thus it will be decomposed  into oxy-
gen  and nitrogen gases. For all practical purposes,
however,  the nitric acid is  obtained  from nitrate of
potassa, from which it is expelled  by sulphuric acid.
  Three parts  of pure nitrate of  potassa,  coarsely
powdered, are to be put into a glass retort, wilh two of
strong sulphuric acid.  This must be cautiously added,
taking care to avoid the fumes that arise.  Join to the
retort a tubulated receiver of  large capacity, with an
adopter interposed, and lute the junctures with glazier's
putty.  In the tubulure fix a glass  tube, terminating in
anoiner large receiver, in which is a small quantity of
water; and if you wish to  collect the gaseous pro-
ducts, let a bent glass tube from this receiver commu-
nicate with a pneumatic trough.  Apply heat to the
receiver by means of a sand bath.  The first product
that passes into the receiver is generally red and fum-
ing; but tha appearances gradually diminish, till the
 acid come* over pale, and even colourless, if the mat*
 rials used were clean.   After this It  amiin  becomes
 more and more red and fuming, till the  end of the ope-
 ration ;  and the whole mingled together  will be of a
 yellow or orange colour.
  Empty the receiver, and again replace it.  Then ia
 troduce  by a small funnel, very cautiously, one iwrtof
 boiling water in a slender stream, and  continue the
 distillation.  A small quantity of n weaker acid  will
 thus be obtained, which can be kept apart.  The first
 will have a specific gravity of about 1.500, if the heat
 have been properly regulated, and if the  receiver was
 refrigerated by cold  wuler or  ice.  Acid of that den-
 sity, amounting to  two-thirds of the  weight of tbe
 nitre, may thus be piocured.   But commonly  the hea*
 is pushed too high, whence more or less of the acid ia
 decomposed, and its  proportion of water uniting to the
 remainder, reduces its strength.  It is not profitable to
 use  a smaller proportion of sulphuric  acid,  when a
 concentrated nitric is required.   But when only a di-
 lute acid, called in commerce  aquafortis, is required,
 then less sulphuric acid will suffice, provided a portion
 of water be added.   One hundred parts of good nitre,
 sixty of strong sulphuric acid, and twenty of water,
 form economical proportions.
  In the large  way, and for the purposes of the arts,
 extremely thick cast iron or earthen retorts are employ-
 ed, to which an earthen head is adapted, and connect-
 ed with a range  of proper condensers.  The strength
 of the acid too  is varied, by putting more or less water
 in the receivers.  The nitric acid thus made generally
 contains sulphuric acid, and also muriatic, from the
 impurity of the nitrate employed.   If the former, a
 solution  of nitrate of barytes  will  occasion  a  wbite
 precipitate;  if the latter,  nitrate of silver will render
 it milky.  The sulphuric acid  may be separated by a
 second distillation from very pure nitre,  equal in weight
 to an eighth of that  originally employed;  or by preci-
 pitating with nitrate of barytes,  decanting the clear
 liquid, and  distilling it.   The muriatic acid  may be
 separated by proceeding in the same way with nitrate
 of silver, or  with  litharge, decanting the  clear liquid,
 and redistilling it, leaving an eighth or tenth part in the
 retort.   The acid for the  last  process  should be con-
 densed as much as possible, and the redistillation con-
 ducted very slowly;  and if it be stopped when half is
 come over, beautiful crystals  of muriate of lead  will
 be obtained on cooling the remainder, if litharge be
 used, as  Steinacher informs us; who also adds, that
 the vessel should be made to fit tight by grinding, as
 any lute is liable to contaminate the product.
  As this acid still  holds in  solution more or less ni-
 trous gas, it  is  not in fact nitric  acid, but a kind of
 nitrous.  It is, therefore, necessary to put it into a re-
 tort, to which a receiver is added, the two vessels not
 being luted, and to apply a very gentle heat for several
 hours, changing the receiver as soon as it  is filled with
 red vapours.  The nitrous gas will thus be expelled.
 and the  nitric acid will remain in the retort as limpid
 and colourless as water.   It should be kept in a bottle
 and secluded from  the light, otherwise it will lose part
 of its oxygen.
  What  remains in  the retort is a bisulpbate of po-
 tassa, from which the superfluous acid may be expelled
 by a pretty  strong heat, and the  residuum, being dis
 solved and crystallized, will be sulphate of potassa.
  As nitric acid in a fluid stale is always mixed with
 water, different attempts  have been  made to ascertain
 its strength,  or the quantity of real acid contained
 in it
  The  nitric acid is of considerable use in the arts.
 It is employed for etching on copper; as  a solvent of
 tin to form with that metal a mordant for some of the
 finest dyes; in metallurgy and assaying; in  variom
 chemical processes,  on account of tbe facility witb
 which it parts with  oxygen, and  dissolves metals; in
 medicine as a tonic,  and as a substitute for mercurial
 preparations in  syphilis and affections of the liver, as
 also in form  of  vapour to destroy  contagion.   For the
 purposes of the arts it is commonly used in a diluted
state, and contaminated with the  sulphuric and muri-
 atic acids, by the name of aquafortis.  This is  gene
 rally prepared by mixing common nitre with an equal
weight of sulphate of iron, and half iu weight of the
same sulphate calcined, and distil ing the  mixture;  ot
by mixing nitre wilh  twice its weight of dry powdered
clay, and distilling  in a reverberatory furnace   Two 
NIT
NIT
kinds are found in  the shops, one called double aqua-
fortis, which is about half the strength of nitric acid ;
the other simply aquafortis, which is half the strength
of the double.
  A compound mode by mixing two parts of the nitric
acid with one  of  muriatic,  known formerly by the
name of aqua regia, and now by that of nitro-muriatic
acid, has the property of dissolving gold and platina.
On mixing the two acids, heat  is given out, an effer-
vescence takes place,  and the mixture acquires  an
orange colour.  This is likewise made by adding gradu-
ally to an ounce of powdered  muriate of ammonia four
ounces of double aquafortis, and keeping the mixture
in a sand heat till the salt is dissolved; taking care to
avoid the fumes, as the vessel must be left open ; or by
distilling nitric  acid with  an  equal weight,  or rather
more, of common salt.
  On this subject we are indebted to Sir H. Davy for
some excellent observations,  published by him in the
first volume of the Journal of Science. If strong nitrous
acid, saturated with nitrous gas, be mixed with a  sa-
turated solution of muriatic acid gas, no other effect is
produced than  might be expected from the  action of
nitrous acid of the same strength on an equal quantity
of water; and the mixed acid so formed lias no power
of action on gold or platina.  Again, if muriatic acid
gas, and nitrous gas, in equal volumes, be mixed  to-
gether over mercury, and  half a volume of oxygen be
added, the immediate condensation  will be no  more
than might be  expected from the formation of nitrous
acid gas.  And when this is decomposed, or absorbed
by tbe mercury, the muriatic  acid gas is found unalter-
ed, mixed with a certain portion of nitrous gas.
  It appears then that nitrous acid, and muriatic acid
gas, have no chemical action on each other.  If colour-
less nitric  acid and muriatic  acid  of commerce be
mixed together, the mixture immediately becomes yel-
low, and gains the  power of  dissolving gold and plati-
num.  If it be gently heated,  pure chlorine arises from
it,  and the colour becomes  deeper.  If the heat be
longer continued, chlorine still rises, but mixed with ni-
trous acid gas.  When the process has been very long
continued till the colour becomes very deep, no  more
chlorine  can be procured, and it loses its  power of
acting upon platinum and  gold.  It is now nitrous and
muriatic acids.  It  appears then from these observa-
tions, which have been very often repeated, that nitro-
muriatic acid owes its peculiar properties to a mutual
decomposition  of the nitric  and  muriatic acids; and
that water, chlorine, and  nitrous acid gas, are the re-
sults. Though nitrous gas and chlorine have no action
on  each other  when perfectly dry, yet if  water be
present, there is an immediate decomposition, and ni-
trous acid and muriatic acid are formed.  118 parts of
Strong liquid nitric acid being decomposed in this case,
yield67'of chlorine. Aqua regia does not oxidise gold
and platina.  It merely causes their combination with
ciuorine.
  A bath made of nitro-muriatic acid, diluted so much
as to taste no sourer than vinegar, or of such a strength
as to prick the skin a little, after being exposed to it for
twenty minutes or  half an hour, has been introduced
by Dr. Scott of Bombay as a remedy in chronic syphilis,
a variety of ulcers and diseases  of the skin, chronic
hepatitis, bilious dispositions, general debility, and lan-
guor.  He considers every trial as quite inconclusive
where a ptyalism, some affection ofthe gums, or some
very evident constitutional effect, has not arisen from
it  The internal useof the same acid has been recom-
mended to be conjoined with  that of  the partial or  ge-
neral bath.
  With  the different bases the nitric  acid  forms  ni-
trates.
  The nitrate of barytes, when perfectly pure, is in re-
gular octahedral crystals, though it is  sometimes  ob-
tained in small shining scales.
  The nitrate of potassa is the salt well known by the
name of nitre or saltpetre. It is found ready formed in
the East Indies, in  Spain, in the kingdom of Naples,
and elsewhere, in considerable quantities; but nitrate
of lime is still more abundant.  Far the greater part of
tbe nitrate made use of is produced by a combination
of circumstances which tend  to compose and condense
nitric acid.  This acid appears to be produced in all
situations where animal  matters are completely de-
composed with access of air,  and of proper substances
with wbich it  can readily combine.   Grounds fre-
 quently trodden by cattle, and impregnated with their
 excrements, or the walls of inhabited places, where pu-
 trid animal vapours abound, such as slaughter-houses,
 drains, or the like, afford nitre by long exposure lo the
 air.  Artificial nitre beds are made by an attention to
 the circumstances in which this salt is  produced  by
 nature.  Dry ditches are dug, and covered with sheds,
 open at the side, to keep off the rain.  These are filled
 with animal substances, such as dung, or other cxcre
 ments, with the remains of vegetables, and old raorta:,
 or other loose calcareous earth; this substance being
 found to be  the best  and most convenient receptacle
 for the acid to combine witb.   Occasional watering,
 and turning up from time to time, are necessary to ac-
 celerate the process, and increase the surfaces to which
 the air may apply ; but too much moisture is hurtful.
 When a certain portion of nitrate is formed, the pro-
 cess  appears to go on  more quickly; but a  certain
 quantity stops it altogether; and after this cessation,
 the materials will go on to furnish more, if what is
 formed be  extracted by lixiviation.   After a succession
 of many months, more  or  less,  according to the ma-
 nagement  of the operation, in which the action of a re-
 gular cunent of fresh air is ofthe greatest importance,
 nitre is found in the mass.  If the teds contained much
 vegetable matter, a considerable portion of the nitrous
 salt will be  common saltpetre; but if otherwise, the
 acid  will, for the most part, be combined  with the cal-
 careous earth.  It consists of 6.75 acid + 6 potassa.
   To extract the saltpetre from the mass of earthy
 matter, a number of large casks are prepared,  with a
 cock at the  bottom of each, and a quantity of straw
 within, to prevent its  being stopped  up.  Into these the
 matter is put, together with wood-ashes, either strewed
 at top, or  added during the filling.  Boiling water is
 then poured on, and  suffered to stand for some time;
 . after which  it is drawn  off, and another water added
 in the same manner,  as long as any saline matter can
 be thus extracted.  The weak brine  is heated, and
 passed through other tubs, until it  becomes of consi-
 derable strength.  It is  then carried to the boiler, and
 contains nitre and other salts; the chief of which is
 common culinary salt, and sometimes muriate of mag-
 nesia.  It  is the property of nitre to be much more so-
 luble in hot than cold water; but common salt is very
 nearly as soluble in cold as in hot water.  Whenever,
 therefore,  the evaporation is carried  by boiling to a
 certain point, much ofthe common salt will fall to the
 bottom, for want of water to hold it  in solution, though
 the nitre will remain  suspended by  virtue of the heat
 The  common salt thus separated is taken out with a
 perforated ladle, and a small quantity of the  fluid is
 cooled, from time to  time, that its concentration may
 be known by the nitre which crystallizes in it.   When
 the fluid is sufficiently evaporated, it is taken out and
 cooled, and a great part of the  nitre separates  in crys-
 tals ; while the remaining common salt continues dis-
 solved, because equally soluble in cold and  in hot
 water.  Subsequent  evaporation of tbe residue will
 separate more nitre in the same manner.   By the sug-
 gestion of Lavoisier, a much simpler plan was adopted;
 reducing the crude nitre to powder,  and washing il
 twice with water.
   This nitre, which  is called nitre of the first  boiling,
 contains some common salt, from which it may be pu-
 rified  by solution in  a small  quantity of water, and
I subsequent evaporation; for the crystals thusobtained
 are much  less contaminated with common salt than
 before; because the proportion of water is so much
 larger, with respect to the small quantity  contained  by
 the nitre, that very' little of it will crystallize.  For nice
 purposes, tbe solution and crystallization of nitre are
 repeated four times.   Tbe crystals of nitre are  usually
 of the form of six-sided flattened prisms, with dihedral
 summits.  Its taste is penetrating; but the cold pro-
 duced by placing the  salt to dissolve in the mouth, ia
 such  as to predominate over  the  real taste at first.
 Seven parts of water dissolve two of nitre, at the tem-
 perature of sixty degrees; but boiling water dissolves
 its own  weight  100 parts of alkohol, at a beat  of
 176°, dissolve only 2.9.
   On being exposed to a gentle heat, nitre fuses; and
 In this state, being poured  into moulds, so as to form
 little round cakes, or balls, it it called sal prunella, or
 crystal mineral. This  at  least is  the way in which
 this salt is now usuany prepared, conformably to the
 directions of Boerhaave, though in most dispensatories 
NIT                                               NIT
a twenty-fourtb part of sulphur was directed to be de-
flagrated on the nitre before it was poured out. This
•alt should not be left on the tire after it has entered
into  fusion, otherwise it will be converted  into a ni-
trate of polassa.  If the heat be increased in redness,
the acid itself is decomposed, and a considerable quan-
tity of tolerably pure oxygen gas is evolved, succeeded
by nitrogen.
  This salt powerfully promotes the combustion of in-
flammable substances.  Two or three parts mixed with
one of charcoal, and  set on lire, burn rapidly; azote
and carbonic acid gas are given out, and a small por-
tion of the latter is  retained by the alkaline residuum,
which was  formerly called clyssus of nitre.  Three
parts of nitre, two of subcarbonate of potassa, and one
of sulphur, mixed together in a warm mortar, form ihe
fulminating powder ; a small quantity of whicli, laid
on a fire shovel, and held over the fire till it begins to
melt, explodes with a  loud sharp noise.  Mixed with
sulphur and charcoal, il forms gunpowder.
  Three parts of nitre, one of sulphur, and one of fine
saw-dust, well mixed, constitute  what is called  tlie
powder of fusion.  If a bit of hose copper be folded up
and  covered with this powder  in a walnut-shell, and
tbe powder be set on fire with  a lighted paper, it will
detonate rapidly, and fuse the metal inlo a  globule of
■ulphuret without burning the shell.
  Silex, alumina, and barytes, decompose this saltin a
high temperature, by uniting with  ils base.   The alu-
mina will effect this even  alter it has been  made into
pottery.
  The uses of nitre  are various.  Beside those already
indicated, it enters into the composition of fluxes, aud
is extensively employed In metallurgy; it serves to pro-
mote tbe combustion of sulphur in fabricating its acid ;
it is used in the art of dying;  it is added to common
salt for preserving  meat, to which  it gives a red hue;
it is an ingredient iu some frigorific mixtures; and it is
prescribed ia medicine, as cooling, febrifuge,  and di-
uretic ;  and some have recommended it mixed with
vinegar as a very powerful remedy tor the sea  scurvy.
  Nitrate of soda,  formerly called cubic or quadran-
gular nitre, approaches in its properties to the nitrate
of potassa;  but differs from it in being somewhat more
soluble  in cold water, though less in hot, which takes
up little  more than  its own weight;  iu being inclined
to attract moisture from the atmosphere; and  in crys-
tallizing in rhombs, or rhomboidal  prisms.  It  may be
prepared by saturating soda with  the nitric acid; by
precipitating nitric solutions of Ihe  metals, or of the
earths,  except barytes, by soda;  by lixiviating  and
crystallizing the residuum of common salt distilled with
three-fourths its weight of nitric acid; or by saturating
the mother waters  of nitre  witb soda instead of po-
tassa.
  Nitrate of strontian may be obtained in the same
manner as that of barytes, wilh wliich it agrees in the
shape of its crystals, and most of its properties.
  Nitrate of lime, the calcareous nitre of older writers
abounds  in  the mortar of old buildings, particularly
those that have been much exposed to animal effluvia,
or processes in which azote  is set free.  Hence it
abounds in  nitre beds, as was observed when treating
of the nitrate of potassa.  It may also be prepared arti-
ficially by pouring  dilute  nitric acid on  carbonate  of
lime.
  The nitrate of ammonia possesses the property of ex-
ploding, and being totally decomposed, at the tempera-
ture of 600°; whence  it acquired the name of nitrum
jlammans.  The readiest mode of preparing  it is  by
adding carbonate of ammonia to dilute nitric acid till
saturation takes place.  If this solution be evaporated
in a heat between  70° and 100°, and the evaporation
not carried  too far,  it crystallizes in hexahedral pnsms,
terminating in very acute pyramids.  If the beat rise to
212°, it will afford, on cooling, long fibrous silky crys-
tals: if the evaporation be carried so far as for the rait
to concrete immediately on a  glass rod by cooling, it
will form a compact mass.  According to Sir H. Davy,
these differ but little from  each other, except in the
water they contain.
   When dried as much as  possible without decompo-
sition, it consists of 6.75 acid -4- 2.125 ammonia-f-1.125
water.
   The chief use of this salt  is for affording nitrous
oxide on being decomposed by beat.
   Nitrate of magnesia, magnesian nitre, crystallizes
       106
in four-sided rhomboidal prisms, with oblique or trun-
cated summits, and sometimes in bundles of small nee-
dles.  Ils  taste is bitter, and very similar to that of
nitrate of  lime, but less pungent.  It is fusible, and de
composnble by heat, giving out first a little oxygen gas,
then nitrous oxide, and lastly nitric acid.  It deliquesces
slowly.  It is soluble in an equal weight of cold water,
and in but little more hot, so that it is scarcely crystal-
lizable but by spontaneous evaporation.
  The two preceding species are capable of combining
into  a  triple  salt,  an ammoniaco-magnesian nitrate,
either by uniting the two in solution, or by a partial de-
composition of either by means of the base of the other.
This is slightly inflammable when suddenly heated;
and by a lower heat is decomposed, giving out oxygen.
azote, more water than it contained, nitrous oxide, aud
nitric acid.  The residuum is pure  magnesia.
  From the activity of the nitric acid asa'solvent of earths
in analyzatiou,  the nitrate of glucine is better known
than any other of the salts of this new earth.  Its form
is either pulverulent, or a tenacious  or ductile mass.
Its taste is at first saccharine, and afterward astringent.
It grows soft by exposure to heat, soon melts, its acid
is decomposed into  oxygen and azote, and its base
alone is left behind.  It is very soluble and very deli-
quescent.
  Nitrate, or rather  supernitrate of alumina, crystal
lizes, though with difficulty, in thin, soft, pliable flakes.
It is  of an austere and acid taste, and reddens blue ve-
getable colours.  It  may  be formed  by dissolving in
diluted  nitric acid, with tlie assistance of heat, fresh
precipitated alumina, well washed but not dried.  It is
deliquescent, and soluble  in  a very small portion  of
water.  Alkohol dissolves its own-weight.  It is easily
decomposed by heat.
  Nitrate of zircone crystallizes  in  small, capillary,
silky needles.   Its taste is astringent It is easily de-
composed by fire, very soluble in water, and deliques-
cent.  Il may be prepared by dissolving zircone in strong
nitric acid; but, like the preceding species, the acid is
always in excess.
  Nitrate of yttria may be prepared in a similar man-
net.   Its taste is sweetish and astringent.   Il is scarcely
to be obtained  in crystals; and if it be evaporated  by
too strong a heat, the salt becomes soft like honey, and
on cooling, concretes into a stony mass."   Ure's Chem.
Did.
  NITRIC  ACID OXYGENIZED.  The  apparent
oxygenation of nitric acid by Thenard, ought to be  re-
garded  merely as the  conversion of a portion of its
combined water into deutoxide of hydrogen.
  Nitric oxide.  See Nitrogen, deutoxide of.
  Nitric  oxide of Mercury.  See Hydrargyri nitrico-
oxidum.
  Nitrico-oxidum  hydrargyri.   See  Hydrargyri
nitrico-oxydum.
  NITROGEN.  (From virpov, nitre, and ytvvata, to
generate:  so called because it is the generator of nitre.)
Azot; Azote.   "An important elementary or undecom-
posed  principle.   As it constitutes four-fifths  of the
volume of atmospheric air, the readiest mode of pro
curing azote  is to abstract its oxygenous associate, by
the  combustion of phosphorus or hydrogen.   It may
also be obtained from animal matters, subjected in a
glass retort to  the action of nitric acid, diluted witb 8
or 10 limes its weight of water.
   Azote possesses all the physical properties of air.  It
extinguishes flame and animal life.  It is absorbable by
 about 100 volumes of water.  Its  spec, gravity is
0.9722. 100 cubic inches weigh 29.65 grains.  It has
neither taste nor smell.   It unites with oxygen in four
 proportions, forming four important compounds. These
 ore,
   I. Protoxide of azote, called also nitrous oxide, pro-
 toxide of nitrogen, and gaseous oxide of azote.
   This combination of nitrogen and oxygen was for-
 merly called the dephlogisticated nitrous gas, but now
gaseous oxide of nitrogen or nitrous oxide.  Il was first
 discovered by Priestley.  Its nature and properties have
since been investigated (though not very accurately) by
 a society  of Dutch chemists.
   Sir  Humphrey Davy has examined with uncommon
 accuracy the formation and properties of ail the sub
 stances concerned in its production.  He has detected
 the sources of error in thee*per'"ien,s ot Priestley, and
 the Dutch chemists, and to Mm we are indebted for a
 thorough knowledge of this gas.  We shall, therefore, 
NIT
NIT
exhibit the philosophy of this gaseous fluid, as we find
it in his researches concerning the nitrous oxide.
  Properties.   It exists in the form of a permanent
gas.  A caudle burns wilh a brilliant flame and crack-
ing noise  in it; before its extinction the white inner
flame becomes surrounded with a blue one. Phosphorus
introduced into it, in a state of actual inflammation,
bums with increased splendour, as in oxygen gas.  Sul-
phur introduced into it when burning with a feeble blue
flame is instantly extinguished;  but when in a state of
vivid inflammation, it burns with a rose-coloured flame.
Ignited charcoal burns in it more brilliantly than in at-
mospheric  air.  Iron wire, wilh a small piece of wood
affixed to it, when inflamed, aud introduced into a ves-
sel filled with this gas, burns vehemently, and  throws
out bright  scintillating sparks.  No combustible body,
however, burns in it, unless it be previously brought to
a state of vivid inflammation.  Hence sulphur may be
melted, and even sublimed in it, phosphorus may  be
liquefied in it without undergoing combustion.  Nitrous
oxide is pretty rapidly absorbed by water that has been
boiled; a quantity of gas equal to rather more than half
the bulk of the water may be thus  made to disappear,
the water acquires a sweetish taste, but  its  other pro-
perties do not differ  perceptibly from common water.
The whole of the gas may be expelled again by heat.
It does not  change blue vegetable colours. It has a dis-
tinctly sweet tasle, and a faint but agreeable odour.  It
undergoes no diminution when mingled with oxygen or
nitrous gas.  Most of the liquid inflammable  bodies,
Buch as tether, alkohol, volatile and fat  oils, absorb it
rapidly and in great quantity.  Acids exert but  little
action on it.  The affinity of the neutro-saline solutions
for gaseous oxide of nitrogen is very feeble.  Green
muriate and green sulphate of iron, whether holding
nitrous gas in solution, or  not, do not act upon it.
Noue of the gases, when  mingled  with it,  suffer any
perceptible change at common temperatures; the mu-
riatic and sulphurous acid gases excepted, wliich un-
dergo a slight expansion.  Alkalies freed from carbonic
acid, exposed in the  dry or solid form, have no action
upon it;  they may, however, be made to combine with
it in the nascent state, and then constitute saline com-
pounds of a peculiar nature.  These combinations de-
flagrate when heated with charcoal, and are decom-
posed by acids; the gaseous oxide of nitrogen being dis-
engaged.  It undergoes no change whatever from the
simple effect of light.  The action of the electric spark,
for a long while continued, converts it into a gas, ana-
logous to atmospheric air and nitrous acid; the same is
the case when it is  made to pass through an ignited
earthen tube.   It explodes with hydrogen in a variety
of proportions, at very high temperatures; for instance,
when electric sparks are made to pass through the mix-
ture.  Sulphuretted,  heavy, and light carburetted hy-
drogen gases, and gaseous oxide  of carbon, likewise
burn with  it when a strong red heat is applied.  100
psrts by weight of nitrous oxide, contain 36.7 of oxy-
gen and 63.3 of nitrogen; 100 cubic inches weigh 50
grains at 55° temperature and 30  inches atmospheric
pressure.  Animals,  when wholly confined  in gaseous
oxide of nitrogen, give no signs of uneasiness for some
moments, but they soon become restless and then die.
When gaseous oxide of nitrogen is mingled with  at-
mospheric air, and then received into the  lungs, it ge-
nerates highly pleasurable sensarions; the effects it pro-
duces on the animal system are eminently distinguished
from every other chemical agent.  It excites every fibre
to action, and rouses the faculties of the mind, inducing
a state of great exhilaration, an irresistible propensity
to laughter, a rapid  flow of vivid  ideas, and unusual
vigour and fitness for muscular exertions, in some re-
spects resembling those attendant on the  pleasantest
period of intoxication, without any subsequent languor,
'depression of the nervous energy, or disagreeable feel-
fogs; but  more  generally followed by  vigour, and a
pleasurable disposition to exertion, which gradually
subsides.
  Sir  H. Davy first  showed, that by breathing a few
quarts of it, contained in a silk bag, for two or three
minutes, effects analogous to those occasioned by drink-
ing fermented liquors were produced. Individuals, who
differ  in temperament, are, however, as we might ex-
pect, differently affected.
   Sir H. Davy describes the effect it had upon him as
 follows:—'Having previously closed my nostrils, and
 exhausted my lungs, I breathed four quarts of nitrous
oxide from and into a silk bag.  The first feelings wer*
similar to those produced in the last experiment (gid-
diness) ; but in less than half a minute, the respiration
being continued,  they diminished gradually, f.nd were
succeeded by a si-nsation analogous to gentle pressure
on all  the muscles, attended by a highly pleasurable
thrilling, particularly in the chest and the extremities.
The objects around me became dazzling, and my hear-
ing more  acute.   Towards  the last inspiration the
thrilling increased, the sense of muscular power be-
came greater, and at  last an irresistible  propensity to
action  was indulged  in.  I recollect but indistinctly
what followed: I know that my motions were various
and violent.
  ' These effects very soon ceased after respiration. In
ten minutes I had recovered my natural state of mtnd.
The  thrilling in the extremities continued longer than
the other sensations.
  ' The gas has been breathed by a very great number
of persons, and  almost every one has observed the
same things.   On some few, indeed, it has no effect
whatever, and on others tbe effects are always painful.
  ' Mr. J. W. Tobin, (after the first imperfect trials,)
when the air was pure, experienced sometimes  sub-
lime emotions with tranquil gestures, sometimes vio-
lent muscular action, with sensations indescribably ex-
quisite:  no subsequent debility—no exhaustion—his
trials have been very numerous.   Of late he has only
felt sedate pleasure.  In Sir H. Davy the effect is not
diminished.
  1 Mr. James Thomson.  Involuntary laughter, thrill-
ing in his toes and fingers, exquisite sensations of plea-
sure.  A pain  in the back and knees, occasioned by
fatigue the day before, recurred a few minutes after-
ward.    A similar observation, we think, we  have
made on others; and we impute it to the undoubted
power of the gas to increase the sensibility of nervous
power, beyond any other agent, and probably in a pecu
liar manner.
  1 Mr. Thomas  Pople.   At first unpleasant feelings
of tension; afterward agreeable luxurious languor,
with suspension  of inuscmar  power; lastly, powers
increased both of body and mind.
  ' Mr. Stephen Hammick, surgeon of the Royal  Hos-
pital, Plymouth.   In  a small dose, yawning and lan-
guor.  It should be observed that the first sensation
has often  been disagreeable, as giddiness: and  a few
persons, previously apprehensive, have left off inhaling
as soon as they felt this.  Two larger doses produced
a glow, unrestrainable tendency to muscular action,
high spirits, and  more vivid ideas.  A bag of common
air was first given to Mr. Hammick, and he observed
thatitproducedno effect. The same precaution against
tlie delusions of  imagination was of course frequently
takea
'   Mr. Robert Southey could not distinguish between
the first effects and an apprehension of which he was
unable to divest himself.  His first definite sensations
were, a fulness and dizziness  in the head, such  as to
induce a  fear of falling.  This  was succeeded  by  a
laugh which was involuntary, but highly pleasurable,
accompanied with a  peculiar thrilling in the extremi-
ties; a sensation perfectly new  and delightful.  For
many hours after this experiment, he imagined that his
taste and smell were  more acute, and is certain that
he felt unusually strong and cheerful.  In a second ex-
periment, he felt pleasure still  superior, and has  once
poetically remarked,  that he supposes the atmosphere
of the highest of all possible heavens to  be composed
of this gas.
   1 Robert Kinglake, M.D.   Additional  freedom and
power of respiration, succeeded by an almost delirious,
but highly pleasurable sensation in the head,  which
became universal with increased tone of the muscles.
At last, an intoxicating placidity absorbed for five mi-
nutes all voluntary power, and left a cheerfulness and
alacrity for several hours.  A second stronger dose pro-
duced a perfect trance for about a minute,; then  a  glow
pervaded the system.  The permanent.effects  were
an invigorated feeling of vital power,  and improved
spirits.   By both trials, particularly by the former,
old rheumatic feelings seemed to be revived for the
moment.
  'Mr.  Wedgewood  breathed atmospheric air  first,
without knowing it was so.  He declared it to have no
effect, which confirmed him  in his disbelief of the
power of the gas.   After breathing this some time, 
NIT
NIT
 however, he threw the bag from him, kept breathing
 on laboriously with an  open mouth, holding his nose
 with his left hand, without power to take it away,
 though aware of the ludicrousness of his situation:
 all his muscles  seemed to be thrown inlo vibrating
 motions; he had a violent inclination to make antic
 gestures, seemed lighter  than tlie atmosphere,  and
 aa if  about to  mount   Before the experiment, he
 was a good deal fatigued after a long ride, of which
 he permanently lost all sense.  In a second experiment,
 nearly the  same effect, but with  less pleasure.  In a
 third, much greater pleasure.
   Such are the properties that characterize the nitrous
 oxide.
   The Dutch chemists and some French and German
 philosophers assert  that it  cannot be respired;  that
 burning  phosphorus, sulphur, and charcoal, are ex-
 tinguished  in it, Sec It is  probable they did not ex-
 amine it in a state of purity, for  it is otherwise diffi-
 cult to account  for  these and many other erroneous
 opinions.
   Method of obtaining the protoxide of nitrogen.—
 Gaseous oxide of  nitrogen is produced,  when sub-
 stances,  having a  strong  affinity with oxygen, are
 brought into contact with nitric acid, or with nitrous
 gas. It may therefore be obtained  by various processes,
 in which nitrous gas or nitric acid is decomposed by
substances  capable  of attracting  the greater part of
their oxygen.  The most commodious and expeditious,
as well as the cheapest mode of obtaining  it, is by de-
composing nitrate of ammonia at a certain temperature,
in the following manner:—
   1. Introduce into a glass retort some pure nitrate of
 ammonia,  and apply the heat of an Argand's lamp;
the salt will soon liquefy, and, when it begins to boil,
gas will be evolved.  Increase the heat gradually till
the body and neck of the  retort  become filled wilh  a
semi-transparent milky white vapour.  In this state
the temperature  of the fused nitrate is between 340°
and 480".   After the decomposition has proceeded fol
a few minutes, so that the gas evolved quickly rnlargei
the flnme of a taper held near the orifice of the retort,
it may be collected over water, care being inken during
the whole process, never to  suffer the temperature or
the fused nitrate to rise above 500° Fahr. which may
easily be judged of, from the density of the vapours in
the retort and from  the quiet ebullition of the fused
nitrate; for, if the heat be increased beyond this point,
the vapours in the retort acquire a reddish  and more
transparent appearance; and  the fused  nitrate begins
to rise, and occupy twice tiie bulk it did before.  The
nitrous oxide after  ils generation, Is allowed to stand
over water, for at  least six hours, and is then fit  for
respiration  or other experiments.
  Explanation.—Nitrate of ammonia consists of nitric
acid and ammonia; nitric acid is composed of nitrous
gas and oxygen: and ammonia  consists of hydrogen
and  nitrogen:   At a temperature of about  480°  the
attractions  of hydrogen for nitrogen in ammonia, and
that  of  nitrous gas for oxygen in nitric acid, are dtini'-
nished: while, on the contrary, the attractions of  the
hydrogen of ammonia for the oxygen of the nitric acid,
and that of the nitrogen of the  ammonia for the nitrous
gas of the  nitric acid, are increased; hence, all  the
former affinities  are  broken, and new ones  produced,
namely, the  hydrogen  of the ammonia  attracts  the
oxygen of the nitric acid, the result of which is water ;
the nitrogen of the ammonia  combines with the libe-
rated nitrous gas, and forms nitrous oxide.  The water
and  nitrous oxide  produced, probably exist in binary
combination in the aeriform state, at the temperature
of the decomposition.
  Such  ii the philosophy of the production of protox-
ide of nitrogen,  by decomposing niuate of ammonia
at that temperature, given by Davy.
  To illustrate this complicated play of affinity more
fully, the following sketch may not be deemed super-
fluous.
A Diagram exhibiting the production of Gaseous Oxide of Nitrogen, by decomposing Nitrate of
                                  Ammonia, at 480° Fahr.
											V		
		a & s? o				Nitric Acid.				5' o s p			
													
													
i a													2 g. a. a o -n 1 s
													
					NITRATE or AMMONIA.								
													
													
		1								5" o ■3 9			
													
						Ammonia.							
													
													
  Sir Humphrey Davy bas likewise pointed out, that,
when tbe beat employed for decomposing nitrate of
ammonia is raised above tbe before-stated temperature,
another play of affinities takes place, the attractions of
nitrogen and  hydrogen  for each other and of oxygen
for nitrous gas are still more diminished, while thai of
nitrogen for nitrous gas is totally destroyed, and that
of hydrogen for oxygen increased to a greater extent.
A new attraction likewise takes place, namely, that of
tshrourgas for nitric acid to form nitrous add vapour,
and  a new arrangement of principles is lapidly pro-
duced: tbe nitrogen of tiie ammonia having no affinity
for any of the single principles at  this temperature,
enters into no binary compound; tbe oxygen of the
nitric acid forms water with  tbe hydrogen, and the
nitrous gas combines with tbe  nitric acid to form ni-
trous acid vapour.
  All these substances most probably exist in combliu
tion, at the temperature of their production: and al a
lower temperature assume the form of nitrous acid 
NIT
NIT
 nitron* gas, nitrogen, and water; and hence we see
 the necessity of not heating the nitrate of ammonia
 above the before-stated temperature.
   Ou account of the rapid absorption of gaseous oxide
 of nitrogen by water, it is economical to preserve the
 fluid whicli has been used to confine this gas, and to
 make use of it for collecting other quantities of it.  In
 order to hasten  its production, the nitrate of ammonia
 may be previously freed  from its water of crystalliza-
 tion by gently fusing it in a glass of Wedgwood's bason
 for a few minutes, and then keeping it for use in a well-
 stopped bottle.
   2.  Nitrous oxide may likewise be obtained by expos-
 ing common nitrous gas to alkaline sulphites, particu-
 larly to sulphite of potassa containing its full quantity
 of water of crystallization.  The  nitrous oxide pro-
 duced from  nitrous gas by sulphite of polassa has all
 the properties of that generated  from the decomposi-
 tion of nitrate of ammonia.
   The conversion of nitrous gas into nitrous oxide, by
 these bodies, depends on the abstraction of a portion of
 its oxygen by the greater affinity of the sulphite pre-
 sented to it.  The nitrogen and remaining oxygen as-
 sume a more condensed state of existence, and consti-
 tute nitrous oxide.
  3. Nitrous oxide may also be obtained by mingling
 together nitrous  gas and sulphuretted  hydrogen gas.
 The volume of gases in this case is diminished, sulphur
 deposited, ammonia, water,  and  nitrous  oxide  are
 formed.
  The  change of principles which take place in this
 experiment, depends upon the combination of the hy-
 drogen of the sulphuretted hydrogen gas, with different
 portions of ihe oxygen and nitrogen of the nitrous gas,
 to form water and ammonia, while it deposites sulphur.
 The  remaining  oxygen and nitrogen being left in due
 proportion constitute nitrous oxide.
 _ Remark.—This singular exertion of attraction by a
 simple body appears highly improbable a priori;  but
 the formation of ammonia, and the non-oxygenation of
 the sulphur, elucidate the  fact  In performing  this ex-
 periment, care should be taken that the gases should be
 rendered as dry as possible; for the presence of water
 considerably retards the decomposition.
  4. Nitrous oxide may also be produced by preventing
 alkaline sulphurets to nitrous gas.  Davy observed that
 a  solution of sulphuret  of strontian,  or barytes, an-
 swers this purpose best.
  This  decomposition of nitrous gas is not solely pro-
 duced by the abstraction  of oxygen from the nitrous
 gas, to form sulphuric acid.  It depends equally on the
 decomposition of the sulphuretted hydrogen dissolved
 in the solution or liberated from it.  In this  process,
 sulphur Ss deposited and sulphuric acid formed.
  5. Nitrous oxide Is obtained in many circumstances
 similar to those iu which nitrous gas is produced.  Dr.
 Priestley found that nitrous oxide was evolved, toge-
 ther with nitrous gas, during the solution of iron, tin,
 and zinc in nitric acid.
  It is difficult to ascertain the exact rationale of these
 processes, for very complicated  agencies  of affinities
 take place.  Either the nascent hydrogen arising from
 the decomposition of the water  by the metallic sub-
 stance may combine with  portions of the oxygen and
 nitrogen of the nitrous gas; and thus by forming water
 and ammonia, convert it into nitrous oxide, or the me-
 tallic substance  may attract at the same time oxygen
 from  the water and nitrous gas, while the nascent hy-
 drogen of the water seizes upon a portion of the nitro-
 gen of the nitrous gas, to form ammonia.  The analogy
 between this process and the decomposition of nitrous
 gas by sulphuretted hydrogen, renders the first  opinion
most  probable.
  Such  arc the principal methods of obtaining nitrous
oxide.  There are no reasous,  Davy thinks, for sup-
 posing that nitrous oxide is formed in  any of the pro-
cesses of nature,  and the nice equilibrium of affinity
by which  it is constituted forbids us  to hope for the
power of composing it from its simple principles. We
 must  be content to produce it artificially.
  II.  Deutoxide of azote, termed likewise nitrous gas,
or nitric oxide.
  The name of nitrous gas is given to an aeriform
fluid,  consisting of a certain quantity of nitrogen and
oxygen,  combined with caloric. It is an elastic, colour-
less fluid, having no sensible taste ;  it is neither acid
nor alkaline; it is exceedingly hurtful to animals, pro-
 ducing instant suffocation whenever they attempt to
 breathe it  The greater numlier of combustible bodies
 refuse to burn in it.  It is nevertheless capable of sup-
 porting the combustion of some of these bodies.  Phos-
 phorus burns in nitrous gas when introduced into it in
 a state  of inflammation:  pyrophorus takes fire in it
 spontaneously.
   It is not decomposable by water, though  100  cubic
 inches of this fluid, when freed from air, absorb about
 five cubic inches of the gas.  This solution is void of
 taste; it does not redden blue vegetable colours; the
 gas is expelled again when the water is made to boil or
 suffered to freeze. Nitrous gas has no action on nitro
 gen gas even when assisted by heat.  It is decomposed
 by several metals at high temperatures.
   Its specific gravity, when perfectly pure, is to that of
 atmospheric air as about 1.04 to 1.
   Ardent spirits, saccharine matters, hydro-carbonates,
 sulphurous acid, and phosphorus, have no action on it
 at the common temperature.  It is not sensibly changed
 by the action of light.  Heat dilates it. It rapidly com-
 bines wilh oxygen gas at common temperatures, and
 converts  it into nitrous acid.   Atmospheric air pro-
 duces the same effect, but with less intensity.  It is ab-
 sorbable with green  sulphate, muriate and nitrate of
 iron,  and decomposable by  alkaline, terrene, and me-
 tallic sulphurets, and other bodies, that have a strong
 affinity for oxygen; but it is not capable of combining
 with them chemically, so as to form saline compounds
 From the greatest number of bodies which  absorb it,
 it may be again expelled by tbe application of heat.
   It communicates to  flame a greenish colour before
 extinguishing it;  when mixed with hydrogen gas this
 acquires the property of burning with a green flame. It
 is absorbable by nitric acid and renders it fuming.
   When exposed to the action of caloric in an ignited
 porcelain tube, it experiences no alteration,  but when
 electric sparks are made to pass through it, it is decom-
 posed  and converted into nitrous acid,  and nitrogen
 gas.   Phosphorus does not shine in  it.  It is  composed
 of about eight parts of oxygen, and seven of nitrogen.
  Methods of obtaning deutoxide of nitrogen.—1. Put
 into a small proof, or retort, some  copper wire of pieces
 of the same  metal, and pour on it nitric acid of com-
 merce diluted with water, an effervescence takes place,
 and nitrous gas  will be produced.  After having suf-
 fered the  first portions  to escape on account of the at-
 mospheric air contained in the retort, collect the gas in
 the water-apparatus as usual.  In order to obtain the
 gas in a pure state, it must then be shook for some time
 in contact with water.  The  water in this instance
 suffers no alteration; on the contrary, the acid under-
 goes a partial decomposition; the  metal robs some of
 the nitric acid of the  greatest part of its oxygen, and
 becomes oxidised; the  acid having lost so much of its
 oxygen, becomes thereby so altered, that at the usual
 temperature it can exist no longer in the liquid state,
 but instantly  expands and  assumes the form of gas;
 ceasing at the same time to act as an acid, and exhibit-
 ing different properties: but the acid remaining unde-
 composed combines with the oxide of copper, and forms
 nitrate of copper.
  Instead of presenting copper to nitric acid, iron, zinc,
 mercury, or silver, may be made use of.  The  metals
 best suited for the production of nitrous gas are silver,
 mercury, and copper.
  2. Deutoxide of nitrogen may likewise be obtained
 by synthesis.   This method of obtaining it we  owe to
 Dr. Milner of Cambridge.
  Into the middle of an earthern tube  about 20 inches
 long and three-fourths of an inch  wide, open at both
ends, put as much coarsely-powdered manganese as is
sufficient nearly to fill it.  Let this, tube traverse a fur-
nace having two openings opposite to each other.  To
one end  of the tube lute a retort containing water
strongly impregnated  with ammonia, and  to tiie other
 adapt a bent  glass tube which passes into the pneu-
 matic trough.  Let a fire be kindled in the  furnace, and
 when the manganese may be supposed to be red hot,
apply a gentle heat to the retort, and drive over it the
 vapour of the  ammonia; the consequence will  be that
nitrous gas will be delivered at the  farther end of the
tube, while the  ammonia enters  the other  end; and
this effect does not take place wilhout the presence of
the alkali.
  Explanation.—Ammonia consists of hydrogen and
nitrogen;  its  hydrogen combines wilh  tbe oxygen 
NIT                                               NIT
wbich is given out by the ignited manganese, and forms
water; its nitrogen unites  al the  same  time to  an-
other portion of the oxygen, and constitutes the ni-
tious gas.
  There is a cause of deception  in  this experiment,
against  which the operator  ought to be on his guard,
lest he should conclude no nitrous gas is formed, when,
in reality,- there is a considerable quantity.   The am-
monia,  notwithstanding  every  precaution, will  fre-
quently  pass over undecomposed.  If the receiver in
the pneumatic trough is filled with water, great part of
this will indeed be preseiitly absorbed; but still some
portion of it will mix  with the nitrous  gas formed in
the process.  Upon admitting the atmospheric air, the
nitrous gas will become decomposed, and the red ni-
trous fumes instantly unite with the alkali.   The re-
ceiver is presently filled with white  clouds of nitrate
of ammonia; and in this manner a wrong conclusion
may easily be drawn from the want of the orange co-
lour of the nitrous fumes.  A considerable quantity of
nitrous gas may have been formed, and yet no orange
colour appear, owing to this circumstance; and there-
fore it is  easy to understand how a small quantity of
nitrous gas may be most effectually disguised by the
same cause.
  Dr. Milner also obtained nitrous gas, by passing am-
moniacal  gas over sulphate of iron deprived of  ils
water of crystallization.
  HI. Nitrous acid.  See Nitric acid.
  IV. Nitric acid.  See Nitrous acid.
  Azote combines with chlorine and iodine, to form
two very formidable compounds :—
  1. The chloride of azote was  discovered  about  the
beginning of 1812, by Dulong; but its nature was first
investigated and ascertained  by Sir H. Davy.
  Put into an evaporating porcelain  basin a solution
of one part of nitrate or  muriate of ammonia in 10
of  water, heated to about 100°, and invert into  ita
wide-mouthed bottle, filled  with chlorine.   As  the
liquid ascends, by the condensation of the gas, oily-
looking drops are seen floating on its  surface, which
collect together, and fall to the bottom in large globules.
This is  chloride of azote.  By putting a thin stratum
of common salt into the bottom of the basin, we pre-
vent the decomposition of  the chloride  of azote, by
the ammoniacal salt. It should be  formed only in
very small quantities.  The  chloride of azote, thus ob-
tained,  is an  oily-looking liquid, of a yellow colour,
and a very pungent intolerable odour, similar to that
of chlorocarbonous acid.  Its sp. gr. is 1.653.  When
tepid water is poured into a glass containing it, it ex-
pands  inlo a volume of elastic fluid, of an orange co-
lour,  which  diminishes  as it  passes through  the
water.
  ' I attempted,' says Sir H. Davy, • to collect the pro-
ducts of tlie explosion of the new substance, by apply-
ing the  heat of a spirit-lamp  to a globule of it, confined
in a curved glass tube over water; a little gas was at
first extricated; but long before the water had attained
the temperature of ebullition, a violent flash of light
was perceived, with a sharp report; the tube and glass
were broken  into small  fragments,  and  I received a
severe wound in the transparent cornea of the eye,
wbich  has produced a considerable inflammation of
the eye, and obliges me to make this communication
by an  amanuensis.   This  experiment proves what
extreme caution is necessary in operating on this sub-
stance, for the quantity I used was scarcely as large as
a grain of mustard-seed.'—It evaporates pretly rapidly
 in  the  air; and in vacuo it expands  into a vapour,
 which  still possesses the power of exploding by beat.
 When  it is cooled artificially in water, or the ammo-
 niacal  solution, to 40° F.,' the surrounding  fluid
congeals;  but when  alone, it may  be surrounded
with a mixture  of  ice and muriate of lime, without
 freezing.
   It gradually disappears in water,  producing azote;
while the water becomes acid, acquiring the taste and
■mell of a weak solution of nitro-muriatic acid.
   Wilh muriatic and nitric acids, it yields azote; and,
 wilh dilute sulphuric acid, a mixture of azote and oxy-
 gen.   In strong solutions of ammonia it  detonates;
 with weak ones, it affords azote.
   When  it was exposed to pure mercury, out of the
 contact of water, a white powder (calomel) and azote
 were the results.  ' The action of mercury on the corn-
 pound,' says  Sir H 'appeared to offer a more correct!
       110
and less dangerous mode of attempting ita analysis;
but on introducing two grains under a glass tube tilled
with mercury, and inverted, a violent detonation oc-
curred, by whicli I was slightly wounded in tbe head
and hands, and should have been severely wounded,
had not my eyes and lace been defended by n plate of
glass, attached to a proper cap; a precaution very ne-
cessary in all investigations  of this  body.'  In using
smaller quantities, and recently distilled mercury, he
obtained the results of the experiments, without any
violence of action.
  A small globule of it, thrown into  a  glass of olive
oil, produced a most violent explosion; and the glass,
though strong, was broken into fragments.  Similar
effects were produced by ils action on oil of turpentine
and naphtha.  When it was thrown into ether or alko-
hol, there was a very slight action.  When a particle
of il was touched under water by a particle of phos-
phorus, a brilliant light was perceived under the water,
and permanent  gas was disengaged, having the cha
racters of azote.
  When  quantities larger than a grain of mustard
seed were used for the contact with phosphorus, the
explosion was always so violent as to break the vessel
in which the experiment was made.  On tinfoil and
zinc it exerted no action;  nor on sulphur and resin.
But it detonated  most violently when thrown into a
solution of phosphorus in elher or alkohol.
  The mechanical  force of this compound in detona-
tion, seems superior to that of any other  known, not
even excepting the ammoniacal  fulminating silver.
The velocity of its action  appears  to be likewise
greater.
  2. Iodide of azote.  Azote does  not combine directly
with iodine.  We obtain  the combination only by
means  of ammonia.  It was discovered by Courlois,
and carefully examined by Colin.  When ammoniacal
gas  is passed over iodine, a  viscid  shining liquid is im-
mediately formed, of a brownish-black colour, which,
in proportion as it is saturated wilh ammonia, loses its
lustre and viscosity. No gas is disengaged during the
formation of this liquid, which may  be called iodide
of ammonia.  It  is not fulminating.  When dissolved
in water, a part  of the ammonia is  decomposed; its
hydrogen  forms  hydriodic  acid;  and its  azote com-
bines with a portion of the iodine, and  forms the ful-
minating powder.  We may obtain the iodide of azote
directly, by putting pulverulent iodine  into common
water of ammonia. This  indeed is  the best way of
preparing  it; for the water  is not decomposed,  and
seems to concur in  the production of this  iodide, only
by  determining the formation of hydriodate of  am-
monia.
  The iodide of azote is pulverulent, and of a brown-
ish-black colour.  It detonates from the smallest shock,
and from heat, with a feeble violet vapour.   When
properly  prepared, it often  detonates spontaneously.
Hence, after the black  powder  is formed, and  the
liquid ammonia decanted off, we  must leave the cap-
sule containing it in perfect repose.
  When this iodide is put into potassa water, azote is
disengaged, and  the same products are obtained as
when iodine  is  dissolved in that alkaline lixivium.
The hydriodate of ammonia, which  bas the property
of dissolving a great deal of iodine, gradually decom-
poses the fulminating powder, while azote is set at
liberty.  Water  itself has  this properly, though in a
much lower degree.   As the  elements of iodide of
azote are so feebly united, it ought to be  prepared with
great precautions, and should  not be preserved.  In
the act of transferring a little of it from  a platina cap-
sule lo a  piece  of paper, the whole exploded in my
hands, though the friction of the particles on  each
other was inappreciably small.
  The  strongest  arguments for the compound nature
of  azote are derived from its slight tendency lo com-
bination, and from its being found abundantly in the
organs of animals which feed on substances lhat do
 not contain it
  Its uses in the economy of the globe are little under-
stood.  This is likewise favourable to  the idea  that
 the real chemical nature is as yet  unknown, and leads
 to the hope of its being decomposable.
   It would appear that the atmospheric azote and oxy-
 gen spontaneously combine in other proportions, under
 certain circumstances, in natural operations.   Thus
I we find, that mild calcareous or alkaline matter favours 
NIT
N03
the formation of nitric acid, In certain regions of the
earth; and that they are essential to its production in
our artificial arrangements, and forming nitre from de-
composing animal and vegetable substances."
  Nitrogen, protoxide of.  See Nitrogen.
  Nitrogen, deutoxide or.  See Nitrogen.
  NITROLEUCIC ACID.  (Acidumnitroleucicum:
so called from its being obtained by the action of nitric
acid on leucine.)   Leucine is capable of uniting to ni-
tric acid, and forming a compound, which Braconnot
has called  the nitro-Ieucic acid.   When  we dissolve
leucine in  nitric acid, and evaporate the solution to a
certain point, it passes into actystalline moss, without
any disengagement of nitrous vapour, or of any gase-
ous matter; if we press this mass between blotting
paper, and  redissolve it in water, we shall obtain from
this by concentration, fine, divergent, and nearly co-
lourless needles.  These constitute  the new acid.  It
unites to the bases, forming salts  which fuse on  red-
hot coals.  The nitro-Ieucates of  lime  and magnesia
are unalterable in the air.
  NITRO-MURIATIC  ACID.  Aquaregia.   When
nitric and muriatic acids are mixed, they become yel-
low, and acquire the power of readily dissolving gold,
which neither of the acids possessed separately. This
mixture evolves chlorine, a  partial decomposition of
both acids  having taken place; and water, chlorine,
and nitrous acid gas are thus  produced, that is, tlie hy-
drogen of the muriatic acid abstracts oxygen from the
nitric to form water. The result must be chlorine and
nitrous acid.—Brande.
  N1TRO-SACCHARIC ACID.  Acidum nitro-sac-
charicum.   Nitro-saccharine acid.   When  we  heat
the sugar  of gelatine with  nitric acid, they dissolve
without  any apparent disengagement of gas,  and  if
we evaporate this solution to a proper degree, it forms,
on cooling, a crystalline  mass.  On pressing this mass
between the folds of blotting-paper, and recrystallizing
them, we obtain beautiful prisms, colourless, transpa-
rent,  and slightly striated.  These  crystals are very
different from those which serve to produce them; and
constitute, according to Braconnot, a true acid, whicli
results from the combination of the nitric acid itself,
with the sweet matter of whicli the first crystals are
formed.  Thenard conceives il  is  the nitrous  acid
which is present.
  Nitro-saccharic acid has ataste similar to that of the
tartaric; only it  is a little sweetish.  Exposed to the
fire in a  capsule,  it froths much,  and  is  decomposed
with  the diffusion  of a  pungent  smell.  Thrown on
burning coals, it acts like saltpetre.  It  produces no
change in saline solutions.  Finally, it combines with
the bases, and gives birth to  salts  which possess pecu-
liar properties.  For example, the salt which it forms
with lime is not deliquescent, and  is very little soluble
in strong  alkohol.  That which  it  produces with
the oxide of lead  detonates to a certain degree by
the action of heat.—Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. xiii
113.
  NITRO-SULPHURIC ACID.  A compound,  con-
sisting of one part nitre dissolved  in about ten  of sul-
phuric acid.
  NITROUS.  Nitrosus. Of or belonging to nitre.
  Nitrous acid.  Acidum  nitrosum.   Fuming  ni-
trous acid.   It appears lo form a distinct genus of salts,
that may be termed nitrites.   But these cannot be
made by a direct union of their component parts, being
obtainable only by exposing a nitrate to a high tempe-
rature, which expels  a  portion of its  oxygen  in the
state of gas, and leaves the remainder in the state of a
nitrate, if the heat be not urged so far, or continued so
long, as to effect a complete decomposition of the salt.
In this way the  nitrates of potassa  and soda  may be
obtained, and perhaps those of barytes, strontian, lime,
and magnesia.  The nitrites are  particularly charac-
terized, by  being decomposable by all the acids except
the carbonic, even by the nitric arid itself, all of wliich
expel them  from nitrous  acid. We are little acquainted
with  any one except that of potassa, which  attracts
moisture from the air, changes blue vegetable colours
to green, is somewhat  acrid to the taste, and when
powdered emits a smell of nitric oxide.
  Tbe acid itself is best obtained  by exposing  nitrate
of lead to heat in a glass retort.  Pure nitrous  acid
comes over in the  form of an orange-coloured liquid
It is so volatile as to boil at the temperature of 82°.
Its specific gravity is 1.450.  When mixed with water
it is decomposed, and nitrous gas is disengaged, occa-
sioning effervescence.   It is composed of one volume
of oxygen united with  two of nitrous gas.  It there*
fore consists ultimately, by weight, of 1.75 nitrogen +
4 oxygen ;  by measure, of 2 oxygen -+- 1  nitrogen.
The variously coloured acids of nitre  are not nitrous
acids, but nitric acid impregnated with nitrous gas, the
deutoxide of nitrogen or azote.  ;
  Nitrous oxide.  See Nitrogen.
  NI'TRUM.  This name was anciently given to na
tron, bul iu modern times to nitre.  See Nitre.
  Nitrum purificatum.  See Nitre.               ,
  Nitrum vitriolatum.  Sulphuric acid and soda.
See Soda sulphas.
  NO'BILIS.   (Quasi noscibilis;  from noseo, to
know.) Noble.  Some parts of animals, and of plants,
are so named by way of eminence.; as a valve of the
heart, and the more perfect metals, as gold and silver.
  NOCTAMBULATION. Nodambulatio; fromnox,
night, and ambulo, to walk.)  Nodisurgium.  Walk-
ing in the night, when asleep.  See Oneirodynia adiva.
  Noctiso'rqium.   See Nodambulation.
  Nocturnal emission.   See Gonorrhaa dormientium.
  Nodding cnicus.   See Cnicus cernuus.
  NODE.  Nodus.   A hard  circumscribed tumour,
proceeding from a bone, and caused by a swelling of
the periosteum; they appear on every part of the body,
but are more common on such as are thinly covered
with muscles, as the os frontis, forepart  of the tibia,
radius, and ulna.  As  they increase in size, they be-
come more painful from the distention tbey occasion
in the periosteum.  When they continue long, the bone
becomes completely carious.                        .
  NODOSUS.  Knotty: nodose.   Applied to the form
ofthe seed-vessel of the Cucurbitamelopepo.
  NODUS.  (From anad, to lie, Hebrew.)  A node or
swelling upon a bone.   See Node.
  No'li me tanoere.  A species of  herpes affecting
the skin and cartillagcs of the  nose, very difficult to
cure, because  it is exasperated by most  applications.
The disease generally commences with small, superfi-
cial spreading ulcerations of the alae of the nose, which
become more  or less concealed  beneath fufuraceous
scabs.  The whole nose is frequently destroyed by the
progressive ravages of this peculiar  disorder, which
sometimes cannot be stopped or retarded by any treat-
ment, external or internal.
  NO'MA.  (From vepia, to eat.)   An ulcer  that
sometimes attacks the cheek  or  vulva of young girls.
It appears in  the  form of red   and  somewhat livid
spots,  is not attended with pyrexia, pain, or tumour,
and in a few days becomes gangrenous.
  NON-NATURAL.   Res  non-naturales.   Under
this term, ancient physicians comprehend air, meat
and drink, sleep and watching, motion and rest, the
retentions and excretions,  and the affections  of the
mind; or, in other words, those principal matterj which
do  not enter into the composition of  the body, but at
the same time are necessary to its existence.
  NO'NUS.   (Quasi novenus;  from novem,  nine.)
The ninth. Sometimes applied to the coracoid muscle
of the shoulder.
  No'pal. Nopatnochetzth.  The plant that feeds the
cochineal insect.
  Norla'ndice baccl  See Rubus ardicus. J
  NOSE.  Nasus.  See Nares.
  Nose, bleeding of.  See Epistaxis.
  NOSOCO'MlUM.    (From  vooos, a disease,  and
xoptia, to take care of.) Nosodochium.  An hospital
or infirmary for the sick.
  Nosodo'chium.  See Nosocomium.
  NOSOLOGY.  (Nosologia; from  vooos, a disease,
and Aoyoc, a discourse.)  The doctrine of the names of
diseases.  Modem physicians  understand by nosology
the arrangement of diseases in classes, orders, genera,
species, &c.  The following are the approved arrange-
ments of the several nosologists.   That of Dr. Cullen
is generally adopted in this country, and next to it the
arrangement of Sauvages. 
NOSOLOGY.
Synoptical Vitxt »f the Classes, Orders, and Genera, according to the Collenian System.
       Order I.        &
       FEBRES.        9.
   Al.  Intermittentas.   10.
1.  Tertiana            li-
ft,  Quartana           12.
3.  Quotidiana.         13.
     62.  Continua.     14.
4.  Synocha            15.
5.  Typhus             16-
6.  Synochus.           17-
     ORDER n.      18.
   PHLEGMASIA.   W-
7.  Phlogosis           20.
       Order I.
       COMATA.
H. Appoplexia
B. Paralysis.
       Order II.
     ADYNAMLE.
43. Syncope
44. Dyspepsia
15. Hypochondriasis


       Order I.
     MARCORES.
*7. Tabes
sB. Atrophia.
       Order n.
  1NTUMESCENTLE.
      61. Adiposa.
59. Polysarcia
       Order I.
   DYSASTHESIA.
BO. Caligo
•1. Amaurosis
•2. Dysopia
13. Pscudoblepsis
M. Dysccoea
(5. Paracusis
t6. Anosmia
47. Agheustia
J8. Anaesthesia.
       Order II.
     DYSOREXIA.
  *1. Appetitus errand,
49. Bulimia
'10. Polydipsia
rVil. Pica
rt)2. Satyriasis
03. Nymphomania
<04. Nostalgia.
          CLASS I.—PYREXIAE.
Ophthalmia           21. Rheumatismus
Phrenitis             22. Odontalgia
Cynanehe             23. Podagra
Pneumonia           24. Arthropuosis.
Carditis                     Orher III.
Peritonitis               EXANTHEMATA.
Gastritis             25. Variola
Enteritis             26. Varicella
Hepatitis             27. Rubeola
Splenitis             28. Scarlatina
Nephritis             29. Pestis
Cystitis              30. Erysipelas
Hysteritis             31. Miliaria
46.
         CLASS n.
Chlorosis.
    Order in.
    SPASMI.
Tetanus
Convulsio
Chorea
Raphania
Epilepsia
Palpitatio
           CLASS IH.-
      §2. Flaluosa.
70. Pneumatosis
71. Tympanites
72. Pbysometra.
      §3. Aquoaa.
73. Anasarca
74. Hydrocephalus
75. Hydrorachitis
76. Hydroihorax

             CLASS IV
 $ 2. Appetitus deficientes.
105.  Anorexia
106.  Adipsia
107.  Anaphrodisia.
        Order IU.
      DYSCINESLE
 108. Aphonia
 109. Mutitas
 110. Paraphonia
 111. Psellismus
 112. Strabismus
 113. Dysphagia
 114. Contractura.
        Order IV.
      APOCENOSES.
 115. Profusio
 116  Ephidrosis
 117.  Epiphora
 118. Ptyalismus
 119. Enuresis
-NEUROSES.
 53. Asthma
 54. Dyspnoea
 55. Pertussis
 56. Pyrosis
 57. Colica
 58. Cholera
 59. Diarrhoea
 60. Diabetes
 61. Hysteria

 -CACHEXIA.
 77. Ascites
 78. Hydrometra
 79. Hydrocele.
        $ 4. Solida.
 80. Physconia
 81. Rachitis.
        Order III.
      IMPETIGINES.
  82. Scrofula

 —LOCALES.
 120. Gonorrhoea.
        Order V.
       EPISCHESES.
 121. Obstipatio
 122. Ischuria
  1-23. Dysuria
  124. Dyspermatismus
  125. Amenorrhea.
        Order VI.
        TUMORES.
  126. Aneurisma
  127. Varix
  128. Ecchymoma
  129. Scirrhus
  130. Cancer
  131. Bubo
  132. Sarcoma
  133. Verruca
  134. Clavus
  135. Lupia
Synoptical View of ihe System o/Sauvages.
       Order I.
      MACULA.
ttenus 1. Leucoma
f. Vitiligo
3. Ephelis
4. Gutta rosea
5. Naevus
6. Ecchymoma.
       Order n.
 EFFLORESCENTLE.
7. Herpes
6. Epinyctis
 i. Psydracia
fO. Hydroa.
       Order 1TI.
       HYMATA.
II. Ervthema
12. afdema
13. Emphysema
14. Scirrhus
15. Phlegmone
16. Bubo
17. Parous
            CLASS
 Furunculus
 Anthrax
 Cancer
 Paronychia
 Phimosis.
    ORDER IV.
EXCRESCENTIA.
 Sarcoma
 Condyloma
 Verruca
 Pterygium
 Hordeolum
 Bronchocele
 Exostosis
 Gibbositas
 Lordosis.
     Order V.
    CYSTIDES.
 Aneurisma
 Varix
 Hydatis
. Marisca
. Staphyloma
I.—VITTA.
  37. Lupia
  38. Hydarthrus
  39. Apostema
  40. Exomphalus
  41. Oscheocele.
         Order VL
         ECTOPIA.
  42. Exophthalmia
  43. Blepharoplosis
  44. Hypostaphyle
  45. Paraglossa
  46. Proptoina
  47. Exania
  48. Exocyste
  49. Hysteroptosis
  50. Enterocele
  51. Epiplocele
  52. Gasterocele
  53. Hepatocele
  54. Splenocele
  55. Hysterocele
  56. Cystocele
  57. Ejicephaloeele
33. Urticaria
33. Pemphigus
34. Aphtha.
       Order IV.
   HAMORRHAGIA
35. Eplstaxis
36. Haemoptysis
37. Hrcmorrhois
38. Menorrhagia.
       Order V.
     PROFLUVIA.
39. Catarrhus
40. Dysenteria.


62. Hydrophobia.
       Order IV.
       VESANIA.
63. Amentia.
64. Melancholia
65. Mania
66. Oneirodynia.
83. Syphilis
84. Scorbutus
85. Elephantiasis
86. Lepra
87. Frambresia
88. Trichoma
89. Icterus.
136. Ganglion
137. Hydatis
138. Hydarthrus
139. Exostosis.
      Order VII.
      ECTOPIA.
140. Hernia
141. Prolapsus
142. Luxatio.
      Order VITI.
      DYALYSES
143. Vulnus
144. Ulcus
145. Herpes
146. Tinea
147. Psora
148. Fractura
149. Caries
58. Hysteroloxia
59. Parochidium
60. Exarthrema
61. Diastasis
62. Laxarthrus.
       Order VIL
        PLAGA
63. Vulnus
64. Punctura
65. Excoriatio
66. Contusio
67.  Fractura
68. Fissura
69. Ruptura
70.  Amputatura
71. Ulcus
72. Exulceratio
73.  Sinus
74.  Fistula
75.  Rhas.ii
76.  Eschara
77.  Caries
78.  Arthrocace. 
NOSOLOGY.
        Order I.
     CONTINUA.
79. -Ephemera
80. Synocha
81. Synochus
        Order I.
 EXANTHEMATICA
91. Pestis
92. Variola
93. Pemphigus
94. Rubeola
95. Miliaris
96. Purpura


        Order I.
 TONICI PARTIALES.
116. Strabismus
117. Trismus
118. Obstipitas
119. Contractura
120. Crampus
121. Priapismus.


        Order I.
    SPASMODICA.
138. Ephialtes
139. Sternutatio
140. Oscedo
       Order I.
   DYSESTHESIA.
152. Cataracta
153. Caligo
154 Amblyopia
155. Amaurosis
156 Anosmia
157. Agheustia
158. Dysecoea
159. Paracusis
160. Cophosis


        Order I.
         VAGI.
183. Arthritis
184. Ostocopus
185. Rheumatismus
186. Catarrhus
187. Anxielas
188. Lassitudo
189. Slupor
190. Pruritus
191. Algor
192. Ardor.
82. Tvphus
83. Hectics,
       Order II.
    REMITTENTES
84. Amphimerina
CLASS II.—FEBRES.
         85. Triueophya
         86. Tetarlophya.
               Order IU.
          INTERMITTENTES.
        87. Quotidiana
       Order 1.
 HA LLUC IN ATION SS.
216 Vertigo
217. Suffusio
218. Diplopia
219. Syrigmos
220. Hypochondriasis
221. Somnanibulismus.
        Order I.
   SANGUIFLUXUS.
239. Hsemorrhagia
240. Hamoptysis
241. Stomacace
242. Haematetnesis
243. Hematuria
244. Menorrhagia
245. Abortus.
       Order II.
    ALVLFLUXUS.
346. Hepatirrhcea


        Order I.
       MACIES.
275. Tabes
CLASS III.—PHLEGMASIA.
 97. Erysipelas
 98. Scarlatina
 99. Ess'era
100. Aphtha.
       Order II.
   MEMBRANACEA.
101. Phrenitis
102. Paraphrenesis
103. Pleuritis
104. Gastritis
105. Enteritis
106. Epiploitis
107. Metritis.
       Order III.
 PARENCHYMATOSA
108. Cystitis
              CLASS IV.—SPASMI.
       Order II.        126. Paudiculatio
 TONICI GENERALES.  127. Apomyttosis
122. Tetanus             128. Convulsio
123. Catochus.            129. Tremor
       Order  III.        130. Palpitatio
 CLONICI PARTIALES.  131. Claudicatio.
124. Nystagmus
125. Carphologia

         CLASS V.—ANHELATIONES.
141. Singultus            144. Dyspnoea
142. Tussis.              145. Asthma
       Order II.        146. Orlhopnoea
     OPPRESSIVA.     147. Angina
143. Stertor              148. Pleurodyne
          CLASS VI.-
161. Anaesthesia.
       Order II.
    ANEPITHYMIA.
162. Anorexia
163. Adipsia
164. Anaphrodisia,
       Order IH.
     DYSC1NESIA.
165.  Mutitas
166. Aphonia       »
167. Psellismus

            CLASS VII
       Order II.
       CAPITIS
193. Cephalalgia
194. Cephalaca
195. Hemicrania
196. Ophthalmia
197. Otalgia
198. Odontalgia.
       Order in.
       PECTORIS.
199. Dysphagia
200 Pyrosis
-DEBILITATES.
  168. Paraphonia
  169. Paralysis
  170. Hemiplegia
  171. Paraplexia.
         Order IV.
     LEIPOPSYCHIA.
  172. Asthenia
  173. Leipolhymia
  174. Syncope
  175. Asphyxia.


 —DOLORES.
  201. Cardiogmus.
         Order IV.
    ABDOMINALES IN-
          TERNI.
  202. Cardialgia
  203. Gastrodynia
  204. Colica
  205. Hepatalgia
  206. Splenalgia
  207. Nephralgia
  208. Dystocia
  209. Hvsteralgia.
CLASS VIII.—VESANIA.
       Order II.
    MOROSITATES.
222. Pica
223. Bulimia
224. Polydipsia
225. Antipathia
226. Nostalgia
227. Panophobia
228. Satyriasis

             CLASS
247. Haemorrhois
248. Dysenteria
249. Melaeua
250. Nausea
251. Vomitus
252. Ileus
253. Cholera
254. Diarrhoea
255. Coeliaca
256. Lienteria
257. Tenesmus
   229.  Nymphomania
   230.  Taranlismus
   231.  Hydrophobia.
          Order III.
          DEL1RIA.
   232.  Paraphrosyne
   233.  Amentia
   234.  Melancholia
   235.  Mania

IX.—FLUXUS.
          Order III.
        SERIFLUXUS.
   258. Ephidrosis
   259. Epiphora
   260. Corvza
   261. Plyalismus
   262. Anacatharsts
   263. Diabetes
   264. Enuresis
   265. Dysuria
   266. Pyuria
88. Tertiana
89. Quartana
90. Erratics.
109. Cephalitis
110. Cynanehe
111. Carditis
112. Peripneumonia
113. Hepatitis
114. Splenitis
115. Nephritis.
       Order IV.
CLONICI GENERALES
132. Rigor
133. Eclampsia
134. Epilepsia
135. Hysteria
136. Scelotyrbe
137. Beriberia.
149. Rheuma
150. Hydrothorax
151. Empyema.
       Order V
       COMATA
176. Catalepsis
177. Ecstasis
178. TyphOmania
179. Lethargus
180. Caiaplibra
181. Carus
182. Apoplexia.
       Order V.
EXTERNI ET ARTUUM
210. Mastodynia
211. Rachialgia
212. Lumbago
213. Ischials
214. Proctalgia
215. Pudendagra   ■
236. Damionomanla.
       Order IV.
VESANIA, ANOMALA
237. Amnesia
238. Agrvpnia,
267. Leucornioea
268. Gonorrhoea
269. Dyspermatismus
270. Galactirrhoea
271. Otorrhoea.
       Order IV.
    AERIFLUXUS
272. Flatulentia
273. iEdopsophia
274. Dysodia
            CLASS X.—CACHEXIA.
276. Phthisis                   Order II.       280.  Pneumatosis
277. Atrophia             INTUMESCENTIA.  281.  Anasarca
278. Aridura.            279. Polysareia          £82.  Phlegmatia
                P P                                           113 
NOSOLOGY.
383. Physconia
884. Graviditas.

       Order TIL
  HYDROPES PARTIA-
          LES.
285. Hydrocephalus
286. Physocephalus
237. Hydrorachitis
288. Ascites
289. Hydrometra
290. Pbysometra
       Order I.
    CONTAGIOSL
1.  Morta
3.  Pestis
        Order I.
    CON'TINENTES.
11.  Diaria
12.  Synocha
13.  Synochus
14.  Lenta.
        Order I.
    MEMBRANACEL
25.  Phrenitis
26.  Paraphrenesis
27.  Pleuritis
28.  Gastritis
        Order I.
     INTRINSECI.
40. Cephalalgia
41. Hemicrania
42. Gravedo
43. Ophthalmia
44. Otalgia
45. Odontalgia
        Order I.
       IDEALES.
65. Delirium
66. Paraphrosyne
67. Amentia
68. Mania
69. Da:monia
70. Vesania
        Order I.
      DEFECTIVL
 90. Lassitudo
 91. Languor
 92. Asthenia
, 93. Lipotbymia
 94. Syncope
 95 Asphyxia.
        Order I.
       SPASTIC!.
121. Spasmus
122. Priapismus
123. Borborygmos
124. Trismos
125. Sardiasis
126. Hysteria
        Order I.
   8UFFOCATOR1T.
146. Raucedo
147. Vociferatto
148. Risus
149. Fleius
150. Susplrium
151 OseltarJo
      U4
291. Tympanites
292. Metcorismus
293. Ischuria.
       Order IV.
       TUBERA.
294. Rachitis
295. Scrofula
296. Carcinoma
237. Leontiasis
298. Malis
299. Framboesia.
        Order V.
     IMPETIGINE3
300.  Syphilis
301. Scorbutus
302. Elephantiasis
303. Lepra
304.  Scabies
305. Tinea.
        Order VI.
      ICTERITIA
306.  Aurigo
307.  Melasicterus

           Linnxvs.
Sunoptical View of the System of Lini
    CLASS I.—EXANTHEMATICI
3. Variola
4. Rubeola
5. Petechia
6. Syphilis.
       Order II.
     SPORADIC1
7. Miliaria
8. Uredo
     CLASS IL-CRITICI.
Order II.       18.  Duplicana
  INTERMITTENTES.
15. Quotidiana
16. Terliaua
17. Quartana
19. Errana.
       O rder III.
   EX ACERB ANTES.
20. AmphinsULua
          CLASS m.-PHL001ST[CI.
29. Enteritis             33. Cynanehe
30. Proctitis             34. Peripneumonia
31. Cystitis.              35. Hepatitis
        Order II.        36. Splenitis
  PARENCUYMATICL  37. Nephritis
32. Sphacelismus         38. Hysteritis.

            CLASS IV.-DOLOROSI.
46. Angina              54- Pneumonica
47. Soda                55. Hysteralgia
48. Cardialgia            56. Nephritica
49. Gastrica             57. Dysuria
50. Colica               58. Pudendogra
51. Hepatica             59. Proctica.
52. Splenica
53. Pleuritica
            CLASS V.-
71. Melancholia
       Order II.
     IMAGINARII.
72. Syringmos
73. Phantasma
74. Vertigo
75. Panophobia
76. Hypochondriasis

           CLASS VI.
       Order II.
       SOPOROSI.
 96. Somnolentia
 97. Typhomania
 98. Lethargus
 99. Calaphora
100. Carus
101.  Apoplexia
102.  Paraplegia
.03. Hemiplegia
-MENTALES.
 77. Somnambulismus.
        Order III.
       PATHETECI.
 78. Citta
 79. Bulimia
 80. Polydipsia
 81. Satyriasis
 82. Erotomania

-QUIET ALES.
 104.  Paralysis
 105.  Stupor
         Odrer in.
       PRIVATIVI.
 106.  Morosis
 107.  Oblivio
 108.  Amblyopia
 109.  Cataracta
 110.  Amaurosis
  111. Scotomia
CLASS VLL—MOTORII.
127. Tetanus
128. Catochus
129. Catalepsis
130. Agrypnia.
       Order II.
     AG1TATORII.
131. Tremor
132. Palpitatio

         CLASS VIH,
152. Pandiculatio
153. Singultus
154. Sternutatio
155. Tussu
156. Stertor
157. Anhelatio
158. Suffocatio
159. Empyema
308. Pluenigmas
309. Chlorosta.
       Order VIL
  CACHEXIA ANOKA-
          LA
310. Phthiriaais
311. Trichoma
312. Alopecia
313. Elcosis
314. Gangnena
315. Necrosis
 9. Aphtha.
       Order ITL
     SOLITARU
10. Erysipelas
 133. Orgasmus
 134. Subsultus
 135. Carpologia
 136. Stridor
 137. Hippos
 138. Psellismus
 139. Chorea
 140. Beriberi.

-SUPPRESSOR!!.
 160. Dyspnoea
 161. Asthma
 162. Orthopnoea
  163. Ephialtes.
         Order II-
     CONSTRICTORII.
  164. Anglutitio
  165. Flaiulentia
21. Tritseus
22. Tetartophia
23. Heuiitriuea
24. Hectics.
       Order HI.
     MUSCULOSL
30. Phlegmone.
       Order IT.
     EXTRINSEC1
60. Arthritis
61. Ostocopus
62. Rhcumatismus
63. Volatica
64. Pruritus.
83. Nostalgia
84. Tarantismus
85. Rabies
86. Hydrophobia
87. Cacosilia
88. Antipathia
89. Anxietas.
112. Cophosis
113. Anosmia
114 Ageustia
115. Aphonia
116. Anorexia
117. Adipsia
118. Anaesthesia
119. Atecnia
120. Atonia.
       Order HI.
     AGITATORU.
141. Rigor
142. Convulsio
143. Epilepsia
114. Hieranosos
145. Raphauia
166. Obstipatio
167. Ischuria
168. Dysmenorrheas
169. Dyslochia
170. Aglactatk)
171. Sterilitas. 
NOSOLOGY.
        Order I.
       CAPITIS.
172. Otorrhea
173. Epiphora
174. Hremorrhagia
175. Coryza
176. Slomacace
177. Ptyalismus.
       Order II.
      THORACIS.
178. Screatus
179. Expectoratio


        Order I.
    EMACIANTES.
W9. Phthisis
810. Tabes
211. Atrophia
B12. Marasmus
'13. Rachitis.
        Order 1.
     HUMORALIA.
<27.  Aridura
328.  Digitium
B29.  Emphysema
230.  Oedema
231.  Sugillatio
S32.  Intiammatio
833.  Abscessus
234.  Gangrena
235.  Sphacelus.
        Order II.
      DIALYTICA.
236.  Fractura
237.  Luxatura
238.  Ruptura
2:19.  Contusura
240.  Profusio
241.  Vulnus
242.  Amputatura
243.  Laceratura
244.  Punctura
245.  Morsura
246.  Combustura.
247.  Excoriatura
248.  Intertrigo
219.  Rhagas.
         Order ni.
  EXULCERATIONES
850.  Ulcus
        Order I.
  INTERMITTENTES.
 1. Quotidiana
 2. Tertiana
 3. Cluartana
 4. Ouinlana
 5. Sextana
 6. Septana
 7. Octana
 8. Nonana
 9. Decimana
10. Vaga
11. Menstrua
12. Tertiana duplex
13. Cluartana duplex
14. Quartana triplex.
       Order II.
      CONTINUA.
      $ 1. Simplices.
15. Quotidiana
16. Synochus
17. Amatoria
18. Phrenitis


        Order I.
   HAMORRHAGIA.
Bl. Hamorrhagia
82. Epistaxis
83. Ha:moptoe
          CLASS IX.
180.  Haemoptysis
181.  Vomica.
       Order ni.
     ABDOMINIS.
182.  Ructus
183.  Nausea
184.  Vomica
185.  Haematemesis
186.  Iliaca
187.  Cholera
188.  Diarrhoea
189.  Lienteria

            CLASS X.-
       Order  II.
      TUMIDOSI.
214.  Polysarcia
215.  Leucophlegmatia
216.  Anasarca
217.  Hydrocephalus
218.  Ascites

               CLASS
251.  Cacoethes
252.  Noma
253.  Carcinoma
254.  Ozena
255.  Fistula
256.  Caries
257.  Arthrocace
258.  Cocyta
259.  Paronychia
260.  Pernio
261.  Pressura
262.  Arctura.
       Order IV.
       SCABIES.
263.  Lepra
264.  Tinea
265.  Achor
266.  Psora
267.  Lippitudo
268.  Serpigo
269.  Herpes
270.  Varus
271.  Bacchia
272.  Bubo
273.  Anthrax
274.  Phlyctaena
275.  Pustula
276.  Papula
277.  Hordeolum
278.  Verruca
-EVACUATORII.
  190. Cceliw
  191. Cholirica
  192. Dysenteria
  193. Haemorrhois
  194. Tenesmus
  195. Crepitus.
         Order IV.
      GENITALIUM.
  196. Enuresis
  197. Stranguria
  198. Diabetes
  199. Hematuria

  -DEFORMES.
  219. Hyposarca
  220. Tympanites
  221. Graviditas.
         Order HI.
        DECOLORES.
  222. Cachexia
  223. Chlorosis
200. Glus
201. Gonorrhoea
202. Leucorrhoea
203. Menorrhagia
204. Parturitio
205. Abortus.
206. Mola.
       Order V.
 CORPORIS  JEXTERNI
207. Galactia
208. Sudor.
224. Scorbutus
225. Icterus
226. Plethora.
XI.—VITIA.
 279. Clavus             302.
 280. Myrmecium         303.
 281. Eschara.            304.
         Order V.       305.
  TUMORES PROTUBE- 306.
       R ANTES.
282.  Aneurisma
283.  Varix
284.  Scirrhus
285.  Struma
286.  Atheroma
287.  Anchylosis
288.  Ganglion
289.  Natta
290.  Spinola •
291.  Exostosis.
       Order VI.
    PROCIDENTIA.
292. Hernia
293.  Prolapsus
294.  Condyloma
295.  Sarcoma
296.  Pterygium
297.  Ectropium
298.  Phimosis
299.  Clitorismus.
       Order  VII.
   DEFORM ATIONES.
300.  Contractura
301.  Gibber
307
308
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.
326.
Synoptical View of the System of Vogel.
              CLASS I
19. Epiala
20. Causos
21. Elodes
22. Lethargus
23. Typhomania
24. Leipyria
25. Phricodes
26. Lyngodes
27. Assodes
28. Cholerica
29. Syncopalis
30. Hydrophobia
31. Oscitans
32. Ictericodes
33. Pestilentialis
34. Siriasis.
     § 2. Composita.
   IT 1. Exanlhematica.
35. Variolosa
36. Morbillosa
37. Miliaris
38. Petechialts
39. Scarlatina
—FEBRES.
40. Urtica
41. Bullosa
42. Varicella
43. Pemphigodes
44. Aphthosa.
    IT 2. Infiammatoria.
45. Phrenisrnus
46. Chemosis
47. Ophthalmites
48. Otites
49. Angina
50. Pleuritis
51. Peripneumonia
52. Mediasiina
53. Pericarditis
54. Carditis
55. Paraphrenias
56. Gastritis
57. Enteritis
58. Hepatitis
59. Splenitis
60. Mesenteritis
61. Omentitis
Lordosis
Distortio
Tortura
Strabismus
Lagophthalmia
Nyctalopia
Presbytia
Myopia
Labariom
Lagosioma
Apella
Alreta
Plica
Hirsuties
Alopecia
Trichiasis.
  Order VIII
  MACULA
Cicatrix
Nevus
Morphea
Vibex
Sudamen
Melasma
Hepatizon
Lentigo
Ephelis
84. Haemoptysis
85. Stomocace
86. Odontirrhoea
87. Oiorrhoea
86. Ophthalmorrhagia
             P   2
CLASS n.—PROFLUVIA.
89. Hsmatemesis
90. Hepatirrhoea
91. Catarrhexis
92. Hematuria
93. Cyslirrhagia
62. Peritonitis
63. Mycolitis
64. Pancreatica
65. Nephritis
66. Cystitis
67. Hysteritis
68. Erysipelacea
69. Podagrica
70. Panaritia
71. Cyssotis.
   IT 3. Symptomatica
72. Apoplectica
73. Catarrhalis
74. Rueumatica
75. Hsmorrhoidalis
76. Lactea
77. Vulneraria
78. Suppuratoria
79. Lenta
80. Hectica.
94. Stymatosis
95. Hscmatopedesis
96. Menorrhagia
97. Abortio. 
NOSOLOGT.
        Order n.
    APOCENOSES
 98. lata rhus
 9'J Epiphora
1(10. Coryzn
101. Oiopuosis
102. Otoplaios
103 Ptyalismus
126 Gravedo
127. Flotulenlia
 134. Anxietas
 135. Blestrismus
 136. Pruritus
 137. Catapsyxis
 138. Rheumatismus
 139. Arthritis
 140. Cephalalgia
 141. Cephaiea
 J42. Clavus
 143. Hemicrania
 144. Carebaria
 115. Odontalgia


 180. Tetanus
 181. Opisthotonus
 182. Episthotonus
 183. Catochus
 184. Tremor
 185. Frigus
 186. Horror
 187. Rigor
 188. Epilepsia
 K9. Eclampsia
 P0. Hieranosos


 222. Lassitudo
 323. Asthenia
 294. Torpor
 225. Adynamia
 226. Paralysis
 927. Paraplegia
 528. Hemiplegia
 229. Apoplexia
 230. Catalepsis
 231. Carus
 232. Coma
 233. Somnolentia
 234. Hypophasis
 235. Ptosis
 236. Amblyopia
 237. Mydriasis


285. Antipathia
286 Agrypnia
287. Pnautasina
288. Caligo
289. Heuiolopia


304. Cachexia
305. Chio- .lis
306. Icten
307. Me. '.rchlorus
308. Atropliia
309. Tabes
310. Phthisis
329. Athymia
330. Delirium
331. Maui?
        Order I.
 INFLAMMATIONES
341. Ophthalmia
342. Blepharotia
343. Erysipelas
344. Hieropyr
345. Paronychia
346. Onychia
      116
104. Vomica
105. Diarrhoea
lOo. Puorrhoea
107. Dysenteria
108. Lienteiia
103. Cieliaca
110. Cholera
111. Pituitaria
112.  Leucorrhois
113.  Eiictircsia
114.  Diuresis
115.  Diabetes
116.  Puoluria
117. Chylaria
118.  Gonorrhoea
119.  Leucorrhosa
           CLASS HI.—EPISCHESES.
128. Obstipatio           130. Amenorrhoea
129. Ischuria             131. Dyslochia
              CLASS
146.  Hemodia
147.  Odaxismus
14a  Otalgia
149.  Acataposis
150.  Cionis
151.  Himantesis
152.  Cardiogmua
153.  Mastodynia
154.  Soda
155.  Periadynia
156.  Pneumatosis
157  Cardialgia
IV.—DOLORES.
   158. Encausis
   159. Nausea
   160. Colica
   161. Eilema
   1G2. Ileus
   163. Stranguria
   164. Dysuria
   165. Lilhiasis
   166. Tenesmus
   167. Clunesia
   168. Cedma
   169. Hysteralgia
CLASS
                        V—SPASMI.
                         202.  Cataclasis
                         203.  Cillosis
                         204.  Sternutatio
                         205.  Tussis
                         206.  Clamor
                         207.  Trismus
                         208.  Capistrum
                         209.  Sardiasis
                         210.  Gelasmus
                         311.  Incubus
                         212.  Singultus

                        -ADVNAMIA.
                         254.  Leptophonia
                         255.  Oxyphonia
                         256.  Rhcnophonia
                         257.  Mutitas
                         258.  Traulotis
                         259.  I'sellotis
                         260.  Ichnophonia
                         361.  Bnttarismus
                         262.  Suspirium
                         263.  Oscitatio
                         264.  Pandiculatio
                         265.  Apnea
                         266.  Macropncea
                         267.  Dyspnoea
                         268.  Asthma
                         269.  Orthopuoea

         CLASS VII.—HYPA2RESTHESE3.
290. Marmaryge          295.  Polydipsia
291. Dysopia             296.  Bulimus
292. Susurrus             297.  Addephogia
293. Vertigo              298.  Cynorcxia
294. Apogeusia           299.  Allotriophagia

            CLASS VIII—CACHEXIA.
311. Hydrothorax         318.  Scorbutus
312. Rachitis             319.  Syphilis
313. Anasarca            320.  Lepra
314. Ascites              321.  Elephantiasis
315. Hydrocystis          322.  Elephantia
316. Tympanites          323.  Plica
317. Hysterophyse        324.  Phtbiriasis

            CLASS IX.—PARANOIA.
332. Melancholia          335.  Enthusiaamus
333. Ecstasis             336.  Stupiditas
334. Ecplexis             337.  Amentia
191. Convulsio]
192. Raphania
193. Chorea
194. Grampus
195. Scelotyrbe,
196. Angone
197. Glossocele
198. Glossocoma
199. Hippos
200. Illosis
201. Cinclesis

            CLASS VI
238. Amaurosis
239. Cataracta
240. Synizezis
241. Glaucoma
242. Achlys
243. Nyctalopia
244. Hemeralopia
245. Hemalopia
246. Dysicoia
247. Surdilas
248. Anosmia
249. Apogeusia
250. Asaphia
251. Clangor
252. Raucitas
253. Aphonia
347. Encausis
348. Phimosis
349. Paraphimosis
350. Pernio.
        Order II.
      HUMORES
351. Phlegmone
352. Furunculus
CLASS X—VITIA.
        353. Anthrax
        354. Abscissus
        355. Onyx
        356. Hippopyon
        357. Phygethlon
        358. Empyema
        350. Phyrna
        360. Ecthvinata
130. Exoneirosls
121. Hydropedeais
123. Galactia
123. Hypercatharsl
124. Ecphyse
135. Dysodia.
132. Deuterla
133. Agalaxis.


170. Dysmenorrhea
171. Dyslochia
172. Atocia
173. Priapismus
174. Psoriasis
175. Podagra
176. Osteocopus
177. Psophos
178. Volatica
179. Epiphlogisma.
213. Palpitatio
214. Vomitus
215. Ructua
216. Ruminatio
217. OesophagMinus
218. Hypochondriasis
219  Hysteria
220. Phlogosis
221. Digitium.
 270. Pnigma
 271. Renchus
 272. Rhochmos
 273. Lipothynvta
 274. Syncope
 275. Asphyxia
 276. Apepsia
 277. Dyspepsia
 278. Diapthora
 279. Anorexia
 230. Analrope
 281. Adipsia
 282. Acylsis
233. Agenesia
234. Auodynia.
300. Malaeia
301. Pica
302. Bombus
303. Celsa.
325. Physconia
326. Patacyisis
327. Gangrena
328. Sphacelus.
338. Oblivio
339. Somnium
340. Hypnobatasis
361. Urticaria
362. Parulis
363. Epulis
364. Anchylopa
365. Paraglossa
366. Chilon
367. Scrofula
368. Bubou 
NOSOLQOl.
SOB. Bronchocele
370. Parotis
371. Gongrona
372. Sparganosis
373. Coilima
374. Scinhus
375. Cancer
376. Sarcoma
377. Polypus
378. Condyloma
379. Ganglion
380. Ranula
381. Terminthus
382. Oedema
383. Eucephalocele
384. Hydrocephalum
385. Hydropthalmia
386. Spina bifida
387. Hydromphalus
388. Hydrocele
389. Hydrops scroti
390. Steatites
391. Pneumatosis
392 Emphysema
393. Hysteroptosis
394. Cystoptosis
395. Archbptoma
396. Bubonocele
397. Oscheocele
398. Omphalocele
399. Merocele
400. Enterocele ovularis
401. Ischiatocele
402. Elytrocele
403. Hypogastrocele
404. Cystocele
405. Cyrtoma
406. Hydrenterocele
407. Varix
511. Phoxos
512. Gibber
513. Caputobstipum
514. Strabismus
515. Myopiasis
516. Lagophthalmus
517. Trichiasis
518. Ectropium
519. Entropium
520. Rhoeas
521. Rhyssemata
522. Lagochcilos
523. Malachosteon
        Order I.
       MACULA.
 1. Leucoma
 2. Vitiligo
 3. Ephelis
 4. Nevus
 5. Ecchymoma.
       Order II.
  EFFLORESCENTIA.
 6. Pustula
 7. Papula
 8. Phlycthena
 9. Bacchia
10. Varus
11. Herpes
12. Epinyctis
13. Hetneropathos
14. Psydracia
15. Hydroa.
       Order III.
      PHYMATA.
16. Erythema
17. Oedema
        Order I.
     SOLUTIONES.
     recentes, cruenta.
78. Vulnus
79. Punctura
80. Sclopetoplaga
408. Aneurisma
409. Cirsoccle
410. Gustrocele
411. Hepalocele
412. Splcnocele
413. Hysterocele
414. Hygrocirsocele
415. Sarcocele
416. Physocele
417. Exostosis
418. Hyperostosis
419. Pedarthrocace
420. Eucyslis
421. Staphyloma
422. Staphylosis
423. Fungus
424. Tofus
425. Flemen.
       Order III.
   EXTUBERANTIA
426. Verruca
427. Porrus
428. Clavus
429. Callus
430. Encanthis
431. Pladarotis
432. Pinnula
433. Pterygium
434. Hordeolum
435. Grando
436. Varus
437. Gutta rosacea
438. Ephelis
439. Esoche
440. Exoche.
       Order rv.
PUSTULA Se PAPULA
441. Epinyctis
442. Phlyctena
443. Herpes
444. Scabies
445. Aquula
446. Hydroa
447. Variola
448. Varicella
449. Purpura
450. Encauma.
        Order V.
       MACULA.
451. Ecchymoma
45-'.. I'etechie
453. Morbilli
454. Scarlate
455. Lentigo
456. Urticaria
457. Stigma
458. Vibex
450. Vitiligo
460. Leuce
461. Cyasma
462. Lichen
463. Selina
464. Nebula.
       Order VI.
    DISSOLUTIONES.
465. Vulnus
466. Ruptura
467. Rhagas
468. Fractura
469. Fissura
470. Plicatio
471. Tlilasis
472. Luxatio
473. Subluxatio
474. Diachalasis
.475. Attritis
476. Porrigo
477. Aposyrma
          CLASS XI.-
524.  Hirsuties
525.  Canities
'536.  Distrix
527.  Xirasia
528.  Phalacrotis
529.  Alopecia
530.  Madarosis
531.  Ptilosis
532.  Rodatio
533.  Phalangosis
534.  Coloboina
535.  Cercosis
536.  Cholosis
•DEFORMITATES.
  537. Gryposis
  538. Nevus
  539. Montrositas
  540. Polysarcia
  541. Ichnotis
  542. Rhicnosis
  543. Varus
  544. Valgus
  545. Leiopodes
  546. Apella
  547. Hypospadiaeos
  548. Urorhoeas
  549. Atreta
A Synoptical View of the System of Saoar.
          CLASS I.-VITIA.
18. Emphysema
19. Scirrhus
20. Inflammatio
21. Bubo
22. Parotis
23. Furuuculus
24. Anthrax
25. Cancer
26. Paronychia
27. Phimosis.
       Order IV.
   EXCRESCENTIA.
28. Sarcoma
29. Condyloma
30. Verruca
31. Pterygium
32. Hordeolum
33. Trachelophyma
34. Exostosis.
       Order V.
       CYSTIDES.
35. Aneurysma
36. Varix
37. Marisca
38. Hydatis
39. Staphyloma
40. Lupia
41. Hydarthrus
42. Apostema
43. Exomphalus
44. Oscheophyma.
       Order VI.
       ECTOPIA.
45. Exophthalmia
At). Blepharoptosis
47. Hypostaphyle
48. Paraglossa
49. Proptoma
.50. Exania
51. Exocystis
52. Histeroptosis
53. Colpoptoeis
64. Gastrocele
55. Omphalocele
56. Hepatoceie
57. Merocele
478. Anapleusta
479. Spasma
480. Contusio
481. Diabrosis
482. Agomphiasis
483. Eschara
484. Piptonychia
485. Cacoethes
486. Therioma
487. Carcinoma
488. Phagedaena
489. Noma
490. Sycosis
491. Fistula
492. Sinus
493. Caries
494. A chores
495. Crusta lactea
496. Favus
497. Tinea
498. Argemon
499. Aeilops
500. Ozena
501. Aphthae
502. Intertrigo
503. Rhacosis.
       Order  VII.
    CONCRETIONES.
504. Ancyloblepharon
505. Zynizesis
506. Dacrymoma
507. Ancyloglossum
508. Ancylosis
500. Cicatrix
510. Dactylion
550. Saniodes
551. Cripsorchis
552. Hermaphrodites
553. Dionysiscus
554. Artetiscus
555. Nefrendis
556. Spanopogon
557. Hyperartetisei
558. Galiancon
559. Galbulus
560. Mola.
58. Bubonocele
59. Opodeocele
60. Ischiocele
61. Colpocele
62. Perineocele
63. Peritoneorixis
64. Eucephalocele
65. Hysteroloxia
66. Parorchidium
67. Exarthrema
68. Diastasis
69. Loxarthrus
70. GibbQsitas
71. Lordosis.
       Order VII.
   DEFORMITATES
72. Lagostoma
73. Apella
74. Polymerisma
75. Epidosis
76. Anchylomerisma
77. Hirsuties.
            CLASS II.—PLAGA.
 81. Morsus                      Order n.        87. Sutura
 82. Excoriatio                SOLUTIONES.     88. Paracentesis
83. Contusio              recente*, cruenta,  artifi-       Order OL
84. Ruptura.                       dales.              SOLUTIONS*
                         85. Operatio                    incrutnta.
                         68. Amputatlo            89. Ulcus 
90. Exulceratio
01. Fistula
93. Sinus
        Order I.
        MACIES.
100. Tabes
101. Phthisis
102 Atrophia
103. Hemataporia
104. Aridura.
        Order II.
  INTUMESCENTIA.
105. Plethora
106. Polysarcia
107. Pneumatosis
109. Anasarca
109. Phlegmatia
110. Physconia
        Order I.
         VAGI.
142. Arthritis
143. Ostocopus
144. Rheumatismus
145. Catarrhus
146. Anxietus
147. Lassitudo
148. Stupor
149. Pruritus
150. Algor
        Order I.
   SANGUIFLUXUS.
174. Hemorrhagia
175. Hemoptysis
176. Stomacace
177. Heinatemesis
178. Hematuria
179. Metrorrhagia
180. Abortus.
       Order II.
     ALVIFLUXUS.
     sanguinolenti.
181. Hepatirrhoea
93. Eschara
94. Caries
95. Arthrocace.
           CLASS HL-
 111. Graviditas.
       Order III.
  HYDROPES partial**-.
 112. Hydrocephalus
 113. Pnysocephalus
 114. Hydrorachitis
 115. Ascites
 116. Hydrometra
 117. Pliysometra
 118. Tympanites
 119. Meteorismus.
       Order IV.
       TUBER A.
 120. Rachitis
 121. Scrofula

            CLASS rv
151. Ardor.
       Order II.
       CAPITIS.
152. Cephalalgia
153. Cephalea
154. Hemicrania
155. Ophthalmia
156. Otalgia
157. Odontalgia.
              CLASS
182. Hemorrhois
183. Dysenteria
184. Melena.
       Order III.
    ALVIFLUXUS.
   non sanguinolenti.
185. Nausea
186. Vomitus
187. Ileus
188. Cholera
189. Diarrhoea
190. Coeliaca
191. Lienteria
NOSOLOGY.
         Order TV.
       SOLUTIONES.
         anomala.
  96. Rhagas

 •CACHEXIA.
  122. Carcinoma
  123. Leontiasis
  124. Malis
  125. Frambocsia.
         Order V.
      IMPETIGINES.
  126. Syphilis
  127. Scorbutus
  128. Elephantiasis
  129. Lepra
  130. Scabies
  131. Tinea.
         Order VI.
        ICTERITIE.
  132. Aurigo

 —DOLORES.
        Order III.
        PECTORIS.
  158. Pyrosis
  159. Cardiogmus.
         Order IV.
       ABDOMINIS.
  160. Cardialgia
  161. Gastrodynia
  102. Colica
  163. Hepatalgia
  164. Splenalgia

V—FLUXUS.
  192. Tenesmus
  193. Proctorrhcea.
        Order IV.
      SERIFLUXUS.
  194. Ephidrosis
  195. Epiphora
  196. Coryza
  197. Ptyalismus
  198. Anacatharsis
  199. Diabetes
  200. Enuresis
  201. Pyuria
  202. LeucorrhCBa
                                CLASS VI.—SUPPRESSIONES.
        Order I.       214. Aglactatio                  Order II.
   EGERENDORUM.   215. Dyslochia.             INGERENDORUM.
210. Adiapneustia                               216. Dysphagia
211. Sterilitas                                   217. Angina.
212. Ischuria
213. Dysuria
        Order I.
 TONICI PARTIALES.
222. Strabismus
223. Trismus
224. Obstipitas
225. Contractura
226. Crampus
327. Priapismus.
            CLASS VII.—SPASMI.
      Order II.        232. Subsultus
TONICI GENERALES. 233. PandiculaUo
228. Tetanus
229. Catochus.
       Order III.
  CHRONICI PARTI A
          LES.
230. Nystagmus
331. Carphologia
234. Apomistosis
235. Convulsio
236. Tremor
237. Palpitatio
238. Claudicatio.
       Order  L
     SPASMODICA.
245. Ephialtes
246 Stemutalio
247. Oscedo
       Order I.
   DYSASTHESLfi.
258. Amblyopia
259. Caligo
260. Cataracta
361. Amaurosis
262. Anosmia
963. Agbeustia
364. Dyiecuaa
365. Paracusis
206. Cophosjs
      US
CLASS Vm.—ANHELATIONES.
348. Singultus
249. Tussis.
       Order H.
    SUPPRESSIVA.
250. Stertor

          CLASS IX.-
367. Anesthesia.
       Order II.
   ANEPYTHYMIA.
2C8. Anorexia
369. Adipsia
270. Anaphrodisia.
       Order III.
    DYSCINESLE.
371. Mutitas
372. Aphonia
273. Psellismus
 251. Dyspnoea
 252. Asthma
 253. Orthopnoea
 254. Pleurodyne
 255. Rheuma

-DEBILITATES.
 274. Cacophonia
 275. Paralysis
 276. Hemiplegia
 277. Paraplexia.
        Order  IV.
     LEIPOPSYCHIA.
 278. Asthenia
 379. Lipothymia
 230. Syncope
 381. Asphyxia.
97. Ambustlo
98. Fractura
99. Fiwura.
133. Melosicterui
134. Phoenigmus
135. Chlorosis.
       Order VII.
      ANOMALA
136. Phthiriasls
137. Trichoma
138. Alopecia
139. Elcosis
140. Grangrnna
141. Necrosis.
165. Nephralgia
166. Hysteralgia.
       Order. V.
    EXTERN ARUM.
167. Mastodynia
168. Rachialgia
169. Lumbago
170. Ischias
171. Proctalgia
172. Pudendagra
173. Digitium.
203. Lochiorrhoea
204. Gonorrhoea
205. Galactirrhoea
206. Otorrhoea.
        Order V.
     AERIFLUXU8.
207. Flatulentia
208. Adopsophia
309. Dysodia
       Order III
     IMI VENTRIS.
218. Dysmenorrhea
219. Dystocia
230. Dyshemorrhois
221. Obstipatio.


       Order IV.
 CHRONICI GENERA
          LES.
239. Phricasmus
240. Eclampsia
241. Epilepsia
242. Hysteria
243. Scelotyrbe
244. Beribcria.


256. Hydrothorax
357. Empyema.
        Order V.
       COMATA.
282. Catalepsis
283. Ectasis
384. Typhnmania
3SS. Lelhargus
286. Catapbora
287. Carui
288. Apoplexia, 
NOSOLOGY.
        Order I.
     CONTAGIOSA.
389. Pestis
390. Variola
        Order I.
     MUSCULOSA.
399.  Phlegmone
300.  Cynanehe
301.  Myositis
302  Carditis.
         CLASS X.—EXANTHEMATA.
291. Pemphigus                 Order n.       297. Essera
292. Purpura              NON-CONTAGIOSA.  298. Aphtha.
293. Rubeola            295. Miliares
294. Scarlatina.          296. Erysipelas

         CLASS XL—PHLEGMASIA.
       Order II.
    MEMBRANACA.
303. Phrenitis
304. Diaphragmitis
305 Pleuritis
306. Gastritis
307. Enteritis            311. Peripneumonia
308. Epiploitis           312. Hepatitis
309. Cystitis.            313. Splenitis
       Order  III.       314. Nephritis
 PARENCHYMATOSA. 315. Metritis.
310. Cephalitis
        Order I
      CONTINUA.
316. Judicatoria
317. Humoraria
318. Frigeraria


        Order I.
 HALLUCINATIONES.
328. Vertigo
329. Suffusio
330. Diplopia
331. Syrigmos
332. Hypochondriasis
333. Somuambulismus.
            CLASS XH.-FEBRES.
319. Typhus            322. Triteophya
320. Hectica.
       Order II.
    REMITTENTES
321. Amphimerina
323. Tetartophya.
       Order III.
  INTERMITTENTES.
324. Quotidiana
       Order II.
    MOROS1TATES.
334. Pica
335. Bulimia
336. Polydipsia
337. Antipathia
338. Nostalgia
339. Panophobia
CLASS XHT.--VESANIA.
340. Satyriasis
341. Nymphomania
342. Tarantismus
343. Hydrophobia
344. Rabies.
      Order III.
       DELIR1A.
345. Paraphrosyne
       Order I.
       FEVERS.
 1. Continued
 2. Intermittent
 3. Remittent
 4. Eruptive
 5. Hectic.
       Order II.
  INFLAMMATIONS.
 6. External
 7. Internal.
       Order III.
       FLUXES.
 8. Alvine
 9. Haemorrhage
10. Humoral discharge.
       Order IV.
 PAINFUL DISEASES.
11. Gout
Synoptical View of the System of Dr. Macbride.

   CLASS I.—UNIVERSAL DISEASES.
29. Eclampsia
30. Hieranosos:
       Order VI.
  WEAKNESSES AND
     PRIVATIONS.
31. Coma
32. Palsy
33. Fainting.
      Order VII.
 ASTHMATIC DISOR-
        DERS.
34. Dyspnoea
       Order I.
 O* THE INTERNAL
       SENSES.
55 Loss of memory
56. Hypochondriasis
57. Loss of judgment.
       Order II.
 OF THE EXTERNAL
       SENSES.
58. Blindness
59. Depraved sight
60. Deafness
61. Depraved hearing
62. Loss of smell
63. Depraved smell
64. Loss of taste
65. Depraved taste
66. Loss of feeling.
      Order III.
OF THE  APPETITES
67. Anorexia
68. Cynorcxia
69. Pica
70. Polydipsia
71. Satyriasis
72. Nymphomania
73. Auaphrodisia.
12. Rheumatism
13. Ostocopus
14. Headache
15. Toothache
16. Earache
17. Pleurodyne
18. Pain in tbe stomach
19. Colic
20. Lithiasis
21. Ischuria
32- Proctalgia.
        Order V.
SPASMODIC DISEASES.35. Orthopncea
23. Tetanus            36. Asthma
24. Catochus            37. Hydrothorax
25. Locked jaw          38. Empyema.
26. Hydrophobia               Order VIH.
27. Convulsion            MENTAL DISEASES
28. Epilepsy            39. Mania

        CLASS  n.—LOCAL DISEASES.
       Order IV.       95. Hiccup
OF THE  SECRETIONS 96. Cough
  AND EXCRETIONS.   97. Vomiting
 74. Epiphora
 75. Coryza
 76. Ptyalism
 77. Anacatharsis
78. Otorrhoea
 98. Palpitation of the
      heart
 99. Chorea
100. Trismus
101. Nystagmus
79. Diarrhoea           102. Cramp
80. Incontinence of urine. 103. Scelotyrbe
81. Pyuria
82. Dysuria
83. Constipation
84. Tenesmus
85. Dysodia
86. Flatulence
87. Adopsopbia.
      Order V.
 IMPEDING DIFFER-
   ENT ACTIONS.
88. Aphonia
89. Mutitas
90. Paraphonia
91. Dysphagia
92. Wry neck
93. Angone
94. Sneezing
104. Contraction
105. Paralysis
106. Anchylosis
107. Gibbositas
108. Lordosis
109. Hydarthrus.
       Order VI.
 OF THE  EXTERNAL
        HABIT.
110. Tumour
111. Excrescence
112. Aneurism
113. Varix
114. Papule
115. Pblyctenae
116. Pustule
117. Scabies, or Psora
325. Tertiana
326. Cluartana
327. Erratica.
346. Amentia
347. Melancholia
348. Demonomania
349. Mania.
       Order IV.
      ANOMALA.
350. Amnesia
351. Agrypnia
40. Melancholia.
       Order IX.
 CACHEXIES, or Humoral
        Diseases.
 41. Corpulency
 42. Dropsy
 43. Jaundice
 44. Emphysema
45. Tympany
46. Physconia
47. Atrophia
48. Osteosarcosis
49. Sarcostosis
50. Mortification
51. Scurvy
52. Scrofula
53. Cancer
54. Lues Venerea,
118. Impetigo
119. Leprosy
120. Elephantiasis
121. Framboesia
122. Herpes
123. Macule
124. Alopecia
125. Trichoma
126. Scald head
127. Phthiriasis.
      Order VII.
   DISLOCATIONS.
128. Hernia
129. Prolapsus
130. Luxation.
      Order VIII.
 SOLUTIONS OF CON
       TINUITY.
131. Wound
132. Ulcer
133. Fissure
134. Fistula
135. Burn, or scald
136. Excoriation
137. Fracture
138. Caries.
                              CLASS III.—SEXUAL DISEASES.
       Order I.               Order II.       143. Gonorrhoea virulenta 147. Crystalline
GENERAL, proper to Men- LOCAL, proper to Men. 144. Priapism           148. Hernia humoralis
139. Febris tcsticularis    141. Dyspermatismus     145. Phimosis           149. Hydrocele
140, Tabes dorsalis.      142. Gonorrhoea simolei  146 Paraphimosis        150. Sarcoeele
                                                                                     119 
NOSOLOGY.
151. Clrsocele.
Order HI.  GENERAL
    proper to Women.
152. Amenorrheas
153. Chlorosis
154. Leucorrhoea
  Order I.  GENERAL.
169. Colica meconialis
170. Colica lactentium
171. Diarrhoea infantum
155. Menorrhagia
156. Hysteralgia
157. Graviditas
158. Abortus
159. Dystochia
160. Febris puerperalis
161. Mastodynia.          165. Physometrn
       Oruer  IV.        166. Prolapsus uteri
LOCAL, proper to Women. 167.---------vagim
162.  Hydrops ovarii
163.  Scinhus ovarii
164.  Hydrometra
      CLASS IV.—IN FANTILE DISEASES.
172. Aphthe                Order U.  LOCAL.
173.  Eclampsia           176. Imperforation
174.  Atrophia             177. Anchyloglossum
175.  Rachitis.             178. Aurigo

       Synoptical view of Dr. Good's System.
168. Polypus uteri
179. Purpura
180. Crusta  lactea.
 CLASS I.  CCELIACA.  Diseases of the Digestive
                    Function.
 Order 1. Enterica.  Affecting the alimentary canal.
 Genus 1. Odontia.  Misdentition.
 Species 1. O. deutitionis.  Teething.
       2. O. dolorosa.  Toothache.
       3. O. stuporis.  Tooth-edge.
       4. O. deform Is.   Deformity of the teeth.
       5. O. edentula.   Toothlessness.
       6. O. incrustans.  Tartar of the teeth.
       7. O. excrescens.  Excrescent gums.
 Genus 2.  Ptyalismcs.  Ptyalism.
 Species 1.  P. acUtus.  Salivation.
       2.  P. chrOnicus.  Chronic ptyalism.
       3. P. iners.  Drivelling.
 Genus 3.  Dysphasia.  Dysphagy.
 Species 1.  D. constricta.  Constrictive dysphagy.
       2.  D. atonica.  Atonic dysphagy.
       3.  D. globosa.  Nervous quinsy.
       4.  D. uvulosa.  Uvula dysphagy.
       5.  D. linguosa.  Lingual dysphagy.
 Genus 4-  Dipsosis. Morbid thirst.
 Species 1.  D. avens.  Immoderate thirst.
       2.  D. expers.  Thirstlessness.
 Genus 5.  Limosis.  Morbid appetite.
 Species 1.  L. avens.  Voracity.
       2.  L. expers.  Long fasting.
       3.  L. pica.  Depraved appetite.
       4.  L. cardlalgica.  Heartburn.  Waterbrooh.
       5.  L. flatus. Flatulency.
       6.  L. emesls.  Sickness.  Vomiting.
       7.  L. dyspepsia.  Indigestion.
 Genus 6.  Colica.  Colic.
Species 1.  C. ileus.  Iliac passion.
       2.  C. rhachialgica.   Painter's colic.
       3.  0. cibaria.  Surfeit.
       4.  C. flatulenta.  Wind-colic
       5.  C. constipata.   Constipated colic.
       6.  C. constricta.  Constrictive colic.
 Genus 7.  Copostatris.  Costiveness.
Species 1.  C. constipata.  Constipation.
       2.  C. obstipata.   Obstipation.
 Genus 8.  Diarrhea.   Looseness.
Species 1.  D. fusa.  Feculent looseness.
       2.  D. biliosa.  Bilious looseness.
       3.  D. mucosa.  Mucous looseness.
       4.  D. chylosa.  Chylous looseness.
       5.  D. lienleria.   Lientery.
       6.  D. serosa.  Serous looseness.
       7.  D. tabulosa.   Tabular looseness.
       8.  D. gypsata.  Gypseous looseness.
 Genus 9.  Cholera.  Cholera.
Species 1.  C. biliosa.  Bilious cholera.
       2.  C. flatulenta.   Flatulent cholera.
       3.  C. spasmodica. Spasmodic cholera.
 Genus 10.  Enterolithus.   Intestinal concretions.
Species 1.  E. bezoardus.  Bezoar.
       2.  E. calculus.  Intestinal calculus.
       3.  E. scybalum.  Scybalum.
 Genus 11.  Hklminthia.  Worms.
 Species 1.  H. alvi.  Alvine worms.
       2.  H. podicis.  Anal worms.
       3.  erratica.  Erratic worms.
 f?enu*12. Proctica.  Proctica.
 Species 1.  P. simplex.  Simple proctica.
       2.  P. spasmodica. Spasmodic stricture of the
            rectum.
       3.  P. callosa.  Callous stricture of the rectum.
       4.  P. tenesmus.   Tenesmus.
       5.  P. marica.  Piles.
       6.  P. exania.  Prolapse of the fundament.
Order 3.  Splakciinica.  Affecting  the collaiitious
            viscera.
      120
 Genus  1. Icterus. Yellow jaundice.
 Species 1. I. choleus.   Biliary jaundice.
        2. chololithicus.  Gallstone jaundice.
        3. I. spashiodicus. Spasmodic jaundice
        4. I. hepaticus.  Hepatic jaundice.
        5. I. infantum.  Jaundice of Infants.
 Genus  2. Mel*na.  Melena.
 Species J. M. choloea.   Black or green jaundice
        2. M. cruenta.  Black vomit.
 Genus  3. Chololithus.  Gall-stone.
 Species 1. C. quiescens.  Quiescent gall-stone
        2. C. means.  Passing of gall-stones
 Genus  4. Paraiusma.  Visceral tumescence.
 Species 1. P. heputlcuin.  Turgescence of the liver,
        2. P.  splenlcum.  Turgescence of the spleen.
        3. P.  pnncfeatlcum.  Turgescence of the pan
            creas.
        4. P. mesentericum.  Turgescence of the me-
            sentery.
        5. P. iutestinale. Turgescence of the intestines.
        6. P. omentalo.  Turgescence Of the omentum.
        7. P. complicatum.  Turgescence compounded
            of various organs.
 CLASS II PNEUMATICA.  Diseases of the Respi-
                 ratory Function.
 Order  1. Phonica.  Affecting the vocal avenues
 Genus 1.  Coryza.  Running at the nose.
 Species  1. C. entonica.  Entonic coryza.
       2. C. atonica.   Atonic coryza.
 Genus V.  Polyptts.  Polypus.
 Species  1.  P. elasticus.  Compressible polypus
       2.  P. coriaceus.  Cartilaginous polypus.
 Genus 3.  Rhonchus.  Rattling in the throat
 Species  1.  R. stertor.  Snoring.
       2.  R. cerchnus.  Wheezing.
 Genus 4.  Aphonia.  Dumbness.
 Species 1. A. elinguium.  Elinguai dumbness
       2. A. atonica.   Atonic dumbness.
       3. A. surdnrum.  Deaf dumbness.
 Genus 5.  Dysphoma.  Dissonant voice.
 Species  1. D. susurrans.  Whispering voice.
       2. D. puberum.   Voice of puberty.
       3. D. imuiodulata.  Iiumelodious voice.
 Genus 6.  Psellismus.  Dissonant  speech.
 Species  1. P. bambalia.  Stammering.
       2.  P. blesitas.   Misenunciation.
 Order  2. Pneumomca.  Affecting the  lungs, their
           membranes, or motive  power.
 Genus 1.  Bex.   Cough.
Species!.  B. humida.   Common or  humid cough.
       •2.  B. sicca.  Dry cough.
       3.  B. convulsiva.  Hooping-cough.
 Genus 2.  Larynoismus.  Laryngic suffocation.
Species 1.  L. stridulus.  Stridulus construction of the
           larynx.
 Genus 3.  Dyspnoea.  Anhclation.
Species].  D. chronica.  Short-breath.
       2.  D. exacerbans.  Exacerbating anhelntion.
 Genus 4.  Asthma.  Asthma.
Species 1.  A. siccum.  Dry or nervous asthma.
       2.  A. humidiun.  Humid or common asthma.
 Genus 5.  Ephialtes.  Incubus.
Speciesl.  E. vigilantium.  Day-mare.
       2.  E. nocttirmis.  Night-mare.
 Genus 6.  Sternalgia.  Suffocative breast-pang.
Speciesl.  S. ambulantium.   Acute breast-pang.
       2.  S. chronica.  Chronic breast-pang.
 Genus 7.  Pletjralgia.  Pain in the side.
 Species  L P. acuta.  Stitch.
       2. P. chronica.  Chronic pain in the aide.
 CLASS III.  HAMATICA.   Diseases  of  the San-
                guineus Function.
Order  1. Pyretica.   Fevers 
NOSOLOGY.
 Genus 1. Ephemera.  Diary fever.
 Species 1. E. mitis.   Mild diary fever.
       2. E. acuta.  Acute diary fever.
       3. E. sudatoria.  Sweating fever.
 Genus 2. Anetcs.   Intermitting fever.  Ague.
 Species 1. A. quotidianus  Quotidian ague.
       2. A. tertianus.  Tertian ague.
       3. A. quartanus.  Quartan ague.
       4. A. erratlctis.  Irregular ague.
       5. A. complicate.   Complicated ague.
 Genus 3. Epanetus. Remittent fever.
 Species], E. mitis.   Mild remittent.
       2. E. malignas.  Malignant remittent.
       3. E. hectica. Hectic fever.
 Genus 4. Enecia.  Continued fever.
 Speciesl. E. cauma. Inflammatory fever.
       2. E typhus. Typhous fever.
       3. E. synochus.  Synochal fever.
 Order 2. Pulogistica.  Inflammations.
 Genus 1. Apostema.  Aposteme.
 Species 1. A. commune.  Common aposteme.
       2. Apsoaticum.  Psoas abscess.
       3. A.hepaticum.  Abscess of the liver.
       4. A. empyema.  Lodgment of matter in  the
            chest.
       5. A vomica. Vomica.
 Genus Z. Phlegmone.  Phlegmon
Snecies 1. P. communis.  Common phlegmon.
       2. P. parulis. Gum-boil.
       3. P. auris.  Imposthume ofthe ear.
       4. P. parOtidea.  Parotid phlegmon.
       5. P. mammae.  Abscess of tile breast.
       6. P. bubo.  Bubo.
       7. P. pbimotica.  Phimotic phlegmdn.
 Genus 3. Piiyma.  Tubercle.
Species 1. P. hordeolum.  Sty.
       2. P. furunculus.  Boil.
       3. P. sycosis. Ficous phyma.
       4. P. anthrax. Carbuncle.
 Genus 4. Ionthus.  Whelk.
Species 1. I. varus.  Stone pock.
       2. I. corymbyfer.  Carbunculated face.  Rosy
            drop.
 Genus 5. Phlysis.   Phlysis.
Species 1. P. paronychia.  Whitlow.
 Genus 6. Erythema.  Inflammatory blush.
Species 1. E. oedematosum.  (Edematous  inflamma-
            tion.
       2. E. erysipelatosum.  Esysipelatous  inflam-
            mation.
       3. E. gangrenosum.   Gangrenous inflamma-
            tion.
       4. E. vesiculare.  Vesicular inflammation.
       5. E. pernio.  Chilblain.
       6. E. entertrigo.  Fret.
 Genus 7. Empresma.  Visceral inflammation.
Species 1. E. cephalites.  Inflammation of the brain.
       2. E. otitis.  Inflammation of the ear.
       3. E. parotitis.  Mumps.
       4  E. parithmitis.  Quincy.
       5. E. laryngitis.   Inflammation ofthe larynx
       6. E. bronchitis.  Croup.
       7. E. pneumonitis.  Peripneumony.
       8. E. pleuritis.  Pleurisy
       9. E. carditis.  Inflammation ofthe heart.
      10. E. peritonitis.  Inflammation of the perito-
                neum.
      11. E. gastritis. Inflammation of the stomach.
      12. E. enteritis. Inflammation of the bowels.
      13. E. hepatitis.  Inflammation of the liver.
      14. E. splenitis.  Inflammation of the spleen.
      15. E. nephritis.   Inflammation of the kidney.
      16. E. cystitis.  Inflammation of the bladder.
      17. E. hysteritis.  Inflammation of the womb.
      18. E. orchitis  Inflammation of the testicles.
 Genus 8. Ophthalmia.  Ophthalmy.
Species 1. O. taraxis.  Lachrymose ophthalmy.
       2. O. iridis.   Inflammation ofthe iris.
       3. O. purulenta.  Purulent ophthalmy.
       4. O. glulinosa.   Glutinous ophthalmy.
       5. O. chronica.  Lippitude.  Blear-eye.
 Genus 9. Catarrhus.  Catarrh.
Species 1. C. communis.  Cold in the head or chest.
       2. C. epidemicus. Influenza.
 GentwlO. Dysentkria.  dysentery.
 Bpecies I. D. simplex. Simple Dysentery.
       8. D. pyretica.  Dysenteric fever.
Genus ll. Bucnemia.  Tumid leg.
Specie6 1. B. sparganosis.  Puerperal tumid leg.
       2. B. tropica.  Tumid leg of hot climates.
GenusVU. Arthrosia.  Articular inflammation.
Species 1. A. acuta.  Acute rheumatism.
       2. A. chronica.  Chronic inflammation.
       3. A. podagra.  Gout.
       4. A. hydarthrus.  White-swelling.
Order 3. Exanthematica.   Eruptive fevers.   Ex
           anthems.
 Genus 1. Exanthesis.  Rash exanthem.
Specic-s 1. E. rosalia.  Scarlet fever
       2. rubeola.  Measles.
       3. E. urticaria.  Nettle-rash.
 Genus 2. Emphlysis.  Achorous exanthem.
Speciesl. E. miliaria.  Miliary fever.
       2. E. aphtha.  Thrush.
       3. E. vaccina.  Cow-pox,
       4. E. varicella.  Water-pox.
       5. E. pemphigus   Vesicular fever.
       6. E. erysipelas.  St. Anthony's Are.
 Ger.us 3. Empyesis.  Pustulous exanthem.
Species 1. E. variola.  Smallpox.
 Genus 4. Anthracia.  Carbuncular exanthem.
Species 1. A. pestis. Plague.
       2. A. rubula.  Yaws.
Order 4. Dysthetica.  Cachexies.
 Genus 1. Plethora.  Plethora.
Species 1. P. entenica.  Sanguineous plethora.
       2. P. atonica.  Serous plethora.
 Genus 2. Hamorrhagia.   Hemorrhage.
Species 1. H. entonica.  Entonic hemorrhage^
       2. H. atonica.  Atonic hemorrhage.
 Genus 3. Marasmus.  Emaciation.
Species 1. M. atrophia.  Atrophy.
       2. M. climaclericus.  Decay of nature.
       3. M. Tabes.  Decline.
       4. M. phthisis.  Consumption
 Genus 4. Struma. Scrofula.
Species 1. S. vulgaris.  King's evil.
 Genus 5. Carcinus  Cancer.
Speciesl. C. vulgaris.   Common cancer.
 Genus 6. Lues.  Venereal disease.
Species 1. Ii. syphilis.   Pox.
       2. L. syphilodcs.  Bastard pox.
 Genus 7. Elephantiasis.  Elephant-skin.
Species 1. E. arabica.  Arabian elephantiasis.  Black
           leprosy.
       2. E. italica.  Italian elephantiasis.
       3. E. asturiensis.  Asturian elephantiasis;
 Genus 8. Catacausis.  Catacausis.
Species 1. C. ebriosa.  Enebriate catacausis.
 Genus 9. Porphyra.  Scurvy.
Species 1. P. simplex.  Petechial scurvy.
       2. P. hemorrhagica.  Land-scurvy.
       3. P. naulica.  Sea-scurvy.
Genus 10. Exanoia.  Exangia.
Species 1. E. aneurisma.  Aneurism.
       2. E. varix.  Varix.
       3. E. cyania.  Blue-skin.
Genus 11. Gangrjena.  Gangrene.
Species 1. G. sphacelus.  Mortification.
       2. G. ustilaginca.  Mildew-mortification,
       3. G. necrosis.  Dry-gangrene.
       4. G. caries.  Caries.
Genus 12. Ulcus.  Ulcer.
Speciesl. U. incarnans.  Simple healing ulcer.
       2. U. vitiorum.  Depraved ulcer.
       3. U. sinuosum.  Sinuous ulcer.
       4. U.  tuberculosum.   Watty.   Excrescent
           ulcer.
       5. U. cariosum.  Carious ulcer.
   CLASS IV. NEUROTICA.   Diseases of the
                Nervous Function.
Order 1. Phrenica.  Affecting tlie intellect.
 Genus 1. Ecphronia.  Insanity.   Craziness.
Species 1. E. melancholia.  Melancholy
       2. E. mania.  Madness.
 Genus 2. Empathema.  Ungovernable passion.
Species 1. E. entonicum.   Empassioned excitement.
       2. E. atonicum.  Empassioned depression.
      3. E. inane.  Hair-brained passion.
 Genus 3  Alusia.  Illusion. Hallucination.
Species 1. A. elatio.  Seutimentalism.   Mental ex-
           travagance.
       2. A. hypochondriasis. Hypochondrism. Low
           spiriteduese.
                                       m 
OLOO  .
Genus 4. Apblisia.  RevetY.
Species 1. A. socors.  Absence of mind.
       3. A. intends.  Abstraction of mind.
       3. A. otiosa.  Brown study.
Genus 5. Paromria.  Sleep-disturbance.
Speciesl. P. ambulans.  Sleep-walking.
       2. P. loqtiens.  Sleep-ialxing.
       3. P. salax.  Night pollution.
Genus 6. Moria.  Fatuity.
Speciesl. M. imbecillis.   Imbecility.
       3. M. demens.  Irrationality.
Order 2. .Esthetic*.  Affecting tbe sensation.
Genus 1. Paropsis.  Morbid-sight.
Species 1. P. lucifuga.  Night-sight.
       2. P. noctifuga.  Day-sighL
       3. P. loneinqua.   Long-sight.
       4. P. propinqua.  Short-sight.
       5. P. lateralis.  Skew-sight.
       6. P. illusoria.  False-sight.
       7. P. caligo.  Opaque cornea.
       8. P. glaucosis.  Humeral opacity.
       9. P. cataracta.  Cataract.
      10. P. synizesis.  Closed pupil.
      11. P. amaurosis.  Drop serene.
      12. P. staphyloma.   Protuberant eye.
      13. P. stabismus.  Squinting.
Genu 2. Paracusis.  Morbid hearing.
Species I. P. acris.  Acute hearing.
       2. P. obtusa.  Hardness of hearing.
       3. P. perversa.  Perverse hearing.
       4. P. duplicate,. Double hearing.
       5. P. illusoria.  Imaginary sounds.
       6. P. surditas.  Deafness.
Genus 3. Parosmis.  Morbid smell.
Speciesl. P. acris.  Acute smell.
       2. P. obtusa.  Obtuse smell.
       3. P. expers.  Want of smell.
Genus 4. Paraokusis.   Morbid taste.
Species 1. P. acute.  Acute taste.
       2. P. obtusa.  Obtuse taste.
       3. P. expers.  Want of taste.
Genus 5. Parapsis.  Morbid touch.
Speciesl. P. acris.  Acute sense of touch or general
           feeling.
       2. P. expers.  Insensibility of touch or general
           feeling.
       3. P. illusoria.   Illusory sense of  touch or
           general feeling.
Genus 6. Neuralgia. Nerve-ache.
Speciesl. N. faciei.  Nerve-ache of the face.
       2. N. pedis.  Nerve-ache of the foot.
       3. N. mamrae. Nerve-ache of the breast.
Order 3. Cinetica.  Affecting the muscles.
Genus 1. Entasia.  Constrictive spasm.
Species 1.  E priapismus.   Priapism
       2.  E. loxia. Wry neck.
       3.  E. articularis.  Muscular stiff-joint.
       4. E. systremma.   Cramp.
       5. E. trismus.  Hooked-jaw.
       6. E. tetanus.  Tetanus.
       7. E. lyssa.  Rabies.   Canine madness.
       8. E. acrostinaus.   Suppressed pulse.
Genus 2. Clonicus.  Clonic spasm.
Species 1. C. singultus.  Hiccough.
       2. C. sternutatio.   Sneezing.
       3. Palpitatio.  Palpitation.
       4. C. nectiiatio.  Wrinkling of tbe eyelids.
       5. C. subsultus.  Twitching of the tendons.
       6.  C. pandiculatio.  Stretching.
Genus 3. Synclonus.  Synclonic spasm
Species 1. S. tremor.  Trembling.
       2. S. chorea.  St. Vitus's dance.
       3. S. ballismus.  Shaking palsy.
       4. S. raphania.  Raphauia.
       5. S. beriberia. Barbiers.
Order 4. Systatica.  Affecting several, or all the
            sensorial powers, simultaneously.
Genus 1. Aorypnia.  Sleeplessness.
Species 1.  A. excitata.  Irritative wakefulness.
       2.  A. pertesa.  Chronic wakefulness.
Genus 2. Dysphoria.  Restlessness.
Species 1. D. simplex.  Fidgets.
       2.  D. anxietas.  Anxiety.
Genu* 3. Antipathia.   Antipathy
Species 1.  A. sensilis.   Sensile antipathy.
       2. A. insensilis.   Insensile antipathy.
Genus 4. Cefhalxa..  Headache
Species 1.  C. gravans.  Stupid headache.
       2.  C. Inten.a.  Cluonic headache.
       3.  C. heiniriaiila.  Megrim.
       4.  C. pulsatilis.  Throbbing headache.
       5.  C. naua-osa.  Sick headache.
Genus 5.  Dim a.  Dizziness.
Species 1.  D. vertigo.  Vertigo.
Genus 6.  Syncope.  Syncope.
Speciesl.  S. simplex.  Swooning.
       2.  S. recurrens. Fainting fit.
Genua 7.  Syspasia.  Comatose spasm.
Species 1.  S. convulsio.  Convulsion.
       2.  S. hysteria.  Hysterics.
       3.  S. epilepsia.  Epilepsy.
Genus 8.  Cards.  Torpor.
Speciesl.  C. asphyxia.   Asphyxy.   Suspended ani-
           mation.
       2.  C. ecstasis.  Ecstacy.
       3.  C. catalepsia.   Catalepsy.
       4.  C. lethargus.  Lethargy.
       5.  C. apoplexia.  Apoplexy.
       6.  C. paralysis.  Palsy.
CLASS V.  GENETICA.—Diseases of the  Sexual
                    Function.
Order 1.  Cenotica.  Affecting the fluids.
Genus 1.  Paramenia.  Mismenstruation.
Speciesl.  P. obstructions. Obstructed menstruation.
       2.  P. difhciliB.  Laborious menstruation.
       3.  P. superflua.  Excessive menstruation.
       4.  P. erroris.  Vicarious menstruation.
       5.  P. cessationis.  Irregular cessation of the
           menses.
Genu* 2.  LbcorrhjEA.   Whites.
Species 1.  L. communis.  Common whites.
       2.  L. nabothi.  Labour show.
       3.  L. senescentium.  Whites of advaned life.
Genus 3.  Blenorrhotk.  Gonorrhoea.
Species 1.  B. simplex. Simple urethral running.
       2.  B. luodes.  Clap.
       3.  B. chronica.   Gleet.
Genus 4.  Spermorrhsa.  Seminal flux.
Species l.  S. cntonica.  Entonic seminal flux.
       2.  S. atonica.  Atonic seminal flux.
Genus 5.  Galactia.  Mislactation.
Species 1.  G. prematura.  Premature milkflow.
       2.  G. delectiva.  Deficient milkflow.
       3.  G. depravata.   Depraved milkflow.
       4.  G. erratica.  Erratic milkflow.
       5.  G. virorum.  Milkflow in males.
Order 2.  Oroastica.   Affecting the orgasm.
Genus 1.  Chlorosis.  Green-sickness.
Species 1.  C. entonica.  Entonic green-sickness.
       2.  C. atonica.  Atonic green-sickness.
Genus 2.  Procotia.   Genital precocity.
Species 1.  P. masculine.   Male precocity.
       2.  P. feminina.  Female precocity
Genus 3.  Lagnesis.  Lust.
Species 1.  L. salocitas.  Salacity.
       2.  L. furor.  Lascivious madness.
Genus 4.  Agenesia.  Male sterility.
Speciesl.  A. impotens.  Male iinpotency.
       2.  A. dyepermia.   Seminal misemission.
       3.  A. incongrua.  Copulative incongruity.
Genus 5.  Amphoria.  Female sterility.  Barrenness.
Speciesl.  A. impotens.  Barrenness of impotency.
       2.  A.  Laramenica.   Barrenness  of mismen
           struation.
       3.  A.impercita.  Barrenness of irrespondence.
       4.  A. incongrua.  Barrenness of incongruity.
Genus 6.  A3doptosis.  Genital prolapse.
Speciesl.  M. uteri.  Falling down ofthe womb.
       2.  M. vagine.  Prolapse of the vagina.
       3.  M. vesice.  Prolapse of the bladder
       4.  JE. cnmplicata.  Complicated  genita. pro-
            lapse.
       5.  JE. polyposa.   Genital excrescence.
Order 3.  Carpotica.  Affecting the impregnation.
Genus 1.  Paracyesis.  Morbid pregnancy.
Speciesl.  P. irritativa.   Constitutional derangement
            of pregnancy.
       2.  P. uterina.  Local derangement of  preg-
            nancy.
       3.  P. abortus.  Abortion.
Genu* 2.  Parodynia.   Morbid  labour.
Species 1.  P. atonica.  Atonic labour.
       2.  P. implostica.  Unpliant labour.
       3.  P. sympathetica.  Complicated labour. 
NOSOLOGY.
  Species 4. P. perversa.  Preternatura presentation.
         5. P. amorphica.  Impracticable labour.
         6. P. pluralis.  Multiplicate labour
         7. P. secundaria.  Sequential labour.
  Genus 3. Eocyesis.  Extrauterine foetation.
  Species 1. E. ovaria.  Ovarian exfretation.
         2. E. tubalis.  Tubal exfoetation.
         3. E. abdominalis.  Abdominal exfoetation.
  Genus 4. Pseudocyesis.  Spurious pregnancy.
  Species 1. P. molaris.  Mole.
         2. P. inanis.  False  conception.
  CLASS VI.  ECCRITICA.—Diseases of the Excer-
                   nent Functions.
  Order 1. Mesotica.  Affecting the parenchyma.
  Genu* 1. Polysarchia.  Corpulency
  Species 1. P. adiposa.  Obesity.
  Genu* 2. Emphyma.  Tumour.
  Species 1. E. sarcoma.  Sarcomatous tumour.
         2. E. encystis.  Encysted tumour.
         3. E. exostosis.  Bony tumour.
  Genus 3. Parostia.  Mis-ossification.
  Species 1. P. fragils.  Fragility of the bones.
        2. P. flexilis.  Flexility of the bones.
  Genus 4. Cyrtosis.  Contortion of the bones.
 Species 1. C. rhachia.  Rickets.
        2. C. cretinismus.  Cretinismus.
  Genus 5.  Osthexia.  Osthexy.
 Species 1. O. infarciens.   Parenchymatous orthexy.
        2. O. implexa.  Vascular osthexy.
 Order 2. Catotica.  Affecting internal surfaces.
  Genus 1. Hydrops.   Dropsy.
  Speciesl. H. cellularis.  Cellular dropsy.
        2. H. capitis.  Dropsy of the head.
         3. H. spine.  Dropsy of the spine.
        4. H. thoracis.  Dropsy ofthe chest.
        5. H. abdominis.  Dropsy ofthe belly.
        6. H. ovarii.  Dropsy ofthe ovaries.
        7. H. tubalis.  Dropsy of the Fallopian tubes.
        8. H. uteri.  Dropsy of the womb.
        9. H. scroti. Dropsy of the scrotum.
 Genus 2.  Emphysema.  Inflation, wind dropsy.
 Species 1.  E. cellulare.  Cellular inflation.
        2.  E. abdominis.   Tympany.
 Genus 3.  Parcria. Mismicturition.
 Species 1.  P. inops.  Destitution of urine.
        2.  P. retentionis.   Stoppage  of urine.
        3.  P. stillatitia.  Strangury.
        4.  P. mellita.   Saccharine urine. Diabetes.
        5. P. incontinens.   Incontinence of urine.
        6. P. incocta.  Unossimulated urine.
        7. P. erratica.  Erratic urine.
 Genus 4.  Lithia.  Urinary calculus.
 Species 1.  L. renalis.   Renal alculus.
        2. L. vesicalis.  Stone in the bladder.
 Order 3. Acrotica.  Affecting the external  surface.
 Genus 1. Ephidrosis.  Morbid sweat.
 Species 1.  E. profusa.  Profuse sweat.
        2. E. cruenta.  Bloody sweat.
        3.  E. partialis.  Partial sweat.
        4. E. discolor.  Coloured sweat.
        5.  E. olens.  Scented sweat.
        6. E. arenosa.  Sandy sweat.
 Genus 2. Exanthesis.  Cutaneous-blush.
 Speciesl. E. roseola.  Rose-rash.
 Genus 3. Exormia.  Papulous skin.
 Species 1. E. strophulus.  Gum-rash.
        2. E. lichen.  Lichenous-rash.
        3. E. prurigo.  Pruriginous-rash.
        4. E. milium.  Millet-rash.
 Genu* 4. Lepidosis.  Scale-skin.
 Species 1. L. pityriasis.  Dandrift.
        2. L. lepriasis.  Leprosy.
        3. L. psoriasis.  Dry-scall.
        4. L. icthyiasis.  Fish-skin.
 Genu* 5. Ecphlysis.  Blains.
 Species 1. E. pompholyx   Water-blebs.
       2. E. herpes. Tetter.
        3. E. rhypea.   Sordid blain.
       4. E. eczema.  Heat eruption.
 Genu* 6. Eopyesis. Humid scall.
Speciesl. E. impetigo.  Running scall.
       2. E. porrigo.  Scabby scall.
       3. E. ecthyma.  Papulous scall.
       4. E. scabies.  Itch.
 Genus 7. Malis. Cutaneous vermination
(Species 1. M. pediculi.  Lousiness.
       8. M. pulicis. Flea-bites.
   Species 3. M.acari.  Tick-bite.
          4. M. filatire.  Guinea-worm.
          5. M. oestri.  Gadfly-bite.
         6. M. gordii.   Hair-worm.
   Genus 8. Ecphyma.  Cutaneous excrescence.
   Speciesl. E, caruncula.  Caruncle.
         2. E. verruca.  Wart.
         3. E. clavus.  Corn.
         4. E. callus.  Callus.
   Genu* 9. Trichosis.  Morbid hair.
  Species 1. T. setosa.  Bristly hair.
         2. T. plica.  Platted hair.
         3. T. hirsuties.  Extraneous hair.
         4. T. distrix.   Forky hair.
         5. T. poliosis.  Gray hairs.
        6. T. arthrix.   Baldness.
        7. T. area.  Arcated hair.
        8. T. decolor.  Miscoloured  hair.
  Genus 10. Epichrosis.  Macular skin.
  Species 1. E. leucasmus.  Veal-skin.
        2. E. spilus.  Mole.
        3. E. lemicula.  Freckles.
        4. E. ephelis.   Sun-burn.
        5. E. aurigo.  Orange-skin.
        6. E. pecilia.   Pyeballed-skin.
        7. E. alphosis.   Albino-skin.
   NOSTA'LGIA.  (From vos-tia, to  return, and aAyot,
  pain.)  A vehement desire for revisiting one's country.
  A genus of disease in the class  Locales, and order Dy-
  sorexia, of Cullen, known by impatience when absent
  from one's native home, and a  vehement desire to  re-
  turn, attended with gloom and  melancholy, loss of ap-
  petite, and want of sleep.
   NOSTRUM.  This word means  our own, and is
  very significantly applied to all quack medicines, the
  composition of which is kept a secret from the public,
  and known only to the inventor.
   Notched leaf.  See Erosus.
   NO THUS.  (Nofloc, spurious.)  Spurious. 1. Those
 ribs which are not attached to the sternum are called
 costa notha, the spurious ribs.
   2. Diseases are so called which only resemble others
 which they really are not: as peripneumonia notha, Sec.
   Notije'us.   (From vtarov, the back.)  An epithet of
 the spinal marrow.
   Notio'des.  (From voric, moisture.)  Applied to a
 fever, attended with a vitiation of the fluids, or a col-
 liquative wasting.
   NOVACULITE.  See Whetslate.
   NUBE'CULA.  (Dim. of nuoe«, a cloud.)  A little
 cloud.  1.  A cloud in the urine.
   2. A white speck in the eye.
   NUCAMENTUM.  See Amentum.
   Nuces galls.  Common galls.
   Nuces pu  gantes.  See Ricinus.
   Nucesta.  See Myristica moschata.
   NU'CHA.  Nucha capitis.  The hind part or nape
 of the neck.  The part is  so called where the spinal
 marrow begins.
   Nuci'sta.  The nutmeg.
   NUCK, Anthony, a distinguished  Dutch physician
 and  anatomist, flourished at the Hague,  and subse-
 quently at Leyden, in the latter part of the 17th cen-
 tury.  He filled the office of professor of anatomy and
 surgery in the latter university, and was also president
 of the college of surgeons.  He pursued his dissections
 with great ardour, cultivating both human and com-
 parative anatomy at every opportunity.  He contri-
 buted some improvements also to the practice of sur-
 gery.  He died about the year 1692.
   NU'CLEUS.  (E nuce, from the nut.)  1. A kernel
 or fruit enclosed in a hard shell.
   2. When the centre of a tumour or morbid concretion,
 as a stone of the bladder, has an obvious difference from
 the surrounding parts, that is called the nucleus: thus a
cherry-stone and other things have been found in calculi
of the bladder, forming the nucleus of that concretion.
  Nu'culjb sapona'ri*.  See Sapindus saponaria.
  NUDUS.  Naked. Applied to flowers, leaves, stems,
receptacles, seeds, &c. of plants.  A flower is said to
be naked when the calyx is wanting, as  in the tulip,
and white lily; and a leaf when it is destitute of all
kinds of clothing or hairiness, as in the genus orchis:
the stem is  aaked that bears no leaves, scales, or any
other  vesture, as Cuscuta europea: the receptacle of
the Leontodon taraxacum and Lactuca, the seeds of
the gymnospermal plants, dec. 
NUT                                              NUX
   Nl'MMl'LA'RIA.   (From  nummus, money,  so
 called because its leaves are round, and of the size of
 the old Mlver twopence.) See Lysimachia nummularia.
   NUT.   See Nux.
   Nut, Barbadoes.  See Jatropha curcas.
   Nut, cocoa.  See Coco* nucifera.
   Nut, Pistachia.  Sec Pistacia vera.
   Nut. purging.  See Jatropha curcas.
   NUTMEG.  See Myrirtica moschata.
   NUTRITION.  Nutritio.  Nutrition  may be  con-
 sidered the  completion of the assimilating functions.
 The food changed  by  a series of decompositions ani-
 malizcd and rendered similar to the being wbich it is
 designed  to  nourish, applies itself  to those organs, the
 loss "of which it is to supply; and this identification of
 nutritive matter to our organs constitutes nutrition.
   The living body is continually losing its constituent
 parts.
   " From the state of the embryo to the most advanced
 old age, tbe weight and volume of the body are almost
 continually changing; the different organs and tissues
 present infinite variations in their consistence, colour,
 elasticity, and sometimes their chemical composition.
 The volume of the organs  augments when they are
 often iu action; on  the contrary, their size diminishes
 when they remain long at rest.   By the influence  of
 ene or other of these causes, their  chemical and phy-
 sical properties present remarkable variations.   Many
 diseases often produce in a very short time, remarkable
 chauges in tiie exterior conformation, and in tiie struc-
 ture of a great number of organs.
   If madder  is mixed with the food  nf an animal, in
 fifteen or twenty days the  bones  present a red tint,
 which disappears when the use of it is loft off.
   There exists, then, in the  organs, an insensible  mo-
 tion of the particles which produce all these modifica-
 tions,  it  is this that is called nutrition, or nutritive
 action.
   This phenomenon, which the observing spirit of the
 ancients bad not permitted to escape, was to them the
 object of many ingenious suppositions that are stilt ad-
 milted.  For example, it is said tlial, by means of the
 nutritive action, tlie whole body is renewed, so that, at
 a certain period, it does not possess a single particle of
 the matter tnat composed it formerly.   Limits have
 even been assigned  to  this total  renewal: some have
 fixed tiie period of three years;  others think it not com-
 plete till seven: but there is nothing to give probability
 lo these conjectures;  on the  contrary,  certain well-
 iproved facts seem-to render them of no avail.
   It is well known  that  soldiers, sailors, and several
•savage people colour their skins wilh substances which
 they introduce into the tissue of this membrane  itself:
 die figures thus traced preserve their form aud colour
 during their lives, should no particular circumstances
 occur.  How can this phenomenon agree witli the re-
 newal of tiie skin according to these authors ?  The re-
 cent use of nitrate of silver internally, in the cure of
 epilepsy, furnishes a new proof of this kind.   After
 some months' use of this substance, some sick persons
 have had their skin coloured of a grayish blue, proba-
 bly by a deposition of the salt in the tissue of this mem-
brane, where it is immediately in contact with the air.
fieveral individuals have been in  this  state for some
years without the tint becoming weaker;  while in others
it bos diminished by degrees, and disappeared in two or
 three years.
   In resting on the suppositions which we have spoken,
it is admitted, in the metaphorical language now nsed
 in physiology, tbat the  atoms of the  organs can only
serve for a certain period in their composition; tbat in
 time they wear, and become at last improper to enter
 inlo their composition; and that they are then absorbed
and replaced  by new atoms proceeding from the food.
  It is added, lhat the animal matters of which our ex-
cretions are composed are the detritus of the organs,
 and that ihey are principally composed of atoms that
can no longer serve in their composition, Sec Sec.
  Instead of discussing these hypotheses, we shall men-
 tion a few facts from which we have some idea of the
 nutritive movement.
  A. In respect to the rapidity with which the organs
 change their physical and chemical properties by sick-
 ness or  age,  it appears that nutrition Is  more or less
 rapid according to the tissues.  The glr.nds, the mus-
 cles, the skin, Sec, change their volume, colour, con-
 sistence, with great quickness  the tendons, the fibrous
      134
 membranes, tlie bones, the cartilages, appear to have ■
 much  slower nutrition, for their physical  propcrliua
 change but slowly by the effect of uge and disease.
   Ii. If we consider the quantity of food  consumed
 proportiooably to the weight of the body, Die imtruivtj
 movement seems more rapid in infancy and youth, than
 in the adult and in old age; it is accelerated by the re-
 pented action of the organs, and retarded  by repose.
 Indeed, children and young people consume more lood
 than adults and old people:  these last can preserve all
 their faculties by the use of a very small quantity of
 food.   All the exercises of the  body, hard labour, re-
 quire necessarily a greater quantity, or more uutritivo
 food; on tlie contrary, perfect repose permits of longer
 abstinence.
   C. The biood appears to contain most of tlie princi
 pies  necessary  to  the nutrition of the organs; tho
 fibrine, the albumen, the fat, tlie salts, Sec,  that enter
 into  the composition of the tissues, are  found in the
 blood.  They appear to be deposited in their parenchy-
 ma at the instant when the  blood traverses Ihem; the
 manner in which this deposite takes place is entirely
 unknown.   There is an evident  relation  between the
 activity of the nutrition of an organ  and the quantity
 of blood il receives.   The tissues that have a rapid nu-
 trition have larger arteries;  when the action of an or-
 gan has determined an acceleration of its nutrition, the
 arteries increase in size.
   Many proximate principles that enter into tbe  com-
 position of the organs are not found in the  blood: as
 osmazome,  the  cerebral  matter,  gelatine, &c.  Thoy
 are, therefore, formed from other principles in  the pa-
 renchyma  of the organs, in some chemical but un-
 known  manner
   D.  Since chemical analysis has made known the nn
 lure of the different tissues of the animal economy,
 they have been all found to contain a considerable por-
 tion of azote.  Our food being also partly composed of
 this simple body, the azote nf our organs likewise pro-
 bably comes from them; but several eminent authors
 think that it is derived from  respiration; olher% believe
 that  it is formed  by the influence of life solely.   Both
 parties insist particularly upon the example of the her-
 bivorous animals,  which are  supported exclusively
 upon non-azotized matter; upon  the history of certain
 people that live entirely upon rice and iriaize;  upon
 that of negroes who can Uvea long time withont eating
 any thing but sugar; lastly, upon what is related  of
 caravans, which, in  traversing tlie deserts, have for a
 long time had only gum in place of every sort of  food.
 Were it indeed proved by these facts, that  men can live
 a long time without azotized food, it would  be neces-
 sary to acknowledge that azote has an Origin different
 from the food; but the facts cited by no mfcans prove
 this.  In fact, almost all the vegetables upon which man
 and  the animals feed contain  more or less azote; for
 example, the impure sugar that the negroes eat presents
 a considerable portion of  it; and with regard to the
 people, as they say, who feed upon rice or maize, it is
 well known that they eat milk or cheese: now casein
 is  the most azotized of all the nutritive proximate  prin-
 ciples.
  E. A considerable number of tissues in the economy
 appear  to  have no  nutrition, properly so called:  as
 the epipermis, the nails,  the hair, the teeth, the co-
 louring  matter of the skin, and, perhaps, the carti-
 lages.
  These different parts are really secreted, by particu-
 lar organs, as the teeth and the hair; or by parts which
 have other functions at the same  lime, as the nails and
 epidermis.   The most of the parts formed in this mode
 wear by the friction of exterior  bodies, and  are  con-
stantly  renewed   if they are entirely carried away,
they are capable of icprodtictinn.  A very singular
 fact  is,  that tbey continue to grow several days  after
death.—Magendie's Physiology.
  Nltri'tum unguentum. A composition of litharge,
vineear, and oil.
  NUX. (Nux, cis. f.)  A nut, or fruit, which has a
hard shell.
  Botanists  consider this as distinct  from the drupa,
and define it a pericarp, the  seed being contained in a
hard bony shell.
  From the number of seeds It contains, it Is called,
  I. Monosperm, having one; as in Corylus avellana.
  2.  Dispcrm, with two; as in Halesia.
  From its  loculaments: 
NYM                                         NYS
              1.  Unilocular, bilocular, trilocular, witfl one,
            or three ; as in Corylus, Lygeum, and Elais.
              From its figure:
              1. Alote,  winged ;  as in Pinus thuja.
              2. Angulate ; as in Cupressus.
              3.  Ovate; as in Corylus and  Carpinus.
              4.  Quadrangular; as in Halesia.
              5.  Telragoiie ; as  in Pcladium and Mesua.
              6. Jleniform ; as in Anacardium.
              7. Spinous; as in  Trapa nutans.
              Nux aquatica.  See Trapa  nutans.
              Nux aromatica.   The nutmeg.
              Nux barbadensis.  See Jatropha curcas.
              Nux basilica.  The walnut.
              Nux den.  See Guilandina moringa.
              Nux cathartica.  The  garden spurge.
              Nux cathartica Americana.    See  Jatropha
            curcas.
              Nux indica.  The cocoa-nut.
              Nux juulans.  See Juglans.
              Nux medica.  The maldivian nut.
              Nux metella.  The nu:: vomica.
              Nux moschata.   See Myryslica moschata.
              Nux myristica.  See Myristica moschata.
              Nux persica.  The walnut.
              Nux pistacia.  See Pistacia vera.
              Nux purgans.  See Jatropha curcas.
              Nux serapionis.   St.  Ignatius's bean.
              Nux vomica.   See Strychnos.
              NYCTALOPIA.   (From vv\, the night, and  wyv,
            an eye.)  Imbecillitas oculorum, of Celsus.  A detect
            in vision, by which the patient sees little or nothing in
            the day, but  in the  evening and night sees tolerably
            well.  The  proximate cause is various:   '
              1. From  a  periodical amaurosis, or gutta  serena,
            when Ihe blind paroxysm  begins in Ihe morning and
            terminates in  the evening.
              2. From too great  a sensibility of the retina, which
            cannot bear the meridian light.  See Photophobia.
              3. From an opaque spot in the middle of  the crystal-
            line lens.  When the light of the sun in the meridian
            contracts the pupil, there is blindness: about evening,
            or in more obscure places, the pupil dilates, hence the
            rays of light pass  through the limbus of  the  ciystal-
            line lens.
              4. From  a  disuse  of light; thus  persons who are
            educated in obscure prisons  see nothing immediately
            in open meridian light -, but by  degrees their eyes arc
/            accustomed to distinguish objects iu daylight.
              5. From  an immoveable mydriasis;  for  in this in-
            stance the pupil admits too great a quantity of light,
            which the immobile pupil cannot moderate; hence the
            patient, in a strong light, sees little or nothing.
              6. From too great a contraction of the pupil.  This
            admits not a sufficiency of lucid rays, in bright light,
            but towards night the pupil dilates more, and the pa-
            tient sees better.
              7. Nyctalopia endemica.  A whole people have been
            nyctalopes,  as the ./Ethiopians,  Africans, Americans,
            and Asiatics.  A  great flow of tears are excreted all
            the day from their eyes; at night they see objects.
              8. From a commotion of the eye; from which a man
            in the night saw all objects distinctly.
              Nycto'basis.   (From vv\, the night, and fiatvta, to
            go)  Walking in the sleep.
              NY'MPHA.  (From vvueba, a  water-nymph:  so
            called because it  stands in ihe water-course.)  Ala
            interna minores clitoridis;  Cullicnlum;  Collicula;
            Myrtocheilides; Labia minora.   The membranous
            fold, situated within the labia majora, ou each side of
            the ei 'ranee of the vagina uteri.
              NVMPHAJ'A.  (From vvpda, a water-nymph; be-
            cause it grows in watery places)  The name of a
            •enirs of plants in the Linnean system.   Class, Poly-
            andria; Order, Monogynia.  The water-lily.
              Nymph«a  alda.   Leuconymphaa.    Nenuphar.
            Micro-leuconymphaa.  The systematic name of the
            white water-lily.  This beautiful plant was formerly
i,  employed  medicinally as a demulcent, and slightly
   anodyne remedy.  It is now laid aside.
     Nymph.ea glandifera.   See Nymphaa nelumbot
     Nymphsa lotus.  The Egyptian lotus.   An aqua
   tic plant, a native of both Indies.   The root is conical,
   firm, about the size of a middling pear, covered witb
   a blackish hark, and set  round wilh  fibres.  It has a
   sweetish taste, and, when  boiled or roasted, becomes
   as yellow within as the yelk  of an egg.  The plant
   grows in abundance on the banks of the Nile, and is
   there much sought after  by the poor, who, in a short
   time, collect enough to supply their families with food
   for several days.
     Nymph.ea lutea.  Nymphaa major lutea, of Cas-
   par Bauhin.  The systematic name of the  yellow
   water-lily.  This beautiful plaut was  employed for-
   merly wilh the same intention  as the white water-lily,
   and, like it, is now fallen into disuse.  Lindcsiolpe in-
   forms us, that,  in some parts of Sweden, the roots,
   wliich arc the strongest part, were, in times of scarcity,
   used as food, and did not prove unwholesome.
     Nymph.'ea  nelumbo.   Faba agyptiaca;  Cyamus
   agyptiacus; Nymphaa indica; Nymphaa glandifera.
   llie pontic, or Egyptian bean.  This plant  grows on
   marshy grounds in Egypt, and some ofthe neighbour-
   ing countries.   The fruit is eaten either raw or boiled,
   and is a tonic  and astringent.
     NYMPHOl'DES. (From vvpipaia, the water-lily, and
   ttSos, likeness.)  Resembling the water-lily; as Meny-
   anthes nymphoides.
     NYMPHOMANIA.  (From vvptpa,  nyrapha,  and
   pavta, madness.)   Furor uterinus.   Called  by the
   Arabians,  Acrai;  Brachuna; Arascon;  Arsalum;
   (Estromania.  A genus of disease in the class Locales,
   and order Dysorexia, of Cullen, characterized by ex-
   cessive and violent desire for coition in  women.  The
   effects, as described by Juvenal, in his sixth satire, are
   most humiliating to human nature.  It acknowledges
   the  same causes as satyriasis; but as females,  more
   especially  in  warm climates,  have a more irritable
   fibre, they are apt to suffer more severely than the
   males.
     It is a species of madness, or a high  degree of hys-
   terics.  Its immediate cause is a preternatural irritabi-
   lity of the  uterus and pudenda of women, or an un-
   usual acrimony of the fluids in these parts.  lis pre.
   sence is known by the wanton behaviour  of the pa-
   tient; she speaks and acts wilh unrestrained obscenity,
   and, as the disorder increases, she scolds, cries, and
   laughs,  by turns.  While reason  is  retained, she is
   silent, and seems melancholy, but her eyes discover an
   unusual  wantonness.  The symptoms are belter or
   worse,  until  the greatest degree of the disorder ap-
   proaches, and then, by every word and action, her con-
   dition is too manifest.
     NYMPHOTOMIA.  (From vvpdia, the nympha, and
   rtuvia, to cut.) The operation of removing the nympha
   when too laree.
     NYSTAGMUS.  (From vvs-aia, to sleep.)  A twink-
   ling of the eyes, such as  happens when a  person la
   very sleepy.   Authors also define nystagmus to be an
   involuntary agitation ofthe oculary bulb. Il is known
   by (he instability or involuntary and constant motions
   of the globe of the eye, from one canthus to another,
   or in some other directions. Sometimes it  is accom-
   panied with a hippus, or  an alternate  and  repeated
   dilatation and constriction of the  pupil.  The  species
   are, 1. Nystagmus, from fear.  This agitation is ob-
   served under the operation for the cataract; and it is
   checked  by persuasion, and waiting a short space of
   time.  2.  Nystagmus, from sand or small gravel fall
   ing in the eye.  3. Nystagmus, from a catarrh, which
   is accompanied with much inflammation.  4. Nystag
   mus, from saburra in the prime vie, as is observed in
   infants  afflicted with worms, and is known by the
   signs of  saburra.   5.   Nystagmus  symptomnticus,
   which happens in hysteric, epileptic, and sometimes in
   pregnant  persons, and is a common symptom accom-
   panying St. Vitus's dance. 
o
OBL                                           OBL
    OAK.  See Quereu*.
      Oak, Jerusalem.  See Chenopodium botrys.
   Oak, sea. See Fucus vesiculosus.
   Oak, willow-leaved.  See Quercus phellos.
   [Oaks,American.  See Quercus. A.]
   OAT.  See Avena.
   Obelje'a.  (From ofJcXoc, a dart, or a spit.)' Obelaa
sagittnlis, an epithet for the sagittal suture of the
skull.
   Obbliscothe'ca.  (From oSeXiaxos, an obelisk, and
Ovxa, a bag: so called from ihe shape of its seed-bags.)
The dwarf sunflower.  Cystus helianthemum.
   OBESITY.  See Polysarcia.
   Oblesion. (From 06,  against,  and lado, to hurt.)
An injury done to any part.
   OBLI'QUUS.   Oblique.  1.  In  anatomy.  A term
applied lo parts from their direction.
  2. In botany, it means  the same as radix obliquus,
but sometimes it means twisted.  Folium obliquum,
for example, is a  leaf, one part of which is vertical, the
other horizontal; as in Fritillaria  obliqua.
   Obliquus ascendens  abdominis.  See Obliquus
internus abdominis.
   Obliquus ascendens internus.  See obliquus in-
ternus abdominis.
   Obliquus auris.  See Laxalor tympani.
  Obliquus capitis inferior.  See  Obliquus infe-
rior capitis.
  Obliquus capitis  superior   See Obliquus supe-
rior capitis.
   Obliquus descendens abdominis.   See Obliquus
externus abdominis.
   Obliquus descendens externus.  See Obliquus
externi* abdominis.
  Obliquus externus.  See  Obliquus externus ab-
dominis.
   Obliquus eiternus abdominis.  A muscle of the
abdomen: so named by Morgagni,  Albinus, and Wins-
low.  It is  the Obliquus  descendens of Vesalius and
Douglas, and the Obliquus major of Haller, and some
others.  By Dumas it is named Ilio-pubicosto-abdomi-
nal.  It is a broad, thin muscle, fleshy posteriorly, and
tendinous in ihe middle and lower part, and is situated
immediately under the integiiments,covering all theother
muscles of the lower belly.  It arises from the lower edges
ofthe eight, and sometimes, though rarely, ofthe nine in-
ferior ribs, not far from their cartilages, by as many dis-
tinct fleshy portions, which indigitate with correspond-
ing parts of the serratus major amicus, and the latissi-
mus dorsi.  From these several origins, the fibresof the
muscle descend obliquely forwards, and soon  degene-
rate into a broad and thin aponeurosis, which terminates
in the linea alba.   About an inch and a half above the
pubes, the fibres of this aponeurosis separate from each
other, so as to form an aperture, which extends obliquely
inwards and forwards, more than an  inch in length,
and is wider above than below, being nearly of an oval
figure. This is what is sometimes,  though erroneously,
called the ring of the abdominal muscles, annulus ab-
dominis, for it belongs only to the external  oblique,
there being no such opening either in the obliquus in-
ternus, or in the transversalis, as some writers, and par-
ticularly Douglas and Cheselden, would give us to un-
derstand.  This opening, or ring, serves lor the passage
of the spermatic  vessels in men, and of the round liga-
ment of the uterus in women, and is of a larger size in
the former than iu the latter.  The two tendinous por-
tions, which, by  their separation,  form this aperture,
are called the columns of the ring. The anterior, su-
perior, and  inner column, which is the broadest and
thickest of  the two, passes over the symphysis pubis,
and  is fixed to the opposite os pubis; so lhat the ante-
rior  column of the right  obliquus externus intersects
that of the  left, and is, as it were, interwoven with it,
by which means their insertion is strengthened, and
their attachment  made firmer.   The posterior, inferior,
and exterior column, approaches the anterior one as it
descends, and is fixed behind and below it to the os pu-
tis of the same  side.  The fibres  of  that part  of the
      188
obliquus externus, which arises from  the two inferior
ribs, descend almost perpendicularly, and are Inserted,
tendinous and fleshy, into the outer edge of the ante-
rior half of the spine of the ilium.  From tlie anterior su-
perior spinous process of that bone, the external oblique
is stretched tendinous to the os pubis, forming what ii
called Poupart's and sometimes Fallopius's ligament,
Fallopius  having first  described it.   Winslow, and
many others, name it  the inguinal ligament.  But,
after all, it has no claim to this name, it being nothing
more than the tendon of the muscle, which is turned or
folded Inwards at its interior edge.  It passes over the
blood-vessels of  the lower extremity, and is  thickest
near  the pelvis; and in women, from the greater size
of the pelvis, it is longer and looser than in men. Hence
we find that women are most liable to crural hernie;
whereas men, from the greater size of the ring of the
external oblique, are moat  subject  to the inguinal.
From this ligament, and from that part of the tendon
which forms the ring, we observe a detachment of ten-
dinous fibres, which are lost in the fascia lata of the
thigh.  This may, in some measure, account for the
pain which, in cases of strangulated hemie, is felt when
the patient stands upright,  and which is constantly re-
lieved upon bending the thigh upwards.  This muscle
serves to draw down the ribs in expiration; to bend the
trunk forwards when both muscles act, or to bend it
obliquely in  one side, and, perhaps, to turn  it slightly
upon its axis, when either acts singly;  it also raises the
pelvis obliquely when the ribs are fixed; it supports
and compresses the abdominal viscera, assists in tho
evacuation of the urine and feces, and is likewise use-
ful  in parturition.
  Obliquus inferior.   See Obliquus inferior capitis,
and Obliquus inferior oculi.'
  Obliquus  inferior  capitis.  This muscle of the
head, the  obliquus inferior sive major, of Winslow,
and the Spini aroido-tracheli-altoidien, of Dumas,  is
larger than  the obliquus superior capitis.  It is very
obliquely situated between the two first vetebre of the
neck.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from the middle
and outer  side ofthe spinous process of the second ver-
tebra of the  neck, and is inserted tendinous and fleshy
into the lower and posterior part of the transverse pro-
cess of  the first vertebra.  Its use is  to turn the first
vertebra upon the second, as upon a pivot, and  to draw
the face towards the shoulder.
  Obliquus inferior oculi.  Obliquus minor oculi,
of Winslow, and Maxillo, sderoticien, of Dumas. An
oblique  muscle of the eye,  that draws the globe of the
eye forwards, inwards, and downwards.   It arises by
a narrow beginning from the outer edge of the orbitar
process  of the superior maxillary bone, near its junction
with  the lachrymal bone,  and running obliquely out-
wards, is inserted into the sclerotic membrane of the eye.
  Obliquus inferior sive major.  See Obliquus in-
ferior capitis.
  Obliquus  internus. See Obliquus internus abdo-
minis.
  Obliquus internus abdominis.  Musculus acdivis.
A muscle of the  abdomen.  The Obliquus ascendens,
of Vesalius, Douglas, and Cowper; the Obliquus minor,
of Haller;  the Obliquus internus, of Winslow; the
Obliquus ascendens internus, of Innes; and the Iilio-
lumbo-costi  abdominal, of  Dumas.  It is situated im-
mediately under the external oblique, and is broad and
thin like that muscle, but somewhat less considerable in
its  extent.  It arises from the spinous processes of the
three inferior lumbar vertebre, and from  the  posterior
and middle part of the os sacrum, by a thin  tendinous
expansion, wliich is common to it  and to the  serratus
posticus inferior; by short tendinous fibres, from  ihe
whole spine of the ilium, between its posterior tube-
rosity and its anterior and superior  spinous process;
and from  two-thirds of the posterior surface of whut is
called Fallopius's ligament, at the middle of which we
find  the round ligament of the uterus in women, nnd
the spermatic vessels in men, passing under  the thii
edge of this muscle;  aud in the latter, it likewise sends 
OBL                                             OBT
 off some fibres, which  descend upon the spermatic
 chord, as far as the tunica vaginalis of the testis, and
 constitute what is called the cremaster muscle, which
 surrounds, suspends, and compresses the testicle. From
 these origins, tlie fibres of the internal  oblique run in
 different  directions;  those  of  the  posterior  portion
 ascend obliquely forwards, ihe middle ones become less
 and less oblique, and at  length run in a horizontal di-
 rection,  and  those  of  the anterior portion  extend
 obliquely downwards. The first of these are inserted,
 by very short tendinous fibres, into the cartilages of the
 fifth, fourth, and third of the false ribs; the fibres of
 the second, or  middle portion,  form a broad tendon,
 which, after being inserted  into the lower edge of the
 cartilage of the second false rib, extends towards the
 linea alba, and separates  into two layers; the anterior
 layer, whicli is the thickest of the two, joins the tendon
 of  the obliquus externus, and runs over the two upper
 thirds of the rectus muscle, to be inserted into the linea
 alba; the posterior layer runs under the rectus, adheres
 to  the  anterior  surface of the tendon  of the trans-
 versolls, and is  inserted  into the cartilages of the first
 of the false, and the last of the  true ribs, and likewise
 into the linea alba.  By this structure we may perceive
 that the  greater part of  the rectus is enclosed, as it
 were, in a sheath.  The fibres of the anterior portion
of the internal oblique, or those which arise from the
spine of the ilium and the ligamentum  Fallopii, like-
 wise form abroad tendon, which, instead of separating
 into two layers, like thai of the  other part of the mus-
 cle, runs over the lower part ofthe rectus, and adhering
 to  the under surface of the tendon of the external
oblique, is inserted  into the forepart of the  pubes.
This muscle serves to assist the  obliiiuus externus; but
it seems to be more evidentlycalculated  than that mus-
cle is to draw the ribs downwards and backwards.  It
likewise serves to separate the false ribs from the true
ribs, and from each other.
  Obliquus major abdominis. See Obliquus exter-
nus abdominis.
  Obliquus major capitis.  See Obliquus inferior
capitis.
  Obliquus major oculi.   See  Obliquus  superior
oculi.
  Obliquus minor abdominis.  See Obliquus inter-
nus abdominis.
  Obliquus minor capitis.  See  Obliquus  superior
 capitis.
  Obliquus  minor  oculi.  See 'Obliquus inferior
 oculi.
  Obliquus superior capitis.  Riolanus, who was
the first  that gave particular  names to the  oblique
muscles of the head, called this muscle obliquus minor,
to distinguish it from the inferior, which, on account of
its being much larger, he named obliquus major. Spi-
gelius afterwarddistinguished the two, from their situa-
tion with respect to each other, into superior and infe-
rior ; and in this he is followed by Cowper and Douglas.
 Winslow retains both names. Dumas calls it Trachelo-
 alloido-occipital. That used by Albinus is here adopted.
This little muscle, which is nearly of the same shape as
 Ihe recti capitis, is situated laterally between the occi-
 put aud the first vertebra of the neck, and is covered
 by  the complexus and the upper part of the splenius.
 It arises, by a short  thick tendon, from the upper and
 posterior part of the transverse process of the first ver-
 tebra of the neck, and, ascending obliquely inwards and
 backwards,  becomes  broader,   and is  inserted, by a
 broad flat tendon, and some few fleshy fibres, into  the
os occipitis, behind the back part of the mastoid pro-
cess, u ndcr the insertion of the complexus and splenius,
and a little above that of the rectus major.  The use of
this muscle is to draw the head backwards, and per-
haps to assist in its rotatory motion.
  Obliquus  superior   oculi.   Trochlearis; Lon-
gissimus  oculi.  Obliquus major, of Winslow;  and
 Optico-trochld-sderoticicn, of  Dumas.   An  oblique
muscle of the eye, that rolls the globe of the eye, and
turns the  pupil downwards and outwards.   It arises
like the straight muscles of the eyefrom the edge ofthe
foramen opticum at the bottom of the  orbit, between
the rectus superior and  rectus  internus; from  thence
runs straight along the papyraceous portion of the eth-
moid bone to the upper part of  the orbit, where a car-
tilaginous trochlea is fixed to the inside of the internal
angular process of the os frontis, through whicli its
tendon passes, and runs a little downwards and out-
 wards, enclosed in a loose membranaceous sheath, to
 be uiserted into the sclerotic membrane.
   Obliquus superior sive minor.  See Obliquus su-
 perior capitis.
   Obliquus superior sive trochlearis.  See Ob-
 liquus superior oculi.
   OBLONGUS.   In botany applied to leaves, petals,
 seeds, Sec. which are three or four times longer than
 broad.  This  term is  used  with great latitude, and
 serves chiefly in a  specific character to contrast a leaf,
 which has a variable, or not very decided form, with
 others that are precisely round, ovate, linear, &c.
   The petals  of tlie genus Citrus and Hedera, and
 those of the Narcissus  moschatus, are oblong, and the
 seeds of the Boerhaavia diffusa.
   OBOVATUS.   Obovate.  Used in  botany to desig-
 nate leaves, Sec. which are ovate with a broader end
 uppermost: as those of the primrose and daisy.  Lin
 nens at first used the words obsersi ovatum.
   OBSIDIAN.   A mineral,  of which there are two
 kinds, the translucent and transparent.
   1. The  translucent obsidian.  This is of a velvet
 black colour, and occurs  in beds in porphyry and va-
 rious secondary trap rocks in Iceland and Tokay.
   2. The  transparent is  of  a duck-blue colour, im-
 bedded in pearl-stone porphyry in Siberia and Mexico.
   Obsidia'num.  (So called from its resemblance to a
 kind of stone,  which one  Obsidius discovered in Ethi-
 opia, of a very black colour, though sometimes pellu-
 cid,  and of a  muddy water.)   1. A species of glass.
 See Obsidian.
   2. Pliny says  that obsidianum was  a sort of colour
 wilh which vessels were  glazed. Hence the name is
 applied, by Libavius, to glass of antimony.
   OBSTETRIC.   (Obstelricus:  from obstdrix,  a
 nurse.)  Belonging lo midwifery.
   OBSTIPA'TIO.  (From obstipo, to stop up.)  Cos-
 tiveness.  A genus of disease in the class Locales, and
 order Epischesesof Cullen, comprehending threespecies:
   1.  Obstipatio debilium,  in weak and commonly dys-
 peptic persons.                        „
   2.  Obstipatio rigidorum, in persons of rigid fibres,
 and a melancholic temperament.
   3.  Obstipatio obstrudorum. from obstructions.  See
 Colica.
   Obstrue'noa.   (From obstruo, to shut up.)  What-
 ever closes the orifices of  the ducts or vessels.
   Obstupefacie'ntia.   (From obstupefacio, to stu-
 pefy.)  Narcotics.
   Obtunde'ntia.   (From obtundo, to make blunt.)
 Substances which sheath  or blunt irritation, and are
 much the same  as demulcents.  They consist chiefly
 of bland, oily, or mucilaginous matters, which form a
 covering on inflamed and irritable surfaces, particularly
 those of the stomach, lungs, and anus.
   OBTURATOR.  A  stopper up, or that which co-
 vers any thing.
   Obturator externus. Extra-pelvio-pubi-trochan-
 terien, of  Dumas.  This  is a small flat muscle, situa-
 ted obliquely at the upper and anterior part of the
 thigh, between the pectinalis and the  forepart of the
 foramen thyroideum, and covered by the abductor bre-
 vis femoris.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from all the
 inner half of the circumference of the foramen thy-
 roideum, and likewise from part of the obturator liga-
 ment.  Its radiated fibres collect and form a strong
 roundish tendon, which runs outwards, and, after ad-
 hering to the capsular ligament of the joint, is inserted
 into a cavity at the inner and back part of the root of
 the great  trochanter.  The chief uses of this muscle
 are to turn the thigh  obliquely outwards, to assist in
 bending the thigh, and in drawing it inwards.   It like-
 wise prevents the capsular ligament from being pinched
 in the motions of the joint.
  Obturator internus. Marsupialis, scu  obtura-
 tor internus, of Douglas.   Marsupialis seu bursalis,
of Cowper; and Intrapelvio-trochanterien, of Dumas.
 A considerable muscle,  a  great part of which is situ-
 ated within the pelvis.  It arises, by very short tendi-
 nous fibres, from somewhat more than the upper half
of the internal circumference of the foramen  thyroi-
deum of the os innominatum.   It is composed of seve-
ral distinct fasciculi, which terminate in a roundish
tendon that passes out of the pelvis, through the niche
that is belwccn the  spine and the tuberosity of the  is-
chium, and, after running between tbe two portions of
 tbe gemini, which enclose it as in a sheath, is inserted
                                        127 
occ                                            ocu
Into the cavity at tbe root of the great trochanter, after
adhering to the adjacent part of llie capsular ligament
of the joint. This muscle rolls theos femoris obliquely
outwards, by pulling it towards  the ischiatic niche,
upon  tlie cartilaginous surface of which  its tendon,
which is surrounded by a membraneous sheath, uiovts
as upon a pulley.
  Obturator nerve. A nerve of the thigh, that is
lost upon the muscles situated  on Ihe inside of the
thitth.
  OBTUSUS.  Blunt. Applied to a leaf which termi-
nates in  a  segment of a circle; as that of the Linum
calharticum. This formed leaf has a small point obtu-
sum cum acumine, in the Statyce limonium.  The pe-
tals of the  Tropaolum majus are obtuse.
  OCCIPITAL.  Occipitalis.  Belonging  to the occi-
put or back part of the head.
  Occipital bone.  Os ocripitis;   Osmemoria; Os
nervosum; Oe basilare.  This bone, which forms the
posterior and inferior part of the skull, is of an irregu-
lar figure,  convex  on the  outside aud concave inter-
nally.  Its  external surface, which  is  very  irregular,
serves for the attachment  of several muscles.  It af-
fords several inequalities, wliich sometimes form two
semicircular hollows  separated  by  a scabrous ridge.
The inferior portion of the bone is stretched forwards
in form of  a wedge, and hence is called the cunriform
process, or basilary  process.  At the base  of this pro-
cess,  situated obliquely on each side of the  foramen
magnum, are two flat, oblong protuberances, named
condyles.   They are covered with cartilage, and serve
for the articulation of the head  wilh the first vertebra
of tiie neck.  In the inferior portion of this bone, at
the basis of the cranium, and immediately behind Ihe
Cuneiform  process, we observe  a  considerable hole,
through which  the  medulla oblongata passes into the
spine.  The nervi  accessorii, the  vertebral arteries,
and  sometimes the  vertebral  veins  likewise,  pass
through  it  Man being designed for an erect posture,
this foramen magnum is found nearly in the  middle of
the basis of the human cranium, and at a pretty equal
distance from the posterior part of the occiput, and
the anterior part of the lower jaw; whereas in quad-
rupeds it is nearer the back part of the occiput.  Be-
sides this hole, there are four other smaller foramina,
vie. two before, and two  behind the condyles.  The
former serve for the transmission of the ninth pair of
nerves, and the two latter for  the veins which pass
from the external parts of the head to the lateral sinu-
ses.   On looking over the internal surface  of the os oc-
cipitis, we perceive the appearance  of a cross, formed
by a very prominent ridge, which rises upwards from
near the foramen magnum, and by two transverse sinu-
osities, one on each side of the ridge.  This cross occa-
sions the formation of four fosse, two  above and two
below the sinuosities.  In the  latter  are placed the
lobes of the cerebellum, and in the former  the posterior
lobes of the brain.  The two sinuosities  serve to re-
ceive llie  lateral  sinuses.  In the  upper  part of this
bone is seen a continuation of the sinuosity of the lon-
gitudinal sinus; and at tlie basis of the cranium we ob-
serve the inner surface of the cuneiform process made
concave, for the reception of the medulla oblongata.
The occipital bone is thicker and stronger than any of
 the other bones of ihe head, except the petrous part of
 the  ossa tetnporum; but it is of unequal  thickness.
 At ils lateral and inferior parts, where it is thinnest, it
 is covered by a great number of muscles.  The reason
 for so much thickness and strength in this bone, seems
 to be, that it covers the cerebellum,  in which the least
 wound is of the utmost consequence; and  lhat it is,
 by  its situation, more liable to be fractured by falls
 than any other bone of the cranium.   For if we fall
 forwards,  the hands are naturally  put out to prevent
 the forehead's touching the ground; and if on one side,
 the shoulders in a great measure protect  tbe sides of
 the head ; but if a person fall backwards,  tbe hind part
 ofthe head consequently strikes against tbe earth, and
 that too wilh considerable violence. Nature therefore
 has wisely constructed this bone so as to be capable of
 the greatest strength at its upper part, where it is the
 most exposed to injury.  The os occipitis is joined, by
 means of the cuneiform process, to the sphenoid Vine,
 wilh which itoften ossifies, and makes but one bone In
 those who are advanced in life.  It is connected to the
 parietal bones by the lambdoidal  suture, and to the
 temporal bones by the additamentum of  the temporal
       128
suture.  The head ii likewise united to the trunk bv
means of this bone.  The two condyles of the occipi-
tal bone are received into the superior oblique processes
of the alias, or first vertebra of the neck, and it is by
means of this articulation that a certain degree of  mo-
tion ofthe head backwards and forwards is performed.
Bui it allows only very little motion lo either side;  and
still less of a circular motion, which  the  bead obtains
principally by the circumvolution of the atlas on the
second vertebra,  es is described more particularly In
the account  of the vertebre.  In the foetus, the os oc-
cipitis is divided by an unossified  cartilaginous  sub-
stance,  into four parts.  One of these,  which is the
longest, constitutes all that portion of the bone which is
above the foramen magnum ;  two others, which are
much smaller, compose the inside ofthe foramen mag-
•nuin, and include the condyloid processes; and the
fourth is the  cuneiform  process.  This  last is some-
times not completely united with the rest, so os to form
one bone, before the sixth or seventh year.
   OCCIPITALIS.  See Occipite-frontalis aud Occi-
pital.
   OCCIPITO. Names compounded of this word be-
long to the occiput.
   Occipito-frontalis.   Digastricus  cranii;   Epi-
cranius, of Albinus.  Frontalis et occipitalis, of Wins-
low and Cowper; and Occipitofrontal, of Dumas.  A
single, broad, digastric muscle,that covers the cranium,
 pulls the skin of  the head backwards, raises the eye-
 brows upwards, and at the same time,, draws up and
 wrinkles the skin of Ihe forehead.  It.arises from ihe
 posterior part of  the occiput, goes over the upper part
 of the os parietale and  os frontis, and is  lost in tlie
 eyebrows.
   OCCIPUT.  The hinder part of the  head.  See
 Caput.
   OCCLUSUS.  Shut up.  Applied to the florets ofthe
 fig, which are shut up in the fleshy receptacle that forms
 the fruit.
   OCCULT.  Occultus. Hidden.   A  term that has
 been much  used by writers that had not clear ideas of
 what they  undertook  to explain;  and which served
 therefore only for a cover io their ignorance: hence,
 occult cause,  occult quality, occult disease.
   Oche'ma.  (From oxeia, to carry.)   A vehicle,  or
 thin  fluid.
   Ochetku'ma.   (From oxtros, a duct.)   The nostril.
   O'chetus.   (From  oxc<a, to convey.)   A canal or
 duct. The urinary or abdominal passages.
   O'cheus.  (From oxeia, to carry.)  The bag of the
 scrotum.
   O'CHRA.  (From a>xpoc, pale: so named because it
 is often  of a pale colour.)
   1.  Ochre.  An argillaceous earth impregnated  with
 iron  of a red  or yellow colour.  The Armenian  bole,
 and other earths,"are often adulterated wilh ochre.
   2.  The forepart of the tibia.
   OCHROITS.  See Cerite.
   O'chri-s.  (From taxpos, pale: so called from the
 pale muddy colour in its flowers.)  A leguminous plant,
 or kind  of pulse.
   Ochtho'des.   (From ovBos, importing the tumid
 lips of ulcers, callous, tumid.)  An epithet for ulcers,
 whose lips are callous and tumid, and consequently
 difficult to heal.
   Ocima'strum.   (Diminutive  of  ocimum, basil.)
 Wild white campion, or basil.
   OCREA.   A term used by  Rottball, to the mem
 brane lhat enfolds the flower-stalks in  Cyperus, and
 which Sir J. Smith thinks is a species of bractea.
   Octa'na.  (From oclo, eight.)  An erratic intermit-
 ting  fever, which returns every eighth day.
   OCTANDRIA.   (From  o*tu>, eight, and avna, a
 husband.)   The name  of a class of  plants in the
 sexual system of Linneus, consisting of those which
 have hermaphrodite  flowers, furnished with  eight
 stamina.
    Oota'vus  humeri.  The Teres minor.
    Octa'vus  humeri placentini.  The Teres minor.
    Ocula'res communes.   A name for the nerves
 called Motores oculorum.
    OCULA'RIA.  (From oculus,  the eye: so called
 from its uses in disorders of the eye.)  See Euphrasia.
    O'CULUS. The eye. See Eye.
    OctJLi's  bovinis.  See Hydrophthalmia.
    Ocun's  bovis.    See Chrysanthemum Itucanfht-
 mum. 
ODO
CEDE
   Ocmus bubulus.  See Hydrophthalmia
   Oculus christi.  Austrian flea-bane: a  species
 of Inula, sometimes used as an adstringent by conti-
 nental physicians.
   Oculus elephantinus.   A name given to Hy-
 drophthalmia.
   Oculus genu.  The knee-pan.
   Oculus lachrymans.  The Epiphora.
   Oculus mundi.  A species of Opal, generally of a
 yellowish colour.  By lying in water it becomes of an
 amber colour, and also transparent.
   Oculi adductor.  See Rectus internus oculi.
   Oculi attollens.  Sec  Rectus superior oculi.
   Oculi cancrorum.  See Cancer.
   Oculi depressor.  See Rectus inferior oculi.
   Ocun elevator.  See Rectus superior oculi.
   Oculi levator.  See Rectus superior oculi.
   Oculi obliquus  inferior.  See Obliquus inferior
 oculi.
   Oculi obliquus  major.   See  Obliquus  superior
 oculi.
   Oculi obliquus  minor.   See  Obliquus inferior
 eculi.
  O'CYMUM.  (From uncus, swift: so called from its
quick growth.)   Ocymum.  The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Didynamia;
Order, Gymnospcrmia.
  Ocymum basilicum.  The systematic name of the
common or citron basil.  Basilicum.   Ocimum—foliis
ovatis glabris ; calycibus ciliatis, of Linneus.  This
 plant is supposed to possess nervine qualities, but is
seldom employed  but as  a condiment to  season high
 dishes, to which it imparts a grateful odour and taste.
  Ocymum caryophyllatum.   Ocimum minimum of
Caspar Bauhin.   Small or bush basil.  This plant is
mildly balsamic.  Infusions are drank as tea, in catar-
rhous and uterine disorders, and the dried leaves are
made into cephalic,  and sternutatory powders.  They
are, when fresh, very juicy, of  a weak aromatic and
very mucilaginous taste, and of a strong and agreeable
smell improved by drying.
  Odaxi'smos.   (From oSovs, a tooth.) A biting sen-
sation, pain, or itching in the gums.
  ODONTAGO'GOS.  (From orotic, a tooth, and aya,
to draw.)   The name of an  instrument to draw teeth,
one of which, made of lead, Forrestus relates to have
been hung  up in the temple of Apollo, denoting, that
such an operation ought not to be made, but when the
tooth was loose enough to draw with so slight a force
as could be applied with that.
  ODONTA'GRA.  (From  oSovs, a tooth, and aypa,
a seizure.)   1. The toothache.
  2. The gout in the teeth.
  3. A tooth-drawer.
  ODONTALGIA.  (From oSovs, atooth, and aXyos,
pain.)  Odontia; Odaxismus.  The toothache.  This
well-known disease makes its attack by a most violent
pain in the teeth, most frequently in the molares, more
rarely in the incisorii, reaching sometimes up to the
eyes, and sometimes backwards into the cavity of the
ear.  At the same time, there is a manifest determina-
tion to the head,  and a remarkable tension and infla-
 tion of the vessels takes place, not only in the parts
 next to  that where the pain is seated, but over the
 whole head.
  The toothache is sometimes merely  a rheumatic
 affection, arising from cold,  but more frequently from
 a carious tooth.   It is also a symptom of pregnancy,
and takes place in  some nervous disorders.  It may
 attack persons at any period of life,  though it is most
frequent in the young and plethoric.  From the variety
of causes which  may produce this affection, it has
been named by authors odontalgia cariosa, scorbutica,
catarrhalis, arthritica, gravidarum hysterica, stomach-
ica, and rheumatica.
  O'DONTALGIC.  (Odontalgics; from  oSovraX-
yta, the toothache.)  Medicines  which relieve the
 toothache.
r Many empirical remedies have been proposed  for the
cure of the toothache, but have not in any degree an-
swered  the purpose.  When  the affection is  purely
rheumatic, blistering behind the ear will almost always
remove it;  but when it proceeds from a carious tooth,
the pain is much more obstinate.  In this  case it has
 been recommended to touch the pained part with a hot I
 iron, or with oil of vitriol, in order to destroy the aching
nerve; to hold spirits in the mouth; to put a drop of J
 oil of cloves into the hollow of the tooth, or a pill made
 of camphor, opium, and oleum caryophylli.   Others
 recommend gum mastich, dissolved in oleum terebin-
 ihine, applied to the tooth  upon a little cotton.  The
 great Boerhaave is said to  have applied camphor,
 opium, oleum caryophylli,  and alkohol, upon cotton.
 The  caustic oil which may be collected from writing
 paper, rolled up tight, and set fire to at the end, will
 sometimes destroy the exposed nervous substance of a
 hollow tooth.   The application of radix pyrethri,  by
 its power of stimulating the salivary glands, either in
 substance or in tincture, has also been attended with
 good effects.  But one ot the most useful applications
 of this kind, is  strong nitrous acid, diluted with three
 or four times its weight of spirit of wine, and  intro-
 duced into the hollow of the tooth, either by means of
 a hair pencil or a little cotton.  When tlie constitution
 has had some share in the disease, the  Peruvian bark
 has been  recommended, and perhaps with much jus-
 tice, on account of its  tonic and antiseptic powers.
 When the pain is not fixed  to one tooth, leeches ap-
 plied to the gum are of great service.  But very often
 all the foregoing remedies will fail, and the only infal-
 lible cure is to draw the tooth.
   ODONTIA.  The name of a genus of  diseases  in
 Good's Nosology.   Class Caliaca; Order, Enterica.
 Pain,  or derangement of  the teeth or their involucres.
 It has seven species, viz. Odontia dentilionis; dolo-
 rosa; stupores; deformis; edentula; incrustans; ca-
 crescens.
   ODONTIASIS.   (From oSovrtaia, to put forth the
 teeth.)  Dentition, or cutting teeth.   See Dentition
 and Teeth.
   Odo'ntioa.   (From orjouj, a tooth.)  Remedies for
 pains  in the teeth.
   ODONTIRRHOE'A.   (From oo*ouc, a tooth, and poa,
 to flow.)   Bleeding  from  the socket of the jaw, after
 drawing a tooth.
   ODO'NTIS.  (From oSovs, a tooth:  so called be-
 cause ils decoction was  supposed useful in relieving
 the toothache.)  A species of lychnis.
   ODONTITIS.    Inflammation of a tooth.   See
 Odontalgia.
   ODONTOGLY'PHUM..  (From oSovs, a tooth, and
 yXvtfna, to scrape.)  An instrument for scaling and
 scraping the teeth.
   ODONTOID.   (Odontoides;  from oSovs, a tooth,
 and £ioo$, form; because it is shaped  like a tooth.)
 Tooth-like.  See Dentatus.
   ODONTOLl'THOS.   (From oSovs, a  tooth, and
 XiBos, a stone.)   The tartar, or stony crust upon the
 teeth.
   ODONTOPH Y'lA.  (From oSovs, a tooth, and dmu,
 to grow.)  Dentition, or cutting teeth.
   Odontotri'mma.  (From o<5ouc, a tooth, and rpiBia,
 to wear away.)   A dentifrice, or medicine, to clean
 the teeth.
   ODORIFEROUS. (From the smell which the se-
 cretion from thein has.)  Some glands are so called.
   Odoriferous glands.  Glandulaodorif era.  These
 glands are situated around the corona gland is of the
 male, and under the skin of Ihe labia niajora and nym-
 phe of females.   They secrete a sebaceous  matter,
 which emits a peculiar odour.
   ODOUR.  Smell.  This, which is the emanation of
 an odoriferous body, is generally ascribed to a portion
 of the body itself,  converted into vapour: but from
 some  experiments lately instituted it would seem pro-
 bable, that in many cases the odour is owing  not  to
 the substance itself, but  to a gas or vapour resulting
 from its combination witli an  appropriate vehicle, ca-
 pable  of diffusion in space.
   OS'a.    (0«j: from  otia, to bear;  so named from
 its fruitfulness.)  The service tree, Crategus  termi
 nalis.
  f-ECONOMY.   (CEconomia: from oikoc, a house,
 and voaos, a law.)   CEconomia animalis.  The con-
 duct of nature in preserving bodies and following her
 usual  order; hence animal oeconomy and vegetable
 economy, &c.
  OSDE'MA.  (From oiStia, to swell.)   A synonyme
of anasarca. See Anasarca.
  OIDEMATO'DES.   (From otStta, to swell, and
 tiSos, resemblance.)  Like to an oedema.
  CEdemosa'rca.    (From  oiSnpa, a swelling, and
trapl, flesh.)  A tumour mentioned by Severinus, of a
middle nature, between an adema and sarcoma.
                                       129 
(ENO
OFF
  CENA NTHE.  (From oivoc, wine, and  avBos, a
flower: so called because its  flowers smell  like the
vine.)
  1. The botanical name of a genus of the umbelli-
ferous plants.  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.
  2. Tbe pharmacopoeia! name of tlie hemlock drop-
wort.  See (Enanthe crocata.
  OSnantiie  crocata.   The  hemlock  dropwort.
(Enanthe—charophylli foliis of Linneus.  An active
poison lhal has too often proved fatal, by being eaten
in mistake  instead of  water-parsnip.   The juice,
nevertheless, cautiously  exhibited, promises to be an
efficacious remedy in inveterate scorbutic eruptions.
The root of this plant is not  unpleasant to the taste,
and esteemed to be most deleterious of all the vege-
tables which this country produces.   Mr. Howel, Sur-
geon at  Haverfordwest, relates, that " eleven French
prisoners had the liberty of walking in and about the
town of Pembroke.  Three of them being in the fields
a little before  noon,  dug up a large quantity of this
plant, whicli they took to be wild celery, to eat with
their breod and butter for dinner.   After washing it,
they  all  three ate, or rather tasted of the roots.  As
they were entering the town, wilhout any previous no-
tice of sickness at the stomach, or  disorder in the
head, one of them was seized with convulsions.  The
other two ran home, and sent a surgeon to him.  The
surgeon endeavoured  first to bleed, and then to vomit
him; but those endeavours were fruitless, and he died
presently.  Ignorant of the cause of their comrade's
death, and of their own danger, they gave  of these
roots to the other eight prisoneis, who ate of them with
their dinner.  A few  minutes  afterward the remain-
ing two who gathered the plants were seized in the
same manner as the first, of which one died ; the other
was  bled, and a vomit, with great difficulty, forced
down, on account of his jaws being, as it were, locked
together.  This operated, and  he recovered,  but was
some time affected with dizziness in his head, though
not sick, or the  least disordered in the stomach.  The
other eight being bled and vomited immediately, were
soon well."  Al Clonmell, in Ireland, eight boys mis-
taking this plant for water-parsnip, ate plentifully of
its roots.  About four or five hours after the eldest boy
became suddenly convulsed, and died: and before the
next morning four of the other boys  died in a similar
manlier.  Ofthe other three, oue was maniacal se-
veral hours, another lost his  hair and nails,  but the
third escaped unhurt. Stolpoart Vander Wiel men-
tions two cases of the fatal effects of this root; these,
however, were attended  with  great heal in the throat
and  stomach,  sickness,  vertigo, and purging;  they
both died in tbe course of two or three hours after eat-
ing the root.  Allen, in his Synopsis Medicine,  also
relates, that  four children suffered greatly by eating
this poison.  In these cases great agony was experi-
enced before the convulsion  supervened: vomitings
likewise  came  on, which were  encouraged  by  large
draughts of oil and warm water, to which their reco-
very is ascribed.  The late Sir William Watson, who
refers to the instances here  cited, also says, that a
Dutchman was poisoned by the leaves of the plant
boiled in pottage.   It appears, from various authori-
ties, that most brute  animals  are not less affected by
this poison than man: and Lightfoot informs us, that
a spoonful of the juice of this plant given to a dog,
rendered him sick and stupid: but a goat was observ-
ed lo eat the plant with impunity.   The great viru-
lence of this plant has not, however, prevented it from
being taken medicinally. In a letter from Dr. Poulte-
ney to Sir William Watson, we are told that a severe
and  inveterate cutaneous disorder was cured by the
juice of the root, though not without exciting the most
alarming symptoms.  Taken in the dose of a spoonful,
in two hours  afterward, the head  was affected in a
very extraordinary manner, followed with violent sick-
ness and vomiting, cold sweats, and rigors; but this
did hoi deter the patient from continuing the medicine,
in somewhat lessdoses, till it effected a cure.
   (Ena'rea.  (Oivapcn. from oivapa, the cuttings of
vines.)   The  ashes  prepared  of  the twigs, &.c. of
vim:*.
   dNEL.e'uM.  (From  oivoc, wine,  and cXaiov, oil.)
 A mixture of oil and wine.
   OSNO'GALA.   (From oivos, wine, and yaXa, milk.)
 A sort of potion made of wine aud  milk.  According
 to some, it is wine as warm as new milk
      IM
  Cjino gari'm-  r-rom oivoc,wine, and yapov, garttm.i
A mixture of wine and gariim.
  CENO MELI.  (From oivoc, wine, and ptXt, honey.)
Mend, or wine, made of honey, or sweetened with
honey.
  CEno'pli.  (From oivoc, wine.)   The great jubeb-
tree.  The juice of the fruit is like that of the grape.
  OSNOSTA'GMA.  (From oivoc, wine, und yo^u, to
distil.)  Spirit of wine.
  OSno'thera.  (From oivoc, wine: so called because
its dried roots  smell like wine.)  A species of lysima-
chia.
  CENOTHIONIC  ACID.    (CEnolhionicus;  from
oivoc, wine.)  An acid produced during the distillution
of sulphuric ether,  and found in the residue according
to Sertuerner.
  CENl'S.  (From oivoj, wine.)   Wine.
  QSnus  anthinos.  Flowery wine.   Galen says it is
OSnos anlhosmias, or wine impregnated with flowers,
in which sense it is an epithet for  the Cyceon.
  OSnus  antuosmias. (From avBos, a  flower, and
007117. a smell.)  Sweet-scented wine.
  CEnus  apezesmknus.   A wine heuted to a great
degree, and prescribed with other things, 11s garlic, salt,
milk, and vinegar.
  CEnus  apod*dus.   Wine in  which tlie dais,  or
teda, hath been boiled.
  CEnus  deuikri.-s.   Wines of the second pressing.
  CEnus  diachkomenus.   Wine diffused  in larger
vessels, cooled  and strained  from  the lees, to render it
thinner and weaker;  wines thus drawn off are called
saccus, and saccata, from  the bag through which they
arc strained.
  CEnus  galactodes.  Wine with milk,  or  wine
made as warm as new milk.
  CEnus  malacus.   (Enus maltkacus.   Soft  wine.
Sometimes it means weak and thin, opposed to strong
wine; or mild in opposition lo austere.
  CEnus  mklichroos. Wine in  which is honey.
  CEnus  osnodes.  Strong wine.
  CEnus  straphidios leucos.   White wine  made
from raisins.
  CEnus  tethalasmenos.   Wine mixed with sea-
water.
  CESOPHAGA^'US.  (From otaotbayos,  the gullet)
The muscle forming the sphincter oesophagi.
  CEsophagi'smus.   (From oiootbayos,  the gullet.)
Difficult swallowing,  from spasm.
  CESO'PHAGUS.   ((Esophagus, i. m.; from oiu>, to
carry, and tbayio, to eat:  because it carries the food
into the stomach.)  The  membranous and  muscular
tube that descends iu the neck, from the  pharynx to
the stomach.   It is composed of three tunics, or mem-
branes, viz. a  common,  muscular,  and mucous.   Its
arteries are branches of the oesophageal, which arises
from the aorta.  The veins  empty themselves into the
vena azygos.   Its nerves are from the eighth pair and
great intercostal; and it is every  where under the  in-
ternal or mucous membrane supplied with glands that
separate the mucus of the, oesophagus, in order that the
masticated bole  may readily pass down  inlo tlie sto-
mach.
  CESTROMA'NIA.  (From oirpoc, the pudenda of a
woman, and paivopai, to rage.) A furor uterinus.  See
Nympho mania.
  CE'STRUM.  (From astrus, a gad-bee: because by
its bite, or sting, it agitates cattle.) CEslrum venereum.
The orgasm, or pleasant sensation, experienced during
coition.
   CEstrum venereum.  1. The clitoris  is  so called,
as being the seat of the sensation.
   2. The sensation is also so called.
   CE'sype.  (From  oic,  a  sheep, and pviros, sordes.)
 CEsypos; (Esypum;  CEsypus.   It frequently is  met
 with in the ancient  Pharmacy, for a certain oily sub-
 stance, boiled  out of particular parts of tbe  fleeces of
 wool, as what grows on the flank, neck, and parts most
 used to sweat.
   O'ffa alba.  (From phath, a fragment, Hebrew.)
 Van Helmont thus calls the white  coagulation  which
 arises from a  mixture of  a  rectified spirit of wine, and
 of urine; but the spirit of urine must be distilled from
 well-fermented  urine: and that must be well dephleg-
 mated, else it will not answer.
    OFFICINAL.  (Officinalis; from qfficina, a shop.)
 Any medicine, directed  by the colleges of  physicians
, to be kept iu tbe shops, is so termed. 
OLD
OLE
   Offusca'tio.  The same as Amaurosis.
   OIL.  (Oleum; from olea, the olive: this name be-
 ing at first confined to the oil expressed from the olive.)
 Oil is defined, by modern chemists, to be a proper*juice
 of a fat or unctuous nature, either solid or fluid, indis-
 soluble in water, combustible with flame, and volatile
 in different degrees.  Oils are  never  formed but  by
 organic bodies;  and all  the substances in the mineral
 kingdom, which present oily characters, have  origi-
 nated  from the  action  of vegetable or  animal life.
 They  are  distinguished into fat, and essential oils;
 under the former head are comprehended oil of olives,
 almonds,  rape, ben, linseed, hemp, cocoa, &c.  Essen-
 tial oils differ from fat oils by the following characters:
 their smell is  strong and aromatic; their volatility is
 such that they rise with  the heat of boiling water, and
 their taste is very acrid; they are likewise much more
 combustible than fat oils; they are obtained by pres-
 sure, distillation. Sec  from strong-smelling  plants,  as
 that of peppermint, aniseed, caraway, &c.  The use
 of fat oils in the arts, and in medicine, is very  consi-
 derable ;  they  are medicinally prescribed as relaxing,
 softening, and laxative remedies; they enter into many
 medical compounds, such as balsams, unguents, plas-
 ters, Sec.  and  they are often used  as food on account
 of the  mucilage they contain.  See Olea.  Essential
 oils are employed as cordial, stimulant, and antispas-
 modic remedies.
  [" Oil, animal.  The proximate principles of the ani-
 mal creation consist, like those of vegetables, of  a few
 elementary substances, which, by combination in va-
 rious proportions, give rise to their numerous varieties.
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are llie prin-
 cipal ultimate elements  of animal  matter;  and  phos-
 phorus and sulphur are also often contained  in  it.
 The presence of nitrogen constitutes the most striking
 peculiarity of animal, compared with vegetable bodies;
but as  some vegetables contain  nitrogen,  so there are
certain animal principles, into the composition of which
It does  not enter.
  The  presence of nitrogen stamps a peculiarity upon
tlie products obtained by the destructive distillation  of
animal matter, and which are characterized by the pre-
sence of ammonia, formed by the union of hydrogen
 with the nitrogen.  It  is sometimes so abundantly ge-
 nerated as to be the leading product; thus, when horns,
hoofs, or bones, are distilled per se, a quantity of solid
carbonate of  ammonia,  and of the same  substance
 combined with empyreumatic oil, and dissolved in wa-
 ter, are obtained; hence the pharmaceutical prepara-
 tions called spirit and  salt of  hartshorn, and Dipel's
 animal oil. Occasionally the acetic, benzoic, and some
other acids, are formed by the operation of heat on ani-
mal bodies, and these  are found united to the ammo-
nia;  cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid frequently oc-
cur."— Webs. Man. Chem.—A.]
  Oil,  atherial.  See Oleum athereum.
   Oil,  almond.  See Amygdalus.
   Oil of allspice.  See  Oleum pimenta.
   Oil of amber.  See  Oleum succini.
   Oil of caraway.  See  Oleum carui.
   Oil, castor.  See Ricinus communis.
   Oil of chamomile.  See Oleum anthemidis.
   Oil of juniper.  See Oleum juniperi.
   Oil of lavender.  See Oleum lavendula.
   Oil of linseed.  See Oleum lini.
   Oil of mace.   See Oleum macis.
  Oil, olive.  See Olea europaa.
  Oil of origanum. See Oleum origani.
   Oil,  palm.  See Cocos butyracea.
   Oil of pennyroyal.  See Oleum pulegii.
   Oil of peppermint.  See Oleum mentha piperita.
   Oil,  rock.  See Petroleum.
  Oil of spearmint.  See Oleum mentha viridis.
   Oil,  sulphurated.  See Oleum sulphuratum.
  Oil of turpentine.   See Oleum terebinthina redifi-
 catum.
  OU of vitriol.  See Sulphuric acid.
  OINTMENT.  See Unguentum.
  OISANITE.  Pyramidal ore of titanium.
  OLDENLANDIA.  (In honour of H. B. Oldenland,
 a Dane, who made a visit to the Cape of Good Hope,
 about the year 1695, for the purpose of collecting plants,
 where  he soon after died.   Linneus described  many
 plants  from his Herbarium.)  The name of a  genus
 of plants.  Class Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  Oldenlandia umbellata.  The roots of this plant
                                       Qq2
which grows wild on the coast of Coromandel, and is
also cultivated there, are used by dyers, and  calico
printers, for the  same purpose as madder with  us,
giving the beautiful red so much admired in the Madras
cottons.
  OLEA.   The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
nean system.  Class, Monandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Olea europje.  The systematic name of the plant
from  which the olive oil is obtained.  Oliva; Olea
sativa.  Olea—foliis lanceolatis intcgerrimis racemis
axillaribus coarctatis, of Linneus.  The olive-tree iu
all  ages  has been greatly celebrated,  and held  in  pe-
culiar estimation,  as the  bounteous gift  of heaven  ; it
was formerly exhibited in the religious ceremonies of
the Jews, and is still continued as emblematic of peace
and plenty.  The  varieties of this tree are numerous,
distinguished not only by the form of the leaves, but
also by the shape, size, and colour of the fruit;  as  the
large  Spanish  olive, the small oblong  Provence olive,
&c. Sec.  These, when pickled, are well known to us
by  the names  of Spanish and French olives,  which
are extremely grateful to many stomachs, and said to
excite appetite and promote digestion; they are pre-
pared from the green unripe fruit, which is repeatedly
steeped in water, to which some quicklime or alkaline
salt is added, in order to shorten  the  operation  : after
this, they are washed and preserved in  a pickle of
common salt and water, to which  an aromatic is some-
times added.  The principal consumption, however, of
this fruit isin the preparation ot the common salad oil,
or  oleum oliva of the pharmacopoeias, which  is ob
tained by grinding and pressing them when thoroughly
ripe:  the finer and purer oil issues first by  gentle pres-
sure,  and the inferior sorts on heating  what is left, and
pressing it more  strongly.  The  best olive oil is of a
bright pale amber colour, bland to the taste, and with
out any smell:  it becomes rancid  by  age,  and sooner
if kept in a warm situation.   With regard to its utility,
oil, in some shape, forms a considerable  part of our
food,  both  animal and  vegetable, and  affords  much
nourishment.  With some, however, oily substances do
not unite with the contents of the stomach, and are
frequently  brought up by eructation;  this  happens
more  especially to those whose stomachs abound with
acid.—Oil, considered as a  medicine, is supposed to
correct acrimony,  and to lubricate and relax the fibres;
and, therefore,  has been recommended internally to
obviate the effects of various stimuli, which produce
irritation,  and  consequent  inflammation:   on this
ground it has  been  generally  prescribed in coughs,
catarrhal affections, and erosions.  The oil of  olives
is successfully used in Switzerland against the  tania
osculis superficialibus, and it is in very high estimation
in this and other countries  against nephritic  pains,
spasms, colic, constipation  of  the bowels, Sec. Ex-
ternally it has been found a useful application to biles
and stings  of various poisonous animals, as the mad
dog, several serpents, &c. also to  burns, tumours, and
other  affections, both by itself, or  mixed in  liniments
or poultices.  Oil rubbed over the body is said to be of
great  service in dropsies, particularly ascites.  Olive
oil  enters several officinal compositions, and  when
united with water, by the intervention of  alkali,  is
usually given in coughs and hoarsenesses.
  Olea'men.  (From oleum, oil.)  A  thin liniment
composed of oils.
  Olea'nder.  (From olea, the  olive-tree,  which it
resembles.)  The  rose-bay.
  Olea'ster.  (Diminutive of olea, the  olive-tree.)
The wild olive.
  OLE'CRANON.   (From taXtrn,  the  ulna, and
Kpavov, the head.  The elbow, or process of the ulna,
upon which a person leans.   See  Ulna.
  OLEFIANT GAS. See Carburetted hydrogen gas.
  OLEIC ACID.   "When potassa and hog's lard are
saponified, the margarate of the alkali separates in the
form  of  a pearly looking  solid,  while  the  fluid  fat
remains  in solution, combined  with  the  polassa.
When the alkali is separated by tartaric acid, the oily
principle of fat is  obtained, which Chevreuil purifies
by saponifying it again and again, recovering it two
or  three limes; by which  means the whole of the
margarine is separated.   As this oil has the properly
of saturating bases and forming neutral compounds, he
has called it oleic acid."
  O'lene.   (SlXtvn)  The cubit, or ulna
  OLEOSACCHARUM.  (From oleum, oil, and sac-
                                        131 
OLE
OLE
 riorum,  sugar.    An  essential oil ground up wilh
 ugar.
  OLERACIH'S.  (From oleo, to grow.)  Holeraeeus.
 Partaking of the nature of pot-herbs.
  Olerack.i;.  (From olus, a pot-herb.)  The  name
 cf"an order of plants in Linneus's Fragments of a
 Natural Method, consisting of such as have incomplete
 inelegant flowers, heaped together  in the calyces;  as
 beta, chenopodium, spinacia. &c.
  OLEUM.  See Oil.
  Oleum abietinum. Theresinousjuiccwhichexudes
 spontaneously from the silver and red firs.  It is sup-
 posed to be superior to lhat obtained by wounding the
 tree.
  Oleum  jethereum.   ASthereal oil.   Oleum vini.
 Alter the distillation of sulphuric ether, carry on the
 distillation with a less degree of heat until a black froth
 begins to  rise;  then immediately remove  the  retort
 from the fire.  Add sufficient water to the liquor in the
 retort, that the oily part  may float upon the  surface.
 Separate this, and add to it as much lime-water as may
 be necessary to neutralize the adherent acid, and shake
 them together.  Lastly, collect the ethereal oil which
 separates.  This  oil  is  used as an ingredient in tlie
 compound spirit of ether.  It is of a yellow colour,
 less volatile than ether,  soluble in alkohol, and inso-
 luble in water.
  Oleum amygdal.e.  Pee  Amygdalus communis.
  Oleum amyodalarum. See Amygdalus communis.
  Oleum animale.  Oleum animate Dippelii.  An
 empyreumatic oil  obtained  by distillation from bones
 and animal substances.  It is sometimes exhibited as an
 antispasmodic and diaphoretic, in the dose of from ten
 to forty drops.
  Oleum animalk dippelii.  See Oleum animate.
  Oleum anisi.  Formerly  Oleum  essentials anisi;
 Oleum e seminibus anisi. Oil of anise.  The essential
 oil of aniseed possesses all the virtues attributed to the
 anisum, and is often given as a stimulant and carmi-
 native, in the dose of from five to  eight drops mixed
 with an appropriate vehicle.  See Pimpinella  anisum.
  Oleum  anthemiuis.  Oil of chamomile, formerly
 called oleum e  floribus  chamemeli.  See Anthemis
 nobilis.
  Oleum camphoratum. See Linimentum camphora.
  Oleum  carpathicum. A fine essential oil, distilled
 from the fresh cones of the tree which affords tlie com-
 mon turpentine.  Sec Pinu* sylvestris.
  Oleum  carui.  Formerly called  Oleum  essentiale
 carui; Oleum essentiale e seminibus carui.   The oil
 of caraways is an admirable carminative, diluted with
 rectified spirit into an  essence, and then mixed with
 any proper fluid.  See Carum.
  Oleum caryophylli aromatici.  A stimulant and
 aromatic preparation of the clove.  See Eugenia cary-
 ophyllata.
  Oleum cedrinum.  Essentia ae ccdro.  The oil of
 the peel of  citrons, obtained, without distillation, in
 Italy.
  Oleum  cinnamomi.  A warm, stimulant, and deli-
 cious stomachic.  Given in the dose of from one to
 three drops, rubbed down with some yelk of egg, in a
 little wine, it  allays violent emotions of the stomach
 from morbid irritability, and  is particularly serviceable
 in debility of the prime vie, after cholera.
  Oleum cornu cervi. This is applied externally as
 a stimulant to paralytic affections ofthe limbs.
  Olku.m oabianum.  See Petroleum rubrum.
  Oleum juniperi.  Formerly called Oleum essentiale
 jnniperi bacca; Oleum  essentiale e baccis juniperi.
 Oil of juniper.  Oil of juniper-berries possesses stimu-
 lant, carminative,  and stomachic virtues, in the dose
 of from two to four drops, and in a larger dose proves
highly diuretic.  It is often administered in the cure of
dropsical complaints, when the indication is to provoke
the urinary discbarge.  See Juniperus communis.
  Oleum lavbnduljB.   Formerly called Oleum essen-
 U tie lavendula; Oleum essentiale e floribus lavendula.
Oil of lavender.   Though mostly used as a perfume,
 Ihis essential  oil may be exhibited  internally, in the
dose of from one to five drops, as a  stimulant in ner-
vous headaches, hysteria, and debility of the stomach.
 See Lavenda  spica.
  Oleum lauri.  Oleum laurinum.  An anodyne and
 antispoMiiodic application, generally rubbed or. sprains
 and bruises unattended with inflammation.
  Oleum li.mo.ms.  The essential oil of lemons [os-
      Isl
scsses stimulant  and stomachic powers, but Is princi-
pally used externally, mixed  with ointments,  as a
perfume.
  Oleum lini.  Linseed oil is emollient and demulcent,
in the dose of from half an ounce to an ounce.  It Is
frequently given  in the form of clyster In colics and
obstipation.  Cold-drawn linseed oil, with lime-water
and extract of lead, forms, in many instances, the best
application for bums and sculds.  See Linum utitatis
simum.
  Oli.lm lucii nsns.  See Esox lucius.
  Oleum macis.   Oleum  myristica expressum.  Oil
of mace.  A fragrant sebaceous substance, expressed
in the East Indies from the nutmeg.  There ure two
kinds.   The best is brought in stone jars, is somewhat
soft, of a yellow colour,  and resembles in smell the
nutmeg. The other  is brought from Holland, In flat
square cakes.  The weak smell and faint colour war-
rants our supposing it to  be  the former kind sophisti-
cated.   Their use is chiefly external, in form of plaster,
unguent, or liniment.  See Myristica moschata.
  Oleum malabathri.   An oil similar in flavour to
that of  cloves, brought from the East Indies, wheie it
is said to be drawn from the leaves of the  cassia-tree.
  Oleum Mentha: piperita.  Formerly called Oleum
essentiale mentha piperitidis.  Oil of peppermint. Oil
of peppermint possesses all the active principle of the
plum.   It is mostly used to  make tlie simple water
Mixed with rectified spirit it  forms nn essence, wliich
is put into a variety of compounds, as sugar drops and
troches, which are exhibited as stimulants, cut initia-
tives, and stomachics.  See Mentha piperita.
  Oleum mknth/e viridis.  Formerly called  Oleum
essentiale mentha  saliva. Oil of  spearmint.   This
essential oil is mostly in use for making the simple
water, but may be exhibited in the dose of from two to
five drops as a carminative, stomachic, and stimulant
See Mentha, viridis.
  Oleum myristicc.  The essential oil of nutmeg is
an  excellent stimulant and aromatic, and may be ex-
hibited  in every case where such remedies  are  indi-
cated, with advantage. See  Myristica moschata.
  Oleum myristice expressum.  This is commonly
called oil of mace.  See Oleum  macis.
  Oleum neeoli.  Essentia  neroli.  The  essential oil
of the flowers of the Seville orange-tree.  It is brought
to us from Italy and France.
  Oleum oiavb.  See Olea europta.
  Oleum origani.  Formerly called Oleum essential*
origani. Oil of origanum.  A very acrid and stimu-
lating essential oil.  It is employed for alleviating the
pain arising from caries of the teeth, and for making
the simple water of marjoram. See Origanum vulgare.
  Oleum palms.  See Cocos butyracea.
  Oleum petr.«.  See Petroleum.
  Oleum pimento.   Oil of allspice.  A stimulant nnd
aromatic oil.  See Myrtus pimenta.
  Oleum pulegii.   Formerly called Oleum essentiale
pulegii.  Oil of penny-royal.  A stimulant and  anti-
spasmodic oil, wbich may be exhibited in hysterical and
nervous affections.  See Mentha pulegium.
  Oleum ricini.  See Ricinus communis.
  Oleum rosmarini. Formerly called Oleum essen-
tiale rosis marini.  Oil of rosemary.  The essential oil
of rosemary is an  excellent  stimulant, and may be
given with great advantage in nervous, and spasmodic
affections ofthe stomach.  See Rosmarinus officinalis.
  Oleum sabina.  A stimulating emmenagogue: it is
best administered with myrrh,  in the form of bolus.
See Junipcris communis.
  Oleum sassafras.  An agreeable stimulating cor
minative and sudorific.
  Oleum sinapeos. This is an emollient oil, the acrid
principle of the mustard remaining  in tbe seed.  See
Sinapis  alba.
  Oleum succini.  Oleum succini redificalum.  Put
amber in an alembic, and with the heat of a sand-bath,
gradually increased, distil  over an acid liquor, an oil,
and a salt contaminated with oil. Then  redistil the
oil a second and a third time.  Oil of amber is mostly
used externally, as a stimulating application  to para-
lytic limbs, or those affected with cramp and  rheuma-
tism.  Hooping-cough, and other convulsive diseases,
are said to be relieved also by rubbing the spine witb
this oil.   See Succmum.
  Oleum suLriit'RATUM.  Formerly called  Balsamum
sulphuris simplex.  Sulphurated oil.   Take of washed 
OME
OME
sulphur, two ounces; olive oil, a pint.  Having heated
the oil in a very large iron  pot, and the sulphur gra-
dually, stir the mixture after each addition, until they
have united.  This, which was formerly called simple
balsam of sulphur, is an acrid stimulating preparation,
and much praised by some in the cure of coughs and
other phthisical complaints.
  Oleum syris. A fragrant essential  oil, obtained by
distillation from the balm of Gilead plant.  See Draco-
cephalum moldavica.
  Oleum templinum.  Oleum  templinum verum.  A
lerebinlhinate oil obtained from  the fresh cones of the
Pinus abies of Linneus.
  Oleum terebinthinje rectificatum.   Take of
oil of turpentine, a pint; water, four pints.  Distil over
the oil.   Stimulant, diuretic, and sudorific virtues are
attributed to this preparation, in the dose of from ten
drops to twenty, which are given in rheumatic pains of
the chronic kind, especially sciatica.  Its chief use in-
ternally, however, is as an anthelmintic and styptic.
Uterine,  pulmonic,  gastric, intestinal, and other he-
morrhages, when passive, are more effectually relieved
by its exhibition than by any other medicine   Exter-
nally it is applied, mixed with ointments and other ap-
plications, to bruises, sprains,  rheumatic pains, indolent
ulcers, burns, and scalds.
  Oleum terra:.   See Petroleum.
  Oleum vini.  Stimulant and anodyne,in the doscof
from one to four drops.
  Olkum  vitrioli.  See Sulphuric acid.
  OLFACTORY  (Olfadorius; from olfactus, the
sense of smelling.)  Belonging to the organ or sense of
smelling.
  Olfactory  nerve.  The  first pair of nerves are so
termed, because they are the organs of smelling.  They
arise from the  corpora striata, perforate the ethmoid
bone, and are distributed very numerously on the pitui-
tary membrane of the nose.
  OLIBANUM.  (From lebona, Chaldean.)  See Ju-
niperus lycia.
  OLIGOTROPHIA. (From oXtyos, small, and rpttbto,
to nourish.)  Deficient nourishment.
  OLISTHE'MA.   (From oXioBaivia, to fall out.) A
luxation.
  OLI'VA.  See Olea europea.
  OLIVA'RIS.  (From oliva, the olive.)  Oliviformis.
Resembling the olive:  applied to two eminences on the
lower part of the medulla oblongata, called corpora
olivaria.
  OLIVE. See Olea europea.
  Olive, spurge.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Olive-tree.   See Olea europea.
  OLIVE'NITE.  An ore of copper.
  OLI'VILE.   The name given by Pelletier to the
substance which remains after gently evaporating the
alkohoiic solution of the gum which exudes from the
olive-tree.  It is a white, brilliant, starchy powder.
  OLI'VINE.   A subspecies of prismatic chrysolite.
Its colour is olive-green.  It occurs in basalt,  green-
stone, porphyry, and lava, and generally accompanied
with augite.   It is found in Scotland, Ireland, France,
Bohemia, &c.
  Olla'ris lapis.  Pot-stone.
  Olophly'ctis. (From oXos, whole, and cjiXvKris, a
pustule.)  A small  hot eruption covering the whole
body.
  Olusa'trum.  (Id est olus atrum, the black herb,
from its black leaves.)   See Smymium olusatrum.
  OMA.   This Greek final  usually imports  external
protuberance;   as in sarcoma,  staphyloma,  carcino-
ma, Sec.
  OMA'GRA.  (From tapos, the shoulder, and aypa, a
seizure.)   The gout in Ihe shoulder.
  OMENTITIS.   (Omentitis; from omentum, the
caul.)  Inflammation of the omentum, a species of pe-
ritonitis.
  OME'NTUM.  (From omen, a guess: so called be-
cause the soothsayers prophesied from an inspection of
this part.) Epiploon,   The  caul.  An adipose mem-
branous viscus ofthe abdomen, that is attached to the
stomach, and lies on tbe anterior surface of the intes-
tines. It is thin and easily torn, being formed of a du-
plicatureof the peritoneum, with more  or less of fat in-
terposed.  It is distinguished into the great omentum
and the little omentum.
  I.  The omentum majus, which is also termed omen-
tum gasirocolicum, arises from the whole ofthe great |
 curvature of the stomach, and even as far as the spleen,
 from whence it descends loosely behind the abdominal
 parietes, and over the intestines to the navel, and some-
 limes into the pelvis.  Having descended thus far, its
 inferior margin turns inwards and  ascends again, and
 is fastened to the colon and the spleen, where its ves-
 sels enter.
   2. The omentum minus, or omentum hepatico-gaslri
 cum,  arises  posteriorly from  the transverse fissure of
 the liver.  It is composed of a duplicature of perito
 neum, passes over the duodenum and small lobe of tha
 liver: it  also passes by the lobulus spigelii and pan-
 creas, proceeds into the  colon and small curvature of
 the stomach, and is implanted ligamentous into the
 oesophagus.  It is in this omentum that Winslow dis-
 covered a natural opening, which goes by his name. If
 air be blown in at this foramen of  Winslow, which is
 always found behind the lobulus spigelii, between the
 right  side of the liver and hepatic  vessels, the duode-
 num, the cavity ofthe omentum, and all its sacs, may
 be distended.
   The omentum is always double, and between its' la-
 mella?, closely connected by very tender cellular sub-
 stance, the vessels are distributed and the fat collected.
 Where the top of tlie right kidney, and the lobulus spi-
 gelii ofthe liver, with the subjacent large vessels, form
 an angle with the duodenum, there  the external mem-
 brane of the colon, which comes from the peritoneum
 joining with the  membrane of the  duodenum, which
 also rises immediately from the peritoneum lying upon
 the kidney, enters the back into the transverse fissure
 of the liver for a considerable space,  is continuous with
 its external coat, contains the gall-bladder, supports the
 hepatic vessels, and is very yellow and slippery.  Be-
 hind  this membranous production,  between the right
 lobe ofthe li ver, hepatic vessels, vena ponarum, biliary
 ducts, aorta, and adjacent duodenum, there is the  na-
 tural  opening just mentioned,  by which  air may be
 Mown extensively into all the cavity of the omentum.
 From thence, in a course continuous with this mem
 brane from the pyloris and the smaller curvature ofthe
 stomach, the external membrane of the liver joins in
 such a manner with that ofthe stomach, that the thin
 membrane of the liver is continued out ofthe fossa of
 the venal duct, across the little lobe into the  stomach
 stretched before the lobe and before the pancreas. This
 little omentum, or omentum hcpatico-gastricum, when
 inflated,  resembles  a cone, and, gradually becoming
 harder and emaciated, it changes into a true ligament,
 by which the oesophagus is connected to the diaphragm.
 But the larger omentum, the omentum gasirocolicum, ia
 of a much greater extent.  It begins at the first acces-
 sion of the right gastro-epiploic artery to the stomach,
 being continued there from  the upper plate of  the
 transverse mesocolon, and then from  the whole great
 curve of the stomach, as far as the  spleen, and also
 from the right convex end of the stomach towards the
 spleen, until it also terminates in a  ligament that ties
 the upper and back  part of the spleen to the stomach.
 This  is the anterior lamina.  Being continued down-
 wards, sol.ietimes to tbe navel, sometimes to the pel-
 vis, it hangs before the intestines, and behind the mus-
 cles of the abdomen, until its lower edge, being reflect-
 ed upon itself, ascends, leaving an intermediate vacuity
 between it and tlie anterior lamina, and is continued to
 a very great extent,  into the external membrane ofthe
 transverse colon, and, lastly, into the sinus ofthe spleen,
 by which the large  blood-vessels are  received, and it
 ends Anally on the oesophagus, under the diaphragm.
 Behind the stomach, and before the pancreas, its cavity
is continuous with that of the smaller omentum.  To
this the omentum-colicum is connected, which arises
farther to the right than the first origin ofthe omentum
gastrocolicum from the mesocolon, with the cavity of
which it is continuous, but produced solely from the
colon and its external membrane, wliich departs double
from the intestine.   It is prolonged, and terminates by
a conical extremity, sometimes of longer, sometimes of
shorter extent, above the intestinum cecum; forall the
 blood  which returns from the omentum and mesocolon
goes into the vena portarum, and by that into the liver
itself.  The omentum gastrocolicum Is furnished with
blood from each of the gastro-epiploic arteries, by many
descending articulated branches,  of which  the most
lateral are the longest, and the lowest anastomose by
minute twigs with  those of the colon.  It also has
 branches from the splenic, duodenal, and adipose arts}- 
OMP
ONO
rles.  The omentum collcum has its arteries from tlie
colon, as also the smaller appendices, and also from
tlie duodenal and right epiploic.  The arteries of tbe
■mall omentum come irotn the hepalics, and from the
right  and left coronories.  The omentum being fat
and indolent, has very small nerves.  They arise from
the nerves of the eighth pair, both in the greater and
less curvatures of the stomach.  The  arteru- of the
mesentery are in general the same with those which go
to the intestine, and of which the smaller branches re-
main  in the glands and fat of the mesentery.  Various
small accessory arteries go to  both mesocolons, fioni
the intercostals, spermatics,  lumbars, and caspular to
tlie transverse portion  from the splenic artery,  and
pancreato-duodenalis, and to the left mesocolon, from
the branches of the aorta  going lo  tlie lumbar  glands.
The veins of the omentum iu general accompany the
arteries, and unite into similar trunks;  those of the
left part of the gastrocolic omentum into the splenic,
and also those of the hepatico-gastric, which likewise
sends its blood to the trunk of the vena  portarum:
those  from llie larger and  right part of the gastro-colic
omentum, from ihe omentum colicum, and from the
appendices epiploice into the mesenteric trunk.  All
the veins of the mesentery meet together, and  end in
the vena portarum, being collected first into two large
branches, of which tlie one, the mesenteric, receives
the gastro-epiploic vein, the colics media;,  tlie ilioco-
lica, and all those  of the small intestines, as far as the
duodenum:  the other, which going transversely, in-
serts itself inlo the former, above llie origin of the duo-
denum,  carries buck the blood of ihe left gastric veins,
and those of the rectum, except the lowermost, which
belongs  partly to those of  Ihe bladder and partly to the
hypogastric branches of tbe pelvis.  The vein which is
called hemorrhoidalis interna  is sometimes inserted
rather inlo the splenic Hum into the mesenteric vein.
Has the omentum  also lymphatic vessels'!  Certainly
there  are conglobate glands, both in the little omentum
and in the gastrocolicum;  and ancient anatomists have
observed pellucid vessels in the omentum ;  and a mo-
dern has described them for lacteals of the stomach.
  Omentum colicum.  See Omentum.
  Omentum oastro-colicum.  See Omentum.
  Omentum hepatico-gastricum.  See Omentum.
  OMO. (From tapos, the  shoulder.)   Names com-
pounded with this word belong to muscles which are
attached to the scapula.
  OMOCO'TVLE.   (From tapos, tiie shoulder,  and
KorvXn,  a cavity.)   The cavity  in the extremity ofthe
neck of the scapula, in whicli the head of the humerus
is articulated.
  OMO-HYOIDKUS. A  muscle situated between the
os hyoides and shoulder,  that pulls the os hyoides ob-
liquely downwards.  Coraco hyoideus of Albinus and
Douglas.  Scapulo hyudien of Dumas. It arises broad,
thin, and fleshy, from the  superior costa ofthe scapula,
near the semilunar notch, and from the ligament that
runs across it; thence ascending obliquely,  it becomes
tendinous  below  tlie sternocleido-mastoideus,  and,
growing fleshy again, is inserted into the base ofthe os
hyoides.
  OMOPLA'TA.   (From tapos,  the  shoulder,  and
SlXarvs, broad.)  The bladebone.  See Scapula.
  Omoplato-hyoidxus.  The same as Omo-hyoideus.
  Omo'tocos.  (From iapos, crude, and rixria, to bring
forth.)  A miscarriage.
  Omo'tribes. (From iapos,  crude, and  rpi(3ia, to
bruise.)  Oil expressed from unripe olives.
  Ompha'cinum.  (From optbaxtov, tbe juice of unripe
grapes.)  Oil expressed from unripe olives.
  Ompha'cion. (From opipaxos,  an unripe grape.)
Omphacium. Tbe juice  of unripe  grapes; aud by
some applied to that of  wild apples, or crabs, com-
monly called Verjuice.
  OMPHACITE.   A variety of augite of a pale leek-
greeu colour.  It  occurs in  primitive rocks, with
precious garnet, in Carinthia.
  Omphaci'tis.   (From  opipaxos, an unripe grape.)
A small kind of gall-nut, whicli resembles  an unripe
grape.
  Omphaco'meli.  (From opqiaxos, an unripe grape,
and peXt,  honey.) An oxymel made of tlie juice of
unripe grapes aud honey.
  Omphaloca'rpus.   (From ouqiaXos, ihe navel, and
Kacrros,  fruit: so called because its fruit resembles a
navel i  Cleavers.  The Galium operinc of Linneus.
      134
  OMPH ALOCE'LE. (From opibanos, the navel, and
 xnXn, u  tumour.)  An umbilical hernia.   See Her-
 nia.
  Omphalo'des.  (From opd>aXos, a navel,  and uSos,
 resemblance: so named because tiie calyx is excavated
 in the middle like the  human  navel.)   A plant  re-
 sembling tlie navel, which llie leaf ot the  CAilyludon
 und hydrocolyle does.
  Omi-haloma'ntia.  (From  optbaXos, the nnvel, and
 pvvrtaia, to prophesv.)  The  loolish vaticination of
 midwives, who pretend  to  foretell the number of the
 future olfsprins from the number of knots in  the navel.
  OMl'llA L( is.  (From optpitXtoKia, to roll up.)  The
 navel.  See Umbilicus.
  OMPHALOTO'MIA.   (From  optbaXos, the navel,
 and rtpvia, lo cut.)  The division or separation of the
 navel-string
  Onao-ra.   (From ovaypos,  the wild  ass.)   1. An
 American plant: so called because  it is said to fame
 wild beasts.
  2.  A name for the rheumatism in the elbow.
  ONEIRODYNIA.   (From ovctpov, a dream, nnd
 orJovn, anxiety.)  Disturbed  imagination during sleep.
 A genus of diM-nso in  the class Neuroses; and order
 t'esania, of Cullen, containing two species.
  1.  Oneirodynia activa, walking in the sleep.
  2.  Ondrodynia gravans, the incubus, or nightmare.
 The nervous or indisposed persons are oppressed during
 sleep wilh a heavy pressing  sensation on the chest, by
 which respiration  is impeded, or the circulation of
 blood intercepted, to such a degree, as to threaten suf-
 focation.  Frightful ideas are recollected on waking,
 which occupied the dreaming mind.   Frequent at-
 tempts are made to cry out, but often  without effect,
 and the horrors and agitations felt by the patient, are
 inexpressibly  frightful.   The sensations  generally
 originate iu  a large quantity of wind, or  indigestible
 matter in the stoiuuch  of supper-eaters, which, press-
 ing the stomach against the diaphragm, impede respi-
 ration, or render it short and convulsed.  Inflated in-
 testines may likewise produce similar effects, or mental
 perturbations.
  There is another species of nightmare mentioned by
 authors, which  has a  more dangerous tendency; and
 this arises from an impeded circulation of blood in the
 lungs, when lying down, or two great relaxation of the
 heart and ita impelling powers. Epilepsy, apoplexy, or
 sudden death, are sometimes among the consequences
 of this species of disturbed sleep. Diseased states of
 the large vessels, aneurisms, water in llie pleura, pe-
 ricardium, or lungs, empyema, Sec. are among the most
 dangerous causes.
  ONEIRO'GMOS.  (From  ovtipiarfia,  to dream.)
 Venereal dreams.
  ONEIRO'GONOS. (From ovtipoc, a dream, anayovn,
 the seed.)  So the Greeks call an occasional emission
 ofthe semen  in  sleep, when it only happens rarely.
  ONION.  See Allium cepa.
  Onion sea.   See Scilla.
  ONI'SCUS.  (From ovos, an nss:  so called because
 like the ass it  requires much beating before it is useful.)
 1. The stockfish.
  2. The slow-worm.
  3. The name of agenusof insects ofthe order Aptera
  Oniscus asellus.   The  systematic  name  of the
 woodlouse.  Millepedes;  Millepeda. These insects,
 though they obtain a place in the pharmacopoeias, are
 very seldom used medicinally in this country;  they
 appear to act as stimulants and slight diuretics, and
 for this purpose they ought to be administered in a
 much greater dose than is usually  prescribed.  The
 expressed juice of forty or fifty living millepedes, given
 in a mild drink, has been said to cure .very  obstinate
jaundices.
  ONI'TIS.   (From ovos, an  ass, because asses covet
 it.)  The Origanum vulgare, or wild marjoram.
  ONOBRY'CHIS. (From ovos, an ass, and (3pvx<a, to
 bray : so called, according to Blanchard, because the
 smell  or taste makes  asses bray.)   See Hedysarum
 onobrychis.
  ONONIS.  (From ovos, an ass: because It interrupts
 asses when at plough.)  1. The name of a genus of
 plants In the Linnean system.  Class, Diadelphia;
 Order, Decandria.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the rest-harrow See
 Ononis spinosa.
  Ononis arvensis.  See Ononis spinosa. 
OPH
OPH
  Ononis spinosa.  The systematic name of the rest-1
harrow.  Resto bovis; Arresta boois ; Remora aratri.
The roots of this plant have a faint unpleasant smell,
and a sweetish, bitterish, somewhat nauseous  taste.
Their  active  matter is confined  to the cortical part,
which has been sometimes given in powder, or other
forms, as an aperient and diuretic.
  ONOPO'RDIUM.  (Ovo7rop<5oi<; from ovos, an ass,
nnd ncpSia, to break wind: so named from its  being
much  coveted by asses, and from the noise it makes
upon pressure.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnean system. Class, Syngenesia; Order, Po-
lysomia aqualis.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the cotton-thistle.
See Onopordium acanthium.
  Onopordium acanthium.  The systematic name of
the cotton-thistle.   Carduus tomentosus.   The plant
distinguished by this name is thus described by Lin-
neus, Onopordium—calycibus squamosis squamis pa-
tentibus; foliis  ovato-oblongis,  sinuatis.  Its  ex-
pressed juice has been  recommended as a cure for
cancer, either  applied by moistening lint with it, or
mixing some  simple farinaceous  substance, so as to
form a poultice, which should be in contact with the
disease, and renewed twice a day.
  ONO'SMA.   (From oapn, a sweet smell or savour.)
The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Onosma echioides.  The systematic name of the
plant,  the root of wliich is called Anchusa lutea in
Borne pharmacopoeias. It is supposed to possess emme-
nagogue virtues.
  ON Y'CHIA. (From owl,the nail-)   A whitlow at
the side of the fingernail.
  O'NYX. Owj;.  In surgery.  Unguis.  An abscess,
or collection of pus between the lamelle of the cor-
nea ; so called from its resemblance to the stone called
onyx.  The diagnostic signs are, a white spot or speck,
prominent, soft, and fluctuating.  The species are:
  1. Onyx superficialis, arising from inflammation, not
dangerous, for it vanishes when the inflammation is re-
solved by the use of astringent collyria.
  2. Onyx profundus,  or a deep abscess, whicli  is
deeper seated between  the lamelle of the cornea,
sometimes breaking internally, and forming an  hypo-
pium: when it opens externally, it leaves a fistula upon
the cornea; whenever the pus is exsiccated, there re-
mains a leucoma.
  In mineralogy, Calcedony, in wliich there is an alter-
nation of white, black, and dark brown layers.
  Ooei'des.  (From taov, an egg, and tiSos, a likeness.)
An epithet for the aqueous humour of the eye.
  OPACITY.  Opacitas. The faculty of obstructing
the passage of light.
  OPAL. Of this silicious stone there are seven kinds,
according to Professor Jameson.
   1. Precious opal.  Of a milk-white colour, inclining
to blue.  It occurs in small veins in clay-porphyry, in
Hungary.
  2. Common opal, of a milk-while colour, found  in
Cornwall.                                   >
   3. Fire opal;  the colour of a hyacinth-red, found
only in Mexico.
  4. Mother of pearl opal, or cacholong,  a variety of
calcedony.
   5. Semi opal, of a white,  brown, or gray colour,
found in Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland.
   6. Jasper opal,or ferruginous opal. Thisis of a scar-
let, or gray colour, and comes from Tokay, in Hungary.
   7.  Wood opal, of various colours, and found in allu-
vial land at Zatravia, in Hungary.
   OPERCULUM.  (Operculum, t. n.; a cover or lid.)
The lid or cover of tiie  fringe, called peristomum,  of
mosses.   It is either convex, accuminate, flat, or per-
manent, never leaving the fringe:  as in Phascum.
   OPHI'ASIS.  (From oduc, a serpent; so called from
the serpentine direction in which the disease  travels
round the head.)  A speciesof baldness  which com-
 mences at the occiput,  and winds  to each ear, and
 sometimes to the  forehead.
   OPHIOGLOSSOI'DES.  (From otbiayXocouv, ophio-
 glossum, and tiSos, n likeness.)  A fungus resembling
 the Ophinglossum, or adder's tongue.
   OPHIOGLO'SSUM.   (From otjtis, a serpent, and
 vXiaaaa, a tongue; so called from the resemblance of
 Its fruit.)  The name of a genus  of  plants.  Class,
 Cryptogamia; Order, Ftlices.  Adder's tongue.
  OPHIORRHI'ZA  (From otbts, a serpent, and pi£<i
a root; because the plant, says Hermann, is regarded
in Ceylon, as a grand specific for the bile of the najaor
riband snake.)   The name of  a  genus of plants.
Class, Penlandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Opiiiorrhiza mungos.  The systematic name of tiie
plant, the root of which is called  Radix serpentum  in
the pharmacopoeias.  Mungos radix.  Tilis bitter root
is much esteemed in Java, Sumatra, &c. as preventing
the effects which usually follow the bite of tlie naja, a
venomous serpent, with which view it is eaten by them
It is also said to be exhibited medicinally in the cure of
intestinal worms.
  OPHIOSCO'RODON.   (From  oipts, a serpent, and
oxopoSov, garlic;  so named because it  is spotted like a
serpent.)   Broad-leaved garlic.
  OPHIOSTA'PHYLUM. (From otpts, a serpent, and
S-atbvXn, a berry; so called because serpents feed upon
its berries.t  White bryony.  See Bryonia alba.
  OPHIO'XYLUM.  (From otpts, and tyXov; because
its root spreads in a zigzag manner like the twisting of
a serpent.)  Tlie name of a  genus of plants.  Class,
Pentandria; Order, Monogynia. Serpentine-wood plant.
  Ophioxylum serpentinum. The systematic name
of the tree, the wood of which is termed  lignum ser-
pentum.  The nature of this root does not appear to
be yet ascertained.  It is very bitter.   In  the cure  of
the bite of venomous serpents and malignant diseases,
it is said to be efficacious.
  [" Ophites, or Green Porphyry.   This  is a green
stone, which to the naked eye appears homogeneous,
and  varies in colour from blackish green to pistachio
green. It contains greenish white crystals of feldspar,
which, on the polished surface, often  appear in paral-
lelograms, and are sometimes cruciform.  Its texture is
very  compact,  and its fracture  often splintery.   In
many coses its fine green colour is undoubtedly pro-
duced by epidote.  This belongs to the green porphyry
of the ancients."—Cleav  Min.  A.]
  O'PHRYS.  O0pvc.  1. The lowest part of the fore-
head, where the eyebrows grow.
  2. An herb, so called because its juice was used to
make the hair of the eyebrows black.
  OPHTHA'LMIA.  (From oipBaXpos. the eye.   Oph-
thalmitis.   An  inflammation   of  the   membranes
of the eye, or of  the whole bulb of the eye.   The
symptoms which characterize this disease are a pre-
ternatural redness of the tunica conjunctiva, owing
to  a turgescence of  its blood-vessels;  pain and
heat over the whole surface of the eye, often attended
with a sensation of some extraneous body between the
eye and eyelid, and a plentiful effusion of tears.   All
these symptoms are commonly increased by motion of
the eye,  or its coverings, and likewise by exposure to
light. We judge of the depth of the  inflammation by
the degree of pain produced  by light thrown upon  the
eye.  When the pain produced by light is considerable,
we have much reason to imagine that the parts at  the
bottom of the eye, and especially the retina, are chiefly
 affected; and, vice versa, when the pain is not much
increased by  this exposure, we conclude with  great
probability that  the inflammation is confined perhaps
entirely to the external covering of the eye.  In super-
 ficial affections of this  kind too,  the  symptoms are in
general local; but, whenever the inflammation is deep-
sealed, it is attended with severe shooting pains through
the head, and fever to a greater or less degree com-
monly takes  place.  During the  whole course of  the
disease there is for the most part  a very plentiful flow
of tears, which frequently become so  hot and acrid as
to excoriate the neighbouring parts;  but  it often hap-
 pens after the disease has been of some duration, that
 together with the tears a considerable quantity of a
 yellow purulent like matter is discharged, and when
 the inflammation has either spread to the eyelids, or
 has been seated there from the beginning,  as soon as
 the tarsi become affected, a discharge takes place of a
 viscid glutinous kind of matter, wliich greatly adds to
 the patient's distress, as it tends to increase the inflam-
 mation, by cementing the eyelids so firmly together as
 to render it extremely difficult to separate them.
   Ophthalmia is divided into  external, when the  in-
 flammation  is superficial, and  internal, when the
 inflammation is deep-sealed, and the  globe of tlie eye
 is much affected.
   Iu severe  ophthalmia two distinct stages are  com-
 monly observable  the first  is attended with a great 
OPH                                          ORB
deal of heal and pain in the eye and considerable fe-
brile disorder;  tbe second  is comparatively a chronic
affection without pain and fever.   The eye is merely
weakened, moister than in  the healthy slate, and more
or less red.
  Ophthalmia may be induced by a variety of exciting
Causes, such as operate in  producing inflammation in
other situations.  A severe cold in which the eyes are
affected al the same  lime with the pituitary cavities,
fauces, and trachea: change of weather; sudden transi-
tion from heat to cold; tlie prevalence of cold winds;
residence  in damp or sandy countries, in the hot sea-
son ; exposure ofthe eyes to the vivid rays ofthe sun ;
tre causes usually enumerated ; and considering these
 t does not seem extraordinary lhat ophthalmia should
sften make its appearance  as an epidemic,  and afflict
persons of every age and sex.   Besides these exciting
causes, writers also generally mention the suppression
of some habiiual discharge, as of the menses,  bleed-
ings from Die nose, from  hemorrhoids, Sec  Besides
wliich, inflammation of the eyes may be occasioned by
the venereal and scrofulous virus.
  OPHTHA'LMIC.   Ophthalmicus.  Belonging to the
eye.
  Ophthalmic  ganglion.   Ganglion ophthalmicum.
Lenticular ganglion.  This ganglion is formed iu the
orbit, by the union of a branch of the third or fourth
pair with the first branch of the fifth pair of nerves.
  Ophthalmic  nerve.  Nervus ophthalmicus.  Or-
bital nerve.  The first  branch of the ganglion or ex-
pansion of the fifth pair of nerves.  It is  from this
nerve that a branch is given off, to form, with a branch
of tbe sixth, the great intercostal nerve.
  OpnTHALMici  externi.   See Motores oculorum.
  OPHTHALMODYNIA.  (From ofBaXpos, an eye,
and oSvvri, pain.)  A vehement pain in the eye, with-
out, or with very little redness.  The sensation of pain
is various, as itching, burning, or  as if gravel were
between  the globe of  the eye  and lids.   The spe-
cies are:
  1.  Ophthalmodynia  rheumatica,  wliich is a pain in
the muscular expansions of the globe of the eye, with-
out redness in the albuginea.  The rheumatic inflam-
mation is serous, and rarely produces redness.
  2.  Ophthalmodynia periodica, is a periodical pain in
the eye, without redness.
  3.  Ophthalmodynia spasmodica, is a pressing pain in
the bulb of  the eye, arising from  spasmodic contrac-
tions of the muscles of tlie eye, in nervous, hysteric,
and hypochondriac  persons.  It is observed to termi-
minate by a flow of tears.
  4.  Ophthalmodynia from an internal inflammation
of the eye. In this disorder, there is a pain  and sensa-
tion as if the globe was pressed out of the orbit.
  5.  Ophthalmodynia hydrophthalmica.  After a great
pain in the inferior  part of the os frontis, the sight is
obscured,  the pupil is dilated, and the bulb  of the  eye
appears larger,  pressing on the lid.  This species is
likewise  perceived from an incipient hydropthalmia
ofthe vifreous humour.
  6.  Ophthalmodynia arenosa, is an itching ana sensa-
tion of pain in the eye, as if sand or gravel were lodged
between tbe  globe and lid.
  7.  Ophthalmodynia symptomatica, which is a symp-
tom of some other  eye-disease, and  is to be cured by
removing the exciting cause.
  8.  Ophthalmodynia cancrosa, which arises from can-
cerous acrimony deposited in the  eye,  and is  rarely
curable.
  OPHTHALMOPO'NIA.  (From otpBaXpos, the eye,
and  irovtia, to labour.)  An intense pain in the eye,
whence the light  is intolerable.
  OPHTHALMOPTO'SIS.  (From oibBaXpos, an eye,
and ir7<DO!c, a fall.)  A falling down ofthe globe of the
eye on the cheek, canthus, or upwards, the globe itself
being scarce altered  in magnitude.   The cause is a re-
laxation of the  muscles, and ligamentous expansions
of the globe of the eye.  The species are:
  L  Ophthalmoptosis violenta, which is generated by
a violent contusion or strong stroke, os happens some-
times in  boxing.  The eye falls out of the socket on
the cheek or canthus of the eye, and from the elon-
gation and extension of the optic nerve occasions im-
mediate blindness.
  2.  Ophthalmoptosis,from a tumour within the orbit.
An exostosis,  toph,  abscess,  encysted  tumours,  as
atheroma, hygroma; or scirrhus, forming within the
orbit, or  induration of the orbital adeps, may throw
 the bulb of the eye out of the socket upwards, down-
 wards, or towards either canthus.
  3. Ophthalmoptosis  paralytica,  or the  paralytic
 ophthalmoptosis, which arises from n palsy of the recti
 muscles, whence a stronger power in  the oblique
 muscles of the bulb.
  4. Ophthalmoptosis staphyhmatica,  when the sta-
 phyloma depresses the interior eyelid, and extends on
 the cheek.
  OPIATE.   (Opiatum: from the effects  being like
 that of opium.)  A medicine that procures sleep, Ac.
 See Anodyne.
  O PION.  Ottiov.  Opium.
  Opi'smus.  (From omov, opium.)  An opiate con-
 fection.
  Opisthenar. (Fromontcr&cv, backwards, andOtSap,
 the palm.)  The back part of the hand.
  OPISTHOCRA'NIUM.  (From oirioBtv, backward,
 and  xpaviov, the head.) The occiput, or hinder part
 ofthe head.
  Opisthocypho'sis.   (From oirioBtv, backward, and
 Kvtpiaais, a gibbosity.)   A curved spine.
  OPISTHOTONOS.  (From onioBtv, backward,nnd
 rtivia, to draw.)   A fixed spasm of several muscles, so
 as to keep the  body in a fixed position, and bent back
 wards.  Cullen considers it as a variety of tetanus.
 See  Tetanus.
  O'PIUM.  (Probably from oiros, juice ; or from ovi,
 Arabian.)  The inspissated juice of tbe  poppy. See
 Papaver somniferum.
  OPOBA'LSAMUM.  (From ottoc, juice, and rJaXtro-
 pov, balsam.)  See Amyris gileadensis.
  OPOCA'LPASON. (Froiiio7roc,juice,andimXirao-ov,
 a tree of that name.)  Opocarpason.  A kind of bdel-
 lium which resembles myrrh, but is  poisonous.
  OPODELDOC.  A term of no meaning, frequently
 mentioned by Paracelsus.  Formerly it signified a plos
 ter for all external injuries, but now is confined to a
 camphorated soap liniment.
  Opodeoce'le.   A  rupture  through the foramen
 ischii, or into the labia  pudendi.
  OPO'PANAX.  (Opopanax, oris, f.;  from  oiroc,
 juice, and trava\, Ihe panacea.)  See Pastinaca opo-
 panax.
  Opo'pia.  (From oirropai, to see.) The bones of the
 eyes.
  Opo'rice.   (From oiriapa, autumnal fruits.)  A con-
 serve made of ripe fruits.
  OPPILA'TIO.   (From oppilo, to shut up.)   Oppi-
 lation is a close kind of obstruction; for, according  to
 Rhodius, it signifies, not only to shut out, but also to fill.
  Oppilati'va.  (Frorri oppilo, to shut up.)  Medicines
 or substances  which shut up the pores of the skin.
  OPPO'NENS.  Opposing.  A name given to some
 muscles from their office.
  Opponens pollicis.  See Flexor ossis metacarpi
 pollicis.
  OPPOSITIFOLIUS.  Applied to a  flower-stalk.
 when opposite to a leaf;  the  Geranium  molle, and
 Sium angustifolium, afford examples of the Peduncu-
 lus oppositifolius.
  OPPOSITUS.  Opposite to each other; as the leaves
 of Saxifraga opposilifolia, and Ballots nigra.
  OPPRESSION.  Oppressio. The catalepsy, or any
 pressure upon  the brain. See Compression.
  Opsi'gonos. (From ouVi,  late, and ytvopai, to  be
 born.)   A dens sapientie, or late cut tooth.
  OPTIC.  (Opticus; fiom oir"]opai, to see.) Relating
 to the eye.
  Optic nerve.  Nervus  opticus.   The second pair
 of nerves of the brain.  They arise from the thalami
 nervorum opticorum, perforate the bulb ofthe eye, and
 iu it form the retina.
  OPUNTIA. (Ab Opunte, from the city Opus, near
 which it flourished.)  See Cactus.
  ORACHE.  See Atriplex hortensis, and  Cheno-
podium.
  ORANGE.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Orange, Seville.  See Citrus aurantium.
  Orange, shaddock. See  Shaddock.
  Orbicila're os.  Os pisiforme.  The name of a
 bone of the carpus.  Also a very small round  bone
 not larger than a pin-head, that belongs to the interna]
 ear.
  ORBICULARIS.  (From orbiculus, a little ring:
so called from its shape.) This name is given to some
muscles which  surround the part like a ring.
  Orbicularis oris.  Sphincter labiorum, of Douglas- 
ORC
ORC
 semi-orbicularis, of Winslow ;  constrictor oris of
 Cowper; and labial, of Dumas.  A  muscle of the
 mouth, formed in a great measure by those ofthe lips;
 the fibres of the superior descending, those of the in-
 ferior ascending and decussating each other about the
 corner ofthe mouth, they run along the lip to join those
 of the opposite side, so that  the fleshy fibres appear to
 surround the mouth like a sphincter. Its use is to shut
 the mouth,  by contracting  and drawing both lips to-
 gether, and  to counteract all the muscles that assist in
 opening it.
   Orbicularis  palpebrarum.   A muscle common
 to both the eyelids.  Orbicularis palpebrarum ciliaris,
 of authors;  and maxillo palpebral, of Dumas. It
 arises by a number of fleshy fibres from  the outer edge
 of the orbitar process of the superior maxillary bone,
 and  from  a tendon near the inner angle of the eye;
 these fibres run a little downwards and outwards, over
 the upper part of the cheek, below  the orbit, covering
 the under eyelid, and surround  the external angle,
 being closely connected only to the skin  and fat; they
 then run over the superciliary ridge of the os frontis,
 towards the inner canthus, where  they mix with the
 fibres of the occipito-frontalisand corrugator supercilii:
 then  covering the upper eyelid,  they descend to the
 inner angle opposite to their inferior origin, and firmly
 adhere to the internal angular process of the os frontis,
 and to the short round  tendon which serves to fix the
 palpebre and muscular fibres arising from it.  It is in-
 serted into the nasal process of the superior maxillary
 bone, by a short  round  tendon, covering the anterior
 and upper part of the lachrymal sac, which tendon can
 be easily felt at the inner canthus ofthe eye.  The use
 of this muscle is to shut the eye, by drawing both lids
 together, the fibres contracting from the outer angle
 towards the  inner, press the eyeball, squeeze the lach-
 rymal gland, and convey the tears towards the puncta
 lachrymalia.
   Orbicularis palpebrarum ciliaris. See Orbicu-
 laris palpebrarum.
   ORBICULATUS.  Orbiculate.  Applied  to a leaf
 that is  circular or orbicular, the  length and breadth
 being equal, and the circumference an  even circular
 line.  Precise examples of this are scarcely to be found.
 Some species of pepper approach it, and the leaf of
 the Hedysarum styracifolium is perfectly  orbicular, ex-
 cept a notch  at the base.
   ORBIT.    Orbitum.   The two  cavities under  the
 forehead, in which the eyes are situated, are termed
 orbits.  The angles of the  orbits are  called cant/ii.
 Each orbit is composed of seven bones, viz. the frontal,
 maxillary,  jugal, lachrymal, ethmoid,  palatine,  and
 Bphenoid.  The use of this bony socket is to maintain
 and defend the organ of sight, and  its adjacent parts.
   O'rchea.  Galen says it is the scrotum.
   ORCHIDEjE.   (From  orchis,  a  plant so called.)
 The name of an  order in Linneus's Fragments of a
 Natural Method, consisting of those which have fleshy
 roots  and orchideal corolls.
   ORCHIDEUS.  Orchideal:  resembling the orchis.
   ORCHIS.  (Opxis, a testicle; from optyopat, to  de-
 sire.)   1. A testicle.
   2. The name of a genus  of plants in  the Linnean
 system. Class, Gynandria; Order, Diandria.
   Orchis bifolia. The systematic name of the but-
 terfly orchis,  the  root of  which is used indifferently
 with that ofthe male orchis.  See  Orchis mascula.
   Orchis  mascula.  The  systematic name of the
 male orchis.  Dog's stones.  Male orchis. Salyrion.
 Orchis—bulbis indivisis, nedarii  labio quadrilobo
 crenulato, cornu obtuso petalis dorsalibus reflcxus of
 Linneus.  The root has a place in  the Materia Medica
 of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, on account of the
 glutinous slimy juice which it contains.   The root of
 the orchis bifolia is also collected.  Satyrion root has
 a  sweetish taste, a faint  and  somewhat unpleasant
 smell.  Its  mucilaginous or gelatinous  quality  has
 recommended it as a demulcent.   Salep, which is im-
ported here from the East, is a preparation of an analo-
gous root which is considered as an article of diet, is
accounted extremely nutritious, as containing a great
 quantity of farinaceous matter  in a small bulk.  The
 supposed aphrodisiac qualities of this root, which have
 been noticed ever since the days of Dioscorides, seems,
 says Dr. Woodville, to be founded on the fanciful doc-
 trine of signatures; thus, orchis, i.  e. opxn, testiculus
habet radices, instar testiculorum.
   Orchis morio.   The systematic  name of  tha
 orchis, from  the  root of which  the salep is made;
 Salep is a'farinaceous powder imported from Turkey.
 It may be obtained from  several other species of the
 same genus of plants.  It is an insipid substance, of
 which a small quantity, by proper management, con-
 verts a large portion of water into a jelly, the nutritive
 powers of which  have been greatly overrated.   Salep
 forms a considerable part  ofthe diet ofthe inhabitants
 of Turkey, Persia, and Syria.  The method of pre-
 paring salep  is as follows:—The new  root is to be
 washed in water, and the fine brown skin  which
 covers it is to be separated by means  of a small brush,
 or by dipping the root in warm water, and rubbing it
 with a coarse linen cloth.  The roots thus  cleaned
 are to be spread on a tin plate, and placed in an oven,
 heated to the usual degree, where they are to remain
 six or ten minutes.  In this time they will have lost
 their milky  whiteness, and acquired a transparency
 like horn, without- any diminution  of bulk.   Being
 arrived at this state, they are to be removed in order
 to dry and harden in the air, which will require several
 days to effect; or they may be dried in  a few hours,
 by  using a very  gentle heat.  Salep, thus prepared,
 contains a great  quantity of vegetable aliment; as a
 wholesome nourishment  it is much superior to rice;
 and has the singular propertyof concealing the taste of
 salt water.  Hence, to prevent the dreadful calamity of
 famine at sea, it has been  proposed that the powder of
 it should constitute part of the provisions of  every
 ship's conmany.  With regard to its  medicinal proper-
 ties, it may be observed, that its restorative, mucila-
 ginous, and demulcent qualities, render it of consider-
 able use in various diseases, when employed as aliment,
 particularly in sea-scurvy, diarrhoea,  dysentery, symp-
 tomatic fever, arising from the absorption of pus, and
 the stone or gravel.
   ORCHITIS. (From opx'S, a testicle.)   Hernia hu-
 moralis.  Swelled testicle. A very common symptom
 attending a gonorrhoea is a swelling of the  testicle,
 which is only sympathetic, and not venereal, because
 the same symptoms follow every kind of irritation on
 the urethra, whether produced by strictures, injections,
 or bougies.  Such symptoms are not  similar to the ac-
 tions arising from the application of  venereal matter,
 for suppuration seldom occurs, and, when it does, the
 matter is not venereal.  The swelling and inflamma-
 tion appear suddenly, and as suddenly disappear, or go
 from one testicle  to the other.  The epididymis re-
 mains swelled, however, even for a considerable time
 afterward.
   The first appearance of swelling is generally a soft
 pulpy fulness of the body of the testicle, which is ten-
 der to the touch; this increases to a hard swelling  ac-
 companied with considerable pain.   The epididymis,
 towards the lower end of  the testicle, is  generally the
 hardest part   The hardness and swelling, however,
 often pervade the whole of the epididymis. The sper-
 matic cord, and especially the  vas deferens, are often
 thickened, and sore to the touch.  The spermatic
 veins sometimes become varicose.  A  pain in the loins,
 and sense  of  weakness there, and in the pelvis,  are
 other casual symptoms.  Colieky pains; uneasiness in
 the stomach and  bowels;  flatulency;  sickness, and
 even vomiting; are not unfrequent.   The whole testi-
 cle is swelled,  and  not merely the epididymis, as has
 been asserted.
  The inflammation of the part most probably arises
 from its sympathizing with the urethra.  The swelling
 of the testicle coming on,  either  removes the pain in
 making water, and suspends the discharge, which does
 not return till  such swelling begins to subside, or else
 the irritation in the urethra, first ceasing, produces a
 swelling of the testicle, which continues till the pain
 and  discharge  return;  thus rendering   it doubtful
 which is the cause and which the effect. Occasionally,
 however,  the  discharge has become more  violent,
though the testicle has swelled; and such swelling has
even  been  known to occur after the discharge has
ceased; yet the latter has returned with violence, and
remained as long as the hernia humoralis.
  Hernia humoralis, with stoppage of  the discharge, is
apt to be attended with strangury.   A very singular
thing is, that the inflammation more frequently comes
on when the irritation in the uretlira is going off, than
when at its height.
  The enlargement of the testicle, from  cancer and 
ORI
ORM
Mrofula, are generally slow in their progress: that of |
a hernia humoralis very quick.
  O'rchos.  (From op%os, a plantation or orchard: so
railed from the regularity with which tlie hairs are in-
serted.)  The extremities of the eyelids, where the eye-
lashes grow.
  ORCHOTOMY.  (Orchotcmia; from opxij,  a tes-
ticle, and rtpvta, to cut.)   Castration.  The operation
of extracting a testicle.
  ORDER.  A term applied  by naturalists  and  noso-
logists to designate a division that embraces a number
ol genera which have some circumstances common to
thcui olL  See Genus, Plants, sexual system of, and
Nosology.
   Orders, natural, of plants. See Natural.
  ORE.  The  mineral substance from which metals
are extracted.
  OREOSELI'NUM.  (From opoc, a mountain, and
stXivov, parsley: so named because it grows wild upon
mountains.)  Mountain parsley.   See Athamanta.
  Ore'stion.   (From opoc, a mountain.)   In Diosco-
rides  it is  the  Helenium, or a kind  of elecampane,
growing upon mountains.
   OREXIA.  (From optyouai, to desire.)  Orexis.  A
desire or appetite.
   ORE'Xlri.  See  Orexia.
   ORGAN.   Ooyavov.   Organum.  A part of the
body capable of llie  performance of some perfect act
or operation.  They are distinguished by physiologists
by their functions, as organs of  sense, organs of mo-
tion, organs of sensation,  digestive organs, &c.
   ORGANIC.  Of or belonging to an organ.   In the
present day this term is  in general use to distinguish a
disease of structure from a functional disease; thus,
when the liver is converted into a hard tuberculated or
other stiucture, it is called an organic disease; but
when il merely furnishes a bad bile, the disease  is said
to be  functional.
   [" Organic relics.   These fossil relics are of two
kinds, Petrifactions and  Conservatives.
    Petrifactions, or  Substitutions,  are those  relics,
which  are entirely made up of mineral substances,
wliich have gradually run into the places occupied by
organized bodies as those bodies decayed, and assumed
their forms.
   Conservatives, or Preservatives, are those relics, or
 parts thereof, which still consist of the very same sub-
 stances, which originally composed tlie living organized
 being.
   An  organic relic may partake of both kinds. The
 shell of an oyster, being chiefly carbonate of lime, may
 still remain, which would be a  conservative.   While
 the enclosed animal matter will be entirely decayed,
 and mineral matter occupy its  place and  imitate its
 form, wbich would be a petrifaction.
   Organic relics are named  by annexing the termina-
 tion lithos (a stone) to the scientific name of the living
 organized  being.   As  ichthyolithos is composed  of
 ixBvs (a fish) and XiBos (a stone).  That is, a fish be-
 coming stone.  In English, lithos is changed to  lite, as
 ichthyolite. Sometimes the letter I is left out, as  lacerta
 (lizard) would make  lacertit, (a petrified  lizard).
 This abridged method has now come into general use."
 —Eat. Geol.   A.]
    ORGASM.  See Orgasmus.
    ORGASMUS.   (From opyata, " appeto impatienter;
 proprie de anemaiilibus dicitur, que turgent libidine."
 Scapula.)  Salacity.
    OKGAST1CA.  The name of an order  of the class
  Genetica, in Good's Nosology.  Diseases affecting the
 orgasm.  Its genera are, chlorosis,  praotia, lagnesis,
  agenesia, aphorca, adoptosis.
    ORIBASIUS, an eminent physician of the 4th cen-
 tury, was born at Pergamus, or, according to others, at
 Sardes, where he resided for some time.  He  is men-
  tioned as one  of the most learned  and accomplished
  men of his age, and the most skilful  in his profession;
  anil  he not only obtained great public  reputation, but
  also  the friendship  of the Emperor Julian, who ap-
  pointed him questor of Constantinople. But after the
  death of that  prince be  suffered a severe  reverse;  he
  was stripped of his property, and sent into banishment
  among the Barbarians.   He sustained his misfortunes,
  however, with great fortitude; and tbe dignity of his
  character,  with  his  professional skill and kindness,
  gained him the veneration of these rude people, among
  whom he was adored as a tutelary god.  At length be
        138
was recalled to the imperial court, nnd regained ths
public favour.  He was chiefly a compiler; bin some
valuable  practical remarks first occur In his writings.
He made, at ihe request of Julian, extensive "Collec
tiona" from Galen, nnd  other preceding  authors, in
about seventy books,  of which only seventeen  now
remain;  and afterward made a " Synopsis of this vast
work for the use of his son, in nine books:  there am
also extant four books, in medicines and diseases, en-
titled " Euporistorum Librl."  He praises  highly local
evacuations of blood, especially  by scarifications,
wliich had been little noticed  before: and he affirms,
that he was himself cured  of the plague by it, having
lost in this way two pounds of blood from the thighs
on the second day of the disease.   He first described a
singular species of insanity, under (he name  of lycan-
thropia, in which the patient wanders about by  night
among the tombs, as  if changed  into a wolf:  though
such a disease is noticed  in the New Testament.
  ORICHALCUM.  The brass of the ancients.
  Ori'cia.  (From Oricus,  a city of Epirus,  near
which  it grows.)  A species  of fir or turpentine-tree,
from Oricus.
  Orientalia folia. The leaves of senna were so
called.
  ORl'GANUM.  (From opoc, a mountain, and yavota,
to rejoice: so called because it grows upon the side of
mountains.)
  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean
system.  Class, Didynamia;  Order, Gymnospermia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the wild marjoram.
See Origanum vulgare.
  Origanum creticum.  See Origanum dictamnus
  Origanum dictamnus.   The systematic name  of
the dittany of Crete.  Dictamnus creticus;  Origa-
num creticum; Onitis.  The leaves of this plant, Ori-
ganum—foliis inferioribus tomentosis, spicis nutanti-
bus of Linneus, are now rarely used; ihey  have been
recommended as emmenagogue and alexipharmtc.
  Origanum  marjorana.  The systematic name of
sweet marjoram.   Marjorana.  This plant, Origanum
—foliis  ovatis obtusis,  spicis subrotundis  compactis
pubescentibus of Linneus, has been long cultivated in
our gardens, and is in frequent use for culinary pur-
poses.   The leaves and tops have a pleasant smell, and
a moderately warm, aromatic, biuerish taste.  They
yield their virtues to aqueous and spirituous  liquors,
by infusion, and to water in distillation, affording a
considerable quantity of essential oil. The medicinal
 qualities of the plant are similar to those of the wild
 plant (see Origanum vulgare);  but being much more
 fragrant, it is thought to be  more cephalic, and better
 adapted to those complaints known by the name of
 nervous;  and may  therefore be employed with the
 same intentions as lavender.  It was directed in the
pulvis sternutatorius, by both pharmacopoeias, with*
 view to the agreeable odour which it communicates to
 the asarabacca, rather than to itsenhine power, which
 is very inconsiderable; but it is now wholly omitted in
 the Pharm. Lond. In its recent state, it is said to have
 been successfully applied to  scirrhous tnmours  of tbe
 breast.
   Origanum syriacum.  The Syrian herb mastich.
 See Teucrium marum.
   Origanum vuloare.  The systematic name of the
 wild marjoram.  Marjorana;  Mancurana;  Origa-
 num heracleoticum;  Onitis;  Zazarhendi herba.  Ori-
 ganum—spicis subrotundis paniculatis conglomeratis,
 bractis  calyce longioribus ovatis of Linneus.   This
 plant grows wild in many parts of Britain.  It has  an
 agreeable aromatic smell, approaching to that of mar-
 joram, and a pungent taste, much  resembling thyme,
 to which it is likewise thought to be more allied in its
 medicinal qualities, and  therefore deemed  to be em
 menagogue, tonic, stomachic, Sec.  The  dried leaves,
 used instead of tea, are  said to be exceedingly grateful.
 They are employed  in  medicated baths and fomenta-
 tions.
   Oris constrictor.  See Orbicularis oris.
   Orleana  terra.   (Orleana, so named from the
 place where it grows.)  See Bixa orleana.
   ORMSKIRK.  The name of a place in which Hill
 lived, who invented a medicine for the cure of hydro-
 phobia, and died without mailing known its composi-
 tion.   The analysis  of Drs. Black and Hepburn de-
 monstrates it to be half an ounce of powder  of
 chalk; three drachms of Armenian bole;  ten grains 
ORY
OSB
of alum; one drachm of powder of elecampane root;
six drops  of oil of anise.  This dose is to be taken
every morning for six times in a glass of water, with a
small proportion of fresh milk.
  ORN1THO GALUM.    (From  opvis, a  bird,  and
yaXa, milk:  so called from the colour of its flowers,
which are like the milk found in eggs.)   The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Hex-
andria; Order, Monogynia.
  Ornithogalum maritimum, a kind of wild onion.
See Scilla.
  ORN1THOGLOSSUM.  (From opvis, a  bird, and
yXtaooa, a tongue: so called  from  iu shape.)  Bird's
tongue.  The seeds of the ash-tree are  sometimes  so
called.
  ORNITHOLOGY.  (Omithologia;  from opvic, a
bird, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  That part of natural
history which treats of birds.
  ORNITHOPO'DIUM.   (From  oovic,  a  bird, and
nov;, a foot: so called from the likeness of its pods to
a bird's claw.)   Bird's foot; scorpion wort.   The Or-
nithropus perpusillus, and Scorpioides, of Linneus,
are so called.
  ORNUS.   (From  em, Heb.)  The ash-tree whicli
affords manna.
  OROBA'NCHE.   (From 00060s, the wild pea, and
ayx<a, to suffocate: so called because it twines round
the orobus and destroys it.)   The name of a genus of
plants in the Linnean system.  Class, Gynandria and
Didynamia; Order, Angiospermia.
  Orobry'chis.   (From  opoSos,  the wood-pea, and
Rpvxja, to eat.)  The same as orobance.
  OTlOBUS.  (From tptiflta, to eat.)   1. The name
of a genus of plants  in the  Linnean system.  Class,
Diadelphia; Order,  Decandria.
  2. The pharmacopoeia! name of the ervum.  See
Ervum.
  Orobus tuberosus.   The heath-pea.  The root
of this plant is said to be nutritious.   The Scotch isl-
anders hold them in great esteem, and chew them like
tobacco.
  Oroseli'num.  See Athamanta.
  ORPIMENT.  Orpimentum. A sulphuret of arse-
nic.   Native orpiment is found in yellow, brilliant,
and, as it were, talky masses, often mixed with realgar,
and sometimes of a greenish colour.  See Arsenic.
  ORPINE.  See Sedum tdephium.
  Orrhopy'gium.   (From opof,  the  extremity, and
nvyn, the buttocks.)   The  extremity  of tlie spine,
which is terminated by the os coccygis.
  O'rrhos.  (From aeia, to flow.)  1.  Serum, whey.
  2. The raphe of the scrotum.
  3. The extremity of the sacrum.
  ORRIS.   See Iris.
  Orris, Florentine.  See Iris florentina.
  Orseille.  See Lichen rocella.
  ORTHITE.  A mineral; so named because it always
occurs in  straight layers, generally in felspar.  It re-
sembles gadolinite.  It is found in "the mine of Fimbo
in Sweden.
  ORTHOCO'LON.  (From op0oc, straight, and KtaXov,
a limb.)  It  is a species of stiff joint, when it cannot
be bended, but remains straight.
  ORTHOPNEA.    (From op0oc, erect, and irvori,
breathing.)  A very quick and laborious breathing,
during which the person is obliged to be iu an erect
posture.        ,
  Orva'le.  (Orvale, French.)  A species of clary or
horminum.
  Orvieta'num, a medicine that resists poisons; from
a mountebank of Orvieta, in Italy, who first made him-
self  famous by taking such things  upon  the stage,
after doses of pretended poisons;  though some say  its
inventor was one Orvietanus, and that it is  named
after him.
  ORY'ZA.  (From  orez, Arabian.)  1. The name  of
a genus of plants in the Linnean system. Class,  Tri-
andria.  Order, Digynia.  The rice plant,
  2. The pharmacopceial name for rice.  See Oryza
sativa.
  Oryza sativa.  The systematic name of the plant
which affords the rice, which is the principal food of the
Inhabitants in all parts of the East, where it is boiled,
and eaten either alone or with their meat  Large quan-
tities of it are annually sent into Europe, and it meets
with a general esteem for family purposes.  The people
of Java have a method of making puddings of rice,
which seems to be unknown here j but it is not difficult
to put in practice if it should merit attention.  They
take a conical eartheit. pot, which is open at the large
end, and perforated all over.  This they fill about half
full with rice, and putting it into a large earthen pot of
the same shape, filled with boiling water, the rice in
the first pot soon swells, and stops the perforations, so
as to keep out  the water.   By this method the rice is
brought to  a firm consistence,  and forms a pudding,
which  is generally eaten with butter, oil, sugar, vine-
gar, and spices. The Indians eat stewed rice with good
success against the bloody flux; and in  most inflam-
matory disorders they cure themselves with only a de-
coction of it.   The spirituous liquor called arrack is
made from  this grain.   Rice grows naturally in moist
places, and will not come to perfection, when culti-
vated, unless the ground be sometimes overflowed or
plentifully watered.   The grain is of a gray colour
when first reaped; but tbje  growers have a method of
whitening it before it is sent to  market.  The manner
of performing this, and beating  it out in Egypt, is thus
described by Hasselquist: They have hollow iron  cy-
lindrical pestles, about an inch diameter, lifted by a
wheel worked with oxen.  A person sits between  the
pestles, and, as they rise, pushes  forward the rice, while
another winnows and supplies fresh parcels.  Thus
they continue  working until it is entirely free  from
chaff.   Having in this manner cleaned it, they add
one-thirtieth part of salt, and rub them both together,
by which the grain  acquires a whiteness; then it is
passed through a sieve, to separate the salt again from
it.  In  the  island of Ceylon they have a much more
expeditious method of getting out  the rice; for, in  the
field where it  is reaped, they dig a round hole, with a
level bottom, about a foot deep,  and eight yards diame-
ter, and fill it  with  bundles of com.  Having laid it
properly, the women  drive about half a dozen oxen
continually round the pit; and thus they will tread out
forty or fifty bushels  a day.  This is a very ancient
method of treading out corn, and is still practised in
Africa upon other sorts of grain.
  OS.   1.  (Os, ossis. n.)  A bone.  See  Bone.
  2. (Os, oris, n.)  The mouth.
  Os externum. The entrance into the vagina is so
named in opposition to the mouth of the womb, which
is called the os internum.
  Os internum.  The orifice or mouth of the uterus.
  Os leonis.  The Antirrhinum linaria.
  Os spongiosum.   The  spongy  bones are  two in
number, and are called ossa spongiosa inferiora. The
ethmoid bone  has two turbinated portions, which  are
sometimes  called the superior  spongy bones. These
bones, which, from their shape, are sometimes called
ossa turbinata, have, by some anatomists, been  de-
scribed as  belonging  to the ethmoid bone;  and by
others, as portions of the ossa palati.  In young sub-
jects, however, they are evidently distinct bones. They
consist of a spongy lamella in each nostril.   The con-
vex surface of this lamina is turned towards the sep-
tum narium, and its concave part towards the maxil-
lary bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal duct
into the nose.   From their upper  edge arise two pro-
cesses : the posterior  of these, which is  the broadest,
hangs as it were upon the edge of the antrum  high-
morianum; the anterior one joins the os unguis, and
forms a part of the lachrymal duct.  These bones are
complete in the foetus.  They are lined with the pitui-
tary membrane; and, besides their connexion with the
ethmoid bone,  are joined to the ossa maxillaria supe-
riora, ossa palati, and ossa unguis.  Besides these ossa
spongiosa inferiora  there are sometimes two others,
situated lower down, one in each  nostril.  These  are
very properly considered as a production of the sides
of the  maxillary sinus turned downwards.  In many
subjects, likewise, we find other  smaller bones standing
out into the nostrils, which, from their shape, might
also deserve the name of turbinata, but they are  un-
certain in their size, situation, and number.
  Os tincie.  See Tinea os.
  [OSBORN, John C. M.D. the eldest son of Dr. John
Osborn, was born at Middletown, Connecticut, Sep-
tember, 1766.   He received his classical education at
Middletown, under  the Rev. Enoch Huntington, an
eminent scholar; and his medical education exclu-
sively under his father.  He was not distinguished by
any academic honour till  he became eminent in his
profession in North  Carolina,  to  which state he  re 
OSS
OST
 moved in 1787.   Here he whs well known as a success-
 ful practitioner,  and was repeatedly placed at the head
 of the Medicnl Society of the district.  He came to the
 city of New-York in 1807, and was shortly after intro-
 duced to a large scene of practice.   He was created
 Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, in  the  Medi-
 cal Faculty of Columbia College,  and upon the union
 of that Faculty with the  College of Physicians and
 Surgeons, he was appointed  Professor of Obstetrics
 and the Diseases of Women and  Children.   He died
 of a  pulmonary disorder in the island of  .St. Croix,
 upon the day of his landing, March 5th, 1B19.
  With his professional erudition, Dr. Osborn united
 great literary acquirements, and his knowledge of books
 was varied and extensive.  These acquisitions he often
 displayed in his course of public instruction.   His view
 of the Materia Medica as a science was equalled by
 few, and his knowledge of the actual medical quali-
 ties of the native  productions  of  our soil, was a sub-
 ject which he delighted to investigate, and in his prac-
 tice, and by his  instructions, he earnestly enjoined an
 acquaintance with these important remedial agents.
  Dr.  Osborn was a man of much more science and
 eminence in  his profession than  either his father or
 grandfather, and possessed a very fine taste for poetry,
 belles  lettres, and painting.  While  he  was quite a
young man, Mr. Barlow submitted to him and his
friend, the late Richard Alsop, Esq. the manuscript of
the Vision of Columbus, for their correction and revi-
sion, previous to  its publication.  His taste in painting
was highly  cultivated, and he might have attained to
great eminence as an artist"—Thach. Med. Biog. A.l
  OSCE'DO.  A yawning.
  Oscheoce'le.   (From  ooxtov, the scrotum, and
 tcnXri, a tumour.)   1. Any tumour of the scrotum.
  2. A scrotal hernia.
  O'SCHEON.   Oa%tov.  The scrotum.  Galen gives
 the nnmc to the os uteri.
  OSCHEO PHYMa.   (From ooxtov, the  scrotum,
 and tpvpa, a tumour.)  A swelling of the scrotum.
  OSCILLATION.  Vibration.  See Irritability.
  O'SCTTANS.   (From oscito, to gape.)   Yawning.
 Gaping.
  OSCITA'TIO.  (From ojct'to, to gape.)  Yawning.
 Gaping.
  OSCULATO'RIUS.  (From osculo, to kiss: so call-
ed becauso the action of kissing is performed  by it.)
The sphincter muscle of the lips.
  O'SCULUM.  (Diminutive of os, a mouth)  A lit-
tle mouth.
  OSMAZOME.  If cold water, which has been di-
gested for a few hours on slices of  raw muscular fibre,
with occasional  pressure, be evaporated, filtered, and
then treated with pure alkohol, a peculiar animal prin-
ciple will be dissolved, to  the exclusion of the  salts.
By dissipating the alkohol with a gentle heat, the os-
mazome is obtained.  It has a brownish-yellow colour,
and tlie taste and smell of soup.  Its aqueous solution
affords precipitates, with infusion  of nut-galls, nitrate
of mercury, and  nitrate and acetate of lead.
  OSMIUM.  A new metal lately discovered by Ten-
nant among platina, and so called by him from the pun-
gent and peculiar smell of its oxide.
  OSMUND.  See Osmunda regalis.
  OSMUNDA.   (From Osmund, who first used it.)
The name of a genus of plants.  Class, Cryptogamia;
 Order, Filices.
  Osmunda regalis.  Filix florida.  The systematic
 name  of the osmund-royal.  Its root possesses astrin-
gent and emmenagogue virtues.
  O'SPHYS.  Oo^vj.  The loins.
  Ossa sponqeoba.  See Os spongiosum.
  OSSICULUM.  A Utile bone.
  Ossicula auditus.  The small bones of the inter-
 nal ear are four in number, viz. tbe malleus, incus,
stapes, and os orbiculare; and are situated in the cavity
of the  tympanum.  See Malleus, Incus, Stapes, and
 Orbiculare os.
  OSSIFICATION.   (Ossificate; from os, a bone,
 and facio, to make.)  See Osteogeny.
  OSSI'FRAGA.  (From  os, a bone, and frango, to
 break.)  A petrified root, called the bone-binder,  from
its supposed virtues in uniting fractured bones.
  OSSt'FRAGUS.  See Osteocolla.
  OSSI'VORUS.  (From os, a bone, and voro, to de-
 vour.)  Applied to a species of tumour or ulcer which
destroys tlie bone.
       140
   Osta'ora.  (From oorrov, a bone, and aypa, a lay
 ing hold of.)  A forceps to take out bones with.
   Ostei'tes.  (Fromoj-wviabonc.) The bone binder
 Sec Osteocolla.
   OSTEOCOLLA. (From ojrov.a bone, andxoXXaia,
 to glue)   Ossifraga;  Holosteus; Osleites; Amos-
 teus;  OsteoliUios ; Stelochites.  Glue-bone, stone,  or
 bone-binder.  A particular carbonate of lime found In
 some parts of Germany, particularly in the Marche  of
 Brandenburg, and In other countries.   It is  met wilh
 in loose sandy grounds, spreading from near  the sur-
 face to a considerable depth, into a number of ramifi-
 cations like the roots of a tree.  It  is of a whitish co-
 lour, soft while under the earth,  friable  when dry,
 rough on the surface, for ihe most  part either hollow
 within, or filled with a solid wood, or with a powdery
 white mailer.  It was formerly celebrated  for pro-
 moting the coalition of fractured bones, nnd the forma-
 tion of callus, which virtues are not attributed to it  in
 the present day.
   OSTEO'COPUS.  (From oetov, o bone, and *oiroc,
 uneasiness.)   A very violent fixed pain in any part of
 the bone.
   Osteoge'nica.   (From o?tov, a bone, and ytwaia,
 to beget.)   Medicines which promote tbe generation of
 a callus.
   OSTEOGENY.  (Osteopenia; from os-tov, a bone,
 and ytvtia, generation.) The growth of bones. Bones
 are either formed  between membranes, or in the sub-
 stance of cartilage ; and tbe bony deposition is effected
 by a determined action of arteries.  The secretion  of
 bone takes place iu cartilage in the long bones, as those
 of the  arm, leg, &c.; and between two layers of  mem-
 brane, as in the bones of the skull, where tnie cartilage
 is never seen.  Often the bony matter is formed in dis-
 tinct bags, and there it grows into form, as in the teeth;
 for each tooth is formed in its  little bag, which; by in
jeclion, can be filled and  covered with vessels. An
 artery  ofthe body can assume this action, and deposite
 bone, which is formed also where it should  not  be, in
 the tendons and in the joints, in the great arteries and
 in the  valves, in the flesh of the iieart itself, or even in
 the soft and pulpy substance of the brain.
   Most of the bones in the foetus are merely cartilage
 before the time  of birth.   This  cartilage  is  never
 hardened into bone, but from the first it is an organized
 mass.  It has its vessels, which are at first transparent,
 but which soon dilate;  and whenever the red colour of
 the blood begins to appear in them, ossification very
 quickly succeeds, the arteries being so far enlarged as
 to carry the coarser parts of the blood.  'The first mark
 of ossification is an artery wbich is seen running into
 the centre of the jelly which is formed.   Other arteries
 soon appear, and a net-work of vessels is formed, and
 then a centre of ossification begins, stretching its rays
 according to the length of the bone, and then the  enrti-
 Inge begins to grow opaque, yellow, brittle: it will no
 longer bend, and a bony centre  may easily be discover-
ed.  Other points of ossification are successively  form-
ed, preceded by the appearance of arteries.   The ossi-
fication follows the vessels, and buries and hides those
vessels by which it is formed. The vessels advance
towards the end of the bone, the whole body of the
bone becomes opaque, and there is left a small vascu-
lar circle only at either end.  The heads are separated
from the body of the bone by a thin cartilage, and the
vessels of the centre, extending still towards the extre-
mities of the bone, perforate the cartilage, pass into the
head of the bone, and then its ossification also begins,
and a  small  nucleus of ossification is formed in ita
centre.  Thus the  heads and the body are at first dis-
tinct bones, formed apart, joined  by a cartilage, and
not united till the age of fifteen or twenty years. Then
the deposition of bone begins;  and  while the  bone  is
laid by the arteries, the cartilage is conveyed away by
the absorbing vessels; and while they convey away the
superfluous cartilage, they uiodel the bone into its due
form, shape out ils cavities, caucelli and holes, remove
the thinner parts of the remaining cartilage, and harden
it  into  due  consistence.  The earth which constitutes
the hardness of bone, and  all its useful properties, is
inorganized, and lies in the interstices of bone, where
it is made up of gelatinous matter to give it consist-
ence nnd strength, furnished with absorbents to  keep
it  in health, and carry off its wasted parts; and per-
vaded  by blood-vessels to supply it with new matter.
During all the process of ossification, the absorbent* 
OVA
OVO
 proportion their action to the stimulus which is applied
 to them: they carry awav the serous fluid, when jelly
 is to take its place; they remove the jelly as the bone
 is laid;  they continue removing the bony particles also,
 which (as  in a  circle) the arteries continually renew.
 This renovation and change of parts goes on even in
 the  hardest bones, so  that  after a  bone is perfectly
 formed, its older particles are continually being remov-
 ed, and new ones  are  deposited in their place.  The
 bony particles are so deposited  in the flat bones of the
 skull as to pre*ent a radiated structure, and the vacan-
 cies between the fibres which occasion this appearance,
 are found by injection lo be chiefly passages for blood-
 vessels.  As the foetus increases in size, the osseous
 fibres increase in number, till a lamina is produced;
 and as the bone  continues to grow, more lamine are
 added, till the  more solid part of a bone is formed.
 The ossification  which begins in cartilage is consider-
 ably later than that wliich has its origin between mem-
 branes.   The generality of bones are incomplete  until
 the  age of puberty, or  between tlie fifteenth and
 twentieth years,  and in some few instances not until a
 later period.  The  small  bones of ths ear,  however,
 are completely formed at birth.
  OSTEOGRAPHY.   (Osteographia; from o?tov, a
 bone, and ypatpia, to describe.)  The description of the
 bones.  See Bone.
  Osteoli'thos.  (From o$tov, a bone, and XiBos, a
 stone.)  See Osteocolla.
  OSTEOLOGY.  (Osteologia; from os-tov, a bone,
 and Xoyos,  a discourse.)  The  doctrine of the bones.
 See Bone.
  OSTEOPCEDION.  (From os-tov, a bone,  and Bats,
 zsaiSos, an  infant.)   Lithopadion.  A term  given to
 the mass of an extra-uterine foetus, which had become
 osseous, or of an almost stony consistence.
  OSTHEXIA.  (From os-taSns, osseous or bony, and
tfys, habit.)  The name in Good's Nosology of a genus
of diseases. Class, Eccritica ; Order, Mesotica.   Os-
thexy or ossific diathesis.  It has two species, Osthexia
infarciens; implexa.
  Ostia'rius.   (From ostium, a door.)  The pylorus
 has been so called.
  Osti'ola.  (Diminutive of ostium, a  door.)  The
 valves or gates of tlie heart.
  OSTIUM.  A door or  opening.  Applied to small
 foramina or openings.
  O'strea. (From  oj-paxov, a shell.)  The  oyster.
 The shell of this fish is occasionally used medicinally;
 its  virtues are  similar to  those of the carbonate of
 lime.  See Creta.
  OSTRU'THIUM.  See Imperatoria.
  OSY'RIS.  (Ooupis  of Dioscorides, which he de-
scribes as  a small  shrub with numerous, dark, tough
 branches; and Professor Martyn conjectures its  deri-
 vation from ogoc, a branch.   Some take the  antirrhi-
num linaria for the true  Osyris.)  The name  of  a
 genus of plants in the Linnean system.   Class, Dia-
 cia ; Order, Triandria.
  Osyris alba. Cassia poetica lobelli;  Cassia lati-
 norum; Cassia lignea monspeliensium; Cassia mons-
 peliensium. Poet's cassia  or gardrobe; Poet's  rose-
 mary. The whole shrub is astringent.  It  grows in
 the southern parts of Europe.
  OTA,'LGIA.   (From ov$,  the ear, and aXyoc, pain,)
 The earache.
  Otenchy'tes.  (From taros, the genitive of one, an
 ear, and tyxw,t0 Pour '"•)  A syringe for the ears.
  Otiio'nna.  (From oBovn. lint: so called  from the
 softness of its leaves.)  A species of celandine.
  O'tica.  (From  ou$, the  ear.)  Medicines  against
 diseases of the ear.
  Oti'tes.  (From ovc, the ear.)  An epithet of the
 little finger, because  it is commonly made  use of in
 scratching  the ear.
  OTI'TIS.  (From ouc, the ear.)  Inflammation of
 the internal ear.  It is known by pyrexia, and an ex-
 cruciating and throbbing pain in the internal ear, that
 is sometimes attended with delirium.
  Otopla'tos.  (From  ouc, the ear.)   A stinking
 ulcer behind the ear.
  OTOP YO'SIS.  (From ouc, the ear, and 7ruov, pus.)
 A purulent discharge from the ear.
  OTORRHjE'A.   (From  ouc,  the ear,  and  ptia, to
 flow.)  A discharge from the ear.
  Ova'le foramen.   See Foramen ovale.
  OVALIS.  Oval.  Some parts of animals and ve-
getables  receive this name from being of this shape
as foramen ovale, centrum ovale, folium ovale, recep-
taculum ovale.
  OVARIAN.  Ovarial.  Belonging to the ovarium.-
  OVA'RIUM.   (Diminutive of ovum, an egg.)  The
ovaria are two flat oval bodies, about one  inch  in
length, and rather more than half in breadth and thick-
ness, suspended in the broad ligaments, about the dis-
tance of  one inch from the uterus behind, and a little
below the Fallopian tubes.   To the ovaria, according
to the idea of their structure entertained by different
anatomists, various uses have been assigned, or the
purpose they  answer has been differently explained.
Some have supposed that their texture was glandular,
and that they secreted a fluid equivalent to, and similar
to the male semen; but others, who have  examined
them with  more care, assert, that they are ovaria  in
tlie literal acceptation ofthe term, and include a num-
ber of vesicles, or ova,  to the amount of twenty-two
of different sizes, joined to the internal surface of the
ovaria by cellular threads or pedicles;  and that they
contain a  fluid which has  the appearance  of thin
lymph.  These vesicles are,  in fact, to be seen in Ihe
healthy ovaria of every young woman.  They differ
very much in their number in different ovaria, but are
very seldom so numerous as has just been stated.  All
have agreed that the ovaria  prepare whatever the fe-
male supplies towards the formation of the fcetus; and
this is proved by the operation of spaying, which con-
sists in the extirpation of the  ovaria, after wliich the
animal not only loses the power of conceiving, but de-
sire is for ever extinguished.  The outer coat of the
ovaria, together with  that of the uterus, is given by
the peritoneum; and whenever an ovum is passed into
the Fallopian  tube, a fissure  is observed at  the  part
through which it is supposed to have been transferred.
These fissures healing, leave  small longitudinal cica-
trices on  the surface, which are said to enable us  to
determine,  whenever  the  ovarium is examined, the
number of times a woman has conceived.   The cor-
pora lutea are oblong glandular bodies  of a yellowish
colour, found in the  ovaria of all animals when preg-
nant, and, according lo some, when they are salacious.
They are said to be calyces, from which the impreg-
nated ovum has dropped;  and their number is always
in proportion to the number  of conceptions found  in
the uterus.  They are largest and most conspicuous in
the early  state of pregnancy, and remain for some time
after delivery, when they gradually fade and wither
till they disappear.  The corpora lutea are very vascu-
lar, except  at their centre, which is whitish;  and in
the middle of  the white part is a small cavity, from
which the impregnated ovum is thought to have imme-
diately proceeded.  The ovaria are the seat of a parti-
cular kind of dropsy, which most commonly happens
to women at  the  time of the final cessation of the
menses, though not unfrequently at a more early period
of life.   It is of the encysted  kind, the fluid being
sometimes limpid and thin, and  at others discoloured
and gelatinous.  In some cases it has been found con-
tained in one cyst, often in several; and in others the
whole tumefaction has been composed of hydatids not
larger than grapes.   The ovaria are also subject, espe-
cially a short time after delivery, to inflammation, ter-
minating in suppuration, and to scirrhous and can-
cerous diseases, with considerable enlargement. In the
former state, they generally adhere to some adjoining
part, as the uterus, rectum, bladder, or external inte-
guments, and the matter is discharged from the vagina
by stool,  by urine, or by an external abscess of the in-
teguments of the abdomen.
  OVATUS.  Ovate.   Leaves, petals, seeds, Sec are
so called  when of the shape of an egg cut lengthwise,
the base being rounded, and broader than the extremity,
a very common form of leaves; as in Vinca major,
and Urtica pilulifera, and the petals of the Allium fla-
vum, and Narcissus psuedo-narcissus; the receptacle
of the Omphalea, and seeds of the Quercus.
  OVIDUCT.   (Oviductus;  from  ovum, an egg, and
ductus, a canal.) The  duct  or canal through which
the ovum, or egg, passes.  In the human species, the
Fallopian tube is so called, which runs from the ovary
to the bottom of the womb.
  OVIPAROUS.  (From ovum,  an egg, and pario, to
bring forth.)  Animals which exclude  their young  in
the egg, which are afterward hatched.
  Ovo'rum testa. Egg-shells. A testaceous absorbent 
ovu                                              ovu
  OVULUM.  A little egg.  See Ovum.
  OVUM.  1. An egg.  See Egg.
  2. Tbe vesicles In the ovarium of females are called
the ova, or ovula.  When fecundation takes place In
one or more of  these, they pass, after a short time,
along the Fallopian tube into the uterus.
  " Developement of  the ovum in the uterus.—The
ovum, in the first moments of its abode in the uterus,
is free  and unattached;  its volume is  nearly that
whicli  it  had  in quitting the ovarium;  but,  in the
course of the second month, its dimensions increase, it
becomes covered with filaments  of  about  a line in
length, which ramify in  the manner of blood-vessels,
and are implanted into thedecidua. In the third month,
they are seen only on one side of the ovum,  the others
have nearly disappeared; but  those  which remain
have acquired a greater extent, thickness, and consist-
ence, and  are more deeply implanted into the decidu-
ous membrane; taken together they form the placenta.
The ovum, in the rest of its surface, presents  only a
soft flocculent layer called decidua reflexa.  The ovum
continues  to increase until the end of pregnancy, in
which its volume is nearly equal to that of the uterus;
but its structure suffers important changes whicli we
will examine.
  At first its two membranes have yielded  to  its en-
largement, while becoming thicker or more resisting:
tlie exterior is called chorion ; the  other amnion.  The
liquid contained by the latter  augments in proportion
to the volume of the ovum.   In the second  month of
pregnancy, there exists also a certain quantity of liquid
between the chorion  and amnion, but it disappears
during the third month.
  Up to the end of the third week, the ovum presents
nothing indicative of the  presence of the germ; the
contained liquid is transparent, and partly coagulable
as before.  At this period there  is seen, on the side
where the ovum  adheres to the uterus,  something
slightly opaque, gelatinous, all the parts of which ap-
pear homogeneous;  in  a short time, certain points
become opaque, two distinct vesicles are formed, nearly
equal in volume, and  united by a pedicle, one of which
adheres to the amnion by a small filament.   Almost at
the same  time a red spot is seen  in the midst  of this
last, from which yellowish filaments are seen to take
then- rise: this is the  heart, and the principal sangui-
ferous vessels.   At the beginning of the second month,
the head is very visible, the eyes form two black points,
very large in proportion to the volume of  the head;
small openings indicate the place of the ears and nos-
trils ; the  mouth, at first very large, is contracted after-
ward by the developement of the  lips, which happens
about  the sixtieth day, with that of the ears, nose,
extremities, &c
  The developement of all the principal organs happens
successively until about  the middle  of the fourth
month; then the state of the embryo ceases, and that
of the fatus begins, which is continued till  the termi-
nation of pregnancy.  All the parts increase with more
or less rapidity during this time, and draw towards the
form which they must present after birth.  Before the
sixth month, the lungs are very small, the heart large, but
its four cavities are confounded, or at least difficult to
distinguish; the liver  is large, and  occupies a great part
of the abdomen; the gall-bladder  is not full of bile, but
of a colourless fluid not bitter; the small intestine, in
iLs lower part, contains a yellowish  matter, in small
quantity, called  meconium;  the  testicles are  placed
upon the sides of the superior lumbar vertebre; the
ovaria occupy the same position. At the end of the
seventh  month,  the lungs  assume  a  reddish  tint
which they had not before;  the cavities  of the heart
become distinct;  the liver preserves its large dimen-
sions, but removes a little from the umbilicus; the bile
shows itself in the gall-bladder; the meconium is more
 abundant, and descends lower in the great intestine ;
 the ovaria tend  to the pelvis, tbe  testicles are directed
 to the inguinal rings.  At  this period the foetus is ca-
 pable of life, that is,  it  could live and breathe If ex-
 pelled from  the uterus.  Every  thing becomes  more
 perfect in the eighth  and ninth months.  We cannot
 here follow the  interesting details of this increase of
 the organs; they belong to anatomy:  we shall consider
 the physiological phenomena that relate to them.
   Functions of the ovum, and of the fatus.—-The ovum
 begins to grow as soon as it arrives iu the cavity of the
 uterus; its surface is covered with asperities that are
       142
quickly transformed into sanguiferous vessels: there Is
then life in the ovum.  But we have  no idea of this
mode of existence; probably the surface of the ovum
absorbs the fluids with which It is iu contact, and these,
after having undergone a particular elaboration by ihe
membranes, are afterward poured into the cavity of llie
amnion.
  What was tlie germ  before its appearance 1 Did it
exist, or was it formed at that instant 1  Does the little
almost opaque mass that composes it contain the rudi-
ments of all the organs ofthe fa-tus  and the adult, or
are these created the instant they begin to show them-
selves 1 What con be tlie nature  of a nutrition so
complicated, so important, performed without vessels,
nerves, or apparent circulation ?  How does the heart
move  before the appearance of the nervous system 1
Whence comes the yellow blood that it contains at
first? &c.  &c.  No reply can be given to any of these
questions iu the present state of science.
  We know very little of what happens in the embryo,
whose organs are only yet  rudely delineated; never-
theless, there is a kind of circulation recognised.   The
heart sends blood inlo the large vessels, and into the ru
dimentary  placenta;  probably  blood  returns to the      .
heart by veins,  &c.—But  when  the  new being lias     J
reached the foetal state, as most of the organs are very     I
apparent,  then  it is possible to recognise some of the
functions peculiar to that state.
  The circulation  is the best known of the functions
of the foetus: it is  more complicated than lhat of the
adult, and is performed in a manner quite different.
  In the first place, it cannot be divided into venous and
arterial; for the foetal blood has sensibly every where
the same  appearance,  that is, a brownish red tint: in
other respects it is much the same as the blood of tlie
adult; it coagulates, separates into clot, and serum, Sec
I do not know why some  learned  chemists  have be-
lieved that it does not contain fibrin.
  The placenta is the most singular  aud one of ihr
most important organs of the circulation of the foetus -
it succeeds  to those filaments which cover the ovum
during the  first months of pregnancy.   Very small at
first, it soon acquires a considerable  size.   Il adheres.
by its exterior surface, to the uterus, presents irregular
furrows, which indicate its division into several lobes
or cotyledons, the  number and form of which are not
determined.  Its foetal  surface is covered by the cho-
rion  and amnion,  except at its centre,  into which the
umbilical cord is inserted.   Its parenchyma is formed
of sanguiferous vessels, divided and subdivided. They
belong to the divisions of the umbilical arteries, and to
the radicles of the vein of the same name.  Tlie  ves-
sels of one lobe do not communicate with those of the
adjoining lobes;  but those of the same cotyledon anas-
tomose frequently,  for nothing is more easy thaa  to
make injections pass from one to another.
  The umbilical  cord extends from near the centre of
the placenta to the umbilicus of tlie child;  its length is
often near two feet; it w formed by the two umbilical
arteries and the vein, connected by a very close cellular
tissue, and is covered by  the two membranes of tlie
ovum.
  In the first months of pregnancy, a  vesicle, which
receives small vessels, being a prolongation of the me-
senteric artery and the meseraic vein,  is found'ln the
body ofthe cord, between the chorion and the amnion,
near the umbilicus.  This vesicle is not analagous to
the allantoid; it represents  the membranes of the yelk
of birds and reptiles, and the umbilical vesicle of the
mammalia.  It contains a yellowish fluid which seems
to be absorbed by the veins  of its parietes.
  The umbilical vein, arising from  the placenta, and
then arriving at the umbilicus, enters the abdomen, and
reaches the inferior surface ofthe liver; there it di-
vides into  two large branches, one  of which is distri-
buted to Ihe liver, along wilh the vena porta, while the
other soon terminates iu the vena cava under the name
of ductus venosus.  This vein has two valves, one at
the place of its bifurcation, and ihe other at the junc-
tion with the »ena cava.
  The heart and tlie large vessels of the foslus capable
of life, are very different from what they become  after
birth ; the valve of the vena cava is large; the parti-
tion of the auricles presents a large opening provided
with a semilunar valve, called foramen ovale.  The
pulmonary artery, after having sent twosmall branches
to the lungs, terminates  alnrust  immediately in tha 
ovu
OXA
  aorta, in the concave aspect of the arch; it is called in
  this place ductus arteriosus.
   The last  character proper to the circulating organs
  of the foetus, is the existence Of the umbilical arteries,
  which arise from the internal iliacs, are directed over
  the sides of the  bladder, attach themselves to the ura-
  ehus, pass out ofthe abdomen by the umbilicus, and go
  to the placenta,  where they are  distributed as has been
  mentioned above.
   According to  this  disposition of the circulating ap-
  paratus of  the  foetus, it is evident that the motion of
  the blood ought to  be different in it from that in  the
  adult. If we suppose that the blood sets out from the
  placenta, it evidently passes through the umbilical vein
  as far as the liver; there, one part of the blood passes
  into the liver, and the other into the vena cava: these
  two directions carry it to the heart by the inferior vena
  cava; being arrived at tins organ, It penetrates into the
  right auricle, and into the left by the foramen ovale, at
 the  instant in which  the auricles are  dilated.  At  this
 instant, the blood of the inferior vena cava is inevita-
 bly  mixed with  that of the superior.  How, indeed,
 could  two liquids of the same nature, or nearly so, re-
 main isolated in  a cavity in which they arrive at the
 same time, and which contracts to expel them.  I am
 not  ignorant that Sebatier, in hi3 excellent Treatise on
 the Circulation of the Fatus, has maintained the con-
 trary,  but his arguments do not change my opinion in
 this respect.   However it may be, the contraction of
 the  auricle  succeeds their dilatation; the  blood is
 thrown into  the  two  ventricles the instant they dilate;
 these, in their turn, contract,  and drive out the blood,
 the  left into the aorta, and llie right into the pulmonary
 artery; but as this artery terminates in  the aorta, it is
 clear that all the blood ofthe two ventricles passes into
 the aorta, except a very small portion that goes to the
 lungs.   Under the influence of these two agents of
 impulsion, the blood is made to flow through all  the
 divisions of the aorta, and returns to the heart by  the
 vena cave.  Lastly, it is carried to the placenta by the
 umbilical arteries, and returns to the foetus by the vein
 of the chord.
   It is easy to conceive the  use of the foramen ovale,
 and the ductus  arteriosus: the left auricle, receiving
 little or no blood  from the lungs, could not furnish any
 to the left ventricle if it did not receive  it from  the
 opening in the partition of the auricles.  On Ihe other
 hand,  the lungs have no functions to fulfil, if all  the
 blood of the pulmonary artery were distributed in them,
 the impulsive force of the right ventricle would have
 been vainly consumed; while, by means ofthe ductus
 arteriosus, the force of both ventricles is employed to
 move the blood of the aorta;  without the joint action
 of both ventricles, probably the blood could not have
 reached the placenta, and returned again to the heart.
   The motions of the heart are very rapid in the foetus;
 they generally exceed 120  in a minute:  the circulation
 possesses necessarily a proportionate rapidity.
   A delicate question  now presents itself for examina-
 tion.  What are  the relations of the circulation of  the
 mother with  that of the foetus 1  In order to arrive at
 some precise notion on this point, the mode of junction
 ofthe  uterus  and placenta must first be examined.
   Anatomists differ in this respect.   It was  long  be-
 lieved  that the uterine arteries anastomosed directly
 with the radicles of the umbilical vein, and  that the
 last divisions ofthe arteries of the placenta opened into
 the veins of the uterus; but the acknowledged impos-
 sibility of  making  matters injected  into  the  uterine
 veins pass into the umbilical veins, and reciprocally to
 cause liquid  matters  injected  into the umbilical arte-
 ries to  reach  the  veins of the  uterus, caused this idea
 to be renounced.  It is at present generally admitted,
 that  the vessels ofthe placenta and those of the uterus
 do notanastomose.
  Notwithstanding the high authority'of Boerhaave, it
 cannot be admitted that the foetus continually swallows
the waters of the  amnion, and digests it for its nourish-
 ment.  Its stomach, indeed, contains a viscid matter in
considerable quantity: but it has no resemblance to the
 liquor amnii; it is very acid and gelatinous;  towards
the pylorus, it is  somewhat gray, and opaque; it ap-
pears to be converted into chyme in  the stomach, in
order to pass into  tbe small intestine, where, after hav-
 ing been acted upon by the  bile, and  perhaps by the
pancreatic juice,  it  furnishes  a peculiar chyle.  The
remainder descends  afterward into the lar  e intestine,
  where it forms the meconium, which is'evidently ths
  result of digestion during gestation.  Whence does the
  digested matter come 1  It is probably secreted by the
  stomach itself, or descends from the oesophagus; there
  is nothing, however, to  prevent the foetus from swal-
  lowing in certain cases, a few mouthfuls of the liquor
  amnii; and this seems to  be proved by certain hairs,
  like those of the skin, being found in the meconium
  It is important to remark,  that the meconium is a sub-
  stance containing very little azote.  Nothing is yet
  known regarding the use of this digestion ofthe foetus;
  it is probably not essential to its growth, since infants
  have been born without a stomach, or any thing similar.
  Some persons say they have seen  chyle in the thoracic
  duct of the former.
    Exhalations seem to take place  in the foetus; for all
  its surfaces are lubricated nearly  in the  same manner
  as afterward: fat is in abundance; the humours of
  the eye exist: cutaneous  transpiration  very probably
  takes place also, and mixes continually with the liquor
  amnii.  With regard to this lost liquor, it is difficult to
  say whence it derives its origin ; no sanguiferous ves-
  sels appear to be directed to the amnion, and it is never-
  theless probable that this membrane is its secreting organ.
    The cutaneous and mucous follicles are developed,
  and seem to possess an enetgetic action, especially from
  the seventh month; the skin is then covered by a pretty
  thick layer of fatty  matter, secreted  by the follicles:
  several authors have improperly considered  it as a de
  positeof the liquor amnii.  The mucus is also abundant
  in the last two months of gestation.
   All the glands employed  indigestion have a'considcr
  able volume, and seem to possess some  activity;  the
  action of the others is little known. It is not known,
 for example,  whether  the kidneys  form  urine,  or
  whether this fluid is injected by the urethra into  the
 cavity of the amnion.  The testicles and mamme seem
 to form a fluid that resembles neither milk nor semen,
 and which is found in the  vesicula seminales and lac-
 tiferous canals.
   What can be said about the nutrition of the foetus ?
 Physiological works contain only vague conjectures on
 this point; it appears certain that the placenta draws
 from the mother the materials necessary for the deve-
 lopement of the organs, but what these materials are, or
 how they are directed, we do not know."—Magendie's
 Physiology.
   Ovum piiilosophicum.  Ovum  chymicum.  A glass
 body, round like an egg.
   Ovum ruffum.  An obsolete alchemistic  term used
 in the transmutation of metals.
   Ox-eye-daisy.  See Chrysanthemum leucanthemum
   Ox's tongue.   See Picris echiodes.
   OXALATE.   Oxalas.  A salt formed by the com-
 bination of the oxalic acid with a salifiable basis; thus,
 oxalate of ammonia.
   OXALIC ACID.  Acidum oxalicum.  " This acid,
 which abounds in wood sorrel, and which,  combined
 with a small portion of potassa,  as it exists  in that
 plant, has been sold under the name of salt of lemons,
 to be used as a substitute for the juice of that fruit,
 particularly for discharging ink-spots and iron moulds,
 was long supposed  to be analagous to that of tartar.
 In the year 1776, however,  Bergman discovered that a
 powerful acid might be extracted from sugar  by means
 of the nitric; and a few years afterward Scheele found
 this to he identical with the acid existing naturally in
 sorrel.  Hence the acid  began to  be distinguished  by
 the name of saccharine, but has since been known in
 the new nomenclature by that of oxalic.
   It may be obtained, readily and  economically, from
 sugar in the  following way: to six ounces of nitric
 acid in a stoppered retort, to which a large receiver is
 luted, add, by degrees, otie ounce of lumpsugar coarsely
 powdered.  A gentle  heat  may be  applied during the
 solution, and nitric oxide will be evolved  in  abun-
 dance.  When the whole  of the  sugar is dissolved,
 distil off a part of the acid, till what  remains in the
 retort has a  syrupy consistence, and this will form
 regular crystals, amounting to 58  parts from  100 of
sugar.   These crystals must be dissolved in water, re-
crystallized, and dried on blotting paper.
  Oxalic acid crystallizes in  quadrilateral prisms, the
sides of which are alternately broad and narrow, and
summits dihedral;  or, if crystallized rapidly, in  small
irregular needles.    They are  efflorescent in dry air,
but attract a little  humidity  if it be  damp; are soluble
                                   143 
OXA
OXY
 In one part of hot and two of cold water; and am de-
 composable by a red heat, leaving a small quantity of
 coaly residuum.   100 parts of alkohol take up near
 56  at a boiling heat, but not  above 40 cold.  Their
 acidity is so great, that when dissolved in 3600 times tiiei r
 weight of water, the solution reddens litmus paper, and
 is perceptibly acid to the taste.
  The oxalic acid is a good test  for detecting lime,
 which it separates from all the other acids, unless they
 are present in excess.   It has likewise a greater affinity
 for lime than for any other of the bases, and forms
 wilh it a pulverulent, insoluble salt, not decomposable
 except by tire, and turning syrup of violets green.
  Oxalic acid acts as a violent poison when swallowed
 In the quantity of 2 or 3 drachms; and  several fatal
 accidents have lately occurred in  London, in conse-
 quence of its being improperly  sold instead of Epsom
 salts.  Its vulgar name of  salts, under which  the acid
 is bought for the purpose of whitening boot-tops, occa-
 sion these lamentable  mistakes.  But Ihe powerfully
 acid taste of the latter substance, joined to its prismatic
 or needle-iormed  crystallization, are sufficient to  dis-
 tinguish it from every thing else.  The immediate re-
 jection from  the  stomach of this acid by an emetic,
 aided by copious draughts  of warm water containing
 bicarbonate of potassa, or soda,  chalk, or  carbonate of
 magnesia, are the proper remedies.
  Wilh barytes it forms an insoluble salt; but this salt
 will dissolve in water acidulated with oxalic acid, and
 afford angular crystals.  If, however, we attempt to
dissolve these crystals iu boiling water, the excess of
acid will unite with the water,  and* leave tbe oxalate,
 which will be precipitated.
  The  oxalate of strontian too is a nearly insoluble
 compound.
  Oxalate of magnesia too is insoluble, unless the acid
 be in excess.
  The oxalate of potassa exists m two states, that of a
neutral salt,  and  that  of  an acidule.  The latter is
generally obtained from the juice of the  leaves of the
oralis acetosella, wood-sorrel, or rumexacelosa,  com-
mon sorrel.   The expressed juice, being diluted with
water, should be set by for a few days, till the feculent
parts have subsided, and the supernatant fluid is  be-
come clear; or it may be  clarified, when expressed,
with the whites of eggs.  It is then to be strained ofl,
evaporated to a pellicle, and set in a cool place to crys-
tallize.  The first product of crystals being taken out,
the liquor may be further evaporated, and crystallized;
and the  same process repeated till no more can be  ob-
tained.  In this way Sclilereth informs us about nine
drachms of crystals may be obtained from two pounds
of juice, which are generally afforded by ten pounds of
wood-sorrel.  Savary, however, says, tbat ten parts of
wood-sorrel in full vegetation yield five parts of juice,
which give little more than a two-hundredth of tole-
rably pure salt. He boiled  down the juice, however, in
the  first instance,  wilhout clarifying it; and was
obliged repeatedly to dissolve and recrystallize the salt
to obtain il white.
  This salt is in  small, white, needley, or  lamellar
crystals, not alterable in the air.   It unites with barytes,
 magnesia, soda, ammonia, and most  of  the  metallic
oxides, into  triple salts. Yet its solution precipitates
the nitric solutions of mercury and silver in the state of
Insoluble oxalates of these metals, the nitric  acid  in
this case combining with the potassa.  It attacks iron,
lead, tin, zinc, and antimony.
  This salt, besides iu use  in taking out ink-spots, and
as a lest of lime, forms with sugar and water a pleasant,
cooling beverage;  and, according to  Berthollet, it pos-
sesses considerable powers as an antiseptic.
  The neutral oxalate of potassa is  very  soluble, and
assumes  a gelatinous form, but may be brought to
crystallize in hexahedral prisms with dihedral summits,
by adding more potassa to  the liquor than is sufficient
to saturate the acid.
   Oxalate  of soda likewise exists in two different
stales, those of an acidulous and a neutral salt, which
in their properties are analogous to those of polassa.
  The acidulous oxalate of ammonia is crystallizable,
not very soluble, and capable, like the preceding aci-
dules, of combining with  other bases, so as to  form
triple salts. Butif the acid be saturated withammonia,
we obtain a neutral oxalate, which on  evaporation
yields very fine crystals in teuabedral prisms with di-
hedral  summits, one of the planes of which cute off
      HI
i thrco sides of the prism.  This salt Is decomposable try
 fire, wliich raises from it carbonate of ammonia, nnd
 leaves  only  some slight traces of a coaly  residuum.
 Lime, barytes, and strontian unite with its acid, and
 the ammonia flies off in the form of gas
   The  oxalic acid  readily dissolves alumina, and  ths
 solution gives, on evaporation, a yellowish transparent
 mass, sweet and a little  astringent to llie taste, deli-
 quescent,  and reddening tincture  of  litmus,  hut  not
 syrup of violets.  This salt swells  up in the fire, loses
 its acid, and leaves the alumina a Utile coloured."
   OX'ALIS.  (From o\vs, sharp:  so called from  the
 sharpness  of iu juice.)  The name of a genus of plants
 in llie  Linnean system.   Class,  Decandria;  Order,
 Pentagynia. Wood-sorrel.
   Oxalis  acetosella.   The systematic name of the
 wood-sorrel. Lujula; Alleluja.   Oxalis—foliis  tcr-
 natis, scapo unifioro, flare  alio,  capsulis pentagonis
 elasticis, radicesquainoso-articulata, of Linneus. This
 plant grows wild iu the woods,  and flowers in April
 and May.  The leaves are shaped  like a heart, standing
 three together on one stalk.  The acetosella is totally
 inodorous, but has a grateful acid taste, on which ac-
 count it is  used in salads.   Its taste is  more agrceablo
 than the common sorrel, and approaches nearly to that
 of the juice of lemons, or the acid of tartar, with which
 it corresponds in a great measure in its medical effecu,
 being esteemed refrigerant, antiscorbutic, and diuretic.
 It is recommended by Bergius,  in inflammatory, bi-
 lious, and  putrid fevers.   The principal use, however,
 of the acetosella, is to allay inordinate heat,  and to
 quench thirst; for this  purpose, a pleasant whoy may
 be formed  by boiling the  plant in milk,  whicli  under
 certain circumstances may be preferable to the con-
 serve directed by the London College, though an  ex-
 tremely grateful  and useful medicine.  Many have
 employed  the root of Lujula, probably on account of
 its beautiful  red colour rather than for iu superior effi-
 cacy. A salt is prepared from this plant, known by the
 name of essential salt of lemons, which is an acidulous
 oxalate of  potassa, and commonly used for taking ink-
 stains out of linen.   What is sold under the name of
 essential salt of lemons in this country, is said by some
 to consist  of cream of tartar, with the addition of a
 small quantity of sulphuric acid.  The leaves of wood-
 sorrel when  employed externally in the form of poul-
 tices, are powerful suppuranu, particularly in indolent
 scrofulous  humours.
   Oxa'lme.   (From oj-uc, sharp, and aXs, salt.)  A
 mixture of vinegar and salt.
   Oxid.  See Oxide.
   OXIDATION.  The process of converting metali
 and other  substances into oxides, by combining witb
 them a certain portion of oxygen.  It differs from aci-
 dification in the addition of oxygen not  being sufficient
 to form an acid with the substance oxided.
   OXIDE.   (Oxydum, i, n.; formed- of oxygen, with
 the terminal ide.  See Ide.)  Oxyd.  Oxid.  Oxyde.  A
 substance combined with oxygen  without being in the
 state  of an acid.  Many substances are susceptible of
 several  stages of oxidizement, on which account che-
 misu have employed  various terms to express the
 characteristic distinctions of the several oxides.  The
 specific name is often derived from some external cha-
 racter, chiefly the colour;  thus we have the black and
 red oxides  of iron, and of mercury : the white oxide of
 zinc: but in most instances the denominations proposed
 by Dr. Thompson are adopted.   When there are  se-
 veral oxides  of the  same substance, tie  proposes the
 terms protoxyde, deutoxyde, tritoxyde, signifying the
 first, second,  and  third stage of oxidizement.  Orlf two
 oxides only are known, he proposes the appellation of
protoxyde for that at the minimum, and of peroxyde
Tor that at the maximum of oxidation. The compound!
 of oxides and water in which the water  exists in a con-
 densed slate,  are termed hydrates, or hydroxures.
   Oxide of carbon, gaseous.  See  Carbon, gaseous ox-
 ide of .
   Oxide, nitric.   See Nitrogen.
   Oxide, nitrous. See Nitrogen.
  OXYCA'NTHA.  (From ol-uc,  sharp, and axavBa, a
 thorn: so called from the acidity of iu fruit.)  The
 barberry.
   Oxycantha oaleni.  See Berberis.
  OXYCE'DRUS.  (From oh, acutely, and xttpos, 8
cedar: so  called from  the  sharp termination  of  its
 leaves.)  1. A kind of cedar 
ox\
OXY
  2.  Spanish juniper, a species of juniperus.
  OXYCO'CCOS.  (From oi-uc, acid, and kokxos,  a
berry: so named from ite acidity.)  Sec  Vacctnium
oxyeoccos.
  OXY'CRATUM.   (From oijuc, acid, and xtpawvpi,
to mix.)  Oxycrates.  Vinegar mixed with such a por-
tion  of water as is required, and rendered still milder
by the addition of a little honey.
  Oxycro'ceum emplastrum.  (Fromoi[vc,acid, and
xpoxos, crocus, saffron.)  A plaster in which  there  is
much saffron, but no vinegar necessary, unless in dis-
solving some gums.
  Oxyd.  See Oxide.
  Oxyde.  See Oxide.
  Oxyde'rcica.  (From oj-uj, acute, and Stpxta, to see.)
Medicines which sharpen the sight.
  OXYDULE. Synonymous with protoxide.
  O'XYDUM.  (So called from oxygen, wliich enters
into  iu composition.)  See Oxide.
  Oxydum antimonii.  See Antimonii oxydum.
  Oxydum arsenici album.  See .Arsenic.
  Oxydum cupri viride acetatum.  See Verdigris.
  Oxydum ferri luteum.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
  Oxydum ferri  nigrum.  Black oxide of iron.  The
scales which fall  from iron, when heated, consist of
iron  combined with oxygen.  These have been em-
ployed medicinally, producing the general effecte  of
chalybeates, but not very powerfully.
  Oxydum ferri rubrum.  Red oxide of iron. In this
the metal is  more highly oxidized than in the black.  It
may be formed by long continued exposure to heat and
air.  Iu properties  in medicine are similar  to other
preparations of iron.  It is frequently given iuternally.
  Oxydum hydr/. royri cinereum. See Hydrargyri
oxydum cinereum.
  Oxydum  hydrargyri nigrum.  See Hydrargyri
oxydum cinereum.
  Oxydum  hydrargyri  rubrum.  See Hydrargyri
oxydum rubrum.
  Oxydum plumbi album.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  Oxydum plumbi rubrum.  See Lead.
  Oxydum plumbi semivitreum.   See Lythargyrus.
  Oxydum stibu  album.  See Antimonii oxydum.
  Oxydum stibu  semivitreum.  A vitreous oxide of
antimony.  It was formerly called  Vitrum antimonii
and  consisu of an oxide of antimony with a little sul-
phur ; it is employed to make antimonial wine.
  Oxydum stibu sulphuratum.  This is an  oxide of
antimony with sulphur, and was formerly called He-
par antimonii; Crocus metallorum ;  Crocus antimonii.
It was fonnerly  exiiibited in the cure  of fevers and
atonic diseases of the lungs.  Iu principal use now is
in preparing other medicines.
  Oxydum zinci.   See Zinci oxydum.
  Oxydum zinci sublimatum.  See Zinci oxydum.
  OXYGARUM.  (From o£uc, acid, and yapov, garum.)
A composition of garum and vinegar.
   OXYGEN.  (Oxygenium; from o$vs, acid, and
yswaia, to generate; because it is the generator of aci-
dity.)  This substance, although existing sometimes in
a solid and  sometimes in an aeriform  state,  is never
distinctly perceptible to the human senses, but in com-
bination.
  We know it only in iu combination, by its effecu.
Nature never presents it solitary:  chemisu do not
know how to insulate it.   It is a principle which was
long unknown. It is absorbable by combustible bodies,
and  converu them into oxides or acids.  It is an indis-
pensable condition of combustion, uniting iuelf always
to bodies which burn, augmenting their weight, and
changing their properties.  It may be disengaged in the
■tate of oxygen gas, from burned bodies, by a joint accu-
mulation of caloric and light.  It is highly necessary for
tiie  respiration of animals.  It exisu universally dis-
persed through nature, aud is a constituent part of at-
mospheric air, of water, of acids, and of all bodies of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
  One of the most remarkable combinations into which
it is capable of entering,  is that which it forms with
light and caloric.  The nature of that mysterious union
has  not been ascertained, but it is certain that, in that
etate, it constitutes tlie gaseous fluid  called  oxygen
•as.
   Properties of oxygen gas.—Oxygen gas is an elastic
invisible fluid, like  common air, capable of indefinite
expansion and compression.  It has neither taste nor
odour, nor does it show any traces of an acid.   Iu spe-
cific gravity, as determined by Kirwan, is 0.0013.r>, that
of water being 1.0000; it is, therefore, 740 times lighter
than the same bulk of water.  Iu weight is to atmos-
pheric air as 1103 to 1000.   One hundred and sixteen
cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 39.38 grains. It is not
absorbed by water, but entirely absorbable by combus-
tible bodies, which, al the same time, disengage its ca-
lorie and light, producing in consequence a strong heut
and flame.  It rekindles almost extinct combustible
bodice.  It is indispensable to respiration, and is the
cause of animal heat. It hastens germination. It com
bines with every combustible body, with all the metals
and with the greater number of vegetable and animai
substances.  It is considered as the cause of acidity ;
and from this last property is derived the  name oxygen,
a word denoting the origin  of acidity.
  The act of iu combining with bodies is called oxi-
disement, or oxygenation;  and the bodies with which
it is combined are called oxides, ot acids.
  Oxygen gas is tlie chief basis of the pneumatic doc-
trine of chemistry.
  Methods of obtaining oxygen gas.—We are at pre-
sent acquainted  with a great number of bodies from
wliich we may, by art, produce oxygen gas.   It is most
amply obtained from the oxides of manganese, lead,
or mercury; from nitrate of potassa; from the green
leaves of vegetables, and from oxychlorate of potassa
or soda.  Besides these, there are a great many other
substances from which  oxygen gas may be procured.
  1. In order to procure oxygen gas in a state of great
purity, pure oxychlorate of potassa or  soda must be
made use of.  With this  view, put  some of the salt
into a small earthen or glass retort, the neck  of which
is placed under the shelf of tlie pneumatic trough, filled
with water; and heat the retort by means of a lamp.
The salt will begin to melt, and oxygen gas will be ob-
tained in abundance, and of great purity, which may
be collected and preserved over water.
  Explanation.—Oxychlorate of potassa consisU  of
oxygen, chlorine, and potassa.  At an  elevated tem-
perature, a decomposition takes  place, the oxygen
unites to tlie caloric, and forms oxygen gas.   The oxy-
chlorate becomes therefore converted into simple chlo-
rate of potassa.
  2. Oxygen gas may likewise be obtained  from the
green leaves of vegetables.
  For this purpose fill a bell-glass with water, intro-
duce fresh-gathered green leaves under it, and place
the bell, or receiver, inverted in a vessel containing
the same fluid;  expose the apparatus to the rays of the
sun, and very pure oxygen gas will be liberated.
  The emission  of oxygen gas is proportioned to the
vigour of the plant  and the vivacity of  the light; the
quantity differs in different planu, and under different
conditions.
  Explanation.—It  is an established  fact, tbat plants
decompose carbonic acid, and probably  water, which
serve for  their nourishment; they absorb the hydro-
gen and carbon of these fluids, disengaging  a port of
the oxygen in a state of purity.  Light, however, fa-
vours this decomposition greatly; in proportion as the
oxygen  becomes disengaged, the hydrogen becomes
fixed  in the vegetable,  and combines partly with tbe
carbon and partly with the oxygen, to form the oil, Sec.
of the vegetable.
  3. Nitrate of potassa is another substance frequently
made use of for obtaining oxygen gas, in the  following
maimer:
  Take any quantity of this salt, introduce it into a
coated earthen or glass retort, and  fit to it a tube,
which must be plunged into the pneumatic trough, un-
der the receiver filled with water.  When the appara-
tus bas  been properly adjusted, heat the retort gra-
dually, till it becomes red-hot;  the  oxygen gas will
then be disengaged rapidly.
  Explanation.—Nitrate of potassa eonsiste of nilric
acid and potassa.  Nitric  acid consisu  again of oxy-
gen and nitrogen.  On exposing tiie salt to ignition, a
partial decomposition of  tbe acid  takes  place;  the
greatest part of the oxygen of the nitric  acid unites to
caloric,  and appears under the form of oxygen pas.
The other part remains attached to the potassa in the
state of nitrous  acid.   The residue  in  the  retort  is,
therefore,  nitrate of potassa, if the process  has been
carried only to a certain extent.
  Remark.—If too much heat be applied, particularly
towards tlie end of tlie process, a total decomposition
                                        145 
OXY
OZY
of the nitric acid takes place: the oxygen gas, in that
case, will  therefore be mingled  with nitrogen  gns.
The weight of the two gases, when collected, will he
found to con-espond very exactly with the weight of
the acid which  had been decomposed.  The residue
then left in the retort is potassa.
  4. Black oxide of manganese, however, is generally
made use of for obtaining oxygen gas, on  account of
iu cheapness.  This native oxide is reduced to a coarse
powder;  a stone, or  rather an iron retort,  is  then
charged with it and heated.  As soon as the retort be-
comes ignited, oxygen gas is obtained plentifully.
  Explanation.—Black oxide of manganese  is the
metal called manganese fully saturnted with oxygen,
together with  many earthy impurities; on  applying
heat,  part of  the solid oxygen quits the metal and
unites to caloric, in order to form oxygen gas; the re-
mainder of the oxygen remains united to the metal
with  a forcible  affinity:  the metal, therefore, ap-
proaches to the metallic state, or is found  in the slate
of a gray oxide of manganese.
  One pound of the best manganese yields upwards of
1400 cubic inches of oxygen  gas, nearly pure.   If sul-
phuric acid be previously added to tbe manganese, tbe
gas is produced by a less heat, and in a larger quan-
tity ; a gloss retort may then be used, and the heat of
a lamp is sufficient.
  5. Red oxide of mercury yields oxygen gas in a man-
ner similar to tbat of manganese.
  Explanation.—This oxide consisu likewise of solid
oxygen and mercury, the combination of which takes
place on exposing mercury to a  heat of  about  610°
Fahr.  At this degree  it attracu oxygen, and becomes
converted into an  oxide; but if the temperature be in-
creased, the attraction of  oxygen  is changed.  The
oxygen then attracu caloric stronger than it did the
mercury;  it therefore abandons it, and forms oxygen
gas. The mercury then reappears in iu metallic state.
  6. Red oxide of lead yields oxygen gas on the same
principle.
   Oxygenated muriatic acid.  See Chlorine.
  OXYGENATION.   Oxygenatio.  This  word  is
often used instead of oxidation, and frequently con-
founded with it: but it differs in being of more general
import, as every union with oxygen, whatever the pro-
duct may be, U an oxygenation; but oxidation takes
place only when an oxide is formed.
   Oxygenized muriatic acid.  See Muriatic acid oxy-
genized.
   Oxygenized  nitric  acid.   See  Nitric acid  oxy-
genized.
   Oxyolt'cum.  (From oi-uc, acid, and yXvxvs, sweet.)
Honey mixed with vinegar.
   OXYIODE.  A term applied by Sir H. Davy to the
triple compounds  of oxygen, iodine, and the metallic
bases.  Lussac calls them iodates.
   OXYLA'PATHUM.  (From ofcuy, acid, and Xaira-
 0ov, the dock:  so named from iu  acidity.)  See Ru-
 mex acutus.
   O'XYMEL. (Oxymd, Ms. n.; from o$uc, acid, and
 ucXt, honey.)  Apomeli.  Adipson.  Honey and vine-
 gar boiled to a syrup.  Mel acetatum.   Now called
 Oxymel simplex.  Takeof clarified honey, two pounds;
 acetic acid a pint. Boil them down to a proper con-
 sistence, in a glass vessel, over a slow fire.  This pre-
 paration of honey and vinegar possesses aperient and
 expectorating virtues; and  is given, with  these inten-
 tions, in the cure of humoral asthma, and other dis-
 eases of the chest, in  doses of one or two drachms.   It
 is also employed  in tbe form of gargle, when diluted
 with water.
   Oxymel aruginis.  See Linimentum aruginis.
   Oxymel colchici.  Oxymel of meadow saffron is
 an acrid medicine, but is nevertheless employed, for iu
 diuretic virtues, in dropsies.
    Oxymel scilla.   Take of clarified  honey, three
 pounds;  vinegar of squills, two pinu.  Boil them in a
 glass vessel, with a slow fire, to tbe proper thickness.
 Aperient, expectorant and detergent virtues, are attri-
       14ft
buted to the honey of squills.   It " (riven .n doses of
two or three drachms, along wilh sonic srsmatic wa-
ter, as thai of cinnamon, to prevent the great  nausea
which  it  would oUierwise be api tocxci.e. In large
doses it proves emetic.
  Oxvmu'rias hydrargyri.   See  Hyarargyrt oxy
murias.                    _   __,   .
  OXYMURIATIC ACID.  See CAZonne.
  Oxymyrrhi ne.  (From  ol-iif,  acute, and jivppivn,
the myrtle: so called from iu resemblance to  myrtle,
and iu pointed leaves.)   Oxymyrsine.  See  Myrtus
communis.
  Oxymyrsine.  See Oxymyrrhine.
  OXYOD1C ACID.  See Iodic acid.
  Oxyni'trum.   (From oljuc, acid, and  virpov, nitre.)
A composition chiefly of vinegar and nitre.
  OXYOPIA.  (From o\vs, acute, and tay, the eye.)
The faculty of seeing more acutely than usual.   Thus
there have been instances known of persons who could
see the stars in the daytime.  The proximate cause is
a preternatural sensibility of the retina.  It has been
known to precede  the gutta  serena; and it has been
asserted that prisoners, who have been long detained
in darkness, have learned to read and write in dark-
ened places.
  OXYPHLEGMA'SIA.   (From o^us,acute, and tpXt-
yta, to burn.)  An ucute inflammation.
  Oxyphoe'nicon.  (From ol-uj, acid, and  c)oivil, the
tamarind; a  native of Phoenicia.)  See Tamarindus.
  OXYPUO'NIA.  (From ol>£, sharp, and tbiavn, the
voice.)  An acuteness of voice.  See Paraphonia.
  OXYPRUSSIC ACLD.  See Chlorocyanic add.
  OXYRE'GMA.  (From o\vs,  acid, and tptvyia, to
break wind.)  An acid eructation.
  Oxyrrho dinon.,  (From  o^uf,  acid, and poStvov.
oil of roses.) A composition of the oil of roses and
vinegar.
  OXYSACCHA'RUM.  (From o?v$, acid, and oax-
Xaoov, sugar.)  A composition of vinegar and sugar. '
  Oxysal diaphoreticum.  A preparation of Angelo
Sala.  It is a fixed salt, loaded with more acid than is
necessary to saturate it.                  ,
  Oxy'toca.  (From oi-uc, quick, and rutno, to bring
forth.)  Medicines which promote delivery.
  OXYTRIPHY'LLUM.  (From of,uc, acid, and rpt-
tpvXXov,  trefoil; so  named from  its acidity.)   Sea
 Oxalis acetosella.
  OYSTER.  See 0*£rea.
   Oyster-shell.  See Ostrea.
   OZ-iE'NA.  (From o\n, a stench.) An ulcer situated
in the nose, discharging a  fcetid purulent matter, and
sometimes  accompanied with  caries  of  the bones.
Some  authors have signified by the term, an ill-condi-
tioned ulcer  in the antrum.  The first meaning is  the
original  one. The disease is described as coming on
 wilh a trifling tumefaction and redness about the ala
 nasi, accompanied with a discharge  of mucus, with
 which the nostril  becomes obstructed.   The matter
 gradually assumes the appearance of pus, is most co
 pious iu  the morning, and  is sometimes attended with
 sneezing, and a little bleeding.  The ulceration occa-
 sionally  extends round the ah nasis to the cheek, but
 seldom far from the nose, the  ala of which also  il
 rarely destroys.  The ozena  is often connected with
 scrofulous and venereal complaints.   In the  latter
 cases, portions of the ossa spongiosa often come away.
 After the complete cure of all venereal complainU, an
 exfoliating deud piece of bone will often  keep up
 symptoms similar to those of the ozena, until it is de-
 tached.  Mr. Pearson  remarks, that the  ozena  fre-
 quently occurs as a symptom of the cachexia syphilol-
 dea.  It may perforate the septum nasi,  destroy  the
 ossa spongiosa, and even the ossa nasi.  Such mis-
 chief is  now more frequently the effect of tlie cachexia
 syphiloidea, than of lues  venerea.  The ozena must
 not be confounded  with  abscesses in the upper jaw-
 bone.
   O'zymum.  (From eZ/a, to smell: so called from its
 fragrance.)  See Ocymum. 
p
VE.0                                             PAL
f*  A contraction of pugillus, a pupil, or eighth part
■"■  *  of a handful, and sometimes a contraction of
pars or partes, a part or parts.
  P. iE.  A contraction of partes aqualis.
  P. P.  A contraction  of pulvis patrum, Jesuit's
powder; the Cinchona lancif. lia.
  PAAW, Peter, was  born  at  Amsterdam, in 15G4.
After studying four years at Leyden, he went to Paris,
and other celebrated schools, for improvement; and
took  his  degree at Rostock.  Thence lie repaired to
Padua,  and attended the dissections of Fabricius  ab
Aquapendente; and, possessing  a  good  memory,  as
well as great assiduity, he evinced such respectable ac-
quirement that he was appointed  to a  medical pro-
fessorship on his return to Leyden in 1589.  His whole
ambition was  centred in supporting the  dignity and
utility of this office; and  he obtained general esteem.
Anatomy and botany were his favourite pursuiu; and
Leyden owes to him the establishment of its botanic
garden.   He died  in  1617.  Besides  some commen-
taries on parts of Hippocrates and  other  ancient  au-
thors, he left a treatise on the Plague, and several other
works, chiefly anatomical.
  PA'BULUM.  (From pasco,  to  feed.)   Food,  ali-
ment.
  Pabulum vvts.  The food of life.  Such are the
different kinds of aliment.  Tbe  animal heat and spi-
rits are also so colled.
  PACCHIONI, Anthonio, was born at Reggio,  in
1664.  After studying there for  some time he went to
complete himself at Rome under the celebrated Mal-
pighi ; who subsequently introduced him into practice
at Tivoli, where he resided six years with considerable
reputation.  He then returned to Rome, and assisted
Lancisi in his explanation of the plates of Eustachius.
He  devoted also great  attention to dissection, particu-
larly of the membranes of the brain. In his first work,
he  assigned to the dura mater  a  contractile power,
whereby it acted upon the brain ; this notion obtained
temporary celebrity, but it was confuted by Baglivi,
and other anatomisU.  He afterward announced the
discovery of glands near  the longitudinal sinus, from
which he alleged lymphatics pass to the pia mater, this
involved  him  in   farther controversies.   He was a
member of several learned academies,  and  died in
1726.  Among his posthumous  works is  one  on  the
mischief of epispastics in many diseases.
  Pacchionian glands. See Glandula Pacchionia.
  Pachy'ntica.  (From aaxvvia, to incrassate.) Me-
dicines which incrassate or thicken  the fluids.
  Pa'chys.  Ilaxuc,  thick. The name  of a disorder
described by Hippocrates, but  not known by us.
  PA'DUS.  A name Borrowed from Theophrastus,
who gives no other account of his  iraSos, than that it
greatly delights in a shady  situation, like the yew.
The term is'now applied  to the bird-cherry.  See Pru-
nus padus.
  ["Pagodite (or Bildstein of Werner).   Nothing is
known of the natural situation or associations of this
mineral.  It is brought from China, and always under
come artificial form; and hence it is sometimes called
Figure or Sculpture stone, or Bildstein.  These  figures
are supposed often to represent the idols or pagodas of
the Chinese.  The Bildstein is susceptible of a polish."
—Cleav. Min.  A.]
  Pjedancho'ne.  (From zsats,  a  child, and ayxta, to
Btrangulate.)    A  species of  quinsy common  among
children.
  PASDARTHRO'CACE.  (From  zsais, a boy, apBpov,
a joint, and xaxov, an evil.)  The joint evil.  A scro-
fulous affection producing an ulceration  of the bones
which come ajoint.
  PAENEA.  See  Penaa.
  P^EO'NIA.   (From Paon, who  first  applied it to
medicinal purposes.)  Peony.
  1. The name of a genus of planU in the Linnean
system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common peony.
See Paonia officinalis.
  P*onia officinalis.  The systematic name of  the
common peony; male and female peony. This plant,
Paonia .—foliis oblongis, of Linneus, has long been
considered  as  a  powerfuf  medicine;  and, till lately,
had a place In the catalogue of the Materia Medica: in
which the two common varieties of this plant are indis-
criminately directed for use: and, on the authority of
G. Bauhin, improperly  distinguished  into male and
female peony.
  The  rooU and seeds of peony have, when fresh, a
faint, unpleasant smell, somewhat of the narcotic kind,
and a mucilaginous subacrid taste, with a slight degree
of bitterness and  astringency.   In drying, they lose
their smell and  part of their taste.  Extracte made
from them by water  are almost insipid,  as well as in-
odorous ; but extracts made by rectified spiriis are ma-
nifestly bitterish,  and considerably adstringent.  The
flowers have rather more smell than any of the other
paru of the plant, and a rough sweetish taste, which
they impart, together with their colour,  both to water
and spirit.
  The  rooU, flowers, and  seeds of peony have been
esteemed in the  character of an anodyne and corro-
borant, but more especially the roots;  which, since
the days of Galen, have been very commonly employed
as a remedy for the epilepsy.   For  this purpose, it
was usual to cut the root into thin slices, which were
to be attached to a string, and suspended about the
neck as an amulet; if this failed of success, the patient
was to have recourse to the  internal use of this root,
which Willis direcu to be given in the form of a pow-
der,  and  in the  quantity of a  drachm, two or three
times a day, by which, as we are informed, both infants
and adulu were cured of this disease.  Other authors
recommended the expressed juice to be given in wine,
and  sweetened with sugar, as the most  effectual way
of administering this plant.  Many  writers, however,
especially in modern times, from repeated trials of the
peony  in epileptic cases, have found it of no use what-
ever ; though Professor Home, who  gave  the radix
peonie to two epileptics at the Edinburgh infirmary,
declares that one received a temporary advantage from
its use.  Of the good effects of this plant, in other dis-
orders, we find no instances recorded.
  PAIGIL.  See Primula veris.
  PAIN.  AXyn.  OSvvn.   Dolor.   Any unpleasant
sensation, or irritation.
  Painter's colic.  See Colica pidonum.
  PAKFONG.  The white copper of the Cliinese, said
to be an alloy of copper, nikel. and zinc.
  PALATE.  See Palatum.
  Palati circumflexus.   See Circumflexus palati.
  Palati levator.  See levator palati.
  Palati os.  The palate bone.  The palate is formed
by  two  bones of very irregular figure.  They are
placed between the  ossa maxillaria superiora and the
os sphenoides  at  the back part of the roof of the
mouth, aud extend  from  thence  to the  bottom of the
orbit.  Each of these bones may be  divided into four
paru, viz. the inferior, or square portion, the pterygoid
process, the nasal lamella, and orbitar process.  The
first of these, or the square part of the  bone, helps to
form the palate of the mouth. The upper part of its
internal edge rises into a spine, which makes part of
the septum narium.  The pterygoid process, which is
smaller above than below,  is so  named  from its being
united with the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone,
with wliich it helps to form the pterygoid fosse.  It is
separated from the square part of the bone, and from
the nasal lamella, by an oblique fossa, which, applied
to such another in the os maxillare, forms a passage for
a branch of the fifth pair of nerves.  The nasal la-
mella  is  nothing more than a very  thin bony plate,
which  arises from the upper side of the external edge
of the  square part of the bone.   Its inner surface is
concave, and furnished with a ridge,  which supports
the back  part of the os spongiosum  inferius.  Exter-
nally it is  convex, and  firmly united to  the maxillary
bone.  The orbitar process is more irregular than any
other part of the bone.  It has a smooth surface, when
it helps to form the orbit; and, when viewed in iu
place, we see it  contiguous  to that part of  the orbil
which  is  formed by the os maxillare, and appearing aa 
PAL
PAL
a small triangle at the inner extremity of the orbilar
process of this la<<t-mentioned bone.  This fourth part
of the os palati likewise helps to form the zygomatic
fossa on each side, and there iu surface is concave.
Between this orbitar process and the sphenoid bono, a
hole is formed,  through wliich an artery, vein, and
nerve are transmitted to the nostrils.  The ossa palati
are complete in the fiEtus.  They are joined to the ossa
maxillaria superiora, os sphenoides, os ethmoides, ossa
spongiosa inferiora, and vomer.
  Palati tensor.  See Circumflexus.
  PALATO.  Names compounded of this word be-
long to muscles which are attached to the palate.
  Palato-pharynoeus.  (So called from iu origin in
the palate and insertion in the pharynx.)  A muscle
situated at the side of the entry of the fauces.   Thyro-
staphilinus, of Douglas.  Thyro-pkaryngo-staphiliniis,
of Winslow ; and palato-pharyngien,  of Dumas.  It
arises by a broad beginning from the middle of the
velum pendulum palati at the root of the  uvula poste-
riorly, and from the tendinous expansion of the cir-
cumflexus palati.  The fibres are collected within the
posterior arch behind the tonsils, and run backwards to
the top and lateral part of the  pharynx, where the
fibres are scattered and mixed with those of the stylo-
pharyngeus.   It is inserted into the edge of the upper
and back part of tbe thyroid cartilage.  Iu use  is  to
draw the uvula and velum pendulum palali down-
wards and backwards, and at the same time to pull
the thyroid cartilage and pharynx upwards, and shorten
it; with the constrictor superior pharyngis and tongue,
it assists in shutting the passage into the nostrils; and
in swallowing, it thrusts the food from the fauces into
the pharynx.
  Palato-salpinoeus.  (From palatum, the palate,
and actXmyl, a trumpet; so called from iu origin in the
palate, and iu trumpet-like shape.)  See Circumflexus.
  Palato-staphilinus.  See Azygos uvula.
  PALATUM.  (Palatum, i. n.; from polo, to hedge
in; because it is staked in, as it were, by the teeth.)
1.  The palate or roof of the mouth.
  2.  An eminence of the inferior lip of the corolla of
personate flowers which closes them; as in Antirrhi-
num.  See Corolla.
  Palatum  molle.  The soft palate.  This lies be-
hind the bony palate; and from  the middle of it the
uvula hangs down.
  PALEA. (Palae, a. f.; chaff.) Chaff, or short, linear,
obtuse dry scales.
  Pale a de mecha.   A name given by  some to the
Juncus odoratus.
  PALEACEUS   (From  palea,  chaff.)  Chaffy,  or
covered with chaff.  Applied by botanists to the recep-
tacles of planU;  as those of the Xeranthemum.  Zin-
nia, Anthemis, Sec  See Receptaculum.
  Palimpi'ssa.  (From iraXtv, repetition, and 7rio-oa,
pitch.)  Dioscorides says, that dry pitch is thus named,
because it is prepared of pitch twice boiled.
  Palindro'mia.  (naXiv, again, and <5pouoc, a course.)
This term is used by Hippocrates for any regurgitation
of humours to the more noble paru: and sometimes
for the return of a distemper.
  Paliu'rus.  (From  iraXXta, to move,  and oupov,
urine; so called from iu diuretic qualities.) The Rham-
nus paliurus:
  PALLADIUM.  A new metal, first found by Dr.
Wollaston, associated with platina, among the grains
of which he supposes its ores to exist, or an alloy of it
with iridium and osmium; .scarcely distinguishable
from the crude platina, though it is harder and  heavier.
  PALLAS, Peter Simon, was born at Berlin, where
his father was professor of Surgery, in 1741.   He ap-
plied early and assiduously to his  studies, particularly
lo dissection, insomuch that he was enabled, at the age
of 17, to read a public course on anatomy.   He then
went to Halle, and in 1759 to Gottingcn, where  a severe
illness for some  time interrupted his pursuiu; but he
afterward made numerous experiments on  poisons,
and dissections of animals; and composed a very  inge-
nious treatise on those which are found within others,
particularly the worms occurring in the human body.
In the  following year, he took his degree at Leyden,
then travelled through Holland and England, directing
his attention almost entirely to natural  history. In
1762, his father  recalled him to Berlin;  but  allowed
him soon after to settle at the Hague, where he could
better  prosecute his favourite studies;  the  fruit of
      148
which shortly appeared in a valuable treatise on zoo-
phytes, and some other publications:  and he was ad-
mitted into the Royal Society of London,  and the
Academy Nature Curiosoruin, lo which he hod sent
interesting  pnpers.  About this period he meditated n
voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, and other  Dutch
settlements; but his father again recalled him in 17f>(>
However, in  the following year, he was induced  by
Catharine II. to become professor of natural history at
St. Petersburgh.  Thence, in  1708, he set out, with
some other philosophers, on a scientific tour, as fur as
Siberia, which  occcupied six years.  Of this lie ailer-
ward published a  most  interesting account  in five
quarto volumes comprehending every thing memorable
in the several provinces which he had visited.  This
was followed by a particular  history of the Mougul
tribes, who had, at different periods, overrun the greater
part of Asia, and whom he clearly_proved to  be a dis-
tinct race from the Tartars.   In 1777 he rend before the
academy a dissertation on the formation of mountains,
and  the changes which this globe has undergone, par-
ticularly  in Ihe Russian empire.  He.  also published,
from time to time, numerous works relative to zoology,
botany, agriculture, and geography.  About the year
1784, he received signal proofs of the empress's favour;
who  not only considerably Increased his salary, and
conferred upon  him the order of St. Vladimir, but
learning  that he wished lo dispose of his collection of
natural history, gave him a greater price than he had
valued it at, and allowed  him the use of it during I lis
life.   In 1794, he travelled to the Crimea, of which he
published nn account  on his return : and  his  health
now  beginning to decline, the empress presented him
an  estate in that  province, with a liberal sum  for his
establishment.  Unfortunately, however, the situation
was particularly unhealthy, and proved very injurious
to his family.  At  length he determined to  visit his
brother, and his native city, where he diedshortly after,
in 1811.
  PALLIATIVE.  (Palliativus; from pallio, to dis-
semble.)    A  medicine given only with an intent to
palliate or relieve pains in a fatal disease.
  Palm oil. See  Cocos bntyracea.
  Palma christi.  See Ricinus.
  PAL'MA.  (From zsaXXia, to move.)
  1.  The palm of the hand.
  2.  A palm-tree.  See Palma.
  PALMAR.  (From palma, the hand: so called be-
cause the leaves are extended from the top like the fin-
ger upon  the hand.) Palms.  One of the natural fami-
lies of plants which have trunks similar to trees, but
come under the term stipes, the tops being frondescent,
that is, sending off leaves. Palms are the most lofty, and
in some instances, the most long-lived of plants, and have
therefore justly acquired  the name of trees.  Yet Sir
James Smith observes, paradoxical as it may seem,
they are  rather perennial herbaceous plants, having
nothing in common with the growth of trees in general.
Palms are  formed  of successive circular crowns of
leaves, which spring directly from the root.   These
leaves and  their footstalks are furnished with bundles
of large  sap-vessels, and returning-vessels,  like the
leaves of trees, when one circle of them has performed
iu office, another  is formed within it, which, being
confined below, necessarily rises n little above the for-
mer.  Thus, successive circles grow  one above the
other; by which the vertical increase  of the plant  la
almost without end.  Each  circle  of  leaves is inde-
pendent of its predecessor, and has iu own cluster of
vessels; so that there can be no aggregation of woody
circles.
  PALMARIS.  (Palmaris; from palma, the  hand.)
Belonging to the hand.
  Pamaris brevis.  Palmaris  brevis vel caro quad-
rata, of Douglas ; and Palmare cutani, of Dumas.  A
small, thin, cutaneous flexor muscle of the hand, situ-
ated between the wrist  and the little finger.  Fallopius
tells us that it was discovered by Cananus. Winslow
names it  palmaris cutaneus.  It arises from a small
part of the internal annular ligament,  and inner edge
of the aponeurosis  palmaris, and is inserted by small
bundles  of fleshy fibres into the os plsiforme, and Into
the skin and fat that cover the abductor minimi digiti.
This muscle seems to assist in contracting the palm of
the hand.
  Palmaris cutaneus.   See Palmaris brevis.
  Palmaris lonous.   A flexor muscle of the arm. 
PAN
PAN
situated on the fore-arm, immediately under the integu-
ments.   Ulnaris gracilis, of Winslow; and Epitro-
thlo carpi palmaire, of Dumas.  It arises tendinous
from the inner condyle of the os humeri, but soon be-
comes fleshy, and  after continuing so about three
inches,  terminates in a long slender tendon, which,
near the wrist, separates into two  portions,  one of
whicli is inserted into the internal annular ligament,
and the  other loses itself in a tendinous  membrane, i
that is nearly of a triangular shape, and extends over
the palm of the hand, from the carpal ligaments to the
rooU of the fingers, and iscalled aponeurosis palmaris.
Some of the fibres of this expansion adhere strongly to
the metacarpal bones, and separate the muscles and
tendons of each finger.  Several anatomical writers
have considered this aponeurosis as a production of the
tendon of this muscle, but seemingly without reason,
because we now  and then find the latter wholly in-
serted into the carpal ligament, in which case it is per-
fectly distinct from the aponeurosis in question; and,
in some subjecu, the palmaris longus is wanting, but
the aponeurosis is always to be found.  Rhodius, in-
deed, says that the latter is now and then deficient: but
there is good reason to think that he was mistaken.
This muscle bends the hand, and may assist in its pro-
nation: it likewise serves to  stretch the aponeurosis
palmaris.
  PALMATUS.  Palmate.   Applied to leaves, cut, as
it were, into several oblong, nearly equal segments,
about half-way, or  rather more, towards the base,
leaving  an entire space like the palm of the hand; as
in Passiflot a carulta.
  PA'LMOS.  (From zsaXXia, to beat.)   A palpitation
of the heart.
  Pa'lmula.  (Diminutive of palma,  the hand:  so
called from its shape.)  1. A date.
  2. The broad and flat end of a rib.
  PA'LPEBRA.  (A palpitando, from their frequent
motion.)   The eyelid,  distinguished into upper and
under; at each end they unite and form the canthi.
  Palpebra  superioris, levator.   See Levator palpe-
bra superioris.
  Palpebrarum aperiens rectus.   See Levator palpe-
bra superioris.
  PALPITATIO.  1.  A palpitation  or  convulsive
motion of a part.
  2. Palpitation of the heart.  A genus of diseases in
the class Neuroses, and order Spasmi, of Cullen.
  PALSY.  See Paralysis.
  Paluda'pium.  (From Palus a lake, and  apium,
smallage: so named because it grows  in and about
rivuleu.)  A species of smallage.
  Pa'lus sanctus.   A name of guaiacum.
  Pamphi'lium.   (From aas, all,  and q)iXos, grateful:
so called from its extensive usefulness.)  A plaster de-
scribed by Galen.
  PAMPINIFORM.  (Pampiniformis ;  from pampi-
nus, a tendril, and forma, a likeness.)   Resembling a
tendril; applied to the spermatic chord and the tho-
racic duct.
  PANA'CEA. (From aav, the neuter of ssaj, all, and
axtopai, to euro.)  An epithet given by the ancients to
those remedies which  they  conceived would  cure
every disease. Unfortunately for men of  the present
day there are no such remedies.
  Panacea ducisholsati*.  The sulphate of potassa.
  Panacea duplicata.  Sulphate of polassa.
  Panacea vegetabilis.  Saffron.
  PANADA.  (Diminutive of pane, bread, Ital.)  Pa-
nata; Panatella. Bread boiled in water to the con-
sistence of pap.  Dry biscuits soaked are the best for
this purpose.
  Panale'thes.  (From zsav, all, and aXijQns, true.)
A na me of a cephalic plaster, from iu un i versa! efficacy.
  PA'NARIS.   (Coirupted from paronychia.)   See
Paronychia.
  Panari'tia.   (Corrupted from paronychia.)  See
Paronychia.
  PA'NAX.  (A name borrowed from the old Greek
botaniste, whose iraval, or iravaxns, was so denomi-
nated from 7rav, all, and axos, medicine,  because of iu
abundant virtues.  The name being unoccupied, Lin-
neus adopted it tor the Chinese ginseng, that famous
restorative and panacea, the reputed virtues of which
yield in no respect to the ancient panax.)  1. The name
sf a genus of planis in the Linnean system.  Class,
Polygamia; Order, Diacia.
  9.  A name of the Hercules' all-heal.  See Laterpi-
tium chironium.
  Panax o.uinq.uefolium.  The systematic name of
the plant which affords the ginseng root.  Ginseng:
Panax—foliis  ternis  quinalis of Linneus.  The root
is imported into this country scarcely the thickness of
the little finger, about three or four  inches long, fre-
quently forked, transversely wrinkled, of a homy tex-
ture, and both internally and externally of a yellowish-
white colour. To the taste it discovers a mucilaginous
sweetness, approaching to that of liquorice, accompa-
nied with some degree of bitterness, and a slight aro-
matic warmth.   The Chinese ascribe extraordinary
virtues to the root of ginseng, and have no confidence
in any medicine  unless in combination with it.  In
Europe, however, it is very seldom employed.
  Panciire'stos.  (From irav, all, and xpnyoc, use-
ful:  so named from  its  general usefulness.)  Pan-
chreston.  1. An epithet of a collyrium described by
Galen.
  2.  It bos the same signification as Panacea.
  Panchymago'ga.  (From  zsav, all, %vpos,  succus,
humour, and ayia, duco, lo lead or draw.)  This term
is ascribed to such medicines as are supposed to purgo
all humours equally alike; but this is a conceit now
not minded.
  Pancce'nus.  (From tras, all, and koivos, common.)
Epidemic.  Applied to popular diseases, which attack
all descriprlons of persons.
  Pancra'tium.   (From irac, all, and xpaTtia, to Con-
quer : so called from iu virtues in overcoming all ob-
structions.)  See Scilla.
  PA'NCREAS.  (From irac, all, and xpeas, flesh: so
called from its fleshy consistence.) A glandular viscus
of the abdomen,  of a long figure, compared to a dog's
tongue, situated in the epigastric region under  the sto-
mach.  It is composed of innumerable small glands,
the excretory ducts of which unite and form one duct,
called the pancreatic duct, which perforates the duo-
denum with the ductus communis choledochus, and
conveys a fluid, in iu nature similar to saliva, into the
intestines.  The  pancreatic artery is a branch of tlie
splenic.  The veins evacuate themselves into the sple-
nic vein. Ite nerves are from the par vagum and great
intercostal.   The  use of the pancreas is to secrete the
pancreatic juice, which is to be mixed with the chyle
in the duodenum.  The quantity of the fluid secreted
is uncertain; but it must be very considerable, if we
compare it with the weight of the saliva, the pancreas
being three times larger, and seated in a warmer place.
It is expelled by the force of the circulating blood, and
the pressure of the incumbent viscera in the full abdo-
men.  Its great utility appears from iu constancy, be-
ing found in almost all animals; nor is this refuted by
the few experimenu in which a part of it was cut out
from a robust animal, wilhout occasioning death; be-
cause the whole pancreas cannot be removed without
the duodenum: for even a part  of the lungs  may be
cut out without producing death, but they are not,
therefore, useless.  It seems  principally to dilute the
viscid cystic bile, to mitigate its acrimony, and to mix
it with the food.   Hence, it is poured into a place re-
mote from the duct from the liver, as often as there is
no gall-bladder.  Like the rest of the intestinal hu-
mours it dilutes and resolves the mass of alimenu, and
performs every other office of the saliva.
  PANCREATIC.   (Pancreaticus;  from pancreas,
the name of a viscus.) Of or belonging to the pan-
creas.
  Pancreatic duct. See Ductus pancreaticus.
  Pancreatic juice.  See Pancreas.
  Pancre'ne.  (From irac, all, and xpijvn, a fountain.)
A name of  the pancreas from iu great secretion.
  Pandali'tium.   A  whitlow.
  PANDEMIC.   (Pandemicus;  from irav,  all, and
Snpos, the people.)  A disease is so termed which at-
tacks all or a great many persons in the same place and
at the same time.   A pandemic disease is one which is
very general.
  PANDICULA'TIO.  (From pandiculo, to gape and
stretch.)  Pandiculation, or a restless stretching or
gaping, such as accompanies the cold fit of an ague.
  PANDURIFORMIS.  Fiddle-shaped; applied to a
leaf, which is oblong, broad at the two extremities, and
contracted in the middle, as in the fiddle dock, Rumex
pulchrr.
  PANICULA   A panicle.  A species of compound
                                       149 
PAP
PAP
 Inflorescence which bears the flowers in a sort of loose,
 subdivided, bunch  or cluster, without any  order, ap-
 pearing like a branched spike.   The flowers of the
 JEsculus hippo-eastanum, Rhus cotinus, Gypsophylla
paniculata, and Syringa vulgaris, are good examples
 of a panicle; but this species of inflorescence occurs
 most in grasses, as in Poa aquatica.
  1. When the stalks are distant, lax,  or  spreading,
 it is called Panicula patula;  as in Campanula patula.
  2. Panicula coarlata, is a dense or crowded one, ob-
 served in Campanula rapunculus.
  3. P. dichotoma, forked; as iu Linum flavum.
  4. P. brachiata, crossing each other in pairs,  as in
 Salvia paniculata.
  5. P. divaricate, a more spreading one than the pa
 tulous; as in the Pnenanthes muralis.
  PA'NICUM.   (A paniculis, from iu many panicles;
 the spike consisting of innumerable thick  seeds, dis-
 posed in many panicles.)  The name of a genus of
 planU in the Linnean  system.   Class, Triandria;
 Order, Digynia.
  Panicum italicum.  The systematic name of the
 plant which affords the Indian millet-seed, wliich is
 much esteemed  in Italy, being a constant  ingredient
 in soups, and made  into a variety of forms  for tlie
 table.
  Panicum kiliaceum.  The systematic name of the
 plant which affords the millet-seed.  They are esteem-
 ed as a nutritious article of diet, and are often made
 into puddings in this country.
  PA'NIS.  Bread.  See Bread.
  Pan is cuculi. See Oxalis acetosella.
  Panis roRciNus.  A species of cyclamen.
  PANNI'CULUS.   (From pannus,  cloth.)   1. A
 piece of fine cloth.
  2. The cellular and camous membranes are so called
 from their resemblance to a piece of fine cloth.
  Panno'nica.   (From pannus, a rag:  so  called be-
 cause  iu stalk is divided  intd many uneven points,
 like the end of a piece of rag.)   Hawk-weed, or Hy-
 pocharis.
  PANNUS.   (From rata, to labour.)
  1. A piece of cloth.
  2. A tent for a wound.
  3. A Bpeck in the eye, resembling a bit of rag.
  4. An irregular mark upon the skin.
  Pano'ctia.  A bubo in the groin.
  PANOPHO'BIA.  (From irav, all, and thoSos, fear.)
 Pantophobia.  That kind of melancholy wliich is  prin-
 cipally characterized by groundless fears.
  PANSY.  See Viola tricolor.
  Pantaoo'oa.  (From nas, all, and ayta, to  drive  out.)
 Medicines which expel all morbid humours.
  Panto'lmius. (From irac, all, and roXpaia, to dare:
 so named from iu general uses.)  A medicine described
 by ASgineta.
  PANTorHo'eiA.  See Panophobia.
  PA'NUS.  (From ntvia, to work.)  1. A weaver's
 roll.
  2. A soft tumour, like a weaver's roll.
  PAPA'VER.  (Papaver, eris. n.; from pappa,  pap:
 so called because nurses used to mix this plant in  chil-
 dren's food to relieve the colic and make them sleep.)
 1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean sys-
 tem.   Class, Polyandria; Order,  Monogynia.  The
 poppy.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the white poppy.
 Bee Papaver somniferum.
  Papaver erraticum.  See Papaver rhaas.
  Papaver nigrum.  The black poppy.  Tbis is mere-
 ly a variety of the white poppy, producing black seeds.
 See Papaver somniferum.
  Papaver rhoeas.  The systematic and pharmaco-
 pceial name of the red corn  poppy.  Papaver errati-
 cwa. Papaver—capsulis glabris globosis, caule-piloso
 multifloro;—-foliis pennatifidis incisis  of  Linneus.
 Tbe heads of this  species, like those of the somnife-
 rum, contain a milky juice of a narcotic quality; from
 which an extract is prepared, that has  been success-
 fully employed as a sedative.  The flowers have some-
 what of tbe smell of opium, and a mucilaginous taste,
 accompanied with a slight degree of bitterness.  A
 syrup of these flowers is directed in the London Phar-
 macopoeia,  wbich has been thought useful  as an  ano-
 dyne and pectoral, and is prescribed in  coughs  and
 catarrhal affections.  See Syrupus rhaadoe.
  Papaver eomkihrdm.  The systematic name  of
      150
the white poppy, from which opium is obtained.  Lin
neus describes  the plant:—Papaver—calycibus, cop-
tultsquc glabris, foliis amplexicaulibus incisis.   This
drug is also called avium  thebaicum, from being an-
ciently prepared chiefly at Thebes:  Opion and manus
Da, from iu extensive medical virtues, Sec The Ara-
bians called it affion  nnd afium.   It is llie concreted
milky juice of the capsule or head of tlie poppy.  It is
brought from Turkey, Egypt, the East  Indies, nnd
other  parts of Asia, where poppies are cultivated for
this use  in  fields, as corn among  us.  The manner in
which  it is collected lias  been described long ago by
Kempfer, and others; but the  most circumstantial de-
tail of the culture of tiie poppy,  and the method  of
procuring the opium, is that  given by Kerr, ns prac-
tised in the province of Bahar.   He says, "The field
being well  prepared by the plough and harrow, and
reduced lo an exact level superficies, it is then divided
into quadrangular areas of seven feet long,  and five
feet in breadth, leaving two feet of interval, which is
raised five  or six inches, and excavated into an aque-
duct for conveying water to every area, for wliich pur-
pose they have  a well in every cultivated  field.  The
seeds are sown  in October  or November.   The  plants
are allowed to  grow six or eight inches  distant from
each other, and are plentifully supplied with water;
when the young planU are six or eight inches high,
they are watered more sparingly.   But the cultivator
spreads  all over the  areas a nutriment  compost  of
ashes, human excrements,  cow dung, and  a large por-
tion of nitrous earths, scraped from the highways and
old mud walls.  When the plants are nigh flowering,
they are watered  profusely,  to increase the  juice.
When the  capsules are half grown, no more  water is
given, and they begin to collect the opium.  At sunset
they make two longitudinal double incisions upon each
half-ripe  capsule,  passing  from below upwards, and
taking care not  to penetrate the internal cavity  of the
capsule.   The  incisions are  repeated every evening
until each capsule has received six or eight wounds;
Ihen are they allowed  to ripen their seeds. The ripe
capsules  afford  little  or no juice. If the  wound was
made in the heat of the day,  a cicatrix would be too
soon formed. The night dews, by their moisture, fa-
vour the exstillation of the juice.  Early in the  morn-
ing, old women, boys, and girls,  collect the juice  by
scraping it ofl'the wounds with a small iron scoop, and
deposite the whole In an earthen pot, where it is  work-
ed by the hand  in the open sunshine, until it  becomes
of a considerable  spissitude.  it  is then  formed into
cakes of a  globular shape, and about four pounds in
weight, and laid into little earthen basins to be fur-
ther exsiccated.  These cakes are covered over with
the poppy or tobacco leaves, and dried until  they are
fit for sale.  Opium is frequently adulterated with cow
dung, the extract of the poppy plant procured by boil-
ing, and various other substances which they keep in
secrecy."   This process, however, is now hut  rarely
practised, the consumption  of this drug being too great
to be supplied by that method of collection.
  The best  sort  of the officinal opium is the expressed
juice of the beads, or of the heads and the upper part
of the stalks inspissated by a gentle heat.  This was
formerly called  meconium,  in distinction from the true
opium, which issues spontaneously.
  The inferior soru  (for there are considerable differ-
ences  in  the  quality of this drug,) are said to be pre-
pared by boiling the plant in  water, and  evaporating
the strained decoction; but as no kind of our opium
will totally  dissolve in water, the  juice is  most proba-
bly extracted  by expression.  Newman was informed
by some Turks at Genoa and  Leghorn, that  in  some
places the heads, stalks, and leaves are committed to
tbe press together, and that this juice inspissated  af-
fords a very good opium.
  On this head Dr. Lewis remarks, that the point has
not yet been fully determined.   It is commonly sup-
posed, that whatever  preparations the Turks  may
make  from the poppy for  their own  use, the opium
brought to  us is really the  milky  juice collected from
incisions made in the beads, as described by Kempfer.
It is certain that an extract made  by boiling the heads,
or the heads and stalks in water, is much weaker than
opium; but it appears also, that  the pure milky tears
are considerably stronger.
  The principles separable from  opium are, a  resin,
gum, besides a  minute  portion of saline  matter, and 
PAP
PAP
  water and earth, which  are intimately combined to-
  gether,  insomuch tbat all the three dissolve almost
  equally in water and in spirit.
    Four ounces of opium, treated with alkohol, yielded
  three ounces and four scruples of resinous extract;  five
  drachms and a scruple of insoluble impurities remain-
  ing.  Ou taking four ounces more, and applying water
  at  first, Newman obtained two ounces five drachms
  and one scruple of gummy extract; the insoluble part
  amounting here to seven drachms and a scruple.   In
  distillation, alkohol brought over little or nothing;  but
  the distilled water was considerably impregnated with
  the peculiar ill smell of opium.
   From this  analysis may be estimated the effecu of
  different solvenu upon  it.  Alkohol  and proof spirit
  dissolving its resin, afford tinctures possessing all its
  virtues.  Water dissolves its gummy part, which is
  much less active; but a part of the resin is at the same
  time taken up by the medium of the gum. Wines also
  afford solutions possessing the virtues of opium. Vine-
  gar dissolves  its active  matter, but greatly impairs iu
  power.
   A new vegetable alkali, to which the name of mor-
 phia is given, bas also been extracted from opium.   It
 is in this alkali that the narcotic principle resides.   It
 was first obtained pure by Serturner, in the year 1817.
 Two  somewhat different processes for  procuring it
 have been given by Robiquet and Choulant.  Accord-
 ing to the former, a concentrated infusion of opium is
 to be boiled wilh a small quantity of common magne-
 sia  for a quarter of an hour.  A considerable quantity
 of a grayish deposite falls.  This is to  be washed on a
 filter with cold  water;  and, when dry,  acted on  by
 weak alkohol for some time, at a temperature beneath
 ebullition. In this way, very little morphia, but a great
 quantity of colouring matter, is separated.  The mat-
 ter is then to be drained on a filter, washed with a little
 cold alkohol, and afterward boiled with a large quan-
 tity of highly rectified alkohol.  This liquid being fil-
 tered while hot, on cooling, it deposites the morphia in
 crystals, and very little coloured.  The solution in al-
 kohol, and crystallization  being  repeated two or three
 times, colourless morphia is obtained.
   The theory of this process is the following: Opium
 contains a meconiate of morphia. The magnesia com-
 bines with the meconic acid, and the morphia  is dis-
 placed.
   Choulant directs  us to concentrate  a dilute watery
 infusion of opium, and leave it at rest till it sponta-
 neously let fall iu sulphate of lime in minute crystals.
 Evaporate to  dryness; dissolve in a little water, and
 throw down any remaining lime and sulphuric acid,
 by the cautious addition, first of oxalate of ammonia,
 and then of muriate  of barytes.  Dilute the liquid
 with a  large body of water, and add caustic ammonia
 to it as long as any precipitate falls.  Dissolve this  in
 vinegar, and throw it down again with  ammonia.  Di-
 gest on the precipitate about twice iu weight of sul-
 phuric ether, and throw the whole upon a filter.  The
 dry powder is to be digested three times in caustic am-
 monia, and as often in cold  alkohol.   The remaining
 powder being dissolved in twelve ounces of boiling al-
 kohol, and the filtered hot solution being set aside  for
 18 hours, deposites colourless transparent crystals, con-
 sisting of double  pyramids.  By concentrating the su-
 pernatant alkohoiic solution, more crystals may be ob-
 tained.
  Dr. Thomson directs us to pour caustic ammonia into
 a strong infusion of opium, and to separate the brown-
 ish-white precipitate by the filter; to  evaporate the
 infusion to about one-sixth of its volume, and mix the
 concentrated  liquid with more ammonia.  A new de-
 posite of impure  morphia is obtained.  Let the  whole
 of the deposites be collected on the filter, and washed
 with cold water.   When well drained, pour a little
 alkohol on it, and let the  alkohoiic liquid pass through
 the filter.  Il will  carry offa good deal of the colouring
 matter,  and very  little of the morphia.   ' Dissolve the
 impure morphia thus obtained, in acetic acid, and mix
 the solution which has a very deep brown colour, with
 a sufficient quantity of ivory-black. This mixture  is
 to be frequently agitated for 24 hours, and then thrown
 on the filter.  The liquid passes through quite colour-
 less.  If ammonia be now dropped into it, pure mor-
 phia falls in the state of a white powder. If we dis-
solve this precipitate in alkohol,  and evaporate that
liquid kluwly  we  obtain the morphia in  pretty regular
  crysta .  It is perfectly white, has a pearly lustre,.Is
  destitute of smell, but  has  an intensely bitter  taste;
  and  the shape  of the crystals in all my trials was a
  four-sided rectangular prism.'—Annals of Phil., June,
  1820.  On the  above process, it  should be observed,
  that  the acetic  solution must contain a good deal of
  phosphate of lime, derived from the ivory-black; and
  that  therefore those who have used that precipitate for
  morphia in medicine, have  been disappointed.   The
  subsequent solution in alkohol, however, and crystalli-
  zation, render it pure.
    Choulant says,  it  crystallizes in double four-sided
  pyramids,  whose  bases are  squares  or rectangles;
  sometimes in prisms with trapezoidal bases.
    It dissolves in 82 times iu  weight of boiling water;
  and the solution on cooling deposites regular, colourless,
  transparent crystals.  It is soluble in 36 times its weight
  of boiling alkohol, and in 42  times its weight of cold
  alkohol, of 0.92.  It dissolves in eight times its weight
  of sulphuric ether. All these solutions change the in-
  fusion of brazil-wood to violet, and  the tincture of
  rhubarb to brown.  The saturated alkohoiic and ethe-
  reous solutions, when rubbed on the skin, leave a red
  mark.
    Sulphate of morphia crystallizes in  prisms, which
  dissolve in twice their weight of distilled water.
    Nitrate of morphia  yields needle-form crystals in
 stars,  which are soluble in IJ times their weight of dis-
 tilled water.
    Muriate of morphia is in feather-shaped crystals and
 needles.  It is soluble in 10£ times its weight of distil-
 led water.                                        j
   The acetate crystallizes in needles, the tartrate in
 prisms, and the carbonate in short prisms.            |
   Morphia acu with great energy on the animal eco-.
 nomy.  A  grain and  a half taken at  three different
 times, produced  such violent  symptoms upon three
 young men of 17  years  of age, that Serturner  was;
 alarmed  lest  the consequences  should have proved
 fatal.
   Morphia, according to iu  discoverer, melu in a gen-
 tle heat; and in  that state has very much the appear-
 ance of melted sulphur.   On cooling,  it again crys-
 tallizes.  It burns easily; and, when heated in close
 vessels, leaves a solid resinous black matter, having a
 peculiar smell.
   The use of this celebrated medicine, though not un-
 known lo Hippocrates, can be clearly traced to Diago-
 ras, who was  nearly his cotemporary; and ite impor-
 tance  has ever since been gradually advanced by  suc-
 ceeding physicians  of different nations.  Its extensive
 practical utility,  however, has not been long well un-
 derstood ; and in this country perhaps may be dated
 from the time of Sydenham.  Opium is the chief nar-
 cotic now employed; it acts directly upon the nervous
 power, diminishing  the sensibility, irritability, and mo-
 bility  of the system;  and, according to Cullen, in a
 certain manner suspending the motion of the nervous
 fluid to and from the brain, and thereby inducing sleep,
 one of iu principal  effecu.   From this sedative power
 of opium, by  which it allays pain, inordinate action,
 and restlessness, it naturally follows that it may be em-
 ployed with advantage in a great variety of diseases.
 Indeed, there is scarcely any disorder in which, under
 some circumstances, its use  is not found proper; and
 though in many cases it fails of producing sleep, yet,
 if taken in a full dose, it occasions a pleasant tranquil-
 lity of mind, and a drowsiness which  approaches to
 sleep, and which always refreshes the patient.  Besides
 the sedative power of opium, it is known to act more
 or less  as a stimulant, exciting the motion of the blood.
 By a  certain  conjoined effort of this  sedative ami
 stimulant effect, opium has been thought to produce in-
 toxication, a quality for which it is much used in east-
ern countries.
  The  principal  indications  which  opium is capable
 of fulfilling are, supporting the actions of the system,
 allaying pain and irritation, relieving spasmodic action,
inducing sleep, and checking morbidly increased secre-
tions.  It is differently administered, as it is designed
to fulfil one or other of these indications.
  Where opium  is given as a stimulus,  it ought to be
administered in small doses,  frequently repeated, and
slowly  increased, as by this mode me excitement it
produces is best kept up.  But  where the design is to
mitigate  pain  or  irritation, or  the symptoms arising
from these, it ought  to be given iu a full dose, and at 
PAP                                              PAP
distant intervals, by which the state of diminished
power and sensibility is most completely induced.
  One other general rule, with respect to the adminis-
tration of opium, is, that it ought not to be given in any
pure inflammatory affection, at least until evacuations
have  been used, or unless means are employed  to
determine it to the surface, and  produce a diapho-
resis.
  In continued fevers, not of the  pure inflammatory
kind, opium is  administered 'sometimes as a general
stimulus, and at other  times  to allay irritation. The
great practical rule in such cases is, thai it ought to be
given in such quantities only, that  the pulse becomes
slower and fuller from its operation.  Its exhibition is
improper  where local inflammation, especially of llie
brain, or of iu membranes, exisu.
  An intermittent fever, an opiate  renders the parox-
ysms  milder, and  facilitates the  cure.  Dr. Cullen
recommends  tiie union  of opium with bark, which
enables the stomach to bear tlie latter in larger doses,
and adds considerably to its efficacy.
  In the profluvia and cholera, opium is employed  to
lessen the discharge, and is  frequently the  principal
remedy in effecting the cure.  In passive heniorrhagy,
it  is useful  by iu stimulant power.  In retroccdeut
gout it is used as a powerful stimulant.
  Li convulsive and spasmodic diseases it is  advanta-
geously administered, with the view of relieving symp-
toms, or even of effecting a cure; and in several of
them it requires to be given to a very great extent.
  In lues venerea it promotes the  action of mercury,
and relieves the irritation arising either from that re-
medy, or the disease.
  in the year 1779,opium was introduced into prac-
tice as a specific against the lues venerea.  If. was em-
ployed in several of the military hospitals,  where it
acquired the reputation of a most efficacious remedy ;
and Dr. Michaelis,  physician of the Hessian  forces,
published an account of a great number of successful
experimenu made wilh it, in the first volume of the
Medical  Communications, in the year 1784.  Opium
was afterward given  as an anti-venereal remedy  in
some foreign hospitals.   Many trials were also made
.of iu virtues in several of the London hospitals, and
in the Royal Infirmary at Edinburgh.  Very favourable
reports of iu efficacy in removing venereal complaints
were published by different practitioners; but, at the
same lime, so many deductions were to be made, and
so many  exceptions were to  be admitted,  that it re-
quired little sagacity to discover, thatmostof the advo-
cates for this medicine reposed  but a slender and fluc-
tuating  confidence in  iu anti-venereal powers.  Mr.
Pearson  made  several experiments on the virtues of
opium in  lues venerea,  at  Die  Lock Hospital, in the
years 1784 and 1785; and published a  narrative of iu
effecu, in the second volume of the Medical Commu-
nications.  "The result of iny experiments," says he,
u was very unfavourable to the  credit of this  new re-
medy ; and  I believe that no surgeon in this country
relies on opium as a specific against the venereal virus.
I have been long accustomed to administer opium with
great freedom during tlie mercurial course; and the
experience of nearly twenty years has taught me, that,
when il is combined with mercury, tlie proper efficacy
of tbe latter is not iu any measure increased; that it
would not be safe to rely upon  a smaller  quantity of
the mineral specific, nor to  contract the  mercurial
course within a shorter limit than where no opium has
been employed.  This  representation  will not, I pre-
sume, admit of controversy;  yet we frequently hear
people expressing themselves upon this head, as if opi-
um manifested  some peculiar qualities  in venereal
complainU, of a distinct nature from  its  well-known
narcotic properties, aud thus afforded an important aid
to mercury in the removal of lues venerea."   Perhaps
it may not be useful to disentangle this subject from
the perplexity in which such indefinite language neces-
sarily involves it  Opium, when given in conjunction
with mercury, by diminishing  the sensibility of the
stomach and bowels,  preveuu  many  of those incon-
veniences which this  mineral is apt to excite in the
 prime vie; and thus iu admission into the general
system is facilitated.  Mercury will likewise often pro-
duce a morbid irritability, accompanied wilh restless-
 ness and insoinnolescence; and it sometimes renders
 venereal sores painful, and disposed to spread.  These
 accidental evils, not  necessarily connected with the
       153
venereal  disease,  may be commonly alleviated, ano
often entirely removed, by a judicious administration
of opium; and the  patient will consequently  be
enabled to persist in using  the mineral specific.  It,
however, must be perfectly obvious, thai opium, In
conferring this sort of relief, communicates no  addi-
tional virtues to mercury; and  that, iu  reality, it as-
sists the constitution of Ihe  patient, not the operation
of the medicine with whicli it is combined.  The salu
lary effects  of mercury as an antidote may be  dimi
nished or lost by tiie supervention of vomiting, dysen
tery, Sec.  Opium will  often correct these morbid ap
pearances, and so will spices,  wine, and appropriate
diet, &c.; yet it would be a strange  use of words to
urge, wherever these articles of food were beneficial
to a venereal  patient, that they concurred in augment-
ing the medicinal  virtues  of mercury.  It may be sup-
posed lhat the majority of medical men would under-
stand by the terms, " to  assist a  medicine in curing
a contagious  disease," that the drug conjoined  wilh
the specific actually  increased its medicinal efficacy;
whereas, in  the instances before  us, it is the human
body only which has been aided to resist tlie operution
of certain noxious powers, which  would render a per-
severance in  the  antidote prejudicial or impossible.
The soothing qualities of  this admirable medicine can
scarcely be estimated  too highly. Yet we must be
ware of ascribing  effects  to them which  have no ex-
istence; since a confidence in the  ami-venereal virtue
of opium would be  a source of greater mischief than
its most  valuable properties would be able to com-
pensate.
  Opium is employed with laxatives in colic, and often
prevenu ileus and  inflammation, by  relieving the
spasm.
  It is given also to promote healthy suppuration, and
is a principal remedy in arresting the progress of gan-
grene.
  The sudorific property of opium is justly considered
of considerable power, more especially in combination
with ipecacuan or antimony.  The compound powder
of ipecacuan, consisting of one part of ipecacuan, one
part of opium, and eight  of sulphate of potassa, is a
very powerful sudorific, given in  a dose from 15 to 25
grains.  The  combination of opium with antimony is
generally made by adding 30 to 40 drops of antimonial
wine to 25 or 30 drops of  tincture of opium, and form-
ing them into a draught.
  Opium, taken into the stomach in immoderate doses,
proves a narcotic poison, producing vertigo, tremors,
convulsions, delirium, stupor, stertor, and, finally, fatal
apoplexy.
  Where opium has been taken so as to produce these
dangerous consequences, the contenu of the stomach
are first to be evacuated by n powerful emetic, as a so-
lution  of the sulphate of zinc.   Large draughts of
vinegar, or any of the native vegetable acids, arc then
to be swallowed.   Moderate doses of brandy, or a
strong infusion of coffee,  have  also been found useful.
  Respecting the external  application of opium, authors
seem not sufficiently agreed. Some allege, that  when
applied to the skin it allays  pain  and spasm, procures
sleep, and produces  all the salutary or dangerous ef-
fecu which result from iu internal use ; while others
say, that thus applied it has little or no effect whatever.
It has also been asserted, that when mixed with caustic
it diminishes tile pain which would otherwise ensue;
and if this be true,  it is probably by  decreasing ihe
sensibility of the part.  Injected  by the rectum, it has
all the effect  of opium taken into  the stomach;  but to
answer this  purpose, double the  quantity is to be em-
ployed.  Applied to the  naked nerves of animals, it
produces immediate torpor and loss of power in all the
muscles with which the nerves communicate.
   The requisite dose of  opium varies in different per
sons and in  different states of the same jierson.  A
quarter of n  grain  will  in one adult produce effects
whicli ten times  the  quantity will not do in another ■
and a dose that might prove fatal in cholera or colic,
would not be perceptible  in many cases of tetanus, or
mania.  The lowest fatal dose to those unaccustomed
to take it, seems to be about four grains; but a dan-
geroufc dose is so  apt  to  produce vomiting, that  it has
seldom tune  to occasion death.  When  given  in too
small a  dose, it often produces disturbed sleep, and
other disagreeable consequences ;  and in ;.onie cases it
seems impeeaible to be made  to  aytee in any dose or 
PAR
PAR
♦Srm.  Often, on the other hand, from a small dose
sound  sleep and alleviation of pain will be produced ;
while  a larger one occasions vertigo  and delirium.
Some prefer the repetition of small doses; others the
giving  a full dose at once;  its operation is supposed to
last  about eight hours; this, however, must depend
upon circumstances.  The  usual dose  is one  grain.
The officinal preparations of this drug are numerous.
The following are among the principal: Opiumpuri-
ficatum, pilula saponis cum opio, pulvis cornu usti cum
opio, tinctura opii, tinctura camphora composita, and
confectio opii: it is also an ingredient in the pulvis
ipecacuanha compositus, electuarium japohicum pulvis
creta compositus cum opio, Sec.  The capsules of the
poppy  are also directed for medicinal use in the form
of fomentation ;  and in the syruflus papaveris, a use-
ful anodyne, which often succeeds in procuring sleep
where  opium  fails; it is,  however, more especially
adapted  to children.  The seeds of this  species of
poppy  contain a bland  oil, and in many places arc
eaten as food; as a medicine, they have been usually
given in the form of emulsion in catarrhs, strangu-
ries, Sec.
  Pap'aw. The fruit of  a species of carica. See
Carica papaya.
  PAPILIONACEUS.   Papilionaceous.    A  term
applied to the corolla of planU when they are irregular
and spreading, and thus resemble somewhat the butter-
fly.  The various petals which compose such a flower
ar>.' distinguished by appropriate names: vexillum, the
standard, the large one at the back; ala, the two side
petals; and carina,  the heel,  consisting of two petals
united  or separate, embracing the internal organs.
  PAPI'LLA.   (From pappus,  down.  See  Ulla.)
1. The nipple of the breast. See Nipple.
  2.  The fine terminations of nerves, &c. as the ner-
vous papilla? of the tongue, skin, &c.
  Papill.*: medullares.   Small  eminences on the
medulla oblongata.
  Papilla'ris herba. See Lapsana.
  PAPILLOSUS.  Papillose.   Applied  to stalks con-
nected  with soft tubercles;  as the ice plant, Mesembry-
anthemum crystallinum.
  PAPPOSUS.   Pappose:  furnished with a pappus
or seed-down;  as  the  seeds  of the  Leontodon ta-
raxacum.
  PAPPUS.  1. The hair  on the middle  of the chin.
See  Capillus.
  2. The seed-down.  This is restrained by Gertner to
the chaffy, feathery, or bristly crown of many seeds
lhat have no pericarpium,  and which originates in  a
partial calyx crowning the summits of each of these
seeds, and remaining after  the flower is fallen; as in
the seeds of dandelion, goats-beard.
  The same term is used by the generality of botanists
for the feathery crown of seeds furnished with a cap-
sule, ns well as for a similar appendage to the base or
sides of any seeds, neither of wliich can originate from
a calyx.  For the former of these, Gertner adopts the
term coma;  for the latter, pubes; which  last also
serves for any downiness or wool about the testa of a
seed ;  as in the cotton plant, and Blandfordia no-
bilis.
  The varieties of the pappus are,
  1. P. fessilis, on the apex of the seed, without any
footstalk; as in  Asclepias syriaca, Nerium oleander,
and Epilobium.
  2. P. stipitatus, elevated on a fooutalk; as in Le-
ontodon taraxacum.
  3. P. plumosus, when the radii of the footstalked
pappus are hairy laterally; as in  Tragopogon pra-
tense.
  Thelana pappiformis of authors is  not a pappus,
but  hairs which only surround the seed;  as in Eryo-
phorum.                        .
  PA'PULA.  (Papula, a. f.;  diminutive of pappa, a
dug or nipple.   See Ulla.) A very small and acumi-
nated elevation of the cuticle, with an inflamed base,
not  containing a  fluid, nor lending to suppuration.
The duration of papule is uncertain, but they termi-
nate for the most part in scurf.
  PARABYSMA.  (Parabysma, atis. n.; from zzapa-
6vu>, congestion,  infarction, coacervation.)  Dr. Good
has applied this  term to a  genus of diseases, (compre-
hended by Cullen and others under that of physconia,)
Clae.',  Caliaca:  Order, Splanchnica.  Visceral tur-
gescence.  It has seven specits.  Parabysma hrpati-
cum; splenicitm; pancreaticum; mesentericum; in-
testinale; omentale; complicatum
  PA'R.  (Par, aris. n; a pair.)   A pair.
  Par cucullare.   So Casserius calls the Crico-ary-
tanoid muscle.
  Par vagum.  The eighth parr of nerves.   They
arise from the corpora olivaria  of tbe  medulla ob-
longata, and proceed into the neck, thorax, and abdo-
men.  In the  neck the par vagum gives off two
branches, the lingual and superior laryngeal; and, in
the thorax, four branches, the recurrent laryngeal, the
cardiac, the pulmonary, and the oesophageal plexuses.
At length the trunks of the nervi  vagi, adjacent to the
mediastinum, run into the stomach, and there  form
the stomachic plexus, which branches to the abdomi-
nal plexuses.
  PARACELSUS,  a  native of Switzerland,  born
about the year 1403.  His father is said to have been a
practitioner in medicine, and inspired him with a laste
for chemistry.  He  very early commenced a sort of
rambling life, assuming the pompous names of Phil-
lipus, Aureolus, Theophrastus, Paracelsus, Bombas-
tus de Hohenheim;  and after visiting the  schools of
France, Italy, and  Germany, he  sought for Informa
tion  during several  years among quacks of every de-
scription, pretending that he had  found the principles
of the medical  art altogether erroneous.  He appears
to have possessed the talent of imposing upon man-
kind in an eminent degree; for even the learned Eras-
mus  is said to have consulted him. It cannot be a
matter of surprise, that, by the bold use of active me-
dicines, especially mercury, antimony, and  opium, he
should have effected some remarkable cures:  these
cases were  displayed with the  usual exaggeration,
while those, in which he failed, or did mischief, passed
unnoticed.  His reputation, however, became so great,
tbat  the magistrates  of Basle engaged him, at a large
salary, to fill the chair of medicine in their university.
Accordingly,  in 1527, he  began  delivering lectures,
sometimes in barbarous Latin, oftener  in German;
but, though he gained at first some enthusiastic adhe-
rents, the ridiculous vanity which he displayed, de-
spising every other authority in medicine, whether
ancient or modern, soon created such disgust, that he
was  left  without an audience.   A quarrel with the
magistrates,  on  account of a decision against his de-
mand of  fees, which was deemed exorbitant, decided
him  in the following year to leave the place. He sub-
sequently resided in Alsace, and  other parte of Ger
many, leading a life of extreme intemperance, in the
lowest company; yet occasional instances of extraor-
dinary success in his practice still preserved him some
reputation, notwithstanding numerous failures.  But
the most striking proof of the folly of his pretensions
was  given in his own  person; for, after announcing
that  he was  in possession of an  elixir which would
prolong human life to an indefinite period, he died at
Saltzburg, in 1541, of a fever.  It must  be acknow-
ledged, however, that Paracelsus was of material ser-
vice  to medicine, by showing that many active  medi-
cines might  be  safely employed; and particularly as
having been one of the first to exhibit mercury in the
cure of syphilis, which had been in vain attempted by
the  Galenical remedies then in  use. He published
little during his life, but a great number of posthumous
treatises  appeared under his name, which  are too re-
plete with absurdities to deserve enumeration.
  PARACENTE'SIS.   (From aapaxtvreia, to pierce
through.) The operation of tapping to evacuate the
water in  ascites, dropsy of' the ovarium, &c.
  Paracma'sticos.   (From  irapaKpaX,ia,  to decline.)
Par acme. The declension of any distemper; also, ac-
cording to Galen, that  part of life where a person is
said  to grow old, and which he reckons from 35 to 49,
when he is said to be old.
  PARA'COE.  (From  trapa, diminutive, and  axovta,
to hear.)   Dulness of hearing.
  Paracolle'tica.   (From irapaxoXXaopai, to glue
together.) Agglutinants, or substances which unite
parts preternaturally separated.
  Para'cope.   (From 7rapn»cojrnij, to be delirious.) In
Hippocrates, it is a slight delirium.
  Paracrusis.  (From  irapaxpovia, to deprecatj.)  A
slight disarrangement of the faculties, where the pa-
tient is inattentive to what is said  fo him.
  PARACU'SIS.   (From irapa, wrong, and axovta, to
hear.) Depraved hearing.   Deafness.   A penus  of 
PAR
PAR
disease in the class Locales, and  order Dysesthesia,
of Cullen.  It is occasioned by any tiling  that proves
injurious to the ear, as loud noises from the firing of
cannnu, violent colds, particularly affecting the head,
inflammation or ulceration of the  membrane,  hard
wax, or oilier substances interrupting sounds, too great
a dryness, or too much moisture iu the paru; or by
atony, debility, or paralysis of the  auditory nerves.
In some  instances it  ensues in consequence of pre-
ceding diseases, such as fever, syphilis,  Sec. and in
others it depends upon an original defect in the struc-
ture or formation of the ear.  In  the last instance, the
person is  usually not  only deaf,  but likewise dumb.
There are two species.
  1. Paracusis imperfecta;  Surditas.  Wheu existing
h >unds are not heard as usual.
  2 Paracusis  imaginaria, called also Sussurus ; Sy-
rigmus;  Syringmos;  Tinnitus aurium.   When ima-
ginary sounds are heard, not from without, but excited
within the ear.
  PARACYESIS.   (From irapa, male;  and xvnois,
graviditas.)  The  name of a genus of  diseases in
Good's Nosology; Class, Genctica;  Order, Carpotica.
Morbid pregnancy.  It has three species, viz. Para-
cyesis irritativa, utcrina, abortus.
  Paracyna'nche.   (From rapa, xviav,  a  dog, and
aXx<a, to strangle.)  A species of quinsy.   See Cy-
nanehe.
  PARADI'SUS.   (Hebrew.)   A  pungent  seed re-
sembling the cardamom, named from iu virtues.  See
Amomum.
  Paradisi orana.  See Amomum.
  PARAGEUSIS.   (From Trapa,  male, ytvta, gustum
prabeo.)   The name of a genus of diseases iu Good's
Nosology: Class, Neurotica; Order, ASsthetica.  Mor-
bid tasle.  It comprehends three species, viz. Parageu-
sis acuta, obtusa, expers.
  Paraolo'ssa.   (From   irapa, and  yXtactoa,  the
tongue.)   A prolapsus of the tongue, a swelled tongue.
  Paraoo'ge.   (From  irapayia,  to  adduce.)   This
term signifies that fitness of the hones to one another,
which is discernible in their articulation; and bones
which are thereby easier of reduction, when dislocated,
are by Hippocrates called mpaytayortpa.
  Parala'mpsis. (From irapaXapirta, to shine a little.)
Some writers use this word to express a cicatrix fo the
transparent part of the cornea of the eye.
  Paralla'gma.  (From irapdXXarrta, to change. Pa-
rallaxis.  The  transmutation of  a  solid part from its
proper place, as where one part of a broken  bone lies
over another.
  Paralla'xis. See  Parallagma.
  Paralle'la.  (From TrapaXAr/Xos, parallel.)  A sort
of scurf or leprosy, affecting only  the palms of the
hands, and running down them in parallel lines.
  PARALOGIA.   (From irapaXtyia, to talk absurdly.)
A delirium in which the patient talks wildly.
  Paralo'phia. (From irapa, near, and Xo0ia, the
first vertebra of the back.)   The lower and lateral part
of the neck near the vertebre, according to some anato-
mical writers, as Keil, &c.
  PARA'LYSIS.   (From -rcapaXvia, to loose, or weak-
en.)  Catalysis;  Attonitus morbus; Tremor.  The
palsy.  A genus of  disease in  the Class JVeuro«e*,
and Order Comata, of Cullen, known by a loss or di-
minution of the power of voluntary motion, affecting
certain parts ofthe body, often acompanied with drow-
siness.  In some instances, the disease is confined to a
particular part; but it more usually happens that one
entire side of the body from the head downwards is
affected.  The species are:
   1. Paralysis partialis, partial, or palsy of some par-
ticular muscle.
   2. Paralysis hemiplegica, palsy of one  side longitu-
dinally.
   3. Paralysis paraplegiea, palsy of one half of the
bodv, taken transversely, as both legs and thighs.
   4. Paralysis venenata, from the sedative  effecte of
poisons.   Paralysis is also symptomatic of several dis-
eases, as worms, scrofula, syphilis, Sec.
   It may arise in  consequence  of an attack of apo-
plexy.  It may likewise be occasioned by any thing
that  prevenu the flow of the nervous power from the
brain into the organs of motion;  hence tumours, over-
dUtention, and effusion, often give rise to it.  It may
also be occasioned by translations of morbid matter to
the head, by the suppression of usual evacuations, and
      154
by tne pressure made on tha nerves by motions, frao
lures, wounds, or other extemnl Injuries.  The long-
continued application of sedatives will  likewise pro-
duce palsy, as we  find those, whose occupations  sub-
ject them to the constant handling of white lead, and
those who are much exposed to the poisonous fumes of
metals or minerals, are very apt to be aUacked with it.
Whatever tends to relax and enervate the system,  may
likewise prove an occasional cause of this disease.
  Palsy usually comes on  with a sudden and imme-
diate Iobs ofthe motion and sensibility of the parts;
but, in a few instances, it is preceded by a numbness,
coldness, and paleness, and sometimes by slight convul-
sive twitches.  When the head  is much affected, the
eye and mouth are drawn on one side, the memory and
judgment are  much impaired, and the speech Is indis-
tinct and incoherent.  If the disease  oflecte the extre-
mities, and  has been of long duration, it not only pro-
duces a loss of motion and sensibility, but likewise  a
considerable flaccidity and wasting away in the mus-
cles of the paru affected.
  When palsy attacks any vital part, such as the brain,
heart, or lungs, it  soon terminates fatally.  When it
arises as aconsequence of apoplexy, itgenerally proves
very difficult to cure.  Paralytic affections of the lower
extremities ensuing from any injury done to the spinal
marrow, by blows  and other accidenu,  usually prove
incurable.   Palsy, although a dangerous disease in
every instance, particularly at an advanced period of
life, is  sometimes removed  by tlie  occurrence  of  a
diarrhoea or fever.
  The morbid appearances to be observed on dissec-
tions in palsy are pretty similar to those which are to
be  met with  in apoplexy; hence collections of blood,
and of serous fluids, are often found effused on the
brain, but more frequently  the latter; and in some in-
stances ihe substance of this organ seems to have suf-
fered an alteration.   In  palsy, as well as in apoplexy
the collection  of extravasated fluid is generally on the
opposite side of the brain.lo that which is affected.
  The general indications are, to remove, as far as pos-
sible, any compressing  cause,  and to rouse gradually
the torpid portion of the nervous system.  It will some-
times be proper, where the attack is sudden, the dis-
ease originating in the head, with great  determination
of blood to that part, particularly in a plethoric habit,
to open the temporal artery, or jugular vein, or apply
cupping glasses to the neck, and exhibit  active purges,
 wilh the other means pointed out under apoplexy.
 But where the patient is advanced  in life, of a debili-
 tated constitution, and not too  full of blood, the object
 should  rather be to  procure regular and healthy dis-
 charges from the bowels, obviate irritation in the brain
 by blisters in  the neighbourhood, and  procure a steady
 determination to the skin  by gently stimulant diapho-
 retics,  as ammonia, guaiacum. Sec. in moderate  doses
 regularly persevered in. Emetics have been sometimes
 very useful under  these circumstances,  but would be
 dangerous where  congestion  in the brain  existed.
 Certain narcotic substances have been found occasion-
 ally successful, as aconite, arnica, toxicodendron, nux
 vomica,and opium; but the tendency of the latter  to
 produce fulness of the vessels of the head must greatly
 limit ite use.  Various local means  of  increasing the
 circulation, and nervous energy in the  affected  parts,
 are resorted to in this complaint, often with  decided
 benefit.  In all cases it is  proper to  keep up sufficient
 warmth in the limb, or the disease may be rendered in-
 curable.  But in addition to this,  in tedious cases, fo-
 mentations, the vapour bath, friction, electricity,  and a
 variety of stimulant, rubefacient, or even vesicatory,
 embrocations, liniments, and plasters, may assist mate-
 rially in the recovery of  the patient.  In the use  of
 some of these it should be a  rule  to begin  near the
 boundary ofthe disease, and carry them onward, as the
 amendment proceeds, notonly as they will be more likely
 to answer a good purpose, but also because there would
 be some risk  in stimulating too powerfully an extreme
 part.  A suitable diet, according lo the habit of the pa-
 tient, warm clothing, tbe prudent use of the bath, and
 other means calculated to  strengthen tbe system, must
 not be neglected.
   Paralysis herda.  (From irapaXvia,  to weaken:  so
 called from iu use in  paralytic disorders.)  The cow
 slip and primrose  are sometimes so termed.  See Pri-
 mula veris, and Primula vulgaris.
   PARAMENIA.  (From rapa, wrong, and pnv, tiie 
PAR
PAR
menses.)  The name of a genus of diseases in Good's
Nosology.   Class, Genetica; Order, Cenotica.  Mis-
menslruation.  It has five species, viz. Paramenia ob-
structions, difficilis, superfiuus, erroris, cessationis.
  Parame'ria.  (From Trapa, near, and  urjpoc, the
•high.)  The inward paru of the thigh.
  Para'mesus.   (From trapa,  near,  and ptoos, the
middle.)  The ring-finger, or that which is between
the middle and the little fingers.
  PARAMO'RPHLE. (Fronnrapa, wrong, and/iopr^n,
form.)  The name of a class of diseases of the nutri-
tive powers in Dr. Young's Nosology.  Diseases of
Structure.
  PARANEURISMI. (From irapa, wrong, and vtvpov,
a nerve.)   The name given by Dr. Young to a class of
diseases.  Nervous diseases.
  [" Paranthine of  Hauy, or Scapolite  of Jameson.
This rare mineral,sometimes massive, usually appears
in long prismatic crystals, having  four or eight sides.
The latter form,  which may be  called a  four-sided
prism, truncated on iu lateral edges, is sometimes ter-
minated by four-sided summits, whose  faces are  in-
clined to the alternate lateral planes, on which they
stand, at angles of 120°.  The primitive form is a four-
sided prism, which is very easily  divisible, parallel to
the  diagonals of its bases, wliich are squares.  The
crystals, usually long,  sometimes cylindrical or acicu-
lar, are often in groupes, composed of parallel, diverg-
ing, or intermingled prisms.
  The longitudinal fracture  is foliated;  indeed, some
crystals might be mistaken for little plates of mica, ar-
ranged in the direction of iu axis.  The cross fracture
is often uneven.
  The Scapolite presenU a  considerable diversity of
colour, lustre, and hardness, whicli appears to arise in
part from  a partial decomposition, perhaps the loss of
the  water of crystallization."—Cleav. Min.   A.]
  Paranoe'a.  (From irapa,  diminutive, and votia, to
understand.) Paranoia.  Alienation of mind; defect
of judgment.
  Parape'chyum.  (From irapa, near, and  irvx«S, the
cubit.) That part of the arm from the elbow to the wrist.
  PARAPHIMOSIS.  (From raapa, about, and ipi/ioia,
to bridle.)   A disorder wherein the prepuce, being re-
tracted towards the root ofthe penis, cannot be returned
again over the glans, but mokes a sort of ligature be-
hind the corona.   It is easily known; the glans is un-
covered, the skin tumefied on the corona, and above it
forms a circular collar  or stricture, wliich, from the
skin being  unequally extended, becomes indented, and
makes several rings round the part. This disease may
proceed from two causes; as first from the imprudence
of young people, and sometimes also of grown persons,
who llfcviug the end of their  prepuce too straight, can-
not  uncover their glans without pain, and when they
have done it, neglect returning it so soon as they ought;
and thus the contracted part of the prepuce forms a
constriction behind the  glans.  Soon after,  the glans
and penis  swell, and the prepuce,  being consequently
very much distended, is affected in the same  manner;
an inflammation seizes upon both, and swellings quickly
appear upon the stricture formed  by the prepuce, so
that the whole  may  be liable to  a gangrene, if not
speedily relieved.   The second thing that may produce
a paraphimosis, is a venereal virus.  In adults, whose
glans is uncovered,  there  frequently arise  venereal
chancres in the  prepuce after impure coition,  which
before they digest, arc generally attended with inflam-
mation, more or less considerable.  This inflammation
is alone sufficient to render the prepuce too straight for
the size of the penis, in consequence of whicli a swell-
ing or inosculation may ensue  like that before  men-
tioned ; and this is what is termed  a paraphimosis.
  PARAPHO'NIA.   (From crapa, wrong, and tbiavr/,
sound.)  Alteration of the voice.  A genus of disease
in the Class Locales, and Order Dyscinesia, of Cullen,
comprehending six species, viz.
  1. Paraphonia puberum.  About tiie age of puberty
the change of voice from an acute and soft to a grave
and harsh tone.
  2. Paraphonia rauea.  The voice hoarse and rough
from dryness of flaccid tumour of the fauces.
  3. Paraphonia resonans. Rough voice from obstruc-
tion of the nares, with hissing sound in the nose.
  4. Paraphonia palatina.  From the uvula wanting,
or divided, and commonly attended with hare-lip, tiie
voice rough, obscure, and disagreeable.
  5.  Paraphonia clangens. An acute, shrill, and weak
toned voice.
  6.  Paraphonia comatosa.  A sound emitted at inspi-
ration from relaxation of the velum palati, and of the
glottis.
  Para'phora.  (From mpatbtpta,  to transfer.)   A
slight kind of delirium, or light-headedness in a fever.
Some use this word for a delirium in general.
  Paraphrene'sis.  A delirium ; also a paraphrenitis.
  PARAPHRENIAS.  (From irapa, male, not rightly,
and phrcnitis, inflammation of the brain: so called be-
cause its symptoms resemble those of the  phrenitis, or
inflammation of the brain, which it is not.)  Paraphrt-
nesis; Diaphragmatitis.  An inflammation of the dia-
phragm.  A genus of disease in the Class  Pyrexia, and
Order Phlegmasia, of Cullen, known  by  delirium,
with difficulty of breathing, and pain in  the region or
the diapliragm, and which requires the same treatment
as inflammation of the lungs.
  P ARAPHRO'SYNE.   (From irapa^pov**, to be es-
tranged in mind.) The same as  Mania.
  Paraphymo'sis.  See Paraphimosis.
  PARAPLEGIA.   (From  irapairXnooco,  to strike
inhnrtnoniously.)  Palsy of one half of the body taken
transversely.  A species of  paralysis.  See Paralysis.
  Parapople'xia.  (From irapa, diminutive, and avo-
irXnfya, an apoplexy.)  A slight apoplexy.
  PARAPS1S.  (From irapa,  and atrropat, perperam
tango.)   The name of a genus  of diseases in Good's
Nosology, Class Neurotica; Order JEslhetica.  Mor-
bid touch.  It embraces three species, Par apsis acris,
expers, illusoria.
  Pararthre'ma.  (From rapa, and apBpov, a joint.)
A slight  luxation.  A  tumour from  protrusion, as in
hernia.
  Pararthre'mata.  (The plural of pararthrema.)
See Pararthrema.
  Parary'thmos.  (From irapa, and pvBpos, number.)
A pulse not suitable to the age of the person
  Parascepa'stra.   (From  irapa,  and cxtirayo, to
cover.)   A cap or  bandage to  go  round the whole
head.
  Para'schide.  (From irapa, and oxiSu,t0 cleave.)
A fragment or fissure in a broken bone.
  Parasite.   The name of an order of planU in Lin-
neus's Fragments of a Natural Method.
  PARASITIC.   (Parasiticus;  from irapar/iToj   a
parasite  or hanger on.)  An animal is so termed that
receives iu nourishment  in the bodies of others;  as
worms, polypes, hydatids, &c.
  A plant is so  called  which sends ite rooU into other
plants, from which it  draws its nourishment; as the
Epidendrum vanilla.  See Arrhizus.
  PARASITICUS.  Parasitical.
  PARASITUS. (LTapaairoc, a parasite.) A parasite:
applied to animals and vegetables which draw their
nourishment from others of the same kingdom, living
within the interior of animals,  or having their roots
fixed in the barks of vegetables.
  Para'sphagis.  (From irapa,  near, and otbayn, the
throat.)  The part of the neck contiguous to the cla-
vicles.
  Para'stata.  (From irapts^ipt,  to stand near.)  It
signifies any thing situated near another.
  Para'stata.  (From irapiornpi,  to  stand near.)
The   Epididymis of Hippocrates.   Herophilus  and
Galen called these the  Varicosa, Parastata, to distin-
guish them from the Glandula Parastata, now called
Prostata. Rufus Ephesius called the tube Fallopiane
by the name of Parastata Varicosa.
  Parastre'mma.  (From  tzapaorpetbto,  to distort, or
pervert.)   A perversion, or convulsive distortion ofthe
mouth, or any part of the face.
  Parasyna'nche.  See Paracynanche.
  PARA'THENAR.   (From  irapa,  near, and Stvap,
the sole of the foot.)  A muscle  situated  near the sole
of the foot.
  Parathenar minor.   See Flexor brevis minimi
digiti pedis.
  PARANTHINE.  See Scapolite.
  Parda'lium.  (From irapSos, the panther.)   An
ointment smelling like the panther.
  PARE', Ambrose, a French surgeon,  was born at
Lavel, in 1509.  He commenced the study of the sur-
gical  profession early in life, and  practised it with
great zeal both in hospitals and in the army.  His re-
putation at length rose very high, and he was appoint- 
PAR
PAR
ed surgeon inordinary to Henry II. in 1552 ; which
office he held also under the three succeeding kings.
Charles IX. derived material assistance from his pro-
fessional skill, and gave a signal proof of his gratitude;
for Pare, being a Huguenot, would have been included
in the horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew's, had not
the king sent  for him on the preceding night, and or-
dered him not to leave the royal chamber.  After hav-
ing been long esteemed as the first surgeon of his time,
and beloved for his private virtues, he died in the year
1590.  He was tbe author of  some works, which were
universally read, and translated  into mosl of the lan-
guages of Europe, containing a  body of surgical sci-
ence.  He was a man of original mind, and a real im-
prover of his  art, especially in the treatment of gun-
shot wounds; adopting a lenient method, instead of
the irritating and cauterizing applications previously
in use.  He was also a bold  and successful operator;
and displayed on many occasions all the resources of
an enlightened  surgeon.   He appears, however,  to
have borrowed freely from the Italian writers and prac-
titioners, especially in anatomy. There  is also an
affectation of reference to the works of ihe anciente in
hu writings, for he was by  no  means well versed in
these, and indeed obliged to request another to translate
into  French  some of the books  of Galen, which he
wished to consult.
  PAREC'CRISES. (From irapa, wrong, and txxpivia,
to secern or secrete.)  The name of a class of diseases
in Dr. Young's Nosology.—Diseases of secretion.
  PAREGORIC.  (Paregoricus; from rsapayoptia, to
mitigate, to assuage.)  That  which allays pain.
  Paregoric dixir. See Tinctura camphora composita.
  Parei'a. Ilapeia. That part of the face which  is
between the eyes and chin.
  Parei'ra brava.  See Cissampelos.
  Parence'phalis. (From oapa, near, and eyxttpaXos,
the brain.)  See Cerebellum.
  PARE'NCHYMA.   (From  iraptyvvia,  to strain
through; because the ancients believed the blood was
strained through it)  1. The spongy  and cellular sub-
stance or tissue, that connects parte together.  It is ap-
plied to the connecting  medium of the substance of
tbe viscera.
  2. The green juicy layer of barks which lies immedi-
ately under the epidermis of trees.
  PA'RESIS.  (From trapinpi, to relax.)  An imper-
fect  palsy.
  rARGASITE.  Common  actynolite.
  PARHAEMA'SIAS.  (From irapa, wrong, and aiua,
blood.)  The  name of a class of diseases in  Dr.
Young's Nosology.  Sanguine diseases.
  Parie'ra  brava.   (A Spanish word.)  See Cis-
sampelos.
  PARIETALE OS.   (Parietalis;  from  paries,  a
wall: because tbey defend the brain like walls.) Ossa
vertiris.  Ossa sincipitis.   Ossa verticalia vel breg-
matis.  The parietal bones are two arched and some-
what quadrangular bones, situated one on each side of
the  superior  part of the cranium.    Each of these
bones forms an irregular square.  They  are  thicker
above than below; but are somewhat thinner, and  at
the same time  more equal and smooth than the other
bones of the cranium.  The only foramen we observe
in them, is a small one towards the upper and posterior
part of each.  It has been named the parietal foramen,
and serves for the transmission of a small vein to the
longitudinal sinus.  In many subjecu this foramen is
wanting.   On the inner surface of these bones are llie
marks of the vessels of the  dura mater,  and of the
convoluted surface of the brain.  On the  inside  of
their upper edge we may likewise observe a consider-
able furrow,  which corresponds with the longitudinal
sinus  of the dura mater; and  lower  down, towards
their posterior and inferior angle, U a smaller one for
part of the lateral sinuses.  These bones are joined  to
each other by the sagittal suture; lo the os sphenoides,
and ossa temporum, bv the squamous suture; to the  os
occipitis by  the lam'bdoidal suture;  and to the  os
 frontis by the coronal  suture.  Their connexion with
 this latter bone is well  worthy our attention.   We
 shall find, that in tho middle of the  suture, where the
os frontis from  iu size and flatness is the most in dan-
 ger of being injured, it resu  noon the arch formed by
 the  parietal bones; whereas, at  the  sides, the parietal
tones are  found resting upon the os frontis, because
 this same arch is there in  the  greatest danger from
       156
 pressure.   In new-born infante, the ossa partetalia are
 separated from the middle of tiie divided os frontis by
 a portion of the cranium, then uuossified.  When the
 finger is applied to this part, the motion of the brain,
 and the pulsation of the arteries of the dura mater.
 may be easily distinguished.   In general, the whole of
 this part is completely ossified before we are seven
 years of age.
  PARIETA'RIA.   (From paries, a wall; because
 it grows  upon old  walls,  among rubbish.)  1. The
 name of a genus of plants in the  Linnean system.
 Class, Polygamia; Order, Monacia.
  2. The  pharmacopoeial name of the wall pellitory.
 See Parietaria officinalis.
  Parietaria  officinalis.   The systematic name of
 the wall pellitory.  Parietaria; foliislanceolato-ova-
 tis, pedunculis  dichotomis, calycibus diphyllis. of Lin-
 neus.  This plant has no smell, and its taste is simply
 herbaceous.  In the  practice of tbe present day, it is
 wholly laid aside, although it was formerly in high
 estimation as a diuretic.
  PA'RIS.  (So called in reference to the youth of
 that name, who adjudged the  golden apple to Venus,
 this herb  bearing but one seed.)  1. The name of a
 genus of plants in tbe Linnean system.  Class, Octan-
 dria; Order, Tetragynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the herb Paris.  See
 Paris quadrifolia.
  Paris quadrifolia.  The  systematic name of the
 herb Paris, or true love.   The  colour and smell of this
 plant indicate  ite possessing  narcotic powers.  The
 leaves and berries are said to be efficacious in the cure
 of hooping-cough, and to act  like opium.  Great cau-
 tion is requisite in their exhibition, as convulsions and
 death are caused by an overdose.  The root possesses
 emetic qualities.
  Pari'sthmia.  (From zsapa, and icQpiov, the part of
 the throat where the  tonsils are.  A  part of the throat
 near the tonsils, or disorders of the tonsils.
  Paristhmio'tomus.  (From aapioBpia, the tonsils,
 and rtpvia, to  cut.)  An  instrument with which the
 tonsils were formerly scarified.
  Paristhmitis.  Inflammation of parts about  the
 fauces.
  Parodo'ntis. (From oapa, near, and orJouj, a tooth.)
 A painful tubercle upon the gums.
  PARODYNIA.  (From napa,  male,  and  taStv,  or
 iaSis- ivos, dolor parturientis.)  The name of a genus
 of  disease in Good's Nosology.  Class,  Genetica;  Or-
 der, Carpotica. Morbid  labour.   It embraces seven
 species, viz. Parodynia atonica ; implastica ; sympa-
 thetica ; perversa; amorphica; pleuralis ; secundaria.
  PARONIRIA.   (From irapa, and ovetpov, a dream,
 i. e. depraved, disturbed, or morbid dreaming.)  The
 name of a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology. Class,
 Neurotica; Order, Phrenica.  Sleep, disturbance.  It
 has three species, viz. Paroniria ambulans; loquens,
 and salax.
   PARONY'CHIA.   (From  isapa, about, and owl,
 the nail.)   Panaris; Panaritium.  A whitlow, or
 whitloe.  Any collection of pus formed in the fingers
 is termed by authors, panaris, or whitloe, and is an ab-
 scess of the same nature with those arising in other
 paru of the body. These abscesses are situated more
 or less deep, which has induced the writers upon the
 subject to divide them into  several species: accord-
 ingly they hove ranged them  under four heads, agree-
 ably to the places where they are formed.  The first
 kind of panaris is formed under the cuticle, on one
 side  of the nail, and sometimes all round it.   Tho
 second is seated in the fat lying under the skin, between
 that and the sheath which involves the flexor tendons.
 The third is described by authors to be formed witliin
 the sheath; and they still add a fourth species, arising
 between the periosteum and the bone.
   Paro'pi*.   (From aapa,  near, and  ui/>, the eye.)
 The external angles of the eyes.
  PAROPSIS.  (From irapa, male, and oif-if, visus,
 sight.)  The name of a genus of diseases In Good'
 Nosology.  Class, Neurotica; Order, Phrenica.  Mor
 bidsight.   It has thirteen secies; viz. Paropsis luci.
 fuga; noctifuga; longingua ;propingua ; lateralis;
 illusoria; caligo; glaucosis; calarradi; synizesis;
 amaurosis ; staphyloma  ; and strabismus.
   Paropte'sis.  (From  irapa, and oir"Jaia, to roast.)
 A provocation of sweat, by making a patient approach
I the fire, or by placing him in a bagnio 
PAR
PAS
  Parora'sis.   (From sapa, diminutive, and opaw, to
see.)  An imbecility of sight.
  PARORCHI'DIUM.  (from jrapa, and opxis, a tes-
 ticle.)  A tumour in the groin, occasioned by the tes-
ticle,  which is passing into the scrotum.
  PAROSMIS.   (From  irapa, male,  bad;  and o$o>,
elfacio,  to smell.)  The name of a genus of diseases in
Good's  Nosology.  Class, Neurotica; Order, (Esthe-
tica;  Morbid smell.  It has three species; viz. Paros-
mis acris, obtusa, and expers.
  PAROSTIA.   (From  irapa, and  oortov,  a  bone.)
The name of a genus of diseases in  Good's Nosology.
Class, Eccritica;  Order, Mesolica.   Misossification.
Its species arc two, viz. Parostia fragilis, and flexus.
  PAROTID  GLAND.   (Parotideus;  from  irapa,
about, and ouf, the ear.)  Glandula parotidea; Paro-
tis.  A  large conglomerate and salival gland, situated
under the ear, between  the  mamillary process of the
temple bone and the angle ofthe lower jaw.   The ex-
cretory duct of this gland opens in the mouth, and is
called, from  ils discoverer, the Stenonian duct.
  Parotide'a.  (From zsapians,  the parotid gland.)
The trivial name of a species of quinsy,  in which the
parotid gland, neck, and throat, are considerably affect-
ed.  See Cynanehe parotidea.
  PARO'TIS.  (From zzapa, near, and ouc, the ear.)
See Parotid gland.
  PAROTITIS.   Inflammation of the parotid gland.
See Cynanehe parotidea.
  PAROXYSM.  (Paroxysmus; from iSapo\vvia,  to
aggravate.)   1.  An obvious  increase of the  symp-
toms of a disease wliich lasts a certain time and then
declines.
  2. A periodical attack or fit of a disease.
  Parsley, black mountain.   See  Athamanta oreose-
linum.
  PARSLEY.   See Apium petroselinum.
  Parsley, Macedonian.   See Bubon macedonicum.
  PARSNIP.  See Pastinaca sativa.
  Parsnip, water.  See Sium modiflorum.
  Parthenia'strum.   (Diminutive of  parthenium,
tansy.)  A species of parthenium.
  Pa'rthenis.   The same as parthenium.
  PARTHENIUM.   (From  zsapBtvos, a virgin:  so
called because of its uses in diseases of young women.)
See Matricaria parthenium.
  Parthenium mas.  See Tanacetum.
  Partitus.  A botanical term: partite, cut, as it
were, almost to the base, and according to the number
of  incisions;  bipartite  when two, tripartite when
three, quadripartite when four, quinquepartite when
five, &c.
  [Partridge berry. See Gaultheria.  A.]
  PARTURITION.   Parturilio;  from pario.  The
expulsion of the  fcetus from the uterus.
  After  seven months of pregnancy,  the  foetus has all
the conditions for breathing, and exercising  iu diges-
tion;  it may then be separated from its mother, and
change ite mode  of existence ;  childbirth rarely, how-
ever, happens al  this period: most frequently the foetus
remains two months longer in the uterus, and it does
not pass out of this organ till after the revolution  of
nine months.
  Examples are related of children being'born after
ten full months  of gestation, but these cases are very
doubtful, for It is very difficult to know exactly the
period of conception.   The legislation, in Ffance, how-
ever,  has fixed the principle, that childbirth may take
place  the 299th day of pregnancy.
  Nothing is  more curious  than  the mechanism by
which the foetus  is expelled; every thing happens with
wonderful precision; all seems to have been foreseen,
and calculated to favour iu passage through the pelvis,
and the  genital paru.
  The physical  causes that  determine the exit of the
foetus are the contraction ofthe uterus, and that ofthe
abdominal muscles; by  their force  the  liquor amnii
flows out, the head of the foetus u engaged in the pel-
vis, it goes through it, and soon passes out by tbe valve,
the  folds of which disappear; these different phenome-
na  take place in succession, and continue a  certain
time:  they are accompanied with pains  more or less
severe, with swelling  and softening of the soft parte
of the pelvis, and external genital parts, and with an
abundant mucous secretion in tlie cavity ofthe vagina.
All these circumstances, each in ite  own way, favour
tbe passage of the foetus.
  To facilitate the study of this complicated action, it
must be divided into several periods.
  The first period of childbirth.—it  is constituted  by
tbe precursory signs  Two or three days before child-
birth, a flow of micus takes place  from  the vagina,
the external genital parts swell, and become softer; it
is the same with the ligaments that unite the bones of
the pelvis | the cervix uteri flattens,  its opening is en-
larged, its edges become thinner; slight pains, known
under the name of flying pains, are felt in the loins
and abdomen.
  Second period.—Pains of a peculiar kind come on:
they begin in the lumbar region, and seem to be propa-
gated towards the cei-vix  uteri, or the  rectum; they
are renewed only after considerable intervals, as a
quarter, or half an hour.  Each of them is accompa-
nied with an evident contraction  of the  body of the
uterus, with tension of iu  neck, and dilatation of the
opening; the finger directed into the vagina discovers
that the envelopes of the fcetus  are  pushed outward,
and that there is a considerable tumour which is called
the  waters: the pains very soon become stronger, and
the contractions of the uterus  more powerful; the
membranes break, and  a part of the liquid escapes;
the uterus contracu on iuelf, and is applied to the sur-
face of the foetus.
  Third period.—The pains and  contractions of the
uterus increase considerably;  they  are instinctively
accompanied by the contraction of the abdominal mus-
cles.  The woman who is aware of their effect is in-
clined to favour them, in making all  Ihe muscular
efforu of which she is capable: her pulse then becomes
stronger and more frequent; her face is animated, her
eyes shine, her whole body  Is in  extreme agitation,
perspiration flows in abundance.  The head is then
engaged in tbe pelvis; the occiput, placed at first above
Ihe  left acetabulum, is directed inward and  down-
ward, and comes below and behind the arch of the
pubis.
  Fourth period.—After some instants of repose, the
pains and expulsive contractions resume all their ac-
tivity ; the head presents iuelf at the vulva, makes an
effort to pass, and succeeds when there happens to be a
contra  -on sufficiently  strong to produce this effect.
The head being once disengaged, the remaining parts
of the body easily follow on  account of their smaller
volume.  The section of the umbilical cord is  then
made, and a ligature is put round it at a short distance
from the umbilicus.
  Fifth period,—If the accoucheur has not proceeded
immediately to the extraction of the placenta after the
birth of the child, slight pains are felt in a short time,
tiie  litems contracts freely, but with force enough  to
throw off the placenta, and the membranes  of the
ovum: this  expulsion bears the name of  delivery
During  the twelve or fifteen days that follow child
birth, the uterus  contracu by degrees upon iuelf, the
woman suffers  abundant perspirations, her mamma
are  extended by the  milk that they secrete; a flow of
matter,  which takes place from  the vagina, called
lochia, first sanguiferous, then whitish, indicates that
the  organs of the woman resume, by degrees, the dispo-
sition that they had  before conception."—Magendie.
  PARU'LIS.   (From  tsapa, near, and ovAov, the
gum.)  An inflammation, boil, or abscess in the gums.
  PARURIA.  (From irapco,  perperam, and ovpeta, to
make water.)  The name  of a genus of diseases  in
Good's Nosology.  Class, Eccritica; Order, Catotica.
Mismicturition.   It embraces seven species, viz. JParu-
ria  inops ; retentionis; stillatitia; mellita; inconti-
nens ; incocta, and erratica
  Pary'gron.   (From nrapa, and  vypos, humid.)  A
liquid or moist preparation for allaying a topica'l in
flammation.
  Pasi'philus.   (From vsas,  all, and tjuXos, grateful,
from  ite general  usefulness.)  A name given  to a
plaster.
  Pa'sma.  (From zsaaota, to sprinkle over.)   See
Catapasma.
  PA'SSA.  (From pando, to spread.)
  1. A grape or raisin.
  2. Li Paracelsus it is a whitloe.
  Passa minor.  See Uva passa minor.
  Passava'nticits.  (From zzas, all, and auaivw,  to
dry  up.)  An epithet given by Schroder to a powder,
which dries up, and evacuates morbid humours.
  PASSIFLORA.  (Altered by Linneus, from floe
                                        157 
                       PAS

  piuxtont* of preceding botanists: a term applied to the
  beautiful genus In question, because the instrumenu
  nf Christ's passion were  thought to be represented in
  the pans of tbe fructification.)  The name of a genua
  of plante in the Linnean system.  Class,  Gyandria;
  Order, Pentandria.
    Passiflora  lacrifolia.    Bay-leaved  passion-
  flower.  A native of Surinam.   The fruit of this tree
  grows to tlie size of a small  lemon, which it greatly
  resembles.  It has a delicious smell and flavour, and is
  excellent for quenching thirst, abating heat of the sto-
  mach, increasing the appetite, recruiting the spirits, and
  allaying the heat in fevers.
    Passiflora maliformis.  Apple-shaped granadilla.
  The fruit of this species of passion-flower is esteemed
  a delicacy in the West Indies, where it is served up at
  table in  desserts. They are not unwholesome.
    PASSION.   (Passio, onis. f.; from^atior, to suffer.)
  By passion, is generally understood an instinctive feel-
  ing become extreme and  exclusive.  A man of strong
  passion neither hears, sees, nor  exisU, but through the
  feeling whicli agitates him;  and as the  violence of
   his feeling is  such  that it is extremely painful, it has
  oeen called passion or suffering.  The passions have
  the same end as instinct;  like them, they incline ani-
  mals to act according to the general laws of animated
  nature.
    We see in man passions which he has  in common
  with the animals, and which consist of animal wants,
  become  excessive;  but he has  others which are dis-
  played only in the social state.  These are social wants
  grown to excess.
    The animal passions have a twofold design, the pre-
  servation of the individual, and of the species.
    To the preservation of tlie individual belong fear,
  anger, sorrow, hatred, excessive hunger, &c.  To the
  preservation of the species, excessive venereal desires,
  jealousy; the  fury which is felt when the  young ones
  are in danger, &c.
    Nature has made this sort of passions very powerful,
  and which are equally so in a state of civilization.
    The passions which belong to the social state  are
  only the social wants carried to an excess.  Ambition
  is the inordinate love of power; avarice, tb  Vive of
  riches, become  excessive; hatred and  revenge, that
  natural  and impetuous desire lo injure whoever hurts
  us;  the passion of gaming, and almost all the vices,
  which are also passions, are violent inclinations to in-
  crease the feeling of existence;  violent love is an ele-
  vation of the venereal desires, &c.
    Some of the passions  are  allayed, or extinguished
  by gratification;  others  become more irritated  by il.
  The first sort are therefore often the cause of happi-
  ness, as is  seen  in philanthropy and love; while the
  latter sort necessarily causes misery.   Misers, ambi-
  tious and envious people, are examples of the last.
    If our necessities develope the intellect, the passions
  are  the principle or the cause of every thing great
  which man performs, whether good or  bad.  Great
  poets, heroes, great criminals, and conquerors, are men
  of strong passions."
    Passion, caliac.  See Diarrhaa caliaca.
    Passion, hysteric.  See Hysteria.
    Passion, iliac. See Iliac Passion.
    PASSU'LA.  A small raisin.
    Passulje majores.  Sec Uva passa major.
    Passula'tum.  (From passula, a fig, or raisin.)
i  This is a term given by Dispensatory writers to some
  medicines where raisins are  the chief ingredient; as
  the electuarium passulatum, &c.
    PA'SSUM.  (From passa, a  grape, or raisin.)  Rai-
  sin wine.
    PA'STA.  A round cake or lozenge.
    Pasta regia. (From  rzaooia, to  sprinkle.)  A lo-
  Eenge, or small cake, sprinkled over with some dry
  powdered substance.
    PASTI'LLUM.  (Diminutive of pasta, a lozenge.)
  Pastillus.  A troch or pastil.  A little lump of paste,
  or ball, made to take like a lozenge.
    PASTINA'CA.  (Apastu;  from iu usefulness as a
  food.)   1. The name of a genus of planu in the Lin-
  ns-an system.   Class, Pentandria;  Order, Digynia.
  Parsnip.
    2. Tbe pharmacopceial name of the  parsnip.   See
   Pastinaca sativa.
    Pastinaca opopanax.  The systematic name of the
   plant which yields opopanax.  Tbe plant from whence
                      PAT

this gum resin is procured  is known by the names or
opoponacum ; panax heradeum ; pan ax cottinum ; pa-
nax paslinaeaa; kyna.  Hercules' all heal;  and opo-
panax-wort.  Pastinaca—foUie pmnatis, foliolis bast
antica excisis, of Limirrus.  Opopanax  is the gumnii-
resinous juice, obtained by means of incisions made nt
the bottom of the stalk of  the plant, from which it
gradually exudes, mid by undergoing spontaneous con-
cretion, assumes the appearance under wliich wchave
it  imported from Turkey  and the East  Indies,  viz.
sometimes in little drops or  tears, more commonly in
irregular lumps, of a  reddish yellow colour on the  out
side, with specks of white;  internally of a paler colour,
and  frequently   variegated with large  white pieces.
Opopanax has a strong, disagreeable smell, and a bitter,
acrid, somewhat nauseous  taste.  It is only employed
in the present practice as an antispasmodic, in combi-
nation with other medicines, although it was formerly
in high  estimation ns an attenuant, deobstruent, and
aperient.  Ils antispasmodic virtues are less powerful
than galbanum,  and  more so than  ammoniacum. It
has no plaee in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, but is
directed by the London College.
  Pastinaca sativa.  The systematic name of the
parsnip.  The cultivated or garden parsnip is the Pas-
tinaca .-—foliolis simpliciter  pinnatis,  of  Linnteus.
Elaphoboscum,  of  the ancienu.  Its  roots ore sweet
and nutritious, and in high esteern as on article of food.
They possess an  aromatic  flavour,  more especially
those of tlie wild plant, nnd are exhibited in calculous
complaints for their diuretic and sheathing qualities.
  PATE'LLA.  (Diminutive  of jiatina, a dish: so
named from iu shape.)  Rotula.  The knee-pan. A
small flat bone, which, in some measure, resembles the
common figure of the heart, with iu point downwards,
and is placed at  the forepart of the joint  of the knee.
It is thicker in iu middle port than at its edge.  Ante-
riorly it is a little convex,  and rough for the insertion
of muscles and ligamenU: posteriorly it is smooth, co-
vered with cartilage, and  divided by a middle longi-
tudinal  ridge, into two slightly concave surfaces, of
which the external  one is  the largest  and deepest.
Tbey are both exactly adapted to the pulley of the os
femoris. The edges of this posterior surface are rough
and prominent where the capsular ligament is attached,
and  below is a roughness at the  point of tbe bone,
where the upper extremity of a strong tendinous  liga-
ment is fixed, which joins this bone to tlie  tuberosity
at the upper end ofthe tibia.  This ligament is of con-
siderable thickness, about  an inch in breadth, aud up-
wards of two inches in length.  The patella is  com-
posed internally of a cellular substance, covered  by a
thin bony plate; but iu cells are so extremely minute,
thai the strength of the bone is, upon the whole, very
considerable.  In new-born  children  it is entirely car-
tilaginous.  The use of this bone seems to  be, to defend
the articulation of the joint  of the knee from external
injury.   It likewise tends to increase the power of tiie
muscles which  act in the  extension of the  leg, by re-
moving their direction farther from the centre of mo-
tion,  in the manner  of a  pulley.  When we consider
the manner in which it is connected with tbe tibia, we
find that it may very properly be considered as an ap-
pendix  to the latter, whicli it follows in all iu motions,
so as to be to the tibia what the olecranon is to the ulna;
with this difference, however, tbat the patella is move-
able, whereas the olecranon  is a fixed process.  With-
out this mobility, the rotatory motion of the leg would
have been prevented.
   PATENS.  Spreading.   Applied to leaves, metals,
Sec.; as the stem ofthe Atriplex porlulacoidea.
   PATHE'TICI.   (Potheticus; from xsaBos, an af-
fection ; because they direct the eyes  to express the
passions of the mind.) Nervi pathetici; Trochleatoree.
The fourth pair  of nerves.   They arise from the crura
of the cerebellum laterally, and are distributed in the
musculus obliquus superior, «eu trochlearis.  '
   PATHOGNOMONIC.   (Pathognomonicus;   from
5Ja0*c, a disease, and yivtaoxta, to know.) A term given
to those symptoms  which are peculiar to a disease.
They are also termed proper  or characteristic symp-
toms.
   PATHOLOGY.  (Pathologia; from  oafloc, a dis-
ease, and Xoyos, a discourse.) The doctrine of diseases.
It comprehends nosology, aliology,  symptomatology,
semeiotics, and therapeia.
   PATIE'NTIA.  (From potior, to bear, or suffer.) 
PEC
PEC
The name of the herb monk's rhubarb, from iu gentle
purging qualities.  See Rumex patientia.
  PATIENCE.  See Rumex patientia.
  Pa'tor narium.  (From pate'o, to be opened.) The
sinus, cavity, or chasm of the nose.
   Pa'trum cortex   (So  called from the Jesuits,
termed fathers in ihe church of Rome, who first spread
its use in Europe.)  See Cinchona.
  Patu'rsa.  The venereal disease.
  Paul's betony.  See Veronica.
  Pauli'na confectio.   (From aavia, to rest.)  A
warm opiate,  similar to the Confectio opii; so called
by Arisiorchus, which is the same with the  Confectio
archigenis.
  PAULITE.  See Hypersthene.
  Pau'lus.  See JEgineta.
  Pava'na.  See Croton tiglium.
  Pa vor.   (From paveo, lo fear : so called from the
dread there is of approaching  or touching a person af-
fected with it.)  The itch.
  PEA.  The pisum sativum of Linnaeus.  A species
of pulse of great variety, and much in use as a nourish-
ing article of diet.
  PEA-STONE.  A variety of limestone.
  PEACH.  See Amygdalus persica.
  PEAGLE.  See Primula veris.
  PEAR.  See Pyrus communis.  Of pears there are
many varieties, affording a wholesome nourishment.
  PEARL.  See Margarita.
  PEARL-ASH.  An impure potassa obtained by lixi-
viation from the  ashes of planU.   See Potassa.
  Pearl barley.  See Hordeum.
  PEARL SINTER.  Fiorite.  A variety of  silicious
sinter, of a white and gray colour, and found on volca-
nic tuff on the Vicentine.
  PEARLSTONE. Asub-species of indivisible quartz
of Jameson and Mohs. It is generally of a gray colour,
and  occurs in great beds in clay porphyry, near Tokay
in Hungary, and  in Ireland.
  PECHBLENDE.  An ore of uranium.
  Peche'dion.  TlnxtSiov.   The perineum.
  Pechu'rim cortex.   A highly aromatic bark, the
produce of a species of Laurus.  It is extremely fra-
grant, like unto that of cinnamon, which it greatly re-
sembles in iu properties.  In Lisbon il is much esteem-
ed in the cure of dysenteries, and for allaying obstinate
vomitings.
  Pechu'rim faba.  See Faba pechurim.
  Pechu'ris.  See Faba pechurim.
  Pechva'gra.  (From anxvs,  the cubit, and aypa, a
seizure.)  The gout in ihe elbow.
  Pk'chys.  Ilnx"*"-  Tlie; cubit, or elbow.
;  Pechyty'rbe. An epithet for the scurvy.
   PECQUET, John, was a native of Dieppe, and gra-
duated  at Montpelier.  He pursued the study of ana-
tomy with great ardour and ingenuity, which he evinced
by the discovery of the thoracic duct, and the recepta-
culum chyli, while yet a student, in  1647.  He then
settled to  practise in his native town; but soon after
repaired to Paris, with a view of demonstrating com-
pletely the important vessels which he had discovered;
and  he  succeeded in tracing the progress of the chyle
into  the left subclavian vein.  He published an account
of this discovery, with a Dissertation on the Circulation
of the Blood,  and Motion of the Chyle, in 1651; and
his fame, in consequence, speedily extended throughout
Europe, though some denied the truth, others the ori-
ginality, of it  Besides his anatomical skill, he was a
man of considerable acquirements, and became a Mem-
ber  of the Royal Academy  of Sciences.  He is said,
however, to have shortened his life by an unfortunate
attachment to spirituous liquors, and died in 1674.
  Pecquet's duct.  See Thoracic duct.
  PE'CTEN.  The pubes, or share-bone.
  [" Pedic acid.  M. H. Braconnot bas given the name
of pectic acid  to a principle found by him in several
plants which have the property of being coagulated by
alkohol, metallic solutions, the  acids, &c.  Itappears
to be the same substance discovered by Prof. Torrey,
of New-York, in the Tuckahoe, Sclerotium giganteum,
a fungus common in the sandy barrens of the southern
states, and to which he gave the name of Sderotin.  It
is readily soluble in a solution of caustic potassa, and
this  solution is  gelatinized  by  almost every known
body."— Webs. Man. Chem.   A.]
  PECTINA'LIS.  (So named  from iu arising at the
pecten, ot pubes.}  Peclinaus, of authors,  and Pubio
femoral, of Dumas.  A small flat muscle, situated ob-
liquely between the pubes and the little trochanter, at
the upper  and anterior part  of  the thigh.  It  arises
broad and fleshy from aH  the anterior edge of the os
pectinis, or pubis, as it is more commonly called, as far
as iu spine, and descending obliquely backwards and
outwards, is inserted by a short and broad tendon, into
the upper and anterior part of the linea aspera of the
os femoris, a little  below the lesser trochanter.   This
muscle serves to bend the thigh, by drawing it upwards
and inwards, and Ukewise assists in rolling it out-
wards.
  PECTINATUS.  (From pecten, a comb.)  Pectinate."
1  A term applied to a pennatifid  leaf, the segments of
which are remarkably narrow and parallel,  like the
teeth of a comb; as the lower leaves of  the Hottonia
palustris, and Meriophyllum verticillatum.
  2. The fasciculated muscular fibres of  the right au-
ricle ofthe heart are called musculi pectinati.
  Pectin.sus. See Pectinalis.
  PECTORAL.  (Pectoralis; trompedus, the breast.)
Of or belonging to, or that which relieves disorders of
the chest.
  PECTORALIS.  Musculus pectoralis.  See Pecto-
ralis major.
  Pectoralis ma'jor.   A broad, thick, fleshy, and
radiated muscle, situated immediately under the inte-
guments, and covering  almost the whole anterior part
of the breast. Pectoralis, of authors; and stemo-costo-
clavio-humeral, of Dumas.  Winslow calls it pectora-
lis major, to distinguish it from  the serratus amicus,
which he has named pectoralis minor.  It arises from
the cartilaginous extremities of the fifth and sixth ribs,
from the last of which iu tendinous fibres descend over
the upper part of the obliquus externus and rectus ab
dominis, helping to form a part of the sheath in which
the latter is included.  It likewise springs from almost
the whole  length of tlie sternum by short tendinous
fibres, which evidently decussate those on the other
side;  and tendinous and fleshy from more than a third
of the anterior part of the clavicle.  Prom these origins
the fibres run in a folding  manner towards the axilla,
and aie inserted by a broad tendon into the os humeri,
above the insertion of the  deltoid muscle, and at the
outer side of the groove which lodges the tendon of the
long head of  tha biceps.  Some of iu  fibres likewise
extend into that groove; and, from the lower part of
this tendon, which is spread near two inches along the
os humeri, we find it sending off other fibres, which
help to form  the fascia that covers the muscles of the
arm.  It often happens that that  part of the pectoralis
which arises from  the clavicle, is separated from the
inferior portion, so as to appear like a distinct muscle.
This  has  induced Winslow  to  divide il into  paru,
one of which he calls the clavicular, and the other the
thoracic portion.   Sometimes these two portions are
inserted by separate tendons, which cross one another
at the upper and inner part of the os humeri, the tendon
of the thoracic portion being inserted at the outer edge
of the bicipital groove, immediately behind the other.
This muscle, and the latissimus dorsi, form the cavity
of the axilla, or arm-pit.   The use of the pectoralis is
to move the arm forwards, or to raise it  obliquely to-
wards the sternum. It likewise occasionally assisU iu
moving the trunk upon the arm,  thus, when we exert
any efforts with the hand,  as in raising ourselves from
off an arm-chair, or in sealing a letter, the contraction
of this  muscle is particularly observable.  To  these
uses Haller adds that  of  assisting in respiration, by
raising  the sternum and ribs.  He teils us he well  re-
members, thot when this muscle was affected by rheu-
matism, his  breathing was incommoded; and that,
when troubled wilh difficulty of respiration, he had
often found  himself greatly relieved by raising and
drawing back his shoulders, keeping his arms at the
same time firmly fixed.  Winslow, however,  has de-
nied this use, and Albinus  has omitted  it, probably be-
cause it does not take place in a natural state.
  Pectoralis minor.  Serralu* antieus of Albinus.
A fleshy and  pretty considerable muscle, situated at the
anterior  and lateral part of the  thorax, immediately
under the pectoralis major.  Douglas and Cowper call
this muscle  Serratus minor  antieus; and Winalow
gives it  the  name of Pectoralis minor; and Dumas
calls it Costo coracoidien.  It arises from the upper
edges of tlie third, fourth, and fifth ribs, near where
they join with their cartilages by an equal number of 
PED                                            TEL
 tendinous and flashy dlgitatlons, wliich have been com-
 pared  to the teeth of a saw, whence this and some
 other muscles, from their having a similar origin, or
 Insertion, have gotten the name of serrati.  From these
 oiiL'ins it becomes thicker and narrower as it ascends,
 nnd is inserted by a flat tendon into the upper part of
 the coracoid process of the scapula.  Tbe principal use
 of  this muscle is to draw the scapula  forwards and
 downwards; and when that is fixed, it  may likewise
 serve to elevate the ribs.
  Pectoris os.  See Sternum.
  PE'CTUS.  (Pectus,  oris, n.)  The breast  See
"*Tkorax.
  Pectu'sculum.  (Diminutive of pectus, tho breast:
 so named from its shape.)  The metatarsus.
  PEDATUS.  (Fromye*, a foot)  Pedate.  A term
 applied to a particular kind of leaf, which is temate
 with ils lateral leaflets  compounded in their forepart;
 ns in Helleborus niger and fatidus, and  Arum dra-
 cunculus.
  PEDE'THMUS.   (From 1076010, to leap.)  Themo-
 tiou of the arteries from the impulse of the blood.  The
 pulse.
  Pedia'smus.  (From irtSiov, a field.)  An epithet of
 a species of wild myrrh.
  PEDICELLATUS.   (From pedicdlus, a  partial
 flower-stalk.)  Having a small 6talk:  applied to a nec-
 tary which resu on a stalk: as in Aconitum napellus.
  PEDICELLUS.  A partial flower-stalk.  See Pe-
 d* a cuius.
  l'EDICULA'RIA.   (From pediculus, a louse;  so
 called from its use in destroying lice.)   See Delphinium
 etaphisagria.
  PEDICULA'TIO. Morbus pedicular is.  *0«piaoic.
 That disease ofthe body in which  lice are continually
 bred on the skin.
  PEDI'CULUS.   (Diminitutive of pes,  a foot:  so
 named from  iu many small feet.)
  1. A louse. The name of a genus of insecu, of the
 order Aptera.  Two species are found on  the human
 body, the Pediculus humanus, the common louse ; and
 the  P. pubis, ox crab-louse.
  2. A pedicle or footstalk of a  flower,  or leaf.  See
 Pediineulus.
  Pedicus.  See Extensor brevis digitorum pedis.
  PEDILU'VIUM.  (From pes the foot, and lavo, to
 wash.)  A bath for the feet.
  Pe'dion. (From aovs, Ihe foot)  The sole ofthe foot
  Pe'dora.  (From pes, a foot)  The  sordes of the
 eyes, ears, and feet.
  PEDUNCULUS.  A peduncle, or a flower-stalk, or
 tbat which springs from the stem, and bears the flowers
 and fruit, and not the leaves.
  Pedicdlus is  a  partial flower-stalk,  the ultimate
 subdivision of a general one, as in the cowslip.
  The pedunculus is,
  1. Caulinus, cauline, when it grows immediately out
 of the main stem, especially of a tree; as in Averrhoa
 bilimbi.
  2. Rameus, growing out of the main branch; as in
 Eugenia mulaccensis.
  3. Axillaris, growing either from  the bosom of a
 leaf, that is,  between it and the stem, as in Anchusa
 sempervirens; or between a branch and a stem, as in
 Ruppia maritima.
  4. Oppositifolius, opposite to a leaf; as in Geranium
 pyrenacum.
  5. Internodis, proceeding from the intermediate part
 of a branch between two leaves; as iu Ehretia inter-
 nodis.
  6. Gemmaceus, growing out of a leaf  bud;  as in
 Berberis vulgaris.
  7. Terminalis, when it terminates a stem or branch;
 as in Centaurea scabiosa.
  8. Lateralis, when situated on the side of a stem or
 branch; as in Erica vagans.
  9. Solitarius, either single on a plant; as in Rubus
 chamamorus; or only one in tlie same place, as in An-
 tirrhinum spurium.
  10. Peduneuli aggregati,  clustered  flower-stalks,
 when several grow together; as in Verbascum nigrum.
  11. Sparsi, dispersed irregularly over the plant or
 branches ; as in Ranunculus scleratus.
  12. Uniflori, biflori,  triflori, ire. bearing one, two,
 three, or more flowers.
  13. Multiflori, many-flowered; as Daphne laureola.
  When there is no flower-stalk, the flowers ore said to
      160
bestssilea; as in Centaurea calcitrapa, and the dot]
dcrs.
  Peganeljk'um.  (From urryavov, rue,  and tXaitv
oil.)  Oil of rue.
  Peoane'rum.   (From  irnyavov, rue.)   A plaster
composed of rue.
  PEGANUM.   (From  zzrrywia, to  compress:  so
called, because, by iu dryness, it condenses the seed.)
Rue.  See Ruta.
  PE'GE.  (n»ryn, a fountain.) The internal angle* of
the eyes are called pegm.
  Pblada.  A species of baldness, a shedding of the
hair from a venereal cause.
  PELA'GRA.  Elephantiasis italica.  This disease
does not appear to have been noticed by any of our no-
sologisu, except Dr. Good.  Indeed, few accounu of it
have hitherto been published, although the peculiar
symptoms with which it is attended, and the fatal con-
sequences which generally ensue  from it, render  it
equally curious and important.  In certain districts, as
Milan and Padua, in Italy, where it is peculiarly pre-
valent, it is computed to attack five inhabitant* out of
every hundred.  The following account of this singular
disease  is extracted from  Dr. Jalisco's treatise on  tlie
subject, who had seen the disease at Milan:
  About tlie month of March or April, when the season
invites  the farmers to cultivate their fields, it often
happens that a shining red spot suddenly arises on the
back of the hand, resembling the common erysipelas,
but without much itching or  pain, or indeed any oilier
particular inconvenience.   Both men and women, girls
and  boys, are equally subject to it.  Sometimes this
spot affects botii hands, without appearing on any other
part of the body.  Not  uncommonly it arises also on
the shins, sometimes on the neck, and now and then,
though very rarely, on the face.  It is sometimes also
seen on the breasts of women, where they are  not
covered by the clothes, but such parts of the body as
are not  exposed to the air, are very seldom affected)
nor has it ever been observed to attack the  palm of the
hand, or the sole of the foot  This red  spot elevates
the skin a little, producing numerous small tubercles of
different colours; the skin becomes dry and cracks, and
the epidermis sometimes assumes a fibrous appearance.
At length it falls off in white furfuraceous scales;  but
the shining redness underneath still continues, and, in
some instances, remains through the following winter.
In the mean time, excepting  this mere local affection,
tlie health is not the least impaired, the patient performs
all his rural labours as before, enjoys a good appetite,
eau heartily, and digests well.  The bowels are gene-
rally relaxed at tlie very commencement of the disease,
and continue so throughout iu whole course.  All the
other excretions arc as usual; and,  in females,  the
metises return at their accustomed periods, and in their
proper  quantity.   But what is most surprising is, that
in tbe month of September, when the heat ofthe sum-
mer  is  over, in some cases sooner, in others later, the
disorder generally altogether  disappears, and the skin
resumes iu natural healthy appearance.  This change
has been known to take place as early as the latter end
of May or Junc.when the disease has only been in iu
earliest stage.  The patients, however, are not now to
be considered as well; the disease hides itself, but is
not eradicated : for no sooner does the following spring
return, but it quickly reappears, and generally is accom-
panied with severer symptoms.  The spot grows larger,
the skin becomes more unequal and hard, with deeper
cracks.  The patient now begins to feel  uneasiness in
the head, becomes fearful, dull, less capable of labour
and much wearied witL his usual exertions.  He is ex-
ceedingly affected with the changes of the atmosphere,
and impatient both of cold and heat.  Nevertheless he
generally gets through his  ordinary labour, with less
vigour  and cheerfulness indeed than formerly, but still
without being obliged to take to his bed;  and as he has
no fever, his  appetite continues good, and the chylo-
poietic viscera perform their proper functions.  When
the pelagrabas even arrived atlhisBtage, the returning
winter, nevertheless, commonly restores the patient to
apparent health; but the more severe the symptoms
have been, and the deeper root the disease  has taken,
the more certainly does the return of spring produce it
with additional violence.   Sometimes the  disease in
the skin disappears, but the  other symptoms remain
notwithstanding.   The powers both of tbe mind and
body now become daily more enfeebled; peevishness, 
PEL                                            PEL
 witchmgs,  vertigo,  and,  at length, complete  melan
 Choly, supervene.  Nor is there a more distressing kins'
 Of melancholy any where to be seen, than tnkes plact
 fn this disease.  " On entering the hospital at Legna
 no," says Dr. Jansen, " I was astonished at the mourn-
 ful spectable I beheld, especially in the women's ward.
 There they all sat,  indolent, languid, with downcasl
 looks, their eyes expressing distress, weeping without
 cause, and scarcely returning an answer when  spoken
 to; so that a person would suppose himself to be among
 fools and mad penpie: and, indeed, with very  good
 reason; for gradually this melancholy increases, and at
 length ends in real mania.
   " Manyi as I had an opportunity of observing In this
 hospital, were covered with a peculiar  and character-
 istic  sweat, having  a  very offensive  smell, which  I
 know not how better to express than by comparing it
 to the smell of mouldy bread.   A person accustomed
 to see the disease would ot once recognise il by this
 single symptom.  Many complained of a burning pain
 at night in the soles  of the feet, whicli often deprived
 them of sleep.   Some with double vision: others  with
 fatuity; others with visceral obstructions; others  with
 additional symptoms.  Nevertheless, fever still keeps
 off, the appetite is unimpaired, and tire secretions are
 regularly carried on.   But the disease goes on increas-
 ing, the nerves are more debilitated, the legs and thighs
 lose the power of motion, stupor or delirium comes on,
 nnd  the melancholy terminates in confirmed mania.
 In the hospital at Legnano, I saw both men and women
 in this maniacal  state.  Some lay quiet; others were
 raving, and obliged to be tied down to the bed, to pre-
 vent  them  from  doing mischief to themselves and
 others. In almost all these the pulse was small, slow,
 and without any character of fever.  One woman ap-
 peared to  have a slight degree of furor ulerinus; for,
 at the sight of men she became merry, smiled, offered
 kisses, and by her gestures desired them to come to-
 wards her.  Some were occupied in constant prayers;
 some pleased  themselves with laughter, and  others
 with other tilings. But it was remarkable, that all who
 Were In this stage ofthe disease, had a strong propen-
 sity  to drown  themselves.  They now begin to grow
 emaciated, and the  delirium is often  followed  by a
 species of tabes.   A colliquative diarrhoea comes on,
 Which no  remedy can stop, as also has been  observed
 in nostalgia.   Sometimes, in the pelagra, the diarrhoea
 comes on before  the delirium, and the delirium and
 stupor mutually  interchange  with each other.   The
 appetite often suddenly failed, so that the  sick will
 sometimes go  for near a week without tasting food.
 Not  uncommonly it  returns as suddenly, so that  they
 eagerly devoured  whatever was offered them, and this
 even at times when they arc horridly convulsed.  The
 Convulsions wilh  which they are attacked, are most
 shocking to see, and are of almost every kind, catalepsy
 excepted, which has  been described by writers.  I saw
 one girl in bed, who  was violently distorted by opistho-
 tonos  every time she  attempted to ri6e.  Some are
 seized with emprosthnmnos;  and others with other
 species of tetanus. At length, syncope and death close
 the tragedy, often without any symptom of fever oc-
 curring through the whole course of the disease.1'  The
 first  stage of the  pelagra, in which the  local  affection
 only takes place, Dr. Jansen observes, continues in
 Fome instances for  a  great length of  time; persons
 being occasionally met with in wlwm it has lasted six
 or eight, or  even  fifteen years, disappearing regularly
 every whiter, and returning again in the spring.   This
 occasions some ofthe inhabitants to pay little attention
 to it; although, in other  cases, it reaches ite greatest
 neigh't after the second or third attack.   It appears that
 this disease  is not infectious, and that the causes  pro-
 ducing it are yet unascertained.  It has been supposed,
 by some, to arise from the heat ofthe sun's rays;  ana
 hence it is now and then called mat de sole; but this
 does not produce any similar disease in  other parts of
 (he world, where it is in an equal or even much greater
 degree than  at Milan; no disease in any respect re-
sembling it, having hitherto been noticed in  such re-
gions, except the lepra asturiensis described by Thiery,
 and after him by Sauvages.  In this, a treinour of the
 bead and trunk of the body takes place, which does not
happen in the pelagra. This, however, is the principal
difference in the two diseases.
  Peia'rium.  (From anXas, mud: so called from its
muddy consistence.)  A collyrium.
                                        Ss
   Peleca'nus.  (From tstXexait, to perforate.) 1. The
  ird called the pelican.
   2. An instrument to draw teeth: so named' from its
 curvature at the end resembling the beak of a pelican.
   Peleci'num.  (From zzcXckvs, a hatchet:  so  called
 because its 6eeds are shaped like a two-edged hatchet.)
 The hatchet-vetch.
   PELIOM.  A blue-coloured mineral, very similar to
 iolite, found in Bndenmais, in Bohemia.
   Pelio'ma.  (From tstXos, black.)  An extravasation
 of blood of a livid colour.
   PELLICULA.  A  pellicle or slender skin:  In  me
 dicine, it is applied to such an  appearance of the  sm
 face of urine, and to vefy delicate membraneous  pro
 ductions.  In botany, to the delicate skin which covers
 some seeds; as the almond, &c.
   PELLITORY.  See Parittaria.
   Pellitory, bastard.  See Achillea ptarmica.
   Pellitory  of Spain.  See Anthemis pytetlirum.
   Pe'lma.   (From zseXta,  to move forwards.)   The
 Bole of the foot, or a sock adapted to the sole of the foot.
   PELT A.   (Pelta, a shield or buckler.)   A variety Of
 the calyculus, called the shield, which is the fruit, of
 an oblong, flat, and obtuse form, Observed iu the lichen
 tribe.
   Pelta'lis cartilago.   (From pelta, a buckler: so
 called from iu shape.)   The scutifotm cartilage  ofthe
 larvnx.
   PELTATUS.   (From  pdta, a shield.)   Peltate:
 afpplied to  leaves  which have the stalk inserted  into
 their middle, like the arm of a man holding a shield ;
 as in Tropaolum majus, and Hydrocotule vulgaris.
   PELVIC.  (Pelvicus; from pelvis, the lower part of
 tbe trunk of the body.)  Pertaining to the pelvis.
   Pelvic ligaments.   The articulation of the  os sa-
 crum with the last lumbar vertebra, and with the ossa
 innominata, is strengthened by means of a strong trans-
 verse ligament, wliich passes from the extremity  and
 lower edge ofthe last lumbar vertebra, to the posterior
 and internal surface of  the spine of the ilium.   Other
 ligaments are extended posteriorly from the os sacrum
 to tbe ossa ilia on each side, and, from the direction of
 their fibres, may be called the  lateral ligaments.   Be-
 sides these, tlrere are many shorter ligamentous fibres,
 which are seen stretched from the whole circumference
 of the articulating  surfaces of these two bones.   But
 the most remarkable ligaments of the pelvis are the two
 sacro-ischialic  ligamenU,  which  are  placed towards
 the postetior and inferior  part of the  pelvis.  One of
 these may be called the greater, and the other the lesser
 sacro-ischiatic ligament.  The first of these is attached
 to the posterior edge of the os sacrum, to the tuberosity
 of the ilium, and to the first of the three divisions of
 the os coccygis.  Iu other extremity is inserted into the
 inner surface ofthe tuberosity of the ischium.   At iu
 upper part it is of considerable breadth, after which it
 becomes narrower, but expands again  before iu  inser-
 tion  into the ischium, nnd extending along the tubero-
 sity of that  bone to the lower branch of the  os pubis
 where it terminates in a point, forms  a  kind of falx,
 one end of which  is loose, while the other is fixed to
 the bone.  The  lesser sac-ischiatic ligament is  some-
 what thicker than  the former, and is placed  obliquely
 before it.  It extends from the transverse processes of
 the os sacrum, and the tuberosity of the spine of  the
 ilium, on each side, to the spine of ihe ischium. These
 two ligamenU not only serve to strengthen the articu
 lation of the ossa innominata with the os sacrum,  but
 to support the weight of the viscera contained in  the
 pelvis, the back and lower  part of which is closed by
 these ligaments.  The posterior and external surface
 of the greater ligament likewise serves for the attach-
 ment of some portions of the gluteus maximus and  ge-
 mini muscles.  The symphysis pubis is  strengthened
 internally by a transverse ligament, some of the fibres
 of which are extended to the obturator ligament.
  PE'LVIS.   (From  tztXvs, a  basin;  because it is
 shaped like a basin  used in former times.)   The cavity
 below the belly.  It contains the rectum  and urinary
 bladder, the  internal organs of generation, and has its*
 muscles and bones.
  Pelvis, bones of.  The pelvis consisu, in the child,
of many  pieces, but in the  adult, it is formed of four
 bones, ofthe os sacrum behind, the ossa mnoniihataoft
either side, and the os coccygis below.  See Sacrum,
Innominatum os, and Coccygis os-   It is wide and ffl>
panded at Us upper part, and conti acted at iu inferior
                                        Ml 
PEM
PEN
      aperture   The  upper  part of the pelvis,  properly so
      calitd, is bounded by an oval ring, whicli parte the ca-
      vity ofthe pelvis from llie cavity of the abdomen. This
      circle is denominated  tiie brim of tlie pelvis; it is
      formed by a continued and  prominent Ine along the
      upper part of the sacrum, the middle of llie ilium, and
      the upper part, or crest, of the os pubis.  The circle of
      tiie brim supports the impregnated womb;  keeps it up
      against the pressure of labour-pains;  and sometimes
      this line has been " as sharp as a paper-folder,  and  has
      cut across the segment ofthe womb;" and so by sepa-
      rating the womb from  the vagina, has  rendered deli-
      very impossible; and tlie child escaping into the abdo-
      men tlie woman has  died.  The lower part of  the
      pelvis is denominated tiie outlet. It is composed by the
      arch of the ossa pubis,  and by the  sciatic ligaments; it
      is  wide and dilateable, to permit the delivery of the
      child; but being sometimes too wide, it permits  the
      child's  head to  press so suddenly, and with such vio-
      lence upon the soft  paru, that tlie  perineum is torn.
        The marks of the female skeleton have been sought
      for in  the skull, as in tlie continuation of sagittal
      suture; but the  truest marks are those wliich relate to
      thai great function  by which  chiefly the sexes are  dis-
      tinguished;  for while  the male  pelvis is large  and
      strong, wilh  a  small  cavity,  narrow openings, and
      bones of greater strenglh, the  female  pelvis is very
      shallow and wide, wilh a  large cavity  and slender
      bones, and every peculiarity which may conduce to the
      easy passage of the  child.
        The office ofthe pelvis is to give a steady bearing to
      the trunk, aud to connect it with the lower extremities,
\     by a sure and firm joining, to form the centre of all the
      great motions of the body,"to contain the internal organs
      of generation, the  urinary bladder, the rectum, and
      occasionally part of the small intestines, and to give
      support to the gravid uterus.
        Pelvis aurium.  The cochlea of the ear.
      ,  Pelvis cerebri.  The inl'undibulum.
        PEMPHIGO'DES. (From zztpibi\, a blast of wind.)
      A fever distinguished by flatulencies and inflations, in
      which a sort of aerial vapour was said to pass through
      the skin.
        PEMPHIGUS.   (From Bt/ioVi?, a bubble, or vesi-
      cle.)  Febris bullosa;  Exanthemata serosa;  Morta;
      Pemphigushclvelicvs; Pemphigus major; Pemphigus
      minor.  The vesicular fever.  A fever  attended by
      successive eruptions of vesicles  about the  size  of
      almonds, which are filled witb a yellowish serum,  and
      in three or four days subside.  The fever may be either
      synoch or typhus.   It is a genus of disease in the class
      Pyrexia, and order Exanthemata, of Cullen.   The
      latest writers on ibis disease contend, that it is some-
      times acute and sometimes a chronic affection;  that
      the former is constantly attended with fever, the latter
      is constantly without; that in neither case  is it an
      acrimonious or contagious matter thrown out by the
      constitution, but pure serum, secreted by the cutaneous
      cxhalent arteries.   So rare was the disease when Dr.
      Cullen wrote, that  he  never saw it but once, in a case
      which was shown  to him by  Dr. Home.  Dr. David
      Stuart, then physician lo the hospital of Aberdeen, pub-
      lished an account of ii in the Edinburgh Medical Com-
      mentaries.  The palient was a private soldier of the
      73d regiment, aged 18, formerly a  pedlcr, and naturally
      of a healthy constitution. About twenty days before,
      he hod been seized with the meazles,  when in  the
      country; and in marching to town on the second  day
      of iheir eruption, he was exposed to cold;  upon wliich
      they suddenly disappeared.   Ou his arrival at Aber-
      deen, he was quartered in a damp under-ground apart-
      ment   He then complained of sickness  at stomach,
      great oppression about the prsxordia, headache, lassi-
      tude, and weariness on the least exertion, with stiffness
      and rigidity of his knees and other joints.  He had been
      purged, but with little  benefit.   About ten  days before,
      he observed on the inside of his thighs, a number of
      very small, distinct red spoU, a little elevated  above
      the surface of the skin, and much resembling the first
      appearance of the small-pox. This eruption gradually
      spread itself over his whole body, and the pustules con-
      tinued every day to increase in size.
         Upon being received into the hospital, he complained
      of headache, sickness  at stomach, oppression about tiie
      priecordia, thirst, sore throat, with difficulty of swal-
      lowing ; his tongue was foul, his skin felt hot and fever-
      ish, pulse from 110 to 120 rather depressed, belly costive
             lf&
eves dull  and languid, but  without  delirium.  TtM
whole surface of the skin wos interspersed wilh vesi-
cles, or phlyclwnx, of the size of an ordinary walnut;
many of Ibem were larger, especially on the arm* and
breast  In the  interstices, between the vesicles, the
appearance of the skin was natural, nor was there any
redness  round their bast-; the distance from one to
anotiier was  from half an inch to a handbrealh, or
more.  In some places two or three were joined to-
gether, like the pustules in the confluent smallpox.  A
few vesticles had burst of themselves, and formed a
whitish scab or crust.  These were mostly on the neck
and face; others  showed a  tolerable  laudable  pus.
However, by far  the greatest number were  perfectly
entire, turgid, and of a bluish colour.   Upon opening
them, it was  evident that tlie cuticle  elevated above
the cutis, aud distended with a thin, yellowish, scini-
pellucid serum, formed this appearance.  Nor was the
surface of the cutis ulcerated, or livid; but of a red
florid  colour, as when  the cuticle is  separated by a
blister, or superficial burning.  No other person la-
boured under a similar disease, either in the part of
the country from which he came, or where he resided,
in Aberdeen.
  Since the  publication of  this case  of pemphigus,
by Dr kjtuart, observations on this disease have  been
published  by Dr.  Dickson, of Dublin,.by Mr. Gaitskell
and Mr. Upton, in the Mem. ofthe Medical Society of
London. Some subsequent observations on pemphigus
were  published iu the London  Med. Journal,  by Mr.
Thomas Christie.  From a case which  Mr. Christie
describes, he is disposed to agree with  Dr. Dickson, in
thinking,  that sometimes, at least, pemphigus is not
contagious.  He remarks, however, that the pemphigus
described  by some foreign writers was extremely in-
fectious; circumstances which, he thinks, may lead to
a division of the disease into two species, tiie  pern-
pighus simplex, and complicatus, both of which, but
especially the last, seem to vary much with respect to
mildness and malignity.
  Pemphigus major.   A title under which pemphigus
is spoken  of  by Sauvages, who defines it an eruption
of phlycttEiire, about the size of a hazel-nut, filled with
a thin yellow serum.  See Pemphigus.
  Pemphigus minor.  In this species the vesicles ore
no larger than garden peas.
  Pe'mphis.  A species of Lythrum.
  PEMPHIX.  A vesicle, or bubble.  See Pemphigus.
  Pemptc'us.  (From zstpirros, the fifth.)  An  ague,
the paroxysm ef which returns every fifth day.
  PENAS'A.  (A name given by Linmeus in memory
of the learned Peter Pena, a native of France, and an
excellent scientific botanist.)   1. A genus of planU in
the Class Tetrandria ; Order Monogynia.
  2. The  name of a species of polygala.
  Peniea mucronata.  The systematic  name of tbe
plant which  is said to afford the sarcocolla.  This is
brought from Persia and Arabia in small grains of a
pale yellow colour, having also sometimes mixed  wilh
them a few of a deep red colour.  Its taste is bitter,
but followed  with some degree of sweetness.  It has
been  chiefly  used for external  purposes, and,  as its
name imports, has been thought lo agglutinate wounds
and ulcers; but this opinion now no longer exists.
  PENDULUS.  Pendulous.  Hanging.   Applied to
roots, leaves, flowers, seeds, &c.  as  the  root of the
Spiraa filipendula, and Paonia officinalis, whicli con-
sits of knobs connected by filameiiu;  and the seeds of
the Magnolia grandifiora,  which are suspended by
Iheir filaments.
   Penetra'ntia.  'From penetro, to pierce through.;
Medicines which  pass through the pores and stimulate.
   PENICILLIFORMIS.  (From penicillus, a pencil-
brush, and /orma, hkeness.)   Penicilliform.  1. Appliut
to the stigma of milium paspalium.
  2. The extremities of the arteries wliich secrete the
bile, are so called.
   PENICILLUS.  (Dim.  of peniculum,  a  brush.)
Penidtlum.  1. A tent, or pledget
   2. The secretin;;  extremities  of the vena porta; are
called penicilli.   See Liver.
   Peni'dium. A kind of clarified sugar, wilh a mixture
of starch, made up into small rolls.  The confectioners
call it barley-sugar.
   PE'NIS.   (A pendendo,  from iu  hanging down.)
Membrum virile.  The cylindrical partthathangsdowit
under the mons veneris, before  the scrotum of males.. 
t?
PEft
' i is divided by" anatomists into the root, body, and
bead, called the glans penis.  It is composed of com-
mon integuments, two corporu cavernosa, and One cor-
pus spongiosum, which surrounds a canal, the urethra,
lhat proceeds from the bladder to the apex ofthe penis,
where il opens by the meatus unnanus.  See Urethra.
The  fold of the  skin  that covers tiie gloria penis is
termed the prepuce.  The arteries ofthe penis are from
the hypogastric aud ischiatic.  The vein of the penis,
vena magna ipsius penis, empties itself itito the hypo-
gastric vein.  The absorbenu of this organ are very
numerous, and run under the common integumenu to
the inguinal glands:  absorbenu also are found iii great
plenty in  tlie urethra.  The glands of the penis are,
Cowper's glands,  the prostate, muciparous, and odori-
ferous ghrnds.  The nerves of the penis are branches
ofthe sacral and ischiatic.
  Penis  cerebri.  The pineal gland.
  Penis  erector.  See Erector penis.
  Penis muliebris.  See Clitoris.
  PENNYROYAL.  See Mentha pulegium.
  Pennyroyal, hart's.  See Mentha cerviha.
  PENTADA'CTYLON.  (From  atvrt, five,  and
BaxrvXos, a hnger: so called  because it has five leaves
Upon each stalk,  like the fingers upon the hand.)   1.
The herb  cinquefoil.
  2.  A name for the ricinus, the leaf of which resem-
bles  a hand.
  PENTAGONUS.  (From irevrt, five, and ymvia, an
angle.)  Five-sided:  applied to leaves synonymously
with quinqueangular, as in Geranium pellatum.
  Pentamy'rum.  (From atvrt, live, and pvpov, oint-
ment )  An ointment composed of five ingredients..
  PENTA'NDRIA.   (From  irtvrt, five, and  avijp, a
husband.)  The name of a class of plants in the sexual
system of Linneus, embracing those  which have her-
maphrodite flowers and five stamens.
  PENTANEU'RON.   (From attire, five, and vtvpov,
a string: so called because it has five-ribbed  leaves.)
Pentaplcurum.  Ribwort.  See Plantago lanceolata.
  Pentapha'rmacon.  (From atvrt, five, and tbappa-
xov, remedium, remedy.)  Any medicine consisting of
five  ingredienu.
  PENTAPHYLLOI'DES.    (From  atvrad-vXXov,
cinquefoil, and tiSos, likeness: so called from ite  le-
semblanee lo cinquefoil.)  See Fragaria sterilis.
  PENTAPHY'LLUM.  (From atvrt, five, and 0i)X-
Xov, 8 leaf:  so named because it has five leaves on each
Btalk.)  See Potentilla reptans.
  PENTAPHYLLUS.  (From atvrt, five, and tbvX-
Xov, a leaf.)  Pentaphyllous,or five-leaved: applied to
leaves, calyces, &c. as the flower-cup of the Ranuncu-
lus bulbosus.
  PentaPlku'rum.  See Pentatteuron.
  Penta'tomim.  (From atvrt, five, and ftpvta, to
cut: so called because  iu leaves are divided into five
segmcnU.)  Cinquefoil.  The Potentilla  reptans.
  PbnTo'robus.   (From atvrt,  five, and  opofioc,  the
wood-pea:  so called because it has five  seeds  resem-
bling the  wood-pea.)  The  herb  peony.  See  Paonia
offirinalis.
  PEONY.  See Paonia.
  Pepa'nsis.  (From atiaivia, to concoct.)   Pepus-
srn*.  The  maturation or concoction of humours.
  Pepa'smus.  The same as pepansis.
  Pepa'stica.   (From aeiraivia, to concoct.)   Diges-
tive medicines.
  PEPERINE.  A fatly resinous matter, obtained by
Pelletier from black pepper, by digesting  it  in alkohol,
and evaporating the solution.
  pE'prT.v nux.   St. Ignatius's bean.
  Pe'plion.  (From atzXos,  the herb  devil's-mllk.)
 Peplos;  Peplus.   The Euphorbia pvplus.
  PEPO.  (From etirro, to ripen.
  I. In botanical  definitions, a  fleshy succulent peri-
carpium,  or seed-vessel, the seeds of which are  inserted
Itato the sides of the fruit.
  From its figure, tiie pepo is called,
  tv Gtebeaus; as in Cucumis colocynthus.
  K  Oblongus ; as Cucumis eativ is.
  4.- Logenatformis; as Cucurbit i lagenaria.
  4.- Curifdtu*; as Cucumis flexuosus.
  5. Nodosur ; as Cucumis melopepo.
  6.  Fusiformis;  as Cucumis chale.
  7.  Ecliinotus;  as Cucumis angurio.
  8.  Verrucosus; as Cucurbita verrucosa.
   0. Scaber; as Cucumis sativus.
  II. See Cujitrbita.
  PEPPER.  See Piper nigrum.
  Pepper, black.  See Piper nigrum.
  Pepper, Guinea.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Pepper, Jamaica.   See Myrtus pimenta.
  Pepper,- long.  See Piper longum.
  Pepper,poorman's.  See Polygonumhydroptper.
  Pepper, wall.  See Sedum acre.
  Pepper, water   See Polygonum hydropipet.
  PEPPERMINT   See Mentha piperita.
  PEPPERWORT.  See Lepidium iberus.
  PE'PTIC. (Pepticus; from atirria, to riperl.y That
which promotes digestion', Or is digestive.
  PERACUTE.  Very sharp.   Diseases are  thus
called when v6ry severe, or aggravated beyond mea
sure; as subacute is applied to such as are not  very
acute, or srt severe* as they generally are.
  PERCHLORIC  ACID.   Acidum perchloricum,
Oxychloric acid. If about 3 parte of sulphuric acid be
poured on one of chlorate of potassa  in a retort, and
alter the first violent action- is over, heat be gradually
applied, to separate the  deutoxide of chlorine, a saline
mass Will  remain, consisting of bisulphate of potassa
and perchrorate of potassa.   By one or two crystallisa-
tions, the latter salt may be separated from the former.
It is a neutral salt, with a taste somewhat similar to
the common muriate of potassa.  It is very sparingly
soluble In cold water, since at 60°, only l-55th is dis-
solved ;  but in boiling water it is more soluble.  Iu
crystals are elongated octahedrons,  it detonates feebly
When triturated with sulphur in a mdrtor.  At the
heat of 412°, it is resolved into oxygen ond muriate of
potassa, in the proportion of 46 of the former to 54 of
the  latter.   Sulphuric  acid, at 280°,  disengages the
perchloric acid.  For these facts science is indebted to
Count Von Rtadioir.  It seems to consist of 7  primes
of oxygen, combined with one of chlorine, or 7.0 -f- 4.5.
These curious discoveries have been lately verified by
Sir H. Davy. The other perchlorates are not known.
  Mr. Wheeler describes an ingenious method which
he employed to procure chloric acid from the chlorate
of potassa.  He mixed a warm  solution of thi3 salt
with one of fluosilicic acid.   He kept the mixture mo-
derately hot for a few minutes, and to ensure the per-
fect decomposition of the salt, added a slight excess of
the  acid.  Aqueous solution of ammonia will show,
by the separation of silica, whether any of the fluosi-
licie acid be left after the decomposition of the chlo-
rate.  Thus we can effect its complete decomposition
The mixture beconies  turbid, and fluosilicate of po
tassa is  precipitated abundantly in the form of  a  gela-
tinous mass.  The supernatant liquid will then con-
tain  nothing but chloric acid, Contaminated  with  a
small quantity of fluOsiliuc.   This may be removed
by the cautious addition Of a small quantity of solution
of chlorate.  Or, after  filtration;  the whole atid  may
be neutralized by carbonate of barytes, and the chlo-
rate of that earth, being obtained in crystals, is em-
ployed to procure the acid, as directed by Gay Lussac.
  PERCIVAL, Thomas, was born at Warrington, in
1740.  He studied for three years with great assiduity,
at Edinburgh: then came to London, and was chosen
a Fellow of the Royal Society; after which lie visited
different places on the Continent, and took his degree
at Leyden.  In 1767, he settled at Manchester, and con
United tfiere till the period of his death, in 1804, in the
unremitting exercise of his medical duties.  Dr. Perci-
val possessed,  in an eminent degree, those moral and
intellectual  endowmenu,  which are calculated  to
form a distinguished physician.  He has been well chaj
rocterized as an author wlthdnt vanity, a philosopher
without pride,  a scholar  without pedantry,  and  a
Christian  Without guife.  His earlier inquiries were
directed to medical, chemical, and  philosophical sub-
jecu, which he  pursued with great judgment,  com-
bining the cautions but assiduous use of experiment
with scientific observation, and much literary research.
His papers were  published collectively, under the title
of " Essays, Medica! and Experimental," in' three vo-
lumes ; which have passed through many editions, and*
obtained him considerable reputation.  His siibseqilent
publications were of a  moral nature, and originally
conceived for the improvement Of his children:  But his
last work, entitled "Medical Ethics," which appeared
in 1803, is adapted  for the use of tbe profession, and*
will form a lasting monument of his integrity and wis-
dom.  He contrbuted also numerous papers ou varl 
PER
PER
ous subgc-ts to the Memoirs of the Literary and Philo- I
nophical Society  of Manchester, which he had been
mainly instrumental in establishing, and which did not
cease to manifest a grateful sense of bis merits, by the
continued appointment of him to the presidency.
  PERCOLATION.   (Percolatio, strained through ;
from j>er, through, and colo, to strain.)   It is generally
applied  to animal secietion, from the office of the
glands being thought to resemble that of a strainer In
transmitting the liquors that pass through them.
  Perde'tum.  In Paracelsus it is the root of skixret,
or sium siscwum.
  Perdi'cium.  (From  atpSil,  a partridge: so called
because partridges were said to feed upon it.)  The
Parietaria officinalis, or peltitory of tiie wall.
  PERENNIAL.  See Perennis.
  PERENNIS.   Perennial; lasting for  years:  applied
to planU in opposition to those wliich live only one or
two years; thus the elm, oak, fir, &c. are perennial.
  Perennial worm-grass.  See Spigelia.
  Perete'rion.   (From atpaia, to dig through.) The
perforating part of the trepan.
  PERFOLI A'T A. (From per, and folium: so called
because the leaves surround the stem, like those of
a cabbage.)  See Bupleurum perfoliatum.
  PERFOLI ATUS.  (From per, through, and folium,
a leaf.)  Perfoliate: applied to  leaves when the stem
runs through  them, as in Bupleurum rotundifolium,
and Chlora perfoliata.
  PERFORANS.  See Flexor profundus forans.
  Perforans, seu flexor profundus.  Sec Flexor
longus digitorum pedis profundus perforans.
  Perforans, sk.u flexor tertii internodii dioi-
torum pedis.  See Flexor longus digitorum  pedis
profundus perforans.
  Performs, vulgo profundus.  See Flexor pro-
fundus perforans.
  PERFORATA.  (From perforo, to pierce through:
so  called because  ite leaves  are full of holes.)  See
Hypericum.
  PERFORA'TUS.   See Flexor  brevis digitorum
pedis, and Flexor sublimis perforatus.
  Perforatus, seu flexor secundi internodii di-
gitorum pedis.   See Flexor brevis digitorum pedis
perforatus sublimis.
  Peria'mma. (From Btpiairro, to hang round.) An
amulet, or charm, which was hung round the neck to
prevent infection.
  PERIA'NTHIUM.   (From  irtpi,  and avfloc,  a
flower.)  The calyx properly and commonly so called,
when  it is contiguous to and makes  a part of the
flower, as the five green leaves which encompass a
rose, including their urn-shaped base; the tubular part
comprehending the scales in the pinks, or the globular
scaly cup in Centaurea.  The tulip is a naked flower,
having no calyx at all.  The perianth is of infinite va-
riety of forms.
  From iu number of leaves, it is,
   1. MonophyUous, formed of one only; as in Datura
stramonium.
   2. Diphyllous; as in Papaver rhoeas.
   3. Triphyllous; as in Canna indica.
   4. Tctraphyllous ; as Lunaria annua.
   5. Pentaphyllous ; as Ranunculus.
   From the division of its edge,
   1. Undivided; without any  irregularity; as in the
 female of the Quercus robur.
   •2. Partite, or divided almost to the base; hence bi-
  fiirtite or bilabeate, in Salvia officinalis; tripartite, in
  tratiotes aloides; quadripartite, in Oenothera biennis:
 quinquepartite, in Nerium oleander; duodecempartite,
 in Sempcrvivum tectorum.
   3. CfoBfBrcut as it were to the middle only; hence,
 bifid, In Adoxa moschatellina;  trifid, in Asarum cana-
 dense; quinquefid, in CEsculus hippocastanum.
   4. Dentate, in Marrubium vulgare; quinquedentate,
 in Cucumis and  Cucurbita, the female flowers.
   5. Serrate, in Centaurea cyanus.
   From iu figure,
   1. Tubulosum;  as in Datura stramonium.
   2. Patens, with spreading leafleU; as in Borago offi-
 cinalis.
   3.  Reflexttm,  ite laciniated  portions turned back-
 ward ; as in Oenothera biennis.
   4. Inflatum, pouched and hollow; as in Cucubalus
 behen, and Physalis alkekengi  in fruit.
    From iu coloui
       164
  Coloratum, when of any other than grrrn ,  ai UI
Gomphrena globou.
  From the disposition of the trrmrn,
  1. Superum, when the perianth ami enrols are nbnvc-
Hence the remains are visible ou tlie Iruit, as in roues,
pears, tec
  2. Inferum, when below the  germen;  as  In the
poppy and water-lily.
  From the number on each flower,
  1. Simplex, when one ; as in Nicotiana tabacum.
  2. Duplex, double;  as in Malva, Allluea, Hibis
ens, Sec
  3. Calyculatum, or acutum, having a  lesser one, w
Bcoles down to the base;  as in Dianlhus  caryophyllus
  JWUiiih, when wanting;  as in tulips.
  From iu situation with respect lo Hie fructification,
  1. Pcrianthumfloris, when belonging to the male.
  2. P. fructus, when with the pistils.
  3. P. fructificationis, containing  both  stamina and
pnstils in  tbe flower.
  From iu duration,
  1. Caducum, falling off early; as in Papaver
  2. Dedduus, very late; as in Tilia Europoea.
  3. Parisians;  as in Hyosciamus.
  4. Marescens, withered, but yet conspicuous on tbe
Iruit; as in Pyrus, Mespilus, &c.
  PERIBLE'PSIS.  (From atpt6Xtitio, to stare about)
That kind of wild look which is observed in  delirious
persons.
  PERI'BOLE.   (From  BtpifJoXXu, to surround.) A
word used frequently by Hippocrates in different senses.
Sometimes it signifies tbe dress of a person; at otliers
a translation of the morbific humours from the centre
to the surface of the body.
  PERIBRO'SIS.  An ulceration or erosion,  at tlie
corners or uniting parU of the  eyelids. This disor?
der most  frequently affects  the internal commissure of
the eyelids.  The species are, 1.  Peribrosis, from the
acrimony of the tears, as may be observed in the epi-
phora.
  2.  Peribrosis, from an egylops, which  sometimes ex-
tends to the commissure of the eyelids.
  PERICARDITIS.   (From atptxapSiov, the pericar-
dium.)  Inflammation of the pericardium. See Car
ditis.
  PERICA'RDIUM.   (From atpi, about, and rapoia,
the heart.)  The membranous bag that  surrounds the
heart.  Its use  is to secrete and contain the vapour of
the pericardium, which lubricates the heart, and thus
preserves it from concreting  with the  pericardium.
  PERICA'RPIA.  (From atpi, about, and carpus,
the wrist)  Medicines that are applied to tbe wrist
  PERICARPIALIS.  Belonging  to the pericarpium
of planU: thus the spines of the Datura stramonium
on the fruit, ere called pericarpial.
  PERICARPIUM.  The seed-vessel or covering of
the seed of planU, which  is mostly membranous, lea-
thery,  woody, pulpy, or succulent  The membranous
are,
  1.  Capsula.              5. Lomenlum.
  2.  Siliqua.              6. Folliculus.
  3.  Sihcula.              7. Samara.
  4.  Legumen.
  The woody seed-vessels are
  8.  Strobulus.             0. Nux.
  Tbe fleshy ones,
  10. Pomum.             12. Drupa.
  11. Pepo,
  The succulent,
  13. Bacca.
  The seed-vessel is extremely various  in different
plants, and is formed of the germen enlarged.  It is not
an essential part of a plant, the seeds being frequently
naked, and guarded only by tbe calyx, as is the case
with the plants ofthe order Gymnospermia, also iu the
great class of compound flowers, Syngenesia.
  The use of the seed-vessel is to protect the seeds till
ripe, and then, in some way or other, to proinote.tberr
dispersion, either scattering them by iu  elastic power,
or serving for tbe food of animals, in the  dung of which
the seeds vegetate, or promoting the same end by va-
 rious other  means. The same organ which remains
closed so long as it is juicy or moist, splits or flies asun-
der  when dry, thus scattering the seeds in weather
 most favourable for their success. By an extraordinary
 provision of nature, however, in some annual specie*
 of Mesembryanthemunv natives of sandy deceit*,  iu. 
PKR
PER
Africa, the seed-vessel opens only in rainy weather;
otherwise the seeds might, in that country, lie  long ex-
posed  before  they  met  with sufficient  moisture to
vegetate.
  PERICHA3'TIUM.  (From irtpi, about, and xai7n, a
hair or bristle.)  A  scaly sheath, investing the fertile
flower, and consequently the base of the fruit-stalk, of
some mosses.  In the genus Hypnum it is of great con-
sequence, not only by iu  presence, constituting a part
ofthe generic character, but by its differences in shape,
proportion, and structure, serving frequently to discri-
minate species.  Linneus appears by his manuscripts,
Sir James Smith informs  us, to have intended adding
this to the different kinds of calyx, though it is not one
of the seven enumerated in his printed works.
  PERICHONDRIUM.   (From  atpi,  about, and
XovSpos,  a cartilage.)  The membrane that covers a
cartilage.
  PBRICHRI'SIS.  (From  atpi,  about, and  xptu, to
anoint)  A liniment.
  Periohri'sta.  (From  irepj, around, and  vpiw, to
anoint.)  Any medicines  with which the eyelids are
anointed, in an ophthalmia.
  Pericla'sis.   (From  atpi, about,  and xXata,  to
break.)   It is a term used by Galen for such a fracture
of the bone  as quite  divides it, and forces it through
the flesh into sight   Or a fracture with a great wound,
wherein the bone is laid bare.
  PERICLY'MENUM.   (From  atpixXv^ta,  to  roll
round: so called because it  twists iuelf round what-
ever is near  it.)  The  honeysuckle or woodbine.  See
Lonicera.
  PERICNE'MIA.   (From  atpi,  about, and Kvn«n,
the tibia.)  The parts  about the tibia.
  PERICRANIUM.  (From irtpi, about, and xpavtov,
the cranium.) The membrane that is closely connected
to the bones of the head or cranium.
  Peride'smica.  (From atpi, about, and Stapos, a
ligature.)  1. Parte about a ligament.
  2. A suppression of urine, from stricture in the ure-
thra.
  PERIDIUM.   The  name  given  by Person to the
round membranous  dry cose of the seeds of some of
the ongiosperm mushrooms.
  PERIDOT.   See Chrysolite.
  Peri'dromos.  (From  atpi, about, and Spopos, a
course.)  The extreme circumference of the  nairs of
the head.
  Perie'rgia.  Htpitpyia.   Any needless caution or
trouble in an operation, as atpitpyos is one  who de-
spatches  it with unnecessary circumstances:  both the
terms are met with in Hippocrates, and others of the
Greek writers.
  Perieste'cos. (From atpitsypi) to surround, or to
guard.)   An epithet for diseases, signs, or symptoms,
importing their being salutary, and that they prognosti-
cate the recovery of the patient.
  Peri'oraphe.  (From  aeptypacbia, to circumscribe.)
1. An inaccurate description, or delineation.
  2. In Vesalius, perigraphe signifies  certain white
lines and impressions, observable in the musculus rec-
tus of the abdomen.
  Pe'rin.  (From avpa,  a bag.)   A testicle.  Some
explain it the Perinaum;  others say it is the Anus.
  PERINASOCE'LE. (From atptvaiov, the perineum,
and xr/Xn, a rupture.)  A rupture  in fie perineum.
  PERINAS'UM.  (From atptvtta, to flow round, be-
cause that part is generally moist.)  The space between
the anus and organs of generation.
  Perinaus transversus.  See 7Van*«er*u* pe-

  PERINYCTIS.   (Perinyctis,idis,f.;  from  atpi and
w\, the  night.  Little swellings like nipples;  or, as
others relate, pustules, or pimples,  which break out in
the night
  PERIOSTEUM.  (From srtpi, about, and  os-tov, a
bone.) The membrane which iuvesu the external sur-
face of all the bones, except  the crowns of the teeth.
h Is of a fibrous texture,  and well  supplied with arte-
ries, veins, nerves, and absorbents.  It is called pericra-
nium, on the cranium; periorbita, on the orbits; peri-
thondrium, when it covers cartilage; and peridesmium,
when it covers  ligament.  Its use appears to be to dis-
tribute the vessels on the external surfaces of bones.
  Piriphimo'sis.  See Phimosis.
  Peripleumo'nia.   See Pneumonia.
  PERIPNEUMONIA.  (From  acpt,  and avtvpw,
the lung.)   Peripneumony, or inflammation of ths
lungs.  See Pneumonia.
  Peripneumonia notha.  Bastard or spurious pe-
ripneumony.  Practitioners, it would appear, do not all
affix this name to the same disease; some affirming it
to be a rheumatie affection of the respiratory muscles,
while others consider it as a mild peripneumony.  Il
is characterized by difficulty of breathing, great oppres-
sion at the chest, with obscure pains, coughs, and oc-
casionally an expectoration.  Spurious peripneumony"
is sometimes so slight as to resemble  only a violent
catarrh; and, after the employment of a few  proper
remedies, goes off by a free and copious expectoration;
but sometimes the symptoms run high, and an effusion
of serum into the bronchia takes place, which destroys
the patient
  PERIPYE'MA.  (From irepi, about, and avov, pus )
A collection of matter about any port, as round a tooth,
in the gums.
  Perirrhe'xis.  (From irtpi,  about, and pnyvvpt, to
break.)  A breaking  off,  or a separation round about,
either of corrupted bones, or of dead flesh.
  Perirrhos'a.  (From  irtptpptia, to flow about.)  A
reflux of humours  in a  dropsical case to any of the
larger emunctories for ite excretion.
  Periscyphi'smus.  (From atpi, about, and xvtpos,
gibbous.)  An  incision made across the  forehead,  or
from one temple to another, over the upper part of the
os frontis.   It was formerly made to cover a considera-
ble  inflammation or defluxion from the eyes.
  PERISTALTIC.   (Peristalticus; from ntpij-eXXw,
to contract.) The vermicular motion of the intestines,
by  which they contract and propel  their contents, is
called peristaltic.  A  similar motion takes place in the
Fallopian tubes, after conception, by means of which
the ovum  is translated   from  the  ovarium into the
uterus.
  Peristaphyli'nus. (From atpi, about, and s-atbvXn,
the uvula.)  A  muscle wbich  is connected with the
uvula.
  Periste'rium.   (From atpt$tpos,  a  pigeon:   so
called because  pigeons covet it.)  See Verbena offici
nalis.
  Peristoma.  See Peristomium.
  PERISTOMIUM.  (From irtpi, around, and fopa,
the mouth or opening of the  capsule.)   Peristoma
The fringe-like membranous margin which, in many
mosses, borders the orifice of the theca or capsule.  It
is either simple or double, and consisu either of sepa
rate teeth,  or of a plated or jagged membrane.  The
external fringe is mostly ofthe former kind; the inner,
when present, of the latter. The number of teeth, re-
markably constant in each genus and species, is either
four,  eight,  sixteen,  thirty-two, or sixty-four.   On
these Hedwig and his followers have placed great de-
pendence.
  Peristro'ma. (From atpts-vpevwia, to strew about.)
Properly signifies any covering.
  PERISYSTOLE.   (From sttpts-tXXco, to compress.)
The pause or time between a contraction and dilata-
tion of the heart
  Perite'rion. (Fromortpi, and rnptia, to preserve.)
The perforating part of the trepan.
  Peritonsore'xis.  (From ircpi'Jovaiov, the perito-
neum, and pnoota, to break.)  A bursting of the peri-
toneum.
  PERITONEUM.   (From  atpirttvia,  to  extend
round.) A strong simple membrane, by which all the
viscera of the abdomen are surrounded. It has an ex-
ceedingly smooth, exhaling,  and moist internal sur-
face.  Outwardly, it is every where surrounded by cel-
lular  substance, which,  towards the kidneys, is very
loose and very fat; but is very short at the lower ten-
don of the transverse  muscles.   It begins from the dia-
phragm, which  it completely lines, and at the last fleshy
fibres of the ribs, and the external lumbar fibres, it
completes the septum, in  conjunction with the pleura,
with which it is continuous through tbe various inter-
vals of the diaphragm.  Posteriorly, it descends before
the kidneys; anteriorly,  behind the abdominal mus-
cles.  It dips  into the pelvis from the bones of tbe
pubes, passes over the bladder, and descends behind;
and being again carried backwards at tlie entrance of
tbe ureters, in two lunar folds, it rejoins upon the intes-
tinum rectum  that part  of itself which invests the
loins, and in this situation lies before the rectum.  Tha
cellular texture, which' covers the peritonxum on the 
PER                                            PER
outside, is continued into sheaths in very many places;
lot which, one receives the testicle on each side, an-
other the iliac vessels of the pelvis, viz. the obturatoria,
those of tlie penis and bladder, and the aorta, and,  as-
cending fo the breast, accompanies the oesophagus and
vertebre; by means of which, there  is a communica-
tion between the whole body .and the peritoneum, well
known io dropsical people.  It has various prolonga-
tions for covering the viscera.  The shorter productions
of this membrane are called ligaments; and ore formed
by a continuous reduplication of the peritonamin,  re-
ceding from  iu inner surface, enclosing cellular sub-
stance, and extending to some viscus, where iu plates
separate, and, having  diverged, embrace  the viscus;
but tlie intermediate cellular substance always accom-
panies this membranaceous coat, and  joins it with the
true substance of the viscus.  Of this short kind of pro-
duction, three belong to the Jiver, one or two to the
spleen, and others to the kidneys, and to the sides ofthe
Uterus and vagina.  By these means, the tender sub-
stance of the yiscera is /defended from injury  by any
motion or  concussion, and their whole mass is pre-
vented from being misplaced by their own weight, and
from  injuring themselves, being securely connected
with the firm sides of the peritoneum.
  PERITQNI'TIS.  (Fromotpirovat,thieperitoneum.)
An inflammation of the peritoneum.  A genus of dis-
ease i.-i the Class Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia, of
Cullen, known by tlie presence of pyrexia, wilh poin in
the abdomen, that is increased when in an  erect  posi-
tion, but wilhout other proper signs of inflammation of
llie abdominal viscera.  When  the inflammation at-
tacks  the peritoneum ofthe viscera, it takes the name
ofthe viscus; thus, peritonitis,hepatitis, peritonitis in-
testinalis, peritonitis omenlalis, or epiploitis, or omen-
titis, peritonitis mescnterii, Sec
  All  these Dr. Cullen considers under the general head
of peritonitis, as there are no certain signs by which
they can be distinguished from each other, and the
method of cure must be tiie same in all.   He however
distinguishes three species.
  1. Peritonitis propria; when Ihe peritoneum, strict-
ly so called, is inflamed.
  2. Peritonitis  omentalis-  Omentitis-   Epiploitis,
when the omentum >s affected.
  3. Peritonitis mesenterica, when the mesentery is
Inflained.
  Peiuzo'ma.   (From  irtpi£iavvvtu,  to gird round.)
This term strictly signifies a girdle; but by Hildanus,
and some other chirurgical writers, it is applied to those
instruments for supporting ruptures,  which we  com-
monly call trusses.   Some  also express by it the dia-
phragm.
  PE'RLA,   (Ital.  and Span, perl,  Welch,  perlen,
Germ.)  See Margarita.
  Perlate acid.   A  name  given by Bergman to the
acidulous phosphate of soda, Houpt having called the
phosphate of soda Sal mirabile perlatum-
   PE'RNIO.   A kibe or chilblain.   A  species  of
erythema, of Culjen.  Chilblains are painful  inflam-
matory swellings, of a deep purple or leaden colour, to
which tlie fingers, toes, heels, and other extreme  parts
of the body are subject, on being exposed to a severe
degree of cold.   The pain is not constant, but rather
pungent and  shooting at particular times, and an in-
supportable  itching  attends.  In some instances the
Skin remains entire, but in others it breaks and dis-
charges a thin fluid.  When the degree of cold has
been very great, or the application long continued, the
paru affected are apt to mortify and slough off, leoving
a foul ill-conditioned ulcer behind.  Children and old
people are more apt  to  be troubled with chilblains
than those of a middle age; and such as are of a scro-
fulous habit are remarked to suffer severely from them.
   PERONE.  (From xeipia, to fasten: so called be-
cause it fastens together the tibia and  tlie muscles.)
The fibula.
  PERONE'US.  (Peroneus, irtpovaios;  from perone,
the fibula.)  Belonging to the fibula.
  Peroneus anticus.  See Peroneus brevis.
  Peroneus brevis.  This muscle is tbe peroneus se-
..ndus, seu antieus, of Douglas; tbe peroneus medius,
seu amicus of Winslow; the peronaus secundus of
Cowper; and pelit-pcroneo sus-metatarsieti,of Dumas.
It arises, by an  acute, thin, and  fleshy origin, from the
anterior and outer  part of the  fibula, its fibres con-
tinuing to adhere to the lower half of that bone.  Its
      •to
round tendon passes through the groove in the malleo-
lus externus, along wilh that of the peroneus longus.
after which it runs in  a separate groove in be Inserted
into the upper and posterior part of the tubercle at tha
basis of tlie metatarsal bone that supports the little toe,
lu use is lo assist tlie peroneus longus.
  Peroneus lonous.   This muscle, which  is the pe-
roneus primus,  seu posticus,  of Douglas; peroneus
maximus, seu posterior, of Winslow; perona-u.s pri-
mus, of Cowper; and  tibi peroneo-tarsien, of Dumas,
Is situated somewhat anteriorly alonif tin: outer side of
the leg.   It arises tendinous and fleshy from  the exter-
nal lateral part of the head of the tibia, and likewise
fmm the upper anterior (surface and outer side of the
perone or fibula, ite fibres continuing to adhere to the
outer  surface of the latter, to  within three or four
ijichesof the malleolus externus. It terminates in a long
round tendon, which runs  obliquely behind llie mal-
leolus internus, where it passes through a cartilaginous
groove in common with the peroneus  brevis, being
bound down by  an  annular  ligament.  When it has
reached the os calcis. itquiu the tendon ofthe peroneus
brevis, and runs  obliquely inwards along a groove iu
the os caboides, under the  muscles on ihe sole of the
foot, to be inserted into the outside of the posterior ex-
tremity of the metatarsal bone that supports  the great
toe.  Near the insertion of this muscle we find a smull
bursa mucosa.  This muscle draws the foot outwards,
and likewjse assists in extending it.
  Peroneus maximus.  See Peroneus longus,
  Peroneus medius.  See Peroneus brevis.
  Peroneus posticus.   See Peroneus longus.
  Peroneus primus.  See Peroneus longus.
  Peroneus secundus.  See Peroneus brevis.
  Peroneus tertius.  This is the name given by Al
binus to a muscle which, by some writers, is called
nanus Vesalii, or Vesslius's ninth muscle of tlie foot;
but by most considered in the present day as a portion
of the extensor  longus digitorum pedis.  It is situated
al the anterior, inferior, and outer part of the  leg, along
the outer edge ofthe last described muscle, to which it
is intimately united.  It arises fleshy from the anterior
surface pf the lower hajf of the fibula, and from the ad-
jacent part of the interosseous ligament.  Its  fibres run
obliquely downwards,  towards a tendon which passes
under the annular ligament, and then running obliquely
outwards, it is inserted into tbe root ofthe metatarsal
bone that supports the little toe.  This muscle assists in
bending the foot.
  PERPENDICUL ARIS.  Applied to parts of plants,
as the root of the Daucus carota, which goes straight
down into the earth.
  PERSICA.   (From  Persia, its  native soiL)  The
peach.  See Amygdalus persica.
  PERSICARIA.  (From Persica, the peach-tree: so
called because ite blossoms are like those of the peach.)
See Polygonum persicaria.
  Persicaria mitis.  See Polygonum persicaria.
  Persicaria urens.   See Polygonum hydropiper,  .
  Pe'rsicus ignis.  A carbuncle.  Avicenna says, it
is that species of carbuncle which is attended wilh
pustules nnd vesications.
  [Persimmoh.   See Diospyros. A.l
  PERSISTENS. Permanent  Applied to flower-ctjps
remaining a longtime after the flower,  as that of the
Hyosciamus niger.
  Persi'stens febris.  A regular intermitting fever.
the paroxysms of which return at constant and slated
hours.
  Persona'ta.    (From persona, a mask;  because,
says Pliny, the ancient actors used to mask themselves
with the leaves of this plant.) . See Arctium lappa.
  PERSONATUS.  Personate.  A term applied to a
monopetalous corolla, when irregular, and closed by a
kind of palate; as in Antirrhinum.
  PERSPIRATION.  Perspiralio.  The vapour that
is secreted by the extremities ofthe cutaneous arteries
from the external surface ofthe body.  It is distinguish-
ed into sensible nnd insensible.  The former is sepa-
rated in tbe form of an invisible vapour, the latter so aa
to be visible in the form of very little drops adhering to
ihe epidermis.  The secretary or go n is composed of the
extremities of the cutaneous arteries. The smell of tlie
perspirable fluid, in a  healthy man, U fatuous and
animal;  iu taste manifestly salt and ammoniacal.  In
consistence it is  vaporous or aqueous; and iu specifie
gravity in tbe lauer slate is greater than that of water 
PER
PER
For the most part it is yellowish, from the passage of
the subcutaneous oil, and sebaceous matter ofthe sub-
cutaneous glands.
  Whatever form it takes, the liquid that escapes from
the skin is composed, according to Thenard, of a great
deal of water, a small quantity of acetic acid, of muri-
ate of soda and potassa, a small quantity of earthy
phosphate, an  atom of oxide of iron, and  a trace of
animal matter.  Berzelius considers the acid of sweat
not the same as acetic acid, hut like the lactic acid of
Scheele.  Theskln exhales, besides, anoily matter,and
some carbonic acid.
  Many experiments have been made to determine the
quantity of transpiration which  is formed in a given
time, and the variations that  this quantity undergoes
according to circumstances.  The first attempU are due
to Sanctorius, who, during thirty years, weighed every
day, with extreme care, and an indefatigable patience,
his food and his drink, his solid and liquid excretions,
and even himself.  Sanctorius, in spite of his zeal and
perseverance, arrived at resulu  that were  not very
exact.  Since his time, several philosophers and phy-
sicians have been employed  on the some subject with
more success; but the most remarkable labour in this
way is that of Lavoisier and Seguin.   These philoso-
phers  were the first who distinguished the loss that
takes  place by pulmonary transpiration from that of
the skin.   Seguin shut himself up in a bag of gummed
silk, tied above his head, and presenting an opening,
tlie edges of which were fixed round his mouth by a
mixture of turpentine and pitch.   In this manner only,
the humour of the pulmonary transpiration passed into
tiie air. In order to know the quantity, it was sufficient
to weigh himself, with the  bag, at the beginning and
end of the experiment in a  very fine balance.   By re-
peating the experiment out  of the bag, he determined
the whole quantity of humour transpired; so that, by
deducting  from this the quontity that he knew had
passed out from the lungs, he  had the quantity  of hu-
mour  exhaled by the skin.  Besides, he took into ac-
count the food that he  had  used, his excretions solid
and liquid, and generally all the causes thai could have
any influence upon the transpiration.  By following this
plan, the resulu of Lavoisier and Seguin are these:—
  1st, The greatest quantity  of insensible transpira-
tion (the pulmonary included) is 25.6 grains troy per
minute; consequently, 3 ounces, 1 drachm, 36 grains,
per hour;  and 6  pounds,  4 ounces, 6 drachms, 24
groins, in 24 hours.
  2d,  The least considerable loss is 8.8 grains per mi-
nute ; consequently, 2 pounds, 2 ounces, 3 drachms, in
24 hours.
  3d,  It is during the digestion that the loss of  weight
occasioned by insensible transpiration is  at iu mi-
nimum.
  4th, The transpirolion is at  its maximum  imme-
diately after dinner.
  5th, The mean of the insensible transpiration is 14.4
grains per minute; in the mean 14.4 grains, 8.8 depend
on cutaneous  transpiration,  and 5.6 upon  the pul-
monary.
  6th, The cutaneous transpiration alone varies during
and after repasts.
  7th, Whatever quantity cf food is taken, or what-
ever are the variations of  the atmosphere, the same
individual, after having augmented in weight by all the
food that he has taken, returns, in 24 hours, to the
some weight nearly that he was the day before, pro-
vided he is not growing, or has not eaten to excess.
  It is much to be wished that this interesting  labour
had been continued, and that authors had not limited
Iheir  studies to  insensible  transpiration, but had ex-
tended their observations to tbe sweat.
  Whenever the humour of transpiration is not evapo-
rated, as soon as it is in contact with the air, it appears
at the surface of the skin in  the form of a layer of
  quid of  variable thickness.  Now,  this effect may
happen because the transpiration is too copious,  o'r
because of the diminution  of the dissolvent force of
the air.  We perspire in an air hot and humid, by the
influence of Ihe two causes joined;  we would perspire
with  more difficulty in  an  air of fhe same heat, but
dry.  Certain  parts of  the body transpire more co-
piously, and sweat with more facility, than others;
such  are  the  hands and  the feet,  the armpits, the
groins, the brow,  Sec.  Generally the skin of these
parts receives a greater t*rsportkma) quantity of blood;
and, in some people, the armpit, the sole of the foot,
and the intervals between tbe toes, do  not come so
easily in contact with the air.
  The sweat does not appear to have every where the
some composition; every one knows that Iu odour ia
variable according to the different paru  of the body.
It is the same with iu acidity, which appears much
stronger in the armpits and feet than elsewhere.
  The cutaneous transpiration has  numerous uses in
the animal economy, keeps up the  suppleness of tho
epidermis, and thus favours  the exercise of the tact
and the touch.  It is by evaporation  along with that of
the lungs, the principal  means of cooling,  by which
the body maintains iuelf within certain limits of tem-
perature;  also iu expulsion from theefcnotny appears
very important, for every time lhat  it is diminished or
suspended, derangements of more or less consequence
follow, and many diseases are not arrested until a con-
siderable quantity of sweat is expelled.
  Beside water, it cannot be doubted that carbon is
also emitted from the skin; but in what state, the ex-
perimenu hitherto made do  not enable us to decide,
Cruickshanks found, that the air of the glass vessel in
which  his  hand and foot had been confined  for  on
hour, contained carbonic acid gas; for a candle burned
dimly in it, and it rendered lime-water turbid.  And
Jurine found, that air which  had remained for some
time in contact with the skin, consisted almost entirely
of carbonic acid gas.  The same conclusion may be
drawn from the experiments of Ingenhousz and Milly.
Trouseet  has lately observed, lhat air  was scporated
copiously from a patient of his, while bathing.
  Besides water and carbon, or carbonic acid gas, the
skin emits also a particular odorous substonce.  That
every animal has a peculiar smell, is well known: the
dog can discover his master, and even trace him to a
distance  by the scent.   A  dog,  chained up  several
hours after his master had  set out on a journey of
some hundred  miles, followed  his  footsteps  by the
smell.  But it is needless to multiply the instances of this
fact; they  are too well  known  to  every one.  Now,
this smell must be owing  to some peculiar matter which
is constantly emitted;   and  this matter must differ
somewhat, either in quantity or some other property,
as we see that the dog easily distinguishes the indivi-
dual by means of it.  Cruickshanks has made it pro-
bable, that this matter is an oily substance, or at least
that there is  an oily substance  emitted  by the skin.
He wore repeatedly, night and day, for  a month,  the
same under waistcoat  of fleecy hosiery, during the
hottest port of the summer.   At the end of this time,
he always found an oily substance accumulated in con-
siderable masses  on  the nap of the inner surface of
the  waistcoat,  in the form  of  black  tears.  When
rubbed on paper, it rendered it transparent, and hard-
ened on it like grease.   It burned with a white flame,
and left behind it a charry residuum.
  Berthollet has observed the perspiration acid; and
he has concluded, that the acid which is present is the
phosphoric; but this has not been proved.  Fourcroy
and Vauquelin have ascertained, that the scurf which
collecu upon the skins  of  horses,  consists chiefly of
phosphate of lime, and urea is even sometimes mixed
with it.
  According to Thenard, however, who has lately en-
deavoured more particularly to  ascertain this point,
the acid contained in sweat is the acetous; which, he
likewise observes, is the only free acid  contained in
urine and in milk, this acid existing in both of them
when quite fresh.  His account of his examination of
it is as follows:—
  The sweat Is more or less copious in different indi-
viduals; and its quantity is perceptibly in the inverse
ratio of that of the urine.    All other circumstances
being similar, much more is produced during digestion
than during repose. The maximum of its production
appears to be twenty-six grains and two-thirds in a
minute; the minimum nine grains, troy weight.  It is
much inferior, however, to the  pulmonary transpira-
tion ; and there is likewise a  great  difference between
their nature and manner of formation.   The one is a
product of a particular secretion, similar in some sort
to that of the urine; the other, composed of a great
deal of water and carbonic acid, is the product of a
combustion gradually effected by the atmospheric air.
  The sweat, in a healthy state, very sensibly  reddens
litmus paper or infusion.  In certain diseases, and pur- 
PER
PER
ticularly in putrid fevers, it is alkaline;  yet its taste is
always rather saline, and inure similar to that of salt
ibon acid.  Though  colourless, it stains  linen.  Iu
smell is peculiar, and insupi>oriable when it is concen-
trated, which  is lheca.-e in particular during distilla-
tion.  But before he speaks of the trials to which he
subjected it and of which he had occasion for a great
jqusnuiy, be describes the method be adopted for pro-
curing it, which was similar to that of Cruickshanks.
  Human sweat,  according to Thenard, is formed of
a great  deal of water, free acetous acid, muriate of
^oda, an atom of phosphate of lime and oxide of iron,
and an inappreciable quantity of animal matter, which
approaches much nearer lo gelatin than to any other
substance.
  Perspiration varies in respect lo, I. The temperature
pf the atmosphere.  Thus men have a  more copious,
Viscid, aiidliighcr-coloured  sweat in  summer  than in
winter, and in watm countries than in colder regions.
S5. Sex.  The sweat of a man  is said to smell more
acrid than thai of a woman.  3. Age.  The young aie
;nore subject to sweat than the aged, who, during the
excessive  heat of tbe summer, scarcely sweat  at all.
4. Jngesta,  An alliaceous sweat is perceived from
eating garlick;  a leguminous from pease; an acid from
acids; a foetid from animal  foodopiy;  and a  rancid
sweat from fat foods, as is observed jii Greenland.   A
lung abstinence from drink causes a  more acrid and
.coloured sweat;  aud the drinking a great quantity
pf cold water in summer, a limpid and thin sweat.  5.
Jifedtcines.  The sweat of those who have taken
musk,  even moderately, and  asafoetida,  or  sulphur,
smells of their  respective natures.  6.  Region of the
body.  The sweat of the heed is  greasy; on the fore-
head it is more aqueous; under the axille very ungul-
nous;  and in the interstices  of the  Iocs, it  is very
foetid, forming in the most healthy man blackish sordes.
7- Diseases.   In  this respect it varies very much in
regard to quantity, sm.ell, and colour;  for the sweat of
gouty persons  is said fo turn blue  vegetable juices to a
fed colour.  Some men also have a lucid sweat, others
a sweat tinging their linen of a cerulean colour.
  The uses ofthe insensible perspiration are,  1. To
liberate the blond from superflimus animal gas, azote,
and water.  2. To eliminate tbe noxious and hetero-
geneous excremenu; hence  the acrid, rancid, legumi-
nous, or  putrid perspiration of  some men.    3. To
moisten the external  surface of the body, lest the epi-
dermis, cutis, and its nervous papilla:, be dried up by
the  atmospheric air.  4. To counterbalance the sup-
pressed pulmonary tronspiiotion of  the  lungs;  for
wheu  jt is suppressed, the cutaneous is increased;
hence the nature of both appears to be the same.
  The use of the sensible perspiration, or sweat, in a
healthy man, is scarcely observable, unless from  an
error of the non-naturals.   Its first effect  on  the body
is always  prejudicial,  by exhausting and drying  it,
although it is sometimes of advantage.  1. By supply-
ing a watery excretion:  thus when the urine is defi-
cient, the sweat is often more abundant.  In this man-
ner an aqueous diarrhoea is frequently cured by sweat-
ing. 2. By eliminating, at  the same time, any morbid
matter.   Thus various  miasmata are critically ex-
pelled, in acute and chroiuc diseases, with the sweat.
  PERTUSSIS.  (Fromyer, much, and tussis, cough.)
The hooping-cough.  A genus of diseases in tiie class
JVeuro*c», an/i order Spasmi, of Cujlen, known by a
convulsive strangulating cough, with hooping, return-
ing by flu, that are usually terminated  by a vomiting;
and by iu being contagious.
  Children are nj°st commonly the subjecu of this
disease, nnd it seems 10 depend on a specific contagion,
which affects  them but once in their life.  The disease
being once produced, the fits of coughing are often  re-
peated without any evident cause; but, in many cases,
the  contagion  may be considered as only giving the
predisposition, and Ihe frequency of the fits may depend
upon various  exciting causes, such as violent exercise,
a full meal, the having taken food of difficult digestion,
and irritation of the lungs by dust, smoke, or disagree-
able odours.  Emotions of Ihe mind may likewise prove
an exciting cause.
  Ite proximate or immediate cause seems to be a vis-
cid  matter or phlegm  lodged about  the bronchia,
trachea, and  fauces, which  sticks so  close  as to be
expectorated wilh tlie greatest difficulty.   Some have
 supposed it 10 be a morbid  irritability of the stomach,
       Ilia
with increased  action of iu mucous glands; hut tb#
affection of the  stomach which takes place in the dis-
ease, is clearly only of a secondary nature, so that this
opinion must be erroneous.
  The hooping-cough usually comes on wilh a difficulty
of breathing, some degree of thirst, a quick pulse, and
other slight febrile symptoms, which  are succeeded by
a hoarseness, cough, and difficulty  of expectoration,
These symptoms continue perhaps for a  fortnight or
more, al the end of whjch lime the disease puts on lU
peculiar and characteristic  form, and is now evident
as the cough becomes convulsive, and is attended with
a sound, which has been called a hoop.
  When the sonorous  inspiration has happened, the
coughing is again renewed, and continues 111 the same
manner as before, till  either a quantity of mucus  is
thrown  up from the  lungs, or the contents of the
stomach are evacuated by vomiting. The fit is  then
terminated, and the patient remains  free  from  any
other for some  time, and shortly afterward returns to
the amusemenu he was employed  in  before the fit,
expresses a desire for food, and when it is given 10 him,
takes it greedily.  In those cases, however, where the
attack has been severe, he often seems much  fatigued,
makes quick inspirations, and falls inlo a faint
  On the first coming 011 of the disease, there is little or
no  expectoration ;  or  if any, it consists only of  thin
mucus; and as long  as this is the case, the  fits of
coughing are  frequent, and of considerable  duration;
but on  the expectoration becoming free and copious,
the fiu of coughing are less frequent, as well as of
shorter duration.
  By the violence  of  coughing, the  free transmission
of blood through the lungs is somewhat Interrupted, as
likewise the  free return of the blood from the head,
which produces that turgescence and suffusion of the
face, which commonly attend the attack, and in some
instances brings on a hemorrhage cither from the nose
or ears.
  The disease having arrived at iu height, usually con-
tinues for some weeks longer, and  at length goes off
gradually. In some cases it is, however, protracted for
several months, or even a year.
  Although the hooping-cough often  proves tedious,
and is liable to return with  violence on any fresh ex-
posure to cold, when not entirely removed, it neverthe-
less is seldom fatal, except to very young children, who
are always likely to suffer more from it than those of a
more advanced age.  The danger seems indeed always
to be in proportion to the youth of the person, and tho
 degree of fever, and difficulty of breathing, which ac-
 company the disease, as likewise the state  of debility
 which prevails.
   It has been known in some instances to terminate in.
 apoplexy and suffocation.  If the fiu are put an end to
 by vomiting, it moy be regarded as a favourable symp-
 tom, as may likewise  the taking place of a moderate
 and free expectoration, or  the  ensuing of  a slight
 hemorrhage from  ihe nose or ears.
   Dissections of those who  die of the hooping-cough
 usually show the consequence of the organs of respira-
 tion being affected, and particularly those parts which
 are the seat of catarrh.  When the disease has been
 long protracted, it is apt to degenerate into pulmonary
consuinption, asthma, or visceral obstructions, in which
 last case the glands of the mesentery are found in a
 hard and enlarged state.
   In the treatment of this disease it must be borne in
mind, that in the early period palliative measures can
only be employed;  but when il continues merely from
 habit, a variety of means will often  at once put a stop
 to it.  In the first stage in mild cases very little is re-
quired, except obviating occasional  irritation, keeping
 the bowels regular, &c.  But where it pute on a more
 serious character, the plan will differ accordingly as  it
 is attended with inflammatory symptoms, or exhibits a
 purely  spasmodic  form.  In the  former case, it may
 be sometimes proper  in plethoric habiu to  begin by a
 full bleeding, or leeches to the chest, if the patient be
 very young, then clear the bowels effectually, apply a
 blister, and exhibit antimonials, or squill, in nauseating
 doses, assisted perhaps by opium, to  promote diaphore
 sis and expectoration.  An occasional emetic, where
 the breathing  is much oppressed with wheezing, in
 young children particularly, may afford material lelief
 When the disorder is more of the spasmodic character,
 come of these means may still be useful, as blisters, and 
**E9
PET
nauseating medicines, so  far as the strength will ad-
mit; but the  remedies of greatest efficacy are the nar-
cotics, as opium, conium, &c. exhibited  in adequate
doses.   Iu the chronic or habituar- stage ofthe disease,
almost any thing, which produces a considerable im-
pression on the constitution, will occasionally succeed:
but we chiefly rely on sedative and  antispasmodic, or
on tonic remedies, accordinely as there are marks of
irritobility, or of mere debility in the system.  Of the
former description, opium is jierhops the best, especially
in conjunction with squill, given in a full dose at night,
and in small quantities swallowed slowly from time to
time during the day.  Conium, asafoetida, Sec. may
however occasionally answer better in particular con-
stitutions  Among the tonics the cinchona is often high-
ly efficacious, where  no appearances of local disease
rttend; some of the  metallic preparations also, par-
ticularly sulphate of  zinc,  may be much  relied upon.
Sometimes stimulant applications to the chest, but still
more certainly opiate frictions, will be found to cure
this disorder.   The same  is  very often accomplished
by a change of air, indeed occasionally after the failure
of most  remedies.  The cold bath also, where there  is
no local disease, may have an excellent effect; assisted
by warm clothing, especially wearing some kind of fur
over the chest.  Fear and other emotions of the mind,
strangury induced by  the use of the lytta, &c. &c. rank
also among the remedies of pertussis.
  Peruvian balsam.  See Myroxylon peruiferum.
  Peruvian bark.  See Cinchona.
  Peruvia'nus cortex.  See Cinchona.
  Peruvianus cortex flavus.  See Cinchona eordi-
folia.
  Peruvianus cortex ruber.  See Cinchona oblon-
gifolia.
  PERVIGILIUM.   (From per, much, and vigilo,  to
watch.) Watching, or a want of sleep. See Vigilance.
  PERVI'NCA.  (From  pervincio,  to tie together.)
So called because its stringy roou were used for bind-
ing substances together. See Vinca minor.
  PES.   (Pes, dis. m.; a foot.)  The foot.
  Pes alexandrinus.  See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  Pr.s cafr*.  Goat's foot, a species of Oxalis;  also
a species of Convolvulus.
  Pes cati.  See Gnaphalium dioicum.
  Pes colombinus.   See Geranium rotundifolium.
  Pes hippocampi.   The name of two columns ot the
end ofthe fornix ofthe brain, which diverge posteriorly.
  Pes leonis.  See Alchemilla.
  Pes tioridis.  Tiger's foot  A species of Ipomaa.
  PESSARY.  (Pessarium; from ataaia, to  soften.)
An instrument that  is introduced  into the vagina to
support the uterus.
  PESTILENCE.  A plague.
  PESTILENTIAL.  (Pestilenlialis;  from pestes,
the plague.)  An epidemic, malignant, and contagious
disease, approaching to the nature of the plague.
  PESTILENT WORT.  See Tussilago petasites.
  Pestilochta.  See Aristolochia virginiana.
  PE'STIS.  The plague. A genus of disease in the
class Pyrexia, and  order Exanthemata, of Cullen,
characterized by typhus,  which is  contagious in the
extreme, prostration  of strength, buboes, and carbun-
cles, petechie, hemorrhage, and colliquative diarrhoea.
   By some writers the disease has been divided into
three species; thai ottended with buboes; that attended
with carbuncles: and thoi  accompanied with petechie.
This division appears wholly superfluous.  Dr. Russel,
in his elaborate treatise on tbe plague, makes mention
of many varieties; but when these have arisen, they
seem to have depended in a great measure on the tem-
perament nnd constitution of the air at the time the dis-
ease became  epidemical, as  likewise on the patient's
habit of body at the time of  his being attacked with it.
  The plague is by most writers considered as the con-
sequence of a pestilential contagion, which is propa-
gated from one person to another by association, or by
coming near infected materials.
   It has been observed, that it generally appears  as
early as tbe fourth or fifth  day after infection: but it
has not yet been ascertained  how long a person who
bas laboured under the disease is capable of infecting
others, nor how long the contagion may lurk in an un-
favourable habit without producing the disease, and
may yet be communicated, and the disease excited, in
 habiu more  susceptible of the infection.   It has gene-
 rally been supposed, however, that a quarantine of 40
days Is much longer than is necessary for persons, and
probably for goods also. Experience has not yet deter
mined how much of this term may be abated.  "If •
am not  much mistaken," observes Dr. Thomas, " ihe
Board  of Trade has, however, very lately, under the
sanction of the College of  Physicians,  somewhat
abridged it."
  It sometimes happens, that after the application of
the putrid vapour, the patient experiences only a con-
siderable degree of languor and  slight  headache for
many days previous to a perfect attack of the disease:
but it more usually comes to pass, that he is very soon
seized with great depression of strength, anxiety, palpi-
tions, syncope, stupor, giddiness, violent headache, and
delirium, the  pulse becoming  at the same  time very
weak and irregular.
  These symptoms are shortly succeeded by nausea,
and a  vomiting of a dark bilious  matter, and in Ihe
further progress of the disease, carbuncles make their
appearance; buboes  arise in different glands, such as
the parotid, maxillary, cervical, axillary, and inguinal;
or petechie hemorrhagies and a colliquative diarrhoea,
ensue,  whicli denote a  putrid tendency prevailing to a
great degree in  the mass of the blood.
  Such are the characteristic symptoms of this malig-
nant disease, but it seldom happens that tbey are all to
be met  with in the same person.  Some, in the ad-
vanced stale of the disease, labour under buboes, others
under carbuncles, and others again are  covered with
petechie.
  The plague is always to be considered as attended
with imminent danger, and when it prevailed in this
country about 200 years ago, proved  fatal to most of
those who were attacked with it.   It is probable, how-
ever, that many of them died from  want of care and
proper nourishment, as the infected  were forsaken  by
their nearest friends;  because in Turkey and other
countries, where attention is  paid to the sick, a great
many recover.
  When the  disease is unattended by buboes, it runs
its course more rapidly, and is more generally fatal,
than when accompanied by such inflammations.  The
earlier they appear, the milder usually is the disease.
When they proceed kindly to suppuration, they always
prove critical, and ensure the patient's  recovery.  A
gentle  diaphoresis,  arising  spontaneously,  has been
known in many instances likewise to prove critical.
When carbuncles show a disposition to gangrene, the
event will be fatal. Petechie, hemorrhages, and colli-
quative diarrhoea, denote the same termination.
  Dissections of the plague have discovered the gall-
bladder full of black  bile, the liver very considerably
enlarged, the  heart much  increased in size, and the
lungs, kidneys, and intestines beset  with carbuncles.
They have likewise discovered all the other appear-
ances of putrid fever.
  PETALUM.  A petal.  The name of the coloured
leaflets of the corolla of a flower.  The great variety
of  form,  duration, &c. of tbe petals, give rise to the
following names.
  From their duration,
    1. Pdalo patentia ; as in Rosa canina.
    2, Patentissima; very spreading.
    3. F.recta;  as in Allium nigrum.
    4. Conniventia; as in Rumex.
    5. Distantia; as in Cucubalus bacciferus.
  From the figure of the border,
    6. Acuminata; as in Saxifraga stellaris.
    7. Setacea; as in Tropeolum minus.
    8. Apice coharmtia ; as in Vitis vinifera.
    9. Apice rcflexa;  as in Anemone pratensis
  10. Aristala; as in Galium aristatum.
  11. Bifida;  as in Silene nocturna.
  12. Bipartita; as in Alsine media.
  13. Biloba; as in Geranium striatum
  14. Carinata; as in Carum carui.
  15. Concava; as in Ruta graveolens.
  16. Cordata; as in Sium selinum.
  17. Hirsuta ; as in Menyanthes trifoliata.
  18. Ciliata;  as in Asclepias undulata.
  19. Crenata; as in Linum usitatissimum
  20. Dentota; as in Silene lucitanica.
  21. Serrata; as in Dianthus arboreus.
  22. Cundfarma; as in Epidendrum rordatum.
  23. Emarginata; as in Allium roseum.
  24. Infiexa;  as Tn Pimpinella.
  25. Rtficxa; as in Pancratium zelanicum.
                                         Ifl9 
PET
PET
  20.  Involute; as In Anethum.
  37.  Integra; as in Nigella arvensis:
  96.  Lacmiata; as in Reseda.
  39.  Lanceolata;  as iu Narcissus minor.
  39.  Linaaria; as in Tussilogo far far a.
  3L  lAsuala; as  Scilla lucitnnica.
  32.  Punctata; as iu Mclanthium capense.
  33.  Maculata; as in Digitalis purpurea.
  34.  OUonga; as in Citrus and Hedera.
  35.  Obtusa ; as in Tropeolum majus.
  36.  Or ala; as iu Allium fiavum.
  37.  Plane; as in Pancratium maritimum.
  38.  Subrotunda; as in Rosa cenlil'olia.
  39.  Truncata ; as in Hura crepitans.
  40.  Coronala; as in Nerium oleander.
  The claw of the  petal is very long, in Dianthus and
Saponaria;  and connate,  in Malva  sylvestris and
oxalis.
  PETALIFORMIS. Petaliform, like a petal; applied
to the stigma of the Iris germanica.
  PETALITE. A mineral found in the mine of Uu,
In Sweden, interesting from iu analysis having led to
the knowledge of a new alkali.
  PETALO'DES.   (From ircraXov, a leaf,  or thin
scale.)  This  term is by  Hippocrates  applied  to  a
urine which  hath  in  it flaky  substances resembling

  PETASI'TES.   (From  irtraoos,  a hat: so named
because its leaves are shaped like a hat)  See Tussi-
logo petasiles.
  PETE'CHIA.  (From the  Italian pdechio, a flea-
bite, because they resemble the bites of fleas.)   A red
or purple spot, which resembles a flea-bite.
  PETIOLATUS.    Petiolate:  applied  to  leaves
which are formed with a stalk, whether long or short,
simple or compound, as most leaves are: as in Verbas-
 uin nigrum, Sec
  PETIOLUS. (Frompes, afoot.)  A petiole.  The
footstalk or leafstalk  of a plant  The  term is applied
exclusively to the stalk of the leaf.
  It is distinguished into the  apex, which is inserted
into the leaf,  and  the base,  which  comes from the
stem.
  From Ha figure it is called,
  1. Linearis, equal  in  breadth throughout; as  in
Citrus medica.
  2. Alatus; as in Citrus aurantium.
  3. Appendiculatus, when furnished with leafleU at
Its base; as in Dipsacus pilosus.
  4. Teres, round throughout;  ss in Pisum sativum.
  5. Semiteres, round on  one side, and  flat on the
other.
  6. Triauelrus, three-sided.
  7. Angulatus, having angles.
  & Cunificuiatus, channelled to its very base, where
It is  sometimes greatly dilated  and concave; as  in
Angelica sylvestris.
  9. Compress us, compressed towards its base; as in
Populus tretnula.
  10. Clavatus, thicker towards the apex ;  as in Caca-
lia suaveolens.
  11. Spincsccns,  becoming a spine after the fall of
the leaf; as in Rhamnus catharticus.
  From iu insertion the petiolus is called,
  12. Insertus, as in most trees, and  tiie Pirus com-
munis.
  13. Artieulatus; as in Oxalis acetocella.
  14. Adnatus, adhering so io the stem, lhat it cannot
be displaced without injuring the bark.
  IS. Decurrens,  adhering at iu base, and going some
little way down the stern;  as in Pisum  ochrus.
  16. Amplexicaulis, surrounding tbe stem at iu base;
as in Senecio hastatus.
  17. Vaginans, surrounding the stem with a perfect
tube ; as in Canna indica.
  From its length with respect to the leaf, it is said to
 be brevissimus, when much shorter, and longissimus,
 when longer; as in Anemone hepatica, and Geranium
 terebtnthinalum.
  It is distinguished also into simple, when not divided;
 as in most leaves: and compound, when divided into
 lateral branches; as in all compound leaves.
   PETIT, Jon* Lewis,  was born al Paris in 1674.
 From his childhood he displayed a remarkable degree
 of penetration, which gained him the ottachment of
 M. de Littre, a celebrated  anatomist, who resided in
 bis father's house.  He took a  pleasures, even at the
       170
age of seven, In witnessing the process of dissection <
and being allowed to attend the demonstrations of that
gentleman, he made such progress, thai when scarcel)
twelve years old, tiie superintendence of the nnatomi
col theatre  was confided to him.  He afterward stu-
died surgery, and wns admitted master at Paris in 1700
He became, as il were, ihe orocle In his profession in
that city, and his fame extended  throughout Europe.
He was  sent for to the kings of Poland and Spain,
whom he restored to health : they endeavoured lo re-
tain him near iheir persons by liboral offers, but he pre-
ferred his native place.   He became a member of tiie
Academy of Sciences; and was appointed Director of
the Academy of Surgery, nnd  Censor and Royal Pro-
fessor at ihe schools.  He was  likewise chosen a Fel-
low of the  Royal Society of London.  He died in 1750.
Many memoirs were  communicated by  him to the
French academies.  His only separate publication was
a Treatise on the Diseases of the Bones, which passed
through several editions, hut involved bim in much
controversy.  Some posthumous works, relating to sur-
gical diseases and operations, likewise appeared under
his name.
  Petra'pium.   (From petra, a rock, and apium, pars-
ley : so called because it grows in stony places.) See
Bubon macedonicum.
  Petrkl.c'um.  (From ircrpa, a  rock, and tXaiov,
nil.)   Anoil or liquid bitumen which distils from rocks.
  PETRIFACTIONS. Stony matters deposited either
in the way nf incrustation, or within the cavities of
organized substances, are called petrifactions.  Calca
reous earth being universally diffused and capable of
solution in water, either alone, or by the medium of
carbonic acid or sulphuric acid, which are  likewise
very abundant, is deposited whenever the water or the
acid becomes dissipated. In this way we have incrust-
ations of limestone or of selenite in the form of stalac
tites or dropstones from the roofs of caverns, and in
various other situations.
  The most remarkable observations relative to petri-
factions are thus given by Kirwan:—
   1. Thai  those of shells  are  found  on, or near, the
surface of  the earth;  those of fish deeper; and  those
of wood deepest.   Shells in  specie arc found in im-
mense quantities at considerable depths.
  2. That  those organic substances that resist putre-
faction most, are  frequently found petrified; such as
shells, and  the harder species  of woods: on the con-
trary,  those that  are  aptest  to  putrefy are rarely
found petrified; as fish, and the softer parts of ani-
mals, &c
   3. That  they are  most commonly found in strata of
marl, chalk, limestone, or clay,  seldom in sandstone,
still more rarely in gypsum; but never in gneiss, gra-
nite,  basaltes,  or  shorle;  but  they  sometimes  occur
among pyrites, and ores of iron, copper, and silver
and almost always consist  of that species of earth,
stone, or other mineral that surrounds them, sometimes
of silex, agate, or carnelion.
   4. That  they are found in  climates where their ori-
ginals could not have existed.
   5. That those found in slate or  clay arc compressed
and flattened.
   PETROLEUM. (From petra, a rock, and oleum,
oil.)   The name of  petroleum is given  to a liquid
bituminous substance which flows between rocks, or
iu different places at the surface of the earth.   See Bi-
tumen.
   [•'In the United Stales It is found, sometimes abun-
dantly, in Kentucky, the western parts of Pennsylvania,
and in New- York, at Seneca  Lake,  &c.   It usually
floats on the surface of springs, which, in many casea,
ore known to be in the vicinity  of coal.  It is some-
times called Seneca or Genesee oil."—Cleav. Min. A.I
   Petroleum  barbadense.  Barbadoes tar.  This is
chiefly obtained from  the island  of Barbadoes, and Is
sometimes employed externally in paralytic  diseases
See Bitumen.
   Pktroletm  rubrum.  Oleum gabiunum.   Red pe-
troleum.   A species of rock-oil of a binckish-rcd colour,
 of thicker consistence, with a less penei rating and more
 disagreeable smell  than the other kinds of petroleum.
 It abounds about the village of Gabian  In Lauguedoc
 It is a specie* of bitumen.  See Bitumen.
   Petroleum sulphuratum.  A stimulating bahnv
I mic remedy given in coughs, asthmas, and other  afleo
I tions of the chest                     . , 
PEJZ
PHA
  PETRoPHARviioa'ns.  A muscle which arises in the
petrose portion of the temporal hone, and is inserted
uito the pharynx.
  Petro-salpingo staphylinus. See Levator palati.
  PETROSELINUM.  (From jrerpa, a rock,  and
•rtXivov, parsley.)  See Apium petroselinum.
  Petroselinum macedonicum.  See Bubon.
  Petroselinum  vulgare.   See Apium petroseli-
num.
  PETRD'SILEX. Compact felspar.   A species of
coarse flint, of a deep blue  or yellowish green colour.
It is interspersed in veins through rocks; and from this
circumstance derives iu name.
  ["Petuntze.  This would  probably be arranged
under  the common variety of felspar,  had it not re-
ceived some additional  importance from its use in the
manufacture  of porcelain.  It appears, in fact, to be
that variety of  felspar, which  the Chinese call Pe-
tuntze.
  " It is nearly or quite opaque, and ite colour is  usu-
ally whitish or gray.  It has in  most cases less lustre
than common felspar. Iu fracture is lamellar, although
its masses often have a coarse granular structure.
  " It most  frequently occurs in beds, and usually  con-
tains a little  quartz.  Iu  powder is said to  have a
slightly saline taste.
  "It is employed in the enamel of porcelain ware,
and enters, in certain proportions, into the composi-
tion of the  porcelain itself.  Any variety of  felspar,
which contains very little or no metallic oxide, would,
undoubtedly,  answer  the same  purpose."—Cleav.
Min.  A.l
  PEUCE'DANUM.  (From ircvxn,  the pine-tree: so
called from its leaves resembling those of the pine-tree.)
1. The name of a genus  of plants.   Class, Pentan-
dria; Order,  Digynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the hog's fennel.
Bee Peucedanum officinale.
  Peucedanum officinale.  The systematic name of
the hog's fennef.   Marathrum  sylvestre; Marathro-
phyllum; Pinastellum;  Faniculum porcinum.   The
plant which bears these names in the pharinacniiceias
is the Peucedanum:—foliis quinquepartitis, filiformi-
bus linearibus, of  Linneus.  The root is Ihe officinal
port;  it has a strong foetid smell, somewhat resembling
that of sulphureous solutions, and an acrid, unctuous,
bitterish taste.  Wounded when fresh, in  tlie spring or
autumn, particularly in the former season, in which
the root is most vigorous, it yields a considerable quan-
tity of yellow  juice, whicli soon dries  into o  solid
gummy resin, which retains the taste and strong smell
of the root.  This, as well as the root, is recommended
as a nervine and anti-hysteric remedy.
  Peucedanum  silaus.  The systematic name of the
meadow saxifrage.  Saxifraga vulgaris , Saxifraga
anglica;  Hippo marathrum;  Faniculum erraticum.
English or  meadow saxifrage.  The roots, leaves, and
seeds of this plant have been commended as aperienu,
diuretics, and carminatives; and appear, from Iheir aro-
matic smell, and moderately warm, pungent, bitterish
taste to have some claim to  these virtues.  They are
rarely used.
  PEWTER.  A compound metal, the basis of which
is tin.   The best sort consisu of tin alloyed with about
a twentieth or less of copper or other metallic bodies,
as the experience  ot the workmen has shown to be
the most conducive to the improvement of iu hardness
and colour, such as lead, zinc, bismuth, and antimony.
There are three sorts of pewter, distinguished by the
names of plate, trifle, and  ley-pewter.  The first was
formerly much  used for  plates and dishes;  of the
second are made the pinu,  quarts, and other measures
of beer; and of the ley-pewter, wine measures and
large vessels.
  The best sort of pewter consists of 17 parts  of  anti-
mony to 100 ports of tin; but the French add a  little
copper to  this kind of pewter.  A very fine silver-
looking metal is composed of 100 pounds of tin,  eight
of antimony, one of bismuth, and four of copper.   On
the contrary, the ley-pewter,  by comparing iu s|iecific
gravity with  those  of the  mixtures of tin and  lead,
must contain more than a fifth part of iu weight of
lead.
  Pete'ri  glandul*.  Peyer's glands.   The sma'.l
glands situated under the villous coat of the intestines.
  PEZIZ A.  (Somewhat altered from the Greek irtrixn,
wfcfch is derived from »eia, tbe sole of the foot  Pu»v
speaks of thepeiiix, as the Greek appellation of such
fungi,  as grow without  any stalk or apparent root)
The name of a genus of planU.  Class, Cryptogamia;
Order, Fungi.
  Pezi'za auricula. Auricula juda ; Fungus sam-
bucinus ; Agaricus auricula forma. Jew's ears.  A
membranaceous fungus.  Peziza concava rugosa auri-
formis, of Linneus, which resembles the human ear.
Iu  virtues are adstringent, and when  employed (by
some iu internal use is not thought safe), it is made
into a decoction, as a gorgle for reloxed sore  throau.
  PHACIA.  (taxia, a lentil.)   A cutaneous spot or
blemish, called by the Latins lentigo and lenticula.
  PHA^NO'MENON.  (From (patvta, to make appear.)
An appearance which is contrary to the usual process
of nature.
  PHAGEDENA.   (From quiyio, to eat.)  A species
of ulcer lhat spreads very rapidly.
  PHAGEDENIC.   (Pkagedanicns; from ibayia, to
eat.)  1. An ulceration which spreads very rapidly.
  2. Applications that destroy fungous flesh.
  Phalacrotis.  (From QaXaxpos, bald.) Baldness.
  Pha'lacrum.  (From  (baXaxpos, bald.) A surgical
instrument, with a blunt, smooth top; as a probe.
  Phalanges. The plural of Phalanx.
  Phalango'sis.  (From tpaXayl, a row of soldiers.)
1. An affection of the eyelids, where there are two os
more rows of hairs upon them.
  2. A morbid inversion of the eyelids.
  PHALANX.   (Phalanx,  gis.  f.; from  cbaXayl, a
battalion.)  The small bones of the fingers and toes,
which are distinguished into  the first,  second, and
third phalanx.
 ' PHA'LARIS.   (From tpaXos, white,  shining:  so
named from iu white shining seed, supposed to be ths
ipaXapos of Dioscorides.)   The  name  of a genus of
plants.  Class, Triandria; Order.. Digynia.  Canary
grass.
  Phalaris canariensis.  Canary grass.  The seed
of this plant is well known to he the common food of
canary-birds.  In  the Canary islands, the inhabitants
grind it into meal,  and  make a coarse sort of bread
with it.
  PHA'LLUS.  (Named  after the tbaXXos  of the
Gr. eks, to which it bears a striking resemblance.) The
name of a genus, of the Order Fungi; Class, Crypto-
gamia.
  Phallus esculentus.  The systematic name of
morel fungus.  It grows on moist banks and wet pas
tures, and springs up in May.  It is used  in the some
manner as the truffle, for gravies and stewed  dishes, but
gives an inferior flavour.
  Phallus impudicus.  The systematic name of the
plant called Fungus phalloides, stink-horns.  A fungus
which is, ni a distance, intolerably foetid,  so that ii is
oftener smelled than seen, being supposed to be some
carrion, and therefore avoided;  when near il has only
Ihe pungency of volatile alkali.  It is applied to allay
pain in the limbs.
  PH ANT A'SMA.  (From q>avragta, to make appear.)
Imagination.
  Pha'ricum.  (From Pharos, the island from whence
it was brought.)  A violent kind of poison.
  PHARMACEUTIC.  (Pharmaceutic's;  fromtbapr
paxcvia, to exhibit medicines.) Belonging to pharmacy.
See Pharmacy.
  PHARMACOCHY'MIA.  (From Qappaxov, amedi.
cine, and xvuia, chemistry.)  Pharmaceutic chemistry,
or that pari of chemistry which respects  the prepara
tion of medicines.
  PHARMACOLITE.  Native arseniate of lime.
  PHARMACOPOEIA. (From tbappaxov, a medicine,
and aoicta, to make.)   A dispensatory, or book of
directions for the  composition of medicines approved
of  by medical practitioners, or published by authority.
The following are the most noted,  viz.
  P. Amstelodamensis.       P. Edinburgensis.
   P. Argentoratensis.       P. Hafniensis
  P. Augetoratensis.        P. Londinensis.
  P. Bateana.              P. Norimbergensie.
  P. Brandenburgensis.      P. Parisiensis.
  P. Brandenburgica.       P. Ralisbonensis.
   P. Bruxellensis.           P. Regia.
  PHARMACOPO'LA. (From tbappaxuv, a medicine,
and aiaXtia, to sell.)  An apothecary or vender of me-
dicines.
>  PHARMAOOPCUUM.   (JFrom tpappaaov, a l
                                        171 
PHA                                              PHI
  cine, and auXtm, to sell.)  A druggist's or apothecary's
  •bop.
   Pharmacopo'sia.   (From  <j>apuaxov, a medicine,
  and aoots, a potion.)  A liquid medicine.
   PHARMACOTHE CA.   (From tbappaxov, a medi-
  cine, and ri&tipt, lo place.)   A medicine-chest.
   PHARMACY.   (Pharmacia;  from qtappaxov, a
  medicine.)  The  art of preparing remedies for  the
  treatment of di-eases.
   Tbe articles of the Materia  Medica, being generally
  unfit for administration in their original stale, are sub-
 jected to various operations, mechanical or chemical,
 by which they become adapted to this purpose.   Herein
 consists tbe practice of pharmacy, which therefore re-
 quires a  previous  knowledge  of  the  sensible and
 chemical properties of the substances  operated  on.
 The qualities of many bodies  are materially changed
 by heat, especially in conjunction wilh air and other
 chemical agenu; the virtues of others reside chiefly in
 certain paru, wbich may be separated by the action of
 various  menstrua, particularly wilh tbe assistance of
 heal; and the joint operation  of remedies  on the hu-
 man body is often very different  from what would be
 anticipated, from that which they exert separately;
 hence in the preparations  and compositions  of  tiie
 Pharmacopoeias, we are furnished with many powerful
 as well as elegant forms of medicine.
   [Pharmacy, College of.   A College of  Pharmacy
 was instituted in  the City of New-York, in 1829, by
 the  Druggists and Apothecaries, with the following
 provisions:
   "No person hereafter engaging in  such business,
 shall be admitted as a member, unless he has been  re-
 gularly educated as a Druggist or Apothecary, or has
 received a diploma from this college, and is of correct
 moral deportment
   "It shall be the duty of the board  of Trustees, to
 recommend suitable  persons as Lecturers on Materia
 Medica, Chemistry, and Pharmacy, and on such other
 branches of science as may be useful  in the instruc-
 tion of Apothecaries, who shall be elected by a majo-
 rity, al a general meeting of the college.
   " The Trustees shall have power to publish in a pam-
 phlet form, from time to time,  such original essays or
 extracts from books of science, as may in their opinion
 be deemed useful for the advancement of knowledge,
 connected with the business of DruggisU or Apotheca-
 ries.—Extr. from circular.   A.]
  PHARYNGE'THRON.  QapvyytBpov.   The pha-
 rynx, or fauces.
  PHARYNGE'US.    ;From tpapvyl,  the  pharynx.)
 Belonging to or affecting the pharynx ; thus cynanehe
 pharyngea, Sec.
  Pharvnoostaphyli'ntts.  A muscle originating in
 the pharynx, and terminating in tlie uvula.
  PHARYNGOTO'MIA. (From <papvy\, the pharynx,
 and  rtpvia, to cut)  The operation of cutting the pha-
 rynx.
  PHA'RYNX.   (Airo rou  Atpta, because it  conveys
 the food into tbe stomach.)  The muscular bag at the
 back part of the mouth.  It  is  shaped  like a  funnel,
 adheres to the fauces behind ihe larynx, and terminates
 in the oesophagus.  Iu use is to receive the masticated
 food, and to convey it into tbe oesophagus.
  PHASEOLUS.   (From  tpaenXos, a little ship,  or
galliot, which its pods were supposed to resemble.)
The  name of a genus of planU.  Class, Diadelphia;
Order, Decandria.
  Phaseolus creticus.  A decoction of the leaves of
this plant, called by the Americans Cajan and Cayan,
is said to restrain the bleeding from piles when exces-
sive.—Ray.
  Phaseolus vulgaris.  The systematic name of the
kidney-bean.  This is often called the French bean;
When young and well boiled it is easy of digestion, and
delicately flavoured.  They are less liable to produce
flatulency than pease.
  Phasoa'nium.   (From tbaoyovov, a knife: so called
because its leaves are shaped like a knife, or sword.)
 rhe  herb swordgrass.
  PHASIANUS.  1. The name of a genus of birds,
of the order Gallina.
  2.  The pheasant
  Phasianus colchicus.  Tl e common pheasant.
  Phasianus gallvs.  The common or wild cock.
  Phat'nium.  (From tbarirn, a stall.)  Tbe socket of
 a tooth.
      172
I   PIir.l.LA'NDRlLM.  (From tbtXXot, the coiw-tree,
 and ai-cpio,, male: so called because ii floats upon tha
! water  like cork.)  The name of a  geuus of pianu.
 Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia,
   Pheli.a.m>hium aquaticum.  The systematic name
 of  tlie uau-r-lcunel, or  tine-leaved  water hemlock.
 Faniculum aqualicum ; Cicutarta aquatica. The plant
 which  bears this name in tiie pharmacopoeias is tbe
 Phdlandrtum—foliorum ramijicationibus  divuricatie,
 of Linus-us.  It  possesses  vertiginous and poisonous
 qualities, whicli are best counteracted by acids, after
 clearing the prima- via;.  The  seeds are recommended
 by some, in conjunction with Peruvian bark, in  the
 cure of pulmonary phliiiris.
   Phe'mos. (From qtipoia, to shut up.)  A medicine
 against a dysentery.
   [" Puenicin is  produced by stopping the action of
 Ihe sulphuric acid on indigo before it is converted inlo
 cerulin; diluting,  filtering, and washing the  mixture
 witii water, when it becomes of a bottle-green colour:
 muriate of potassa is added to the blue washings which
 are finally obtained, when the  phenicin is precipitated
 of a fine reddisli purple colour.  It is soluble in water,
 and in alkohol, forming blue-coloured solutions, and is
 easily converted  into cerulin  by the action of water.
 From iu ultimate analysis, Mr. Crum is disposed  to
 consider phenicin as constituted of 1 indige-r-2 wa
 ter."—ffa*». Man. Chem.  A.]
   PHILADELPHIA.    (From tpiXtia, to love, and
 aSiXipos, a brother: so called because, by lu roughness,
 it attaches itself to whatever is near it.) See  Galium
 aparine.
   PHILANTHRO'PUS.   (From qnXtta, to love, and
 avBpmnos, a man:  so called from iu uses.)  1. A inedi
 cine which relieves the pain of the slone.
   2. The herb goose-grass, because it sticks to  the gar-
 ments of those who touch H. See Galium aparine.
   PHILONIUM.   (From Philo, iu inventor.)  A
 warm opiate.
   Philonium londinense. An old name of the Con
fectio opii.
   PHi'LTRUM.   (From ibiXtia, to love.)  1. A philtre
or imaginary medicine, to excite love.
   2. The depression on the upper lip, where lovers sa
lute.
   PHILLY'RIA.  (niAAupia of Dioscorides, supposed
to be so called from PhUlyria,  the mother  of  Chiron,
who first applied it medicinally. The name of a genua
of plants, Class, Diandria; Order, Monogynia. Mock
privet
   PHIMOSIS.  (From <ptuto,  to bind up.)   A con-
striction or straitness of the  extremity of the pre-
puce, which, preventing  the glans from being unco-
vered, is often the occasion of many troublesome com-
plaints.   It may arise from different causes,  both in
children and grown persons. Children have naturally
the prepuce very long;  and as it exceeds the extremity
of the glans, and  is not liable to be distended,  it is apt
to contract iu orifice. This often occasions a lodgment
of a small quantity of urine between lhat and the glans,
which, if it grows corrosive, may irritate tbe  paru so
as to produce an inflammation.  In this case, tbe ex-
tremity of the prepuce  becomes more contracted, and
consequently the  urine  more  confined.  Hence the
whole inside of the prepuce excoriates and suppurates;
the end of it grows thick and swells, and in some
months  becomes callous.  At other times it does not
grow thick, but becomes  so strait and contracted as
hardly to allow tbe introduction of a probe.  Tbe only
way to  remove thU disoider is by an operation.  A
phimosis may affect grown persons  from the same
cause as little children ; though there are some grown
persons who cannot uncover their glans, or at least not
without pain, and yet  have not the extremity of the
prepuce so contracted as to confine the urine from pass-
ing, we notwithstanding find them sometimes troubled
with a phimosis,  which might be suspected to arise
from a venereal taint, but has, in reality, a much more
innocentcause.  There are, we know, sebaceous glands,
situated in the prepuce, round  the corona,  which se-
crete an unctuous humour, which sometimes becomes
acrimonious, irritates the skin  lhat covets  the glans,
and the irritation extended to tbe internal membrane of
the prepuce, ibey  both  become inflamed, and  yield a
purulent serum, which cannot he discharged, because
the glans is swelled, and tbe orifice ofthe prepuce con-
tracted.   We nnd also some   grown  persons, who, 
PHL
PHL
though they never uncovered the glans, have been sub-
ject to phimosis from a venereal cause.  In some, it is
owing to gonorrhoea, where the matter lodged between
the prepuce and the glaus occasioned the same excoria-
tion as the discharge before mentioned from the seba-
ceous glands.  In others,  it proceeds from  venereal
chancres ou  the  prepuce, the glans,  or the frenum;
Which producing an inflammation either on  the pre-
puce  or  glans, or both, the extremity of the  foreskin
contracts, and prevents the discharge of the matter.
The parts, in a very little time, are greatly tumefied,
and sometimes a gangrene comes on iu less than two
days.
  PHLEBORRHA GIA.   (From tfAeuV,  a vein,  and
pnyvvui,  to break out)  A rupture of a vein.
  PHLEBOTOMY.  (Phlebotomia; tpXtip,  a vein, and
rtuvia, to cut.)  The opening of a vein.
  PHLEGM.  (Phlegma, atis. n.; from tbXtyia, to burn
or to excite.)   In chemistry it means water  from distil-
lation, but, in the  common acceptation of the word, it
is a thick and tenacious mucus secreted in the lungs.
  Phleomaoo'ga.  (From tbXcypa, phlegm, and ayta,
to drive out.)  Medicines which promote the discharge
of phlegm.
  PHLEGMASIA.  (From tbXtyta, to burn.)  An in-
flammation.
  Phlegmasia dolens.  A very improper  name given
by Dr. Hull to a disease noticed  by some of the French
writers, under ihe name of the L'enflure desjambes et
des cuisses de la  femme acceuchi; while others have
called it diptt du lait, from its supposed  cause.   By
the Germans it is called  (Edema lacteum,  and  by the
English  the white  leg.   This disease principally affects
women in the puerperal state; in a few  instances it
has been observed to attack pregnant women; and, in
one or two cases,  nurses, on losing their children, have
been  affected by  it.  Women  of  all descriptions are
liable to be attacked by it during and  soon  after child-
bed; but those, whose limbs have  been pained or ana-
sarcous during pregnancy, and who do not suckle their
offspring, are more  especially  subject to  it.  It  has
rarely occurred oftener than once  to the same female.
It supervenes to  easy and  natural, as well as to diffi-
cult and  preternatural births.  It sometimes makes iu
appearance in twenty-four or forty-eight  hours after
delivery, and at other times, not till a month or six weeks
after; but, in general, the attack takes place from tlie
tenth to the sixteenth day ofthe lying-in.  It has, in many
instances, attacked women who were recovering from
puerperal fever;  and, in some cases, has supervened or
succeeded to thoracic inflammation. It not uncommonly
begins with coldness and rigors;  these are succeeded by
heat, thirst, and other symptoms of pyrexia; and then
pain, stiffness, and other symptoms of topical inflam-
mation supervene.  Sometimes the  local  affection is
from the first accompanied with, but is not preceded by,
febrile symptoms. Upon other occasions, the topical
afieclion is neither preceded by  puerperal fever, nor
rigors, tec; but soon after it bas taken place, the pulse
becomes more frequent, the heat of the  body is in-
 creased, and the  patient is affected with thirst, head-
 ache, &c.  The  pyrexia is very various in degree in
 different patients,  and  sometimes assumes  an irre-
 gular remittent or intermittent  type.  The complaint
 generally takes place on one side  only at first, and the
 part where it commences is various; but it most com-
 monly begins in  the  lumbar, hypogastric, or inguinal
 region, on one side, or in the hip, or top of the thigh,
 and corresponding  labium pudendi.  In this case, the
 patient first perceives o sense of pain, weight, and stiff-
 ness, in some ofthe above-mentioned parU, which are
 increased by every attempt to move the pelvis, or lower
 limb. If tlie part be carefully examined, it generally is
 found rather fuller or hotter than  natural,  and tender
 to the touch, but  not discoloured.  The pain increases,
 always becomes  very severe, and, in some cases, is of
 the most excruciating kind. It extends along the thigh,
 and  when it has subsisted for some time, longer or
 shorter  in different  patients, the top of the thigh and
 the labium  pudendi  become greatly swelled, and the
 pain is  then sometimes alleviated,  but accompanied
 with a greater sense of distention.  The pain next ex-
 tends down  to the knee, and is generally the most se-
 vere on the inside and back of  the thigh, in tbe direc-
 tion of the internal cutaneous  and the crural nerves;
 when it has continued for some time, the whole of the
 thigh becomes swelled, and the pain is somewhat re-
lieved.  The pain then extends down the leg to tin
foot, and is commonly the most severe in the direction
of the posterior tibial  nerve; after some time, the
part last attocked begins to swell, ond the pain abates
in violence, but is still very considerable, especially on
any attempt to move the  limb.  The extremity being
now swelled throughout iu whole extent, appears per-
fectly or nearly uniform, and it is not perceptibly les-
sened by an horizontal position, like an  oedematose
limb.  It is of the natural colour, or even whiter, is
hotter than natural;  excessively tense, and exquisitely
tender when touched.   When pressed by the finger in
different parts, it is found to be elastic, little, if any.im
pression remaining, and that onl y for a very short time.
If a puncture, or incision, be  made  into the limb, in
some instances, no  fluid  is discharged; in  others, a
small quantity only issues out, which coagulates soon
after; and in  others a large quantity of fluid escapes,
which does not coagulate ;' but the whole of the effused
matter cannot  be drawn off in this way.  The swelling
of the limb varies both in degree and in the space  of
time requisite for itsfull formation.   In most instances,
it arrives at double the natural size, and in some cases
at a  much greater.  In  lax  habits, and in  patienu
whose legs have been very much affected with ana
sarca during pregnancy, the swelling  takes place more
rapidly than in those who are differently circumstanced;
it sometimes arrives, in the former class of patienu, at
iu greatest extent in twenty-four hours, or less, from the
first attack.
  Instead  of beginning invariably at the upper part of
the limb, and descending to the  lower, this complaint
has been known to begin in the foot,  the middle of the
leg, the ham, and tlie knee. In whichsoever of these
parts it happens to begin, it is generally soon diffused
over the whole of the limb, and, when this has taken
place, the limb presenU the same phenomena, exactly,
lhat have been stated above, as observable when the
inguen, &c. are first affected.
  After some days, generally from  two to eight, the
febrile symptoms diminish, and the swelling, heat, ten-
sion, weight, and tenderness  of tbe lower extremity,
begin to abate, first about the  upper  part of the thigh,
or about the knee, and afterward  in the leg and foot
Some inequalities are found in the limb, which, at first,
feel like indurated glands, but, upon  being more nicely
examined, their edges are not so well defined as those
of conglobate  glands; and they appear to be occasion-
ed by the  effused  matter  being of different degrees of
consistence in different poinu.  The  conglobate glands
of the thigh and leg are sometimes  felt distinctly, and
are tender to the touch, but are seldom  materially en-
larged: and as the swelling subsides, it has happened,
that  an  enlargement  of the lymphatic vessels, in
some part of tbe limb, has been felt, or been supposed
to be felt
  The febrile  symptoms having gradually disappeared,
the pain  and  tenderness of the limb being  much  re-
lieved, and the swelling and tension being considerably
diminished, the patient is debilitated and  much  re-
duced, and the limb feels stiff, heavy, benumbed, and'
 weak.  When the finger is pressed strongly against if
 for some time, in different points, it  is found to  be less
elastic than at first, in some places  retaining the im-
 pression of the finger for a longer, in other places  for
a shorter  time, or scarcely at all.  And, if the limb be
suffered lo hang down, or if the patient walk much, it
is found to be more swelled  in the evening, and  asu
sumes more of an  oedematose  appearance.   In this
state the  limb continues for a longer or shorter time,
and is commonly at length reduced  wholly, or nearly,
to the natural size.
   Hitherto the disease  has been described as affecting
only one of tbe inferior extremities, and  as terminating
by resolution, or the effusion of a fluid that is removed
 by the  absorbents; but,  unfortunately, it sometimes
happens, that  after it abates in  one  limb, the other is
attacked  in a similar way.  It also  happens, in some
cases, tbat the swelling is hot terminated by resolution;
 for sometimes a suppuration takes place In one or both
legs,  and  ulcers are formed which are difficult to heal.
 In a few cases, a gangrene has supervened.  In some
 instances, the patient" has been destroyed by the vio-
 lence of the disease, before either suppuration or gan-
grene have happened.
  The predisposing causes of this disease, when it
occurs during the pregnant or puerperal state, or in a
                                        TO 
PHL                                              PHO
riimt tune afterward, appear to be, 1st, The increased
irritability and disposition to inflammation which pre-
vail during pregnancy, and in a still higher degree for
same time after parturition. 9dly, TAe over-distend-
ed, or rdaxed state of the blood-vessels of the inferior
wart of the trunk and of the lower extremities, produced
during the latter months  of utero-gestation.
  Among  the exciting causes of this disease may be
enumerated, 1st, Contusion*, or violent  exertions  of
the lower portions of Ihe  abdominal and other muscles
inserted in the pelvis, or thighs, or of the muscles  of
the interior extremities, and contusions of the cellular
texture connected with these muscles, during a tedious
labour.  2dly; The application of cold and moisture,
which  are known to act very powerfully upon every
system in changing the natural  distribution of the cir-
culating fluids, and, consequently,  in a system predis-
posed by parturition, may assist in producing tiie dis-
ease, by occasioning the  fluids to be impelled, in unu-
sual quantity, into ihe weakened vessels of the lumbar,
hypogastric, and inguinal regions,  and of tiie inferior
extremities. 3dly, Suppression, or diminution of the
lochia, and of tlie secretion or milk, which, by inducing
a plethoric state of the sanguiferous system, may occa-
sion an inflammatory diathesis, may favour congestion,
and the determination of an  unusual quantity of blood
to the vessels of the paru just mentioned, and thus con-
tribute to the production  of an  inflammation of these
parts.  4lhly, Food taken in too  large quantity, and of
a too stimulating  quality, especially when the patient
does not give suck.  Tnis cause both favours  tlie pro-
duction of plethora, and stimulates the heart and arte-
ries to more frequent and violent action; the effects of
which may  be expected  to be particularly felt in the
lumbar, hypogastric, or  inguinal legions, and in the
lower exu entities, from the state of their blood-vessels.
Sthly, Standing, or walking too much, before the arte-
ries and veins of the  lower  half of the body have re-
covered sufficiently from the effecu of the distention
which existed during the latter months of pregnancy.
This must necessarily occasion  too great a determina-
tion of blood to these paru, and consequently loo great
a congestion in them; whence they will be more stimu-
lated than the upper paru of the body, and inflamma-
tion will sometimes be excited in them.
  from an attentive consideration of the whole  of
the phenomena observable  in this disease, and of iu
remote causes and cure, no doubt remains, Dr. Hull
thinks, that the proximate cause consists in an inflam-
matory affection, producing suddenly a  considerable
effusion of serum and coagulating lymph from the ex-
halants into the cellular  membrane of the lymph.
  Phleoma'si.e.  The pkiral of phlegmasia.  Inflam-
mations.  The name ot  tiie second order in the class
Pyrexia, of Culleu's Nosological arrangement, charac-
terized by pyrexia, with topical pain and inflammation;
Ihe blood, after venesection, exhibiting n buffy coot
  PHLEGMATORRHA'GIA.  (From ipXtypa, mucus,
and pnywpi, to break out)   A discharge of thin mu-
cous phlegm from the nose,  through cold.
  PHLEGMON.  (Phlegmon, onis. m.; from tpXtyta,
to burn.)  Phlegmone.   An inflammation of a bright
nil colour, with a throbbing and pointed tumour, tend-
ing to suppuration.
  PHLOGISTON.   (From tbXoyt^ia, to burn.) The
supjHised general inflammable  principle of Stahl, who
imagined  it was pure fire, or the  matter of fire fixed
iu  combustible bodies, in order to distinguish it from
fire in action, or in a state of liberty.
  Phlogisticated air.  See Nitrogen.
   Phlogisticated alkali.   See Alkali phlogisticated.
  Phlogisticated gas. See  Nitrogen.
  PHLOGO'SIS.  (From tpXoyoio, to inflame.)   In-
flammation. See Inflammation.
  PHLOGOTICA.   (Phlogoticus;  from ibXtyta, to
burn.)  The name  of the  second order ot the class
Hamatica, in Good's Nosology.   Inflammation.  Iu
genera ore Apostema; Phlegmone; Phyma; lonthus;
Phlysis; Erythema; Empresma; Ophthalmia; Catar-
rhus;  Dysenteria; Bucnemia; Arthrosia.
  PHLYCTA3NA.   (<Mu>xrarvai,  small bladders.)
Phlydis; Phlysis.  A small pellucid vesicle, that eon-
tains o serous fluid
  PHLYSIS.  (From dXvCw, toburn.)  The name of
 a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Close, Hama-
 tica;  Order, Phlogotica.  It  has only one  species,
Phlysis paronychia.  Whitlow.
      17*
  PHLYZA CIL'M.   (From  AXv^to, to be hot.)  A'
pustule on the skin,  excited by  fire or  heat.   See
Pustule.
  PHUSNIGMUS.  (From ttoivih red.)  1. A redness
of tiie skin, such as is produced by stimulating sub-
stances.
  2. That which reddens the skin when applied to It.
  PIIOS'NIX.  (*oivi(,of the ancient Greeks, llie date
palm tree ; from which, ns a primitive word, Phanida,
the land of palm-trees,  seems to have derived iu nsine.
as likewise the. red colour phaeniceus.)   The name of
a genus of planu.   Class, Diacia; Order, Triandria^
The due palm-tree.
  Phoenix dactylifera.  The systematic name of
the date-tree.   Phanix- -frondibuo pinnatis ; foliolis'
tnsiformtbus eomplicatie, of LinntEUs.  The fruit  is
called dactylus or dale.   Dates are oblong.  Before
they are  ripe, they are rather rough  and astringent;
but when perfectly matured, they are much of the na
ture of the fig.   Sec Ficus carica.   Senegal dales are
much esteemed, they having a more sugary, agreeable
flavour than those of A2gypl and other plsees.   Dates
are aperient
  PHONICA.   (Phonir.us;  fiom tbtavn,  the voice.)
The name of the first order of the clnSs Pnevmatiea,
in Good's Nosology.   Diseases affecting llie  vocal1
avenues.   It has six genera, viz. Coryza; Polypus;
Rhonchus ; Aphonia;  Dysphonia; Psellismvs.
  PHOSGENE GAS.   (Phosgene: so called  by ite
discoverer, Doctor John  Davy, from its mode of pro-
duction.)  Chlnro-carbousceous acid, a combination
of carbonic oxide and chlorine, made by exposing h
mixture of equal volumes of chlorine,  and carbonic
oxide, to the action  of light.  It has a peculiar pungent'
odour, is soluble in water, and is resolved into carbonic
and muriatic acid gas.
  PHOSPHATE.   (Phosphas ; from phosphorus.)  A
salt formed by  the union of phosphoric acid with sali-
fiable  bases; thus,  phosphate of ammonia, phosphate
of lime, Sec.
  PHOSPHATIC  ACID.   Acidum phosphatieum.
" This acid is obtained by the slow combustion of cy-
linders of phosphorus  in the air.  For which purpose,
it is necessary that the air be renewed to  supiiort the
combustion; that il be humid, otherwise the dry coat
of phosphatic acid would screen the phosphorus from
farther action  of the oxygen, and that the different
cylinders of phosphorus be insulated, to  prevent the
heat from becoming too high, wjiich would melt or in-
flame them, so as  to  produce  phosphoric acid.  The
acid, as it is formed, must be collected  in a vessel, so-
as to lose as little of it as possible.   All these condi-
tions may be thus fulfilled: We take a parcel of glass
tubes, which are drawn out to a point at one end; we
introduce into each a cylinder of phosphorus a little
shorter than the tube;  we dispose of these tubes  along-
side of one another, to the amount of 30 or 40, In a
glass funnel, the beak of which passes into a bottle
placed on a plate, covered with water.   We then
cover the bottle and iu funnel with a' large bell-glass,
having a small hole in its top, and another in its side.
  A film of plrosphorus first evaporates, then combines
wilh the oxygen and the water of the air, giving birth
to phosphatic acid, which collects ih small drops at the
end of the glass  tubes, and falls through the  funnel1
into the bottle. A little phosphatic acid is also found
on the sides of ihe bell-glass, and in Hie water of the
pinte.  The process is a very slow one.
  The phosphatic  acid  thus collected  is very  dilute.
We reduce it to a viscid consistence, by heating it!
gently; and better still, by putting It, lit the ordinary
icmperoture, into a capsule over  another capsule full
of concentrated sulphuric acid, under the receiver of
an air-pump, from which we exhaust the air.
  The acid thus formed'is a viscid liquid, without cc*
lour, having a faint smell of phosphorus, a strong taste,
reddening strongly the tincture of litmus, and' denser
than water in a proportion not well determined:  Every
thing leads to  the belief that this acid Would be solid,
could we deprive it of water.  When ft fc heated in a
retort, phosphuretted  hydrogen gas  ttr evolved,  and
phosphoric acid remains.  The' oxygen and hydrogen
of the water concur to this transformation.  Phosphatic
acid has no action, either on oxygen gas, or on  tne at-
mospheric air at  ordinary temperatures.   In com-
bining with water, a slight degree of heat is occasion-
ed.  The phosphatic  acid in ita action vn tbe lalifi* 
PHO
PHO
Itle bases is transformed into phosphorous and phos-
phoric acids, wlience proceed  phosphites and phos-
phates."
  PHOSPHITE.   Phosphis    A salt formed  by the
combination of phosphorous acid with salifiable bases;
thus, ammoniacal phosphite, Sec.
  Phosphorated hydrogen.  See Phosphorus.
  PHOSPHORESCENCE. The luminous appearance
which is given off by phosphorescent bodies.
   PHOSPHORIC  ACID.   Acidum phosphoricum.
" The  base of this acid, or the acid itself, abounds in
the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms.  In tbe
mineral kingdom it is found in combination with lead,
in the gteen lead ore;  with iron,  in  the  bog ores,
which afford cold short iron, and more especially with
calcareous earth  in  several kinds of stone.   Whole
mountains in the province of Estremadura in Spain are
composed of this  combination of phosphoric acid and
lime.  Bowles affirms, that the stone is whitish and
tasteless, and affords a blue flame without smell when
thrown  upon burning coals.  Prout  describes  it as a
dense slone, not hard enough to strike fire with steel;
and says that it is found in strata, which always lie
horizontally upon quartz, and which are intersected
with veins of quartz.   When  this stone is  scattered
upon  burning coals, it does not decrepitate, but burns
with a beautiful green light, wliich lasts a considerable
time.  It melu into a white enamel  by the blow-pipe;
is soluble with heat, and some effervescence  in the ni-
tric acid, and forms sulphate of lime  with the sulphu-
ric acid, while the phosphoric acid is set at liberty in
the fluid.
  The vegetable  kingdom abounds with phosphorus,
or ite acid. It is  principally found in planu that grow
in marshy places,  in turf, and  several species of the
white woods.  Various  seeds,  potatoes, agaric, soot,
and  charcoal, afford phosphoric  acid, by abstracting
the nitric  acid from them, and lixiviating the residue.
The lixivium contains the phosphoric acid, which may
either be saturated with lime by the addition of lime-
water, in wliich cose it forms a solid compound; or  it
may be  tried  by examination of iu leading properties
by other chemical methods-
  In the animal kingdom it is found in  almost every
part of the bodies of animals which are not considera-
bly volatile.  There is not, in all probability, any part
of these organized beings which is free from it.   It has
been obtained from blood, flesh,  both of land and water
animals;  from cheese; and it exisU in large quonlities
in bones, combined with calcareous earth. Urine con-
tains it, uot only in a disengaged state, but  also com-
bined with ammonia, soda, and lime.  It wae by the
evaporation and  distillation  of this excrementitious
fluid with charcoal that phosphorus was first mode;
the charcoal decomposing the disengaged acid and the
ammoniacal salt.  But it is more cheaply obtained by
the process of Scheele, from  bones, by the application
of an acid to their earthy residue after calcination.
  In this  process tbe sulphuric acid appears to be the
most convenient,  because it forms a nearly insoluble
compound with the lime of the bones. Bones of beef,
mutton, or veal, being calcined to whiteness in an open
fire, lose almost half of their weight  This must be
pounded,  and sifted; or the trouble may be spared by
buying the powder that is sold to make cupels for tiie
assayers, and is, in fact, the  powder  of burned bones
ready sifted.  To three  pounds of the powder there
may be added about two pounds of concentrated sul-
phuric acid.  Four or five pounds of water must be af-
terward added to assist the  action  of the acid;  and
during the whole process the  operator must remember
to place himself and his vessels so tbat the fumes may
be blown from him.  The whole may be then left on a
gentle sand bath for twelve hours or more, taking care
to supply the loss of water which happens by evapora-
tion.  The next day a large quantity of water must be
added, the whole strained through a sieve, and  the re-
sidual matter, which is sulphate of lime,  must be edul-
corated by repeated affusions of hot water, till it passes
tasteless.  The waters contain phosphoric acid nearly
free from lime; and by evaporation, first  in  glazed
earthen, and then in glass vessels, or rather in  vessels of
| latino or  silver, for the hot acid acts upon glass, afford
the acid iu n concentrated state, which, by the force of
strong heat in a crucible, may be made to acquire the
form of a transparent  consistent glass,  though  it  is
usually of a milky, opaque appearance.
  For making phosphorus, it is not necessary o evapo
rate  the water further than to bring it to tbe consis-
tence of syrup;  and the small portion of lime it con-
tains is not an impediment worth the trouble of remov-
ing, as it affects the produce very little.   But when tha
acid  U required in a purer state, it is proper to add a
quantity of carbonate of ammonia, which, by double
elective attraction, precipitates the lime that was held
in solution by the phosphoric acid. The fluid, being
then evaporated, affords a  crystallized  ammoniacal
salt,  which may be melted in a silver vessel, ns the acid
acts upon  glass or eauhen vessels.  The  ammonia is
driven off by the heat, and the acid acquires the form
of a  compact glass, as transparent as rock crystal, acid
to the taste, soluble  in  water,  and deliquescent  in
the air.
  This acid is commonly pure, but nevertheless may
contain a small quantity of soda, originally existing in
the bones, and not capable of being taken away by
this process, ingenious as it is.  The only  unequivocal
method of obtaining a pure acid appears to consist  in
first converting it into phosphorus by distillation of the
materials  with charcoal, and then converting  it again
into  acid by rapid combustion, at a high temperature,
either in oxygen or atmospheric air, or some other equi-
valent process.
  Phosphorus may also be converted into the acid state
by treating  it with nitric acid.   In this operation, a
tubulated  retort with a ground stopper, must  be half
filled with nitric acid, and a gentle heat applied.  A
small piece of  phosphorus  being  then  introduced
through the  tube, will be dissolved with effervescence,
produced  by the  escape of a large quantity of nitric
oxide.  The addition of phosphorus must be continued
until the  lost  piece  remains undissolved.  The fire
being then  raised to  drive over the  remainder of
tlie nitric acid, the phosphoric  acid will  be found  in-
the retort, partly in the concrete and partly iu the li-
quid form.
  Sulphuric acid produces nearly the same effect as the
nitric; a large  quantity of sulphurous acid flying off.
But  as it requires a stronger heat to drive off  the last
portions of this acid, it is not so well  adapted to tbe
purpose.  The liquid chlorine likewise acidifies it.
  When  phosphorus is burned by a strong heat, suffi-
cient lo cause it to flame rapidly, it is almost perfectly
converted into dry acid, some of which is thrown up
by the  force of the combustion, and the rest remains
upon the supporter.
  This substance has also been acidified by the direct
application of oxygen  gas passed through hot water
in which the phosphorus was liquefied or fused.
  The general characters of phosphoric  acid are: 1.
It is soluble in water in  all proportions,  producing a
specific gravity, which increases as the quantity of acid
is greater, but does not exceed 2.687, which is that of
the glacial acid.  2. It produces heal when mixed with
water, though not  very  considerable.   3. It  has no-
smell when pure, and its  taste is sourr but not corro-
sive.  4.  When perfectly dry, it sublimes in close ves-
sels ; but loses this property by the addition of water;.
in which circumstance it greatly differs from the bora-
cic acid, which is fixed when dry, but rises by  the help
of water.  5. When considerably diluted with water,
and evaporated, the aqueous vapour carries up a small
portion of the acid.  6. With charcoal or inflammable
matter, in a  strong heat,  it loses iu oxygen, and be
comes converted into phosphorus.
  Phosphoric acid is difficult of crystallizing.
  Though the phosphoric acid is scarcely corrosive,
yet, when concentrated, it acts upon oils, which il dis
colours, and at length blackens, producing heat, and a>
strong smell like that of ether and oH of turpentine;
but does not form a true acid soao.  It has most effect
on essential oils, less on drying oils, and  least of all on
fat oils.  Spirit of wine and phosphoric acid  have a
weak action on cadi other.   Some heat is excited by
this mixture, and the product which comes over in dis-
tillation of the mixture is strongly acid, of a pungent
arsenical smell, inflammable with smoke, missible  in
all proportions  with water,  precipitating silver  and
mercury from their solutions, but not  gold;  and al-
though not an elher, yet il seems to be an approxima
lion to that kind of combination.
  Phosphoric acid, united with barytes, produces an
insoluble  salt, in the form of a heavy white powder,,
fusible at a high leinoei ature into a gray enamel. The; 
PHO
PHO
tost mode of preparing it is by adding an alkaline phos-
phate to tlie niuateor muriate of barytes.
  The phosphate ef strontian differs from the preced-
ing in being soluble in an excess of iu acid.
  Phosphate of lime Is very abundant in tlie native
state.
  The phosphate of lime is very difficult to  fuse, but
in a glasshouse furnace it softens, and acquires the se-
mi-transparency and grain of porcelain.. It  is  insolu-
ble  in water, but when well calcined, forms a kind of
paste with it, as in making cupels.  Besides this use of
It, ii is employed for  polishing gems and metals, fbr ab-
sorbing grease from cloth, linen, or paper, and for pre-
paring phosphorus.   In medicine it has been strongly
recommended against the rickets by Dr. Bonhomme of
Avignon, either alone or combined  with phosphate of
soda. The burnt hartshorn of the shops is a phosphate
of lime.
  An uddulout phosphate of lime is found  in human
urine, and may he crystallized in small silky filaments,
or shining scales, wliich unite together into something
like  the consistence  of honey, and have a perceptibly
acid taste.   It may  be prepared by partially decom-
posing the  calcareous phosphate of bones by the sul-
phuric, nitric, or muriatic acid, or by dissolving that
phosphate in phosphoric acid.   It is soluble in water,
and crystallizable.  Exposed to the action of heal, it
softens, liquefies, swells up, becomes dry, and may be
fused into a transparent glass, which  is insipid,  Insolu-
ble, and unalterable  in the air   In these characters it
differs from the glacial acid of phosphorus. It is partly
decomposable by charcoal, so as lo afford phosphorus.
  The phosphate of potassa is very deliquescent, and
not crystallizable, but condensing into a kind of jelly.
Like the preceding species, it first undergoes the aque-
ous fusion, swells, dries, and may be fused into a glass;
but this gloss deliquesces.  Il  has a sweetish saline-
taste.
  The phosphate of soda was  first discovered com-
bined with ammonia in urine, by Schockwitz, and was
called fusible or microcosmic salt.  Margruff obtained
It alone by lixiviating the residuum left after preparing
phosphorus from this triple salt and charcoal.  Haupt.
who first discriminated the two. gave the phosphate ot
snda the name of sal mirabile perlatum.  Rouelle very
properly announced  it to be a compound of soda and
phosphoric acid. Bergman considered it, or rather the
acidulous phosphate, as a peculiar acid, and gave it the
name of perlate acid. Guyton-Morveau did the same,
but distinguished it by the name of ouretic:  at length
Klaproth ascertained ite real nature to be as Rouelle
had affirmed.
  This phosphate is now commonly prepared by adding
to the acidulous phosphate of lime as much carbonate
of soda in solution as will fully saturate the acid.  The
carbonate of lime which precipitates, being separated
by filtration, tlie liquid is duly evaporated so as  to crys-
tallize the  phosphate of soda;  but  if there be not a
slight excess of alkali, the crystals will not be large and
regular.  Funcke,  of Linz, recommends, as a more
economical  and expeditious mode, to  saturate the ex-
cess of lime in calcined bones by dilute sulphuric acid,
and dissolve the phosphate of lime that remains in
nitric acid.  To this solution he adds an  equal quan-
tity of sulphate of soda, and recovers the nitric  acid by
distillation.  He then separates the phosphate of soda
from sulphate of lime by elutriation and crystallization,
as usual.   The crystals are rhomboidal prisms of dif-
ferent shapes;  efflorescent;  soluble in 3 parts of cold,
and U of hot water.  They are capable of being fused
into an opaque white glass, which may be again dis-
solved and crystallized.  It may be converted into an
acidulous phosphate by an addition of acid, or by either
of  the strong  acids, which partially, but not wholly,
decompose- it.   As iu taste is  simply saline, without
any thing disagreeable, it is much used as a  purgative,
ehiefly in broth, in which it is not distinguishable from
common salt.   For  this elegant addition to our phar-
 maceutical preparations, we are indebted to Dr. Pear-
son.  In assays with the blow-pipe it is of great utility;
and it has been nsed instead of borax for soldering.
  Tlie phosphate of ammonia crystallizes hi prisms with
four regular sides, terminating in pyramids, and some-
times in bundles of small needles.   Ite taste  is cool,
saline, pungent, and urinous. On the fire it comports
itself like the  preceding species, except that the whole
ef iu base may be driven off by a continuance of the
beat, leaving only the acid behind,  ft is but little more
soluble in hot water than in cold, which takes up a
fourth of iu weight   It is pretty abundant in human
urine, particularly after it has become putrid.  Il is mi
excellent flux both for assays and the blow-pipe, aud in
the fabrication of coloured glas s and artificial gem*.
  Phosphate  of magneda  crystallizes  in  irregular
hexahedral prisms, obliquely  truncated; but is com
monly  pulverulent, as it effloresces very quickly.  It
requires fifty paru of water to dissolve it.  Iu taste is
cool and sweetish.   This salt too is found in urine.
  An  ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate has been die
covered in an intestinal calculus of a horse by Four
croy, and since by Burtholdi, and likewise by the for-
mer, in some human urinary  calculi.
  The phosphate of glucine  has  been  examined by
Vauquelin, who informs us, that it is  a  white powder,
or mucilaginous mass, without any perceptible taste;
fusible but not decomposable by heal; unalterable in
the air, and insoluble unless in an excess of iu acid.
  It  has been  observed, that  the  phosphoric acid,
aided by heat, acu upon silex; and we may add, that
it  enters into many artificial  gems in the state of a
silicious phosphate."—Ure's Chemical Dictionary.
  PHOSPHORITE.  A subspecies of apatite.  1. Com-
mon phosphorite.  This is of a yellowish white colour,
when rubbed in an iron mortar, or thrown on red-hot
coals.  It emiu a green-coloured phosphoric light.  Il
is found in Estremaduin, in Spain.
  1. Earthy phosphorite.  Of a grayish white colour,
and consisu of dull  dusty particles, which phospho-
resce on  glowing coals.  It is found in Hungary.
  PHOSPHOROUS  ACID,   acidum phosphorosum.
" This acid  was discovered in  1812 by Sir H. Davy.
When  phosphorus  and corrosive sublimate  act on
each other at on elevated temperature, a liquid called
protochloride of phosphorus is formed.   Water added
to this, resolves it into muriatic and phosphorous acids.
A moderate heat suffices to expel the former, and the
latter remains associated with  water.   It has  a  very
sour taste, reddens vegetable blues,  and  neutralizes
bases.   When heated strongly  in open vessels, it in-
flames.   Phosphuretted  hydrogen flies  off, and phos-
phoric acid  remains.  Ten parte of it heated in close
vessels give off one-half of bihydroguret of phosphorus,
and leave 8£ of phosphoric acid.   Hence tiie liquid acid
consists of 80.7 acid -f- 19.3 water.  Its prime equiva-
lent is 2.5."
  PHOSPHORUS.   (From Aias, light, and tbtpia, ttf
carry.)   Autophosphorus.  A simple substance which
has never  been found pure in  nature.   It is  always
met with united to oxygen, or  in the state of phosphoric
acid.   In that state  it exists very plentifully, and iff
united to different animal, vegetable, and mineral sub-
stances.
  " If phosphoric acid be mixed with l-5th of iu weight
of powdered charcoal, and tlie mixture distilled at a
moderate red heat, in a coated earthen retort, whose
beak is partially immersed in a basin of water, drops
of a waxy-looking substance will pass over, and, fall-
ing into the water, will concrete into  the solid called
phosphorus. It must be purified, by straining it through
a piece of chamois leather, under warm water.  It is
yellow and semitransparent.   It is as soft as wax, but
fully  more cohesive and ductile.  Its  sp. gr.  is 1.77.
It melu at 90° F. and boils at 550°.
  In the atmosphere, at common temperatures, it emita
a white smoke, which, in the  dark, appears luminous.
This smoke is acidulous, and  resulu  from tiie  slow
oxygenation of the phosphorus.  In  air perfectly dry,
however, phosphorus does not smoke, because the aci*
which is formed is solid, and, closely Incasing tne com-
bustible, screens it from the atmospherical oxygen.
   When phosphorus is heated in the ah- io about 148*,
It takes fire, and burns with a splendid white light,
and a copious dense  smoke.  If the  combustion  take
place within a large glass receiver, the smoke becomes
condensed into snowy looking  particles, which fall in
a  successive shower, coating the bottom  plate  with
a spongy efflorescence of phosphoric acid.  This acid
snow soon liquefies  hy the absorption  of aqueous va>
pour from the afar.
   When phosphorus is inflamed in  oxygen, the light
and heat are incomparably more intense; the former
dazzling the eye, and the latter cracking the glass ves-
sel.   Solid phosphoric acid resulu;  consisting of  L5
phosphorus •+■ 3.0 oxv-gen. 
PHO
PHO
   When phosphorus is heated in highly rarefied air,
three producte are formed from it:  one is phosphoric
acid; one is a volatile white powder; and the third is
a red solid of comparative fixity, requiring a heat above
that of boiling water for iu fusion.  The volatile sub-
stance Is soluble in water, Imparting acid properties to
It.  It seems to be phosphorous acid.  The red sub-
stance is probably an oxide of phosphorus, since, for
iu conversion into  phosphoric acid it requires  less
oxygen than phosphorus does.   See Phosphoric, Phos-
phorous, and Hypophosphorous Acids.
   Phosphorus and chlorine combine with great facili-
ty, when brought in contact with each other at common
temperatures.
   1. When  chlorine  is  introduced into a retort ex-
hausted of air, and containing phosphorus, the phos-
phorus takes fire, and burns with a pole flame, throw-
ing off sparks; While a white substance rises and con-
denses on the sides of the vessel.
   If the chlorine be in considerable quantity, as much as
12 cubic inches to a grain of phosphorus, the latter will
entirely disappear, ond nothing but the  White powder
will be formed, into which obout 9 cubic inches of the
chlorine will be condensed.  No new gaseous matter
is produced.
  The powder is a compound of phosphorus and chlo-
rine, first described as a  peculiar body by Sir H. Davy
in 1810; and various  analytical and synthetical experi-
ments which he made with it, prove that it consists of
about 1 phosphorus, and 6.8 chlorine in weight  It is
the bichloride of phosphorus.
   Its  properties are  very peculiar.  It is snow-white,
extremely volatile, rising in a gaseous form at a tem-
perature  much below that of boiling water. Under
pneumatic pressure it may be fused, and then it crystal-
lizes in transparent prisms.
  It acu violently on water, decomposing it, whence
result the phosphoric and muriatic acids; the former
from  the combination  of the  phosphorus  with the
oxygen, and the latter from that of  the chlorine with
the hydrogen of the  water.  It produces flame when
exposed to  a  lighted taper.   If it be  transmitted
through an ignited gloss tube, along with oxygen, it  is
decomposed, and phosphoric acid and chlorine are ob-
tained.  The superior fixity of the acid above the chlo-
ride, seems to give that ascendancy of attraction to the
oxygen here, which the chlorine possesses in most other
cases.  Dry  litmus paper exposed to ite vapour in a
vessel exhausted of air, is reddened.  When Introduced
into a vessel containing ammonia, a combination takes
place, accompanied with much heat, and there resulu
a  compound, insoluble in  water,  undecomposable by
acid or alkaline solutions, and possessing characters
analogous to earths.
  2. The protochloride of phosphorus was first obtained
in a pure state by Sir H. Davy, in the year 1309.   If
phosphorus be sublimed through corrosive sublimate,
In powder in a glass tube, a limpid fluid  comes over as
clear  as water, and having a specific gravity of 1.45.
It emits acid fumes when exposed to the air, by decom-
posing the aqueous vapour.  If paper, imbued with it,
be exposed  to the air, it becomes acid without inflam-
matiotL  It  does not redden dry litmus paper plunged
into it.   Iu vapour  burns in the flame of a candle.
When mixed with water, and  heated,  muriatic acid
flies off, and phosphorous acid remains.  If it be intro-
duced into a vessel containing chlorine, it is converted
into the bichloride; and  if made to act upon ammonia,
phosphorus is produced, and the same earthy-like com-
pound resulu  as that formed  by the bichloride and
ammonia.
  The compounds of  iodine and phosphorus have been
examined by Sir H. Davy and Gay Lussac.
  Phosphorus nnites  to iodine with the disengagement
of heat, but no  light.  One part of phosphorus and
eight of iodine form a compound of a red orange-brown
colour, fusible at about  312°, and volatile at a higher
temperature.
  One part of phosphorus and 16 of iodine produce a
crystalline matter of a  grayish-black colour, fusible
at 84°.
  One part of phosphorus, and 24 of iodine, produce s
block substance partially fusible ot 113°.
  Phosphuretled hydrogen.  Of this compound there
are two varieties: one consisting  of a prime of each
constituent, and  therefore to be called  phosphuretted
hydrogen; another, in wliich the relation of phospho-
rus is one half less, to be called therefore subpbofulm
retted hydrogen.
   1. Phosphuretled hydrogen.   Into  a small retort
filled with milk of lime,  or  potassa water, let some
fragments of phosphorus be introduced, and  let the
heat of an Argand flame  be  applied to the bottom of
tiie retort, while iu beak is immersed in the water of a
pneumatic trough.  Bubbles of gas will  come over
which explode spontaneously with contact of air.  It
may also be procured by the action of dilute muriatic
acid on phosphuret of lime.  In order to obtain the gas
pure, however, we must receive it over mercury.  Iu
smell is very disagreeable.  IU sp. grav. is 0.9022,  100
cubic  inches weigh 27.5 gr.  In oxygen,  it inflames
with a brilliant white light.  In common air, when the
gaseous bubble bursts trie film of water, and explodes,
there rises up a ring of white smoke, luminous in the
dark.   Water  absorbs about l-40th of iu bulk of this
gas, and acquires a yellow colour, a bitter taste, and
the characteristic smell of the gas.  When  brought in
contact with chlorine it detonates with a brilliant green
light; but the producte  have never been particularly
examined.
  2. Subphosphuretted hydrogen.  It was discovered
by SirH. Davy in 1812.  When the crystalline hydrate
of phosphorous  acid is heated in a retort out of the
contact of air, solid  phosphoric acid is formed, and a
largequantity of subphosphuretted hydrogen is evolved.
Its smell is foetid, but not so disagreeably so as that of
the preceding gas.  It does not spontaneously exprbde
like it with oxygen; but  at a temperature of 300° a
violent detonation takes place.  In chlorine it explodes
with a white flame.   Water absorbs one-eighth of iu
volume of this gas.
  It is probable that phosphurctted hydrogen gas some-
times contains the subphosphuret and common hydro
gen mixed with it.
  'There is not, perhaps,' says Sir H. Davy, * in the
whole series of chemical phenomena, a more beautiful
illustration of the theory of definite proportions, than
that offered in the decomposition of hydrophosphorous
acid into phosphoric acid, and hydrophosphoric gas*
  ' Four proportions of the acid contain four  proper*
tions of phosphorus and four of oxygen; two propor-
tions of water  contain four  proportions of hydrogen
and two of oxygen (all by volume.)  The six propor-
tions of oxygen unite to three proportions of phospho-
rus to form three of phosphoric acid, and the four pro-
portions of hydrogen combine with one of  phosphorus
to form one proportion of hydrophosphoric gas  (that is,
subphosphuretted hydrogen); ond there are no other"
products.'—Elements, p. 297.
  Phosphorus  nnd sulphur ore capable of  combining*
They may be united  by malting them together in a tube
exhausted of air, or under water.  In this Jast case*
they must be used in small quantities; as, at the mo-
ment of their action. Water is decomposed, sometimes
with explosions.  They unite  in many proportions*
The most fusible compound is that of one  and a half
of sulphur to two of phosphorus.  This remains liquid
at 40° Fahrenheit.  When solid, iu colour is yellowish-
white.   It is more combustible than phosphorus, and
distils  undecompounded at a strong heat.   Hod il
consisted of 2 sulphur—3 phosphorus, we should have
had a definite compound of 1 prime of the first—2 of
the second constituent.   This proportion forms the
best comrosltion for phosphoric fire-matches or bottle?.
A particle of it attached to a brimstone match, inflame*
when gently rubbed against a surface of cork ot wood*
An oxide  made  by heating phosphorus  in a narrow-
mouthed phial with an ignited wire, answers the same
purpose. The phial must be kept closely corked, other-
wise phosphorous acid is speedily formed.
  Phosphorus is soluble in oils, and eommnnicates to
them the property of appearing luminous in the dark*
Alkohol and ether  also dissolve  it, but more  spaj
singly."
  Tlie earliest  account we hove concerning the medi-
cinal use of phosphorus. Is in the seventh volume ot
Holler's Collection of Theses, relating to the history
and cure of diseases. The original dissertation is en-
titled, De Phosphori Loco Mcdicamenti adsumpti vir
lute medica, aliquot casibus singularibWs  confirmatOf
Auctore J. Gobi Mentz.  There are three cases of sin*
gular cures performed by means  of phosphorus, nar-
rated in this thesis; the  history of these cases and
cures was sent to Dr. Gabi Mcntz, by his Hither. 
PHR
PHR
  The first instance is of a man who laboured under a
putrid fever.
  Tbe second, is that of a man who laboured under a
bilious fever.
  The third case is entitled a malignant catarrhal fever,
with petechie.
  The dangerous  consequences which are likely to
follow the injudicious administration of phosphorus
tannot be impressed  on the mind  more strongly than
by reading the cases  and experimenu which are men-
tioned by Weickard,  in the fourth port of his miscella-
neous writings,  (Vermischte Medicineche Schrifften,
von M. A. Weickard.)
  PHOSPHURET. (Phosphuretum, from phosphorus.)
A combination of phosphorus, with a combustible or
metallic oxide.
  Phosphuretted hydrogen.  See Phosphorus.
  PHOSPHURETUM? See Phosphuret.
  PHOTICITE.  A mixture of the silicate and carbo-
sllicate of manganese.
  PHOTOPHOBIA.  (From tptas, light, and tpoStu, to
dread.)  Such an intolerance of light, that the eye, or
rather the retina, can scarcely bear iu irritating rays.
Such  patients generally wink, or  close their eyes iu
light, which they cannot bear without exquisite pain,
or confused vision.  The proximate cause is too greot
a sensibility in the retina.  The species are,
  1. Photophobia inflammaloria, or dread of light from
on inflammatory cause, which is a particular symptom
ofthe internal ophthalmia.
  2. Photophobia, from the disuse of light, which hap-
pens to persons long confined in dark places or prisons ;
on the coming out of which into light the pupil con-
tracts, and tbe persons cannot bear light.   Tbe depres-
 sion of the cataract occasions this symptom, which ap-
 pears as though Are and lightning entered  the eye, not
 being able to bear the strong rays of light
  3. Photophobia  nervea, or  a nervous photophobia,
 which arises from an increased sensibility of the ner-
 vous expansion  and  optic nerve.   It is a  symptom of
 the  hydrophobia, and many disorders, both acute and
 nervous.
  4. Photophobia, from too great light, as looking at the
 sun, or at the strong  light of modern lamps.
   PHOTO'PSIA.  (From tbias, light, and oo/ic, vision.)
 Lucid vision.  An affection of the eye in which the
 patient perceives luminous rays, ignited  lines, or co-
 ruscations.
   Phra'omus.  (From qipaoota, to enclose, or fence: so
 called from their being set round like a fence of stakes.)
 Tbe rows of teeth.
   PHRE'NES.  (Phren, from d>pnv, the mind; because
 the ancients imagined it was the seat of the mind.)
 The diaphragm.
   PHRENE'SIS.  See Phrenitis.
   PHRENIC.   (Phrenicus ;  from  tbptvts,  the dia-
 phragm.)  Belonging to the diaphragm.
   Phrsnio artery.  The arteries going to the dia-
 phragm.
   Phrinic rf.rve.  Diaphragmatic  nerve.  It arises
 from a union of tbe  branches of tbe third, fourth, and
 fifth cervical pairs,  on each side, passes  between the
 clavicle  and subclavian artery, and descends from
 thence by the pericardium to the diaphragm.
   Phrenic vkik. The veins coming  from the dia-
 phragm.
   PHRENICA.   (Pkrenicus ;  from ibemv, the mind,
 or  intellect)  The name of the first order of diseases
 ofthe class Neurotica, in Good's Nosology.  Diseases
  affecting  the intellect.  Its genera are,  Ecphoronia;
  Empathema; Alusia ; Aphlexia; Paronrria; Moria.
   PHRENI'TIS.  (Phrenitis, idis. f. QptviTts; from
  0p»v, tbe mind)  Phrenesis ; Phrendiasis;  Phrenis-
  mus ; Cephalitis ;  Sphacdismus ;  Cephalalgia in-
  flammatoria.  By the Arabians, karabitus.  Phrenzy
  or  inflammation of  the brain.  A genus  of disease in
  the Class Pyrexia,  and  Order Phlegmada, of Cullen ;
  characterized by strong fever, violent headache, red-
  ness of the face and eyes, impatience ofTight and noise,
  watchfulness, and furious delirium.   It is symptomatic
  of several diseases, as worms, hydrophobia, &c.  Phre-
  nitis often makes ite attacks with a sense of fulness in
  the bead, flushing of the countenance, and redness of
  the eyes, tbe pulse being full, but in other respects na-
  tural.  As these symptoms increase, the patient be-
  comes restless, bis  sleep is disturlied,  or wholly for-
  sakes him.  It sometimes comes on, as in the epidemic,
of which Saalman gives an account with pain, or a
peculiar sense of uneasiness of the head, back, loins,
and joints; in some cases, with tremor of the limb*
and intolerable pains of the hands, feet, and legs.  It
now and then attacks with stupOr and rigidity of the
whole body, sometimes with anxiety and a sense of
tension referred to the breast often accompanied with
palpitation  of the heart.   Sometimes nausea and a
painful souse of weight in the stomach, are among the
earliest symptoms.  In other cases, the patient is at-
tacked with vomiting, or complains of the heartburn,
and griping pains in the bowels.  When the intimate
connexion which subsisu between the brain and every
part of the system is considered, the variety of the
symptoms attending the commencement of phrenitis is
not so surprising, nor that the stomach in particular
should suffer, wliich so remarkably sympathizes with
the brain.  These symptoms assist In forming the diag-
nosis between phrenitis and synocha.  The  pain of
the head soon becomes more considerable, and some-
times very  acute.  "  If the meninges," says Dr. For-
dyce, "are  affected, the pain is acute; if the substance
only, obtuse, and sometimes but just sensible."  And
Dr. Cullen  remarks, " I am here, as in other analogous
coses, of opinion, that the symptoms above mentioned
of an acute inflammation, always mark inflammations
of membraneous paru, and  that an inflammation of
parenchyma, or substance of viscera, exhibits, at least
commonly,  a more chronic inflammation."
  The seat of the pain is various: sometimes it seems
to occupy the whole head; sometimes, although more
circumscribed, it is deep-seated, and ill-defined.   In
other cases, it is felt  principally in the forehead or oc-
ciput  The redness of the face and eyes generally in-
creases with the pain, and there is often  a sense of
heat and throbbing in  the head, the countenance ac-
quiring a peculiar fierceness.  These symptoms, for the
most part, do not last long before the-patient begins to
talk incoherently, and to show other marks of delirium
Sometimes, however. Saalman observes, delirium did
not come on till the fifth, sixth, or seventh day.  The
delirium gradually increases, till it often arrives at a
stale of phrenzy.  The face becomes turgid, the eyes
stare, and seem as if bursting from their sockets, tears,
and sometimes even blood, flowing from them:  the pa-
tient, in marry coses, resembling a furious maniac, from
whom it is often impossible to distinguish him, except
by the shorter duration of his complaint. The delirium
assists in distinguishing phrenitis and synocha. as it is
not a common symptom in the latter.  When delirium
does attend synocha, however, it is ofthe same kind aa
in phrenitis.
   We should, a priori, expect in phrenitis considerable
derangement in the different organs of sense, which so
Immediately depend  on the  state of the  brain.  The
eyes are incapable of bearing the light, and false vision,
particularly that termed musca volitantes, and flashes
of light  seeming to  dart before the eyes, are frequent
symptoms.  The hearing  is often so acute,  that  the
least noise is intolerable:  sometimes, on the other
hand,  the   patient becomes deaf; and the deafness,
Saalman observes, and morbid ocuteness  of hearing,
sometimes  alternate.  Affections of  the  smell, taste,
and touch, are less observable.
   As the organs of sense are not frequently deranged
 in synocha, the foregoing symptoms  farther assist the
 diagnosis between this complaint and phrenitis.
   The pulse is  not  always so much disturbed at nn
 earlier period, as we should expect from the violence
 of the other symptoms, compared with what we ob-
 serve in idiopathic fevers.   When this circumstance is
 distinctly marked, it forms, perhaps, the best diagnosis
 between phrenitis and synocha, and gives  to phrenitis
 more of the appearance of mania.  In many cases,
 however, the fever runs as high as the delirium;  then
 the case often almost exactly resembles a case of vio-
 lent synocha, from which it is the more difficult to dis
 tinguish it if the pulse be full and strong.  In  general,
 however,  the hardness is more remarkable  ihan in
 synocha, and in many cases the pulse is small and hard,
 which may be regarded as one of the best diagnostics
 between the two complainU,  the  pulse  in  synocha
 being alwavs strong ana full.  In phrenitis il  is some-
 times, though rarely, intermitting.  The  respiration is
 generally deep and slow, sometimes difficult now and
 then interrupted  with hiccough, seldom  hurried and
 frequent;  a very unfavourable symptom.  In manv ef 
PHR
PHT
 ihe cases mentioned by Saalman, pneumonia super-
 vened.
   The deglutition is often difficult, sometimes convul-
 sive.  The stomach is frequently oppressed with bile,
 which u an unfavourable symptom;  and  complete
 jaundice, the skin and urine being tinged yellow, some-
 •imes supervenes. Worms in the stomach and bowels
 are also frequent attendanu on phrenitis, and there is
 reason to believe, may have a share in producing it.
 The hydrocephalus  intern Us, which is more allied to
 phrenitis than dropsy of tbe brain, properly so called,
 seems often, in  part at least, to arise from  derange-
 ment of the prims: viae, particularly from worms.  We
 cannot otherwise account for the frequent occurrence
 of these complaints.
   Instead of a superabundance of bile in the primes
 vis, there is sometimes  a deficiency, which seems to
 afford even a worse prognosis.  The alvine feces be-
 ing of a white colour, and a black  cloud in the urine,
 are regarded by Lobb as fatal symptoms.  The black
 cloud in tbe urine is owing to an admixture of blood;
 when unmixed with blood, it is generally pole.
   There is often o remorkable tendency to the worst
 species of haimorrhagies, towards the fatal termination
 of phrenitis.  Haemorrhagy from the eyes has already
 been  mentioned. Haeniorrhagy from the intestines
 also, tinging the  stools with a black colour, is not un-
 common.  These haemorrhagies are never favourable;
 but the haemorrhagies characteristic of synocha, parti
 cularly  that from the  nose,  sometimes occur at an
 earlier period, and, if copious,  generally  bring relief.
 More frequently, however, blood drops slowly from the
 nose, demonstrating the violence of the disease, with-
 out relieving it.   In other cases, there is a discharge of
 thin mucus from the nose.
   Tremours of the joinU, convulsions of the muscles
 of the face, grinding of the teeth, the face from being
 florid suddenly becoming pale, involuntary tears, a dis-
 charge of mucus  from the nose, the urine being of a
 dark red or yellow colour, or black, or covered with a
 pellicle,  the fasces being  either bilious or white, and
 very fcetid,  profuse  sweat  of  the  head,  neck,  and
 shoulders, paralysis of the tongue, general convulsions,
 much derangement of the internal functions, and the
 symptoms of other visceral inflammations, particularly
 Of the pneumonia, supervening, are enumerated by
 Saalman as affording the most unfavourable prognosis.
 Tbe delirium changing to coma, tbe pulse  ait the same
 time becoming weak, and the deglutition difficult, was
 generally the  forerunner  of  death.  When, on  the
 contrary, there Is a copious haemorrhagy from the
 hemorrhoidal vessels, from the  lungs, mouth, or even
 from the urinary passages, when the delirium is reliev-
 ed by sleep, and  the patient  remembers his dreams,
 when the sweats are free and general, the deafliess is
 diminished or removed, and the febrile symptoms be-
 come milder, there are hopes of  recovery.
   In almost all diseases, if we except those which kill
 suddenly, as the  fatal termination approaches, nearly
 the same train of  symptoms supervenes, viz. those de-
 noting extreme debility of all the functions. Saalman
 remarks, that the  blood  did not always show the buffy
 coat.
   Phrenitis, like most other complainU, has sometimes
 assumed an intermitting form, tlie flu coming on daily,
sometimes every second day.  When phrenitis termi-
ni'.** favourably, the typhus, which succeeds  the in-
creased  excitement, is  generally less in proportion to
that excitement, than in idiopathic fevers  ; a circum-
stance which assists in distinguishing phrenitis from
synocha.
  The imperfect diagnosis between these complainU ia
further assisted by the effecte of the remedies employ
ed. For in phrenitis, in removing the delirium  and
other local symptoms, the febrile symptoms in general
soon abate.  Whereas  in synocha, although tne deli-
rium aud headache be  removed, yet the pulse conti-
nues frequent, and other marks of indisposition remain
for a much longer time.
  It will be of use to present, at one view, the circum-
stances which form the diagnosis between phrenitis and
synocha.
  Synocha generally makes its attack in the same man-
ner ; iu symptoms are  few and little  varied.  The
symptoms at the commencement of phrenitis are often
more complicated, and differ considerably  in  different
eases.  Derangement of the internal  functions is com-
paratively  rare  in synocha.  In  phrenitis  it almost
constantly attends, and often appears very early.  The
same observation  applies to  the  derangement of the
organs of sense.   In synocha, the pulse from the com-
mencement is frequent and strong.  In phrenitis, symp-
toms denoting the local affection  often become consi-
derable before the pulse is much  disturbed.  In phre-
nitis, we have seen that the piilse sonietinies very sud-
denly  loses iu strength, the worst species of haemor-
rhagies, and other symptoms denoting extreme debility,
showing themselves; and such symptoms are generally
the forerunners of death: but that when (he tormina-   *
tion is favourable, the degree of typhus which succeeds
it is less in proportion to the preceding excitement than
in synocha.  Lastly, if we succeed in removing the
delirium and other symptoms affecting the head, the
stote of the fever is found to partake of this favourable
change  more immediately and completely than in
synocha, where, although we  succeed in relieving the
headache or delirium, the fever  often  suffers  little
abatement.
  With regard to the duration  of phrenitis, Eller ob-
serves, that when it proves fatal, the patient generally
dies Within six or seven doyS.  In many fatal cases,
however, it is protracted for a longer time, especially
where the remissions have been considerable.  Upon
the whole, however,  the  longer it is protracted, pro-
viding the symptoms  do not become worse, the better
is ihe prognosis.
  On the first attack of the disease we must begin by
bleeding the patient as largely as his strength will per
mit: ft may be productive of more relief to the head,
where tlie  patient cannot spare  much  blood, if the
temporal artery, or the jugular vein be opened y and in
the progress of the complaint Occasional cupping or
leeches may materially assist the' other means employ-
ed.  Active cathartics should be given directly  after
taking blood, calomel with jalap, followed by some
solinc compound in the  infusion of senno, until the
bowels ore  copiously evacuated.  The head should be
shaved, and kept constantly cool by gome evaporating
lotion.   Antimonial and mercurial preparations may
then he given to promote the several discharges, and
diminish arterial action :  to which purpose digitalis
also may powerfully  concur.  Blisters  to the hack of
the neck, behind the  ears, or to  the temples, each per-
haps successively, when the violence of the disorder ii
lessened  by proper evucuatsTns, may contribute very
much to obviate internal  mischief. The head should
be kept raised, to counteract the  accumulation of blood
there;  ond the antiphlogistic regimen must be observed
in the fullest extent.  Stimulating  the  extremities  by
the pediluvjum, sinapisms, &c. may be of some use in
the decline of the complaint, where on irritable  state
of the brain appears,
  Phreneti'asiS. See Phrenitis.
  PHRENSY.  See Phrenitis.
  PHTHElRl'ASIS,  (From (bBttp,  a louse.)  See
Phthiriasis.
  Phthbi'riuk.  See Phtheiroclonum.
  PHTHEIRO'CTONUM. (From tbBup, a louse, and
icrtivta, to kill; because it destroys lice.)  Phthririum.
The herb Staves-acre.  See Delphinium staphisagria.
  PHTHIRI'ASIS.   (From dSttp, a louse.)   Morbus
pediculosus ; pediculatio ; phtheiriasis.  A disease |i
which several parts of the body generate lite, whici.
often puncture  the  skin, and  produce Uttie sordid
Ulcers. .
  PHTHISIS. (From d>6iio, to consume.)  Taoe* put.
monalis.  Pulmonary consumption. A disease repre1
sented by Dr. Cullen  as a  sequel of haemoptysis: it is
known by emaciation, debility, cough, hectic fever, and
purulent expectoration.
  Species: 1. Phthisis indpiens, Incipient, without an
expectoration of pus'.
  2.  Phthisis humida, with an expectoration of pus.
  3.  Phthisis scrophulosal from scrofulous  tubercles
in the lungs, &c.
  4.  Phthisis hamopioica, from haemoptysis.
  5.  Phthisis exanthematica, from exanthemata.
  6.  Phthisis chlorotica, from chlorosis.
  7.  Phthisis syphilitica, from a venereal ulcer in the
lungs.
  The causes which predispose to this disease are very
numerous.  The following are, however, the most ge-
neral: hereditary disposition;  particular formation of
the body, obvious by a long nock  prominent shoulders 
HT
PH
 and narrow chest;  scrofulous diathesis, indicated by
 a fine clear skin, fair hair, delicate rosy complexion,
 large veins, thick upper lip, a weak voice, and great
 sensibility; certain  diseases, such as syphilis, scrofula,
 the small pox, nnd  measles;  particular employments,
 exposing artificers  to  dust, such  as  needle-pointers,
 stone-cutters, millers, &c. or to the fumes of metals or
 minerals under a confined and unwholesome air; vio-
 lent passions, exertions, or affections of the mind, as
 grief, disappointment, anxiety, or close application to
 study, without using proper exercise;  frequent and
 excessive debaucheries, late watching, and drinking
 freely of strong liquors: great evacuations, as diar-
 rhoea, diabetes, excessive venery,  fluor albus, immo-
 derate discharge of the menstrual flux, and the conti-
 nuing to suckle too long under a debilitated state;  and,
 lastly, the  application  of cold, either  by too sudden a
 change of  apparel, keeping on wet clothes, lying in
 damp beds, or exposing  the body too suddenly to cool
 air, when  heated by exercise; in short, by any thing
 that gives  a considerable check to the perspiration.
 The more immediate or occasional causes of phthisis
 are,  haemoptysis, pneumonic inflammation proceeding
 to suppuration, catarrh, asthma, and tubercles, the last
 of which is by far  tbe  most general.  The incipient
 symptoms  usually vary wilh the cause of the disease;
 but when  it  arises  from tubercles, it is  usually thus
 marked: it begins  with a  short dry cough, that at
 length becomes habitual, but  from which  nothing is
 spit  up for some time, except a frothy  mucus  that
 seems to proceed from the fauces.  The breathing is
 at the same time somewhat impeded, and upon the
 least bodily motion  is much hurried: a sense of strait-
 ness, with oppression at tlie chest, is experienced:  the
 body becomes gradually leaner, and  great languor,
 with indolence, dejection of spirits, puid loss of appe-
 tite,  prevail.  In this state tiie patient frequently con-
 tinues a considerable length of time, during which he
 is, however, more readily affected than usual by slight
 colds, and  upon one or  other  of these occasions  the
 cough becomes more troublesome and  severe, particu-
 larly by night, and it is at length attended with an ex-
 pectoration, which towards morning is more free and
 copious. By degrees the matter which is expectorated
 becomes more viscid and opaque, and now assumes a
 greenish colour and purulent appearance, being on
 many occasions streaked with blood.  In some cases, a
 'nore severe degree of haemoptysis attends, and the
 patient spits up a considerable quantity of florid, frothy
 Dlood.  The breathing at length becomes more difficult,
 and  the  emaciation and weakness go on  increasing.
 With these, the person begins to be sensible of pain in
Borne port  of the  thorax, which,  however,  is usually
 felt at first under the sternum, particularly on cough-
ing.  At a more advanced period of the disease, a pain
is sometimes felt on one side, and at times prevails in
so high a degree, as  to prevent the  person  from lying
easily on that side; but it more frequently happens,
that  it is felt  only  on  making a full inspiration, or
coughing.  Even where no pain  is felt,  it often hap-
pens  that those who labour under phthisis cannot lie
easily on one or other of their sides, without a fit of
coughing being excited, or the difficulty of breathing
being much increased.  At the first commencement of
the disease, the pulse is often natural, or perhaps is
soft,  small,  and a little quicker than usual;  but when
 the symptoms which have been enumerated have sub-
 sisted for any length of time, it then becomes full, hard,
 and frequent  At the same time the face flushes, par-
ticularly after eating;  the  palms of the hands,  and
 soles of the feet, are affected wilh  burning  heat; the
 respiration  is difficult and laborious; evening exacer-
 bations  become obvious, and, by degrees,  the fever
 assumes the hectic form.  This species of fever is evi-
 dently of the remittent  kind, and  has exacerbations
 twice every day.   The first occurs usually about noon,
 and  a slight remission  ensues about five in the after-
 noon.  This last is, however,  soon  succeeded by an-
 other exacerbation,  which increases gradually until
 after midnight; but, about two o'clock in the morning,
 a remission takes place, and this becomes more appa-
 -ent  as the morning advances.  During tbe exacerba-
 tions the patient is very sensible to any coolness of the
 air, and often  complains of a sense of cold when  his
 ekin  is, at the same time, preternaturally warm.   Of
 .nese exacerbations, that of the evening  is by far the
 most considerable.  From the  first appearance of the
      180
hectic symptoms, the urine is high coloured, and depo-
sites  a  copious branny red sediment  The appetite,
however, is not greatly impaired, the tongue appears
clean, the mouth  is usually moist, nnd ihe ihirsl is in-
considerable.  As the disease advances, the fauces put
on rather an inflamed  appearance, ami are beset with
aphtha, and the red vessels of the tunica adnata be-
come of a pearly white.  During the exacerbations, a
florid circumscribed  redness appears on each  cheek;
but at other times tiie face is pale, and the countenance
somewhat dejected.  At tlie commencement of hectic
fever, tlie belly is  usually costive; but in the more ad-
vanced  stages of it. a  diarrhoea often comes on, and
this continues to  recur frequently during the remain
der of the disease; colliquative sweats likewise break
out, and these alternate with each other, and induce
vast debility.  In  tlie last stage of the disease the ema-
ciation is so great, that the patient bas the appearance
of a walking skeleton; his countenance is altered, his
cheeks  are prominent, his eyes look hollow and lan-
guid,  his hair falls .off,  his nails are of a  livid colour,
and much incurvated,  and his feet are affected  with
oedematous swellings.  To the end of tiie disease tlie
senses remain entire, and the mind is confident and
full of hope.  It is, indeed, a happy circumstance at-
tendant on phthisis, lhat those who labour under it ore
seldom  apprehensive or aware of any danger; and it
is no uncommon occurrence to  meet with  persons
labouring under its  most advanced  stage, flattering
themselves with a speedy recovery, ami forming dis-
tant projecu under that vain hope.  Some days before
death the extremities become cold.  In some cases a
delirium precedes that  event, and continues until life
is extinguished.
  As  an expectoration  of mucus from the lungs  may
possibly be mistaken for purulent malter, and  may
thereby give us reason  to  suspect that the patient
labours under a confirmed phthisis, it may not be amies
to point out a sure criterion, by which we shall always
be able  to distinguish  the one from  the other.  The
medical world are indebted to Ljie late Mr.  Charles
Darwin for the discovery, who has directed the experi-
ment  to be made in the following manner:
  Let the expectorated matter De dissolved in vitrio-
lic acid, and  in caustic lixivium, and add pure water
to both  solutions.  If there is a fair precipitation in
each,  it is a certain  sign of the presence of pus; but
if there is not a  precipitate iu either, it is  certainly
mucus.
  Sir  Everard Home, in his dissertation on the proper-
ties of pus, informs us of a curious, hut not a decisive
mode of distinguishing accurately between  pus and
animal mucus.  The property he observes, which cha-
racterizes pus, and distinguishes it from moBt other
substances, is, iu being composed of globules, wliich
are visible  when  viewed  through  n  microscope;
whereas animal  mucus, and  all chemical combina-
tions of animal substances, appear in  the microscope
to be made up of flakes.  This property was first no-
ticed by tbe late Mr. John Hunter.
  Pulmonary consumption is in every case to be con-
sidered as attended with much danger;  but it is more
so when it proceeds from tubercles, than when it arises
in consequence either  of  haemoptysis, or pneumonic
suppuration.  In the last instance, the risk will be
greater  where the abscess breaks inwardly, and gives
rise to empyema, than when ite contenu are discharged
by the mouth.  Even cases of this nature have, how-
ever, been known to terminate  in immediate death.
The impending danger is generally to be judged of,
however, by tlie hectic  symptoms; but more particu-
larly by  the foetor  of the expectoration, the degree of
emaciation and debility, the colliquative  sweau, and
the diarrhoea.  The disease has, in many coses,  been
found to be considerably retarded in its  progress by
pregnancy;  and in a few has been alleviated by an
attack of mania.
  The morbid appearance most frequently to be met
with,  on the dissection of those who die of phthisis, is
the existence of tubercles in the cellular substance of
the lungs.  These ore small tumours which have the
appearance of indurated glands, ore of different sizes,
and are often found in  clusters.  Their firmness is
usually in proportion to their size, and when loid open
in this slate they are of o white colour, and of a con-
sistence neorly approaching to cartilage. Although in
dolent at  first, they at  length  become  inflamed, and 
PHY
PHY
lastly forir "tale abscesses or vomicae, which breaking,
and pouriv^, iheir contenu into the bronchia, give rise
to a  purulent expectoration, and thus lay the founda-
tion of phthisis.  Such tubercles or vomicae are most
usually  situated at  the upper and back part of the
lungs;  but in some instances they occupy the outer
part,  and then adhesions  to the  pleura are often
formed.
  When the disease is partial, only about a fourth of
the upper and  posterior part  of the  lungs is usually
found diseased; but, in some cases, life has been pro-
tracted till not one-twentieth part of them appeared, on
dissection, fit  for performing their function.   A singu-
lar observation, confirmed by the morbid collections of
anatomists, is,  that the left lobe is much oftener af-
fected than the right.  The indications are,
  1.  To moderate inflammatory action.
  2.  To support the strength, and promote the healing
of ulcers iu the lungs.
  3. To palliate urgent symptoms.
  The first object may require  occasional small bleed-
ings, where the strength will permit, in the early pe-
riod of the disease; but in the  scrofulous this measure
is scarcely admissible.  Local  pain will more fre-
quently lead to the use of cupping, witb or without the
scarificator, leeches,  blisters, and other  modes of de-
riving the nervous energy, as well  as blood, from the
seat of the disease.  The bowels must be kept soluble
by gentle laxatives, as cassia, manna, sulphate of mag-
nesia, Sec.: and diaphoresis promoted by saline medi-
cines, or the pulvis ipecacuanhas  compositus.   The
occasional  use  of an emetic  may benefit the patient
by promoting the function of the skin, and expectora-
tion, especially  where there is a wheezing respiration.
The inhalation of  steam, impregnated,  perhaps, with
hemlock, or ether, may be useful"as soothing the lungs,
and  facilitating expectoration.  Certain sedative reme-
dies, particularly digitalis,  and  hemlock, have been
much employed in this disease; and in so far as they
moderate the ciiculation, and relieve  pain, they are
clearly beneficial: Dut too much reliance must not  be
placed upon  them.   Certain sedative gases have been
also proposed to be respired by the patient, as hydro-
gen, Sec; but their utility is very  questionable.
Among trie tonic medicines, the mineral  acids are, per-
haps, the most  generally useful; however, myrrh and
chalybeotes,  in moderate doses, often answer a good
purpose.  But a great deal will depend on a due regu-
lation  nf the diet, which should  be of a nutritious
kind, but not heating, or difficult of digestion: milk,
especially that  of  the ass;  farinaceous veeetables;
acescent fruits; the different kinds  of shell-fish; the
lichen islandicus, boiled  with milk, &c, are of this
description.  Some mode of  gestation, regularly em-
ployed, particularly sailing; warm clothing;  removal
to a warm climate,  or to a  pure and mild oir in this,
may materially concur in arresting the progress of the
disease, in iu incipient stage. With regard to urgent
symptoms, requiring palliation, the cough  may  be
allayed by demulcents, but  especially mild opiates
■wallowed slowly;  colliquative sweau, by acids, par-
 ticularly the mineral: diarrhoea, by chalk and other
 astringecU, jut most effectually  by small doses  of
 opium.
   Puthisw pupill*. An amaurosis.
   Pn-rHo'RiA..   (From q)Bopa, an abortion.) Medicines
 which promote abortion.
   PHU.  (ctov, or  to;  from phua, Arabian.) The
 name of a plant  See ^aiertana phu.
   PHYGE'THLON.  (From tbvta,  to  grow.)  A  red
 and painful tubercle in the arm-pits,  neck, and groins.
   PHYLACTE'RIUM.  (From tbvXaeoia, to preserve.)
 An  amulet or preservative against infection.
   PHYLLA'NTHUS.   (From tpvXXov. a  leaf, and
 avOos,  a flower; because the flowers in one ofthe
 original species, now a Hylophytta, grow out of the
 leaves.)  The  name of a genus of planu.  Class, Mo-
 nacia; Order, Monadelphia.
   Phyllanthds emblica.  The systematic name of
 the Indian tree from which the emblic myrobalan is
 obtained.
   PHYLLl'TIS.   (From tbvXXov, a leaf: so called be-
 cause the leaves only appear.  See Asplenium scolo-
 pendrium.
   PHYMA.   (From tbvia, to produce.)   A tubercle on
  any external part of the body.
   PHY'SALIS. (From tbvoata, to inflate:  so called
because iu seed is contained in a kind of bladder.)
The name of a  genus  of planU.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Physalis  alkekengi.  The systematic name of the
winter cherry.    Alkekengi;  Halicacabum.   This
plant, Physalis—foliis geminis integris acutis  caule
herbaceo, inferni subramosa, of Linnaeus, is cultivated
in our gardens.   The berries are recommended as a
diuretic, from six to twelve for a dose, in dropsical and
calculous diseases.
  PHYSALITE.  Prophysalite.   A sub-species of pri
mitive topaz of Jameson.  A greenish  white mineral
found in granite in Finbo, in Sweden.
  PHYSCO'NIA. (From o>iio-*:&iv,abig-bellied fellow.)
Hyposarca;  Hypersarchidios.  Enlargement of the
abdomen. A genus of disease in the class Cachexia,
and order Intumescentia, of Cullen; known by a tu-
mour occupying chiefly one  part of  the abdomen,
increasing slowly, and neither sonorous nor fluctuating.
Species:  1.  Hepatica.  2. Splenica.   3. Renalis.  4.
Uterina.  5. Ab ovario.  6. Mesenterica.  7.  Omen-
talis.  8. Visceralis.
  PHYSE'MA.  (From qivoaia, to inflate.)  Physests
A windy tumour.
  PHYSETER.  (Physeter, from tpvoaia, to inflate :
so named from its action of blowing and  discharging
water from  its nostrils.)  The name  of  a genus of
whale-fish in the Linnaean system.
  Physeter macrocephalus. The spermaceti whale
Spermaceti, now called in the pharmacopoeia Cetaceum,
is an oily, concrete, crystalline, semi-transparent mat-
ter, obtained from the cavity of the cranium of several
species of whales, but principally from the Physeter
macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale. It was formerly
very highly esteemed, and many virtues were attributed
to it; but it  is now chiefly employed in affections of
the lungs, primas viae, kidneys, &x.os a softening remedy
mixed with  mucilages.  It is also employed by sur-
geons as an emollient in form of cerates, ointmenu, &c
See also Ambergris, and Balana macrocephala.
  PHYSIOGNOMY.   (Physiognomia;  from tbvais,
nature, and ytviaoxta, to know.)  The art  of knowing
the disposition of a person from the countenance.
  PHYSIOLOGY.   (Physiologia;  from cpvois, na-
ture, and Xoyoc, a discourse.)  That science which has
for its object the knowledge of the phenomena proper
lo living bodies.  It is divided into Vegetable Physio-
logy, which  is employed in the consideration of vege-
tables; into  Animal or Comparative Physiology; which
treats  of animals;  and into  Human Physiology, of
which the speciol object is man.
  PHYSIS.   Nature.
  PHYSOCE'LE.  (From tbvea, wind, and 107X17,  a
tumour.)  A species of hernia, the contents of which
 ore distended with wind.
   PHYSOCE'PHALUS.   (From  tbvoa,  wind, and
 Ktd>aXn,  the head.)  Emphysema of  the head.  See
 Pneumatosis.
   PHYSOME'TRA.   (From ebveata,  to  inflate, and
 pvrpa, the womb.)  Hysterophyse. A windy swelling
 of the uterus.  A tympany of the womb.  A genus of
 disease in the class Cachexia, and order Intumescentia,
 of Cullen ;  characterized by a permanent elastic swell-
 ing of the hypogastrium, from flatulent distention of the
 womb.  It  is a rare disease, and seldom admiu of a
 cure.
   PHYTEU'MA.  (Phyteuma, atis. n.; from cWtva,
 to generate:  so called from its  great increase  and
 growth.) The  name of  a genus of plants.  Class,
 Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
   Phyteuma orbiculare.  Rapunculus cornieula
 tus.  Horned rompions.   By some supposed effica
 cious in the cure of syphilis.
   PHYTOLA'CCA.   (Phytolacca;  from ^utov, a
 plant, and XaKKa, gum lac: so called because it is of
 the colour of lacca.)  The name of a genus of plants.
 Class, Decandria; Order, Decagynia.
    Phytolacca decandria.   The systematic name
 of the Pork-physic; Pork-weed; Poke-weed; Red
 weed of Virginia; Red night-shade; American night
 shade.  Solanum racemosum americanum;  Solanum
 magnum virginianum rubrum.  In Virginia and other
 parts of America, the inhabitants boil the leaves, and
 eat them in the manner of spinach. They are said to
 have an anodyne quality, and the juice of the root is
 violently cathartic.  The Portuguese  had formerly a
 trick of mixing the juice of the berries with their red 
PIG
PIL
Wines, in order to give them a deeper colour: but it
was  found  to debase  the flavour.  This  was repre-
sented to his Portuguese majesty, who ordered all the
stems tQ be cut down yearly before they produced
flowers, thereby  to prevent any  further adulteration.
This plant has been used as a cure for cancers, but to
do purpose.
  PHYTOLOGY.  (Phytologia.  From $utov, an
herb, and Xoyos, a discourse.) Tbat part of tiie science
of natural history, which treats on plants.
  PHVTOMINERA'LIS.  (From 0«rov, a plant, and
mineralis, a mineral.)  A substance of a vegetable and
mineral nature; as amber.
  PIA  MATER.  (Pta mater,  the  natural  mother;
bq called because it embraces the brain, as a good mo-
ther  folds her child.)   Localis  membrana;  Meninx
tenuis.  A thin' membrane, almost wholly vascular,
that is firmly accreted to tne convolutions of the cere-
brum,  cerebellum, medulla  oblongata, and  medulla
spinalis.  Its use appears to be, to distribute the vessels
to, and contain the substance of,  the cerebrum.
  PI'CA. (Pica, the magpie: so namtJS because it is
BOid the magpie is subject to this  affection.)  Picatio;
Malacia; Allotriophagia;  Citta;  Ossa. Longing.
Depraved appetite, with strong  desire for unnatural
food.  It is very common  to  pregnant women and
chlorotic girls, and by some it is  said to occur in men
who labour under suppressed hemorrhoids.
  PI'CEA.  (IIitvc, pitch.)   The common or red fir
or pitch-tree is so termed.  The  cones,  branches, and
every part of the tree, affords the common resin called
frankincense.  See Pinus abies.
  Pichu'rim.  See Pechurim.
  PICNITE.  Pyenite.  See Schorlite.
  PI'CRISi   (From irtKpos, oilier.)  The name of a
genus of plants.   Class, Syngcnesia; Order,  Pplyga-
inia  aquales.
  Picris KCHOiDES.   The name of the common ox-
tongue.  The leaves are frequently used as a  pot-herb
by the country people, who esteem it good to  relax the
bowels.'
  PICROMEL.  (From jtikpoc, bitter, andutyt, honey:
so called from iu  taste.) The characteristic principle
of bile.  If sulphuric acid, diluted with five parts of
water, be mixed with fresh bile, a yellow precipitate
will fall.  11 eat the mi xture, then leave it in repose, and
decant off the clear part  What remains was formerly
called resin of bile; but it is n greenish compound of
sulphuric acid and picromel.  Edulcorate it with wa-
fer, and digest witb carbonate of barytes.   The picro-
mel  now liberated will dissolve in tiie  woter.   On
evaporating the solution, it is obtained  in a solid state.
Or by dissolving tl)e gresn sulphate in alkohol, and
digesting the solution over carbonate of potassa  till it
cease to redden litmus paper, we obtain the  picromel
combined with alkohol.
  ' It resembles inspissated bile.  Its colour is greenish-
yellow ; i's taste is intensely bitter at first, wilh a suc-
ceeding impression of sweetness.  It knot affected by
infusion of galls; but the salts of iron  and subacetate
of lead precipilate it from  iu  aqueous solution.  It
 affords no  ammonia by its destructive distillation.
 Hence the absence of azote is inferred, and the pecu-
 liarity of picroinel.
   PICROTOXIA.  Bicrptoxine- The pojsonous prin-
 ciple of the  cocculus  indicus.   See Menispermum
 cocculus, ond Cocculus indicus.
   PICTO'NIUS.  (From the Pictones, who were sub-
 ject to  this  disease.)  Applied to  a species of  colic.
 It should be rather called colica pictorum, the pointer's
 colic, because, from their  use of lead, they are much
 afflicted with it
   Pie'strum. (From iritfoi, to press.)  Ap instrument
 fo compress the head of a dead foetus, for its more easy
 extraction from the womb.
   Pig-nut.  The bulbous root of tbe  Bunium bulbo-
  castanum, of Linnaeus: so called because pigs are yery
  fond of them., and will dig witb theur snouts to some
  depth for them.  See Bunium bulbocastanum.
   PIGME'NTUM.  (Frompingo, to paint.)  Pigment
  This name  is given by anatomists to a  mucous sub-
  stance found in tbe eye, wliich is of two kinds.  Th]e
 pigment»/ the iris  is that which covers tbe anterior
 and posterior surface of the iris, and  gives the  beau-
  tiful variety pf colour  in the eyes.   7'Ae pigment of
  the choroid membrane is a black or brownish mucus,
  which covers tiie anterior surface ofthe choroid luem-
        182
brane, contiguous to the retina and the anterior rorftff
of the ciliary processes.                        _  .'
  Pi'la hystricis. The bezoar hystricjs.           ,
  Pila  marina.  A species of nlcyonium found  on
sea-coasU among wrack.  It is said to kill worms, and,
when calcined, to be useful In scrofuia.
  PILE.  See Hamorrhois.
  PILE-WORT.   See Ranunculus ficaria.
  PILEUS.  (Pileus, a bat) That part of a gymnos
perm fungus or mushroom, which  forms the upper
round part or head; as in Boletus, and Agaricus.     ,
  Pi'li conqbmti.  The  hair of the head, eyebrows,
and  eyelids, are  so  termed, because they  grow in
utero.
  Pi'li  postgehiti.  The hair which grows from the
surface of ihe body after birth is  so termed, in contra-
diction to that wliich appears before birth;  as the hair
ofthe head, eyebrows, and eyelids.
  PILOSE'LLA.  (From  pilus, hair: because  its
leaves are hairy.)   See Hieracium pilocella.
  Pill,  aloitic,  with myrrh.  See Pilula  alols cum
myrrha.
  Pill, compound aloitic.  See Pilula alols  composita.
  Pill,  compound  calomel.   See Pilula  hydrargyri
suomuriatis composita.
  Pili, compound galbanum. See Pilula galbani com-
posita.
  Pill, compound gamboge.  See Pilula cambogia ««»•:
posita.
  Pill, compound squill.  See Pilula scilla composita.
  Pill of iron with myrrh.  See Pilula ferri composita.
  Pill, mercurial.  See Pilula hydrargyri.
  Pill, soap, with opium.  See Pilula saponis cum opio.
  PILOSUS.   Hairy.  Applied to the stems, leaves,.
and receptacles of plants, as  lhat of the Cerastium
alpinum; and to the nectary of the Parnassus palus
tris, which is in form of five hairy fasciites at the base
ofthe stamina. The receptacle ofthe Carthamus tinc-
torius.
  PI'LULA.  (Pilula, a, f.\ diminutive of pila.)   A
pill.  A small round form  of medicine, the  size of a
pea.  The consistence of pills is best preserved by
keeping the mass in bladders, and occasionally moist-
ening it.  In the direction of masses to be thus divided,
the proper consistence is to be looked for at first, as well
as iu preservation afterward;  for  if the mass then
become hard and dry, it to  unfit for that  division for
which  it was originally intended; and this is in many
instances such an objection to the form, that it is doubt-
ful whether, for  the purposes of the pharmacopoeia,
the greater number of articles had not better be kept in
 powder, and their application to  the formation of pills,
 left to extemporaneous direction.
  Pilulje aloes composita.  Compound alottic pills.
 Take of extract of spike-aloe, powdered, an ounce; ex-
 tract of gentian,  half an ounce; oil of caraway, forty
 minims; simple syrup, as much as is sufficient  Beat
 them together, until they form a uniform mass.  From
 fifteen  to twenty-five  grains prove moderately purga
 live and stomachic.
   PlLUL/K ALOES  CUM MYRRHA.  Aloftic pills With
 myrrh.  Take  of extract  of spike aloe, two ounces;
 saffron, myrrh, of each  an ounce;  simple  syrup, as
 much as is sufficient. Powder  the  aloes and myrrh
 separately; then beat them all together until  they form
 a uniform mass.   From ten grains to a scruple of this
 pill, substituted for the pilula Rufi, prove stomachic
 and laxative, and are calculated for  delicate females,
 especially where there is uterine  obstruction.
   Pilula ammoniareti cupri.  An excellent tonic
 and diuretic pill, which may be  given with advantage
 it) dropsical diseases, where tonics and diuretics are
 indicated.
   Pilula cambooia composita.   Compound gam-
 boge pills.   Take of gamboge  powdered^ extract of
 spike-aloe, powdered, compound cinnamon powder, of
 each a drachm; soap, two drachms.  Mix  the powders
 together; then having added the soap, beat  the whole
 together until they are thoroughly incorporated. These
 pills are now first introduced into Ihe London pharma-
 copoeia, as forming a more active purgative pill than
 the pil. aloes cum myrrha, and  in this way supplying
 an  article very commonly necessary in practice.   The
 dose is from ten grains to a scruple.
   Pilul*  ferri composite.   Compound  iron pills.
 Pills of iron and myrrh.   Take of myrrh,  powdered!
 two drachms; subcarbonate of  soda, sulphate of iron 
PIL                                             PIM
sugar, of each, a drachm.  Rub the myrrh with the
subcarbonate of soda; add the sulphate of iron,  and
rub them  again; then  beat the whole  together until
they are thoroughly incorporated.  These pills answer
llie same purpose as the mistura ferri composita.  The
dose is from ten grains to one scruple.
  Pilula ualbani composita. Compound galbanum
pills.   Formerly called pilula gummosa.   Take of
galbanum gum resin, an ounce; myrrh, sagapenum, of
each an ounce and half; asafoetida gum  resin, half
an ounce; simple syrup, as much as is sufficient.   Beat
them together until they form a  uniform  mass.  A
stimulating antispasmodic and emmenagogue.  From
half a scruple to half a drachm may be given three
times a day in nervous disorders ofthe stomach and in-
testines, in hysterical affections nnd hypochondriasis.
  Pilula hydraroyri.  Mercurial pills.  Often from
ite colour called the blue pill.   Take of purified mer-
cury, two  drachms;  confection of red roses, three
drachms; liquorice-root, powdered, a drachm.   Rub
the mercury with the confection, until the globules dis-
appear ; then add the liquorice-root, and beat the whole
together, until they are thoroughly incorporated.  An
alterative  and anti-venereal pill,  which mostly  acts
upon the bowels if given in sufficient quantity to at-
tempt the removal of the venereal disease, and there-
fore requires the addition of opium.  The dose is from
five grains to a scruple.  Three grains of the moss
contain one of mercury.  Joined with the squill pill, it
forms an  excellent expectorant and alterative, calcu-
lated to assist the removal of dropsical  diseases of the
chest, and asthmas attended with visceral obstruction.
   Pilula  hydraroyri  submuriatis composita.
Compound pills of submuriate of mercury.  Take of
submuriate of mercury, precipitated sulphuret of anti-
mony, of each a drachm; guaiacum resin, powdered,
two drachms.  Rub the submuriate of mercury, first
with the precipitated sulphuret of antimony, then with
the guiocuin resin, and add as much acacia mucilage
as may be  requisite to give the moss a proper consist-
ence.  This is intended as a substitute for the famed
Plummer's pill.  It is exhibited as a alternative in a
variety  of diseases, especially cutaneous eruptions,
pains ofthe venereal or rheumatic kind, cancerous and
schirrous  affections,  and chronic ophthalmia.   The
dose is from five to ten grains.  In about five grams of
the moss there is one groin of the submuriate of mer-
cury.
   Pilula saponis cum opio.  Pills of soap and opium.
Formerly called pilulae saponacese.   Take  of  hard
opium  powdered, half an ounce; hard  soap, two
ounces.  Beat them together until they are thoroughly
incorporated.  The dose is from three to ten  groins,
Five groins of the mass contain one of opium.
   Pilula  scilla  composita.   Compound  squill
pills. Take of squill root, fresh dried and powdered, a
drachm;  ginger-root, powdered,  hard  soap, of  each
three drachms: ammoniacum, powdered, two drachms.
 Mix the powders together: then beat them with tiie
 soap, adding as much simple syrup os may be sufficient
 to give a  proper consistence.   An attcnuont, expecto-
 rant, and diuretic pill, mostly  administered  in the cure
 of asthma and dropsy.  The dose is from ten groins to
 a scruple.
   PI'LOS.   (TJtiXoe, wool carded.)
   1. In  anatomy the  short hoir which is found all
 over the body.  See Capillus.
   2. In botany, a hair: which, according to Linnaeus,
 is  an excretory duct of a bristle-like form.  They are
 fine, slender, cylindrical, flexible bodies, found on tlie
 surfaces of the herbaceous paru of plants.  Some of
 them are the excretory ducu of glands, but many of
 them are not: and it is not easy to conceive any satis-
 factory opinion of their use to the plant.
   When placed under the microscope they appear to be
 membraneous tubes, articulated in the majority of in-
 stances, often punctured, and in some planu, as the
 Borago laxiflora, covered with worts.  They ore either
 simple or undivided, compound or branched.
   1.  Pilisimplices, the most common form of a simple
 hoir is thot of a jointed thread, generally too flexible to
 support itself, and thus most commonly found bent and
 waved.   According to Its degree of firmness, iu quan-
 tity, and the mode of iu application to the surfaces of
 stems and leaves,  it constitutes the characteristic of
 surfaces: thus, the surface is termed pilosus, or hairy,
 when the hairs are few and scattered, but conspicuous,
as in Hieracium pilocella ;—lanatus, woolly, when they
are complicated, but nevertheless the single hairs  are
distinguishable, as in Verbascum;—lomentosus, shaggy,
when they ore so thickly matted that the individual
hairs cannot be distinguished, and when the  position
ofthe hair is nearly paiallel with the disk, being at the
same time straight, or very slightly curved, and thick
although unmoved:  it constitutes the silky  surface,
as to seen on  the leaves of Potentilla anserina, and
Achemilla alpiua.  In some instances tlie simple bair
is firm enough to support iuelf erect; in which case it
is usually awl-shaped, and the articulations are shorter
towards  the base, as in Bryonia alba.  It does  not
always, however, terminate in a point, but sometimes
in a small knob, as in the newly-evolved succulent
shoots of ligneous planU, Belladonna, Sec.   In some in-
stances  also, as on the under disk of the leaves of the
Sy mphitum officinale, the simple hair is hooked towards
apex; which  occasions the velvety feeling when the
finger is  passed over the surface of those leaves, the
convex part of tiie curve of the  hair being that only
which comes in contact with the finger.  Another va-
riety of the simple hair is that which has given rise to
the term glanduloso-ciliala:  it is a  slender hollow
thread, supporting a small, cup-shaped, glandular body,
and is rather to be regarded os a stipate gland.
  2. Pili compositi  ore either, plumosus,  feathery,
which is a simple hair with other hairs attached lo it
laterally, as in Hieracium undulatum; or it is ramosus,
branched, that to, lateral hairs are given off from com-
mon stalks, as on tiie petiole ofthe gooseberry leaf, or
il consisu of on erect firm stem, from the summit of
which  smaller hairs diverge in every direction, as in
Marrubium peregrinum; or it is  stellatus, star-like,
being composed of a  number of simple diverging, awl-
shaped hairs, springing from a common centre, which
is a small knob sunk in the cutis, as on the leaves of
marsh-mallow.  Some authors have applied the term
ramenta to small, flat,  or stroplike  hairs which are
found on the leaves of some of the genus Begonia.—
 Thomson.  See Pubescence.
  PIMELITE.  A variety of steatite found at Kose-
mutz, in Silesia.
  PIME'NTA.  (From Pimienta, the Spanish fir)
Pepper.  See Myrtus pimenta.
  Pime'nto.  See Myrtus pimenta.
  PIMPERNEL. See Anagallis arvensis.
  Pimpernel, water.  See Veronica beccabunga.
  PIMPINE'LLA.   (Quasi  bipinella, or bipenula;
from  the double pennate order of iu leaves.)  1. Tho
name of a genus of planu in  the Linnaean system.
Class, Pentandria;  Order, Digynia.  Pimpinella.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the Pimpinella alba
and magna.
  Pimpinella  alba.  A variety of  the pimpinella
magna,  the root of which  is indifferently used  with
that of the  greater pimpinell.  The  pimpinella  saxi-
fraga was also so called.
   Pimpinella anisum.   The systematic name of the
anise plant.  Anisum ; Anisum vulgare.  Pimpinella
—foliis  radicalibus  trifidis incisis, of Linnaeus. A
 native of Egypt.  Anise seeds have an aromatic smell,
and a pleasant, warm, and sweetish taste. An essen
tlal oil and distilled water are prepared from them,which
are employed in flatulencies and gripes, to which child-
 ren are  more especially subject; also in  weakness of
 the stomach,  diarrhoeas, and loss of tone in the pri-
 ma; viae.
   Pimpinella italica.  The root which bears this
 name in some pharmacopoeias is now fallen into dis-
 use.  See Sanguisorba officinalis.
   Pimpinella magna.  The systematic name of the
 greater pimpinella.  Pimpinella nigra.  The root of
 this plant has been lately extolled in the cure of erysi-
 pelatous ulcerations, tinea, capitis, rheumatism, and
other diseases.
   Pimpinella nigra.  See Pimpinella magna.
   Pimpinella nostras.  See Pimpinella.
   Pimpinella saxifraga.  The systematic name of
 the Burnet saxifrage. Tragoselinum  Several species
 of pimpinella were  formerly used officinolly; but the
 roots which obtain a place in the Materia Medica of
 the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, are those of this species
 of saxifrage, the Pimpinella—foliis pinnatis, foliolis
 radicalibus subrotundis, ummis  linearibus, of  Lin-
 naeus.  They have  an  unpleasant smell; and o hot,
 pungent, bitterish taste; they are recommended by se- 
PIN
PIP
s/et-ai  writers aa a stomachic:  in the way of gurgle,
they have been employed for dissolving viscid mucus,
and to stimulate tbe tongue when that organ becomes
paralytic
  Pina8te'llum.   (From  pinus, the pine-tree;  so
tailed because  iu leaves resemble those of the pine-
tree.)  Hog's fennel.  See Peucedanum ittans.
  Pi'nia.  See  Pinus pinea.
  PINEAL.  (Pinealis; from pinea, a  pine-apple,
from its supposed resemblance to that fruit.)  Formed
like the fruit of the pine.
  Pineal  gland.   Glandula pinealis; Conarium.  A
small  heart-like substance,  about  the size of a  pea,
situated immediately oyer the corpora quadrigemma,
and hanging from tiie tlialami nervorum opticorum by
two crura or peduncles.   Ite use is  not  known.  It
was formerly supposed to be the seat of the soul.
  PINE-APPLE.  See Bromelia ananus.
  Pine-thistle.  See Atrcdylis gummifera.
  Pineus puroans.  See Jatropha curcas.
  FINGUE'DO.  (From pinguis, fat.)   Fat.  See
Fat.
  PINGUI'CULA.  (From pinguis, fat: so called be-
cause iu leaves are fat to the touch.)   The name of a
genus of  planU.   Class, Diandria;  Order,  Mono-
gynia.
  Pinguicila vulgaris.  Sanicula montana; Sani-
cula eboracensis ; Viola palustris: Liparis;  Cucul-
lata;  Dodccatheon;  Plinii.  Butterwort,   Yorkshire
snnicle.   The remarkable unctuosity of this plant has
caused it to be applied to chaps, and as a pomatum to
the hair.  Decoctions of the leaves in broths are used
by the common  people in Wales as a cathartic.
  Pinho'nes indicj.  See Jatropha curcas.
  PIN ITE.  Micarelle of Kirwan.  A blackish green
mineral, consisting of silica, alumina, and oxide  of
iron, found in the granite of St. Michael's Mount, Corn-
wall, and in porphyry in Scotland.
  PINK, INDIAN.  See Spigelia.
  PINNA. dTivva, a wing.)  1. The name of the late-
ral and inferior  part of tlie nose, and the broad part of
the ear
  2. The leaflet of a pinnate leaf.  See Leaf.
  Pinna'culum.  (Dim. of pinna, a wing.)  A pinna-
cle.  A name of the uvula from iu shape.
  PINNAT1FIDUS.  Pinnatifid: applied to leaves
which arc cut  transversely into several oblong paral-
lel segments; as in Ipomosis, and Myriophyllum verti-
cillatum.
  PINNATUS. Applied to a leaf which has several
leaflets  proceeding laterally from  one stalk, and imi-
tates a pinnatifid leaf.   Of this there are several kinds.
  1. Folium pinnatum cum impari, with an odd or ter-
minal leaflet; as in roses.
  2. F.  p. cirrosum, with  a tendril, when furnished
with a tendril instead of the odd leaflet; as in the pea
and vetch tribe.
  3. F. cbrupti pinnatum, abruptly, without either a
terminal leaflet or a tendril; as in the genus Mimosa.
  4. F. opposite" pinnatum, oppositely, when the leaflets
are opposite or  jn pairs; as in saintfoin, roses, and sium
angustifofium.
  5. F. alternatim pinnatum,  alternately, when they
are alternate; as in Viscia dumetorum.
   C. P. interrupli pinnatum, interruptedly, when  the
principal leaflets ore ranged alternately wilh an inter-
mediate series of smaller ones; as in Spiraea filipen-
dula and ulmaria.
  7. F. articulati pinnatum, joiutedly, with apparent
 joints in  tlie common foot-stalk;  as  in Weinmannia
pinnata.
  8  F. decursivi pinnatum,  decurrentiy, when  the
leafleu are decurrent; as in Eryngium campestre.
   9 F. lyroto  pinnatum, in a lyrate manner, having
the terminal leaflet  largest, and  the rest  gradually
smaller as they approach tne base;  as  in Erysimum
 pnecox: and with intermediate smaller leaflets;  as in
 Geum rivale, and the common turnip.
   10. F. verticillato pinnatum, in o whirled manner,
 the leafleU cut into five divaricated segmenU, embra-
 cing tlie foot-stalk: as in Sium verticillatum.
   PINNULA.    The  leaflet  of bi and tripinnate
 leaves.                                    ,
   PI'NUS.  The name of a  genus of plants in  the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Monarda; Order, Monadel-
 phia.   The pine-tree.
   Pinus  abiks.   Elate;   Thcl'ia.   The  Norway
       181
spruce fir. which affords the Burgundy pitch and com-
mon frankincense.
  1.  Pix arida.   Formerly  called Pix  burguudico,
from tiie place it was made at.  The prepared resin of
Pinus abies—foliis solitariis, subldragonis acutius
cults distichis, ramis infra nudis conis cylindracrit,
of Linnaeus.   It is of a solid consistence, yel somewhat
soft, of a reddish brown  colour,  and  not  disagreeable
smell.  It is used externally as a stimulant in form of
plaster in catarrh, pertussis, and dyspno-a.
  2.  Abietts  resina;  Thus.  Common frankincense
This Is  a spontaneous exudation, and is brought in
small masses, or tears, chiefly from Germany, but partly
and purest from  France.  It is applicable lo the same
purposes as Burgundyjpitch, but  little used al present.
  Pinus balsamea.  The systematic name of the tree
wbich affords tiie Canada balsam.  Abies canadensis
The Canada balsam is one of the purest turpentines,
procured from llie Pinus balsamea of Linna-us, and im-
ported from Canada. For iu propnrties, see Turpentine.
  Pinus cedrus.  Tlie  wood of this species, cedar
wood, is very odorous, more fragrant  than that of the
fir, and it possesses similar virtues.
  Pinus cbmbra.  This affords ihe  Carpathian bal-
sam. Oleum germanis;  Carpathicum.  This balsam
is obtained  both  by wounding the  young branches of
the Pinus—foliis quinus, levibus of Linnaeus,  and by
boiling them.  It is mostly diluted with turpentine, and
conies to us in a very liquid and pellucid state, rather
white.
  Pinus larix.   The systematic name  of the  tree
which gives us the agaric and Venice turpentine.  Tho
larch-tree.   The Venice turpentine  issues spontane-
ously through the bark  of the Pinus—foliis fascieu-
latis mollibns obtusiusculis bracteis  extra squamas
strobilorum citantibus.   Hort Kew.  It is  usually
thinner than any of the other sorts; of a clear whitish
or pale yellowish colour; a hot,  pungent, bitterish, dis-
agreeable taste; and a strong smell, without any thing
of the aromatic flavour of the Chian kind.  For ils
virtues, see Turpentine.   See also Boletus laricis.
  Pinus picka.  The systematic name of the silver fir.
  Pinus pinea.  The systematic name of the stone
pine-tree.  The young and fresh fruit of this plant  is
eaten in some countries in the same manner as almonds
ore here, either alone or wilh sugar.   They are nutri-
tive, aperient, and  diuretic.
  Pinus sylvestris.    The systematic  name of the
Scotch fir.  Pinus—foliis geminis rigidis, conis, orato-
conicis  longitudine foliorum sub geminis basi rotunda-
tis of Linnaeus, which affords tlie following officinale.
  1. Common turpentine is  the juice which flows out
on  the tree being wounded in hot weather.  See Tur-
pentine.
  2. From this the oil is obtained by distillation, mostly
with water, in which case yellow resin is left; but if
without addition,  the residuum is common resin,  or
colophony.  The oil is  ordered to be purified in the
pharmacopoeia.  See Oleum terebinthina rectificatum.
  3. When the coal begins to check the exudation of the
 juice, part of this  concretes in  the wounds;  which is
collected, and termed galipot in Provence, barrae  in
Guienne, sometimes also untie r«*i'n,  when thoroughly
hardened by long exposure to the  air.   See Resina
flava, and alba.
  4. The Pi'z liquida, or tar, is produced by cutting the
wood into pieces, which are enclosed in a large oven
constructed for the purpose.  It is well known for its
economical uses.  Tar-water,  or water  impregnated
with the more soluble parts of tar, was some time ago
a very fashionable remedy in a  variety of complainU,
but is in the present practice fallen into disuse.
  5. Common pitch is tar inspissated; it is now termed
in the pharmacopoeia, Resina nigra,
  PI'PER.  (ntirtpt; from ircirrw, to concoct; because
by iu heat it assisU digestion.) Pepper.  The  name
of  a genus of planU in the Linnaean system. Class,
 Diandria; Order, Trigynia.
  Piper album.   See Piper nigrum.
  Piper brasilianum.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper calecuticum.   See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper caryophyllatum.   See Myrtus pimenta
   Piper caudatum.  See Piper cubeba.
   Piper cubzoa.  The plant, the berries of which are
 called cubebs.   Piper caudatum;  Cumamus.  Piper__
foliis oblique ovatis, ecu oblong us venoaia acutis, spica
 solituria pedunculata oppositifolia, fructibus pedicel- 
PI3
PIS
tatts, of Linneus.  The dried berries are of an ash-
brown colour, generally wrinkled, and resembling pep-
per, but furnished each with a slender stalk.   They
are a warm spice, of a pleasant smell, and moderately
pungent taste, imported from Java: and maybe ex-
hibited in all cases where warm  spicy medicines are
indicated, but they are inferior to pepper.  Of late they
have been successfully given internally in the cure
venereal gonorrhoea.
  Piper decorticatum.  White pepper.
  Piper pavasci.  The clove-berry tree.
  Piper guineense.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper hispanicum.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper indicum.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper jamaicense.  See Myrtus pimenta.
  Piper longum.  Macropiper;  Acapatli;  Catu-tri-
pali:  Pimpilim.   Long pepper.   Piper—-foliis cor-
datis pctiolatis sessilibusque, of Linnaeus..  The ber-
ries or grains of this plant are gathered while green, and
dried  in the heat of the sun, when they change to a
blackish or daricgray colour.  They possess precisely
the  same qualities as the Cayenne pepper, only in a
weaker degree.
  Piper lusitanicum.  See Capsicum annuum.
  Piper muralk.  See Sedum acre.
  Piper nigrum.  Melanopiper;  Molagocodi; Lada;
Piper  aromaticum.  Black  pepper.  This  species of
pepper is obtained in the East Indies, from the Piper
—foliis ovatis septem-nerviis glabris, petiolis simpli-
eissimis, of Linnaeus.  Iu virtues are similar to those of
the other peppers.  The black and white pepper are
both obtained from the same tree, the  difference de-
 pending on their preparation and degrees of maturity.
 Pelletier has extracted a new vegetable principle from
 block  pepper, in which ihe active part of the groin re-
 sides,  to which the name of piperine is given.  To ob-
 tain it, black pepper was digested repeatedly in alko-
 hol, and the solution evaporated until a fatty resinous
matter was left  This, on  being washed  in warm
water, became of a good green colour.  It had a hot
and burning taste; dissolved readily in alkohol, less so
in aether.   Concentrated sulphuric acid gave it a fine
scarlet colour.  The alkohoiic solution after some days
deposited crystals; which were purified by repeated
crystallization in alkohol and aether.  They then form-
ed colourless four-sided prisms,  with  single inclined
 terminations. They have scarcely any taste.  Boiling
 water dissolves  a small portion; but not cold water.
 They ore soluble in acetic acid, from which combina-
 tion feather-formed crystals are  obtained.   This sub-
 stance fuses at 212° F.  The fatty matter left after ex-
 tracting the piperine, is solid  at a temperature near
 32°, hut liquefies at a slight heat.   It has an extremely
 bitter and acrid taste, is very slightly volatile, tending
 rather to decompose than to rise in vapour.   It may be
 considered  as composed of two oils, one volatile and
 balsamic; the other more fixed, and containing the ac-
 rimony of the pepper.
   PIPERINE.  The active principle of pepper.  See
 Piper nigrum.
   Piperi'tis.  (From pi^ier, pepper: so called because
 ju leaves and roou are biting like pepper to the taste.)
 The herb dittany or lepidium and peppermint
   PIPERITUS.   (Frompiper, pepper.) Peppered.
   PIPERITA-!   The  name of an order of plants in
 Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting
 of the Piper, and such as, like it, have flowers in a
 thick spike.
   Piramidalia corpora.  See Corpus pyramidale.
   PIRAMIDA'LIS.  (So called from iu form.)  Of a
 pyramidal figure.
   Piss-a-bcd.  See Leontodon taraxacum.
   PISIFORM.   (Pisiformis; from pisum, a pea, and
 forma, likeness.)  Pea-like.
   PISIFO'RME OS.  The fourth bone of the first row
 ofthe carpus.
    ["Pisolite.    This variety of carbonate  of lime
 occurs in  globular or spheroidal concretions, usually
 about the  size  of a pea,  though sometimes larger.
 These concretions are composed of distinct, concentric
 layers, and almost invariably contain a grain of sand,
 or some other foreign  substance, as a  nucleus.  The
 pisolite is nearly or quite opaque, and has a dull frac-
 ture.  Its colour is usually white, often dull or with a
 shade of yellow, &c.
   "These concretions, sometimes detached and scat-
 tered  are more frequently united by a  calcareous
cement.  Thus united, they form masses of various
sizes, and also continuous beds, which are sometimes
covered with alluvial deposites.
  "The pisolite has been found chiefly near the warm
springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia, and  the  baths of St.
Philip in Tuscany.
  " The structure of the pisolite, and the  situation in
which it is found, seem to indicate the mode nf forma-
tion.  The particles of sand, or nuclei of these concre-
tions, were probably raised and suspended by an  agi-
tated or rotary motion of certain springs  or streams,
strongly impregnated with calcareous particles. These
particles were  then deposited  mound the  floating nu-
clei, which, being thus  incrusted with a series of
layers, became sufficiently heavy to fall through the
fluid."—Cleav. Min.  A.l
  PISMIRE.  See Formica rufa.
  Piss asph a'ltus.  (From iricoa, pitch, and aoqiaXros,
bitumen.)  The thicker kind of rock-oil.
  PISTA'CIA.  (nis-aitia,  supposed  to be a Syrian
word.)   The name of a genus  of plants in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Diacia ; Order, Pentandria.
  Pistacia lentiscus.  The systematic name of the
tree which affords the mastich.  Mastiche;  Mastix.
Pistacia—foliis abrupti pinnatis, foliolis lanceolatis,
of Linna-us.  A native of the south of Europe. In the
island of Chio, the officinal mastich is obtained  most
abundantly; and, according to Toumefort, by making
transverse incisions in the bark of the tree, from whence
the mastich  exudes in drops, which are suffered to run
down to the ground, when, after sufficient time is al-
lowed for their concretion, they are collected for  use.
Mastich is brought to us in  small, yellowish, trans-
parent,  brittle  tears, or grains; it has a light agreeable
smell,  especially  when rubbed or  heated; on being
chewed, it first crumbles, soon after  sticks together,
ond becomes soft and while, like wax, without impress-
ing any considerable taste.  No volatile oil is  obtained
from this substance when distilled with water.  Pure
alkohol and oil of turpentine dissolve it; water scarcely
acu upon it; though by mastication it becomes soft and
tough, like wax.   When chewed a little while, bow-
ever, it is white, opaque, and brittle, so as not to be
softened again by chewing. The part insoluble in al-
kohol much resembles in its properties caoutchouc.  It
is considered to be a mild corroborant and adstringent;
and as possessing a balsamic power, it has been recom-
mended  in haemoptysis, proceeding from ulceration,
leucorrhuea, debility of the stomach, and in diarrhoeas
ond internal ulcerations.  Chewing this drug has like-
wise been said to have been of use in pains of the teeth
and gums, and in some catarrhal complaints; it is, how-
ever, in the present day, seldom used either externally
or internally.  The wood abounds with the  resinous
principle, and a tincture may be obtained from  it,
which  is esteemed in some  countries in the cure  of
haemorrhages, dysenteries, and gout.
   Pistacia nux.   See Pistada vera.
   Pistacia terebinthus. The systematic  name  of
the tree which gives out the Cyprus turpentine.  Tere-
bintliina de Chio.  Chio or Cbian  turpentine.  This
substance is classed among the resins.  It is  procured
by wounding the bark of the  trunk of the tree.   The
best Chio turpentine is about the consistence of honey,
 very tenacious,  clear, and almost transparent;   of a
 white colour,  inclining to yellow, and a fragrant smell,
moderately worm to the taste, but free from acrimony
and bitterness.  Ite medicinal qualities are similar to
those of the other turpentines. See Turpentine*.
   Pistacia vera.  The systematic name of a large
tree, which affords the pistachio-nut   Pistada vera—
foliis imparl pinnatis—foliolis subovatis recurvis,  ot
 Linnaeus.  An oblong pointed nut, about  the size and
shape of a filbert, including a kernel of a pole greenish
colour, covered with a yellow or greenish skin.  Pista-
chio-nuU hove a sweetish unctuous taste, resembling
that of sweet almonds, and, like the latter, afford an oil,
and may be formed into an emulsion.
   Pistachio-nut.   See Pistacia vera.
   Pistacite. See Epidote.
   PISTILLUM.  (Pistillum, a pestle, from ite  ike-
ness.)  A pistil or pointal: the female genital orgau it
a flower, which, being no less essential than the male,
stands within them in the centre of the flower.   Lin-
 naeus conceived the pistil originated from the  pith, and
 the stamens from the wood, and hence constructed  asj
i ingenious hypothesis relative to  the propagation of 
PIT
PLA
 vegetables, which is not destitute of observations and
 analogies to support it, but not countenanced by tbe
 auatomy and physiology of the paru.
   A pistil consisu of three paru.
   1. The  germen, or rudiment of the young fruit and
 seed, which of course is essential.
   2. The  stylus, or style, various in  length and thick-
 ness, sometimes wanting, and, when present, serving
 merely to elevate the third part
   3. The  stigma, which is indispensable.  The JVteo-
 tiana tabacum has these organs well displayed.
   Pistolo'chia. (From iris-oc,  faithful, and Xoxcia,
 parturition: so called because it was thought to pro-
 mole delivery.)  Birthwort.   See Aristolochia.
   PISUM.  (An ancient name, the origin of which is
 lost in its  antiquity.)  The name of a genus of planU.
 Class, Diaddphia;  Order, Decandria.  The pea.
   Pisum sativum.  The common pea.  A very nutri-
 tious, but  somewhat flatulent article of food.
   PITCAIRN, Archibald, was born at Edinburgh, in
 1652.  He applied to the study of divinity, and after-
 ward ofthe law, in that university, with such intensity,
 that he was threatened with symptoms of consumption,
 for the removal of which he went to Montpelier, where
 his attention was diverted to medicine; on his return,
 he applied himself zealously to the mathematics.which
 appearing to him capable of elucidating medical sub-
 jects, he was determined in consequence to adopt this
 profession.  After attending diligently to  the various
 branches at  Edinburgh, he went to complete his  me-
 dical studies at Paris, and then returned to settle in Ins
 native place, where he quickly obtained a large prac-
 tice and extensive reputation.  In 1688 he published a
 little tract to establish Harvey's claim to the Discovery
 ofthe Circulation.  About four years after he was in-
 vited to become professor of physic at Leyden, which
 he accepted  accordingly;  and he ranked among his
 pupils the celebrated Boerhaave.  However, his ma-
 thematical illustrations of medicine not being favour-
 ably received, he relinquished the appointment in about
 a  year. He  returned then to practise at Edinburgh,
 where his life terminated in 1713.  He published while
 at Leyden, and  subsequently, several dissertations to
 prove the utility of mathematics in medical discussion ;
 which were more  than once reprinted.    After his
 death, his  lectures were made public, under the title of
 " Elements, Medicines Physico-Mathematica."
   PITCH.  Pix.  See Resina.
   Pitch, Burgundy.  See Pinus abies.
   Pitch, Jews'.  See Bitumen judaicum.
  Pitch-tree.  See Pinus abies.
  PITCHSTONE.  A subspecies of indivisible quartz
ef a green colour, and vitreo-resinous lustre found in
 Scotland and Ireland.
  Pitta'cium.  (From irirra, pitch.)  A pitch plaster.
  Pittizite.  Pitchy iron ore.
  Pitto'ta.  (Fromirirra, pitch.)  Medicines in which
 pitch is the principal ingredient.
  PITUI'TA. Phlegm, that  is, viscid and glutinous
 mucus.
  PITUITARY.  Of or belonging to phlegm.
  Pituitary gland.  Glandula pituitaria.  A gland
 situated within the  cranium, between a dupllcature
 of the dura mater, in the sella turcica of the sphenoid
 bone.
  Pituitary  membrane.    Membrana  pituitaria.
 Schneiderian membrane.   The  mucous  membrane
 that lines the nostrils and sinuses, communicating with
 the nose, is so called, because it secretes the mucus of
 those parts, to which the ancienu assigned the name
 of pituita.
   PITYRI'ASIS.   (From wimpo*, bran:  so named
 from iu branny-like appearance.)  A genus in the se-
 cond order, or scaly diseases, of Dr. Willan's cutaneous
 diseases.  The pityriasis consisu of irregular patches
 of small thin scoles, which repeatedly form and sepa-
 rate, but never collect into crusu, nor are attended with
 redness or inflammation, as in the lepra and scaly tet-
 ter.  Dr. Willan distinguishes pityriasis from tbe por-
 rigo of the Latins, which has a more extensive signifi-
 cation, and comprehends a disease of the scalp,  ter-
 minating in ulceration; whereas the former to, by the
 best Greek authors, represented  as always  dry and
 scaly.  Thus, according to Alexander and Paulus, pity-
 riasis is characterized by " the separation of slight fur-
 furaceous  substances from the surface of the head, or
 •ther parts of the body, without ulceration."  Their
      186
 account of this appearance is conformable to expert
 ence; and the two varieties  of it which they have
 pointed out may be denominated, Pityriasis capitis,
 and Pityriasis versicolor.
   1. Pityriasis capitis, when it affects very young in-
 fanu, is termed by nurses the  dnndriff.  Il arjpeais at
 tiie upper edge of the forehead and temples, as a slight
 whitish scurf set in the form of a horse-shoe; on other
 parts of the head there are large scales, ot n distance
 from each other, flat, and semipellucid.  Sometimes,
 however,  they nearly cover the whole of the hairy
 scalp, being close together, and imbricated.  A similar
 appearance may take place in adulu;  but it is usually
 the effect of lepra, scaly tetter, or some general disease
 of the skin.
   Elderly persons hove the pityriasis capitis in nearly
 the same form as infants; the only difference to, that
 this  complaint in old people occasions larger exfolia-
 tions of the cuticle.
   2.  The pityriasis versicolor chiefly affects the arms,
 breast, and abdomen.  It is diffused very irregularly;
 and  being of a different  colour  from  the usual  skin
 colour,  it exhibite a  singular  chequered  appearance.
 These irregular patches, which  are  at first small, and
 of a brown or yellow hue,  appear  at  the scrobiculus
 cordis, about the  mammae, clavicles, &c.   Enlarging
 gradually, they assume a  tesselated form;  in  other
 cases they are branched,  so as to resemble the foliace-
 ous lichens growing on the bark of trees; and some-
 times when the discoloration is not continuous, they
 suggest the idea of a map being distributed on the skin
 like  islands, continents, peninsulas, Sec   All the dis-
 coloured paru are slightly rough, wilh minute scales,
 which soon fall off,  but are constantly  replaced by
 others.  This scurf, or scaliness, is most conspicuous
 on the sides and epigastric region.  The cuticular linea
 are somewhat deeper in the patches than on the con-
 tiguous parts; but there is  no  elevated border, or dis-
 tinguishing boundary  between  tbe discoloured part of
 the skin, and  that which retains iU  natural colour
 The discoloration rarely extends over the whole body.
 It to strongest  and fullest  round the umbilicus, on the
 breasts, and sides;  it seldom appears in the  skin over
 the sternum,  or along the spine of the back.  Inter-
 stices of proper skin  colour are more numerous, and
 largest at  the  lower part of the abdomen and back,
 where the scales are  often small, distinct, and a little
 depressed.  The face, nates, and lower extremities are
 least affected; the patches are  found  upon the arms,
 but mostly on the inside, where they are distinct and
 of different sizes.  The pityriasis versicolor is not a
 cuticular disease; for when the cuticle  is abraded from
 any of the patches, the sallow colour  remains ns be-
 fore in the skin or rete mucosum.   This  singular ap-
 pearance is not attended with any internal  disorder,
 nor with  any troublesome symptom, except a little
 itching or irritation felt on getting into bed, and after
 strong exercise, or drinking warm liquors.  There  is
 in some cases a slight exanthema, partially distributed
 among the discoloured patches;  and sometimes an ap-
 pearance like  the lichen pilaris; but eruptions of this
 kind are not permanent, neither do they produce any
 change in the original form of the complaint  The
duration ofthe pityriasis versicolor is always consider-
 able.  Dr. Willan has observed ite continuance in some
persons for four, five, or six years.  It is not limited to
any age or sex.  Iu causes are not pointed out with
certainty.   Several patienu have referred it to fruit
taken in too great quantities; some have thought  it
 was produced by eating mushrooms; others by expo-
sure to sudden alterations of cold and beat.   In some
 individuals, who had  an  irritable skin, and occasion-
 ally used violent exercise, the complaint bas been pro-
duced, or at least much aggravated, by wearing flannel
next  to the skin.  It is likewise often observed in per-
sons  who had resided for a length of time in a tropical
climate.                                           |
  PIX.  (Pix, picis, t.;  from vioaa.)   Pitch.   See
 Resina.
  Pix arida.  See Pinu* abies.
  Pix burgundica.   See Pinu* ait'e*.
  Pix liquida.  Tar or liquid pitch.  See Pinu* syl-
 vestris.                                           |
  PLACE'BO. I will please:  an epithet given to any
 medicine adapted more to please than benefit the pa-
 tient,                                             i
  PLACE'NTA.   (From nXaxovc, a  cake, so calktf 
PLA
PLA
from its resemblance to a cake.) Tbe afterbirth.  The
membranes of the ovum have usually been mentioned
as two, the amnion ond the  chorion; and the latter
has again been divided into  tlie  true ond the false.
The third membrane (which, from its appearance, has
likewise been called the villous or spongy, and  from
the consideration of it os the inner lamina of the ute-
rus, cost off like the exuviae of some  animals, the de-
cidua,) has been  described by Harvey, not as one of
the membranes of the  ovum, but as  a production of
the uterus.  The  following to  the order of the mem-
branes of the ovum, at the full period of gestation: 1st,
There is the outer or connecting, whicli is flocculent,
spongy, and extremely vascular, completely  investing
the whole ovum, ond  lining the uterus.   2dly, The
middle membrane,  which is  nearly pellucid, with a
very  few small  blood-vessejs scattered over it, and
which forms a covering to the placenta and funis, but
does not pass between the placenta and uterus.  3dly,
The inner membrane, which is transparent, of a firmer
texture than the others, and  lines the whole ovum,
making,  like the middle membrane, a covering for the
placenta and funis with  the two  last.  Tbe  ovum is
clothed when it passes  from the ovarium into the ute-
rus, where the first is provided for iu reception.
  These membranes, in the advanced state  of preg-
nancy, cohere slightly to eoch other,  though, in  some
ova, there is a considerable quantity of fluid  collected
between them, which,  being discharged when one of
the outer membranes  is broken, forms one of the cir-
cumstances wbich have been  distinguished by the
name of by or false waters.
  Between the middle and inner  membrane, upon or
near  the funis, there is a small, flat, and oblong  body,
which, in the early part of pregnancy, seems to be a
vesicle containing milky lymph, which afterward be-
comes of a firm,  and apparently fatty texture.  This
is called the vesicula umbilicalis; but ite use is not
known.
  The placenta is a circular, flat, vascular, and  appa-
rently fleshy substance, different in its diameter in dif-
ferent subjects, but usually extending about six inches,
or upwards, over about one-fourth part of the ouuide
of the ovum in pregnant women.  It is more than one
inch jn thickness in the middle, and becomes gradually
thinner  .towards the  circumference  from which  the
membranes are continued. The  placenta to the prin-
cipal medium by which the communication between
the parent and child is preserved;  but, though all have
 allowed the importance of the office which it performs,
there has been a variety of opinions  on the nature of
 tiat  office, and of the manner in which it is executed.
   The surface of the placenta, which to attached lo
 the uterus by the intervention of the connecting mem-
 brane, is tabulated and convex;  but the other, whicli
 is covered with the amnion  and chorion, is concave
 and  smooth, except the  little  eminence mode by the
 blood-vessels.  It is seldom found attached to the same
 part of the uterus in two successive births; and, though
 it most frequently adheres to the anterior part, it is oc-
 casionally fixed to any other, even to the os uteri, in
 which state it becomes a cause of a dangerous haemor-
 rhage at the time of parturition.  The placenta is com-
 posed of arteries  and veins, with a  mixture of pulpy
 or cellular substance.   Of these vessels there are two
 orders,  very curiously interwoven with each  other.
 The first  is a continuation  of those from the funis,
 which ramify on the internal surface of the placenta,
 the arteries running over the  veins, which is  a circum-
 stance peculiar to the placenta; and then, sinking into
 iu substance, anastomose ond divide into innumerable
 small branches.  The second  order proceeds from the,
 uterus; and these romify in a similar manner with
 those from the funis, as appears when a placenta is in-
jected from those of the parent.  The veins, in their
 ramifications, accompany the arteries as in other parts.
 There have been many different opinions with respect
 to the manner in which the blood circulates between
 the  parent and  child, during its continuance in the
. uterus.  For a long time it was believed that the inter-
' isourse between them was uninterrupted, and that the
 blood propelled by the powers of the parent pervaded,
 by a continuance of the some force, the vascular sys-
 tem  of the foetus; but repeated attempts having been
 made, without success, fo inject the whole  placenta,
 funis and foetus, from the vessels of the parent, or any
jiart of the uterus, from the vessels of the funis  it is
now generally allowed, that the two systems of vessels
in the placenta, one of which may be called maternal,
the other foetal, are distinct.  It is also admitted, that
the blood of the foetus is, with regard to its formation!
increase, and circulation, unconnected with, and total
ly independent of the parent;  except that the matter
by which the blood of the foetus is formed must be de
rived from the parent.  It is thought  thnt which has
probably undergone some  preparatory changes  in its
passage through the uterus, is conducted by the uterine
or maternal arteries of the placenta to some cells or
small cavities, in which it is deposited: and that some
part of it, or  something secreted from it, is absorbed
by the foelal veins of the placenta, and by them con-
veyed to the foetus for its nutriment  When the blood
which circulates in the foetus requires any alteration
in its qualities, or when it has gone through the course
of the  circulation, it is carried by the arteries of ths
funis to ihe placenta, in the cells of which it  is  depo-
sited, and then absorbed by the maternal veins of the
placenta, and conducted to the uterus, whence it may
enter the common  circulation of the parent  Thus it
appears, according to the opinion of Harvey, that the
placenta performs the office of a gland, conveying air,
or secreting the nutritious juices from the blood brought
from the parent by the arteries of tbe uterus, and car-
ried to the foetus by the veins of the funis, in a manner
probably not  unlike to that in which  milk is secreted
and absorbed from the breosu.  The veins in the pla-
centa are mentioned as the absorbenu, because no lym-
phatic vessels have yet been found in ihe placenta or
funis;  nor are there any nerves in these parU; so that
the only communication hitherto discovered  between
the parent and child, is by the  sanguineous system.
The proofs of the manner in which the blood circulates
between the parent and child are chiefly drawn from
observations made upon the funis.  When it was sup-
posed that the child was supplied with blood in a di-
rect stream from  the parent, it was asserted that, on
the division of the funis, if that part next to the pla-
centa was not secured by a ligature, the parent would
be brought into extreme danger by the haemorrhage
wliich  must  necessarily follow.   But this opinion,
which  laid Ihe foundation of several  peculiarities in
the management of the  funis and placenta, is proved
not to be true: for, if the funis be compressed imme-
diately after the birth ofthe child, and while the circu-
lation in it is  going on, the arteries between the part
compressed and the child throb violently, but those be-
tween the compression and the placenta have no pulsa-
tion ; but the vein between tbe part compressed and
the placenta swells, and that part next to  the foetus
 becomes flaccid; but if, under the same circumstances,
the funis be divided, and that part next the child be
 not secured, the child would be in danger of losing its
 life by  the haemorrhage;  yet  the mother would suffer
 no inconvenience if  the other part was neglected.  It
 is, moreover, proved, that a woman may die of an
 haemorrhage occasioned by a separation of the pla-
 centa,  and the child be nevertheless  born, after her
 deoth,  in perfect  health.   But if the placenta be in
jured, without separation, either by the rupture of the
 vessels which pass upon its inner surface, or in any
 other way, the child being deprived of iu proper blood,
 would  perish, yet the parent' might  escape without
 injury.
   The receptacle of the  fructification of plants has
 been called placenta. See Receptaculum
   Place'ntula.   (Diminutive of placenta.) A small
 placenta.
   Pladaro'tis.   (From irXaSapos, moist, flaccid.)  A
 fungous ond flaccid tumour within the eyelid.
   Plaited leaf.  See Plicatus.
   PLANTA'GO.  (From planta, the sole of the feet:
 so colled from the  shape of iu leaves, or because ite
 leaves  lie upon the ground and are trodden upon.)  1.
 The name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaean sys-
 tem.   Class, Tdrandria; Order, Monogynia.  The
 plantain.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of the Plantago major.
   Plantago  coronopus.  The systematic name of
 the buck's-horn plantain.   Coronopodium ;  Cornu cer-
 vinum; Stella terra.  Its medicinal virtues aie tbe
 same as those of the other plantains.
   Plantago latifolia.  See Plantago major.
   Plantago major.  The systematic  name  of the
 broad-leaved plantain.  Cenlinervia; Heptapleurum ' 
PLA
PLA
Polyneuron ; Plantago latifolia.   Plantnge—foliis
ovatis glabris, scapo terdi, spica floscults itnbricutis,
of Linna-us.  This plant was retained until very lately
la the Materia Medica of the Edinburgh College, in
which the leaves are mentioned as the pharmaceutical
part of the plant; they have o weak herbaceous smell,
an austere, bitterish, subsaline taste; and their quali-
ties are  stiil to be refrigerant, attenuating, substyptic,
and diuretic.
  Plantago psyllium.  The systematic name of the
branching  plantain.   Psyllium;  Pulicaris herba;
Orystallion, and Cynomot'a, of Oribasius.  Flea-wort
The seeds nf this  plant Plantago—caule ramoso her-
baceo, foliis subdentatis, recurvatis; capilulis aphyl-
lis, of Linnaeus, hove a nauseous mucilaginous taste,
and no remarkable smell.  The decoction of the seeds
to recommended in hoarseness and asperity of the fauces.
  PLANTAIN.  See Plantago.
  PLANTAIN-TREE.  See Musa paradisiaca.
  PLANTA'RIS. (From planta, the sole of the foot)
Tibialis gracilis,  vulgo plantaris, of Winslow.  .Ex-
tensor tarsi minor, vulgo plantaris, of Douglas.  A
muscle of the foot, situated on the leg, that assists the
soleus, and pulls  the capsular ligament of  the knee
from between the bones.  It Is sometimes, though sel-
dom, found wanting  on both sides.  This  long and
slender muscle, which is situated  under the gastrocne-
mius externus, arises, by a thin fleshy origin, from the
upper and  back part of the outer condyle of the  os
femoris.  It adheres to the capsular ligament of the
soint; and after running obliquely downwards and out-
wards, for the space of three or four inches, along the
second origin of the gastrocnemius internus, and under
the gastrocnemius externus, terminates in a long, thin,
and slender tendon, which adheres to the inside of the
tendo Achilles, and to inserted  into the inside of the
posterior part of the os calcis.  This tendon sometimes
sends off an aponeurosis that loses iuelf in the capsular
ligament, but il does not at all contribute to  form the
aponeurosis that is spread over the sole of the foot, as
was formerly supposed, and as its name would seem to
imply.  Iu use is to assist the gastrocnemii in extend-
ing the foot. It likewise serves to prevent the capsular
ligament of the knee from being pinched.
  PLANTS, sexual system or.  The sexual system
of planU was invented  by the immortal Linnaeus, pro-
fessor of physic and botany at Upsal, in Sweden.  It is
founded on the parte of fructification, viz. the stamens
and  pistils; these having  been  observed  with more
accuracy since the discovery of the uses for which na-
ture  has assigned them, a new set of principles  has
been derived from thctn, by means of which the distri-
bution of plants hos  been  brought to a greater preci-
sion,  and  rendered  more conformable  to true philo-
sophy, in this system, than in any one ef those which
preceded it.  The author does  not pretend to call it a
natural  system, he gives it as artificial  only, and mo-
destly owns his  inability to detect the order pursued by
nature in ber vegetable productions;  but of this  he
seems confident,  that  no natural order can ever be
framed without taking in the materials out of which
he has raised his own ; and urges the necessity of ad-
mitting artificial systems for convenience, till one truly
natural shall appear.   Linnaeus has given us  his Frag-
menta methodi natural's, in which he has mode a dis-
tribution of plants under various orders, putting toge-
ther in each such as appear to have  a natural affinity
to each other; this, after a long and fruitless search
after llie natural method, he eives as  the result of his
own speculation, for  the  assistance  of bucIi us may
engage in the same pursuit.
   Not able to form a system after the natural method,
Linna-us was more fully convinced of the absolute
necessity of adopting  an artificial one.  For the stu-
dent to enter into the od vantages this system maintain
over all others, it is necessary that he be instructed L>
the science of botany, which will amply repay him lot
his inquiry.  The following is a  short outline of the
sexual system.
   The paru of fructification of a plant are,
   1. The calyx, called also the einpalement, or flower-
cup.  See Calyx, and Anthodium.
  2. The corolla, or foliation, wliich is the gaudy part
of the flower, called vulgarly the leaves of the flower.
See Corolla.
  3. Tbe stamens, or threads, colled also the chives ;
these are considered as  the male parts of tha flower.
See Stamen.
  4. The pistil, or pointol, which is the female part.
See Pistillum.
  5. The seed-vessel.  See Pericarpium.
  6. The seed.  See Semen.
  7. The receptacle, or base, on which these parts are
seated.  See Receptaculum.
  The first four,  are properly  parts of the flower, and
the last three parts of the fruit.  It is from the number
proportion, position, and  other  circumstances attending
these parts of the fructification, that  the  classes and
orders, and the genera they contain, are to be charac-
terized, according to the  sexual system.
  Such flowers  as  want the stamens, and have the
pistil, are termed female.
  Those  flowers which  have the stamens, and want
the pistils, are called male.
  Flowers  which have  both  stamens and pistils  are
said to be hermaphrodite.
  Neuter flowers are such as have  neither stamens
nor pistils.
  Hermaphrodite flowers are  sometimes distinguished
into male hermaphrodites and female hermaphrodites.
This distinction takes place when, although the flower
contains the paru belonging to each sex, one of them
proves abortive or ineffectual; if the defect be in the
stamina,  it is a  female  hermaphrodite, if in the pistil,
a male one.
  Plants, in regard to sex, take also  their denomina-
tions in the following manner:
  1. Hermaphrodite plants are such as bear flowers
upon the same root that are all hermaphrodite.
  2. Androgynous  plants are such as, upon the same
root, bear both male and female  flowers, distinct from
eoch other, that is, in separate flowers.
  3. Male plants, such as bear male flowers only upon
the same root.
  4. Female plants, such as bear female  flowers only
upon the same root.
  5. Polygamous plants, such as, either on the  same
or on  different roots, bear hermaphrodite flowers, and
flowers of either or both  sexes.
  The first  general division of the whole body of vege-
tables is, in the sexual system, into twenty-four classes ;
these again are subdivided into orders; the orders into
genera; the genera into spedes; and the species into
varieties, where they are worthy of note.
                                 A Table of the Classes and Orders.

     Classes.                               Orders.
 1. Monandria.     Monogynia.  Digynia.            i
 2. Diandria.       Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.
 3. Triandria.      Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.
 4. Tetrandria.     Monogynia.  Digynia.  Tetrogvnio.
 5. Penlandria.     Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.  Tetragynia.  Pentagynia. Polygynia.
 6 Hexandria.     Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia   Tetragynia.  Polygynia.
 7. Heptandria.    Monogynia.  Digynia.  Tetragynia.  Heptagynia.
 8. Octandria.      Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.  Tetragynia.
 9. Enneandria.    Monogynia.  Tngynia. Hexagynia.
10. Decandria.     Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.  Pentagynia.  Dccagynia.
11. Dodecandria.   Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trieynia.  Pentagynia.  Dodecagynla.
19. Icosandria.     Monoiynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.  Pentagynia.  Polygynia.
13. Polyandria.     Monogynia.  Digynia.  Trigynia.  Tetragynia.  Pentagynia.  Hexagynla.  Polygynia
14. Didynamia.    Gymnospermia   Angiospermia.
15. Tetradybamia. Siliculosa.   Siliquosa.
M. Mouadelpbia.   Pentandria.  Decandria.  Enneandria.  Dodecandria.  Polyandria.
      188 
PLA                                            PLA
      Classes.                                          Orsxrs
17  Diadelphia.     Pentandria.  Hexandria.
18.  Polyadelphia.   Pentandria.  Icosandria.  Polyandria.
19.  Syngenesia.     Polygamia aequalto.  Polygamia superflua. Polygamia fnistranea.  Polygamia necessaria.
                     Polygamia segregata.  Monogamia.
20.  Gynaudria.     Diandria.   Triandria.   Tetrandria.  Pentandria.  Hexandria. Decandria.  Dodecandria.
                     Polyandrio.
21.  Monoecia.       Monandrio.   Diandria. Triandria.  Tetrandria.  Pentandria.  Hexandria.  Heptandria,
                     Polyandria. Monadelphia.   Syngenesia.  Gynandria.
22.  Dioecia.         Monandrio.   Diandria. Triandria.  Tetrandria.  Pentandria.   Hexandria.  Octandria.
                     Enneandrio.  Decandria.   Dodecandria.   Polyandria.   Monadelphia.   Syngenesia.
                     Gynandria.
                   Monoecia.   Dioecia.  Trioecia.
                   Filices.  Musci.  Algae. Fungi.
                   Palmae.
 33.  Polygamia.
 24.  Cryptogamia.
       Appendix.

   PLA'NUM OS.  (Planus, soft, smooth; applied to
 a bone whose surface is smooth or flat.)  The papy-
 raceous or orbital portion ofthe ethmoid bone was for-
 merly so called.
   PLANUS.   Flat.  Applied to the receptacle of the
 fruit of plants; as that of the Helianthus annuus.
   PLASMA.   A mineral of grass or leek-green colour.
 It occurs in beds associated with common calcedony,
 and found also among the ruins at Rome.
   PLASTER. See Emplastrum.
   Plaster, ammoniacum.   See  Emplastrum ammo-
 niaci.
   Plaster, ammoniacum, with mercury.  See  Emplas-
 trum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro.
   Plaster, blistering fly.   bee Emplastrum cantha-
 ridis.
   Plaster, compound  galbanum.   See Emplastrum
 galbani compositum.
   Plaster, compound pitch.   See  Emplastrum picis
 compositum.
   Plaster, cumin.   See Emplastrum cumini.
   Plaster, lead.  See Emplastrum plumbi.
   Plaster, mercurial.   See Emplastrum hydrargyri.
   Plaster of opium.  See Emplastrum opii.
   blaster of Paris.  See Gypsum.
   Plaster, resin.  See Emplastrum resina.
   Plaster, soap.  See Emplastrum saponis.
   Plaster, wax.  See Emplastrum cera.
   PLA'TA. (FromirXaruc, broad.) The shoulder-blade.
   PLATER, Felix, was borne at Basle, in 1536, his
 father being principal of the College there.  He went to
 complete  his medicol studies ot Montpelier, where he
 distinguished himself at an early age, and obtained his
 doctor's degree at twenty.  He then settled in his native
 place,  and four years after was appointed to the chair
 of medicine, and became the confidential physician of
 the princes and nobles of the Upper Rhine.   He pos-
 sessed  an  extensive knowledge of the branches of
 science connected  with  medicine,  and contributed
 much  to the reputation of the University, where he
 continued a teacher upwards of fifty years.   He died
 in 1614, extremely regretted by his countrymen.  The
 following  are  his principal works: " De Corporis Hu-
 mani Structuraet Usu," in  three books; "De Febri-
 bus;" " Praxeos Medicae, tomi tres;" " Observationum
 Medicinalium, libri tres."
   PLATIA'SMUS.  (From irXaruc, broad.)  A defect
 in the speech in consequence of too broad a mouth.
   PLATINUM.   (The name platina was given to
 this metal by the Spaniards,  from the  word plata,
 whicli signifies silver in their language, by  way of
 comparison with that metal, whose colour it imitates:
 or from the river Plata, near which it is found.)   Pla-
 tina. A metal which exists in nature, only in a metal-
 lic state.  Ite  ore has recently been found to  contain,
 likewise, four new metals, palladium,iridium, osmium,
 and  rhodium,  besides  iron and chrome.  The largest
 mass of which we have heard, is one of the size of a
 pigeon's egg, in possession ofthe Royal Society of Ber-
 gara.  It is  found in the parishes of Novita and Cita-
 ria, north from Choco in Peru, and near Carthagena in
 South  America.  In was unknown in Europe before
the yeat »'/49.   Don Antonio Ulloa then gave  the first
information concerning ite existence, in the narrative
of his  voyage with  the French academicians to Peru.
  "The crude platina is to be dissolved  in nitro-mu-
rip.tic scid, precipitated by muriate of ammonia, and
exposed to a very  violent heat Then  the acid and
alkali are  expelled, and the  metal  reduced in an  ag-
glutinated  state, which, is  rendered more compact by
pressure while red-hot
   Pure or refined platina is by much the lieaviest body
 in nature.  Its sp. gr. Is 31.5.  It is  very malleable,
 though considerably harder than either gold or silver;
 and it hardens much under the hammer.  Iu colour on
 the touchstone is not distinguishable from tbat of sil-
 ver.  Pure platina requires a very strong heat to melt
 it; but when urged by a white heat, iu parts will ad-
 here together by hammering.  This property, wliich is
 distinguished  by the name of welding, to peculiar to
 platina and iron; which resemble each other likewise
 in their infusibility.
   Platina is not altered by exposure to air; neither ia
 it acted upon  by the v»-ist concentrated simple acids,
 even when boiling, or distilled from it.
   The aqua regia  best adapted to the solution of plati-
 na, is composed of one part of the nitric and three of
 the muriatic acid.  The solution does not take place with
 rapidity.  A small quantity of nitric oxide is disengaged,
 the colour of the fluid becoming first yellow, and after-
 ward of a deep reddish-brown, which,  upon  dilution
 with water, is found to be an intense yellow.  This so-
 lution is very corrosive, and tinges animal matters of a
 blackish-brown colour,it affords crystals by evaporation.
   Muriate of tin is so delicate a test of platina, that a
 single drop of tlie recent solution of tin in muriatic acid
 gives a bright red colour to a solution of muriate of
 platina, scarcely distinguishable from water.
   If the muriatic solution of platina be  agitated with
 ether,  the ether will become impregnated with  the
 metal.  The ethereal solution is of a fine pale yellow,
 does not stain the skin, and is precipitable by ammonia
   If the nitro-muriatic solution of platina be  precipi-
 tated by lime, and  tlie precipitate digested in sulphuric
 acid, a sulphate of platinum will be formed.   A sub-
 nitrate may be formed  in the same manner.  Accord-
 ing to Chenevix, the insoluble  sulphate contains 54.5
 oxide of platinum,  and 45.5 acid and water; the insolu-
 ble muriate, 70 of oxide; and the subnitrate,  89  of
 oxide; but the purity ofthe oxide of platinum in these
 is uncertain.
   Platinum  does not combine witb sulphur directlyr
 but is soluble by the alkaline sulphurets, and precipi-
 tated from iu nitro-muriatic solution by sulphuretted
 hydrogen.
   Pelletier -united  it with phosphorus, by projecting
 small biu of phosphorus on the metal healed lo redness
 in a crucible;  or exposing to a  strong  heat four part*
 each of platinum  and  concrete phosphoric acid with
 one of charcoal powder.  The phosphuret of platinum
 is of a silvery-white, very brittle, and hard enough to
 strike fire with steel.
  Platinum unites  with most other metals.  Added in
 the proportion of one-twelfth to gold, it forms a yellow-
 ish white metal, highly ductile, and tolerably elastic.
  Platinum  renders silver more hard', but its  colour
 more dull.
  Copper is much improved by alloying with platinum
  Alloys of platinum with tin and lead are very apt to-
 tarnish.
  From its  hardness,  infusibility, and  difficulty of
 being acted upon by most agenu, platinum  is of great
 value for  making  various chemical vessels.   These
 have, it is true, the inconvenience of  being liable to
 erosion from the caustic alkalies and some ofthe neu-
 tral salts.
  Platinum is now hammered in Paris into leaves of
 extreme thinness.  By enclosing a wire of it in a little
tube of silver, and drawing this through a steel plate in-
the usual way, Dr. Wollaston has succeeded in pro-
ducing platinum wire  not exceeding KSOOOth  of  am
 inch in diameter.
                                        18*V 
PLE                                            PLE
  There are two oxides of platinum.
  1. When 100 parts of the protochloride. or muriate
 of platinum are calcined, they leave 733 of metal; 26\7
 of chlorine escape.  Hence the prime equivalent of the
 metal would seem  to be 12.3.  When the above pro-
 tochloride is treated witb caustic potassa, it to resolved
 into a black oxide of platinum and chloride of potas-
 sium.  This oxide should consist of 12.3 metal + 1
 oxygen.
  2. The peroxide appears to contain three prime pro-
 portions.  Berzelius obtained it by treating tlie muriate
 of platinum with sulphuric acid, at a distilling heat,
 and decomiiosing the sulphate  by aqueous potassu.
 The precipitated oxide is a yellowish-brown powder,
 easily reducible by a red heat to tbe metallic state.
  According to E. Davy, there are two phosphurels
 and three sulphurets of platinum.
  The salu of platinum have the following general
 characters:—
  1. Their solution in water is yellowish-brown.
  2. Potassa and ammonia determine the formation of
 small orange-coloured crystals.
  3. Sulphuretted hydrogen throws down the metal in
 a black powder.
  Ferroprussiote of potassa and infusion of galls occa-
 sion no precipitate."
  PLATYCO'RIA.   (From irXaruc, broad, and xopn,
 the pupil of the eye.)  An enlarged pupil.
  Platyophtha'lmum.  (From  irXaruc,  broad, and
 otbBaXpos, the  eye:  so called because it  is used  by
 women to enlarge the appearance of the eye.)  An-
 timony.
  PLATYPHY'LLUM.   (From TrXarvj, broad, and
 tkvXXov, a leaf)  Broad-leaved.
  PLATY'SMA-MYOIDES.  (From irXaruc,  broad,
pvs, a muscle, and «<5oc, resemblance.)  Musculus cu-
taneus, of Winslow.  Quadratus gena vel latissimus
 colli, of Douglas. Latissimus colli, of Albinus.  Quad-
ratus gena, seu tetragonus, of Winslow;  and thoraco
maxilli facial, of Dumas.  A thin muscle on the side
of the neck, immediately under the skin,  that assisU
ia drawing the skin of  the check downwards; and
when the mouth is shut, it draws all that part of the
 skin to which it is connected below the lower jaw, up-
wards.
  Ple'ctanje.   (From jrXt/crw, to fold.)   The  horns
of the uterus.
  Plb'ctrum:.   (From irXnrJta, to strike: so named
from their resemblance to a drum-stick.)  The styloid
process of the temporal bone, and  the uvula.
  PLEMPIUS, Vopiscus Fortunatus, was born at
Amsterdam In  1601.  He commenced his medical stu-
 dies at  Leyden, then  travelled  for improvement to
Italy, and took his degree at Bologna.  He settled as a
 physician in bis native city, and acquired a high repu-
tation there; whence he was  invited lo  a professor-
 ship at  Louvain, whither he repaired in 1633.  He
 adopted,  on this occasion, the Catholic religion, and
 took a new degree, in conformity with the rules of the
 university. He was soon after  nominated  principal
 of the college  of  Breugel.  His  death happened in
 1671.  He increased the reputation of Louvain by the
 extent of his attainments, and distinguished himself in
 all  the public  questions  that came under discussion.
 He  was author of many works in Lotin ond Dutch;
 in one of which, entitled " Fundaments, seu Institu-
 tiones Medicina," he gave a satisfactory proof  of his
 candour, by strenuously advocating the circulation of
 the  blood, of which  he had previously expressed
 doubu.
  PLEONASTE.  See Celanite.
  Plero'sis.  See Plethora.
  Ple'suone.   See Plethora,
  PLETHORA.  (From vXifita,  to fill.)  Plesmont.
 Plerosis.  1. An excessive fulness of vessels, or a re-
 dundance of blood.
  2. A fulness of hobit or body.
  Fleumo'nia.  See Pneumonia.
  PLEU'RA.   ILXeupa.  A membrane which lines tbe
 internal  surface of the thorax, and covers its viscera.
 It forms a great process, the mediastinum, whvh di-
 vides the thorax into two cavities. Iu use is to ren-
 der the surface of the thorax  moist by the vapour it
 exhales.   The cavity of the  thorax  is every  where
 lined by this smooth and glistening membrane, which
 is in reality two  distinct portions or bags, which, by
 being applied to each other laterally, form the septum
      lUv
 called mediastinum: thus divides the cavity Into two
 paru, and is  attached posteriorly to the vertebra- of
 the back; and anteriorly to the sternum.  Bui the two
 laminae, of which this septum is formed, do not every
 where adhere to each other;  for at  the lower pari of
 the thorax they are separated, to afford a lodgment
 to the heart; and at the upper part of the cavity they
 receive between them the thymus gland.  The pleura
 is plentifully supplied with arteries and veins from the
 internal mammary, and the intercostals.  Iu nerves,
 which are very inconsiderable, are derived chiefly
 from  the dorsal and intercostal nerves.  The surface
 of the pleura, like  lhat of the peritonaeum and other
 membranes lining cavities, is constantly bedewed with
 a serous moisture,  wliich prevenu  adhesions of the
 viscera.  The mediastinum, by dividing the breast into
 two cavities, obviates many inconveniences to wbich
 we should otherwise  be liable.  It  prevenu the two
 lobes  of the lungs from compressing  each other when
 we lie on one side, and consequently contributes to the
 freedom of respiration, which is disturbed by the least
 pressure on the lungs.   If the  point of a  sword pene-
 trates between the  ribs into the cavity of the thorax,
 the lungs on that side cease  to perform their  office,
 because the  air being admitted through the wound,
 prevenu  the dilatation of that lobe, while the other
 lobe, which is  separated from it by the mediastinum,
 remains unhurt, and continues to perform iu functions
 as usual.
  PLEURALGIA.  (From nXtvpa, and dXyoc, pain.)
 Pain in the pleura, or side.
  ["Pleurisy root.   This species  of root'is found'
 from  Maine to Georgia, and  is readily distinguished
 from other roou, by its bright orange-coloured flowers.
 The root  when  dry is brittle, and easily reduced to
 powder.  Iu taste is moderately bitter, and its chief
 soluble proportions are extractive matter and foecula
 It acu medicinally as a mild diaphoretic, expectorant,
 and subtonic.  It has been much used in the United
 States in  catarrh, bronchitis, the secondary stages of
 pneumonia, and  in  phthisis as  a palliative.   From
some  associations of this kind, it is  known in  many
 places as pleurisy root.  It has the  property of pro-
ducing diaphoresis wilh less previous heat and excite-
ment than attends the use of most vegetable sudorifics.
Twenty or thirty grains can  be given three  times  u
day, or a  gill of the infusion, prepared  like that of
Berpentaria."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  PLEURI'TIS.   (Pleuritis, idis. f.; from irXcvpo, the
 pleura.)   Pleurisy, or inflammation of the pleura.  A
species of pneumonia, of Cullen.   See Pneumonia.
 In some instances the inflammation is partial, or affects
 one place in  particular, which is commonly on  the
 right side; but, in general, a morbid  affection is com-
 municated throughout its whole extent.  The disease
 is occasioned by exposure to cold, and by all the causes
 which usually give  rise to all inflammatory com-
 plaints ; and it attacks chiefly those of a vigorous con-
 stitution and plethoric habit  In consequence of the
 previous inflammation, it is apt, at  iu departure, to
 leave  behind a thickening of the pleura,  or adhesions
 to the ribs and intercostal muscles, which either lay the
 foundation of future pneumonic complainU, or render
 the patient more susceptible  of the changes in  the
 state of the atmosphere than before.
  It comes on with an acute pain in the side, which is
 much increased  by making a  full Induration, and is
 accompanied by flushing in the face,  increased heat
 over  the whole  body,  rigors, difficulty  of lying on
 the side affected, together with  a cough  and nausea,
 and the pulse is  hard, strong, and frequent,  and vi-
 brates under the finger when pressed  upon,  not unlike
 the tense string of a musical instrument  If blood is
 drawn, and allowed to stand  for a  short time, it  will
 exhibit a thick, sizy, or buffy coat on ite surface.  If
 the disease be neglected  at its onset, and the inflam-
 mation proceeds with great violence and rapidity, the
 lungs  themselves become affected, the  passage of the
 blood  through them is stopped; and tile patient is suffo-
 cated ; or, from the combination of the two affections,
 the inflammation proceeds on to suppuration, and an
 abscess is formed.  The prognostic in pleurisy must
 be drawn from the severity of the symptoms.  If the
 fever  and inflammation have run high, and the pain
 should cease suddenly, witb a change of countenance,
 and a sinking of the ptiise, great danger may be appre-
 hended ;  but if the heat and  other febrile syniptoii* 
PLU
PLU
abate  gradually, if respiration  Is  performed with
greater ease and less pain, and a  free and copious ex-
pectoration ensues, a speedy recovery may be expected.
  The appearances  on  dissection are much the same
as those mentioned under the head of pneumonia, viz.
an  inflamed stale of the pleura,  connected with the
lungs,  having ite surface covered with red vessels, and
a layer of coagulated lymph lying upon it, adhesions,
too, of the substance of the lungs to  the pleura.  Be-
sides these, the lungs themselves are often found in an
inflamed state, with an extravasation either of blood
or coagulated lymph in their substance.   Tubercles
and abscesses ore likewise frequently met with.  See
Pneumonia.
  Pleurocolle'sis. (From irXtvpa,  the  pleura, and
toXXata, to adhere.)   An adhesion of the pleura to the
lungs, or some neighbouring part.
  PLEURODY'NlA. (From irXcupa, and oSvvn, pain.)
A pain in  the side, from a rheumatic affection of the
pleura.
  PLEURO-PNEUMO'NIA. (From irXnipa, and tvw-
povta, an inflammation  of  the lungs.)   An inflamma-
tion of the lungs and pleura.
  PLEURORTHOPN^E'A. (From vXtvpa, the pleura,
opBos, upright, and irvtta, to  breathe.) A pleurisy in
which the patient cannot breathe without  keeping his
body upright.
  PLEUROSTHO'TONOS.  (From ffXwpov, the side,
and rtivia, to stretch.)  A spasmodic disease, iu which
the body is bent to one side.
  PLE'XUS.   (From plector, to plait or knit.)  A
net-work of vessels.  The union of two or more nerves
Is also called a plexus.
  Plexus cardiacus.  The cardiac plexus of nerves
is the  union of the  eighth pair  of nerves and great
sympathetic.
  Plexus choroides.   The choroid plexus is a net-
work of vessels situated in the lateral ventricle of the
brain.
  Plexus  pampiniformis.  The plexus of  vessels
about the  spermatic chord.
  Plexus  pulmonicus.   The  pulmonic plexus is
formed by the union of the eighth pair of-nerves with
the great sympathetic.
  Plexus reticularis.  A net-work of vessels un-
der the fornix of the brain.
  PLI'CA.  (From plico, to entangle.  This disease is
commonly distinguished by the adjective Polonica, it
being  almost peculiar to the inhabitants  of Poland.)
Helotis;  Kolto ; Rhopalosis;  Plica polonica.  Tri-
choma. Plaited hair.  A disease of the hairs, in which
they become long and coarse, and motted ond glued
into inextricoble tangles.  It is peculiar to Poland, Li-
thuania,  and Tartary, and generally appears during
the autumnal season.
  PLICA'RIA.  (From plico,  to entangle: so  called
because iu leaves are entangled together in one moss.)
Wolf's-clow, or club moss.  See Lycopodium.
  PLICATUS.  Plaited, folded.  A  term applied to
leaves, when the disk,  especially towards the margin,
is acutely folded up and down; as in Malva crispa.
  Pli'nthius.  IIAivrflioc. The fourfold bondage.
   PLUM. Pruna.   Three sorts of plums are ranked
among the articles of the materia medico; they ore all
met with in the gardens of this country, but the shops
are supplied with them moderately dried, from abroad.
1.  The pruna brignolensia;  the Brignolc plum, or
prunello, brought from Brignole, in Provence; it is of a
reddish yellow colour, and has a very grateful, sweet,
subacid toste.  2.  The pruna  gallica; the common
or French prune.  3. The pruna damascena, or dam-
son.  All these  fruiu possess the some general quali-
ties with  the other summer fruiu.  The prunelloes, in
which the sweetness has a greater mixture of acidity
than in the other sorts, are used as mild refrigerants in
fevers  and other  hot  indispositions.  The French
prunes and damsons are the most emollient and  laxa-
tive;  they are often taken by themselves, to gently
move  the belly, where there is a tendency to inflam-
mations.  Decoctions of them afford a useful basis for
laxative or purgative mixtures, and the pulp, in sub-
stance, for electuaries.
  Plum, Malabar.   See Eugenia jambos.
  PLUMBA'GO.   (From plumbum,  lead: so  called
because it iscovered with lead-coloured spots.)  1. The
name of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria; Or-
der, .Monogynia.                                   I
  2. Leaff-Wort.  See Polygonum persicaria.
  3. Black lead.  An ore of a shining blue-black co-
 lour, a greasy feel, and turberculated when fractured;
 See Graphite.
  Plumbago europjea.  The systematic name ofthe
 tooth-wort  Dentaria; Dentillaria.  This plant is to
 be  distinguished from the pellitory of Spain, which is
 also called dentaria.   It is the Plumbago—foliis am-
 plexicaulibus, lanceolatis scabris, of Linnasus.  The
 root was formerly esteemed, prepared in a variety of
 ways, ns o cure for the toothache, arising from caries.
  Plumbi  acetas.  Cerussa acetata.  Plumbi super-
 acetas.   Saccharum salurni, or sugar of lead, from its
 sweet taste.  It possesses sedative and astringent quali-
 ties in a very high degree, and  is perhaps the most
 powerful internal medicine in profuse hemorrhages,
 especially combined with opium; but iu use is not
 entirely without hazard, as it has sometimes produced
 violent colic and palsy; wherefore it is better not to
 continue it unnecessarily.  The dose may be from one
 to  three  grains.  It has been also  recommended to-
 check tlie expectoration, ond colliquative dischorges in
 phthisis, but will probably be only of temporary service.
 Externally it  is  used  for the some purposes as the
 liquor plumbi subacetatis.
  Plumbi acetatis liquor.  Solution of acetate of
 lead, formerly called aqua lithargyri acetati.  Gou-
 lard's extract.  Take of semi-vitrified oxide of lead,
 two pounds;  acetic  acid, a gallon.  Mix, and boil
 down to six pints, constantly stirring; then set it by,
 that  the feculencies  may subside, and strain.  It is
 principally employed in a diluted state, by surgeons, as
 a resolvent against inflammatory affections.
  Plumbi acetatis liquor dilutus.  Diluted solu-
 tion of acetate of leod.  Aqua lithargyri acetati com-
 posita.   Take of solution of Sub-acetote of  lead, a
 fluid drachm; distilled water, a  pint; weak spirit, a
 fluid drachm.  Mix.  The virtues of this water, the
 aqua vegeto-mineralis of former pharmacopoeias, ap-
 plied externally, are resolvent, refrigerant, and seda-
 tive.
  Plumbi  carbonas.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  Plumbi  oxydum semivitreum. See Lithargyrus.
  Plumbi subcarbonas.  Carbonas plumbi.  Subcar-
 bonate of lead commonly called cerusse, or white lead
 This article is made in the large way in white lead
 manufactories, by exposing thin sheeu of lead to' the
 vapoUr of vinegar.   The lead is curled  up and put
 into pots of earthenware, in which  the vinegar is, in
 such a woy as to rest just above the vinegar.  Hun-
 dreds of these are arranged together, and surrounded
 with dung, the heat from which volatilizes the acetic
 acid, which is decomposed by the leod, and an imper-
 fect carbonate of lead is formed, which is of  a white
 colour.   This preparation is seldom used in medicine
 or  surgery but for the purpose of making other prepa-
 rations, as the superacetate.  It is sometimes employed
 medicinally in form  of powder and ointment, to chil-
 dren whose skin is fretted.  It should, however, be
 cautiously used, as there is great reason to believe that
 complainU of the bowels of children originate  from its
 absorption.  See Pulvis cerussa compositus
   PLU'MBUM.  See Lead.
   Plumbum candidum.  See Tin.
   Plumbum cinereum.  Bismuth.
   Plumbum niorum.  Black-lead.
   Plumbum rubeum.  The philosopher's stone.
   Plumbum ustum.  Burnt lead.
   Plumme'ri PiuTLiE.  Plumuier's pills.  A composi-
 tion of calomel, antimony, and guaiacum.  See Pilula
 hydrargyri submuriatis composita.
   PLUMULA.   (A  diminutive of pluma, a feather.)
 A little feather.   The expanding embryo or germ of a
 plant within the seed, resembling a little  feather.  It
 soon becomes a tuft of young leaves, with which Ihe
 young stem, if there be any, ascends.   See Corculum
 and Cotyledon.
   Plunket's cancer remedy.  Take crow's foot,
 which grows  in low grounds, one handful; dog's fen-
 nel, three sprigs, both well pounded;  crude brim-
 stone in powder, three middling thimblefuls; white
 arsenic the same quantity;  incorporated all in a mor
 tar, and mode into small balls the  size of a nutmeg,
 and dried in the sun.  These balls must be powdered
 and mixed wilh the yelk of an egg, and laid over the
 sore or cancer on a piece of pig's bladder,  or stripping
I of a calf when dropped, which must be cut to  the siztl 
PNE
PNE
of the sore, and smeared  with the yelk  of an  eag.
This must be applied cautiously to the lips or nose lest
any part of It get  down; nor is it  to be laid on too
broad on the face, or too near the heart, nor to exceed
the breadth of half-o-crown ;  but elsewhere as far as
the sore goes.  The plaster must not be stirred until it
drops off of itself, wliich will be in a week.  Clean  ban-
dages are often to be put on.
  P N EUMATIC.  (Pneumaticus; from irvtvpa, wind,
relating to air.)  Of or belonging to air or gas.
  Pneumatic apparatus.   See  Apparatus, pneu-
matic.
  PNEUMATICS.   (From rvtvptav, the lung.)   The
name given by  Dr. Good, to the second closs of dis-
eases in his  Nosology. Diseases of the  respiratory
function.  It has two orders, Phonica and Pneumonica.
  PNEUMATOCE LE.   (From irvtvpa,  wind,  and
xnXn, a tumour.)  Any species  of hernia, that is dis-
tended with flatus.
  PNEUMATO'MPHALUS.    (From  irvtvpa, wind,
and  optbaXos, the  navel.)   A flatulent,  umbilical
hernia.
  PNEUMATOSIS.   (From irvtvaaroia,  to inflate.)
Emphysema.   Windy swelling. A genus of disease
in the Class Cachexia, and Order  Intumescentia, of
Cullen, known  by a collection of air in  the cellular
texture  under the skin, rendering it tense, elastic, and
crepitating.  Air in the cellular membrane is confined
to one place; but in a few cases, it spreads universally
over the whole  body, and occasions a considerable
degree of swelling.   It sometimes arises spontaneously,
which  is, however, o very rore occurrence, or comes
on immediately after delivery, without any evident
cause;   but  it  is  most generally  induced  by  some
wound or injury done to the thorax, and which affecU
the  lungs; in which cose the air posses from these,
through the wound, into the surrounding cellular mem-
brane, and from thence spreads over the whole body.
   Pneumatosis  to  attended with an evident  crackling
noise, and elasticity  upon pressure;  ond sometimes
with much  difficulty of breathing, oppressiou, and
anxiety.
   We are to consider it as a disease by no means unat-
tended  with danger;  but more  probably from the
causes which give rise to it, than any hazard from the
complaint itself.
   The species of pneumatosis are:
   1.  Pneumatosis   spontanea,  without any manifest
 tause.
   2.  Pneumatosis  traumatica, from a wound.
   3. Pneumatosis venenata, from poisons.
   4.  Pneumatosis  hysterica, wilh hysteria.
   PNEUMONIA.  (From avtvptav, a lung.)  Pneu-
 monitis ;  Peripneumonia; Peripneumonia vera.   In-
 flammation of the lungs.  A genus of disease in the
 Class Pyrexia, and  Order  Phlegmasia, of Cullen;
 characterized by pyrexia, difficult respiration, cough,
 and  a  sense of weight and  pain in the thorax.  The
 species of pneumonia, according to the above nosolo-
 gist, are,
   1.  Peripneumonia.   The pulse not always hard, but
 sometimes soft: an  obtuse  pain in the breast:  the
 respiration  always difficult;  sometimes  the  patient
 cannot breathe, unless in an upright posture; the face
 swelled, and of o livid colour; the cough for the most
 part with expectoration, frequently bloody.
   2. Pleuritis.  The pulse hard: a pungent pain in
 one side;  aggravated during the time  of  inspiration;
 an  uneasiness when lying on one side; a very painful
 cough, dry in the beginning  of the disease,  afterward
 wilh expectoration,  and frequently  bloody.    See
 Pleuritis.
   With respect to pneumonia, the most general  cause
 of this inflammation is the  application of cold  to the
 body, which gives a check to the perspiration, and de-
 termines a gieal flow of blood to the lungs.  It attacks
 principally those or a robust  constitution ond plethoric
 habit, and occurs  most frequently in the winter season
 and spring of the year:  but it may arise in either of
 the other seasons, when there  are sudden vicissitudes
 from heat to cold.
    Other causes, such as violent exertions in singing,
 speaking, or playing on wind instrumenu, by producing
 an increased action of the lungs, have been known to
  occasion  peripneumony.  Those who have laboured
  under a former attack of this complaint, are much pre-
  disposed lo returns of it
        102
  The true  peripneumony come* on with an obtusa
pain In the  chest or side, great dtfliculty of breathing,
(particularly in a  recumbent position,  or when  lying
on the side affected,) together with a cough, dryness of
the skin, heat, anxiety, nnd thirst  At the first  com-
mencement  of the disease the  pulse  is usually full.
strong, hard, out!  frequent; bul in n more advanced
stage it is  commonly wenk, soft, and often irregulur.
In the beginning, the cough is frequently dry and  with-
out expectoration; but in some cases it is moisi, even
from the first, and the  matter spit up  is various both
in colour and in consistence, and is often streaked wilh
blood.
  If relief is not afforded in time, and the inflammation
proceeds with such violence ns to endanger suffocation,
the vessels of the neck will become turgid and swelled;
the face will alter to  a purple colour;  an effusion of
blood will take place into the cellular substance of the
lungs,  so as to impede the  circulation through that
organ, and the patient  will soon be deprived of life.
  if these violent symptoms do not arise, and the pro
per means for carrying ofl'the inflammation have either
been  neglected, or have proved  ineffectual, although
adopted at an early period of the disease, a suppuru.
tion may  ensue,  whicli event is to be  known by fre-
quent slight quiverings, and an abatement of the pain
and sense of fulness  in the  port, and by the patient
being able to lie on the side which was affected,  with-
out experiencing great uneasiness.
  When peripneumony proves fatal, it is generally by
an effusion of  blood taking place in the cellular texture
of the lungs, so as to occasion suffocation, which usu-
ally hoppens between  the third and seventh days; but
it may likewise  prove fatal, by terminating either  in
suppuration or gangrene.
  When it  goes off by resolution, some very evident
evacuation always attends it; such as a great flow of
urine, with  a copious  sediment, diarrhoea, a sweat dif-
fused over the whole body, or a hemorrhage from the
nose ;  but the evacuation which most frequently ter-
minates the complaint, and  which does it with tlie
greatest effect, is a free and copious expectoration of
thick while or yellow matter, sliehtly streaked with
blood ; and  by this the disease is carried off generally
in the course of ten or twelve days.
  Our opinion as to the event is to be drawn from the
symptoms which are present. A high  degree of fever,
attended with delirium, great difficulty of breathing,
acute  pain, and  dry  cough, denote great danger;  on
the contrary,  on  abatement of tbe febrile symptoms,
ond of the  difficulty  of breathing, and pain, taking
place on the coming on of a free expectoration, or tlie
happening of any other critical evacuation, promises
fair for the  recovery of the patient.  A termination of
the inflammation in suppuration is always to be con*
sidered as dangerous.
   On  dissection,  the  lungs usually appear inflamed;
and there is often found on extravasation, either  of
blood, or of coagulable lymph,  in their cellular sub-
stance. The same appearances likewise present them-
selves in the cavity of the thorax, aud within the peri-
cardium.  The pleura, connected with  the lungs, is
also In an inflated state, having its surface every where
crowded with red vessels.  Besides these, abscesses are
frequently found in the substance of the luncs, as like-
wise tubercles and adhesions to the ribs are formed. A
quantity of purulent matter is often discovered also in
the bronchia.  In the early period of this disease we
may hope,  by active  measures, to bring about  imme-
diate  resolution; but when it  is more advanced, we
must  look  for a discharge by  expectoration,  as the
means of restoring the part to  a healthy state. We
should begin  by  large and  free bleeding, not deterred
by the obscure pulse sometimes found in peripneu-
mony, carrying this evacuation to faintness, or  to the
 manifest  relief of the breathing.  In  the subsequent
 use of this measure, we must be guided by the violence
 of the disease on ihe  one hand, nnd the strength of the
 patient on the  other;  the scrofulous, in particular,
 cannot bear it to any extent; and it is more especially
 in the early port  of the complaint, that it produces n
 full and decisive  effect. Under doubtful circumstances
 it will be better to take blood locally, particularly when
| there are pleuritic symptoms; with wbich blisters may
 co-operate.  The bowels must  be well  evacuated in
 the first instance, and subsequently kept regular: and)
I antiuionials may be given with great advantage eos» 
POD
killed often with mercurials to promote vie discharges,
especially from the akin and lungs.  Digitalis is proper
also, as lessening the activity of the circulation.  The
antiphlogistic regimen is to be observed, except that the
patient will not hear  too free exposure to  cold.  To
quiet the couch, demulcents may be  of some use or
cooling sialagogues: but  where the  urgency of the
symptoms is lessened by copious depiction, opiates are
more to be relied upon ; a little syrup  of poppy, for in-
stance, swallowed slowly  from time to time; or a full
dose of opium may be given at night to  procure sleep,
joined  with calomel and antimony,  that  it may not
heat the system, but, on the contrary, assist them in
promoting  the  secretions.  Inhaling steam will occa-
sionally assist in bringing about expectoration;  or,
where there to a  wheezing respiration, squill  in nau-
seating or sometimes even emetic, doses may relieve
the patient from the viscid matter collected in the air
passages.   When the expectoration to copious in the
decline of  the complaint, tonic medicines, particularly
myrrh, with a more nutritious diet, become necessary
to support  the strength:  aud the same means will be
proper, if it should go on to suppuration.   Where ad-
hesions have occurred, or other organic change, though
the symptoms may appear trifling, much caution Is re-
quired to prevent tiie patient falling into Phthisis; on
which  subject see the management  of that disease:
and should serous effusion happen, see Hydrothorax.
   PNEUMONICA.  (From nvtvpiav, the lung.)   The
name  of Ihe second  order of  diseases  in  Ihe Class
Pneumatica of Good's Nosology.  Diseases affecting
the lungs, iheir membranes,  or motive power.  It has
six genera, viz. Bex; Dyspnaa; Asthma; Ephialtis;
Sternalgia; Pleuralgia.
   PNEUMOPLEURITIS. (From avtvutw, thelungs,
and aXtvpiris, an inflammation of the pleura.)   An in-
flammation of the lungs and pleura.
   PNIGA'LIUM.   (From aviya, to  suffocate.)  The
nightmare.  A disorder in which the patient appears
to be suffocated.
   Pnix.  (Prom aviyei, to suffocate.)   A sense of suf-
focation.
   POD.  See Siliqua.
   PODA'GRA.   (From aovs, tlie foot, and  aypa, a
baking, or seizure.)  Febris podagrica.   Arthritis;
Dolor podagricus; The gout.  A genus of disease in
the Class Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia, of Cullen;
known by pyrexia, pain  in the joints, chiefly of the
great toe, or at any rate of the  hands and feet, return-
ing at intervals:  previous to the attack, the functions
of the stomach are commonly disturbed.  The species
ore,
   1. Podagra regularis.   Arthritis podagra; Arthri-
tis rachialgica ; Arthritis astiva, of Sauvages.  The
regular gout.
   2. Podagra atonica.  Arthritis melancholica;  hie-
malis; dilorotica; and asthmatica, of Sauvages. The
atonic gout
   3. Podagra relrograda. The retrocedent.
   4. Podagra  aberrates.   Misplaced  or  wandering
gout
   The gout is a very painful disease, preceded usually
 by flatulency,  rind indigestion, and  accompanied  by
 fever pains in the joints of the hands and feet, particu-
 larly in that  ofthe  great toe, and  which returns by
 paroxysms, occurring chiefly in the  spring and begin-
 ning of winter.  Theonly disorder for which the regu-
 lar gout can possibly be  mistaken, ia the rheumatism;
 and cases  may occur wherein there may be some diffi-
 culty  in making o just  discrimination: but the  most
 certain  way of distinguishing them will be, to give
 due consideration to the predisposition in the habit, the
 symptoms which have preceded, the paru affected, the
 recurrences of the disease,  and  its connexion  with
other paru of the system. Iu attacks are  much con-
 fined to the male sex, particularly those of a corpulent
 habit and robust bndy;  but every now and then we
 meet  with instances of it in robust females.  Those,'
 Who are employed in constant bodily labour, or who
 live much upon vegetable food, as likewise those who
 ftinke no use of wine, or other fermented liquors, are
 seldom afflicted with the gout.  Tbe disease seldom
 appears at an earlier period of  life than from five-and-
 tbirty to forty; and, when it does, it may be presumed
 to arise from an hereditary disposition.   Indolence, in-
 octlvity, and  too  free a use of tariareons wines, fee-
 BMoted  liquors,  and animal food^  are the principal
c*„ es    ch give rise to the gout; but t may Ukewise
be brought on by great sensuality and excess in veneiy.
intense and close application  to study,  long  want of
rest, grief, or uneasiness of mind, exposure lo cold, loo
free a use of acidulated liquors, a sudden change from
a  full to a spare diet, the suppression of any accus-
tomed discharge, or  by excessive evacuations;  and
lhat it sometimes proceeds  from an hereditary disposi-
tion, to beyond  all doubt, as  females who have been
remarked tor  their great abstemiousness, and youths
of a tender age, have been attacked with it
  1. Podagra regularis.  A paroxysm of regular gout
sometimes  comes on suddenly, without any  previous
warning; at other times it is  preceded  by an unusual
coldness of the feet and  legs, a suppression of perspi-
ration in them, and numbness, or a sense of prickling
along the whole of the  lower extremities: and with
these symptoms the appetite is diminished, the stomach
is troubled with flatulency  and indigestion, a degree of
torpor and languor is felt over the whole  body, great
lassitude and  fatigue are experienced after the least ex-
ercise, the body is costive, and the urine  pallid.  On
the night of the attack, tbe patient perhaps goes to bed
in tolerable health, and after a few hours to awakened
by ihe severity of the pain, most commonly in the first
joint of the great toe; sometimes, however, it attacks
other parU of the foot, the  heel, calf of the teg, or per-
haps the whole of the foot.  The  pain resembles that
of a dislocated bone, and  is  attended with the sensa-
tion as  if cold woter was  poured  upon the part; and
this pain, becoming more violent, is succeeded by rigors
and other febrile symptoms,  together with  a severe
throbbing and inflammation in the part.  Sometimes
both feet become swelled and  inflamed, so that neither
of them can be put to the ground;  nor can tbe patient
endure tlie least motion  without suffering excruciating
pain.  Towards morning, he  falls asleep, and a gentle
sweat breaks out, and terminates the paroxysm, a
number of which constitutes what is called a fit ofthe
gout. The duration of the fit  will  be longer or shorter,
according to the disposition of the body to the disease,
the season of the year, and  the age and strength of
the patient.   When a paroxysm has thus taken place,
although there is an  alleviation of pain at the expira-
tion of some  hours, still the patient is not entirely re-
lieved from it; and, for some  evenings successively, he
has a return  both of pain and fever, which continue,
with  more or less violence, until morning.  The pa-
roxysms, however, prove usually moie mild every day,
till ot length the disease goes ofl' either by perspiration,
urine, or some other evacuation; the paru which have
been affected  becoming  itchy, the cuticle falling off in
 scales from them, and some slight degree of  lameness
remaining.  At first, an attack of gout occurs, perhaps,
only  once  in two or three  years; it then probably -
comes on every year, and at length it becomes more
frequent, and is mote severe, and of longer duration,
each succeeding fit.  In the progress of the disease,
 various parts of the body are  affected, and translations
take  place, from one joint, or limb, to another; and,
 after frequent attacks, the joinU lose their strength and
flexibility, and become so  stiff as to be deprived of all
motion. Concretions, of a  chalky  appearance,  are
likewise formed upon the ouuide of tlie joints, and
nephritic affections of tbe  kidneys arise from a depo-
site of the same kind of  matter in them, which, al-
though fluid  at first, becomes gradually dry  and fen
This, matter is partly soluble in acids, but without ef-
 fervescence ;   and Dr. Wollaston discovered it not to be
carbonate of lime, but a compound of the Uric or lithic
acid and soda.
   2. Podagra atonica.  Atonic  gout  It sometimes
happens that, although a gouty diathesis  prevails in
the system, yet, from certain  causes, no inflammatory
affection of the joints is produced ; in which case, the
stomach becomes particularly affected, and the patient
is troubled with flatulency, indigestion, loss of appe-
 tite, eructations, nausea,  vomiting, and severe pains;
 and these affections are often  accompanied with much
dejection of spirite, and other hypochondriacal symp-
toms. In some cases, the head is affected will] pain and
giddiness, and now and then with a tendency to apo-
 plexy ;  and in other case?, the viscera of tlie thorax
sutler from the disease, nnd palpitations, faintings, and
 asthma arise. This is what is called atonic gout.
   3. Padagrarebrograda.   Retrocedent gout  Iteomc-
 times happens, that, after  tbe inflamraatto* has occu- 
POD
POI
  pled a joint, instead of its continuing the usual time,
  and so going off gradually, it censes suddenly, and is
  translated  to some internal part.  The term  retroce-
  dent gout  is applied  to  occurrences of this  nature.
  When it falls  on the stomach, it occasions  nausea,
  vomiting, anxiety, or great pain; when on the heart,
  it brings on syncope; when on  the lungs, it produces
  an  affection  resembling  asthma:  and, wlien it oc-
  cupies tbe head, it to apt to give rise to apoplexy, or
  palsy.
   4. Podagra abcrrans, or misplaced gout, is when the
 gouty diathesis, instead of producing the inflammatory
 affection  of the joints, occasions an inflammatory af-
 fection of some internal parts, and  which appears
 from the  same symptoms that  attend the inflammation
 of those parts from other causes.  All occurrences of
 this nature, as well as of the two former, are to be re-
 garded as attacks of irregular gout, and aie to be guarded
 against as much as possible.
   In the regular gout, generally, little  medical interfe-
 rence is necessary.   The antiphlogistic regimen should
 be observed, in proportion to the strength of the patient,
 the  bowels kept regular, and the part of a  moderate
 temperature, by  covering it with flannel, Sec;  it may
 be useful too to promote a gentle diaphoresis.  In young
 and robust constitutions, where there is no hereditary
 tendency to the disease, and the inflammation and fever
 run  high, more active evacuations may  sometimes be
 required; and, on the contrary, in  persons advanced
 in life,  who hove suffered  much from the disease, and
 been accustomed to a generous diet,  this must be in
 some degree allowed, even during  the paroxysm, to
 obviate a metastasis; recommending fish in preference
 to other animal food, and madeira as the least acescent
 wine.   The application of cold to the part is a danger-
 ous practice; and it is better to abstain from any local
 measures, lest the favourable progress of the disease
 should be  interrupted.  When the paroxysm is termi-
 nated, any remaining stiffness of the joint will probably
 Be gradually removed by friction, &c.   With respect to
 the means of obviating future attacks, the chief de-
 pendence is to be placed on abstemiousness, with regu-
 lar moderate exercise.  Proper medicines may be occa-
 sionally prescribed to remove any dyspeptic symptoms,
 keep the bowels regular, the skin perspirable, &c.  If
 the disease appear to hang about the patient  in the
 atonic form, a more nutritious diet, with  tonic or even
 stimulant  medicines, may be required to re-establish
 the health, which will probably not be accomplished
 without a paroxysm intervening. The Bath waters have
 often been found  useful under these circumstances.  In
 the retrocedenl gout, the object to lo bring back tiie in-
 flammation to tiie joint as  soon as possible: for  which
 purpose a  sinapism, or other  stimulant application,
 should be  put upon the part; while ammonia, aroma-
 tics,  either warm wine, or brandy and water, &c, are
 administered internally, in proportion  to the urgency
 of the symptoms; but in general the  best form of me-
 dicine is the combination of opium with some of the
BtimulanU  just  mentioned, unless where congestion
 appears in the head.  Sometimes blisters or rubefacients
 may be  properly applied over the internal part affected,
 where this is of  importance to life, or  even the local
 abstraction of blood becomes necessary.  This, how-
ever, holds more  especially where the attack to inflam-
 matory, constituting the misplaced gout, and a more
 antiphlogistic plan must then be pursued : but evacu-
 ations cannot be  borne to the some extent as in the idi-
 opathic phlegmasia}.
  PODAGRA'RIA.  (From  podagra, the gout:  so
called because ii  was thought to expel the gout.)  See
JEgopodium podagraria.
  PODECIUM.  (From irac, a foot.)   The namegiven
 by Acharius to the peculiar foot-stalk of the  tubercles
 in tlie cup  lichens.
  PODONT'PTRUM.   (From aovs, a foot, and vnr,to,
 to wash.)   A bath for the feet
  PODOPHY'LLLi M.  (From aovs, a foot, and tbvXXov,
 a leaf; so named from its shape.)  A species ot wolf's
 bane.
  [" Podophyllum  peltatum.   Stem erect, two
 leaved;  leaves peltate. Inhabits woods, flowers  in
 May, is  perennial.  Stem one foot high; leaves lobed;
 flowers, solitary, white; fruit ovate.—Torrey's Com-
pendium.
  "The podophyllum peltatum  is an American  plant
growing in low shady situations, from New-England
      184
 : to Georgia.   The plant has only two leaves, with  ■
  flower in the fork, lollowcd by a yellow acid fruit.
    "The root  is creeping and jointed, and, when dry,
  it is brittle and easily reduced to powder.   Iu taste  to
  unpleasant, and, when chewed for tome lime, become*
  intensely bitter.  Water and alkohol extract Us bitter-
  ness.  It contains resin, fuecula, bitter  extractive, and
  a portion of gummy substance.
    "Podophyllum is one of the most certain and effica-
  cious of  the  cathartic vegetables, which have  been
  examined in  this country.  It very nearly resembles
  jalap in iu operation,  but is somewhat slower, and
  continues its effecu for a longer time.  In irritable sto-
  machs it sometimes occasions nausea, but not more
  than other medicines of its class.   In  small doses,  il
  proves  a gradual and easy laxative; in large ones, a
  powerful and long continued purge.   Il has been par-
  ticularly recommended in dropsy, to which  disease
  ii seems well adapted, by the large evacuations it oc-
  casions.
    "It is best given in  powder.   Ten grains taken at
  night, produce a free operation on the following morn-
  ing, and twenty groins  purge with activity.  If calo-
  mel be combined with  it, it operates sooner and with
  less griping."—Big. Mat. Med.   A.J
   PODOTHE'CA.  (From bjouc, a foot, and ti&wii, t»
  put)  A shoe or  stocking.  An  anatomical prepara-
  tion, consisting of a kind  of shoe of ihe scarf-skin,
  with the nails adhering to it, taken from a dead subject.
   POECILIA.  (UoiKiXia, from  itoikiXoc, versicolor.)
 The specific name of a species of Epichrosis in Good's
 Nosology, to designate the pyc-bald skin, or that affection
 found among negroes, in which it is marbled generally
 with alternate spots, or patches of black and white.
   Pointed leaf. See Acuminatus.
   POISON.  Venerium.   Thai substance which, when
 applied externally, or taken into the human body,  uni-
 formly  effects such  a  derangement in the  animal
 economy as  to  produce disease, may be  defined a
 poison.  It is  extremely  difficult, however, to give a
 definition of a poison; and the above is subject to great
 inaccuracy.  Poisons are divided, with  respect to the
 kingdom to which they  belong, Into animal, vegetable,
 mineral, and halituous, or aerial.
   Poisons, in  general, are only deleterious in  certain
 doses; for the most  active, in small doses, form the
 most valuable medicines.  There are nevertheless,
 certain poisons, which are really such In the smallest
 quantity, and which are never administered medici-
 nally ; as the  poison of hydrophobia or  the plague
 There are likewise substances which are innocent when
 taken into  the stomach, but which  prove deleterious
 when taken into  tho lungs, or  when applied to an
 abraded surface;  thus  carbonic  acid to  continually
 swallowed with fermented liquors, and thus the poison
 of the viper may be taken with  impunity; while in
 spiring carbonic acid kills, and the poison of the viper,
 inserted into the flesh, often proves fatal.
   Several substances  also act as poisonous when  ap
 plied either externally or internally; as orsenic.
   When a  substance produces disease,  not only in
 mankind, but  in all animals, it to distinguished by  the
 term common  poison;  as  arsenic,  sublimate, Sec;
 while that which to poisonous to man only, or to ani-
 mals, and often to one  genus merely, Is said to be a
 relative poison; thus  aloes are poisonous to dogs and
 wolves:  the Phellandrium  aquaticum  kills horses,
 while oxen devour it greedily, and with impunity.  It
 appears, then, that substances aet as poisonous only in
 regard to  their dose, the part of the body they are ap-
plied to,, and the subject.
  Poisons enter the body in the following ways:
  1. Through the oesophagus alone, or with the food
  2. Through the anus by clysters.
  3. Through the nostrils.
  4. Through the lungs with the air.
  5. Through the absorbents of the skin, either whole,
 ulcerated, cut, or torn.
  Poisons have been arranged in six classes:
         I.—Corrosive or escharotic poisons.
  They are so named because they usually irritate,  in-
 flame, and corrode the animal texture with which they
come into contact.  Their action is in general more
violent and formidable than that of the other poisons.
The following list  from  Orfila contains the principal
 bodies of this clava:—
  1  Mercurial preparations; corrosive  fublimattt 
POt
POI
 M oxide of mercury; turbetii mineral, or yellow sub-
 sulphate of mercury;  pernitrate of mercury; mercu-
 rial vapours.
  2. Arsenical preparations; such  as white oxide of
 arsenic, and its combination with the bases, called ar-
 seniates; arsenic acid, and the arseniates; yellow and
 red sulphuret of arsenic; black oxide of arsenic, or fly-
 powder.
  3. Antimonial preparations ; such as tartar emetic,
 or cream tartrate Of antimony; oxide of antimony;
 kermes mineral; muriate of antimony; and onttnio-
 hial wine.
  4. Cupreous preparations; such as verdigris; ace-
 tate of copper;  the Cupreous sulphate, nitrate, and mu-
 riate;  aiiunomacal copper; oxide of copper; cupreous
 soaps, or grease tainted with oxide of copper;  and cu-
 preous wines or vinegars.
   5. Muriate of tin.
   6. Oxide and sulphate of zinc.
   7. Nitrate of silver.
   8. Muriate of gold.
   9. Pearl-white, or  the oxide  of  bismuth, and the
 subnitrate of this metal.
  10. Concentrated acids; sulphuric, nitric, phospho-
 ric, muriatic, hydriodic, acetic, &c.
  11. Corrosive  alkalies, pure or subcarbonated po-
 tassa, soda, and ammonia.
  12. The caustic earths, lime ond barytes.
  13. Muriate and carbonate of barytes.
  14. Glass and enamel powder.
  Ii Cantharides.
             II.—Astringent poisons.
   1. Preparations of  lead, such as the acetate, carbo-
 nate, wines sweetened with lead, water  impregnated
 with iu oxide,  food cooked in vessels containing lead,
 syrups clarified with subacetate of lead, plumbean va-
 pours.
                III.—Acrid poisons.
   1. The gases; chlorine, muriatic acid, sulphurous
acid, nitrous gas, and nitro-muriatic vapours.
   2. Jatropha maAihot, the fresh root, and ite juice,
 from whicli cassava to made.
   5. The Indian ricinus, or Molucca wood.
   4. Scammony.
   5. Gamboge.
   6. Seeds of Palma Christi.
   7. Elaterium.
   8. Colocynth.
   9. White hellebore root.
  10. Black hellebore root.
  11. Seeds of Stavesacre.
  12. The wood and fruit ofthe Ahovdi of Brazil.
  13. Rhododendron chrysanthum.
  14. Bulbs of Colchicum,  gathered  in summer and
 Sutumn.
  15. The milky juice ofthe Convolvulus arvensis.
  18. Asclepias.
  17.  (Enanthe fistulosa and crocata,
  18. Some speciea of clematis.
  19. Anemone Pulsatilla.
  20. Root of Wolf's-bane.
  21. Fresh roots of Arum maculatum.
  22. Berries and bark of Daphne mczerev.m.
  23. The plant  and emanations of the Rhus toxico-
dendron.
  24. Euphorbia officinalis.
  25. Several species of Ranunculus, particularly the
 tquatUis.
  20. JViTre, in 0 large dose.
  27. Some muscles and other shell-fish.
       IV.—JVarcetic and slupifying poisons.
   1. The gases ; hydrogen, azote, and oxide of azote.
   2. Poppy and opium.
   3. The roots or the Solanum  somniferum; berries
Bud leaves ofthe Solanum nigrum; those ofthe Morel
with yellow fruit.
   4. The roou and leaves of the Atropa mandragora.
   5. Datura stramonium.
   6.  Hyoeiamus, or henbane.
   7. Lactuca virosa.
   8. Pari* quadrifolia, ot herb Paris.
   0.  Laurocerasus, or bay laurel and prussic acid.-
  10. Berries of the yew-tree.
  il. ErViCrh ervilia; the'seeds.
  12. The seeds of Lathyrus cicera.
  13. Distilled water of bitter almonds.
  14 The effluvia of many of the above plants.
                                      Uu2
            V.—Narcotico-acrid poisons.
   1. Carbonic acid; the gas of charsoal stoves afid
 fermenting liquors.
   2. The manchineel.
   3. Faba Sancti Ignatii.
   4. The exhalations  and juice of the poison tret of
 Macassar, or Upas-Antiar.
   5. The Ticunas.
   6. Certain species Of Strychnos.
   7. The whole plant, Lauro-cerasus.
   8. Belladonna, or deadly nighuhade.
   9. Tobacco.
  10. Roots of white bryony.
  11. RooU of the Charophyllum Sylvestre.
  12. Conium maculatum, or spotted hemlock.
  13. JEthusa cynapium.
  14. Cicuta virosa.
  IS. Anagallis arvensis.
  16. Mercurialis perennis.
  it. Digitalis purpurea.
  18. The distilled waters and oils of  some  of the
 abbve planu.
  19. The odoraht principle of Some of them.
  20. Woorara of Guiana.
  21. Camphor.
  22. Cocculus indictls.
  23. Several' mushrooms'.
  24. Secale cornutum.
  25. Lolium temulentum.
  26. Sium latifolium.
  27. Coriaria myrtifolia.
         VI.—Septic or putrescent poisons.
  1. Sulphuretted hydrogen.
  2. Putrid effluvia of animal bodies.
  3. Contagious effluvia, or fomltes and miasmata.
  4. Venomous animals; the viper, rattlesnake, scor-
 pion, mad dog, Sec
  Antidote for vegetable poisons.  DrapieZ has ascer-
 tained, by numerous experiments, that  tlie fruit of tlie
 Feuiilea cordifulia is a powerful antidote agai nst the ve-
 getable poisons.   He poisoned dogs with the rhus toxi-
 codendron, hemlock, and nux vorhica; and all those
 which were le.ft  to the  effects of the poison died, but
 those to which the above fruit was administered reco-
 vered completely, after a short illness.  To see whether
 the antidote would oct in the some way, applied exter-
 nally to wounds, into  which vegetable  poisons had
 been introduced, he took two arrows, which had been
 dipped into  the juice of the manchenille, and  slightly
 wounded with them two cats; to one of these wounds
 he applied a poultice, composed of Ihe fruit of the feu-
 iilea cordifolia.while the other was left without any
 application.  The former suffered no  inconvenience,
 except from the  pain of the wound', wliich speedily
 healed; while the other, in a short time, felt into con
 vulsions, and died.  This fruit loses these valuable
 virtues, if kept two years after it is gathered.
  Dr. Chisholm states, that the juice ofthe sugar cane
 is the best antidote for arsenic.
  Dr. Lyman Spalding,  of New-York, announces in a
 small pamphlet, that, for above these  fifty years, the
 Scutellaria lateriflora  has proved to be an infallible
 means for the prevention and cure ofthe hydrophobia,
 after the bite of rabid animals.  It Is better applied as
 a dry powder than fresh.  According to tlie testimo-
nies of several American  physicians,  this" plant, not
yet  received as a remedy into any European Materia
 Medica, afforded perfect relief in above a thousand
coses, as well in the human species as in the brute
creation (dogs, swine, and oxen).
  [From a  personal acquaintance With Dr. Spalding
we  are enabled to state, that hfs pamrjhlet of cases of
hydrophobia, said to have  been cured by the Scutel-
laria, has led both tne French and1 English physicians
irtflo a mistake, in relation  fo the curative virtues of
this plant   There are few physicians in the United'
States who place any reliance upon it  At the lime
of tbe publication of Dr. Spdlding's pamphlet, there
was great excitement  about rabid dogs, and" much
newspaper  discusstbn on the virtues  of Scutellaria
lateriflora, as  a  remedy in the cure of hydrophobia.
The subject being very popular, Dr. Spalding, by means'
of the newspapers, collected all the cases  of  alleged'
 cure,  and published  them in a  pamphlet, Without
 vouching for their authenticity, or knowing whether'
 they could be relied on  as correct.  Having led physi-
 cians into'a belief that these were-all well authen'. 
OI
POl
ticated  cases,  the Doctor  afterward  corrected  the
mutake, by  publishing a proper explanation.   The
writer hereof was invited by the attending physician,
to see a patient in the last stage of hydrophobia, who
bad taken the Scutellaria in great quantity, from the
time  he was bitten until the  fatal  symptoms occur-
red.   A.]
           Method of detecting poisons.
  "When sudden deal!) is suspected to have been oc-
casioned by the administration of poison, either wil-
fully or by accident, the  testimony of the physician is
occasionally required to confirm or invalidate this sus-
picion.  He  may  also be sometimes called upon to
ascertain the cause of the noxious effecu  arking from
the presence  of poisonous substances  in articles of
diet;  and it may, therefore, serve an important purpose
to point out concisely the simplest and most practica-
ble modes of obtaining, by experiment, the necessary
Information.
  The only poisons, however, that can  be clearly and
decisively delected, by chemical means, are those of
the mineral kingdom.  Arsenic and corrosive  subli-
mate  are most likely to be exhibited with the view of
producing death; and lend  and copper may be intro-
duced undesignedly,  in several ways, into our  food
and drink.  The continued and unsuspected operation
of the last two may often produce effects less sudden
ana violent, but not less baneful to health and life than
the more active poisons; and their operation generally
involves, in  the  pernicious consequences, a greater
number of sufferers.
  Method of discovering  arsenic.—When the  cause
  f sudden death is believed, from the symptoms pre-
ceding it, to be the administration of arsenic, the con-
sents  of the  stomach must  be attentively examined.
To effect this, let a ligature be made at each orifice, the
stomach removed entirely from the body, and iu whplc
contenu washed out into an earthen or  glass vessel.
The arsenic, on account of its  greater specific gravity,
will settle to the bottom, and  may be obtained  sepa-
rate, after washing off the other substances by repeated
effusions of cold water. These washings should not
be thrown away, till the presence of arsenic has been
clearly ascertained.  It may  be expected at the bottom
of the vessel in the  form  of a white powder, which
must  be carefully collected, dried on a filter, and sub-
mitted to experiment
  A.  Boil a small portion  of the powder with a few
ounces of distilled water, in a clean Florence  flask,
and filter the solution.
  B. To this solution add a portion of water, saturated
with sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  If arsenic be present,
a golden  yellow sediment  will fall  down, which will
appear sooner, if a few drops of acetic acid be added.
  C.  A similar effect is produced by the addition of
sulphuret of  ammonia, or hydrosulphuret of potassa.
  It is necessary, however, to observe, that these tests
are decomposed not only by all metallic solutions, but
by the mere addition of any acid.   But among these
precipitates, Dr. Bostock assures us, the greatest part
are so obviously different as not to afford a probability
of being mistaken; the only two which bear a close
resemblance lo  it, are the  precipitate from tartarized
antimony, and that separated by an acid.   In the latter,
however, the sulphur preserves its peculiar yellow co-
lour, while the arsenic presents a deep shade of orange;
but no obvious circumstance of discrimination can be
pointed out between tiie bydroeulphurets of arsenic
and of antimony.  Hence Dr. Bostock concludes, that
sulphuretted  hydrogen and iu compounds merit our
confidence  only as collateral  tesU.   They  discover
arsenic with  great delicacy: sixty grains  of water, to
which one grain only of liquid sulphuret (hydroguret-
ted sulphuret 1) had been added, was almost instantly
rendered completely opaque by one -eightieth of a grain
of the white  oxide of arsenic in solution.
  .D.  To a little of the solution A, add a single drop of
a weak solution of subcarbonate of potassa, and after-
ward a few drops of a solution of sulphate of copper.
The presence o( arsenic will be manifested by a yel-
lowish-green precipitate.  Or boil a portion of the sus-
pected powder with a dilute solution of pure potassa,
and with this precipitate the sulphate of copper, when
a similar appearance will ensue still more remarkably,
if arsenic be present  The  colour of this precipitate
to perfectly  characteristic.   It to tbat of the  pigment
called Scheele's  green.  To identify the  arsenic with
       lfiC
I still greater certainty, it may be proper, at the thne, of
 making the experiments on a suspected substance, to
 perform similar ones, as a standard of companion, ori
 what is actually known to be  arsenic.  Let the colour,
 therefore, produced by adding an  alkaline solution of
 the substance under examination, lo a solution of sul
 phate of copper, be compared wltn that obtained by a
 similar admixture of a  solution Of copper wilh one of
 real arsenic in alkali.
   The  proportions in  which  the different Ingredients
 are employed, Dr. Bostock has found to have consider-
 able influence on  the  distinct exhibition of the eflfect
 Those which he has observed to answer best, were one
 of arsenic, three of potassa,  (probably the subcarbon-
 ate of, or common salt of tartar,) and five of sulphate
 of copper.  For instance, a solution of one groin  of
 arsenic, and three grains of potassa, in two drachms
 of water, being mingled with another  solution of five
 grains of sulphate of copper in  the  same quantity of
 water,  the whole was converted into a beautiful grass
 green,  from which a  copious  precipitate  of the same
 hue slowly subsided,  leaving the supernatant liquor
 transparent and nearly colourless.  The  same mate-
 rials, except with the omission  of the  arsenic,  being
 employed in the some manner, a delicate sky-blue re-,
 suited,  se different from tiie former as not to admit of
 the possibility of mistake.  In this way, one-fortieth of
 a grain of arseuic, diffused through sixty grains of vya
 ter, afforded, by the addition of sujphqte of copper and
 potassa in proper proportions, a distinct precipilate of
 Scheele's green.  In employing  this testj it is  neces-
 sary to  view the fluid, by reflected arjd riot by transpa-
 rent light, and  to  make the examination  by daylight.
 To render ihe effect more apparent a sheet of white
 paper may  be  placed  behind the glass in which tne,
 mixed fluids are contained; or Ihfi precipitation may
 be effected by mixing the fluids oh a piece of writing-
 paper.
   E. The sediments, produced by any ot' tbp foregoing
 experimenu, may be collected, dried, and  laid on red-
 hot charcoal.   A smell of sulphur will first arise, and
 will be  followed by that of garlic.
   F. A process for delecting arsenic has been proposed
 by Hume, of London,  in the Philosophical Magazine,
 for May, 1809, vol. xxxiii. The test which he has sug-
 gested,  to the fused nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic,
 which he employs in the following manner:—
   Into  a clean  Florence oil-flask, introduce two  or
 three grains of any powder suspected to be arsenic;
 add not less than eight ounce-measures of either rain
 or distilled water;  and heat this graauajly'bver ft lamp,
 or a clear coal fire, till tbe  solution pq-gpi fo boll.
 Then, while it boils, frequently shake the ffiujt, which
 may be readily done  by wrapping a  piege 6JT leather
 round iu neck, or  putting a glove upon the har|d.  To,
 the hot solution, add a grain or two of subcarbonate of
 polassa or soda, agitating the whole to make, the mix-
 ture uniform.
   In the next  place, pour into  an ounce-phial, or  a
 small wine-glass,  about two  table spoonfuls  of this
 solution, and present lo the mere surface of the fluid a
 stick of dry nitrate of silver or lunrtr caustic.  If there
 be any  arsenic  present, a beautiful yellow precipitate
 will instantly appear,  which  will  proceed from the
 point of contact of the nitrate with the fluid; and set-
 tle towards the bottom of the vessel as a flocculem and
 copious precipitate.
   The  nitrate of silver, Hume finds,  also,  acts very
 Bensibly upon arsenate of potassa, and decidedly dis-
 tinguishes this salt from the above solution or arsenite
 of potassa*. the colour of the precipitate, occasioned by
 the arsenate, being much darker and more inclined  to
 brick-red.  In both cases, he to of opinion, that ihe test
 of nitrate of silver is greatly superior to that of sulphate
 of copper; inasmuch  as it  produces  a much  more
 copious precipitate, when equal quantities are sub-
 mitted to experiment  The teste he recommends to  be
 employed in their dry state, in  preference^ to that of
 solution; aad that the piece of salt he held on the sur-
 face only.
   A modified application of  this test has since been.
 proposed by Dr. Marcet, whose  directions are as fol-
 low :—Let the fluid, suspected to contain arsenic,  be
 filtered; let the end of a glass rod, wetted with a solu-
 tion of pure ammonia, be brought into contact with
 this fluid, and let the end. qf a clean rod, similarly
, wetted with solutioB ot Wft* <* sib**/, be immersed 
Ptil                                               POI
la the mixture.  If the minutest quantity of arsenic
be present, a precipitate of a bright-yellow colour, in-
clining to orange, will appear at the point of contact,
and  will readily subside at the  bottom of the vessel.
As this precipitate to soluble in ammonia, the greatest
care to necessary not in add an excess of that alkali.
The acid of arsenic, with the same test, affords a brick-
red precipitate.—Hume, it may be added, now prepares
his test by dissolving a few grains, say ten, of lunar
caustic iu nine or ten times iu weight of distilled water;
precipitating by liquid ammonia: and adding cautious-
ly, and by a few drops at once, liquid ammonia, till the
precipitate to redissolved, and no longer.  To obviate
tiie possibility of any excess of ammonia, a small quan-
tity of the precipilate  may be left  undissolved.   To
apply this test nothing more is required than to dip a
rod of glass into this liquor, and then touch with it the
surface of a solution supposed to contain arsenic, which
will be indicated by a yellow precipitate.
  Sylvester has objected  to this test, that  it will not
produce  the expected appearance, when common salt
is present  He has, therefore, proposed the red acetate
of iron as a belter test of arsenic, wifh which it forms
a bright-yellow deposite; or the acetate of copper, which
affords a green  precipitate. Of the two, he recom-
mends the latter in preference, but advises that both
should be resorted to in doubtful cases.  Dr. Marcet,
However, has replied, that the Objection arising from
the presence of common salt is easily obviated ; for if
a liule diluted nitric acid be added to the suspected
liquid, and then nitrate of silver very cautiously till the
precipitate ceases, the muriate acid will be  removed,
but the  arsenic Will remain in  solution, and the ad-
dition of ammonia will pfdduce the yellow precipitate
in its characteristic form.  It to scarcely necessary to
add, that the quantity of ammonia must be sufficient to
saturate  aby excess of nitric acid, which the fluid may
contain.
  A more important objection to nitrate of silver os a
test of arsenic to, that it affords, with tiie alkaline phos-
phates, a precipitate of phosphate of silver, scarcely
distinguisliable by iU colour from the arseniate of that
metal.  In answer to tills, it is alleged by Hume, that
the arsenite of silver may  be discriminated by a curdy
or flocculent figure, resembling that of fresh precipi-
tated muriate of silver, except that ite colour is yellow;
while the phosphate is smooth and homogeneous.  The
better  to discriminate  these two arsenites, he advises
two parallel experiments  to be  made, upon  separate
pieces of clean writing-paper, spreading on the one a
Utile of the fresh prepared arsenite, and on the other a
little of  the phosphate.   When these  are suffered to
dry, the phosphate will  gradually assume  a black
colour, or dearly so, while the arsenite will pass from
iu original vivid yellow to an Indian yellow, or nearly
a fawn colour.
   Dr. Parts conducts the trial in the following manner:
Drop the suspected fluid on a piece of white paper,
making with it a broad line;  along this line a stick of
lunar caastic to to be slowly drawn several times  suc-
cessively, when a streak will appear of the colour re-
sembling that  known  by the name of Indian yellow.
This is equally produced by arsenic and by an alkaline
phosphate, but the one from arsenic  is rough, curdy,
and flocculent, like that from a crayon ; that from a
phosphate is homogeneous and uniform, resembling a
water Colour laid smoothly on with a brush.  But a
niorfe important and distinctive peculiarity soon suc-
ceeds ; for in less than two minutes the phosphoric yel-
low fades into a sad green,  and becomes gradually
darker, and ultimately quite black, while on the other
hand the arsenic yellow continuespermanent,or nearly
so, for some time, and then becomes brown.  In per-
forming this experiment,  the  sunshine  should  be
avoided, or the change of colour will take place too
rapidly.   (Ann. of Phil.  x. 60.) The outhor of the
London  Dispensatory adds, that the test is improved
by brushing the streak lightly over with liquid ammo-
ma immediately after  the application  of the caustic,
when, if arsenic be juesent, a bright queen's yellow is
produced, wliich remains permanent  for  neariy an
hour; but that When lunar caustic produces a while
yellow before the ammonia IS applied; we may infer
the  presence of some  alkaline phosphate rather than
of arsenic.
   G. Smithson proposes to fuse  any powder suspected
to contain arsenic with nitre; this produces arseniare
of potassa, of which the solution affords  a brick-red
precipitate witb nitrate of silver.  In cases where any
sensible portion of the alkali of the  nitre has been set
free, it must, be soturoted with ocetous acid, and the
saline mixture dried and redissolved in  water.  So
small is the quantity of arsenic required for this mode
of trial, tbat a drop of solution of oxide of arsenic In
water (which, at  54° of Fahr.  may be  estimated  to
contain, one-eightieth its weight of the oxide), mixed
witli a little nitrate of potassa, and fused in a platinum
spoon, affords a very sensible quantity of arseniate of
Silver,   (^nn. of Phil. N. S. iv. 127.)
  H.  Dr. Cooper, President of Columbia College, finds
a solution of chromate of potassa to be one of the best
teste of arsenic.  One drop is  turned  green by  the
fourth of a grain of arsenic, by two or three drops of
Fowler's mineral solution, or any other arsenite of po-
tassa.  The arsenious acid  takes  oxygen from  ilie
chromic, which to converted into oxide  of chrome
To exhibit the effect, take five  watch-glasses;  put on
one, two or three drops of a watery solution of white
arsenic; on the second, as much  arsenite of potassa;
on the third, one-fourth of a  grain of white arsenic  in
substance; on the fourth, two  or three drops of a so-
lution of corrosive sublimate; on the fifth, two or three
drops of a solution of copper. Add to each three Or four
drops of a  solution of chromate of potassa.   In half an
hour, a bright, clear, gross-green colour will appear in
numbers 1, 2, 3, unchongeoble by ammonia; number
4 will instantly exhibit on orange precipitate; and num-
ber 5 a green, which a drop of ammonia will instantly
change to  blue. (Silliman's American Journal, lit.)
  I. But the most decisive mode of determining ihe
presence of  arsenic (which, though not absolutely in-
dispensable, should always be resorted to, When the
suspected  substance can be obtained in sufficient quan-
tity) to by  reducing it to a metallic state: for its charac-
ters are then clear and unequivocal.   For this purpose,
let a portion of ihe white sediment, collected from the
contents ofthe stomach, be dried ond mixed with three
times ils weight of block flux; or if this cannot be pro-
cured, with  two parts of very dry carbonate of potassa
(the salt of  tartar of the shops), and one of powdered
charcoal.  Dr. Bostock finds, that for this mixture we
may advantageously substitute one composed of half a
grain of charcoal, aud two drops of oil, to a grain of the
sediment   Procure a tube eight or  nine inches long,
and one-fourth or one-sixth of an inch in diameter, of
thin gloss, sealed hermetically at one end.  Then put
into the tube the mixture of the powder and its flux,
and if any should adhere to the inner surface, let it be
wiped off by  a feather, so that the inside of all the
upper part of the tube may be quite clean and dry.
Stop the end of the tube loosely,  with a little paper, ond
heat the sealed end only, on a chafing-dish of red-hot
cools, taking core to avoid breathing the fumes.  The
arsenic, if present, will rise to  the  upper  part of the
tube, on the inner surface of wbich it will  form a thin
brilliant coating.   Break the tube, and scrape  off the
reduced metal. Lay a little on a heated iron, when, if
it  be arsenic, a dense smoke will arise, and a  strong
smell of garlic will be perceived.  The arsenic may be
further identified, by putting a small quantity between
two polished plates of copper, surrounding it by pow-
dered charcoal, to prevent iu escape, binding these
tightly together by iron wire, ond exposing them to a
low red heat  If the included substances be arsenic, a
white stain  will be left on the copper.
  K. It may be proper to observe, that neither the stain
on copper, nor the odour of garlic, is produced by the
white oxide of arsenic, when heated without the ad-
dition of some inflammable ingredient.  The absence
of arsenic must not, therefore, be inferred, if no smell
should be  occasioned by laying the white powder on a
heated iron.
  Dr. Block ascertained that all the necessary experi-
ments, for the detection of arsenic, may  be made on a
single grain of the white oxide;  this small quantity
having produced, when heated in a tube with its proper
flux, as  much of the metal as clearly established its
presence.
  If the quantity of arsenic in the stomach should be so
small, which is not very'probable, as to occasion death,
and  yet to  remain suspended  in the washings,  tbe
whole contenu, and the water employed to  wash them
must be filtered, and the clear liquor assayed for arse-
nic by the tests B, C, D, and E. 
POl                                               o
    In this case, it to necessary  to be careful that the
  colour of the precipitate is not modified by that of the
  liquid found iu the stomach.  If this  be yellow, the
  precipitate by sulphate of copper and carbonate of po-
  tassa will appear green, even  though no arsenic be
  present; but on  leaving it to settle, decanting off the
  fluid, and replacing it with water, it will evidently be
  blue without any tinsje of green, being no longer seen
  through a yellow medium.—(Dr. Paris.)
    The  liquid contents of the stomach may also be
  evaporated to  dryness below 250°  Fahr. and tbe dry
  mass be exposed  to heat at  the bottom of a  Florence
  |flask, to sublime the arsenic.  If dissolved in an  oily
  fluid, Dr. Ure proposes to boil  the  solution  with  dis-
  tilled water, and  afterward to separate the oil by the
  capillary action of wick threads.   The  watery fluid
V piay then be subjected to the usual teste
    In an investigation, the eventof which is to affect the
  life  of  an accused person, it is  the  duty of every one
  who may prepare himself to give evidence, not to rest
  satisfied with the appearances produced by any one
  test of arsenic; but to render iu presence quite  un-
  equivocal by the concurring results of several.
    Discovery of  corrosive sublimate,  baryta, Sec.—
  Corrosive sublimate (the bichloride  or oxymuriate of
  mercury,) next to  arsenic, to the most virulent of the
  metallic poisons.  Il may be collected  by treating the
  contents  of the  stomach in the  manner already de-
  scribed ; but as it  is more  soluble  than arsenic, viz.
  in about nineteen times  iu weight  of water, no more
  water rousl be employed than is barely sufficient, and
  (he washings must be carefully preserved for examina-
  tion.
    If a  powder should be collected  by  this operation,
  wbich  proves, on  examination, not to be arsenic, it
  may be known to be corrosive sublimate by the follow-
  ing characters:
    A. Expose a small quantity of it, without any ad-
  mixture, to heat  in a coated  glass tube, us directed in
  the treatment of  arsenic.  Corrosive sublimate will be
  ascertained by ite  rising lo the top of the tube, lining
  the inner surface in the form of a shining white crust.
    P. Dissolve  another portion  in distilled water;  and
  it may be proper tq observe how much of the salt the
  water is capable of taking up.
    C. To the watery solution odd a little lime-water.
  A precipitate of an orange yellow colour will instantly
  appear.                            .
    D. To another portion of the solution add a single
  drop of a dilute  solution of sub-carbonate of potassa
  {salt of tartar).  A white precipitate will appear;  but
  on a still further addition of alkali, an orange-coloured
  sediment will be formed.
    E. The carbonate uf soda has similar effecu.
    F. Sulphuretted water throws down a dark-colour-
  ed sediment, which, when dried and strongly heated,
  is wholly volatilized, without any odour of garlic.
    For  the dctecUon  of corrosive sublimate,  Sylvester
  has recommended tiie application of galyanism, which
  exhibits  the mercury in a metallic state.  A piece of
  zinc wire, or if that cannot be  had, of iron wire about
  three inches long, is to be twice bent at right angles, so
  as  to  resemble the Greek  letter n.  The two legs of
  this figure should be distant about the diameter of  a
  common gold  wedding-ring from each other, and the
  two ends of the bent wire must afterward be tied to a
  ring of this description.   Let a plate of glass, not less
  than three inches square, be laid as nearly  horizontal
   as possible, and on one side drop some sulphuric  acid,
   diluted with obout six times iu weight of water,  till  it
  spreads to the size of a halfpenny.  At a little distance
  from this,  towards the other 6ide,  next drop some of
   the solution  supposed to contain corrosive sublimate,
   till the euaesof  Ihe two liquids join together; and let
   the wire and ring prepared as above be laid in such a
   way that  the wire may touch the  acid, wl.ile the gold
   ring is in contact with the suspected liquid. If the
   minutest quantity of corrosive sublimate be present,
   the ring in' a few minutes will be  covered  with  mer-
   cury on the part which touched tbe fluid.
   '  Smithson remarks, that  all the oxides  and saline
   compounds of  mercury, if laid in a drop of marine
   acid on mid,  wilh a bit of tin,  quickly amalgamate the
   mid  In this way, a very minute quantity of corro-
    sive sublimate,  or a drop of its solution may be  tried,
    and no addition of muriatic acid is then  required.
    Quantities of mercury  may thus be rendered evident,
         108
which could not be so by any other means.  Even Ii*
mercury of cinnabar may  be exhibited ; but it must
previously be boiled with a  Utile sulphuric acid in a
platinum spoon, lo convert it into sulphate.  An  ex
ceedincly minute quanti y of metallic mercury iu any
powder may be discove.t-d by placing it in nitric acid
on gold, drying, and adding muriatic acid and tin.
  Tli- only mineral poison of great virulence that has
not been mentioned, aud which, from  its being little
known to act as such, it is very improbable we should
meet with, is the  carbonate of baryta.  This, in  the
country where It is found, to employed as a poison lor
rau, and there can be no doubt would be equally de-
structive to human life.   It may be discovered by dis-
solving It in muriatic scid, and by tlie insolubility  of
the precipitate which this solution yields on adding sul-
phuric ocid, or sulphate of soda. Soluble barytic salts,
if these have been the  means of poison, will be  con-
tained in the water employed to wash the contents o.
the stomach, and will be detected, on adding sulphuric
acid,  by a copious precipitate.
  It may be proper to observe, that the failure of at-
tempts to discover poisonous substances in the alimen-
tary canal after death, is by no means a sufficient proof
that death has not been occasioned by poison.  For it
has been clearly established, by experimenu made on
animals, that a poison may be so completely evacuated,
that no traces of it shall be found, and yet tbat death
may  ensue  from  the morbid changes which it has
occasioned in the alimentary canal, or in tbe general
Bystem.
  Method of detecting  copper or lead.—Copper ano)
lead sometimes gain admission into articles of food, in
consequence of the employment of kitchen utensUs of
these materials.
  1. If copper be suspected in any liquor, ite presence
will be ascertained  by adding a solution of pure am-
monia, which will strike a beautiful blue colour.   If
the solution be  very dilute, it may be concentrated by
evaporation ; and if the  liquor contain a considerable
excess of acid,  like that used to preserve pickles, as
much of the alkali must be added as is more than suf-
ficient to saturote the acid.   In this,  and  all other ex-
perimenu of the same kind, the fluid should be-viewed
by reflected, and not by transmitted light
  If into a newly prepared tincture of guaiacum wood
we drop a concentrated solution of  a salt of copper,
the mixture  instantly  assumes a blue colour. This
effect does not  take place when the solution is very
weak, for example, when there is  not above half it
grain of the salt to an ounce of water; but then, by die
addition of a few drops of prussic acid, the blue colour
is instantly developed of great purity and intensity.
This colour is  not permanent, but  soon  passes to a
green, and at length totally disappears.   For want of
prussic acid, distilled laurel-water  may be employed.
The test produces iu effect even when the proportion
of the salt  of copper to the water does not exceed
l-45000th.   In  this minute  proportion no  other test,
whether the prussiate of potassa, soda,  or ammonia,
gives the least indication of copper.—(Quart. Journ.
x. 182.)
   2. Lead is occasionally found, in sufficient quantity
to be injurious to health,  in water-that has passed
through  leaden pipes, or been kept in  leaden vessels,
and sometimes even in pump^water, in consequence of
that metal having been used in the construction of the
pump.  Acetate of lead has also been known to be
fraudulently added to bad wines, with tbe view ofcon-
cealing their defects.
   Lead may be discovered by adding, to a portion of
tbe suspected water, about half its  bulk of water im-
pregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  If lead be
present,  it will be manifested by  a dark brown, or
blackish, tinge.  This test Is so delicate, that water,
condensed by the leaden worm of a still-tub, is sensi-
 bly affected by it.  Lead is also detected  by a similar
 effect ensuing  on the addition of sulphuret of ammo-
 nia, or potassa,
   The adequacy of this method, however, to the dis-
 covery of very minute quantities of lead, has been set
 aside by the experimenu of Dr. Lam be, the author of
 a skilful analysis of the springs of Leamington Priors,
 near Warwick.  By new methods of examination, he
 has  detected the presence of lead   in  several spring-
 waters, that manifest no change on the addition of the
 sulphuretted test; and has found tbat metal in the pre- 
POl                                            POL
eipltate, separated from such waters by the carbonate
of potassa or of soda.  In operating on these waters,
Dr Lanibe noticed ihe following appearances:
  a. The test forms sometimes a dark cloud, with the
precipitate aff«rted by alkalies, which has been redis-
solved iu nitric ocid.
  4. Though it forms, in other coses, no cloud, the pre-
cipitate itself becomes darkened by the sulphuretted test.
  e. The test forms a white cloud, treated with the
precipitate as in a.  These two appearances may be
united.
  d. The test neither forms a cloud, nor  darkens the
precipitate.
  e. In  the cases 6, c, d, heat the precipitate, in  con-
tact with an alkaline carbonate, to redness; dissolve
out the carbonate by water;  and treat the precipitate
as in a.   The sulphuretted test then forms a dark cloud
with the solution of the precipitate.   In these experi-
menu, il to essential that the acid,  used to redissolvc
the precipitate, shall not be in excess; and if it should
so happen, tliat excess must  be saturated before the
test is applied.  It is better to use so little acid, that
nonie of the precipitate may remain undissolved.
  /. Instead of tiie  process e, the precipilate may be
exposed, without addition, to a red heat, and then
treated  as in a.  In this  cose, the test  will detect the
metallic matter; but with less certainty than the  fore-
going one.
  The nitric acid, used in these experimenu, should be
pertectly pure; and  the  test should be recently pre-
pared by saturating water with sulphuretted hydrogen
fas.  A few drops of nitric acid added to a water con-
taining lead, which has been reduced to  l-8th or l-10th
ite bulk by evaporation, and then followed by the addi-
tion of a few drops of hydriodate of potassa, produces
a yellow insoluble precipitate.
  Anotiier mode of analysis, employed by Dr. Lambe,
consisu in precipitating the leod by solution of com-
mon salt; but as  muriate of lead to partly soluble in
water, this test cannot be applied to  small portions of
suspected water.  The precipitate must be, therefore,
collected, from two or three gallons, and heated to red-
ness with twice iu weightof carbonate of soda.   Dis-
solve out the soda; add nitric  acid, saturating  any
superfluity;  and  then apply  the  sulphuretted  test.
Sulphate of soda would be found more effectual in this
process than the muriate, on occount of the greater in-
solubility of sulphate of lead.  This property, indeed,
renders sulphate of soda an excellent test of the pre-
sence of lead, when  held in solution by  acids, for  it
throws down that metal, even when present in very
small quantity, in the form of a heavy  white precipi-
tate, which is not soluble by acetic acid.
  The third process, whicli is the most  satisfactory of
all, and is very easy, except for the  trouble of collect-
ing a large quantity of precipitate, is the actual reduc-
tion of the metal, andiu exhibition in a separate foim.
The precipitate may be mixed with  its own weight of
alkaline carbonote, and exposed either wilh or without
the  addition of a small  proportion of charcoal, to a
heat sufficient to melt the alkali.  On breaking the
crucible, a small globule of lead will be  found  reduced
at the bottom.  The precipitate from about fifty gallons
of water yielded Dr. Lambe, in one instance, about
two grains of lead.
  For discovering the presence of lead in wine, a test
invented by Dr. Hahnemann, and known by the title of
Hahnemann's wine test, may be employed.  This test
is prepared by putting together, in'o a small phial, six-
teen grains of sulphuret of lime, prepared in the dry
way (by exposing to a red heat, in a covered crucible,
equal weights of powdered lime and  sulphur, accurate-
ly mixed), and twenty grains of bitartrate of potassa
(cream of tartar). The phiol to to be filled with water,
well corked, and  occasionally shaken for  the space of
ten minutes.  When the powder has subsided, decant
the clear liquor, and preserve it, in a well-stopped bot-
tle,  for  use.  The liquor, when fresh  prepared, dis-
covers lead by a dark coloured precipitate.  A further
proof of the presence of lead in wines is the occurrence
of a precipitate on adding a solution ofthe sulphate of
soda.
  Sylvester has proposed the galhcacid as an excellent
test of the presence of lead.
  The quantity of lead, which has been detected in so-
phisticated wine, may be  estimated at  forty grains of
the metal iu every fifty galloi""
  When a considerable quantity of acetate of lead bas
been taken into the stomach (as sometimes, owing to
its sweet taste, happens to children), after the exhibi-
tion of an active emetic, the hydro-sulphuret of potassa
or of ammonia may be given; or probably a solution of
sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt) would render it in-
noxious."—Henry's Chem.
  Poison-oak.  See Rhus toxicodendron.
  POLEMO'NIUM.  (An ancient name derived from
troXtpos, war: because, according to Pliny, kings had
contended for the  honour of iu discovery.) 1. The
name of a genus of plants iu the Linnoean system
Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. Wild sage, or  Teucrium scorodonia of Linmcus.
  Polemonium c*rllkum.  The systematic name of
the Greek valerian, or Jacob's ladder, the root of which
is esteemed by some as a good astringent against diar-
rhoeas and dysentery.
  POLEY-MOUNTALN.  See Teucrium.
  POLIOSIS .(From iroXoc, candidus, white or hoary.)
The specific name of a species of Trichosis in Good's
arrangement, in which the hairs arc prematurely gray
or hoary.
  PO'LIUM.  (From aoXios, white: so called from iu
white capillaments.)  Foley.   Teucrium of Linnaius.
  Polium crkticom.  See Teucrium creticum.
  Polium montanum.  See Teucrium capitatum.
  POLLEN.  (Pollen, inis.  n.;  fine flour,  or  dust.)
The powder which adheres to the anthers ofthe flow-
ers of planu, and which is contained in the anther, and
is thrown out chiefly in warm, dry weather, when the
coat of the latter contracu and bursu.  The pollen,
though to the naked  eye a  fine powder, and  light
enough to be wafted along by the air, is socuriously
formed,  and so various in different plants, as to be an
interesting  and popular  object for the  microscope.
Each grain of it is commonly a membranous bag,  round
or angular, rough or smooth, which remains entire till
it meeu  with  any moisture, being contrary in this re-
spect to  the nature  of the anther; then it bursu with
great force, discharging iu subtile and vivifying vapour.
  In the Helianthus annuus, tlie pollen to echinate.
  In Geraniums, perforate.
  The pollen of Symphatum is didymous.
  That of the Mallow, dentate.
  It is ungulate in Viola odorata,
  Reniforme in Narcissus ; ond
  In Borago, convolute.
  POLLENIN.  The pollen of tulips has been  ascer-
tained by  Professor John to contain a peculiar sub-
stance, insoluble in alkohol, aether, water, oil of lur
pontine,  naphtha, carbonated and pure alkalies; ex-
tremely combustible, burning with great rapidity and
flame; and hence used at tbe theatres to imitate light-
ning.
  POLLEX.  The thumb, or great toe.
  POLYADELPHIA.  (From iroXus, many, and arJeX-
tbta, a brotherhood.)  The name of a closs of plants iu
the sexual system of Linnteus, embracing planu with
hermaphrodite flowers, in which several stamina are
united by  their filameiiu into three or more distinct
bundles.
  POLYA'NDRIA.  (From iroXvc, many, and avno, a
husband.)   The name of a class of planu in the sexual
system of Linneeus. It consisu of plonU with hermaph-
rodite flowers, furnished  with  several stamina, that
ore inserted into the common receptacle ofthe flower;
by which circumstance this class is distinguished from
Icosandria, in wliich the striking character to the situa-
tion ofthe stamina on the calyx or petals.
   POLYCHRE'STUS.    (From aaXvs, much, and
XpflS"os< useful.)  Hoving  mooy virtues, or uses.  Ap-
plied to  many medicines from their extensive useful-

  POLYCHROITE.  The colouring matter of saffron.
  POLYDIPSIA.   (From boXuc,  much, and  Sups,
thirst.)  Excessive  thirst  A genus of disease  in the
Closs Locales, and Order Dysorexia, of Cullen.  It is
mostly symptomatic of fever, dropsy,  excessive dis-
charges, or poisons,
  POLY'GALA.  (From kjoAijc,much,andyaXa.milk:
so named from the  abundance of its milky juice.)  1.
The name of agenus of planu in the Limucon systeat
Class, Diadelphia; Order, Octandria.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of ihe common milk
wort. See Polygala vulgaris.
  Polygala amara. This is a remarkably bitter plant
                                        153 
POL
POL
 and, though qot used in this country, promises to be as
 efficacious as those in greater repute.  It has been given
 freely in phthisis puhnonalis, mid, like other remedies,
 failed in producing n cure; yet, as a palliative, It claims
 attention.   Its virtues are balsamic, demulcent, aud
 Corroborant
   Polygala sstntOA.  The systematic name of the
 rattlesnake milk-wort.  Seneka.   Polygala—floribus
 tmperbibus spicatis, caule eredo herbaceo simplids-
 simo, foliis  evato lanceolatis, of Linn&us. Tlie root
 of this plant was formerly much esteemed as a specific
 against the poison of the rattlesnake, and  as an anti-
 phlogistic in pleurisy, pneumonia, &c.; but it is now
 Very much laid aside.  Its dose is frohj ten to twenty
 grains; but when employed, it is generally used in the
 form of decoction, which, when prepored according to
 the formulo of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, may be
 given every second or third hour.
   Polygala vvloaris.  The systematic name of the
 common milk-wort. The root of this plant is  some-
 what similar in taste to that of the  seneka, but much
 weaker.  The leaves are very bitter, and a handful of
 them, infused  in wine, is said lo be a safe and gentle
 purge.
   POLYGAMIA.  (From toXuc, many, and yauos, a
 marriage.)  Polygamy.  The name of a class of plants
 in the sexual  system of Linnaus, consisting of poly-
 gamous plants, or planu having hermaphrodite flow-
 ers,  and likewise mole  and female flowers, or both.
 The orders of this division are according to the beauti-
 ful uniformity or  plan which  runs through this inge-
 nious system, distinguished upon the principles of the
 Classes Monacia, Dicecia, and  Triacia.  It has the
 five following orders:
   \. Polygamia aqualis.  The name of on order of
 Class Syngenesia, of the sexual system of pi snu.  The
 floreU aie all perfect or united, that to, each furnished
 with perfect stamens.
  2  Polygamia frustranea.  FloreU of the disk, with
 stamens and pistil:  those ofthe radius with merely an
 abortive pistjl, or with not even the rudiments of any.
  3. Polygamia necessaria.  FloreU of the disk with
 stamens only, those ofthe radius with pistils only.
  4. Polygamia segregata. Several flowers, either sjm-
 p\e or compound,  nut with united anthers, and with a
 proper calyx, included in one common colyx.
  5. Polygamia superflua.  Florets of the disk, with
 stamens and pistil: those of the radius with pistil only,
 but each, of both kinds, forming perfect seed.
  POLYGON A'TUM.  (FromooXvc, many, and yovv,
 a joint: so named from ils numerous joinu or knots.)
 Solomon's seol.  See Conrallanapolygonatuvt.
  POLY'GONUM.  (From aoXvs, many, and yovv, o
 joint: so named from iu numerous joints.)  The name
 .of o genus of plants iu the Linnaean system.  Class,
 Octandria;  Order,  Trigynia.  Knot-grass.
  Polygonum aviculabi.  The systematic name of
 the knot-grass.  Centunniodia; Polygonum latifolium;
 Polygonum mas ; Sanguinaria.  This plant is  never
 used In  this country; it to said to be useful in stopping
 hemorrhages, diarrhoeas, Sec.; but little credit is to be
 given to this account
  Polygonum bacciferum.  A species of equisetum,
 or horse-tail.
  Polygonum bistorta.  The systematic name of the
 Officinal bistort.  Bistorta.   Polygonum—caule sim-
 plicissimo mavostachio, foliis ovatis in petiolum decur-
 rentibus, of Linmeus.  This plant to a native of Bri-
 tain. Every part manifesU a degree of stypticity to the
 taste, and the root  is esteemed lo be one of ihe most
 powerful of the vegetable  astringents, and frequently
 made use of as such, in disorders  proceeding from  a
1 laxity and debility of tlie solids, for restraining alvine
 fluxes, after due evacuations, and other preternatural
 discharges, both serous and sanguineous.   It has been
 sometimes given in intermitting fevers;  and sometimes
 also, in small doses, as o corroborant and antiseptic, in
 acute malignant and colliquative fevers; in which in-
 tentions Peruvian bark has now deservedly superseded
 both these and all other adstringents.  The common
 dose of bistort root in substance, is fifteen or twenty
 groins: in urgent coses it is extended to a drachm.  Iu
 astringent matter to totally dissolved both by water and
 reclined spirits.
   Polygonum  divaricatum.  The  systematic  name
 of the eastem buckwheat plant  The roou, reduced
 to a cuan* meal, are the oittinary fobtl of the Siberians.
      200
  PoLtaoirinr faoopyruii.  The systematic name ot
the buckwheat  Tlie grain of this plant constitutes
the principal food or the inbabitanu of Russia, Ger-
many and Switzerland.
  Polygonum  hydropip«ii.  The systematic name ol
thepoor man's pepper. Hydropiper.  Biliinjarae-Mian;
Lake-weed ; Waier-pepper.  This  plant is very com
mon in our ditches;  the leaves have nn ocrid, burning
taste, ond seem to be nearly of tiie  same nature witb
those of the arum.   They hove been recommended as
possessing antiseptic, aperient, diuretic virtues,  una]
given in scurvies and cachexies,  asthmas,  hyiRichon-
driacal and nephritic compluinu, aud wandering gout
The first leaves have been applied externally, as a  sti-
mulating cataplasm.                           _
  Polygonum latifolium. Comnson knot-grass.  See
Polygonum aviculare.
  Polygonum mas.   See Polygonum aviculare.
  Polygonum minus.  Rupture-wort   See Hernia-
ria glabra.
  Polygonum persicaria.  The systematic name of
the Persicaria of the old pharmacopoeias.  Persicaria
mitis; Plumbago.   Arse-smart This plant to sold t0
possess  vulnerary  nnd  antiseptic  properties; with
which intentions it to given in wine to restrain the pro-
gress of gangrene.
  Polygonum selknoidis.  Parsley breakstone.
  POLYPODIUM.   (From aoXvs, many,  and irovf,
a foot: so called  because it has many roou.) The
name of  a genus of planu in the Liunauiii system.
Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Filices.  Fern, or |>olyr
pody.
  Polypodium aculratum. Filix aculeata.  Spear-
pointed fern.   Fallen Into  disuse.
  Polypodium fiwx mas.  Aspidium filix mas, of
Dr. Smith; Pteris;  Blancnon; Orbasii;  Lonchitis.
Male polypody, or fern.   The root of this plant hos
been greatly celebrated for iu effects upon the ta>nia
osculis supcrficialibus, or broad tape-worm.   Madame
Noufer acquired great celebrity by employing It as a
specific.  This secret was thought of such importance
by some ofthe principal physicians at Paris, who wero
deputed to make a complete trial of its efficacy, that
it was purchased by the French king, nnd  afterward
published by his order.   The method  of cure to  tbe
following:—After the patient has been prepared by on
emollient glyster, and a supper of ponndo, with butter
aud salt, he is directed to take  In the morning, while
in bed, a dose of two or three drachms of the powder-
ed root of the mule fern.  The powder must  be washed
down with a draught of water, and, two hours after, a
strong cathartic, composed of calomel and scammony,
is to be given, proportioned to the strength  of the pa-
tient If this does not operate In due time, it is io be
followed  by a  dose of purging sbIu, and If the worm
be not expelled in a few hours, this process is to be re-
peated at proper intervals.  Of the success  of this, Ot
a similar mode of treatment, in cases of tenia, there
can be no doubt, as many proofs in this country afford
sufficient testimony; but whether the fern-root or  the
strong cathartic is the principal agent in the destruc-
tion of the worm, may admit of a question; and  the
latter opinion, Dr. Woodville believes, Is  the more
generally adopted by physicians,  It appears, however^
from some  experiments made in  Germany, that  the
lamia has, In  several Instances, been expelled by  the
repeated exhibition of the root,  without the  assistance
of any purgative.
  [Polypodium baromktz.   See  Agnus lartari-
cus. A.]
  PO'LYPUS.  (From aoXvs, many, and aovs, a foot:
from iu sending off many ramifications, like legs.)   1.
The name of a genus of zoophytes.
  2.  A species of sarcoma in Cullen's Nosology.  A
polypus to a tumour, which is generally narrow where
it originates, and then becomes  wider, somewhat lijte
0 peor.  It  is most commonly met with in the nose,
uterus, or vagina; and has received its name from an
erroneous  idea, that it  usually had several roou, of
feet like zoophyte polypi.
  Polypi vary from  each other according to the differ-
ent causes that produce them, and the alterations that
happen in thtni.   Sometimes a polypus of the nose la
owing to a swelling of the pituitary  membrane, whicli
swelling may  possess a greater or  less space  of  the
membrane, as also its cellular substance, and may affect
either one or both nostril!.  At other times it arises 
POM
POK
artta an nleer produced by a earles of some of the
bones which form tire internal surface of the nostrils.
Polypuses are sometimes so  soft, that upon the least
touch they are lacerated, and  bleed; ai other tunes
they are very compact,  and  even scirrhous,  borne
continue small a great while; otliers increase so tast
as, In a short time, to push out at the nostrils, or ex-
tend backwards towards the  throat   Le Drsu  men-
tions, that he has known them fill up the space behind
the uvula, and, turning towards tlie mouth, have pro-
truded the fleshy arch of the palate so far forwards as
to make it parallel with the third  denf.««  molurta.
There are other? which, though at first free from any
malignant disposition, become afterward carcinoma-
tous, and even highly cancerous.  Of whatever nature
tlie polypus is, it  intercepts the passage of the air
through the nostril, and, when large, forces the septum
narium into the other nostril, so that the patient  is
unable lo breathe, unless through the mouth.  A large
polypus pressing in like manner upon the spongy bonus,
gradually forces them down upon the maxillary bones,
and thus compresses aud stops up the orifice of the
ductus lachrymalis; nor is it impossible for  the sides
of the canalis nasalis to be pressed together.  In which
case, the tears, having no passage through the nose, the
eye is kept constantly watering, and the sacchus lachry-
malis, not being able to discharge its contents, to some-
times so much dilated as to form what is called ft flat
fistula.  The above writer has seen instances of poly-
puses so much enlarged as to force down tlie ossa palati.
  The polypus of the uterus is of three kinds, in re-
spect to situation.   It either  grows from the fundus,
the inside of the cervix, or from the lower edge of the
os uleri.  The first case to the most frequent, the last
the most uncommon.  Polypi ofthe uterus are always
shaped like a pear, and have a thin pedicle.  They are
almost invariably of that species which  to denomi-
nated  fleshy, hardly ever being  scirrhous, fcancerous,
or ulcerated.
  3. The coagulated substance which is found in the
cavities of the heart of those who are some time  ift
artitulo mortis, is improperly called a polypus.
  POLYSA'RCIA.  (.From  raoXuc, much, and aapl,
flesh.)  PolySomatia;  Obesitas; CorpuUntia;  Stea-
tites.  Troublesome corpulency, obesity, or fatness.
A genus of diseases in the Class Cachexia, and Order
Intumescentia, of Cullen.
  POLYBOMA'TIA.   (From aioXvi, much, and otapa,
a Jody.)  See Polysarcia.
  Polyspa'stum.   (From rs»Xttj(  much, and  errata,
to draw.)   A forcible instrument for reducing luxa^
tions.
  POLYTRl'CHUM.  (From aoXvs, many, and 8pt{,
hair:  so called from  its resemblance  to  a woman's
hair, or because, in ancient times, Women used to dye
the hoir with it, to keep it from shedding.)  Polytry-
eon.   1. The name of a genus of planU in the Lin-
iisean system.  Class, Cryptogamia; Order, Musei.
  2. The pharmacopceial name  Of the golden maiden-
hair.  See Polytricum commune.
   Polytricum communb.  The systematic name of
 the golden maidenhair.  Adianthum aureum.  It pos-
sesses, in an  inferior degree, astringent virtues: and
was formerly given in diseases Ofthe lungs and calcu-
ous complainU.
  POMACEjE. (From pomum, an apple.)  The name
of an order  of planU in Linnaeus's Fragmenu of a
 Natural Method,  consisting of those which have a
 fruit of a pulpy, esculent, apple, berry, or cherry kind.
   POMA'CEUM.   (From pomum, an  apple.) Cider,
 of the fermented juice of apple.
   POMEGRANATE.   See Punica granatum.
   POMPHOLYGO'DES.  (From aoutpoXvl, a bubble,
 arid uSot, resemblance.)  Urine, with  bubbles on the

   FO'MPHOLYX.  (From aoptbos, a bladder.)  LA
 small vesicle, or bubble.
   2. The whitish oxide of zinc, Which adheres to Ihe
 covers of the crucibles in malting brass, in the form of
 flfhafl bubbles.                      ,JL>  _
   FO'MPHOS.   (From atptbto, to put forth.)  Pom-
 phns.  A bladder, or watery pustule.
   POMUM.  1. An apple.
   2  In botanical distinctions ond language this Is a
 fteetiy pericarpium or seed-vessel, containing a capsule
 Within it with several seeds.  Iu species are,
   t. Pdmum obidHgUM; set in Pyrus crtniuunf*.
  Si P. bactatum; as in Pyrus baccata. _
  3. P. muricalum;  as ill Momordica trifoliala.
  4. P.hispidum; as in Momordica elaterium.
  The navel-like remains to port of the calyx.
  The pomum is comprehended by Gertner under tha
different kinds of bacca, it being sometimes scarcely pos-
sible to draw the liite between them. See Pyrus malus
  Pomuk adami.   (Pomum, an apple: so  colled  in
consequence at a whimsical supposition, that part of
the forbidden  apple  which Adam ate, stuck in the
throat, and thus became the cause.)  The protuberance
in the anterior part of the neck, formed by ihe forepart
of the thyroid gland.
  Pomum amuris.   See Solanum lycopersicum.
   Ponderous spar.   See Heavy spar and Barytes.
  PONS.  Abridge.  A part of the brain is so called
from its arched appearance.
  Pons  varolii. Corpus annulare; Processus annu-
laris ;  Eminentia annularis.  Varolius's bridge.  An
eminence of the medulla oblongata, first described by
Varolius.  It te formed by the two exterior crura  of
the cerebellum  becoming flattened ond passing over
Ihe crura of tiie cerebrum.
  Po'ntica visa.  Acid, feculent, and tarlarous wines
   Ponticum mel*   A poisonous honey.
   Poor  man's pepper.  See Polygonum  hydroptper,
and Lepidium.
   POPLAR.  See Populus.
   PO'PLES.  The ham, or joint of the knee.
   POPI.ITE'AL.  (Poplittus; from poples, the ham.)
A small triangular muscle lying  across the  back part
of the knee-joint, is so called.
   Popliteal artbry.   Arteria poplitea.   The con.
tiiiuatlon of the crural artery, through tiie hollow of
the ham.
   POPPY. See Papaver.
   Poppy, red corn.   See Papaver rhceae.
   Poppy, white.  See Papaver somniferum.
   POPULA'GO.  (From populus, the poplar; because
its leaves resemble those of ihe poplar.)   See Caltha
palustris.
   POPULUS.  (From boXiic, many; because of the
multitude of its shoots.)   1. The name of a genus of
planu in the Linnaean system.  Class, Diacia ; Order,
Octandria.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name  of the black poplar.
See Populus nigra.
   Populus balsamikbra.  See Fagara.
   Populus nigra.   The systematic name of the black
poplar.   JEgeiros.  The young  buds, oculi, or rudi-
ments ofthe lenves, which appear in the beginning Of
the spring, were formerly employed in an officinal oinf
ment. At present they are almost entirely disregarded,
though they should seem, from their sensible qualities,
to be'applicable to purposes of some importance.   They
hove a yellow, unctuous, odorous, balsamic juiee
   Po'rcus.  A name for the pudendum muliebre.
   Pori biliarii.  The biliary pores or ducts, that re-
ceive the bile from the penicilli of the liver^ and con
vey it to the hepatic duct  See Liver.
   PORIFORMIS.   Resembling  a pore: applied to a
nectary, when of that appearance, as thai of the hya-
cinth, which has three like pores in the germen.
   PoRocb'le.  (From atapos, a callus,  and m/Xn, a
tumour.)  A bard tumour of any part, but especially
of the testicle.
   Poro'mphalum   (From atapos, a callus, and  opd>a-
Xos, the navel.)  A hard tumour of the navel.
   PORPHYRA.  Dr. Good's name for scurvy.  Sed
 Scorbutus.
   PORPHYRY.  A compound rock,  having a  basis,
in which the other contemporaneous constituent parts
are imbedded.   The base is sometimes clay-stone,
sometimes hornstone, sometimes compact felspar; or
 pitchstone, pearlstone, and obsidian. The imbedded
 parts are most commonly  felspar and quartz, which
 are usually crystallized more or less perfectly, and
 hence they appear sometimes granular.  According to
 Werner, there  are two distinct  porphyry formations 5
 the oldest occurs in gneiss, in beds of great magnitude j
 and also in mica-slate and clay-slate.  Between Blaif
 in Athole  and Dalnacardoch, there to n very fine ex-
 ample of a bed of porphyry-slate in mien.  The second
 porphyry formation to much more widely extended
 It consisu principally of clay porphyry,  while  th*
 former consists chiefly of hornsione porphyry rind fl*
 spar pWphyiy.                          ^ 
POT
POT
   t (onetimes contains  considerable repositories of
 ore, in veins.  Gold, silver, leod, tin, copper, iron, and
 manganese occur in it;  but  chiefly in the newer por-
 phyry, as happens with tlie Hungarian mines.   It oc-
 curs iu Arran, ond in Perthshire between Dalnacordoch
 and Tummel-bridge.
   PORRET.  See Allium porrum.
   PORRI'GO.  (A  porrigendo; from its spreading
 abroad.)  A disease very common among children, In
 which the skin of the hairy part of the head becomes
 dry and callous, and comes off like bran upon combing
 the head.
   PORRUM. See Allium porrum,
   PO RTA.   (A portando, because through it the blood
 is carried to the liver.)  That  part of the liver where
 iu vessels enter.
   Port* vena.  See  Vena porta.
   Portaiouillb. The acutenacnlum.
   PORTIO.   A portion or branch : applied to a nerve.
   Portio dura.  (One branch of the seven poir of
 nerves to called portio dura, the hard portion, cither
 from iu being more firm than  the other, or because it
 runs into Ihe hard part of the skull; and the other the
portio  mollis,  or soft  portion.)   Facial nerve.   This
 nerve arises near the pons, from the crus of the  brain,
 enters the petrous portion of tbe temporal bone, gives
 off a branch  into the tympanum, which  is called the
chorda tympani, and then proceeds to form the pes an-
 serinus on the face, from whence the integuments of
 the face are supplied with nerves.  See Faded nerve.
   Portio mollis.  Auditory nerve.   Acoustic nerve.
This  nerve  arises from  the  medulla oblongata  and
 fourth ventricle of the brain, enters the petrous portion
 of the temporal bone, and is distributed on the internal
ear, by innumerable branches, not only to the cochlea,
but also to the membrane lining the vestibulum and
semicircular canals, and  is the immediate organ of
 bearing.
   Portland powder.   A  celebrated  gout remedy.  It
consists of various  bitters; principally of hoarhound,
bilhwort, the tops and leaves of germander, ground-
 pine, and centaury, dried, powdered, and sifted.   It is
 now fallen into disuse.
  Portora'rium.  (From porta, a dsor; because it
 is, as it were, the door or entrance of the intestines.)
 The right orifice of the stomach.
   PORTULA'CA.  (From porto} to carry,  and  lac,
 milk;  because it increases the animal  milk.)  1. The
 name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean system.
 Class,  Dodecandria ; Order, Digynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeial  name of the purslane.  See
 Portulaca oleracea.
   Portulaca oleracea.  The systematic  name of
 the eatable purslane.  Andrachne;  Allium gallicum.
 The plant which is so called in dietetical and medical
 writings, abounds wilh a watery and somewhat acid
 iuice, and to often put into soups, or pickled with spices.
 t to said to be antiseptic and aperient.
   PO'Rl'S.  Aporeorduct  A term used in anatomy,
 and botany;  the pores of the skin; and particularly
 applied in botany to the small puncture-like openings
 in the inferior surface of the genus Boletus.
   Po'sca.  Vinegar and water mixed.
   POSSE'TUM.  Posset.  Milk curdled with  wine,
 treacle, or any acid.
   POSTE'RIOR. Parts are so named from their re-
 lative situation.
   Posterior annularis. Musculus posterior  annu-
 laris.  An external interosseol muscle of the  hand,
 that extends and draws the ring-finger inwards.
   Posterior auris.  See Retrahentes auris.
   Posterior  indicis.  Musculus posterior indicia.
 An internal interosscal muscle of the band, that ex-
 tends the fore-finger obliqiiely, and draws it outwards.
   Posterior  medii.  An external interosseal muscle
 of the bond, that extends the middle finger, and draws
 it outwards.
   POTAMOGEI'TON.   (From aorapos, a river, and
 ytirtav, adjacent: so  named  because  it  grows  about
 rivers.)  The name of a  genus of plante in the Lin-
 naean system.  Class, Tetrandria; Order, Tetragynia.
   POTASH.   See Potassa.
   POTA'SSA.  (Potassa, a. f.; so colled  from the
 pots, or vessels, in which it was first mode.)  Vegetable
 alkali: so called because  it to obtained in an impure
 state  by the  incineration of  vegetables.   Potass;
 Potash; Kail. An hydrated protoxide of potassium.
Tableef the saline product of one thousand pounds ef
        ashes of the following vegetables .-—
                 Satin* products.
Stalks  of Turkey wheat or j lM lbg;
  maise,..................S
Stalks of sun-flower,.........348
Vine branches,.............. 169.6
Elm,........................ 166
Box,........................  78
Sallow,..................... 102
Oak,........................ HI
Aspen,......................  61
Beech,......................219   •
Fir,......................... 132

Fem cut in August,.......... 116 j 0\„ Wilde'nhelm
Wormwood,................748
Fumitory,...................360
Heath,...................... 115 Wildenheim.
  On these  tables Kirwan makes tlie  following  re-
marks :—
  1. That in general weeds yield more ashes, and
their ashes much more salt, than woods;  and that, con-
sequently, as to salts of the vegetable alkali  kind, as
potassa, pearlash, coshup, &c. neither America, Trieste,
nor the northern  countries have any advantage over
Ireland.
  2. That of all weeds fumitory  produces  more salt,
ond next to  il wormwood.  But  if we attend only to
Ihe quantity of salt in a given  weight of ashes, the
ashes of wormwood contain most.   Trifolium fibri-
num also produces more ashes and salt than fern.
  The process for obtaining pot and pearlash is given
by Kirwan, as follows: —
  1. The weeds should be cut just before they seed,
then spread, well dried, and gathered clean.
  2. They should be burned within doors on  a grate,
and the ashes laid in a chest as fast as  they  are pro-
duced.  If any charcoal be visible, it should be picked
out, and thrown back into the fire.  If  the weeds be
moist, much coal will be  found.  A  close smothered
fire, which has been recommended by some, to very
prejudicial.
  3. They should be lixivioted with twelve times their
weight of boiling  water.  A drop of the solution  of
corrosive sublimate  will immediately discover when
the water ceases to lake up any more alkali  The
earthy matter that remains is said to be a good manure
for clayey soils.
  4.  The ley thus formed should be evaporated  to
dryness in  iron pans.  Two or three at least  of these
should be used, and the  ley, as fast as it is concreted,
passed from the one to the other.   Thus, much time is
saved, as weak leys evaporate more quickly  than the
stronger.  The salt thus produced to of a dark colour,
and contains much extractive matter, and being formed
in iron pou is called potassa.
  5. This salt should then be carried to a reverberatory
furnace, in which the extractive matter  is burned off,
and much of the water dissipated: hence it generally
loses from ten to fifteen per cent  of ils weight Par-
ticular care should be taken to prevent iu melting, as
the extractive matter would not then be  perfectly con-
sumed, and the alkali would form such  a union with
the earthy parte as could not easily be dissolved.  Kir-
wan adds this caution, because Dr. Lewis and Dossie
have inadvertently directed the contrary.  This salt
thus refined is called pearlash, and must be the same
as the Dantzic pearlash.
  To obtain this alkali pure, Bethollet recommends, to
eva|iorate a solution of potassa, made caustic by boil-
ing with quicklime, till it becomes of a  thickish con-
sistence ; to add about an equal weight of alkohol, and
let tlie  mixture stand some time in a close vessel.
Some solid matter  partly crystallized will collect at
the bottom;  above this will be a  small quantity of a
dark-coloured fluid;  and on tlie  top another lighter.
The latter, separated by decantation, is to  be evaporated
quickly in  a silver basin  in a sand-heot.  Glass, ot
almost any other metal, would be corroded by the po-
tassa.  Before the evaporation has been carried  far,
the solution is to be removed from tbe fire,  and suf
fered to stand at rest; when it will again separate into
two fluids.  The lighter being poured off, is again to be
evaporated with a quick beat; and on standing a day
or two  in a close vessel, it will  deposite transparent
crystals of pure polassa.  If the liquor be evaporated. 
POT
POT
Cob pellicle, the potassa will concrete without regular
crystallization.  In both coses s high-coloured liquor Is
separated, which is to be poured off; and the potassa
must be kept carefully secluded from air.
  A perfectly pure solution of potassa will remain trans-
parent on the  addition of lime-water, show no effer-
vescence with dilute sulphuric acid, and not give any
precipilate on  blowing air from the lungs through it by
means of a tube.
  Pure potassa for experimental purposes  may  most
easily be obtained by igniting creom of tartar in a cru-
cible, dissolving the residue in water, filtering, boiling
wilh a quantity of  q-iicklime, and after subsidence,
decanting the clear liq jid, and  evaporating in a loosely
covered silver capsule, till it  flows like oil; and then
pouring it out on a clean  iron plate.  A solid white
cake of pure hydrate of potassa to thus obtained, with-
out the agency of alkohol.  It must  be  immediately
broken into fragments, and kept in a well stoppered
phial.
  As 100 parts of subcarbonate of potassa are equiva-
lent to about  70 of pure concentrated oil of vitriol, if
into a  measure tube, graduated into 100 equal parts,
we introduce  tbe 70 grains of acid, and fill up the re-
maining space with water, then we have an alkalimeter
for estimating the value  of  commercial  pearlashes,
which, if pure, will  require for 100 grains one hundred
divisions of the liquid to neutralize them.  If they con-
tain only 60  per cent of genuine subcarbonate, then
100 grains will require  only 60 divisions,  and so on.
When the alkalimeter indications are required in pure
or  absolute potassa, such  as  constitutes the basis of
nitre, then we must use 102 grains of pure oil of vitriol,
along  with the requisite bulk of water to  fill up tbe
 volume of the graduated tube.
  The hydrate of potassa, as obtained by the preceding
process, to solid, white, and extremely caustic ; in  mi-
nute quantities, changing the purple of violeu and cab-
bage to a green, reddened litmus to purple, and yellow
tumeric to a reddish-brown.   It rapidly attracts humi-
dity from the  air, passing into the oil of tartar per ddi-
quium ofthe chemists; a name, however, also given to
the deliquesced  subcarbonate.  Charcoal  applied to
 Ihe hydrate of potassa at a cherry-red heat, gives birth
local bit retted hydrogen, and an alkaline subcarbonate;
 but at a heat bordering on whiteness, carburetted hy-
 drogen, carbonous oxide, and potassium,  are formed.
 Several metals decompose the hydrate of  potassa, by
 the aid of heat; particularly potassium, sodium, and
 iron.  The fused hydrate of potassa  consist of 6 deu-
 toxide of potassium ■+• 1.125 water = 7.125, which
 number represente the compound prime equivalent It
 is used in surgery, as the potential  cautery for forming
 eschars; and it  was formerly employed in medicine
 diluted with broths as a lithontriptic.  In chemistry, it
 is very extensively employed, both inmanufactures and
 as a reagent in analysis.  It to the basis of  all the com-
 mon soft  soaps. The oxides of the following metals
 are soluble in  aqueous potassa;—Lead,  tin, nickel,
 arsenic, cobalt, manganese, zinc, antimony, tellurium,
 tungsten, molybdenum.
    The preparations of this alkali that  are used in medi-
 cine are:
    1.  Potassa fusa.
    2.  Liquor potassae.
    3.  Potassa cum colce.
     4.  Subcarbonas potassae.
     5.  Carbonas  potassae.
    6.  Sulphas potassae.
    7.  Super-sulphas potassae.
    8. Tartras potassae.
    9.  Acetas potassae.
    10.  Citras potassae.
    11.  Oxychloras potassae.
    12.  Arsenias potassae.
    13. Sulphuretum potassae.
    Potassa, acetate of.  Bee Potassa acetas.
    Potassa, carbonate of.  See Potassa carbonas.
    Potassa,fused.  See Potassa fusa.
    Potassa, solution of.  See Potassa liquor
    Potassa, subcarbonate of.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
    Potassa, subcarbonate of, solution of.  See Potassa
  subcarbonatis liquor.
    Potassa, sulphate of.  See Potassa sulphas.
    Potassa, sulvhuret of.  See Potassa sulphuretum.
    Potassa, supersulphaU of.  See Potassa  super-
  $ alphas.
  Potassa, supertartrate of.  See Tartarum.
  Potassa, tartrate of.  See Potassa tartras.
  Potassa with lime.  See Polassa cum calce.
  Potassa cum calce.   Potassa with lime.  Calx cum
kali puro;  Causticum commune fortius ;  Lapis infer-
nalis sive septicus.  Take of solution of potussa three
pinu; fresh lime, a pound.  Boil  the solution of po-
tassa  down to a pint,  then add the lime, previously
slaked by the addition of water, and mix them together
intimately.  This to in common use with surgeons, as
a caustic, to produce ulcerations, and to open abscesses.
  Potassa tusa.  Fused potassa.  Kali pururn;  al-
kali vegetabile fixum causticum.  Take of solution of
potassa a gallon.   Evaporate the water, in a clean iron
pot, over the fire, until, when the ebullition has ceased,
the potassa remains in a state of fusion;  pour it upon
a clean iron plate, into pieces of convenient form.  This
preparation of potassa is violently  caustic, destroying
the living animal fibre with great energy.
  Potassa impura.  See Potassa.
  Potass.c acetas.   Acetate of potassa.  Acetated
vegetable alkali.   Kali  acetatum;  Sal  diureticus;
Terra foliata tartari; Sal sennerti.  Take of subcar
bonate of potassa a pound.  Strong acetic acid, two
pinu.  Distilled  water, two pints.   Mix the acid with
the water, and add it gradually to the subcarbonate of
potassa so long as may be necessary for perfect satura
tion.  Let the solution  be  further reduced to one-half
by evaporation,  and strain it: then by means of  a
water-bath evaporate it, so that on being removed from
the fire, it shall crystallize.  The acetate of potassa  is
esteemed as a saline diuretic and deobstruent. It  is
given in the  dose of from gr. x. to 3 ss. three  times a
day in  any appropriate vehicle against dropsies,  he
patic obstructions, and  the like.
   Potassae arsenias.   See Liquor arsenicalis.
   Potass/E carbonas.  Carbonate of potassa. This
 preparation, which has been long known by the name
of Kali alratum, appeared in the last London Pharma
copoeia for the first time.  It to made thus:—Take of
 subcarbonate of potassa made from tartar, a pound:
subcarbonote of  ammonia,  three ounces; distilled
 water,  a pint  Having previously dissolved the sub
 carbonate of potassa in the water, add the  subcarbo ■
 nate of ammonia; then, by means of a sand bath, apply
 a heat  of 180°  for three  hours, or until  the ammonia
 shall be driven off; lastly, set  the  solution by, to crys-
 tallize.  The remaining solution may be evaporated  in
 the same manner, that crystals may ogoin form when
 it to set by.
   This process wos invented  by Berthollet  The po-
 tassa takes the carbonic acid from the ammonia, which
 is volatile, and passes off in the temperature employed.
 It is, however, very difficult to detach the ammonia en-
 tirely.  Potasso is thus saturated with carbonic acid,
 of which it contains double the quantity that the pure
 subcarbonate of potassa does; it gives out this propor-
 tion on the addition of muriatic acid, and may be con-
 verted into the subsalt, by heating it a short time to red-
 ness. It is  less nauseous to  the  taste  than the  sub-
 carbonate;  It crystallizes,  and does not deliquesce.
 Water,  al the  common temperature,  dissolves  one-
 fourth ite weight, and at 212°, five-sixths; but this latter
 heat detaches some of the carbonic acid.
   The carbonate of potassa is now generally used for
 the purpose of imparting carbonic acid to the stomach.
 by giving a scruple in solution with a table-spoonful  of
 lemon juice, in the act of effervescing.
   Potass je chloras.  Fonnerly called oxymuriate of
 potassa.
   Potabsje liquor.  Solution of potassa.  Aqua kali
 puri;  Lixivium saponarium.  Take of subcarbonate
 of potassa a pound, lime newly prepared half a pound.
 Boiling distilled water, a gallon.  Dissolve tlie potassa
 in two pinu of the water; add the remaining water to
 the lime.  Mix  the liquors while they are hot, stir them
 together, then set the  mixture by  in a covered vessel;
  and  after it has cooled,  strain the solution through a
 cotton bag.
   If any diluted acid dropped into thesolution occasion
  the extrication of bubbles of gas, it will be necessary to,
  add  more lime, and to strain  it again   A pint of this
  solution ought to weigh sixteen ounces.
   Potass je nitras.  See Nitre.
   Potass/e subcarbonas.  Subcarbonate of potassa,
  formerly called, iTali' praparatum;  Sal absinthii ; Sat
  tartoni;  Sal plantamm.  Take of  lmpureiiotasai 
pot
pot
powdered, three pounds; boiling water, three plots and
a half.  Dissolve the potassa In water, aud filler; then
pour the solution into a clean iron pot, and  evaporute
the water over a moderate fire, until the liquor thickens;
then lei tlie fire be withdrawn and stir ihe liquor con-
stantly wilh on iron rod, until  the suit concretes into
granular crystals.
  A purer subcarbonateof potassa may Ite prepared in
the same manner from tartar, whicli must be first burned
until it becomes ash-coloured.
  This preparation of polassa is in general use to form
tbe citrate of potassa for the saline draughts.  A scru-
ple is generally directed to be  saturated with lemon
juice.  Iu this process, the sail which is composed of
liotassa and carbonic acid  is decomposed.  The citric
acid having a greater affinity for the potassa than the
carbonic, seizes it and forms the citrate of polassa while
the carbonic acid flics off in the form of air.  The sub-
carbonate of potassa possesses antacid virtues, and may
be exiiibited wilh advantage in convulsions  and other
spasms  of the intestines arising from acidily, in calcu-
lous  and gouty complainU, leucorrhoeo, scrofula, and
aphthous affections.  The dose is from ten giains to
hoir a drachm.
  Potass*  subcarbonatus  liquor.  Solution of
subcarbonate of potassa.  Aqua kali praparati; Lie
ivium tartari; Oleum tartari per ddiquium. Take
of subcarbonate of potassa, a pound ; distilled water,
twelve fluid-ounces.  Dissolve Ihe subcarbonate of po-
tassa in tbe Water, and then strain the solution through
paper.
  Pot ass.E sulphas.  Formerly  called Kali vitriola-
tum; Alkali vegetabile vitriolatum; Sal de duobus;
Arcanum duplicutum ;  Sul polychrestus; Nitrum vit-
riolatum ;  Tartarum  vitriolatum.   Take  of the salt
whicli remains after the distillation of nitric acid, two
pounds; boiling  water, two gallons.   Mix  them that
the salt may be dissolved;  next add as much subcarbo-
nate of potassa as may be requisite  for the  saturation
of the acid; then boil the solution, until a pellicle ap-
pears upon the surface, and, after straining, set it by,
that crystals may form.   Having (toured  away the
water, dry the crystals on  bibulous paper.  Iu virtues
are cathartic, diuretic, and  deobstruent; with which
intentions it is administered in a great variety of dis-
eases, as constipation, suppression of the lochia, fevers,
Icterus, dropsies, milk tumours, Sec  Tbe dose is from
one scruple to holf on ounce.
  Potass^  sulphuretum.  Sulphuret  of  potassa.
Kali sulpliuratum,- Hepar sulphuris.  Liver of sul-
phur.   Take of washed sulphur, an ounce;  subcarbo-
nate of potassa, two ounces; rub them together, and put
them in a covered crucible, which is to be kept on the
fire till  they unite.  Iu this process tbe carbonic acid is
drawn  off, and a compound  formed of potassa and
BUlphur.  This preparation has been employed  in se-
veral cutaneous diseases with advantage,  both inter-
nally and in  the form of bath or oinuneut   It has also
been recommended iu diabetes.   The dose is from five
to twenty grains.
   Potass £ supkrarsenias.  See Superarsenias po-
 lassa.
   Potass je supersulpbas.  Supereulphate of potassa.
 Take of the salt which remains after the distillation of
nitric aoid, two pounds; boiling water four pints.  Mix
them together, so that the salt may  be dissolved, and
strain the solution; then boil it to one-half, and set  il
 by, that crystals nioy form.  Having poured away the
 water, dry these crystals upon bibulous paper.
   Potass* supertartras. See Tartarum,
   Potass.e  tartras.  Tartrate of  potassa,  formerly
 colled Kalitartarisatum;  Tartarum soltibile ; Tarta-
 rus tartarisatus;  Sal vegclabilis ;  Alkali vegetabile
 taiiarisalum.   Take of subcarbonate of polassa, six-
 teen ounces; supertartrate of potassa, three  pounds;
 boiling water, a gallon.  Dissolve the subcaiDonate of
 potassa In the water;  next add the supertartrate of po-
 tassa,  previously reduced  to powder, gradually, until
 bubbles of gas shall ceose  to arise  Stiaiu the solution
 through paper, then boil it until a pellicle oppear  upon
 tne eurface,  oad set it by, that crystals may form.  Hav-
 ing poured away the wa:er, dry the crystals upon bibu-
 lous piper.  Diuretic, deobstruent, and eccoprotic vir-
 tues a>e attributed to this preparation.
   POTASSIUM.   The metallic bosis of pofissa.  "If
 a thin  piece of solid hydrate of potassa be  placed be-
 tween two  discs of platinum, connect**! with tlie ex-
tremities of a Voltaic apparatus of 200 double piste*.
f jur inches  square, it will soon undergo fusion; oxy-
gen will separate at the positive surface, and Small me-
tallic  globules  will appear at the  negative  surface.
Tnese form tiie marvellous metal potassium, first re-
vealed to the world by Sir U. Davy,  early in October,
1807.
  If iron-turnings be heated to whitenesa in a curved
gun-barrel, and potassa be melted and made slowly to
come in contact with the turnings, air being excluded.
potassium will be  formed, and will collect in the cool
part of tbe tube. This method of procuringit was dis-
covered by Gay Lussac and Thenard, in 1808.  It may
likewise be  produced, by igniting polassa with char-
coal, as Curouduu showed llie same year.
  Pota^ium is possessed of very extraordinary proper-
lies. It is lighter than water; its sp. gr. being 0.865 to
water 1.0.  At  common' temperatures il is solid, soft,
and easily moulded by tlie fingers.  At 150° F. il fuses,
and iu a heat a little below redness it rises ill vapour.
Il is perfectly opaque.  When  newly cut, iu colour is
splendent white, like that of silver,  but it rapidly tar-
nishes in the air.  To preserve li unchanged, we must
enclose it in  a small phial, wilh pure naphtha.  It con-
ducu electricity  like the common  metals.   When
thrown  upon water, it acu with  great violence, and
swims upon the surface, burning with a beautiful light
of a red colour, mixed  with  violet. The water be-
comes a solution of pure potassa.   When moderately
heated in the air, it inflames, burns with a  red  light)
and throws off alkaline fumes.  Placed in chlorine, it
spontaneously burns with great brilliancy.
  On all fluid bodies which contain water, or much
oxygen or chlorine, it readily acu; and in iu general
powers of chemical combination, says its illustrious
discoverer, potassium may be compared to tiie alka-
hest, or universal solvent, imagined by the alchemisu.
  Potassium combines with oxygen in different propor-
tions.  When potassium is gently heated in common
air or in oxygen, the result of iu  combustion  is an
orange-coloured fusible substance.  For every grain of
tlie metal consumed, about 1 7-10 cubic  inches of oxy-
gen are  condensed.  To make the  experiment accu-
rately, the metal should be burned in a tray of platina
covered with a coating of fused muriate of potassa.
  Tbe substance procured by the combustion of potas-
sium at a low temperature, was first observed in  Octo-
ber, 1807, by Sir H. Davy,  who  supposed it  to be tlie
protoxide;  but Gay  Lussac and Thenard,  in  1810y
showed that it was in reality the deutoxide or peroxide:
When it is thrown into water, oxygen to  evolved, and
a solution of the protoxide results, constituting com-
mon aqueous potassa.  When it is fused and brought
in contact with combustible bodies, they burn vividly^
by  the excess of iu oxygen.  If it be heated in carbo-
nic acid, oxygen is disengaged, and common subcar-
bonate  of polassa is formed.
  When it  is heated very strongly upon platina, oxy-
gen gas is expelled from it, and there remains a dffti
cultly fusible substance of a gray colour, vitreous fro©
lure, soluble in water without effervescence,  but with
much heat.  Aqueous potassa is produced. The above
ignited solid is protoxide  of potassium, which becomes
pure potassa by combination wilh the equivalent quan-
tity of water.  When we produce potassium with ig
nited iron-turnings and potassa, much hydrogen is dis-
engaged from the water of ihe hydrate, while the Iron
becomes oxidized from the residuary oxygen.  By beat
ing together pure hydrate of potassa and  boracic ocid,
Sir H. Davy obtained  from 17 lo 18 of water from 100
parts of the solid alkali.
   By acting on potassium with a very small quantity
of  water, or by heating potassium with fused potassa,
the protoxide may also  be obtained. The proportion
of oxygen in the protoxide is determined by the action
of potassium upon water,  8 grains of potassium pro-
 duce from  water about 9J cubic inches-of hydrogeu;
 and from these the  metal must have fixed 4) cubic
 inches of oxygen.  But  as 100 cubic inches of oxygea
 weigh 33.9  gr. 4}  will weigh 1.61.  Thus, 9.61 gr. of
 the pro oxide  will contain 8 of metal;  and  108 will
 contain 83.25 metal +16.75 oxygen.  From these data,
 the prime of potassium comes out 4.969; and that of
 the protoxide 5.069.  Sir H. Davy adopu tbe number
 75 for  potassium, corresponding to 50 on the oxygen

   When potassium to heated strongly In a small qua* 
POT
IOU
 tttyof common air, the oxygen of which Is notsufl}-
 elent for its  conversion into potassa, a substance is
 formed of a grayish colour, which, when thrown inlo
 water, effervesces without taking  fire.  It to doubtful
 whether it be a mixture of the protoxide and  potas-
 sium, or a combination of potassium with a smaller
 proportion of oxygen than exisu in the protoxide.  In
 this case it would be a suboxide, consisting of 2 primes
 of potassium = 10 •+• 1 of oxygen = 11.
   When thin pieces of potassium are introduced into
 chlorine, the inflammation is very vivid; and then po-
 tassium is made to act on chloride of sulphur, there is
 ah explosion.  The attraction  of chlorine  for  potas-
 sium  is much stronger than the attraction of oxygen
 for the  metal.  Both of the oxides of potassium are
 Immediately decomposed by chlorine, wilh the forma-
 tion of a fixed chloride, and the extrication of oxygen.
   The combination  or potassium and chlorine  is the
 substance  which has been improperly called  muriate
 of potassa, and which, in common cases, is formed by
 causing liquid muriatic acid to saturate solution  of po-
 tassa, and then evaporating the liquid to dryness and
 igniting the solid residuum.   The hydrogen of the ocid
 here unites to the oxygen of the alkali, forming water,
 wliich to exhaled ; wliile the remaining chlorine and
 potassium  combine.   It consists of 5 potassium + 4.5
 chlorine.
   Potassium combines with hydrogen to form potassu-
 retted hydrogen, a  spontaneously  inflammable gas,
 Whicli comes Over occasionally in the production of po-
 tassium  by the gun-barrel  experiment.  Gay Lussoc
 and Theiiard  describe also a solid compound  ofthe
 some  two  ingredients, which they coll a hydruret  of
 potassium.  It is formed by heating the metal a long
 while in the gos, at a temperature just under ignition.
 They describe it as  a grayish  solid, giving out ite hy-
 drogen on contact with mercury.
   When potassium  and sulphur are  heated together,
 Ihey combine with great energy, with disengagement
 of heat and light  even in vacuo.  The resulting sul-
 phuset of potassium, to of a dark gray colour.  It acts
 with great energy on water, producing sulphuretted hy-
 drogen, and burns brilliantly when heated  in ihe air,
 becoming sulphate of potassa.  It consisu of 2 sulphur
 -t- 5 potassium, by Sir H. Davy's experimenu.  Potas-
 sium'has so strong  an attraction for sulphur, that it
 rapidly separates it from hydrogen.  If the potassium
 be heated in the sulphuretted gas, it takes fire and burns
 with great brilliancy; sulphuret of potassium to formed,
 said pure Hydrogen is set free.
, 'Potassium and phosphorus enter into union with the
 evolution of light-,  but the  mutual action is feebler
 than in tne preceding compound.  The  phosphuret »f
 prjt'ajssiuni,  in iu common form, is  a substance of a
 dark chocolate colour, but when heated with potassium
 in Veal' excess, it becomes of a deep gray colour, with
 cTJnSideraWe lustre.  Hence it  is probable, that phos-
 phorus and potassium  are capable of combining in
 two proportions.  Tlie phosphuret of potassium bums
 with  great brilliancy, when  exposed to  air, and when
 thrown  into water  produces an explosion, in  conse-
 quence  of the immediate disengagement of phosphu-
 retted hydrogen.
   Charcoal which has been strongly heated in contact
 with' potassium, effervesces in water, rendering il alka-
 line, though the charcoal may be previously exposed to
 a  temperature at  which  potassium to  volatilized.
 Hence, there is probably a compound of the two formed
 by a feeble attraction.
   bf all known substances,  potassium to that which
 has the strongest attraction for oxygen ; and it produces
 siich a condensation of it, that the oxides of potassium
 are denser than the metal itself.  Potassium has heen
 skilfully used by Sir H. Davy and  Gay Lussac and
 Thenard,  for detecting the presence of oxygen in bo-
 dies.  A  number of substances,  undecomposable  by
 other chemical  agents, are readily decomposed  by
 this substance."— Ure's Chem. Did.
   Potassium, oxide of.  The potassa of the shops.
   POTATO.   The  word potato  is a degeneration of
 batatas, the provincial name of the root ih that part of
 Peru from which it was first obtained.  See Solanum
 tuberosum.
   Toialo, Spanish.  See Convolvulus batata*.
   [Potato flies.   See Cantharides  vittata.  A.]
   rP'6ta(o.wild.  See Convolvulus pandnratns.  A.]
   jrWENTIALr  Pefentialis.   1> Qualities  which
 are supposed to exist in the body in pptentta onfcM oy
 which they are capable, in some'measure, of enecnog
 and impressing on us the ideas of  such  qualities,
 though not really inherent in themselves: in this sense
 we say, potential heat, potential cold, &c.
  2. In a medical sense it is opposed to actual: hence
 we say,  an actual  and potential caustic.  A red-hot
 iron is actually caustic;  whereas potassa puna, and n«-
 tras argentiaare potentially so, though cold to thetouclh.
  Potential cautery.  See Potassa fusa, and Argenti
 nitras.
  POTENTI'LLA.   (A potentia, from iu efficacy.)
 1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Linnean sys-
 tem.   Class, Icosandria; Order, Polygynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the wild tansy.  See
 Potentilla anserina.
  Potehtilla ansbrika.  The systematic name of
 the silver-weed, or wild tansy.  Argentina; AnserinOf
 The leaves of this plant, Potfnliua—-foliis dentatis,
 serratis, caule  repente, pendunculis unifioris,  of Lin,-
. nEus,  possess mildly adstringent and corroborant qua-
 lities;  but are seldom used, except by the lower orders.
  Potentilla reptans. Tbe systematic name of tiie
 common cinquefoil, or five-leaved grass,  Pentaphyf-
 lum.   The roots of this plant, Potentilla—foliis quina-
 tis, caule repente, pedunculis  unifioris, of  Limia:us4
 have a bitterish styptic taste.  They were used by the
 ancienu  in the cure of intermittenU:  but the medi:
 cinal  quality of cinquefoil is confined, in, the present
 day, to stop diarrhoeas and other fluxes.
  POTE'RIUM.  (From aornpiov, a cup:  so nomed
 from the shape of its flowers.)  The name of a genus
 of plnnu in the Linnaean system.  Class, Monoecia;
 Order, Polyandria.
  Poteriu.m  sanguisorba.  The systematic name of
 the Burnet saxifrage, the leaves of which are often put
 into cool tankards; they have an adstringent quality.
  POTSTONE.  Lapis ollaris.  A greenish-gray mi-
 neral,  found abundantly on the shores of the lake
 Como, in Lombordy, in thick beds of primitive slate,
 and fashioned  into  culinary vessels in Greenland.  It
 to a subspecies of rhomboidal mica of Jameson.
  POTT, Percival, was born in London, in 1713.  It
 was the  wish  of his friends lo bring him UP to the
 church, in wliich he might hove obtained good patron-
 age ; but he had an irresistible inclination to the sur-
 gical profession.  He  was accordingly apprenticed to
 Mr. Nourse, of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, who gave
 anatomical lectures;  for which he was employed iv
 preparing the subjecu, and thus laid the best founda-
 tion for chirurgical  skill.  In 1744, be was.elected as-
 sistant-surgeon ; and, five years after, one. of the prin-
 cipal  surgeons  at the hospital.  He hod the merit of
 chiefly bringing about a great improvement in his pro-
 fession, availing himself of the  resources of nature
 under  a lenient mode of treatment, and exploding the
 frequent use of tlie cautery, and other severe methods
 formerly resorted to.  In 1756, he had  the misfortune
 to receive  a  compound fracture of the leg;  but the
 confinement occasioned  by this accident led  him to
 compose his  " Treatise  on Ruptures;" which wos,
 soon followed by an account of the Hernia Congenita.
 In  1758, he produced a judicious essay on "Fistula
 Lachrymalis;" and, two years after, an elaborate dis-
 sertation "On Injuries of the Head;" which was soon;
 followed by "Practical  Remarks  on the Hydrocele,"
 &c.  In  1764, he wos elected a Fellow of the  Royal
 Society;  and about the  same period  he instituted a
 course of lectures on surgery.  In  the following year,
 his treatise "On Fistula in  Anp''  appeared, in which"
 he  effected a  very great improvement; and, in  1708,.
 some remarks " On Fractures and. Dislocations"  were
 added  to a new edition of his work on  Injuries of the
 Head.  Seven years after this, he published  " Chirur-
 gical Observations"  on Cataract, Polypus ofthe Nose
 Cancer of the Scrotum, Ruptures, and Mortification ot
 the lower Extremities:  this was soon  succeeded by a
 "Treatise on  the Necessity of Amputation  in  some
 Cases;"  and by "Remarks on  the Palsy of the lower
 Limbs," from Curvature of the Spine. He had now
 attained the greatest eminence  in his profession ; bufr
 towords the close of the yeor 1788, o severe atttack,©*
 fever,  neglected at first, terminated his active and va
 luable  life.
  POUCH.  1. Sacculus,  In anatomy, a morbid dil»
 tation  of any part of a canal, as tha intestine,.
  2. In botany, see Siliculpy. 
PR£
»PR£
  Pocpakt's  lioament.   Ligamentum  Peupartii.
Palkmian ligament.   Inguinal  ligament   A strong
ligament, or rather a tendinous expansion of the exter-
nal oblique muscle, going across from the interior and
anterior spinous process of the ilium  to the crista of
the os pubis.  It is under this ligament that the femoral
vessels pass;  and, when  the intestine or omentum
passes underneath it, the  disease is called a femoral
hernia.
  Powder, antimonial.  See Antimonialis pulvis.
  Powder of burnt hartshorn with opium. See Pul-
vt* cornu usti cum opio.
  Powder, compound, of aloes.  See Pulvis alols com-
positus.
  Powder,  compound, of  chalk.   See Pulvis  creta
compositus.
  Powder, compound, of chalk, with opium.  See Pul-
vis creta compositus cum opio.
  Powder, compound, of cinnamon.   See Pulvis cin-
namomi compositus.
  Powder, compound, of contrayerva.  See Pulvis con-
trayerva compositus.
  Powder,  compound, of ipecacuanha. See Pulvis
ipecacuanha compositus.
  Powder, compound, of kino. See Pulvis kino com-
positus.
  Powder, compound, of scammony. See Pulvis scam-
monea compositus.
  Powder,  compound, of senna.  See Pulvis senna
compositus.
  Powder, compound, of tragacanth.  See Pulvis tra-
gacantha compositus.
  Power, muscular.  See Irritability,  and Muscular
motion.
  Power, tonic.  See Irritability.
  Pracipitate, red.  See Hydrargyri  nitrico-oxydum.
  Pracipitale, white.  See Hydrargyrum pracipitatum
album.
  PRiECO'BDIA. (Pracordia, arum. n.;  from pra,
before, and cor, the heart.)  The forepart of the re-
gion of the thorax.
  PR.eru'RNiuM.  (From pra, before, and fumus, a
furnace.)   The mouth of a chemical furnace.
  PRiEMORSUS.  (From pramordee, to bite off)
Bitten off.  In botany, this term is differently applied:
the radix pramorsa is an abrupt root, naturally, it is
supposed, inclined to  a taper root;  but, from  some
decay or  interruption  in iu descending point, it be-
comes abrupt, or, as il were, bitten off; as in the Sea-
bieea euccisa, and Hedypnois hirla.
  The old opinion of this formed root is thus described
in Gerald's Herbal: " The great part of the root seem-
eth to be bitten away: old fantosticke charmers report,
that the  divel did bite it for envie, because  it to an
herbe that hath so many good vermes, and is so benefi-
cial to mankinde."
  The folium  pramorsum is jagged, pointed, very
blunt, with various irregular notches, as  m  Epiden-
drum pramorsum, Sec.
  Pr.epara'ntia medicamenta.   Medicines which
were supposed to prepare the peccant fluids to  pass off
  Prjeparantia vasa. The spermatic vessels of tho

  PR/EPUCE.  See Praputium.
  PRA^PU'TIUM.  (From praputo, to cut off before,
because some  nations used to cut it off in circumci-
sion.)  Epagogion of Dioscorides.  Posthe. The pre-
puce.  The membranous or cutaneous fold that covers
the glans penis and clitoris.
  PRj*SE.  A green  leek-coloured mineral, found  in
the island of Bute, and in Borrodale.
  Pra'sium.   (From  irpaoia, a square border:  so
called from ite square stalks.)  Hoarhound.  See Mar-
rubium vulgare.
  Pra'sum.  (From irpata, to burn; because of iu hot
taste.)  The leek.
  PRA'XIS.  (From iroaoaia, to perform.)   The prac-
tice of any thing, as of medicine.
  PRECIPITA'TION. (Pracipitatio ; from pracipito,
to cost down.)   When two bodies are united, for in-
stance,  an acid and  an oxide, and  a third  body is
 added, such as an alkali, which has a greater affinity
with the acid than the metallic oxide has, the conse-
 quence is, that the alkali combines with the acid, and
 tbie oxide, thus deserted, appears in a  separate state at
 the bottom of the vessel in which tbe operation is per-
 formed.  This decomposition is commonly known try
      30C
 the name of precipitation, and the substanee  llie*
 sinks is named a precipitate.  The substance, by tbe
 addition of wliich the phenomenon is produced, is de-
 nominated the precipitant.
   PRE'DISPOSI.NG.  (Pradisponens; from pradis-
' pono,  to predispose.)  Causa prvlgumcna.   That
 which renders the body susceptible of disease.   The
 most frequent predisposing causes of diseases are, the
 temperament and habit of the body, idiosyncrasy, age,
 Bex, and structure of the part.
   PREDISPOSITION.  (Pradiepoaitio.   That  con-
 stitution, or state of the solids, or fluids, or of both,
 which disposes the body to the action of disease.
   PREGNANCY.   Utero gestation.   The particular
 manner  in which pregnancy lakes place has hitherto
 remained involved in obscurity, notwithstanding the
 laborious investigation of the  most eminent philoso-
 phers of all ages.  Although in  a state which (with-
 a few exceptions) is natural lo all women, it is iu ge
 neral the source of many disagreeable sensations, and
 often tiie cause  of diseases which might be attended
 with the worst consequences, if  not properly treated.
   It to now, however, universally acknowledged, lhat
 those women  who bear children enjoy, usually, more
 certain health, and are much less liable to dangerous
 diseases, than those who are unmarried, or who prove
 barren.
   St'^n* of pregnancy.—The womb has a very exten-
 sive influence, by means of its nerves, on  many other
 paru of the body; hence, tlie changes which are pro
 duced on it by  impregnation,  must be productive of
 changes on the state of the general system.  These
 constitute the signs of pregnancy.
   During the  first fourteen or fifteen weeks, the signs
 of pregnancy  are very ambiguous, and cannot  be de-
 pended on; for,  as they proceed from the irritation of
 the womb on other  parts, they may be occasioned by
 every circumstance which can alter tlie natural state
 of that organ.
   The first circumstance which renders pregnancy pro-
 bable, is the suppression of the periodical evacuation,
 which is generally accompanied with fulness  in tha
 breasts,  headache, flushings iu the face, and heat in
 the palms of the hands.
   These symptoms are commonly the consequences of
 suppression, and therefore are to be regarded as signs
 of pregnancy, in so far only as they depend on it
   As, however,  the suppression of the periodical  eva-
 cuation often happens  from  accidental exposure to
 cold, or from the change of life in consequence of mar-
 riage, it can never be considered as an infallible sign.
   The belly,  some weeks  after  pregnancy,  becomes
 flat, from the womb sinking, and hence drawing down
 the intestines along with it; but this cannot be looked-
 upon as a certain sign of pregnancy, because) fin en-
 largement of the womb from any other cause will pro-
 duce the same effect.
   Many women, soon after they are pregnant, become
 very much altered in their looks,  and have peculiar
 irritable feelings, inducing a disposition of mind which
 renders  their  tempers easily ruffled, and inciting an
 irresistible propensity to actions of which, on other'
 occasions, tbey would be ashamed.
   In such cases, the features acquire a peculiar sharp.
 ness, the eyes appear larger, and the mouth wider,  than"
 usual;  and the  woman has a particular appearance,.
 which cannot be described, but with which women are"
 well acquainted.
   These breeding symptoms, as  tbey are called, origi-
 nate from the irritation  produced on the. womb by im-
 pregnation ; and, as they may proceed from any others
 circumstance which can irritate  that organ, they  can-
 not be depended on when  the woman is not young, or
 where there to not a continued suppression for at least
 three periods.
   The  irritations on the parts contiguous to the womb
 are equally ambiguous; and  therefore tiie signs of
 pregnancy, in the first four months, are always to be
 considered as doubtful, unless every one enumerated be
 distinctly and equivocally present
   From thefourth month, the signsof pregnancy are lew
 ambiguous, especially after the  womb bas ascended
 into  the cavity of the belly.  In  general, about the
 fourth month, or a short time after, ihe child become*
 so much enlarged, that iu motions begin to be fek by
 the mother;  and  hence a sign is furnished at that
 period  called quickening.  Women  very improperly. 
PRE
PRI
 consider this sign as tbe most unequivocal proof of
 pregnancy;  for though, when it occurs about the pe-
 riod described, preceded by the symptoms formerly enu-
 merated, it may be looked  upon as a sure indication
 that the woman is with child, yet, when there is an ir-
 regularity, either in the preceding symptoms or in its
 appearance,  the  situation  of the woman must  be
 doubtful.
   This fact will be easily understood; for as the sensa-
 tion ofthe motion ofthe child cannot be explained, or
 accurately described, women may readily mistake other
 sensations for  that  of quickening.   Flotus has often
 been so pent up in the bowels, that the natural pulsa-
 tion of the great arteries, of which people ore conscious
 only in certain states ofthe  body, has frequently been
 mistaken for this feeling.
   After the fourth month, the womb  rises gradually
 from the cavity of the pelvis, enlarges the belly, ond
 pushes out the novel: hence the protrusion of the navel
 has been considered one of the most certain signs of
 pregnancy in the latter months.  Every circumstance,
 however, which increases the bulk of the belly occa-
 sions this symptom; and therefore it cannot be trusted
 to, unless other signs concur.
   The progressive increase ofthe belly, along with sup-
 pression, after having been formerly regular, and  the
 consequent symptoms, together with the sensation of
 quickening at the proper  period, afford the only true
 marks of pregnancy.
   These signs, however, are not to be entirely depend-
 ed on;  for the natural desire which every woman has
 to be a mother, will induce  her to conceal, even from
 herself, every symptom which may render her situation
 doubtful, and to  magnify  every circumstance  which
 con tend to prove thot she is pregnant.
   Besides quickening ond increase of bulk of the belly,
 another symptom appears  in the latter months,  which,
 when preceded by the ordinary signs, renders pregnancy
 certain beyond  a doubt. It is the presence of milk in
 the breasts.   When, however, there is ony irregularity
 in the preceding symptoms, this sign is no longer to be
 considered of any consequence.
   As every practitioner must naturally wish to distin-
 guish pregnancy from disease, the disorders which re-
 semble it should  be thoroughly understood, and also
 their diagnostics.  It to, however, necessary to remark,
 that wherever any circumstance occurs which  affords
 the most distant reason to doubt the  case, recourse
 ought to be had to the advice of an experienced  practi-
 tioner, and every symptom should be unreservedly de-
 scribed to him.
   Prehe'nsio.   (From prehendo, to surprise: so named
 from its sudden seizure.)  The catalepsy.
   PREHNITE.   Of prismatic prehnite there are two
 subspecies, the foliated, and the fibrous.   The first is
 of an apple-green colour, found in France, the Savoy
 and Tyrol, and beautiful  varieties  in the  interior  of
 southern Africa.  The fibrous is of a siskin green co-
 lour, and occurs in Scotland.
   PRESBYOPIA.   (From itptotivs, old, and taifi, the
 eye j because it is frequent with old men.)  That de-
 fect of the sight by which  objecu close ate seen con-
 fusedly, but, at remoter distances, distinctly.  As the
 myopia is common to infante, so the presbyopia is o
 malady common to the aged.  The proximate cause is
 a lardy adunation ofthe rays in a focus, so  that it falls
 beyond the retina.  The species are,
   1. Presbyopia from a flatness of the cornea.  By so
 much the cornea to flatter,  so much the less and more
 *ardy it refracu the rays into a focus.  This evil arises,
 1st, From a want of aqueous or vitreous humour, which
 is common to the aged; or may arise from some dis-
 ease; 2d, From a cicatrix, which diminishes the con-
 vexity of the cornea: 3d, From a natural conformation
 ofthe cornea.
  2. Presbyopia from too flat a crystalline lens.  This
 evil is most common to the aged, or it may happen from
 a wasting ofthe crystalline lens.
  3. Presbyopia from too small density of  the cornea
 or humours of the eye.  By so much  more these hu-
 mours are thin or rorified, so much the less they refract
 the rays of light.  Whosoever is affected  from this
 cause is cured in older age;  for age induces a greater
density of the cornea and lens.  From this  it Is an ob-
served fact, that the presbyopes are often cured spon-
taneously, and throw away their glosses, which younger
persona in this disease are obliged to use.
   4.  Presbyopia from a custom of viewing continually
 remote objecu; hence artificers who are occupied in
 remote objecu are said to contract this malady.  The
 reason of this phenomenon is not very clear.
   5.  Presbyopia senilis.  From a multitude of causes
 aged persons are presbyopes; from a penury  of hu-
 mours, which render the cornea and lens flatter, and
 the bulb shorter.  When in senile age, from dryness,
 tlie bulb of the eye becomes flatter and shorter, and tiie
 cornea flatter, those who were short-sighted or myopes
 before, see now without their concave glasses.
   6.  Presbyopia, from too close a proximity of objects.
 The  focus is shorter of distant, but longer  of nearer
 objecu.
   7.  Presbyopia from a coarctated pupil.
   8. Presbyopiamercurialis, which arises from the use
 of mercurial preparations.  The palientfeels apressing
 pain in the eye, which, from being touched, to increased,
 and the bulb  of the eye appears  as if rigid, and with
 difficulty can be moved.  Near objecu the patient can
 scarcely distinguish,  and distant only in a confused
 manner.  Many have supposed this disorder an  imper
 feet amaurosis.
   Pre'sbyt*.  See Presbyopia.
   PRESBYTIA.  (From apto6vs, old; because it is
 usual to old people.)   See Presbyopia.
   Presu'ra.   (From nonBia, to inflame.) Inflamma-
 tion at the ends of tbe fingers from cold.
   Priapki'a.   See Nicotiana rustica.
   Priapi'scus.  (From irpiairos, the penis.)  1.  A tent
 made in tbe form of a penis.
   2. A bougie.
   PRIAPISM.  See Priapismus.
   PRIAPI'SMUS.   (From n-piairoe, a  heathen god,
 whose penis is always painted erect.) Priapism.  A
 continual erection ofthe penis.
   PRIA'PUS.  (liptairos, a heathen god, remarkable
 for the largeness of his genitals.)
   1. The penis or membrum virile.
   2. A name of the  nepenthes, or wonderful  plant,
 from  the appendages  at the end of the leaves resem
 bling  an erected penis.
   PRICKLE.  See Aculeus.
   Prickly-heat See Lichen tropicus.
   ["Prickly ash.   Xanthoxylumfraxineum.   The
 Xanthoxylum fraxineum to a prickly shrub, found in
 the northern, middle, and western parts of the United
 States, in woods and moist shady declivities.
   " The leaves and rind of the  fruit resemble those of
 the lemon in their taste and smell, and possess a similar
 volatile oil.  The bark possesses a separate acrid prin-
 ciple, which is communicated  to water and alkohol,
 but does not come over in distillation.  Tbe acrimony
 to not perceived when the bark or liquid is first taken
 into the  mouth, but gradually developes itself by a
 burning sensation on the tongue and fauces.
   "Prickly ash has  acquired much reputation as a
 remedy in chronic rheumatism.  In that disease it has
 an operation analogous to that of mezereon and  guaia-
 cum,  which  it resembles in iu sensible properties.
 Taken in full doses, it produces a sense of hoot in the
 stomach, a tendency  to perspiration, and a relief to
 rheumatic pains.
   " Twenty grains can be taken three times a day in
 powder, or an ounce may be boiled in a quart of water,
 and the decoction taken during twenty-four hours."—
 jBj>. Mat. Med.  A.]
  PRI'MjE VLB.  The first passages.  The stomach
 and the intestinal tube are so called, because they are
 the first possages of what to taken  into the stomach;
 the lacteals the secunda via, because the nourishment
 next goes into them; and  lastly, the blood vessels,
 whicli are supplied  by tbe lacteals,  are called  via
 tenia.
  PRIMARY.  Primarius.  A term  in very general
 use in medicine and surgery.  It is applied to diseases,
to their symptoms, causes, Sec and denotes priority In
 opposition to what follows, which is secondary; thus,
 when  inflammation of the diaphragm produces furious
 delirium, tiie  primary diseose to the paraphrenias ; so
 when  gallstones produce violent pain, vomiting, tec
 which ore followed by jaundice, white fasces,  porter-
coloured urine, Sec; the pain and vomiting are primary
symptoms, the jaundice and white stools are second*
ary, &c.
  Primary teeth. See TVetA.
  Primrose.  See Primula vulgaris.
                                       90? 
PRi
PRO
   PRIMULA.  (From sjrunalij*, tha beginning: so
 called because it flowers in the beginning ofthe spring.)
 The name uf a genus of plants in tlie Linua-an system.
 Cla.-«, Pentandria; Order, Monegyuia.
   PrimlIvA  veris.  (From fri»uliu, the beginning;
 ■a called because  it flowers iu the  beginning ef tbe
 spring.)  Verbascuffim.  The cowslip, paigil, or pengle.
 The flowers of tliis plant hove a moderately strong and
 pleasan'  smell, and a somewhat raughish bitter taste.
 Vinous liquors impregnated with their flavour by ma-
 ceration or fermentation, and strong infusions of them
 drank as. tea, are supposed to be mildly corroborant,
 antispasmodic, and anodyne.  As infuqlon of three
 pounds of the fresh  flowers in five pinte of boiling
 water is made in llie shops into a syrup of a fine yellow
 colour, and agreeably impregnated with the flavour of
 the cowslip.
  Primula vulgaris. The primrose. The leaves and
 root  of this common plant possess sternutatory pro-
 perties.
  Pri'nceps alexipharm ajcohum.  The Angelica was
 formerly  so much esteemed as to obtain this name.
   PRINCIPLES.  Principia.   Primary  substances.
 Substances or particles which are composed of two or
 pore elements; thus water, gelatine, sugar, fibrine, tec
 are the principles oif many bodies.  These principles
 are composed of elementary bodies, as oxygen, hydro
 gen, azote, Sec. which are  undecomposable.
  PRINGLE, Sib John, was born in Scotland in 1707,
 Having determined to make medicine his profession, he
 weni to Edinburgh for a year, and then to Leyden, to
 profit by tlie instructions of the celebrated Boerhaave,
 where he took hto degree in 1730.  Then settling a:
Edinburgh, he obtained four years after the appoint-
 Sient of professor of moral philosophy jointly with Mr.
 cott  In 1742 he was made physician to the Earl of
Stair, who then commanded the British army, and soon
 after physician to  the military hospital in Flauders.
He acquitted himself with  so much credit, that the
Puke of Cumberland, who succeeded to the command,
appointed him, in 1745, physician-general to the forces,
and subsequently to the royal hospitals,  iu the  Low
Countries, when  he resigned hto  Scotch professorship.
He soon after accompanied the some nobleman in hto
expedition against the rebels in Scotland:  but in 1747,
 went  again to the army abroad, where he continued
till the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelta.  The Duke of Cum-
berland then appointed him his physician, uud he set-
tled ia Loudon; but the war of 1755 called him again
to the anny, which, however, he finally quitted  three
years after.  He had been elected a fellow of the Royal
Society in 1745, and on settling in London, contributed
many papers to  .their Transactions,  particularly bis
 Experimenu on Septic and Antiseptic Substances, for
 Which he was presented with the Copleian medal. In
 1752 his " Observations on the Diseases of the Army"
 first appeared, and rapidly passed through several edi-
 tions, and was translated into other languages: the
 utility of the work, indeed, equalled the reputation it
 acquired, and which it still preserves,  especially from
 the importance of the prophylactic measures suggested.
 After quitting the army, he was admitted  a licentiate,
 and his fame as a physician, as well as philosopher,
 speedily oltained a high pitch; he received successively
 various appointmente alKiut the royal family, wos elect-
 ed a fellow of the College, and in  1766 raised to the
 dignity of a baronet  Among numerous  liteiary ho-
 nours from various academies of science in Europe,
 the highest was conferred upon him in 1770, being then
 elected president of the Royal Society: the duties of
 which office he zealously fulfilled for eight years, when
 declining  health compelled his resignation.  His dis-
 courses on the annua) presentation of the Copleian
 medals displayed so much learning and general infor-
 mation, that their publication was requested.  In 1780
 he went  lo  Edinburgh for the  improvement of his
 health; but  the want of hto accustomed  society, and
 the sharpness of the air, compelled him to return in the
 following year; he presented, however, to the College
 of Physicians there  before his departure ten  folio
 Volumes,  in  manuscript,  of "Medical and Physical
 Observ-atma*," wilh the  restriction that  they should
 not be published, nor lent out of the library.  Hto death
 happened soon sfter hto return to London, namely, in
 the begin tun; of 1782.
   PRIONO'DES.  (From wpiiav, a saw.)  Serrated:
 applied in old- writings to tlie sutures ef the skull.
      38*
  PRIOR.  The first i a term applied to toio* tuusjsl
from tbeir order.
  Prior annularis   Musculus  prior  anmUari*
Fourth  i»t«ro*»ett#, of Winslow,   An  internal »n-
lerossrus muscle of tlie hand.  See Interossei manus.
  Prior mnicis.  Extensor  tertii iMternodii indites,
Of Douglas.  Snu-metacarpo-lateriphalangien, 04' Fu-
rnas.  An internal lnterosseal muscle of the  hand,
wliich draws  the  fore-finger kiwaids towards  the
thumb, and extends it obliquely.
  Prior mkdu.  Musculue prier medii; Second intar-
osseus, of Douglas, nnd seu-mttaegtrpo-lntcri phalan-
gien, of Dumas.  An external iuterosseoua muscle of
the liand.  See fittero**** manus.
  Pro as satv  A term frequently used iu extempo-
raneous  prescriptions, and  implies  occasionally, us
the occasion, may require; thus* an aperient dose to
directed to be taken pro re nam.
  PROBANG.  A flexible piece of whalebone with
sponge fixed wi the end.
  PROBE.  (From probo, to try; because surgeon's
try  the depth and  extent of wounds, tec  with it)
Stylus.  A surgical instrument of a  long and sleudef
form.
  Pro'boib. (UpoSoXn, a prominence; from npoSaX
Xb>, to project.)  See Apophysis.
  PROBOSCIS.  (From  irpo, before, and fiooxtt, to
feed.)  A snout  or trunk, as that of an elephant, by
which it feeds itself.
  PROCA'RDIUM.  (From irpo, before, and xaoSia, tha
stomach or heart.)  The pit of the stomach.
  PROCATARCTIC.  (Procatarclicw*; from tfpo**-
rapxta, to go before.)  See Exciting cause.
  PROCESS.  (Processus;  from procede, to go be-
fore.)  An  eminence of a bone; as the spinous and
transverse processes ofthe vertebra}.
  PROCESSUS.  See Proee**.
  Processus cveci vermiformis. See Intestine.
  Processus caudatus.  See Lobulus caudatus.
  Processus ciliaris.   See Ciliar ligament.
  Processus mamillarbs.   A name formerly applied
to the olfactory nerves.
  PROCIDENTIA.  (From procido, to fall down.)
A falling down of any part; thus, procidentia  ani,
uteri, vagina, Sec
  Proco'ndylus. (From irpo, before, ami xovSvXot
the  middle joint uf the Anger.)  The first joint of a Au-
ger  next tbe metacarpus.
  PROCTA'LGIA.  (From  irptaxros, the nindament,
and aXyos, pain.) A violent pain of the anus.  It IS
mostly symptomatic of some disease, as piles, scirrhus,
prurigo, cancer, Sec.
  PROCTICA.   (From  rrpiaxtos,  the  fundament.!
The name of a genus of diseasits in Good's Nosology,
Class, Caliaca;  Order, Enterica.  Pain or  derange-
ment about  the anus, Without primary inflammation
It has six species, viz. Proctica simplex, spasmodica,
callosa, tenesmus, marisca, exenia.
  PROCTITIS.   (From >rpuwcro$, ttie anus.)  CZuno-
sia, Cyssotie.  Inflammation of the internal or mucoud
membrane of the lower part of the rectum.
  Proctoleucorrhoj'a.  (From -npuixros, the  anus,
Xtvxos, white, and  ptia,  to  flow.)  Proclorrhaa. A
purging of white  mucus.
  Proctorrhea.  (From nptaxros, the anus, and ptia,
to flow.)  See Proctoleucorrhaa.
  PRODUCTIO.  See Apophysis.
  PR030TIA.  (From irptai,  premature.)  The namo
of a genus of diseases in Good's Nosology.  Class Ge-
netica; Order, Orgaslica.  Genital precocttyi  It has
two species, viz. Prmotia masculina, and feminmn.
  PROCUMBENS.  Procumbent.  Applied to slems,
as that of Li/simachia nemorum.
  PROFLUVIUM. (Froni»roJfa»,terandbwn.>A flux.
  Profluvia.  Fluxes.  The fifth order in tne class"
Pyrexia, of  Cullen's Nosology, characterized by py-
rexia, with increased excretions.
  Profli'VU cortex.  See Neriumantidyeenlerioum,
  PROFUNDUS.  See Flexor profundus perforans
  PROFU'SIO.  A genus of oTnieaie In tlie class Lo-
cales, and order Apocenoses,  of Cullen. A passive los#
of blood.
  Pkoolo'ssis.   (From irpo,  before, and yXvoaa,  tiie
tongue.)  The tip of the tongue.
  PROGNOSIS.  (From irpo, before, and yivtooxta
to know.)  Tho  foretelling the event of diseases fronr
particular symptoms. 
x>RO                                             i*RO
  PROGNOSTIC  (Prognostics; ftotn KpoyiviaoKia,
 to  know  beforehand.)   Applied to those  symptom?
 Whicli enable  llie physician to form his judgment or
 prognosis of the proboble cause or event of a disease.
  Projectijra.   See Apophysis.
  PROLA'PSUS.   (From prolaber, to  slip doWn.)
 Procidentia;  Ddapsio;  Exania;  Proptoma; Prop-
 iosis.  A  protrusion.  A genus of disease in the class
 Locales, aud order  Ectopia, ot Culleu; distinguished
 by the falling down of a part that is uncovered.
  Prole'pticcs.   (.From  irpoXapSavo, to anticipate.)
 Applied to those diseoses, the paroxysms of which  an-
 ticipate each other,  or return after less  and less inter-
 vals of intermission.
  PROLIFER. (From proles, an offspring, and fero,
 to bear.)  Prolific, or proliferous:  applied  to those
stems which shoot out new branches from the summit
of the former  ones, as in  the Scotch fir; Pinus syl-
testris.
  Promalacte'rium.  (From irpo, before, ond uaXao-
e)ia, to soften.)  The  room where the body is softened
previous to bathing.
  Prometopi'dium.   (From irpo, before, ond ptrtairov,
the forehead.)  Prometepis.  The skin upon the fore-
head.
  Prometo'pis.  See Prometopidium.
  PRONATION.  Pronatie.  The  act of turning  the
palm of the hand downwards.  It is performed by rota-
ting the radius upon the ulna, by  means of several
 muscles which are termed pronators.
  PRONATOR.  A name given to two muscles ofthe
hand, the pronator radii quadratus, and pronator radii
 teres; the use of which is to perform the opposite ac-
 tion to tbat ofthe supinators, viz. pronation.
  Pronator quadratus.  See Pronator radii quad-
ratus.
  Pronator Radii brevis. See Pronator radii quad-
ratus.
  Pronator radii quadratus.  Pronator quadratus,
of Douglas and Albinus; Pronator quadratus  sive
transversus, of Winslow; Pronator radii brevis  seu
quadratus, of Cowper; Cubito radial,  of  Dumas.
This, which has gotten iu name from  iu use and iu
shape, to a small fleshy muscle, situated at the lower
and inner part of the forearm, and covered by the ten-
 dons of the flexor muscles of the hand. It arises ten-
dinous and fleshy from the lower and inner part of tlie
 ulna, and  runs nearly in a transverse direction, to be
Inserted into that part of the radius  which is opposite
 to its origin, its inner fibres adhering  to the interosseous
 ligament  This muscle assisu in the pronation of tlie
 band, by turning the rodius inwards.
  Pronator radii teres.  Pronator  teres, of Albi-
 nus aud Douglas;  Pronator teres, rive obliquus, of
 Winslow; Epitrochloradial,  of Dumas.   A small
 muscle situated at the upper and anterior part of the
 forearm.   It is called teres, to distinguish it from  the
 pronator  quadratus.  It arises tendinous ond fleshy
 from the anterior and inferior part ofthe outer condyle
 Of the os humeri; and tendinous from the coronoid pro-
 cess of the ulna, near the insertion of the  brachialis
 internus.  The median 1 *rve passes between these two
 portions. From these origins the muscle runs obliquely
 downwards  and outwards, and is inserted, tendinous
 and fleshy, Into the anterior  and convex edge of the
 radius, about the  middle of that bone.  This muscle,
 as  iu name indicates, serves to turn the band in-
 wards.
  Pronerva'tio.   (From pro, before, and nervus, a
 airing.)  A tendon or string, like the end of a muscle.
  PROPAGO.  A slip, layer, or cutting of the vine.
  PROPHYLACTIC.   (Prophylaeiicus; from  npo,
 and qmXaooia, to defend.)   Any means  made use of to
 preserve health and  prevent disease.
  Proprieta'tis  elixir.  See Tinctura alols com-
 posita.
  PROPTO'MA.  (From jrpofrnr7w, to fall down.) Pro-
 ddenlia.   A relaxation, such as that of the scrotum,
 of the under lip, of  the breasU in females, of the prae-
 puce, or ofthe cars.
  Propye'ma.  (From apo, before, and iruov, pus.)  A
 premature collection of pus.
  PRO'RA.  (FromTrpupa, the prow of a vessel.)  The
 occiput.
  Probarthro'sis.   (From irpoy, to,  and apBpov,, to
 articulate.)  .The articulation which  has manifest
 motion
                                        Xx
  Prospe cma.  (From irpoaicrryvvpt, to fix near./  A
fixing of humours in one spot.
  Pro'stasis.  (From -xpois^ipi, to predominate.)  An
abundance of morbid humours.
  PROSTATE.   (Glanduld prostata; from Trpo, be-
fore, and ittrnpi, to stand:  because it to situated before
the urinary  bladder.)   Corpus glandulosum;  Ade-
noides.  A very large, heart-like, firm gland, situated
between the  neck of the urinary bladder and the bul-
bous part of  tbe urethra.  It secretes the lacteal fluid,
which is emitted into the urethra by ten or twelve
ducu, that open  near the verumontonum, during coi-
tion.  This gland to liable to inflammation and iu con-
sequences.
  Prostate inferior muscle.  See Transversis perinei
alter.
  PROSTRATUS. Prostrate. Applied synonymously
with depressus, depressed, to  a stem which lies natu-
rally remarkably flat, spreading horizontally over the
ground; as in Coldenia procumbens, and Coronopus
Ruelli, swine's cress.
  PROTO'GALA.  (From itpiaros, first, and yaXa,
milk.)  Tho  first milk after delivery.
  PROTOXYDE.  See Oxide.
  PROTUBERANTIA.   1.  A protuberance  on any
part.
  2. An apophysis.
  PROXIMATE. (Causaproximo: so called because
when the exciting cause begins to have effect it is the
proximum, or next thing that happens.)  The proxi-
mate cause of a disease may  be said to  be in reality
the disease itself.  All proximate causes are either
diseased actions of simple  fibres, or an altered state of
the fluids.
  PRUI'NA.  (A perurendo, quod fruges peruent.)
The powder-like appearance after the bloom observed
on ripe fruit, especially plums.
  PRUNA.  (Pruna, a. t.; a live coal.)  The carbun-
cle.  See Anthrax.
  PRUNE.  See Plums.
  PRUNE'LLA.  (From  prnno, a burn; because  it
heals  burns.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnaean system.   Class,  Didynamia:  Order,
Gymnospermia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the self-heal.  See
Prunella vulgaris.
  3. The name used by Paracelsus for sore throat, or
cynanehe.
  Prunella vulsaris.  The systematic name of the
self-heal.  Prunella;  Consolida  minor; Symphitum
minus.  Prunella—foliis omnibus ovatooblongis, ser-
ratis, pdiolatis, ot Linneus;  it is recommended as an
adstringent in haemorrhages and fluxes, as also in gar-
gles against aphthae and inflammation of  the fauces.
  PRUNUM.  (Prunum, i. n.; from prunus.)   Apium
or prune.  See Plums.
   Prunelloe.  See Plum.
  Prunum oalucum.  See Prunus domestica.
  Prunum sylvestre. See  Prunu* spinosa.
  PRU'NUS.  (Prunus, i. f.)   1. A plum.
  2. The name of a genus of plants  in tbe Linnean
system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Monogynia.
  Prunus armkniaca. Apricou. whicli ore  the fruit
of this plant, are, when ripe, easily digested, and are
considered as a pleasant and nutritious delicacy.
  Prunus avium.  The systematic name of the black
cherry-tree.  Prunus—umbellis sessilibus,foXiisovato-
lanceolatis. subtus pubescentibus, conduplicatis,o(Lin-
nsus.  The  flavour of the ripe fruit to  esteemed  by
many, and if not token in too large quantities, they
are extremely salutary. A gum exudes from  the tree,
whose properties are similar to those of gum-arabic.
  Prunus cerasus.   The systematic name of tbe
red cherry-tree.   Prunus—umbellis subpedunculatis,
foliis ovata-lanceolatis, glabris conduplicatis, of Lin-
nams.  The  fruit of this tree, Cerasa rubra, anglica,
sativa, possess a pleasant, acidulated, sweet flavour,
and are proper in fevers, scurvy, and bilious obstruc-
tions.  Red cherries are mostly eaten as a luxury, and
are very wholesome, except to those whose bowels are
remarkably irritable.
  Prunus domestica. The systematic name of tha
plum  or damson-tree.  Prunus—pedunculis subsoli-
tariis, foliis  lanceolato ovatis convolutis, ramis muti-
cis; gemma florifera aphylla, of Liniueue.   Prunes
are considered as emollient, cooling, and laxative, espe
dally the French prunes, Which  are directed 4n thx 
mu
PRU
 iecoction of senna, and other purgatives; and the |iulp
 li ordered  in the electuarium i senna.   The damson
 Is only a vuriety? which, when  perfectly ripe, oflords
 a wholesome article for pies, tarts, Sec gently opening
 the body: but when damsons are not perfectly mature,
 they produce colicky pains, diarrhoea, and convulsions
 in children. See Plums.
  Prunus  lauro-cerasus.  The systematic name of
 the poison laurel. Laure-cerusus. Common or cherry
 laurel.   Prunus—floribus raccmesis foliis sempervi-
 rentibus dorso biglandulosis, of Linnaeus.   The leaves
 of the lauro-cerasus have a bitter styptic taste, accom-
 panied with a flavour resembling that of bitter-almonds,
 or other kernels of the drupaceous fruits:  the flowers
 also manifest a similar flavour.  The powdered leaves,
 applied to the nostrils, excite sneezing, though not so
 strongly as tobacco.   The kernel-like flavour which
 these leaves impart being generally esteemed grateful,
 has sometimes caused them to be employed for culinary
 purposes, and especially in custards, puddings, blanc-
 mange, &c; and as the  proportion of this sapid mat-
 ter of the leuf to ihe quantity of the milk is commonly
 inconsiderable, bad effecu have seldom ensued.  But,
 as the poisonous quality of this laurel is now indubita-
 bly proved  and known to be the prussic acid wbich
 can  be obtained in a  separote  form  (See Prussic
 acid), the public ought to be cautioned against its in-
ternal use.
  The following communication to the Royal Society,
by Dr. Madden, of Dublin, contains the first and  prin-
cipal proofs of the deleterious effecu  of this vegetable
upon mankind:—"A  very extraordinary accident tbat
fell out here some months ago, has discovered to us a
 most dangerous poison, whicli was never before known
 to be so, though it has been in frequent use among us.
 The thing I mean is a simple water, distilled from the
leaves of the lauro-cerasus; the water to at first milky,
 but the oil which comes over being, in a good measure,
separated from the phlegm, by passing it through a
flannel bag, it becomes as clear as  common water.  Il
has the smell of  bitter almonds, or peach  kernel, and
has been for many years in  frequent use  among our
housewives and cooks, to give  that agreeable flavour
to their creams and puddings.  It has also been much
in use among our drinkers of drams; and the propor-
tion they generally use it in has been one part of laurel-
 water to four of brandy.   Nor has this practice, how-
ever frequent, ever been attended with any apparent
UI consequences, till some lime  iu the month of  Sep-
 tember, 1728, when it happened that one Martha Boyse,
 a servant, who lived  with a person v/ho  sold great
quantities of this water, got a bottle of it from  her
 mistress, and gave it to her mother. Ann Boyse made
 a present of it to Frances Eaton, her sister, who was
 a shopkeeper in town, and who, she thought, might
 oblige her customers with it. Accordingly, in a few
 days, she gave about two ounces  to a woman called
 Mary Whaley, who drank about two-thirds of what
 was filled out, and went away.   Frances Eaton drank
 the rest  In a quarter of an  hour after Mary Whaley
 had  drunk the water, (as I  am informed,) she com-
 plained of a violent disorder in her siomach, soon after
 lost her speech, and died in about an hour, without any
 vomiting or purging, or  ony convulsion.  The shop-
 keeper,  F. Eaton, sent word to  her sister, Ann Boyse,
 of what had happened, who came to her upon llie
 messoge, and affirmed lhat it was not possible the cor-
 dial (as she called it) could have occasioned tbe death
 of the woman; and, to  convince  her of it, she filled
 out about three ounces and drank it.  She continued
 talking with F. Eaton about  twu minutes  longer, and
 was so  earnest to persuade  her of the liquor's being
 inoffensive, that  she drank about two spoonfuls more,
 but wos hardly well seated in her chair when she died
 without  the least groan, or convulsion.   Frances
 Eaton, who, as before observed, had drank somewhat
 more than  a spoonful, found no disorder  in her sto-
 mach, or elsewhere; but to prevent any ill  conse-
 quences, she took a vomit immediately, and has  been
 well ever since."—Dr. Madden mentions another case.
 of a gentleman at Kilkenny, who mistook a bottle of
 laurel-water for a bottle of ptisan.  What quantity he
 drank is uncertain, but he died iu a few minutes, com-
 plaining of a violent disorder in the stomach.  In ad-
 dition to this, we may refer to the unfortunate case of
 Sir Theodoslus Bonghton, whose death, in 1780, an
 English jury declared to be occasioned by this poison
      210
i In this case, the active principle of tne lauro-cerasus
[ was concentrated by repeated distillations, and given
 to the quantity of one ounce; llie suddenly fatal effects
 of which must be still in the recollection uf the public.
 To brute animals this poison to almost instantaneously
 mortal, as amply appears by the experimenu of Mad
 den, Mot timer, Nicholls, Fontono, Laugrtoh, Voter,
 and others.  The experiments conducted by these gen-
 tlemen, show that the laurel-water is destructive to
 animal life, not only when taken into ihe stomach, but
 also on  being injected into the intestines, or applied
 externally  io different organs of the body.  It is re-
 marked, by Abbe Fontaua, that this potoon, even
 " when applied in a very small quantity to the eyes, in-
 to the inner part of  the mouth, without touching tbe
 oesophagus, or being  carried into the stomach, to capa-
 ble of killing  an animal  in a few minutes: while, ap-
 plied in a much greater quantity to wounds, it has so
 little activity, that the weakest animals, such as pigeons,
 resist its action."
   The poisonous quality of the species  of laurel is tbe
 prussic acid; and if  we judge from iu  sensible quali-
 ties, an  analogous principle seems to  pervade many
 other vegetable substances, especially  the kernels of
 drupaceous fruiu: and in various species of the amyg-
 dalus, this sapid principle extends  to the  flowers and
 leaves.  It is of importance to notice, that this is much
 less powerful in iu action upon human subjects than
 upon dogs, rabbits, pigeons, and reptiles.  To poison
 man, the essential oil of the lauro-cerasus must  be
 separated by distillation, as in the spirituous or common
 laurel-water; and unless this to strongly imbued with
 the oil, or given  in  a large dose, it proves innocent.
 Dr. Cullen observes, that"the sedative power of the
 lauro-cerasus, acts upon  the nervous system in a dif-
 ferent manner from opium and other narcotic  sub-
 stances, whose primary action to upon the animal func-
 tions; for  the lauro-cerasus does not occasion sleep,
 nor does it produce  loeal inflammation, but seems to
 act directly upon the vital  powers.   Abb*) Fontana
 supposes that this poison destroys  animal life, by ex-
 erting iu effecu upon the blood; but the experiments
 and observations from whicli he draws this  opinion
 ore evidently inconclusive.   It may also be remarked,
 that many of the Abbe's  experimenu contradict each
 other.  Thus, it appears from the citation given above,
 that the poison of this  vegetable, when  applied to
 wounds, does not prove fatal; but future experiments
 led the Abbe to assert, that the oil of the lauro-cerasus.
 whether given  internally, or applied to  the wounds or
 animals, is one of the most terrible and  deadly poisons
 known.  Though this vegetable seems to have escaped
 the notice of Stoerck, yet it  is not without advocates
 for iu  medical  use.  Linnaeus  informs  us,  thai in
 Switzerland it  is commonly and successfully used in
 pulmonary complainU.  Laugrtoh mentions iu efficacy
 in agues; and as Bergius found bitter almonds to have
 this effect, we  may, by  analogy, conclude that  this
 power of the lauro-cerasus to well established.   Bay-
 lies found that il possessed a remarkable power of di-
 luting the Mood, and from  experience,  recommended
 it in all cases of disease supposed to proceed from too
 dense a  state of  that fluid; adducing  particular in-
 stances of its efficacy in rheumatisms,  asthmas, and
 scirrhous affections.   Nor does this author seem to
 have been much  afraid  of the deleterious quality of
 lauro-cerasus, as he direcu a pound of iu leaves to be
 macerated in a pint of water, of which  he gives from
 thirty to sixty drops three or four times a-day.
  Prunus fadus.  The  systematic name of the wild
 cluster, or  bird cherry-tree.   Padus.  The bork and
 berriesof this shrub are used medicinally. The former,
 wlien taken from the tree, has a fragrant smell, and a
 bitter, subastringent taste, somewhat similar to that of
 bitter almonds.  Made into a decoction,  it cures inter-
 mittenu, and it has been recommended  in the cure of
 several forms of syphilis.  The latter are said to cure
 the dysentery.
  Prunus  spinosa.  The systematic name of the sloe
 tree.  Prunus sylvestris; Prunus—pedunculis solita
 riis, foliis lanceolatis,  glabris, ramis spinosis, of
 Linnxus.  It is sometimes employed  in  gargles, to
 tumefactions of tbe  tonsils and uvula, and from iu
 adstringent taste was formerly much used  in hemor-
 rhages, Sec.
  PRURI'GO.   (From prusio, to itch.)   Prune**,-
 Scabiesi Psora; Darta; Libido; Favor.  The pro- 
PRU
FRU
Ago ts a genus of disease in the order Papulous erup-
tion*  of Dr. Willan's  cautaneous  diseases.   As it
Vises from different causes, or at different  periods of
life, and exhibits some vaneliesin iu form, he describes
ft under the titles of prurigo mitia, prurigo  formicons,
and prurigo senilis.  Iu these, the whole surface of the
skin is usually affected;  but there are likewise many
cases of local prurigo, which Will be afterward noticed
according to their respi-ctive situations.
  1. The Prurigo mitis  originates  without any pre-
vious indisposition, generally in spring, or the beginning
Of summer.  It is characterized by  soft and  smooth
elevations of the cuticle, somewhat larger than tiie
papulae of the licffen,-frOm  which ihey also differ by
retaining the usual colour of the skin ; for they seldom
appear red,  or much Inflamed, except from  violent
friction.  They are not, as in  the other case,  accom-
panied with tingling, but with a sense of itching almost
incessant  This to, however, felt more particularly on
undressing, and often prevent rest for some  hours after
getting into a bed.  When the tops of the papula; are
removes! by rubbing or scratching, a  clear  fluid oozes
out from them, and gradually concretes into thin black
scabs.
  This species of prurigo mostly affects young per-
sons ;  and  iu cause may, I think, says Dr. Willan, in
general be referred to sordes collected on the skin, pro-
ducing some degree of irritation, and also peventing
the free discharge of the cutaneous exhalation; the
bad consequences of which must necessarily by felt at
that season of the year when perspiration is the most
Copious.   Those  who  have originally a delicate or
irritable skin, must likewise, in the same circumstances,
be the greatest sufferers.
  The eruption extends to the arms, breast, back, and
thighs, and often continues during two or three months
of the summer,  if not relieved by proper treatment
When  persons affected  with  it neglect  washing the
Skin, or  are  uncleanly in their  apparel, the eruption
grows more  inveterate, and  at length, changing  its
form,  often  terminates in the itch.   Pustules arise
among the papulae, some  filled1 with lymph, others with
pus.  The acarus scabiei  begins to breed in the furrows
Of the cuticle, and the disorder becomes contagious.
  2. The Prurigo formicans is a much mOre obstinate
and troublesome disease than the foregoing.  It usually
affecu persons of adult age, commencing ot  all seasons
of  the year  indifferently; and  ite  duration  is  from
four months to two  or  three years,  with  occasional
Bhort  intermissions.   The papulae are  sometimes
larger, sometimes more obscure, than in the preceding
species; but are, under every form, attended with  on
incessant  almost  intolerable  itching.  They are dif-
fused  over the whole body, except  the  face, feet, and
palms  of the hands;  they  appeor, however, in the
greatest  miinber on those parte which, from the mode
of dress, are subjected to tight ligatures; as about the
heck, loins, and thighs.
  The itching is complicated with other sensations,
Which  are variously described by patienu.   They
sonietines feel as if small insecu were creeping on the
skin; sometimes as if stung all over by ants; some-
times as if hot needles Were piercing the skin m divers
places.  On standing before  a  fire, or undressing, and
more particularly on getting into bed, these sensations
become  most violent, and  usually preclude  all rest
during  the greatest  part of tlie night   The  prurigo
formicans is by most practitioners deemed contagious,
and confounded with the itch.   In endeavouring to
ascertain the justness of this opinion, Dr. Willan has
been led to make the following remarks: 1:  The erup-
tion is, for the most part, connected with internal dis-
order,  and arises when no source of infection can be
(raced.   2. Persons affected may have constant inter-
course with several others, and yet never communicate
the  disease to any of them.  3. Several persons of one
family may have the prurigo formicans about the same
time; but he thinks this should be referred rather to a
common predisposition than to contagion, having ob-
served that individuals of a family are often so affected
at certain seasons of the'year, even when they reside
at a distance from each other.
  Although the prurigo formicans  is never, like the
former species, converted'into  the itch, yet  it does oc-
casionally terminate in a pustular  disease, not con-
tagious.
  3. Prurigo senilis.   Tliu affection does not differ
much in its symptoms and external b*pea»Rces from
the prurigo Ibrmicana; but bas been thought by medical
writers to nierrt a distinct consideration on account of
its peculiar inveteracy.  Tbe prurigo to perhaps aggra-
vated, or becomes more permanent in old age from the
dry, condensed state of the skin and cuticle which
often tnkes place at  that period.  Those who are af
fectedwiih :t in tr high degree have little more comfort
to expect during life, being incessantly tormented with
a violent and universal  itching.   The  state of the
skin in the prurigo senilis,  is favourable to the produc-
tion of  an insect,  the  pediculus  bumanus, more
especially to the  variety of it usually termed body-lice.
  These insects,  it is well known, ore bred abundantly
among the inhabitants of sordid  dwellings, of jails,
work-houses, &c. ond in such situations prey upon
personsof all ages indiscriminately. But in the prurigo-
senilis they arise, notwithstanding every attention lo
cleanliness or regimen, aud multiply so rapidly,that the
patient endures extreme distress, from their perpetual
irritation.  The nits or eggs are deposited  on the small
hairs of the skin, and the pediculi are only found on
the skin, or on the linen, not under the cuticle, os some
authors have  represented.   In connexion with  the
foregoing series  Of complaints, Dr. Willan mentions
some pruriginotis affections which are merely local.
He confines his  observations  to the most  troublesome
of  these, seated in  the  podex, pramulium, urethra,-
pubes, scrotum, and  pudendum muliebre. Itching of
the nostrils, eyelids,  lips, or of the external ear, being
generally symptomatic of other diseases, do not require
a particular consideration.
  1. Prurigo podieis.  Ascarides in the rectum excite
a frequent itching and irritation about tlie sphincter ani,
which ceases when  tlie cause is  removed by  proper
medicines. A simitar complaint often arises, indepen-
dently of worms, hemorrhoidal  tumours, or other
obvious causes, which is mostly found to affect persons
engaged in sedentary occupations; and may be referred
to a morbid state of secretion hi the parts, founded,
perhaps, on a  diminution of constitutional vigour.
The itching is not always accompanied  with  an  ap-
pearance of papula; or tubercles; it is little troublesome
during the day-time,  but returns every night soon after
getting  into bed, and precludes rest for several  hours.
The complaint continues in this form during three or
four months, and hos then an intermission, till it is pro-
duced again by hot weather, fatigue, watching, or some
irregularity in diet.  The same disease occurs at the
decline of life, under a variety of circumstances.
  Women, after the cessation of the catamenia, ore
liable to be affected with this species  of prurigo, more
especially in summer or  autumn:  The skin between
the notes is rough and papulaied, sometimes scaly, and
o little humour is  discharged  by  violent friction.
Along with this complaint, there is often  an eruption
of  itching  papula; on the neck, breast, and back;
a swelling and inflammation of one or both ears, and a
discharge of matter  from  behind  them, and  from the
external meatus  auditorius.   The   prurigo  podieis
sometimes occurs as  a symptom of the lues venerea.
  2. The prurigo praputii is owing to all  altered state
of secretion on the glans penis,  and inner surface of
the praeputium.   During llie heat of  summer there is
also; in some persons, an unusual discharge of mucus,
which becomes acrimonious, and produces o trouble-
some itching, and'often an excoriation of these parts.
Washing of thein with water, or soap and water, em'
ployed from time to time, relieves the complaint, and
should indeed  be  practised as an ordinary  point of
cleanliness, where no inconvenience  is  immediately
felt.  If the fluid  be secreted in too large a quantity,
that excess may be restrained, by washes made with
the liquor plumbi subacetatis, or by applying the  un
guentum plumbi  superacetatto.
  3: Prurigo urethralis.  A very troublesome  itching
sometimes  takes place at the extremity of the uretlna
in females, without any  manifest cause.   It occurs as
well in young women as in those who are of  an  ad-
vanced  age.  Oh examination, no stricture or rumour
has been found along the course of the urethra. Pro-
bably, however,  the  itching may  be  occasioned by s
morbid'state of tlie neck of the bladder, being in some
instances connected with pain and difficulty of making-
water.
  An itching at the extremity of the urethra in  men is"
produced by calculi, and  by some diseases of the Wad' 
PRU
PRU
 der.  In cases of stricture an itching is also felt, but
 near the place  where the stricture is situated.   An-
 other cause  of  it ia small broken hairs, which an
 sometimes drawn ia from the pubes, between the pne-
 putium and glans, and wbich afterward becoming fixed
 in the entrance of the urethra, occasion an itching, or
 ■light stinging,  particularly on motion.  J.  Pearson,
 surgeon of the Lock  Hospital,  has seen five cases of
 this kind, oud gave immediate relief by extracting the
 ■nail hair from the urethra.
  4. Prurigo pubis.  Itching populx often arise on the
 pubes, and become extremely sore if their tops are re-
 moved by scratching.  They are occasioned sometimes
 by  neglect of cleanliness, but more commonly  by a
 speciesof pediculus, which perforates the cuticle, and
 thus derives  iu  nourishment,  remaining fixed in llie
 same situation.  These insecu are termed by  Linnaeus,
 tec. pediculi  pubis ; they do not, however, affect the
 pubes only, but often adhere to the  eyebrows, eyelids,
 and axilla?.  They are often found, also, on the breast,
 abdomen, thighs, and legs, in persons of the  sanguine
 temperament, who  have those parU covered  with
 strong hairs.   It  is remarkable that  they seldom or
 never fix upon the hairy scalp. The great  irritation
 produced by  them  on the  skin, soliciu  constantly
 scratching, by whicli  they aie torn  from their attach-
 menu:  and painful tubercles arise at the places where
 tbey had adhered.   When the pediculi are diffused
 over the greater part  of the surface of the  body, the
 patient's linen often appears as if sprinkled with dtops
of blood.
  5. Prurigo scroti.   The scrotum  is affected with a
 troublesome and constant itching from ascarides within
 the rectum,  from friction  by  violent exercise In hot
 weather,  and very  usually from the pediculi pubis.
 Another and more important form of the complaint ap-
 pears in old men, sometimes connected with the pru-
 rigo podieis, and referrible to  a morbid state of the
skin, or superficial gland of the  part.  The scrotum, in
this case, assumes a brown colour, often also becoming
thick, scaly, and wrinkled.  The itching extends to the
akin covering the penis, more especially along the
 course of the urethra; and  has  little respite, eilher by
day or night.
  6. The  Prurigo pudendi muliebris, to  somewhat
 analogous to  the prurigo scroti  in men. It is often  a
 symptomatic complaint in the lichen and lepra; it like-
 wise originates from  ascarides  irritating the  rectum,
 and is in some coses connected with o discharge of the
 fluor albus.
   A similar  affection  arises  in consequence of  a
change of state in the genital organs  at tlie time of pu-
 berty, attended with a series of most distressing sensa-
 tions.  Dr. Willan confines his attention to one case of
 the disorder,  wbich may be considered as idiopathic,
 and which usually afiecu women soon after the cessa-
 tion of tiie catamenia.  It chiefly occurs in those  who
 are of the phlegmatic temperament, and inclined to
 corpulency.   Its seat is tiie labia pudendi, and entrance
 to the vagina. Il is  often accompanied with  an ap-
 pearance  of tension or fulness  of  those parts,  and
 sometimes with inflamed itching papulae on tbe labia
 and mons veneris.  Tbe distress arising from a strong
 and almost perpetual itching in the above  situation,
 may be easily imagined. In order to allay it in some de-
 gree, the sufferers have frequent recourse  to friction,
 and to  cooling applications; whence they are neces-
 sitated to forego the enjoyment of society.  An excite-
 ment of venereal sensations also lakes place from the
 constant direction of the mind to the parts affected, as
 well os from the meons employed to procure allevia-
 tion.  The complicated distress thus arising, renders
 existence almost  insupportable, and often produces  a
 state of mind bordering on frenzy.
  Deep ulcerations of the paru seldom take place in
 the prurigo pudendi: but the appearance of aphtha? on
 the labia and nympha;, is by no means unusual. From
 intercourse with females under these  circumstances,
 men are liable to be affected with aphthous ulcerations
 on  tbe  glans, and  inside  of the pr.-eputium, which
 prove troublesome for a length of time, and often ex-
 cite an alarm, being mistaken for chancres.
  Women, after the fourth month of their pregnancy,
 often suffer greatly from the prurigo  pudendi, attended
 with aphtha-.  These, in a few  cases, have been suc-
 ceeded by extensive ulcerations, which destroyed the
 nymphae, and produced a fatal  hectic:  such instances
      21*
! are, however, extremely rare.  The complaint bas, in
 general, some intervals or remissions; and the aphthsj
 usually disappear soon  after delivery, whether at tha
 full time, or by a miscarriage.
   PRURITUS.  (From prurio, to itch.) See Prurig a
   Prussian alkali.  See Alkali, phlogisticated.
   Prussian blue.  See Blue, Prussian.
   PRUSSIATE. A salt  formed by  the union of the
 prussic acid, or colouring matter of Prussian blue, with
 a salifiable basis: thus,  prussiate of  potassa, tec.
   PRUSSIC  ACID.  Acidum prusstc.um.   Acidum
 hydrotyanicum.  Hydrocyanic acid.   "The combina-
 tion of this acid wilh iron  was long known, and used
 as a pigment by the name of Prussian blue, before iu
 nature was understood. Scheele's method of obtaining it
 is this:—Mix four ounces of Prussian  blue with two of
 red  oxide of mercury prepared by nitric acid,  and boil
 them in twelve  ounces  by weight of water,  till the
 whole becomes colourless;  filter the liquor, and add to
 il one ounce  of  clean iron filings,  and  six or seven
 drachms  of sulphuric acid.  Draw off by distillation
 about a fourth of the liquor, which  will be  prussic
 acid; though, as it to liable to be contaminated with a
 portion of sulphuric, to render it pure, it may be recti-
 fied by redistilling it from carbonate of lime.
   This prussic acid has a strong smell of peach-blos-
 soms, or bitter almonds;  iu taste to at first sweetish,
 then-acrid, hot, and virulent, and excites coughing; it
 has a strong  tendency to  assume the form of gas; It
 has been decomposed in a high temperature, and by the
 contact of light, into carbonic acid, ammonia, and car-
 buretted hydrogen.  It does not completely neutralize
 alkalies, and to displaced even by the carbonic acid ; it
 has no action upon metala, but unites witb their oxides,
 and forms salu for the most part insoluble; it likewise
 unites into triple salu with these oxides and alkalies;
 the  oxygenated muriatic acid decomposes it.
   The peculiar smell of the prussic acid could scarcely
 fail  to suggest ite affinity with the deleterious principle
 that rises in the distillation of the leaves of the lauro-
 cerasus, bitter kernels of fruits, and some other vege
 table productions; and Schrader, of Berlin, has ascer-
 tained the fact, that these vegetable substances do con-
 tain a principle capable of forming a blue precipitate
 witb iron ; and that with lime they afford a test of the
 presence of iron  equal to  the  prussiate of that earth.
 Dr.  Bucholz,  of  Weimar,  and Roloff, of Magdeburg,
 confirm this fact  The  prussic acid appears  to come
 over in the distilled oil.
   Prussic acid and ite combinations have been lately
 investigated by Gay Lussac and Vauquelin in  France,
 and Porrett in England.
   To a quantity of powdered Prussian blue diffused in
 boiling water, let red oxide of uiercury  be added in
 successive portions till tiie blue colour  to destroyed.
 Filter the liquid, and concentrate by evaporation till a
 pellicle appears.  On cooling, crystals of prussiate,  or
 cyanide of mercury, will be formed.   Dry these, and
 put them into a tubulated glass retort, to the beak of
 which to adapted a horizontal tube about two feet long,
 and fully half an inch wide at its middle part.  The
 first third-part of the tube next the retort to filled  with
 small pieces of white marble, the two other thirds
 with fused muriate of lime.  To the  end of this tube
 is adapted a small receiver, which should bu artificially
 refrigerated.  Pour on the crystals muriatic acid,  in
 rather less  quantity than to sufficient  to saturate the
 oxide of mercury which  formed them.  Apply a very
 gentle heat to  the retort.  Prussic acid, named hydro
 cyanic by Gay Lussac, will be evolved in vapour, and
 will condense  in the tube. Whatever muriatic acid
 may pass over  wilh it, will be abstracted by the mar
 ble,  while the water  will  be absorbed by the  mu-
 riate of lime.   By means of moderate heat applied  to
 the tube, Ibe prussic acid may be made to pass  succes-
 sively along; and after being left some time in  contact
 with the muriate of lime, it may be finally driven into
 the receiver.  As llie carbonic ocid evolved from mar-
 ble by the muriatic is apt to carry off some of the prus-
 sic acid, care should be taken lo conduct the heat so as
 to prevent the distillation of this mineral acid.
   Prussic acid thus obtained has the following  proper-
 ties:—It is a  colourleaa liquid,  possessing a  strong
 odour; and the exhalation, if incautiously snuffed up
 the  nostrils, may produce  sickness or fainting.  Ita
 taste is cooling at first, then hot, asthenic in  a 'ilgh
 degree, and a true poison. 
PRU
PRU
  This acid, when compared  with the  other animal
products,  to distinguished by the grest quantity of ni-
trogen it  contains, by its small quantity of hydrogen,
and especially by the absence of oxygen.
  When this acid to  kept in well-closed  vessels, even
though no air be present it is sometimes decomposed
in less than an hour.  It has been occasionally kept 15
days without alteration; but it to seldom  that it can be
kept longer, without exhibiting signs of decomposition.
It begins by assuming a reddish-brown colour, which
becomes deeper and deeper; and it gradually deposites
a  considerable carbonaceous matter,  which  gives a
deep colour to both water and acids, and emits a strong
smell  of ammonia.  If the bottle containing the prus"-
sic acid be not hermetically sealed, nothing remains
but a  dry cjinrry  mass, which gives no colour to water.
Thus  a prussiate of ammonia is formed at the expense
of a part of the acid, and anazoturet of carbon. When
 Eotassium to heoted in prussic ocid vapour mixed with
 ydrogen or nitrogen, there is absorption without in-
flammation, and the metal is  converted into a gray
spongy substance, which melts, and assumes a yellow
colour.
  Supposing the quantity of potassium employed capa-
ble of disengaging  from water a volume  of hydrogen
equal  to SU parte,  we find after the action of the  po-
tassium,
  1. That the gaseous mixture has experienced a dimi-
nution of volume amounting to 50 paru.
  2. On treating this mixture  with potassa and ana-
lyzing the residue by oxygen, that 50 parts of hydrogen
have been produced.
  3. And consequently that the potassium has absorbed
100 parU of prussic vapour;  for there is a diminution
of 50  paru wliich would obviously have  been twice as
great  hod  not 50 ports of hydrogen been disengaged.
The yellow matter is prussiote of potosso; properly a
prusside of potassium, analogous in ils formation to the
chloride and iodide, when muriatic and hydriodic gases
are made to act on  potassium.
  The base of prussic acid thus divested of iu acidi-
fying hydrogen, should be called, agreeably to the same
chemical analogy, prussine.  Gay Lussac styles it  cy-
anogen, because it is tbe principle which  generates
blue;  or, literally, the blue-maker.
  Like muriatic and hydriodic acids also, it contains
half lu volume of hydrogen.  The  only difference is,
tbat tiie former have in the present state of our know-
ledge  simple radicals, chlorine  and  iodine, while that
of the latter is a compound of one volume  vapour of
carbon, and half a volume of nitrogen.  This radical
forms true prussides with metals.
  If the term cyanogen be objectionable  as allying it to
oxygen, instead of  chlorine and iodine, the term hydro-
cyanic acid must be equally so, as implying that it
contains water.  Thus we say,  hydronitric, hydroinuri-
atic, and hydrophosphoric, to denote the aqueous com-
pounds of the nitric, muriatic, and phosphoric acids.
As the singular merit of Gay Lussac, however,  has
commanded a very general compliance among chemisu
with  his nomenclature, we shall use the  terms prussic
acid and  hydrocyanic indifferently, as has  long been
done  with the words nitrogen and azote.
  The prusside or cyanide of  potassium gives a very
alkaline solution in  water, even when a great excess
of hydrocyanic vapour has been present at iu forma-
tion.   In  this respect it differs  from  the chlorides
and iodides of that metal, which are perfectly neutral.
   Barytes, potassa, and soda combine with  prussine,
forming true prussides of these alkaline oxides; ana-
logous  to  what are vulgarly called oxymuriates of
lime,  potassa,  and soda.  The red oxide of mercury
acu so powerfully on prussic  acid vapour, when  as-
sisted by heat, that the compound which ought to re-
sult is destroyed by  the heat disengaged. The 6ame
thing happens when a little of  the concentrated acid is
poured upon the oxide.  A great elevation of tempe-
rature takes place, which would occasion a dangerous
explosion  if the experiment were made upon consider-
able quantities.  When the acid to diluted,  the oxide
dissolves rapidly, with a considerable heat,  and with-
out tbe disengagement of any gas.  The  substance
formerly  called  prussiate of mercury  is  generated,
which when moist may, like the muriates, still re-
tain  that name'; but when dry to a prusside of the
metal.
   When the cold  oxide is placed in contact with the
acid, dilated Into a gaseous form by hydrogen, Iu va-
pour is absorbed in a few  minutes.  The hydrogen Is
unchanged.  When a considerable quantity of vapour
has thus been absorbed,  the oxide adheres to the side
of the tube, and on applying heat, water is obtained.
The hydrogen of the ocid ha9 here united  with the
oxygen of the oxide to form the water, while  their two
radicals combine.   Red oxide of mercury becomes  on
excellent reagent for detecting prussic acid.
  By exposing  the dry  prusside of mercury to heat
in a retort,  the radical  cyanogen or prussine  is ob-
tained.
  From the  experimenu of Magendie it appears that
the pure hydrocyanic acid is the most  violent of all
poisons.  When a rod dipped into it is brought in con-
tact with the tongue of an animal, death ensues before
tbe rod can be withdrawn.  If a bird be held a mo
ment over the mouth of a phial containing this acid, it
dies.  In the Annates de Chimie for 1614, we find this
notice:—M. B., Professor of Chemistry, left by accident
on a table a flask containing alkohol impregnated with
prussic acid; the servant, enticed by the agreeable fla-
vour of the liquid, swallowed  a small glass of it.  In
two minutes she dropped down dead, as if struck with
apoplexy.  The body was not examined.
  " Scbaringer,  a  professor at Vienna," says Orfila,
" prepared, six or seven months ago, a pure and concen-
trated prussic acid ; he spread a certain quantity of
it on his naked arm, and died a little time thereafter."
  Dr. Magendie has, however, ventured  to  introduce
iu employment  into medicine.   He found it  beneficial
agoinst phthisis and chronic catarrhs.  His formulae is
the following:—
  Mix one part ofthe pure prussic or hydrocyanic acid
of Gay  Lussac with 8J of water  by weight.   To
this mixture he gives the  name of medicinal prussic
acid.
    Of this lie takes 1 gros. or    59 grs. Troy
    Distilled water, 1 lb.   or  75G0 grs.
    Pure sugar,     IJ oz.  or   708J grs.
And mixing the ingredients well together, he adminis-
ters a table-spoonful every morning and evening.  A
well-written report of the use of the prussic acid in
certain diseases, by Dr. Magendie, was communicated
by Dr. Granville to Mr. Brande, and is inserted  in  the
fourth volume of the Journal of Science.
  For the following ingenious and accurate process for
preparing prussic  acid for medicinal uses, I am indebl
ed to Dr. Nimmo of Glasgow.
  " Take of the ferroprussiate of  potassa 100 grains,
of the  protosulphale of  iron 84J grains, dissolve then
separately in four ounces of water, and  mingle them.
After allowing  the precipitate of the protoprussiate of
iron to settle, pour off the clear part, and add water to
wash the sulphate of potassa completely away.   To
the protoprussiate of iron,  mixed with four ounces of
pure water, odd 135 grains of tlie peroxide of mercury,
and  boil the whole till  the oxide is dissolved.  With
the above proportions of peroxide of mercury, the pro-
toprussiate of  iron is completely  decomposed.  The
vessel being kept warm, the oxide of iron will foil to
the bottom;  the clear part'may be poured off to be fil-
tered through  paper, taking care  to keep the funnel
covered, so that crystals may not form in it by refri-
geration.  The  residuum may be treated with  more
water, and thrown upon the filter, upon which warm
water ought to  be poured, until all the soluble part ia
washed away.  By evaporation, and subsequent rest
in a cool place, 145 grains of crystals of the  prusside,
cr cyanide of mercury will be procured in quadrangu-
lar prisms.
  "The following process for eliminating the hydrocy-
anic acid I believe to be new:—Take of the cyanide of
mercury in fine powder one ounce, diffuse  it in two
ounces of water, ond to it, by slow degrees, add a solu-
tion of hydrosulphuret of barytes, made by decompos-
ing sulphate of barytes with charcoal in the common
way.  Of the sulphuret of barytes take an ounce, boil
it with six ounces of water, and filter it as hot as possi-
ble.  Add this in small portions to the cyanide of mer-
cury, agitating the whole very well, and allowing suf-
ficitnt time  for the cyanide to dissolve, while the de-
composition  to going on  between it and the hydrosul
phuret, as it is added.  Continue the addition of the
hydrosulphuret so long as a dark precipitate of sulphu
ret of mercury falls down, and even allowing a smal)
excess.  Let the whole  be thrown upon a filter, and 
PRU
PSA
 Jt<-pt warm till the fluid drops through; add more water
 to wash the sulphuret of mercury, until  eight ounces
 of fluid  have passed through the  filter, and it has be-
 come tasteless.  To this fluid, which contains tiie prus-
 siate of barytes, with n small excess of hydrosulphuret
 of barytes, add sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal
 weight of water, and allowed to become cold, so long
 as sulphate of barytes falls down.  The excess of sul-
 phuretted hydrogen wjll be removed by adding a sulri-
 elont portion of carbonate of lead, and agitating very
 well.  The whole may now be put  upon a filter, which
 must be closely covered ; the fluid  which passes to Ihe
 hydrocyanic  acid of what is called the medical stand-
 ard strength."
  Scheele found that prussic  acid  occasioned precipi-
 tates with only the following  three  metallic solutions:
 nitrates of silver and mercury, and  carbonate o'"silver.
 The first is white, tiie  second black, lite third green,
 becoming blue.
  The hydrocyanates are  all alkaline, even  when  a
 great excess of acid is employed in their formation, and
 they  are decomposed by the weakest acids."— J7re'«
 Chem. Did.
  PRUSSINE.  Prussiegas.  Cyanogen.  This is ob-
 tained by decomposing the prusside or cyanide of mer-
cury by heat
  When the  simple  mercurial prusside is exposed to
 heat in o small glass retort, or tube, shut at one extre-
 mity, it soon begins to blacken.  It appears to melt like
an animal matter, and then ihe prussine is disengaged
iq abundance.  This gas is pure from the beginning
pf the process to the end, provided always that the
 pent be'not very high; for if it were  not sufficiently
intense to melt the glass, a little azote would be evolv-
ed.  Mercury  is volatilized with a  considerable quan-
tity of prusside, and  there remains  a charry matter of
the colour of soot, and as light as lampblack.   The
prusside of silver gives out likewise  prussine when
healed; but tiie  mercurial prusside to preferable to
every other.
  Prussine or cyanogen is a permanently  elastic fluid.
IU smell, which it is impossible to describe, is  very
strong and penetrating.   Its  solution in water has a
 very sharp taste.  The gas burns with n  bluish flame
 mixed with purple.  Its  sp. gr., compared to  that pf
 air, Is I.80B4.
  Prussine )s capable of sustaining  a pretty high heat,
 without being decomposed. Water, agitated  with it
 for some minutes, ot the temperature of 68°, absorbed
 about  4J times iu  volume.  Pure  olkohol absorbs 23
 times iu volume.  Sulphuric tether and oil of turpen-
 tine dissolve at least as  much as water.   Tincture of
litmus to reddened  by prussine.  The carbonic  acid
proceeds, np doubt, from the decomposition of a small
quantity or p'russiiie  aud water.  It deprives the red
sulphate of manganese iff its colour, a property which
prussic acid does tint possess.
  f hosphorus, sudphiir, and iodine  may be sublimed
by the heat of a spirit-lamp in prussine, without ooca-
sloniug any change ou it.  Iu mixture with hydrogen
 was not altered by the same temperature, or by passing
 electrical sparks through it.  Copper and gold 4o not
 combine  with it; but iron, when  healed  almost to
 whiteness, decomposes it In part.
  In the cold, potassium acu but slowly on prussine,
 because o crust is formed on iu surface, which presenus
 an  obstacle to the  mutual action. Oh applying the
 spirit-lump, the  potassium becomes speedily incan-
 descent ; the absorption of the gas begins, the inflamed
 disc gradually diminishes, and when it disappears en-
 tirely, which takes place in a few seconds, (lie absorp-
 tion to likewise at an end.
  The compound of prussine and potassium to yellow-
 ish.   It dissolves in  water without effervescence, and
 the solution is strongly alkaline.  Its taste is the same
 as thot'of hydrocyanate or simple prussiate of potassa,
 of wliich it possesses all the properties.
  When a pure solution  of potassa is introduced into
 this gas, the absorption  to rapid.   If the  alkali be not
 too  concentrated, and  be not quite  saturated,  it is
 Bcarcety  tinged of a lemon-yellow  colour.  But if the
 prussine be  in excess,  we obtain a brown solution,
 apparently carbonaceous.  On  pouring potassa com-
 bined  with prussine  into a saline  solution of a black
 oxide of iron, and adding an  acid,  we obtain Prussian
 blue.
  Tho instant an acid  is poured Into the solution of
       214
 prussine in potassa, a strong effervescence of carbon!*
 ocid to produced, and at ihe same time a strong smell of
 prussic acid  becomes jierceplible.  Ammonia is like-
 wise formed, which  remains combined with the acid
 employed aud which may be rendered very sensible  to
 the smell by the addition of quicklime.   Since, there-
 fore, we are obliged  to add an acid in order to form
 Prussian blue, iu formation occasions no  farther diffi-
 culty.
   Soda, barytes, nnd strontites produce the ssrnc effect
 as potassa.  We must, therefore, admit that prussine
 forms particular combinations with the alkalies, which
 ore permanent tjll souie circumstance determines the
 formation of nevy products.   These combinations are
 true salu, which may he regarded as analogous to those
 formed by acids,  f ii fact, prussine possesses acid cha-
 racters.  It contains twp elements, azote and carbon,
 the first of which is strongly acidifying, according  to
 Gay Lussac   Prussjne reddens tlie tincture of litmus,
 and neutralizes the bases.  On the other hand, it acta
 as a simple body when it combines with hydrogen; 'and
 it is this double  function of u simple and componnq
 body, which renders iu nomenclature so embarrassing.
   Be this us it may, the compounds of prussine and'trie
 alkalies, which may be distinguished by the term prus-
 sides. do not  separate in water like the alkaline chio*
 rureu (oxymurfates), which produce chlorates and mil
 riates.
   The metallic oxides do  n°t seem capable of pro-
 ducing the same changes on prussine as the alkalies.
   Prussine rapidly decomposes the carbonates at n dull
 red heat,  and prussides of  the oxides  are  obtained.
 When passed through sulphuret of barytes, itcombinei
 without disengaging the sulphur, and renders it very
 fusible and of a brownish-black colour.   When put
 into water, we obtain a colourless solution, but which
 gives a deep brown  (maroon) colour  to muriate of
 iron.  What does uot dissolve contains a good deal of
 sulphate, which is doubtless  formed during the prepa-
 ration ofthe sulphuret of baryta*.
  On dissolving prussine in  the sulphuretted hydrosul-
 phuret of barytes, sulphur is precipitated,  which  is
 again dissolved when the liquor Is saturated with prus-
sine, and we obtain a solution having a very deep
 brown maroon colour.  This gas does not decompose
sulphuret of silver, nor of potassa.
  Prussine  and sulphuretted hydrogen combine slowly
 with each  other.   A yellow substance is obtained in
 fine needles, which dissolves in water, does not precipi-
 tate nitrate of lead, produces no Prussian blue, and  is
 composed (>f 1 volume prussine (cyanogen), and 1}
 volumes of sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Ammoniacal gas and prussine begin to act on each
 other whenever they come in contact; but some hours
 are requisite to render the effect complete.  We per-
 ceive at first a white thick vapour, wliich  soon disap-
 pears.   Tim diminution of volume is considerable, ond
 the gloss in wliich the mixture to niade becomes opaque,
 its inside being covered wilh  a solid brown matter.
 On mixing 90 parts of prussine, and 227 ammonia, they
 combined nenrly  In the proportion of 1 to i\.  This
 compound gives a dark orange-brown colour to water,
 but dissolves  only in  a very small proportion.  The
 liquid produces  no Prussian blue wilh  the salts of
 iron.
   In the first volume ofthe Journal of Science and tbe
 Arts, Sir H. Davy has stated some  interesting particu-
 lars relative to prussine.  By heating prusside of mer-
 cury in m mi a tic acid gas, he  obtained  pure  liquid
 prussic  acid  and corrosive  sublimate.   By heating
 iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus, in contact with prus-
 side of mercury, compounds of these bodies wilh prus-
 sine or cyanogen may be formed.   That of iodine is a
 very curious  body.   It is volatile at a very moderate
 heat; and  on cooling collects in flocculi, adhering to-
 gether like oxide of zinc formed by combustion.  It has
 o pungent smell, and very acrid taste.
   PSALLpI'DES.   (From tfaXXoc, a stringed instru-
 ment,  and eirJof, a likeness: because it appears as  if
 stringed like  a dulcimer.)  Applied by the ancienu  to
 the inner surface ofthe fornjx of the brain.
   PSALTE'RIUM.   (A harp: because it ia marked
 with lines that give itthe appearance of a harp.)   1/yra.
 The medullary body that unites the posterior crura of
 the fornix of the brain.
   PSAMMI'SMUS.   (From \pappas, sand.)  An ap
 plication of hot mud to any part of the body. 
PSO                                             PSO
  PSAMMO'DES.  (From d/appos,sand.)  Appfied to
urine which deposites a sandy sediment
  PSELLI'SMUS.  (From ^eXXt^ta, to have a hesita-
tion of speech.)   Psellotis.  Defect of speech.  A ge-
nus of diseose in the Class Locales, ond Order Dysci-
nesia, of Cullen.
  Psello'tis.  Sec Psellismus.
  PSEUDACORUS.  (From d-eu^nc,  false, and axo-
pov, the acorus plant: because it resembled and was
substituted for that plant.)  See Iris Pseudacorus.
  PSEUDO.   (tcvSns, false.)  Spurious.  This word
Is fixed to the name of several diseases, because they
resemble them, but are not those diseases ; as Pseuao-
tnenmonia- Pseudo-phrenitis.  It is also prefixed to
many substances which are only fictitious imitations;
ai Pseudamomum, a spurious kind of amomum,  Sec.
  PSEUDOBLEPSIS.    (From  ^tvSns, false, and
SX.ipis,  sight.)   Phantasma;  Suffusio.  Imaginary
vision of objects.   A genus of disease  in the Class Lo-
cates, and Order Dysathesia,  of Cullen; characterized
by lepraved sight, creating objects, or representing them
different from what they are.   Species:—
  1 Pseudoblepsis imaginaria, in which objecu are
peneived thai are not present.
  2. Pseudoblepsis mutans, in which  objecu that are
present appear somewhat changed.
  P5EUDOCYESIS. (From xptvSvs,false, and kvvois,
pregiancy.)  The name of a genus of disease in Good's
Nosilogy.  Class, Gendica ;  Order, Carpotica.  False
eomeplion.  It has two species, viz. Pseudocyesis mo-
larii, and inanis.
  PSEUDOMELANTHIUM.  (From <iWnc, false,
ate" melanthium, tiie name of a plant.)   See  Agro-
stsmma githago.
  PSEUDOPYRETHRUM.  (From iptvSns, taise, and
pytthrum, the name of a  plant: so called, because
wien the flowers are chewed they impart a  warmth
sonewhat like that of pyrethrum root.)  See Achillaa
pto-mica.
  ISI'DIUM.  (Altered by Linnams  from \\11Stas of
the ancient Greeks.)  The name of a genus of planu in
the Linnaean system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Me-
norynia.
  ?sioium pomiferum.  The systematic name of the
ipjle guava.   This plant, and the pyriferum, bear
ruiu, the former like apples, the latter like peors.  The
ipple kind is most cultivated  in the Indies, on account
if the pulp having a fine acid flavour, whereas the pear
ipecies is sweet, and therefore not so agreeable in warm
ilimates. Of the inner pulp of either, the inhabitants
nake  jellies; and of the  outer rind they make taru,
normalades, &c.   The lotter they also stew and eat
ivith milk, and prefer them to any other stewed fruits.
I'hey have an astringent quality, which exisU also in
svery part ofthe tree, and abundontly in the leaf-buds,
vbich are  occasionally boiled with barley, and liquor-
cc, as an excellent drink against diarrhoeas.  A sim-
ile decoction of the leaves, used as a  bath, to said to
sure the itch, and most cutaneous eruptions.
  Psidium pyriferum. The systematic name of the
pear guava.   See Psidium pomiferum.
  Psilo'thra.  (From d/eXoio, to denudate.)  Appli-
cations to remove tlie hair.
  Psilo'thrux.   (From xf/iXota, to depilate: so called
because it was used to remove the hair.)  The white
briony.
  Psimmy'thium.  (From ipita, to smooth: so  called
lecause of iu use as a cosmetic.)  Cerusse, or  white
 lad.
  PSO'A3.  (¥oai, the loins.)  Alopeces; Nefrometra;
 feurometeres.  1.  The loins.
  2. The name of two pair of muscles in the loins.
  PSO'AS.  (From d/oai, the loins.)   Belonging to the
 lins.
  Psoas abscess.  See Lumbar abscess.
  Psoas magnus.   Psoas, seu lumbaris internus, of
 Vinslow.   Pre-lumbo-trochantin, of Dumas.   This to
 a'ong, thick, and  very considerable muscle,  situated
 else to the forepart and sides of the luinbar vertebras.
 Ilrises from the bodies of the last vertebrae of the back,
 all of all the luinbar vertebra) laterally, as well as from
 lb anterior surfaces of their transverse  processes  by
 dlinct tendinous and fleshy slips, that are gradually
 cdected into one mass, which becomes thicker ns it
 dicends, till It reaches thelastof the lumbar vertebir, .
 were it grows narrower again, and uniting iu outer
 sj! poaterior edge (where it begins to become tendi I
nous) with the iliacus  internus, descends along with
tnat muscle under the ligamentum Fallopii, and goes to
be inserted tendinous at the bottom of the trochanter
minor, of the os femoris, and fleshy into the  bone a
little below that process.  Between the  tendon of this
muscle and the ischium, we find a considerable bursa
mucosa.   This muscle, at iLs origin, has some connex
ion with the diaphragm, and likewise with the quadra-
tus lumborum.  It is one of the  most powerful flexors
of the thighs  forwards, and  may  likewise assist in
turning it outwards. When the inferior extremity to
fixed, it may help to bend the body forwards, and in an
erect posture it greatly  assists in preserving the equili-
brium of the trunk upon the upper part of the thigh.
  Psoas parvus. Pre-lumbo-pubien, of Dumas.  This
muscle, which was first described by Riolanus, is situ-
ated upon the psoas  magnus, at the anterior part of the
loins.  Tbe psoas parvus arises thin  and fleshy from
the side of the uppermost vertebra of the loins, and
sometimes also from the lower edge ofthe last vertebra
of the back, and from the transverse processes of each
of these  vertebrae:  it theif extends over part of the
psoas magnus, and  terminates in  a thin, flat tendon,
which is inserted into that  part of the brim of the pel-
vis,  where the os pubis joins the ilium.  From this
tendon a great number of fibres are sent off, which form
a thin fascia, that covers paru ofthe psoas magnus and
iliacus internus, and gradually loses itself on the fore
part of the thigh.  In the human body, this muscle is
very often wanting; but in  a dog, according to Douglas,
it is never deficient.   Riolanus was of opinion, that it
occurs  oftener in men  than in women.   Winslow as-
serts just Ihe contrary;  but the truth seems to be, that
it to as often wanting in OLe sex os in the other.  Iu
use seems to be to assist the psoas magnus in bending
the loins forwards;  and when we  are lying upon our
back, it may help to raise the pelvis.
  Psoas sive lumbaris internus.  See Psoas mag
nus.
  PSO'RA.  ttapa.   Scabies-  The itch.  A genus of
disease in the  Class Locales, and Order  Dyalyses, of
Cullen: appearing first  on the  wrists, and between the
fingers, in small pustules with watery heads.  It is con-
tagious.
  PSORALEA. (From  \po>paXtos, scabby; because the
calyx, and other paru  of the plant, are  more or leta
besprinkled with glandular  dots, giving a scurfy rough
ness.)  The name of a genus of planu.   Class, Dia-
delphia; Order, Decandria.
  Psoralea pentaphylla.  The systematic name of
the Chexicum  contrayerva, Contrayerva nova, which
is by many os much esteemed as the Dorstenia.  It was
introduced into Europe  soon after the true plant,  from
Guiana as well as Mexico.
  PSORI'ASIS. (From \piapa, the itch.)  Thedisease
to which Dr. Willan gives this title is characterized by
a rough and scaly state  of the  cuticle,  sometimes con-
tinuous, sometimes in  separate patches, of various
sizes, but of an irregular figure, and for the moot part
accompanied with  rhagades or fissures of  the skin.
From the lepra it may be distinguished, not only by the
distribution of the patches, but also by  its  cessation
and  recurrence at certain seasons of tbe year, ond by
the disorder of the constitution with which it to usually
ottended.  Dr. Willan gives the following varieties:
  1.  Psoriasis guttata. This complaint appears  in
small, distinct, but  irregular patches of laminated
scales,  with little or no inflammation round them.
The patches very seldom extend to the size of a six-
pence.  They have neither an elevated border, nor the
oval or circular form  by which oil the varieties of
lepra are  distinguished; but  their circumference to
sometimes angular, and sometimes goes into small ser-
pentine processes.   The scale formed upon each of
them is thin, aud may be easily detached, leaving a red,
shining base.   The  patches arc often distrit uted over
the greatest part of the  body, but more particularly on
the back  part of the neck, the breasts, arms, loins,
thighs,  and legs.  They appear also  upon  the face,
which rarely, happens in lepra.   In that situation, ihey
are  red and more rough  thon the odjoining cuticle, but
not covered with scales. The psoriasis guttata often
appears on children in  a sudden eruption,  attended
wilh a slight disorder of the constitution, and spreads
over the body within two or three days.   In adulu il
commences with a few  scaly patches on  the extremi-
ties, proceeds very gradually, and has a longer duration 
PSO
PSO
ghaa in children.   Iu first occurrence is usually In tbe
fpring season, after violent pains in the head, stomach,
and limbs.   During the summer it disappears sponta-
neously, or  may be soon removed by proper applica-
tions, but it is apt to return again early in the ensuing
spring,  and  continues so to do for several  successive
years.  When the scales have been removed, and the
disease to about to go ofl: the small  patches have a
tinning appearance, and tney retain a dork red, inter-
mixed with somewhat of a  bluish  colour, for many
days, or even weeks, before the skin is restored to iu
usual state.   In the veuereal disease there is an erup-
tion which very much resembles the psoriasis guttata,
. he only difference being a slighter degree of scaljness,
and a different shade of colour in the patches, approach-
ing  to  a livid  red,  or very dark rose  colour.  The
patches vary in their extent, from the section of a pea,
to tbe size of a silver penny, but are  not exactly cir-
cular.  They rise at first very little, if at all, above the
cuticle.  As soon, however,  as the scales appear on
them, ihey become sensibly elevated; and sometimes
the  edge or  circuinference'of the patch is higher than
tlie little scales in iu centre.  This eruption is usually
seen upon the forehead, breast, between the shoulders,
fit in the inside of the forearms, in the groins, about
the inside of tbe thighs, and upon the skin covering the
^ower part of the  abdomen-  The syphilitic psoriasis
guttata is attended with, or soon followed  by, an  ul-
ceralion of the throat It appears about six or eight
sreoks after a chancre bos been healed by an ineffectual
course of mercury.  A similar appearance takes place
at nearly the same period, in some cases where no local
symptoms had been noticed.  When a venereal sore is
in a discharging state, this eruption, or other secondary
symptoms, often appear much  later than  the period
above mentioned.  They may also be  kept back three
months, or even longer, by an inefficient application of
mercury. If no medicine be employed, the syphilitic
form of the psoriasis guttata will proceed during several
mouths, the number of the spoU increasing, and their
bulk being somewhat enlarged, but without any other
material alteration.
  2  The Psoriasis diffusa spreads into large patches
irregularly circumscribed, reddish, rough, and chappv,
with scales  interspersed.  It commences, in  general,
with numerous minute asperities, or elevations of the
cuticle, more perceptible by the touch than by sight.
Upon tbese, small distinct scales are soon after formed,
adhering by a dark central point, while their edges may
be seen white and detached.  In the course of two or
three weeks all the intervening cuticle  becomes rough
and chappy, appears red, and raised, and wrinkled, the
fines of the skin sinking inlo deep furrows.  The scales
which form  among them  are often slight, and repeat-
edly exfoliate.  Sometimes, without any previous erup-
tion of papula, a large portion of the skin becomes dry,
harsh, cracked, reddish, and scaly, as above described.
In o*her cases, the disorder  commences with separate
patches of an uncertain form and size, some of them
being small, like those in the psoriasis guttata, some
much larger. The patches graduoliy expand till they
pecome confluent, and nearly cover tiie part or limb af-
fected.   Both the psoriasis guttata and diffusa like-
wise occur as a sequel of the lichen  simplex.  This
transition takes place more certainly after frequent re-
turns ofthe  lichen.   The parte most affected by psori-
asis  diffusa are the cheeks,  chin, upper eyelids, and
corners of the eyes, the temples, the external eor,  the
neck, the fleshy parts of the lower extremities, and the
forearm, from Ihe eibow to the back of the bond, along
the supinator muscle of the radius.  The fingers are
sometimes nearly surrounded with a  loose scaly  in-
crustation ; the nails crack and exfoliate superficially.
The scaly patches likewise appear, though less fre-
quently, on the forehead and  scalp, on the shoulders,
back, ond loins, on the abdomen, ond instep.  This
disease occasionally extends to all the parts above men-
tioned at the same time; but, in general, it affecu them
successively, leaving one place free, and appearing in
others ;  sometimes again returning to iu first situation.
The psoriasis diffusa to attended witb a sensation of
heat, and with a very troublesome itching, especially
at  night.  It exhibiu small, slight  distinct  scales,
having  less  disposition than  the lepra to form thick
crusts.  The chaps or fissures of the skin, which usually
moke a part of this complaint, are very sore ond pain-
ful, but «eldom discbarge  any fluid.  When the scales
are removed by frequent washing, or Ity Um application
of unguents, the surface, though laiaed and uneven.
appears smooth and shining; and tlie deep furrows of
the cuticle are lined by a slight scallnese.  Should any
portion of the diseased surface  be forcibly excoriated,
there issues out a thin lymph, mixed  with  some drops
of blood,  wbich slightly stains  and stiffens the  linen,
but soon concretes into a  thin dry scab; this is again
succeeded by a white scaliness, gradually increasing,
and spreading in various directions.   As the complaint
declines, the roughness, chaps,  scales, etc. disappear,
and a new cuticle  is  formed,  at first red,  dry, ant]
shrivelled, but which, in two or three weeks, acquire!
the proper texture.   The duration ofthe psoriasis dif-
fusa to from one to four months. If, in some constitu-
tions, it does not then disappear, but becomes, to a cer-
tain degree, permanent, there is, at least, an aggrava-
tion or extension of it, about the usual  periods of .ts
return.  In other cases, Ihe disease,  al the vernal fe-
turns, differs much as to IU extent, and also with  e-
spect to the violence of tbe preceding  symptoms.  'Die
eruption  is, indeed, often confined to a single scily
patch, red, itching, and chapped, of  a moderate sze.
but irregularly circumscribed.   This  solitary patel is
sometimes situated on tho temple, or  upper part ofthe
cheek, frequently on the  breast, the calf of the eg,
about the  wrist, or within and a little below the elkiw
joint, but especially  at the lower part ofthe thigh,be
hind.  It continues in any of these situations sev>r*<
months, without much observable alteration.   ?ne
complaint, denominated with us tbe bakers' itch, it aq
appearance  of psoriasis  diffusa on  the back ofthe
hand, commencing with one or two small, rough, scalp
patches, and finally extending from the knuckles to tip
wrist  The rhagades, or chaps, and fissures of tie
skin, are numerous about  the knuckles and hall of tie
thumb, and where the back of the hond joins the writ.
They ore  often highly inflamed, and painful, but hare
no discharge of fluid from them.   The back of the hard
is a little  raised or tumefied,  and,  at  on advaned
period of the disorder, exhibiu a reddish, glossy aurfae,
without crusts or numerous scales.  However, he
deep furrows  of the cuticle are, for the most pal,
whitened  by a slight  scaliness.  This complaint is im
general among bakers; that it  is only aggravated t>y
their  business, and affects those who are otherwise
disposed to it, may be collected from the  following cir-
cumstances:  1. It disappears about midsummer, fend
returns in the  cold weather at the  beginning of Mid
year; % Persons constantly engaged in  the busfoea*;
after having  been once  affected with  the  eruptfonJ
sometimes enjoy a  respite from it for two  or threw
years; 3.  When the business is discontinued, tbe corii-
piaint does not  immediately cease.  The grocers' ftcn'
has some affinity with the bakers' itch, or tetter; but,
being usually a pustular disease  at its commenecmerit'
it properly belongs to another genus.  Washer-women J
probably from the irritation of soap, are liable to be af-
fected with a similar scaly disease on the hands, and
arms, sometimes on tlie face and neck, which, in par-1
ticular constitutions,  proves very troublesome) and  of
long durotlon.
  3. The  Psoriasis gyrala is distributed  in narrow
patches or stripes, variously figured; some of them are
nearly  longitudinal;  some circular,  or  semicircular,
with vernitorm appendages;  some are tortuous, or ser-
pentine; others like earth-worms or leeches: the fur-
rows of the cuticle being deeper than usual, make the
resemblance more striking, by giving to them an annu-
laled appearance. Ttftre to a separation of slight scale*
from the diseased surface, but no thick  incrustation!
are formed.  The uniform disposition of these patches
is singular.  I have seen a large circular one situate!
on eoch breast above the papilla;; and  two or threi
others of  a serpentine  form, in analogous situation
along the sides of the chest.  The back is often vari<
gated in like manner, with convoluted  tetters, similarl
arranged on each side of the spine.  They likewise ai
pear, in some cases, on the arms and thighs, intersec-
ing each other in various directions.  A slighter kin*
of this complaint affecte delicate young women ad
children in small scaly circles or rings, little discolou-
ed; they appear on the  cheeks, neck,  or upper part t
the breast, and are mostly confounded with the herrj.
tic, or pustular  ringworm. The psoriasis gyrata Is
ils remissions and returns, like the psoriasis diffusa Jt
also exhibits, in some cases, patches  of the latter d)
i_ 
PSO                                            PTE
order on the face, scalp, or extremities  while the trunk
of the body is chequered with the singular figures above
described.
  4. Psoriasis palmaria.  This very obstinate species
of tetter is nearly confined to the palm of the hand.  It
commences with a small, harsh, or scaly patch, which
gradually spreads over the whole palm, and sometimes
appears iu  a slight degree on the  inside of tbe fingers
and wrist.   The surface feels rough from the detached
and raised edges of the scaly lamina;;  iu colour often
changes to  brown or black, as if dirty ; yet the most
diligent washing produces no favourable effect.  The
cuticular furrows are  deep, and cleft at the bottom
longitudinally, in various places, so  as to bleed on
stretching tiie fingers.  A sensation of heat, pain, and
stiffness in the motions of the hand, attends this com-
plaint  It  is worse in winter or  spring,  and  occa-
sionally disappears in  autumn or summer, leaving  a
soft, dark-red  cuticle; but many persons are troubled
with  it for a  series of years, experiencing only  very
alight remissions.  Every return or aggravation of it is
preceded by an increase of beat and dryness, with in-
tolerable itching.  Shoemakers have the psoriasis pa-
maria locally, from the irritation  of the wax they  so
constantly  employ.  In braziers, tinmen, silversmiths,
&c. the complaint seems  to  be produced by handling
cold metals.  A long predisposition to it from a weak,
languid, hectical state of the constitution, may give
effect to different occasional causes.  Dr. Willan has
observed it in wpmen after lying-in; in some persons
it to connected or alternates with arthritic complaints.
When the palms of the  hands are affected  as above
stated, a similar appearance often takes place on the
soles of the feet; but with the exception of rhagades or
fissures, which seem less liable to form there, the feet
being usually kept warm and covered.  Sometimes,
also, the psoriasis palmaria is attended  with a thickness
of  the  praeputium, with  scaliness and painful cracks.
These symptoms at last,  produce a phimosis, and ren-
der connubial intercourse difficult or impracticable;
so great, in some cases, is the obstinacy of them, that
remedies are  of no avail, and the patient can only be
relieved by circumcision.  This affection of the praepu-
tium is not exactly similar to any venereal appearance;
but rhagades or fissures,  ond indurated patches witliin
the palin of the hand, toke place in syphilis, and some-
what resemble  llie psoriasis palmaria.  The venereal
  Satches are, however, distinct, white, and  elevated,
  aving nearly the consistence of a soft corn.  From the
 rhagades there  is  a alight discharge,  very offensive  to
the smell.   The soles of the feet ore likewise, in this
cose, effected wilh the  patches,  not  with  rhagades.
 When the disease yields to  the operation of mercury,
 tbe indurated portions of cuticle separate, and asmooth
 new cuticle is found formed underneath.  The fingers
 and toes are not affected with  the  patches, Sec.  in
 venereal coses.
   5.  Psoriasis  labialis.  The psoriasis sometimes  ef-
 fecu the lip without appearing on any  other port of the
 body.  Its  characteristics are, as usual, scaliness, in-
 termixed with  chops and fissures of the skin.  The
 scales ore  of a  considerable magnitude, so that their
 edges  are often loose, while the central poinU are
 attached;  anew cuticle gradually forms beneath the
 scales, but to not durable.  In the course of a few
 hours  it becomes dry, shrivelled, and  broken; and,
 while it exfoliates, gives way to another layer of tender
 cuticle, which soon, in like  manner, perishes.  These
 appearances  should  be  distinguished from  the light
 chaps  and roughness of the lips produced  by very
 cold  or frosty  weather, but  easily  removed.  The
 psoriasis labialis may be a little aggravated by frost or
 sharp winds, yet it receives no material alleviation from
 an opposite temperature.  It is not  indeed, confined
 within any certain limit, or period of duration, having,
in several  instances, been protracted through all the
 seasons.  The under lip is always more affected than
 the upper; aud the disease takes place more especially
 in those persons whose lips are full and prominent.
   6.  Psoriasis  scrotalis.   The skin of the scrotum
 may be affected in the psoriasis diffusa like other parts
 of the surface ofthe body; but sometimes a roughness
 and scaliness ofthe scrotum appears as an independent
 complaint, attended with much heat, itching, tension,
 and redness.  The above symptoms are succeeded by
 a hard, thickened, brittle texture  of the skin, and  by
 painful chaps or excoriations, which  are not easily to
be healed.   This complaint is sometimes produced
under the same circumstances as the prurigo  scroti,
and  appears to be in some coses a sequel of it.  A
species ofthe psoriasis scrotalis likewise occurs in tbe
lues venerea, but merits no particular attention, being
always combined with other secondary symptoms of
the disease.
  7.  Psoriasis infantilis.   Infants between the ages
of two months and two years, are occasionally subject
to llie dry tetter.  Irregular scaly patches, of various
sizes appeor on the  cheeks, chin, breast, back, nates,
and thighs.   They ore sometimes red, and a  little rough
or elevated; sometimes excoriated, then again covered
with a thin incrustation;  and, lastly, intersected by
chaps or fissures. The general appearances nearly coin-
cide wilh those of the psoriasis diffusa: but there are
several peculiarities  in  the tetters of  infants,  which
require a distinct consideration.
  8.  Tbe Psoriasis inveterala  is characterized by an
almost universal scaliness, with a harsh, dry,  and
thickened state of the skin.  It  commences  from a lew
irregular, though distinct patches on the extremities.
Others appear afterward on different parts, and, be-
coming confluent, spread at length over all the surface
ofthe body, except a  part ofthe face, or sometimes the
palms of the hands, and soles of the feet.   The skin to
red, deeply furrowed, or wrinkled, stiff and  rigid, so as
somewhat  to  impede the motion of tiie muscles, and
of the joints.   So quick, likewise, is the  production
and separation of scales, that large quantities of them
are found in the bed  on wliich a person affected with
brie disease has slept  They fall off in the same pro-
portion by day, and  being  confined within the linen,
excite a troublesome and perpetual itching.
  Pso'rica.  (From iptapa, tiie itch.)  Medicines to
cure the itch.
  PSOROPHTHA'LMI A.   (From iptapa, the itch, and
otbBaXuos, on  eye.)   An inflammation of  the eyelids,
attended with ulcerations, which itch very  much.  By
psorophthalmy, Mr. Ware  means a case in wliich the
inflammation of the eyelids is attended with an ulcera-
tion of  their  edges, upon  which a glutinous matter
lodges, ond becomes  hard, so that in sleep, when they
have been  long in contact they become so adherent,
that they  cannot  be separated without  pain.  The
proximote cause is an acrimony deposited in the glands
of the eyelids.  The species of tbe psorophthalmia are,
   1. Psorophthalmia crustosa, which forms dry or hu-
mid crusu in the margins of the eyelids.
  2. Psorophthalmia herpetica, in which small papulae,
 itching extremely, and terminating in scurf, are ob-
served.
   Psychaoo'gica.   (From ibvxv, 'he mind, and ayta,
 to  move.)   Medicines which  recover in  syncope or
 apoplexy.
   PSYCHO'TROPHUM.   (From ipvxos, cold:  be-
 cause it  grows in cold places.  A name altered  by Lin-
 naeus from the  Psychotrophum of Browne, which
alludes  to the 6hady place of growth of most of the
species.  <'i;%oTpoa»ov is an ancient name for an herb-
 loving shade.) The name of o genus of plants in the
 Linnxan system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
   Psycrotria emetica.   See Callicocca ipecacuanha.
   Psycho'trophum.  (From ipyxos, cold,  and rpctpia,
 to nourish: so called because it grows in places ex-
posed to the cold.)   The herb betony.  See Betonica
officinalis.
   Psychrolu'trum.  (From  d/uxoy, cold, and Xovu,
to wash.)   A  cold bath.
   Psy'chtica.  (From ^pvx,a, t0 refrigerate.)  Refri-
gerating medicines.
  PSYDRA'CIA.   (From  ipyxos,  cold.)   Red and
somewhat elevated spots, which soon form broad and
superficial  vesicles,  such  ns  those produced  by  the
stinging-nettle, the bites of insecu, &c.  See Pustule.
  PSYLLIUM.  (From u>AXoc, a flea: so called be
cause it was thought to destroy fleas.)  See Plantago
psyllium.
  PTARMICA.  (From irratpta, to sneeze: so called
because  it  irritates the  nose, and provokes sneezing.)
Snetezewort  See Achillaa ptarmiea.
  PTE'RIS.  (From jrrtpov, a wing: so  called from
the likeness of iu leaves to wings.)   The name of a
genus of planu in the Linnean system.  Class, Crjp
togamia; Order, Filiccs-
  Ptkris  acuilina.  The systematic name  of toe 
PTE
PUB
common orake, or female fern.  Filix famine.  The
plant which is thus called, in the pharmacopoeias, ia
not the Polypodium filix famine, but the Ptens—fnn-
dibus  supradecompositis, foliolis  pinnatis, pmnis
tanceelatis, infinite, pinnatifidis,  svperioribvs nunori-
bus, of Linnaeus.  The root is esteemed as an anthel-
mintic, and to supposed lo be as efficacious in destroy-
ing the tapeworm ns the root of the mole fern.
  PTEROCA'RPUS.   (From b7£oov, a wing, and
eapiros, fruit.)  The name of a genus of planu  in the
LimiKan system.
  Pterocarpits santalinus.  The systematic name
of the red saunders-tree.   Santalum rubrum.  There
Is some reason to believe lhat several red woods, capa-
ble of communicating this colour lo spirituous liquors,
are sold as red sounders; but the true officinal kind
appears, on the best authority, to be of this tree, which
is extremely hard, of a bright garnet-red  colour, and
bears a fine  polish.   It  is only ihe  inner substance
Of the wood that to used as a colouring matter, and the
more Aorid red  is mostly esteemed. On  being cut, it
is said to  manifest a  fragrant odour, which is more
especially observed in old trees.  According to Lewis,
this wood is ot a dull red, almost blackish colour on
the outside, and a deep brighter red within ; iu fibres
are now and then curled, as in knots.  It has no mani-
fest  smell,  and little or no taste; even of  extracts
made from  it wilh w.ater, or wilh spirit, the taste  is
not considerable.
  To watery liquors, it communicates only a yellowish
tinge, but to rectified spirit a fine deep red.   A small
quantity nf an extract made  with this  menstruum,
tinges a large one of fresh spirit of the same colour;
though il does not, like most other resinous bodies, dis-
solve in expressed oils.  Of distilled oils, there ore
some, as that of lavender, which receive a red tincture
from the wood itself, and from its resinous extract, but
the greater number do not.   Red saunders has beeu
esteemed as a medicine; but iuonly use attaches to iu
colouring property.  The juice of this tree, like that
of some others, affords o  species  of sanguis  draconis.
  PTERY'GIUM.   (Wcpvl,  a wing.)  A  membra-
neous excrescence which grows upon the internal can-
thus of the eye chiefly, and expands itself over tbe
albuginea  and cornea towards the pupil.   It appears
lo be an extension or  promulgation of the fibres and
vessels of the  caruncula  lachrymalis, or  semi-lunar
membrane, appearing like a  wing.  The species of
pterygium are four:
  1.  Pterygium tenue, seu ungula, to a pellucid pelli-
cle, thin, of a cineritious colour, and unpainful; grow-
ing out from the caruncula lachrymalis, or membrana
semilunaris.
  2.  Pterygium crassum,  sen pannus, differs from the
ungula by iu thickness, red colour, and fulness of the
red vessels on the white of the  eye, and it stretches
over the cornea like fasciculi of vessels.
  3.  Pterygium malignum, is o pannus of various co-
lours, painful, ond arising from a cancerous acrimony.
  4.  Pterygium pingue, seu pinguicula, to  a molecule
like  lard or fat, soft, without pain, and of o light yel-
low eclour, which commonly is situated in tbe external
angle ofthe eye, and rarely extends to the cornea; but
often remains through life.
  PTEKYGO.  Names compounded of this word be-
long to muscles wbich are connected with the ptery-
goid process of the sphenoid bone; as pterygo-pharyn-
geus, Sec
  Pterygo-pharyngeus. See Constrictor pharyngis
superior.
  Pteryoo-staphilinus   externus.  See  Levator
palati.
  PTERYGOID.  (Pterygoides;  from tiltpvl, a wing,
and  uSos, resemblance)   Resembling tbe  wing of a
bird.
  Pterygoid process.  A wing-like process of the
sphenoid bone.
  Pterygoide'uh os. See Ethmoid bone.
  Pteryooioeus externus.   (Pterygoideus, from
ils belonging to the processus pterygoides.)  Pterygoi-
deus  suitor, of Winslow.  Pterygo-colli-maxillaire,
of Dumas.   Musculus alaris externus.   A muscle
placed, as it were, horizontally along the basis of the
skull, between the pterygoid process and  the condyle
of the lower jaw.  It  usually  arises by two distinct
heads; one of which is thick, tendinous,  and fleshy,
%om the outer wing of the pterygoid process of the oa
sphenoides, and from a small part of the os maxlllar*
adjoining to it;  ihe  other is Ihln and fleshy, from  a
ridge in ihe temporal process of the sphenoid bona, just
behind  the slit tfmt transmits the  vessels to the eye.
Sometimes tliis latter origin to  wanting, and, in that
case, part of the  temporal  muscle arises  from  this
ridge.  .Now  and then it affords a common origin to
both these muscles.  From these origins llie muscle
forme a strong,  fleshy belly, which descends almost
transversely outwards and backwards, and is inserted,
tendinous and fleshy, into a depression in the forepart
of the condyloid process of the lower jaw, and into the
anterior surface of llie consuls* ligament that  sur-
rounds the articulation of tliat bone.  All that part of
this muscle, which is not hid by  the pterygoideus in-
ternus, to covered by a ligamentous expansion, wliich
is broader than  that belonging to the pterygoideus
internus, and originates from the  inner edge of the
glenoid cavity of tbe lower jaw, immediately before
the styloid process of the tem|K>ral  bone, and extends
obliquely downwards, forwards, and outwards, lo the
inner surface of the angle of the jaw.  When these
muscles act together, they bring the jnw horizontally
forwards.   When they act singly', tbe jaw to moved
forwards, and to the opposite side.  Tbe  fibres lhat
are inserted into the capsular ligament, serve likewise
to bring the moveable cartilage forwards.
  Pterygoideus internus.   Pterygoideus  major,
of Winslow.   Pterygo-anguli-maxillairc, of Dumas.
This muscle arises tendinous and fleshy from the whole
inner surface of the external ala of the pterygoid pro-
cess, filling all the space between the two wings;  and
from that  process of the os palati that makes part of
the pterygoid fossa.  From  thence, growing larger, it
descends obliquely  downwards, forwards,  and out-
wards, and is inserted, by tendinous and  fleshy fibres.
into the inside of the lower jaw. near its angle. This
muscle covers a great pari of the pterygoideus exter-
nus ; and  along iu posterior edge  we observe a liga-
mentous band, which  extends from the back  part of
the styloid process to the bottom of the angle of the
lower <aw.  The use of this muscle is to roise the
lower jow, and to pull it a little to one side.
  Pteryooideiu major. See Pterygoideus internus.
  Pterygoideus minor. See Pterygoideus externus.
  PTILO'SIS.  (From jr7iXoj, bald.)  See Madarosis.
  PTI'SANA.  (From nrioota, to decorticate, bruise,
or pound.)  Ptissana.  1. Barley deprived of its husks,
pounded, ond made  into bolls.
  2.  A drink is  so called by tlie  French, made mostly
of farinaceous substances; as borley, rice,  grits, and
the like, boiled  with  water, and  sweetened to the
palate.
  PTOSIS.  (From iriir7<o,  to fall.)  Blepharoptosis
An inability of raising the upper eyelid.  The affec-
tion  may  be owing to several causes,  the chief of
which are a redundance of the  skin on the eyelid;  *
paralytic state of the levator muscle, and a spasm of
the orbicularis.
  Ptosis iridis. Prolapsus iridis.  A  prolapsus of
the iris through a wound of the cornea.  It is known
by a blackish tubercle, which projects o little from the
cornea in various forms.  The species of the ptosis of
the iris are,
  1. Ptosis recens, or a recent ptosis from a side wound
of the cornea, as thai which happens, though rarely,
in or after the extraction of the cataract.
  2.  Ptosis inveterata, in which the incarcerated pro
lapsed iris is grown or attached to the wound or ulcer,
and has become callous or indurated.
  PTYALAGOGUE.   (From  7r7uaXov, spittle,  and
ayta, to excite.)   Medicines which promote a discharge
of the saliva, or cause salivation.
  PTYALI'SMOS.  See Ptyalismus.
  PTYALI'SMUS.    (From irlvaXtZ.to, to  spit.)    A
ptyalism or salivation, or increased secretion of saliva
from the mouth.
  PTY'ALUM.   (From ir7vu, tospitup.)   Thesaliva
or mucus from the bronchia.
  Ptyasmago'ga.   (From njvaopa, sputum, and ayu.
to expel.)  Medicines wliich  promote the secretion n
saliva.
  PU'BES.   1.  The external part of the  organs  of
generotionof both sexes, which after puberty to covered
w th hair.
  2  The down or pubescence on leaves, seeds, Sec of
some plants. 
PUT.                                          FUL
  Pubm s«Mii«s.  See Pappus.
  PUBESCENCE.  Pubesccntia.  Under this term is
included all kinds of down,  hairs, ond bristle-like bo-
dies found on Ihe surface of the  leaves, stems, pods,
Sec of plants.  They differ considerably in form and
texture, but consist of small, slender bodies, which are
either soft and yielding to the slightest impression, or
rigid and comparatively unyielding: the  former are,
properly speaking, pili, or hairs; Ihe latter bristles,
seta; and, therefore, under  these two heads  every
kind of pubescence may be arranged.  See Pilus and
Seta.
  PUBESCENS.  Pubescent: applied to the stigma
of the genus Vicia.
  Pubis  os.  A separate bone ofthe foetal pelvis.  See
Innominatum os.
  PUDE'NDUM.  (From pudor,  shame.)  The parts
of generation.
  I'UDENDA'GRA.    (From pudenda,  the private
pam, and ay pa, a seizure.)   Cedma. The venereal dis-
ease has been so named by some.  A pain in the private
paru.
  Pudendum muliebre.  The female parts of gene-
ration.
  PUDICAL.  (Pudicus ; from pudor, shame.)  Be-
longing to the pudenda.
  POdical artery.  Arteria pudica. Pudendal ar-
tery.  A branch of the internal iliac distributed on the j
organs of generation.
  Pueri'lis morbus.  The epilepsy.
  PUERPERAL.   Puerperalis.   Appertaining  to I
child-bearing;  as puerperal convulsions, fever, Sec.
  PUFFBALL.  See Lycoperdon.
  PUGILLUS.  (From pugnus, the fist.)   Dragmis.
A pugil, or handful.
  PULEGIUM.  (From pulex,  a flea;  because  the
smell of iu leaves, burned, destroys fleas.)  See Mentha
pulegium.
  Pulegium cervinum.   Hart's pennyroyal.  The
Mentha cervina, of Linnaeus.
  PULICA'RIA. (From pulex, a flea: so named be-
cause  it was  thought  to  destroy fleas if hung in a
chomber.) See Plantago psyllium.
  PU'LMO. (Pulmo, onio in. Plin. irvtvptav-  Attice
xXtvpiav, unde,  per metathesin  pulmo.)  The lung.
 See Lung.
  PULMONA'RIA.  (Frompulmo,the lung; socalled
 because of its virtues in affections of the lungs.)  The
 name of a genus of planu in the Linnaean system.
 Class, Pentandria ;  Order, Monogynia.  Lungwort.
  Pulmonaria arborea.  See Lichen pulmonarius.
  Pulmonaria  maculata.  Sec Pulmonaria offici-
 nalis.
  Pulmonaria officinalis.  The  systematic name
 Of the  spotted  lungwort.    Pulmonaria maculata;
 Symphitum maculosum.  Jerusalem cowslips; Jerusa-
 lem sage.  This plant  to rarely found to grow wild in
 England; but Is very commonly cultivated in gardens,
 where iu leaves become broader, and approach more
 to  a cordate shape.  The leoves, which are the part
 medicinally used, have no peculiar smell; but, in their
 recent siate, manifest o slightly adstringent and muci-
 laginous taste:  hence  it seems  not  wholly without
 foundation thai they have been supposed to be demul-
 cent and pectoral.  They have been recommended in
 haemoptoes, tickling coughs, and catarrhal defluxion*
 upon the lungs.  The name pulmonaria,  however,
 seems to have arisen rather from the speckled appear-
 ance of these leaves resembling that of the lungs, than
 from any intrinsic quality which experience discovered
 to  be useful in pulmonary complaints.
   PULMONARY.   Pulmonaria.   Belonging to the
 lungs.
   Pulmonary artery.  The pulmonary artery, ar-
 teria pulmonalis, arises from the right ventricle of the
 heart, and soon divides into the right and left, which
 ramify throughout the lungs, and form a beautiful net-
 work on the air vesicles, where they terminate in the
 veins, vena pulmonale^, whose branches at length form
 four trunks, which empty themselves into the left au-
 ricle of the heart.
    Pulmonary consumption.  See Phthisis.          <
   Pulmonary vein.  See Pulmonary artery.
   Pulmo'nica.  (From pulmo, the  lungs.)  Medicines
 for the lung*.                             ...
   PULMONI'Tffl.  (Vfom pvlrM,thehingi.)  An in-
 flammation of the lungs.
  PuLSATfLtA  nigricans.   (From  puiso, to  beat
about: so called from ite being perpetually agitated
by tlie air.)  See Anemone pratensis.
  PULSE.  Pulsus.  The  bearing of the heart and
arteries.  The pulse to generally felt at the wrist, by
pressing the radial artery  with the fingers.  The action
depends, upon the impulse given to the blood  by tha
heart;  hence physicians feel the pulse, to ascertain the
quickness or tardiness  of the blood's motion,  the
strength of the heart, &c.  See Circulation.
  PULSILE'GIUM.  (From pulsus,  the  pulse, and
lego, to tell.)  An instrument for measuring the pulse.
  Pulvi'nar. (From pulvis, dust or chaff,  with which
they are filled.)   A medicated cushion.
  Pulvina'rium.  See Pulvinar.
  PU'LVIS.  (Pulvis, veris. m.)  A powder.  Putoi-
narium.  This form of medicine is  either coarse or
very fine, simple or compound. In the compounded
powders, the intimate and complete admixture of the
several ingredients, and more  especially  in those to
which any of the more  active  substances, ss  opium
scammony, &c. are added, cannot  be too  strongly re-
commended, and for this purpose it may be proper to
pass them, after they are mixed mechanically, through
a fine sieve.
   Pulvis aloes compositus.  Compound powder of
aloes.   Formerly  called  pulvis aloes cum guaiaco.
Take of extract of spiked aloe, an ounce and o half j
guaiacum resin, an ounce; compound powder of cinna-
mon,  half an ounce.  Powder the extract of aloe and
guaiacum resin separately; then mix them with llie
compound powder of cinnomon.  The dose  is from
gr. x.  to 3j.  It is a warm, aperient, laxative powder,
calculated for the  aged,  and those affected wilh dys-
 peptic gout  attended with costiveness and spasmodic
 complaints ofthe stomach and bowels.
   Pulvis aloes cum canella.  A cathartic,  deob-
struent powder, possessing stimulating and aloftic pro-
perties omitted  in the last London Pharmocopoeia, aa
 rather suited to the purpose of extemporaneous pre-
scription.
   Pulvis aloes cum perro.  This possesses aperient
 and deobstruent virtues; and is mostly given  in chlo-
 rosis and constipation.  In the London PharmacopoBia
 this prescription is omitted for the same reason as pul-
 vis aloes cum canella.
   Pulvis aloes oum guaiaco.  See Pulvis aloes com-
positus-
   Pulvis antimonialis. See Antimonialis pulvis.
   Pulvis aromaticus.  See Pulvis cinnamomi ««m->
positus.                          . .
   Pulvis ceruss« compositus.  This is mostly used
 in the form of collyrium, lotion, or injection, as a.mu-.
 cilaginous sedative.
   Pulvis chelarum cancri compositus. An anta-
 cid and adstringent powder, mostly given to  children
 with diarrhoea and acidity of the primae viae.
   Pulvis cinnamomi compositus.  Compound pow-
 der of cinnamon.  Formerly called pulvis aromaticus;
 species  aromatica:  species diambra sine odoratis.
 Take of common cinnamon  bark, two ounces; carda-
 mom-seeds, an  ounce and a half; ginger-root, an ounce;
 long pepper, half on ounce.   Rub them together, so
 as to make a very  fine powder. The dose is from five
 to ten grains.   An elegant stimulant, carminative, and
 stomachic powder.
    Pulvis cobbii.  Pulvis tunguinensis. This once
 celebrated powder consisu of sixteen grains of musk,
 and forty-tight grains of cinnabar.  It is directed to be
 mixed in o gill  of arrack.
    Pulvis contrajerv* compositus.  Take of con-
 trajervo root powdered, five ounces;  prepared shells, a
 pound and a half. Mix. \ febrifuge diaphoretic, mostly
 given in the dose of from one to two scruples .in slight
 febrile affections.
    Pulvis cornu  usti cum opio.   Powder  of mii-nt
 haruhorn with opium.  Pulvis opiatus. Take of hard
 opium, powdered, a drachm;  haruhorn,  burned ond
   Prepared, an ounce: cochineal, powdered, a  drachnL
   lix.  This preparation affords a convenient  mode or
 exhibiting small quantities of opium, ten grams con-
 taining one of the opium.   It is  absorbent and ano-

  Pulvis crbt* compositus.  Compound powder of
 chalk.  Pulvis e bolo compositus spine opio.   Species
 e scordio sine opio.  Diascordium, 1720.  Take of pre-
l pared chalk,  half a pound;  cinnamon bark, four
810 
PUL-
PIT,
ounces: torraentil  root, acacia gum, of  each three
ounces: long pepper, half an ounce.  Reduce them
separately inlo a very fine powder and then mix.  The
dose is from 3 ss. 10 31.  An astringent, carminative,
and stomachic powder, exhibited in the cure of diar-
rhoea, pyrosis, and diseases arising from acidity of the
bowels, inducing much pain.
  Pulvis crkt.*: compositus cum opio.   Compound
powder of chalk  with opium.   Pulvis e bolo composi-
tus cum opio.  Species  e cordio cum opio.  Take of
compound  powder of chalk, six ounces and a half.
Hard  opium, powdered, lour scruples.  Mix.   The
dose from one scruple  to two.  The above  powder,
with the addition of opium, 111  the  proportion of  one
grain to two scruples.
  Pulvis ipecacuanha: compositus. Compound pow-
der of ipecacuanha.  Take of ipecacuanha root, pow-
dered, hard opium powdered, of each a drachm;  sul-
phate of potassa, powdered, an ounce.  Mix.  A dia-
phoretic powder, similar to that of Dr. Dover, which
gained such repute in the cure of  rheumatisms,  and
other diseases arising from obstructed perspiration  and
spasm.  The dose is from five grains to a scruple.
  Pulvis kino compositus.  Compound  powder of
kino.  Take of kino 15 drachms; cinnamon bark, half
an ounce; hard opium, a drachm.  Reduce them sepa-
rately lo a very fine powder; and then mix.  Tbe pro-
portion of opium this astringent contains  is  one port
to twenty.   The dose is from five groins 10 a scruple.
  Pulvis  myrrh*: compositus.  A stimulant, anti-
spasmodic,  and  emmenagogue powder, mostly exhi-
bited in the dose of from fifteen grains to two scruples,
in uterine obstructions and hysterical affections.
  Pulvis opiatus.   See Pulvis cornu usti cum opio.
  Pulvis scammonk* compositus.  Compound pow-
der of  scanunony.   Pulvis  eomitis   Warwicensis.
Take of scammony gum resin, hord extract of jalap,
of each two ounces; ginger-root, half an ounce.  Re-
duce them separately to a very fine  powder,  and then
mix.  From ten to fifteen grains or a scruple are exiii-
bited as a stimulating cathartic.
  Pulvis scammonii cum aloe  A stimulating cathar-
tic, in the dose of from ten to fifteen grains.
  Pulvis scammonii cum calomelane.   A vermi-
fugal  cathartic,  in  the  dose  of  from ten to fifteen
grains.
  Pulvis senna compositus.  Compound powder of
senna.  Pulvis diasenna.  Take of senna leaves, su-
pertartrate of potassa, of each two ounces; scammony
gum resin, half  an ounce;  ginger-root, two  drachms.
Reduce the scammony gum  resin separately, the  rest
together, to a very fine powder; and then mix.  The
dose to from one scruple to one drachm.  A saline sti-
mulating cathartic.
  Pulvis tragacanth* compositus. Compound pow-
der of tragacanth.   Species diatragacantha frigida.
Take of tragacanth powdered, acacia gum powdered,
starch, of each on ounce and a half, refined sugar three
ounces.  Powder the starch ond sugor  together; then
odd the tragacanth op.d acacia gum,  and mix the whole.
Tragacanth to very difficultly reduced to powder. The
dose to from ten grains to a drachm.   A very useful
demulcent powder, which may be given in coughs, diar-
rhoeas, strangury, &c.
   [Pulvis  parturiens.   In a letter from  Dr. John
Stearns, of Saratoga county,  to Dr. S.  Akerly, dated
 Waterford, January '25th, 1807, to the following nar-
ration :—
   "In compliance with your  request, I hereby trans-
mit you a sample of the pulvis parturiens, which I
 have been  in the habit of using for  several years with
 the most complete success.  It expedites lingering  par-
 turition, and saves to  the accoucheur a considerable
 portion of time, without producing any bad effecu on
 the patient  The cases in which I have  generally
 found this powder to be useful, are when the pains are
 lingering, have wholly subsided, or  are in any way in-
 competent to exclude the foetus.  Previous to iuexbibi-
 tion, it is of the utmost consequence to ascertain the
 presentation, and whether any preternatural obstruc-
 tion  prevenu the delivery: as the violent and almost
 incessant  action which it induces in the uterus  pre-
 cludes the possibility of turning-.  The pains produced
 by it are peculiarly forcing, tlvough not accompanied
 with that distress and agony of which the patienu fre-
 quently complain when lite action is much  leas.  My
 method of administering it is either in decoction or
       aao
powder.  Boil half a drachm of the powder in half a
pint of water, and give one-third every twenty mi-
nutes, till the pains  commence.  In  powder, I give
froui five to ten grains; some patients require  larger
doses, though 1 have generally found these sufficient.
  " If the dose is lurgc, it will produce nausea ard
vomiting.  In most cases, you will be surprised with
the suddenness of iu operation; it is, therefore, neces-
sary to be completely ready before you give the medi-
cine, as the urgency of the pains will allow you but a
short time afterward. Since I have adopted the use
of this powder, 1 have seldom found a  case that de-
tained me more than three hours.  Other physicians,
who have administered it, concur with me in the suc-
cess of iu operation.
  "The modus operandi I feel incompetent to explain.
At the same  lime that it augments the action of tbe
uterus, it appears to relax the rigidity of the muscular
fibres.  May it  not produce  tlie beneficial effecu  of
bleeding, without inducing that extreme debility which
to always consequent upon copious depletion 1  This
appears to be corroborated by iu nauseating effects on
the stomach,  and tlie known sympathy between this
viscus and the uterus.
  "It is  a vegetable, and  appears to  be a spurious
growth of rye.  On examining  a granary, where rye
to stored, you will be able to procure a sufficient quan-
tity from among lhat groin.   Rye, which grows in low,
wet  ground, yields it in greatest  abundance."—New-
 York Med. Repos.
  This substance, which Dr. Stearns called puhis par-
turiens, (more correctly pulvis ad partuiandum) is the
ergot, or spurred rye, or the secale coruutum.  The
above notice, from ihe Med. Rep., was the first publica-
tion in the United States, in relation to the use of spur-
red rye in cases of parturition. Since then, to the present
time (1829), many  trials have been made, and  many
cases reported of its efficacy in difficult labours.  Some
physicians have condemned iu use, osoften proving fatal
lo the life of the child in delivery.  Dr. Bigelow, of
Boston,  however, has introduced it into his Materia
Medica, and given the following account of its use.
  " Various species of grain and grasses are subject to
a morbid excrescence on some part of the ear or spike,
to which  the French name ergot  has been applied.
Rye  is more  frequently affected with this appendage
than any other grain.  Different conjectures have been
offered relative to the nature of this excrescence, the
most probable  of which  is  that of Decandolle, who
considers the ergot to be a parasitic vegetable,  of the
tribe of fungi, end genus sclerotium.
   " Ergot resembles a grain of  rye, elongated to seve-
ral times the common length, of an irregular form, and
a dark colour.  It has a light and brittle texture, and
an unpleasant taste.  According to Vauquelin,  it con-
tains a  pole-yellow colouring matter; an oily matter;
a violet colouring matter; an acid, probably phospho-
ric ;  and 0 vegeto-onimnl matter.
   " This substance  wos  formerly suspected of pro-
ducing certain  epidemic diseases—the  dry gangrene,
and  raphania  but  the  suspicion was probably un-
founded.  In regard to iu immediate effect on the sys-
tem, the reports of niedical authors differ widely, some
considering it highly deleterious.  From my own ob-
servations, I have found  that it produces nausea and
vomiting, in doses of from a scruple to a drachm; that
it seldom operates upon  the bowels;  and that large
doses produce headache and temporary febrile  symp-
toms.  It has very little acrimony, and does not prove
sternutatory when snuffed up the nostrils.
  " Besides these more general effecu, ergot has s spe-
cific power of stimulating the  uterus during the pro-
cess of parturition, in a manner that is  not known to
be produced by any other medicinal agent.  This effect
is wholly unequivocal, and cannot he confounded with
the common uterine efforts.  It is moreover certain, or
at least ite failures are not more frequent than those of
any of our most common operative drugs.  This ope-
ration consists in a  powerful, incessant, and unremit-
ting contraction of the uterus, not alternating with  in-
tervals of ease, as in common labour, but continuing
 without intermission until the child is expelled.  When
ergot is prematurely'or injudiciously administered, tha
child does not  breathe at birth, is difficult to resusci-
 tate, and is sometimes irrecoverably dead.  This effect
 has been attributed lo a poisonous quality in the ergot,
 but is obviously tbe consequence, simply, of long-con 
PUR
}UR
tinued and unremitting pressure on the child, a fact
pointed out in  the New-England Journal, as early as
1812.
  " A  few medical writers,  principally in  Europe,
in  consequence,  probably, of  not being furnished
with  a genuine  article,  in an  unimpaired state,
have doubted the power of ergot to effect or alter the
action of  the uterus.   But I  may safely .assert, that,
after fifteen years, during which this drug has attracted
notice among us, there is scarcely an article of tiie ma-
teria medica, upon the character of which the minds
of the profession  in this country are more fully made
up, than upon this.  Indeed our medical journals, and
books of materia  medica, have teemed with evidences
of its activity.
  " For obvious reasons, ergot should never be given
in  natural and favourable cases  of  labour.   It  to
strongly contraindicated, at all times,  by earliness of
tbe stage,  rigidity of the soft  parte, any unfavourable
conformation, or any presentation which  requires
changing.   It is admissible in lingering cases  of chil-
dren ascertained to be  dead, and in lingering cases of
abortion.  It is useful in retained placenta; and, from
its  power of causing contraction of ibe  uterus', it ar-
iests  flooding after  delivery.   In  females habitually
subject  to profuse haemorrhage at this period, there is
perhaps no better preventive than a full dose of ergot,
administered just before delivery.  Its efficacy has
been repeatedly attested.
  " Spurred rye has been administered as an emmena-
gogue with various success.   Its action on the impreg-
nated uterus is much less than it displays in labour;
 ?'et the result of many trials  has been, on the whole,
 n favour of iu emmenagogue power.
  " Ergot to commonly given in powder, boiled or in-
fused in hot water.  A drachm may be prepared in this
way  for a puerperal patient, and one quarter of the
mixture, while turbid, given every twenty minutes, till
iu  effect becomes perceptible.  In amenorrhoea, ten or
fifteen grains may be given,  three times a day, and
increased  if nausea does not  ensue."—Bigelow's Ma-
teria Medica.   A.]
  PUMICE.  A mineral of which there are three spe-
cies, the glossy, common, and porphyritic, found in the
Lipari islands and Hungary.
,  PUMPION.  See Cucurbita.
  PUNCTATUS.  Dotted.   Applied to petals of the
Melanthium capense: receptacle of the Leontodon ta-
raxacum.
  PU'NCTUM.  Anoint.  The opening or commence
ment of a duct of  the eye has received  this name,
because its projection gives it the appearance of a spot.
  Punctum  aureum.   Formerly, when a hernia  of
the intestines wos reduced by  an incision made through
the skin and membrana adiposa,  quite  down to  the
npper part ofthe spermatic vessels, a golden wire was
fixed and twisted, so as to prevent the descent of any
thing down tbe tunica vaginalis.
  Punctum lachrimale.  Lachrymal  point.  Two
small orifices, one of which is conspicuous in each eye-
lid, at the extremity of the tarsus, near the internal can-
 thus, are  called puncta lachrymalia.
  PU'NICA.  The name of  a genus of planu in  the
Linnaean  system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  Punica granatum.  The  systematic name of the
pomegranate.  Granatum.   Punica—foliis  lanceola-
tis, caule arboreo, of Linnaeus.  The rind of the fruit
and the  flowers called Balaustine flowers,  are the
parts directed for medicinal use.  In their smell there
is nothing remarkable, but to the taste they are very
adstringent, and  have  successfully been employed  as
such, in diseases  both internal and external.
  PUPIL.  (Pupilla;  from pupa, a babe: because it
reflects the diminished image of the person who looks
upon it like a puppet)  The round opening in the mid-
dle of the iris, in which we see ourselves in tbe eye of
another.
  PUPILLA.  See Pupil.
  PUPLLLA'RIS.  Of or belonging to the pupil.
  PCPILLARIS MEMBRANA.  (FlOHl pupilla, the pupH.)
See Membrana pupillaris.
  Pupill,* velum.   See Membrana pupillaris.
  PURGAME'NTUM.  A purge.
  PURGATIVE.  Whatever increases the peristaltic
motion of the bowels,  so  as  to considerably  increase
(he alvine evacuations.  See  Cathartic.
  Purging flax.  See Linum catharticum
  Purging-nut.  See Jatropha curcas.
  PURIFORM.  (Puriformis; from pus, and forma
resemblance.)  Like unto the secretion called pus.
  PURPURA,  (nop^upa, the name of a shell of a
purple colour:  hence purpura, a purple colour.)  An
efflorescence consisting of small, distinct, purple-specks
and patches, attended with general debility, but not al-
ways with fever, which  are caused by  an extravasa-
tion of tit* Tassels under the cuticle.  It is divided into
the five following  species■
  1.  Purpura simplex.   This has the  appearance  of
petechial, without much disorder of the constitution,
except languor, pain in the limbs, and a sallow  com
plexion.   The petechia:  are most numerous on the
breast, inside of the arms ond legs, and are of various
sizes, and commonly circular.  There is no itching 01
other sensation attending the petechias.
  2.  Purpura  hamorrhagica is considerably more  se-
vere ; the petechia? are of larger size, and interspersed
with  vibices and  ecchymoses,  resembling tbe marks
left by the  strokes of a whip, or by violent bruises.
They appear first on the legs, afterward on the thighs,
arms, and trunk of the  body; the hands  being  more
rarely spotted with them, and the face generally free.
They are of  a bright red colour when they first appear,
but soon become purple or livid; and  when  about to
disappear they change to a  brown or yellowish hue;
the cuticle over them appears smooth and shining, but
is not sensibly elevated; in  a  few cases, however, it
has been seen raised into a sort of vesicle, containing
black blood.  This more particularly happens in the
spoU which appear on the tongue, gums, and palate,
and  inside of the cheeks and lips where the cuticie is
extremely thin; the gentlest pressure on the skin, even
feeling of the pulse, will often produce a purple blotch,
like that which is left after a severe bruise.
  The same state of habit, which gives rise to  these
effusions under tlie cuticle, produces likewise copious
discharges of blood, especially from the internal parts;
they are often very profuse, and suddenly prove fatal;
but  in other coses they  ore less  copious;  sometimes
returning every doy at stated periods, and sometimes
less frequent, and at regular intervals;  and sometimes
there is a slow and almost incessant oozing of blood.
The  bleeding  occurs from the gums, nostrils, throat,
inside of the cheeks, tongue, and lips, and sometimes
from the lining membrane of the eyelids, the urethra,
and  external ear; and  also from the internal cavities
of the lungs, stomach,  bowels, uterus, kidneys, and
bladder.
  This disease to often preceded by great lassitude,
fointness, and pains in the limbs;  but not unfrequently
it appears suddenly  in  the  midst  of  apparent  good
health.  It is  always accompanied with extreme de-
bility and depression of spirits; the pulse is commonly
feeble, and sometimes  quickened; and heat, flushing,
perspiration, and other symptoms of febrile irritation,
occasionally  attend.  When  the  disease  has  con-
tinued for some time, the patient becomes sallow, and
much emaciated ; and some degree of oedema appears
on the lower extremities, which afterward extends to
other paru  of the body.  This  disease to extremely
uncertain in iu duration; in some instances it has ter-
minated in a few days, while in others it has continued,
not only for many months, hut even for years.
  The causes  of this disease are by no means clearly
ascertained: it occurs at every period of life, and in both
sexes, but especially in women and in boys before the
age of puberty, particularly those who are employed in
sedentary occupations, and who live in close and crowd-
ed situations.  It has sometimes occurred as a sequela*
of small-pox, and of measles, and sometimes in the
third or fourth week of puerperal confinement  It is
supposed  that some local visceral obstruction is the
cause of the disease in different instances, as  artificial
bleeding, and purging, tend greatly to relieve  it  The
ancient physicians attributed the haemorrhagies from
the nose, gums, and other parte, to the morbid enlarge-
ment of tlie spleen.
  In the slighter degrees'of purpura occurring in chii
dren who are ill fed and nursed, and who reside in'
close places, or in women shut up in similar situations,-
ond debilitated by anxiety of  mind, want of proper
food, and by fatigue, the  use of tonics, with the mineral
acids, and wine, will doubtless be adequate to the cure
of the disease, especially where exercise in the  open- 
PUR
PU3
 tlrc.in  be employed at the same time.   But when it
 occurs in adults, especially those who already have the
 oewflt of exercise in tin air of the  country, and who
 have suffered no privation wilh respect to diet, when
 it ii accompanied with a white and loaded tongue, a
 quick and  somewhat small though sharp pulse, oc-
 casional  chills and  heou, and other symptoms of
 fcverishness, however moderate, and if there be at
 Ihe same time fixed internal pains, a  dry cough, and an
 Irregular slate of the bowels (symptoms which may be
 presumed to indicate some local congestion); then the
 administration of tonic medicines, particularly wine,
 cinchona, and other warmer tonics will be  found inef-
 ficacious, if not decidedly injurious. In such cases, free
 and repeated doses  of medicines  containing the sub-
 muriate of  mercury, and regulated by their effecu on
 tbe symptoms ofthe complaint, and by tbe appearance
 of  tiie excretions, from the intestines, will be fouud
 most beneficial.
  If the pains are fixed, ihe marks of febrile irritation
 considerable, and  the spontaneous  hemorrhage  not
 profuse,  local or general blood-letting may be employed
 with great benefit, especially in robust adults.  When
 the urgency  of hemorrhagic tendency has  been dimi-
 nished by these means, the constitution rallies, though
 not  rapidly, with the assistance of the mineral acids,
 and cinchona or cascarilla, or some preparation of iron,
 together with moderate exercise and nutritious diet
  3. Purpura urticans to distinguished by commencing
 in the form of rounded and reddish  elevations of the
 cuticle, resembling wheals; which are  not accompanied
 like the wheals of urticaria by any sensation of tingling
 and itching.   These  tumours gradually  dilate,  but
 within one or two days they subside to a level of the
 surrounding  cuticle, and tlieir hue  becomes darker,
 and at length livid.  They are  most common on the
 legs where they appear with petechia;, but also appear
 on the arms, thighs, breast, Sec.
  It usually occurs In summer and autumn, and lasts
 from three  to Ave <fceks.  Some  oedema  of the ex-
 tremities usually accompanies it and it is occasionally
 preceded by a stiffness and weight of the limbs.  The
 same rules  of treatment apply  to this as to the pre-
 ceding varieties of the disease.
  ■». Purpura senilis appears principally along the out-
 side of the  forearm, iu elderly women, in  successive
 dark purple blotches, of an irregular form, and various
 magnitude;  each of  these continues  from a week to
 ten days, when the extravasated blood to absorbed.
  Tonics or any other expedient do not appear to exert
 any influence over the eruption.
  5. Purpura contagiosa,  to an eruption of petechia
 which occasionally accompanies tjrpho'd fevers; where
 they occur in close situation-, they are merely symp-
 tomatic, and ore very rarely seen.
  Purpura  alba.   Purpura  rubra.  Many writers
 term the  miliary fever, when the  pustules  are white,
 purpura  alba; and when they are red, purpura rubra.
  Purpura scorbutica. Petechial eruptions inscurvy.
  PURPURIC ACID.  Acidum purpuricum : so called
 from its fine red colour. The excrements  of tbe ser-
 pent Boa constrictor, consist  of pure lithic acid.
 Dr. Prout found that on digesting this substance thus
 obtained, or  from urinary calculi, in dilute  nitric acid,
 an effervescence lakes place, and the  lithic acid to dis-
 solved; forming a beautiful purple liquid.   The excess
 of nitric acid being neutralized with ammonia, and the
 whole concentrated by slow evaporation, the colour of
 the solution  becomes of a deeper purple; and dark red
 granular crystals, sometimes of a greenish hue exter-
 nally, soon  begin  to separate in abundance.  These
 crystals are  a compound of ammonia  with the acid
 erinciple in  question.  The ammonia was displaced
 y digesting  the saft in a  solution of caustic  potassa,
 till the red colour entirely disappeared.  This alkaline
solution was then gradually dropped into dilute sulphu-
ric acid, which, uniting with the potassa, left the acid
principle in a state of purity.
  This acid principle to likewise produced from lithic
ocid by chlorine, ond also, but with more difficulty, by
iodine. Dr. Prout,  the discoverer of this new acid, has,
at the suggestion of Dr. Wollaston, called it purpuric
acid, because ite saline compounds have for the most
part a red or purple colour.
  This acid, as obtained  by the  preceding  process,
usually exists in the form of a very fine powder, of a
slightly yellowish or cream colour: and when examined
      as
1 with  a  magnifier, especially under Water, appears to'
 possess o |iearly lustre.  It has no smell, nor teste.  Itsr
 spec. grav. is considerably above water.  It Is urarcety
 soluble in  water.  One-tenth  of a grain, boiled for a
 considerable time in 1000 grains of water was not en-
 tirely  dissolved.   The wuter, however,  assumed n
 purple lint, probably, Dr. Prout thinks, from the  forma-
 tion of a little purpuratc of ammonia.  Purpuric acid
 to insoluble in alkohol and r-lher. The mineral acids
 dissolve ft only when they nr" concentrated.
   PURSLANE.   See Portulaca.
   PURULENT.   (Purufen*, from pus.)  Having the
 appearance of pus.
   PUS.  Matter.  A whitish, bland)  creatnlike fluid,
 heavier than water, found  in phlegmonous abscesses,
 or on the surface of sores.   It is distinguished, Record-
 ing to  iu nature, into laudable or good pus, scrofulous,
serous, and ichorous pus, Stc
   Pus  taken from a healthy ulcer, near the source of
circulation, as on the arm or breast, Sir Everard Home
observes,  readily  separates from (he surface of tho
sore, the granulations underneath being small, pointed,
and of a florid red colour, and has tile following pro-
perties : it to nearly of the consistence  of cream;  to of
a white colour; has a mawkish taste;  mid, when cold)
to inodorous; but, when warm, has  u' peculiar smell:
Examined in a  microscope,  it is  found  to  consist  of
two parts,  of globules, and a  transparent  colourless
fluid;  the globules are probaMy white, at  least they
appear to have some degree of opacity. Iu specific
gravity is  greater than that of  water.  It docs not
readily go  into putrefaction.   Excised  to  heat, it
evaporates to dryness;  but does not coagulate.  It does
not unite with water  in the heat of the  atmosphere,
but falls to the bottom; yet, if kept in a considerable
degree  of lieot,  it rises and diffuses Itself through tbe
witter,  and  remains mixed with it, even after having
been allowed lo cool, the globules being decomposed.
  Pus varies in its appearance, according to  the dif-
ferent circumstances which affect the ulcer that forms
it; such as, the degree of violence of the inflammation,
also its nature, whether healthy or unhealthy ; and
these depend upon the state of health, and strength of
the parts  yielding  pus.  These changes arise  more
from indolence and irritability, than from any absolute
disease;  many specific diseases,  in healthy constitu-
tions, producing no change in  the appearance of the
matter from their specific quality. Thus, the matter
from a  gonorrhoea, from the small-pox  pustules, or the
chicken-pock, has the same appearance, and seems to
be made up of similar parts,  consisting of  globules
floating m a transparent fluid, like common pus; the!
specific properties of each of these (misons being su
peradded to those of pas.  Matter from a cancer may
be considered as an exception;  but a cancerous  ulcer
is never in a healthy state.
  In indolent ulcers, whether the indolence arise from
the nature of the ports, of the nature of the inflamma-
tion, the pus is mode of globules and  flaky particles,
floating in a transparent fluid ; and globules and flakes
ore in  different proportions, according to the  degree of
indolence: this  is particularly observable in scrofulous
abscesses, preceded by a small degree of inflammation.
That this flaky appearance to no part of true pus. is
well illustrated by observing, that  the proportion if-
heorB to the globules is greater where there to the least
inflammation ; and' in those abscesses  that sometimes
occur, which have not been preceded by any inflamma-
tion at  all, the contenu aTe wholly made up of a curdy
or flaky substance of different degrees  of consistence,
whicli is not considered'to be pus, from iu not having
the properties stated in the definition of that fluid.
  The  constitution and part must be in health to farm
good pus;  for very slight changes in the general health
ore capable of producing an alteration in  it, and even
of preventing iu being formed at all, and substituting;
in its place coagulating lymph.
  This happens most readily in ulcers in the lower ex-
tremities, owing to their distance from tlie source of
the circulation rendering them Weaker. And  it is cu
rious to observe the influence than distance  alone baa
upon the appearance of pus.
  Pus differs from chyle tit its globules being larger,
not coagulating by exposure to the  air, nor by  heat/
which  those of chyle do.
  The  pancreatic juice contains globules, but they in
much smaller than those of pus. 
PUZ
PYR
   Milk  is composed of globules,  nearly of the same
 Size as those of pus, but much more numerous.  Milk
 coagulates by runnet, which pus does not; and con-
 tains oil and sugar, which ore not to be discovered in
 pus.
   The cases in  which  pus is formed, are, properly
 speaking,  all reducible to one, which  is, the state of
 parte consequent to inflammation.  For as far os we
 yet know, observes Sir E. Home, pus has in no in-
 stance been met  with, unless preceded by inflamma-
 tion ; and although, in some cases, a  fluid has been
 formed  independent of preceding inflammation, it dif-
 fers from pus in many of iu properties.
   In considering the time required for the formation of
 pus, it to necessary to take notice of the periods which
 are found, under different circumstances, to intervene
 between a healthy or  natural stote of the parts,  and
 the presence of that  fluid after the application of some
 irritating substance to the skin.
   In cases of wounds made into muscular parte, where
 blood-vessels are divided, the first process which takes
 place is  the extravasation of red blood ; the second is
 the exudation of coagulating lymph, which afterward
 becomes vascular;  and the third, the formation of
 matter, which last does not, in common, take place in
 less than two days; the precise  time will, however,
 vary exceedingly,  according to the nature of the con-
 stitution, and the state of the paru at the time.
   If an  irritating  substance is applied to  a cuticular
 surface,  upon which it raises a blister, pus will be
 formed in about twenty-four hours.
   PUSTULA.  A little pustule.  See Pustule.
   Pustula oris.   See Aphtha.
   PUSTULE.  (Pustula, a little pustule; from pus,
 matter.)   Ecthyma;  Eczema. Dr. Willan defines a
 pustule  to be an  elevation of the cuticle, sometimes
 globate,  sometimes conoidol in its  form, and containing
 pus, or a lymph which to in general discoloured.  Pus-
 tules are various in  their size, but the diameter of the
 lorgest seldom exceeds two lines.  There are many
 different kinds of pustules, properly distinguished in
 medical  authors by specific  appellations; as, 1. Phly-
 lacium, a small pustule containing pus, and raised on a
 hard, circular, inflamed base, of a vivid red colour.  It
 is succeeded by a  thick, hard, dark-coloured scab.  2.
 Psydracium, according to Dr. Willan,  a minute pus-
 tule, irregularly circumscribed, producing but a slight
 elevation of the cuticle, and terminating in a laminated
 scab.  Many of these pustules usually appear toge-
 ther, and become confluent. When mature, they con-
 tain pus; and, after  breaking, discharge a thin watery
 humour.
   PUTA'MEN.   (From puto, to  cut.)  The bark or
 paring of any vegetable, as tbe walnut  See Juglans
 regia.
   PUTAMINEA3.  The name of an  order in  Lin-
 naeus's Fragmenu of a  Natural  Method, embracing
 those which have  an outer shell,  or  putamen, over a
 hard fruit; as in Capparis and Mertoomn.
   PUTREFACTION.  (Putrefactio; fromputrefado,
 to become rotten,  to dissolve.) Putrid fermentation.
 Putrefactive fermentation.  The spontaneous decom-
    Cition of such animal and vegetable matters as ex-
    e a foetid smell.  The solid and the fluid matters
 are resolved into  gaseous  compounds  and vapours,
 which escape and  unite an earthy residuum.  Th£ re-
 quisites to this process are, 1. A certain degree of hu-
 midity.  2. The access of atmospheric air.   3. A cer-
 tain degree of heat:  hence the abstraction  of the air
 and water,  or humidity,  by drying,  or its fixation
 by cold, by salt, sugar, spices, Sec, will counteract  the
 process of putrefaction, and favour the preservation of
 food, on  which principle some patents  hove been ob-
 tained.  See Fermentation.
  [" Puzzolana.   This usually occurs  in small frag-
 ments, or friable  masses, which have  a  dull, earthy
 aspect and fracture, and seem to have been baked.  Iu
 solidity does  not exceed that of chalk.  It  is seldom
 tumefied; and iu pores are neither so large nor nume-
 rous as those of scoria. IU colours are gray, or whitish,
 reddish, or nearly black.
  " By exposure to heal, it loses iu power of affecting
 Ihe needle, and melu inlo a black slag.   A variety,
examined by Bergman, yielded silex, 55 to GO; alu-
 mine, 19 to 20; iron, 15 to 20; lime, 5  to 6.  Il often
 contains  distinct   articles of  pumice,  quartz, and
scoria.
   "Some mineralogists suppose the black puzzoiana
 to be altered scoria; the white to be pumice, and
 has proceeded from  argillaceous minerals, baked  or
 calcined in the interior of the volcano.
   " But, whatever may have been  iu  origin, it is ex
 trcinely useful in the preparation of a  mortar, which
 hardens quickly, even under water.  When tims em-
 ployed, it is mixed with a small proportion of lime,
 perhaps one-third.   Mr. Kirwan supposes, that the
 rapid induration of this mortar arises  from the very
 low oxidation of the iron.  If the  mortar be a long
 time exposed to the air, previous  to  iu  use, it will
 not harden.
   " The best puzzolana is said to occur in old currents
 of lava;  but, when too earthy, it loses lu peculiar pro-
 perties. That which comes from Naples is generally
 gray."—Clean. Min.  A.]
   Putrid Fever.  See Typhus gravior.
   PYLORIC.  (Pyloricus; from pyloms.)  Belong-
 ing to the pylorus.
   Pyloric  artery.  Arteria pylorica. A branch of
 the hepatic artery.
   PYLORUS.  (From iruXn, on entronce, and ovpoc,
 a guard; because it  guards, as  it were, the entrance
 ofthe  bowels.)   Janitor; Portorarium;  Ostiarius.
 The inferior  aperture of the stomach, which  opens
 into the intestines.
   Pyopoe'tic  (From jrvov, pus, and irouta, to make.)
 Suppurative.
   Pyorrhgj'a.  (From iruov,  pus, and pita, to flow.)
 A purulent discharge  from the belly.
   Pyotu'ria.  (From irvov, pus, and ottpoy, urine^J
 Pyuria.  A mucous or purulent urine.
   PYRAMIDA'LIS.   (From irvpapis, a pyramid.}  A
 muscle in the front of the belly.   Fallopius, who is
 considered ss the first occurote describer of this mus-
 cle, gove  it  the name of pyramidalis, from iu shape:
 hence it is called pyramidalis  Fallopii, by Douglas.
 But Vesalius seems to have been acquainted with  it,
 and to have described it as a port of the rectus.   It is
 colled pyramidalis vel succenturiatus, by Cowper; and
 pubio-ombilical, by Dumos.  It is a very small muscle,
 situated at  the bottom of the forepart of the rectus,
 and to covered by the  some aponeurosis thai forms the
 anterior part of the sheath of that muscle.  It arises
 by short, tendinous fibres, from the upper and forepart
 of the os pubis.  From this origin, wliich is seldom
 more than an  inch in breadth, its fibres ascend some-
 what obliquely, to be  inserted into the linea alba, and
 inner edge of the rectus, commonly ot  about the dis-
 tance of two inches from the pubes, and frequently at
 a greater or less distance, but always below the umbi-
 licus.   In some subjecu, the pyramidalis is  wonting on
 one or both  sides; and, when this happens, the  inter-
 nal oblique is usually  found to be of greater thickness
 at iu lower part  Now and then, though rarely, there
 ore two at one side, and only one at the other, and Sa-
 batier has even seen two on each side.  Fallopius, and
 many otheis after him, hove considered it  as the con-
 gener of the internal oblique; but iu use seems to be
 to assist the lower part of the rectus.
   Pyramidalis faciei.   See Levator labii superioris
 alaque  nasi.         /
   PYRENEITE.  A grayish-black coloured mineral.
 found in the Pyrenees.
   Pyrenoi'bes.   (From nsvp^v, a kernel, and tiSos,
 likeness: so called from its kernel-like shape.)   Ap-
 plied to the odontoid process of the second vertebra.
   Pyrkte'rium.  (From aiip, fire, and rnptta, to keep.)
 The fire-hole of a furnace.
  PYRE'THRUM. (From avp, fire, because of the
 hot taste of its root.)   See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  Pyrethrum  sylvestre.  See Achillea ptarmica.
  PYRETICA.  The  name given by Dr. Good to an
 order of his class  Hamatica.   Fevers.  It has four
 genera: Ephemera; Anetus; Epanetus; Enecia.
  PYRETOLOGY.   (Pyretologia;  from  7rupt7oc,,
 fever, and Xoyos, a discourse.)  A discourse, or doc-
 trine on fevers.
  PYREXIA.  (From avp, fire.)  Fever.
  Pyrexia.  Febrile diseases.  The first class of Cul-
 len's Nosology; chorocterized by frequency of pulse
 after a cold shivering, with increase; of heat, and espe-
cially, among other impaired functions,  a diminution
of strength.
  PYREXIAL.  (From pyrexia, fever.) Appertain-
ing to fever. 
PYR
PYR
   rYRIFO'RMIP.  (From pyrus, a pear, aad forma,
 a shape; shaped like a pear.l  A small radiated mus-
 cle of the |>el vis, situated under the gluteus maximus,
 along tlie interior edne of the gluteus maximus.   Pi-
 riformis, seu iliacus externus, of Douglas and Cowper.
 Spigelius was llie first who gave a name to this muscle,
 which be called pyriformis, from its supposed  resem-
 blance to a pear.  It is the pyriformis sine pyramida-
 lis of Winslow; and sacrotroc/ianterien of Dumas. It
 arises  by three, and sometimes  four, tendinous  and
 fleshy origins, from the anterior surface of  the second,
 third, and fourth  pieces of the os sacrum, so that  this
 port nf it to within the pelvis.  From these origins, the
 muscle grows narrower, and passing out of tbe pelvis,
 below the niche in the posterior part of the ilium, from
 which it receives a few fleshy fibres, is inserted by a
 roundish tendon,  of an inch in length, inlo the upper
 part of the cavity, at the root of the trochanter major.
The use of this muscle is to assist in moving tbe thigh
outwards, and moving it a little upwards.
  PYRI'TES.  (From amp, Arc:  so called because it
strikes fire with steel.)  Native compounds of metal
 with sulphur.
  Pyrites  arsenicalis.    Sulphuret of  iron with
 arsenic.
  PVRMONT.   The  name of a  village in the circle
of Westphalia,  in Germany, in which to a celenrated
mineral spring.  Pyrmont water.  Aqua pyrmontana
to of an  agreeable,  though strongly acidulated taste,
ond enuu a  large portion of gas;  which affects  the
persons who attend  ot the well, as well as those who
drink Ihe fluid, with a sensation somewhat resembling
that produced by intoxication.  A general view of  tlie
analysis of tins water will show that it stands the first
in rank of the highly carbonated chalybeates, and con-
tains such an abundance of carbonic acid, as not only
to hold dissolved  a  number of carbonic salu,  but to
show all  the  properties of this acid uncombined, and
in its moat active form.  Pyrmont water is likewise a
strong  chalybeate, with  regard to  the proportion  of
Iron; and it is, besides, a very hard wafer, containing
much selenite and earthy carbonates.  The diseases to
Which this mineral water may be advantageously  ap-
plied, are the same  as those for which the Spa, and
others of the acidulated chalybeates, are resorted  to;
that is, In all cases of debility that require an  active
 tonic that is not permanently heating; as various dis-
orders In the alimentary canal, especially bilious  vo-
miting, and diarrhoea, and  complaints that originate
 from obstructed menstruation.  At Pyrmont, the com-
 pany generally drink this water by glaasfuls, in a morn-
 ing, to the  quantity of two,  three,  or more English
 pinis.   lucoinmoii operation to by urine; but, if taken
copiously, it  generally proves laxative; and when it
 has not this effect, and that effect is wanted, they com-
 monly mix, with the first glass drank in the morning,
from one to five or six drachms of some purging salu.
  PYROACETIC ACID.    (Acidum pydtricum ;  so
called because it to obtained by the action of fire on  the
acetic acid.)  Pyroacetic spirit  Obtained  by the  de-
structive distillation of the acetates, from wbich a mo-
dified  vinegar escapes, called pyroacetic or spirit.
  PYROCITRIC  ACID.  Acidum pyrocitricum.   A
new acid obtained by distilling citric acid.
  " When citric acid to put to distil in a retort, it begins
at first by melting; the water of crystallization sepa-
rates almost entirely from it by a continuance  of  the
fusion ; then  it  assumes a yellowish tint, which gradu-
ally deepens.  At  the same time there is disengaged a
white vapour whieh goes over, to be condensed in  the
receiver.  Towards the end of the calcination a brown-
ish vapour to  seen to form, and there remains  in  the
bottom of the retort a light very brilliant charcoal.
  The product contained in the receiver consisu of two
different liquids.  One of an amber yellow colour, and
an oily aspect, occupies the lower part; another, colour-
less and liquid like water, of a very decided acid taste,
floate above.  After separating them from one another,
we perceive that tbe first has a very strong bituminous
odour, and  an acid  and acrid taste; that  it reddens
powerfully  the  tincture  of litmus, but that it may be
deprived almost entirely of  that acidity by agitation
with water, in  which it divides itself into  globules,
which soon fall to the bottom of tbe vessel, and are  not
 long in uniting to  one mass, in the maimer of oils hea-
 vier than water.
  In this state  it  possesses some of tbe properties ef
 these substances; it to soluble in alkohol, ether, met
 the caustic alkalies.  However, it doe* not long con-
 tinue thus;  it becomes acid, and someiiuiua even It is
 observed to deponte at the end of Nome days,  white
 crystals, which hove a very strong acidity; it we then
 agitate it anew witb water, il dissolve* in a grout mea
 sure, and abandons a yellow or brownish pitchy mat
 ter, of a very obvious t-mpyreumeiio smell, ana whicli
 has much analogy with the oil obtained In the distilla-
 tion of other vegetable matters.  The some effect takes
 place when we  keep  it under water;  it diminishes
 gradually In volume, the water acquires a sour luste,
 and a thick oil remains at tbe bottom of tlie vessel.
  This  liquid may be regarded as a combination (of
 little permanence indeed) of tlie peculiar acid with the
 oil formed in similar circumstances.
  As to the liquid and colourless portion which flouted
 over tiiis oil,  it  was ascertained to contain no citrla
 ocid carried over, nor acetic  acid; first, because on
 saturating it with carbonate of lime, a soluble calca-
 reous salt was obtained; and, secondly, because thtosalt,
 treated with sulphuric acid, evolved no odour of acetic
 acid.
  From this calcareous salt the lime was separated by
 oxalic acid; or the salt itself was decomposed with
 acetate of lead, and the precipitate treated with sul-
 phuretted hydrogen.  By these two processes, this new
 acid was separated in a stale of purity.
  Properties of the pyrocitric add.—This acid Is white,
 inodorous, of a strongly acid  taste.  It is difficult  to
 make it crystallize in a regular manner, but it is usually
 presented in a white mass,  formed by llie interlacement
 of very  flue small needles.   Projected on a hot body it
 melts, is converted  into white very pungent vapours,
 and leaves some traces of carbon.  When heated in a
 retort, it  affords  an oily-looking add, and yellowish
 liquid, and is partially decomposed.  It is very soluble
 in water nnd iu alkohol; water at the temperature of
 10° U. (50" F.) dissolves one-third of its weight.   Tha
 watery solution has a strongly acid taste, it does not
 precipitate lime or barytes water, nor the greater part
of metallic solutions, with ihe exception of acetate of
 lead and protonitrate of mercury.  With the oxides it
forms salu possessing properties different from the ci-
trates.
  The pyrocitrate of potassa crystallizes in small nee
dies, which ore white, und unalterable in the air.  It
dissolves in about 4 paru of water.  Its solution  gives
 no precipitate with the  nitrate of silver, or of barytes,
 while thai of the citrate of barytes forms precipitate
 with these salts.
  The pyrocitrate of lime directly formed, ex'.iblu a
 white crystalline  mass, composed of  needles, opposed
 to each other, in  a ramification form.  This salt  has a
sharp taste.  It dissolves in 35 paru of water al 50°
 Fahr.
  The solution 'of the  pyrocitric  acid saturated with
 barytes water, leu fall, al the end of some hours, a very
 white crystalline powder, which is pyrocitrate of ba-
rytes.  This salt is soltiDie in 150 parts of cold water,
 and in 50 of boiling water.
  The pyrocitrate of lead to easily obtained by pouring
 pyrocitrate of potassa into a solution of acetate of lead.
The pyrocitrate of lead presenU iuelf under the form
 of a white gelatinous semitransparent mass, which be-
comes dry iu the air."
  PYROGOM.  A variety of diopside.
  PYROLA.  (From pyrus,  a pear: so named be-
cause its leaves resemble those of a pear-tree.)  1. The
 name of a genus of planum the Liunasatrsystem  Class,
 Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial mime of the wintergreen.  See
 Pyrola rotundifolia.
  Pyrola rotunoitolia.  The systematic name of
 the round-leaved  wintergreen.    This elegant  little
 plant, common in our woods, is now forgotten in the
 practice of medicine.   It possesses gently adstringent
 qualities, and has a somewhat bitter taste.
  I" Pyrola umbellata   The pyrola umbellata, of
 wintergreen, is  a common plant of the American
 forest   Iu leaves have a  taste intermediate between
 sweet and bitter, wliich in  the  stalk and roou, to  com-
 bined with some pungency.  Spirit extraeu these pro-
 perties ; likewise  water, though  less  perfectly.   Thist
 plant  has been formerly used in rheumatism.  More
 recently it bas been found a very useful palliative in
 strangury and nephritis, both  in this country and- in 
PYR
PYR
Europe.   In dropsy it has sometimes exhibited striking
effecu as a diuretic, a pint of the saturated infusion
being taken every twenty-four hours.  It has the ad-
vantage over the more common diuretics, that it does
not offend the stomach, hut, on the contrary, invigo-
rates that organ, and asstou digestion.  The bruised
leaves, externally applied, act as a rubefacient and a
dtocutieut to indolent swellings."—Bigelow's Materia
Medica.   A]
  PYROLKiNEOUS ACID. (Acidum pyrolignosum ;
so called because it to procured by distilling wood.)
"In the destructive distillation of any kind of wood, an
acid is obtained, which was formerly called acid spirit
ef wood,  ond since, pyrolignuous acid.  Fourcroy ond
Vauquelin showed that the acid was merely the acetic,
contaminated with empyreumatic oil and bitumen. See
 dcetic acid.
  Under Acetic Acid will be found a full account of
the production and purification of pyroligneous acid.
Monge discovered about two years ago, that this acid
has the property of preventing the  decomposition of
animal substances.  Mr. William Dinsdale, of Field
Cottage,  Colchester, three  years prior to the dale of
Monge's discovery did propose to the Lords Commis-
sioners ofthe Admiralty, to apply a pyroligneous acid,
(prepared out of the contact of iron vessels, which
blacken It,) to the purpose of preserving animal food,
wherever their ships might go.  As this  application
may in many cases afford valuable anti-scorbutic arti-
cles of food, and thence be eminently conducive to the
health of seamen, it to to be hoped that their Lordship's
will, ere long, carry into effect Mr. Dinsdnle's ingenious
plan, os far as shall be deemed necessary.  It is suffi-
cient to plunge meal for a few momenu into this acid,
even slightly empyreumatic, to preserve it as long as
you please.  * Putrefaction,' it is said,' not only stops,
but retrogrades.'  To the empyreumatic oil a part of
this effect has been ascribed; and hence bas been ac-
counted for, the agency of smoke in the preservation of
tongues, hams, herrings, &c.  Dr. Jorg of Leipsic has
entirely  recovered  several anatomical preparations
from  incipient corruption  by pouring  this acid over
them.   With the empyreumatic oil or  tar he has
smeared pieces of flesh alreody advanced in decay, and
notwithstanding that  the weather wos hot, they soon
became dry and sound.  To the above statemenu Mr.
Ramsay of Glasgow, an eminent manufacturer of py-
roligneous acid, and well known for the purity of his
vinegar from wood, has recently added the following
facts in the 5th number of the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal. If fish be simply dipped in redistilled pyroligne-
ous acid, of the specific gravity of 1.012, and afterward
dried in  the  shade, they preserve perfectly well.  On
boiling herrings treated in this manner, they were very
agreeable to the taste, and had nothing ofthe disagree-
able empyreuma which those of hto earlier experiments
had, which were steeped  for three hours in the acid.
A number of very fine haddocks were cleaned, split, t
and  slightly sprinkled with salt for six hours.  After'
being drained, they were dipped for aboutthree seconds
iu pyroligneous acid, then hung up in the shade for six
days.  On being broiled, the fish were of an uncom-
monly fine flavour, and delicately white.  Beef treated
in the same way had the  same  flavour as Hamburgh
beef, and kept as well.  Mr. Ramsay has since found,
that hto  perfectly purified vinegar, specific gravity
1.034, being  applied by a cloth or sponge to the surface
of fresh  meat, makes it keep sweet and sound for se-
veral days longer in summer than it otherwise would.
Immersion for a minute in his purified common vinegar,
specific gravity  1.009, protecte beef and fish from all
taint in  summer, provided they be hung up and dried
in tlie shade.   When, by frequent use, the pyroligneous
acid has become impure, it may be clarified by beating
up twenty gallons of it with a dozen of eggs in the usual
manner, and heating the mixture in an iron boiler.
Before boiling, the eggs coagulate, and bring the impu-
rities to the surface ofthe boiler, which are of course to
be carefully skimmed off.  The acid must be imme-
diately withdrawn from the boiler, as it acts on iron."
  PYROLITHIC ACID.   " When uric  acid concre-
tions are distilled in a retort, silvery white plate sub-
lime.  These arepyrolithateof ammonia.   Wheutheir
solution is poured into that of subacetate of lead, a py-
rolithateof lead falls, which, after proper washing, to .o
be shaken wilh water, and decomposed by sulphuretted
hydrogen gas.  The supernatant liquid to now a solu-
tion of pyrolithic acid, whicli yields small acicular
crystals by evaporation.  By heat, these melt and sub-
lime in white needles.  They are soluble in four parts
of cold water, and the solution reddens vegetable blues.
Boiling alkohol dissolves the acid, but on  cooling it
deposites it, in small white grains.  Nitric acid dissolves
without changing it  Hence, pyrolithic is a different
acid from the lithic,  which, by nitric  acid, is convert-
ible into purpuratc of ammonia.  The pyrolithate of
lime crystallizes in stalactites which have a bitter and
slightly acrid taste.  It consisu of 91 a acid -4- 8.6 lime.
Pyrolithate of barytes  is a nearly insoluble powder.
The salu of potassa, soda, and ammunia, are soluble,
and tlie former two crystallizable.  At a red heat, and
by passing it over ignited oxide of copper, it is decom-
posed, into oxygen 44.32, carbon 28.23, azote 16.84, hy-
drogen 10."
  P YROMALIC  ACID.  "When malic or sorbic ocid
for they are the some,  is distilled ia a retort, an  acid
sublimate, in white needles, appears in the neck of the
retort, and an acid liquid distils into me receiver.  This
liquid, by evaporation, affords crystals, constituting a
peculior acid to which the above name has been given.
  They are permanent in the air, melt atll8° Fahr., and
on cooling, form o pearl-coloured "isass of diverging nee-
dles.  When thrown on red-hot coals, they completely
evaporate in an acrid, cough-exciting smoke.  Exposed
to a strong heat in a retort, they vs ">'*rtly sublimed in
needles, and are partly decomposed.  They are very
soluble in strong alkohol, and in double their weight of
water, at- the ordinary temperature.  The solution
reddens vegetable blues,  and yields  white  flocculent
precipitates with  acetate of lead and nitrate of mer-
cury;  but produces  no precipitote with lime-woter.
By mixing it with barytes water, a white powder falls,
which is redissolved  by dilution  with water, after
which, by gentle evaporation, the pyromalatc of bary-
tes may be obtained in silvery plates.  These consist of
100 acid, and 185.142 barytes, or in prime equivalents,
of 5.25 -f- 9.75."
  PYROMETER. (From avp, fire, and  perpov, mea-
sure.)  To measure  those higher degrees of heat to
which the thermometer cannot be applied, there have
been other instruments invented by different philoso-
phers : these  are  called pyrometers.  The most cele-
brated instrument of this kind, and  which has been
adopted into general use, to that invented by tbe late
ingenious Mr. Wedgwood.
 _ This instrument is also sufficiently simple.  It con-
sists of two pieces of brass fixed on a plate, so as to be
6-10ths of an inch asunder at one end, and 3-10ths at
the other; a scale is  marked upon them, which is di-
vided into 240 equal parts, each 110th of on inch ; and
witb this his gauge,  are furnished a sufficient number
of pieces of baked clay, which must have been  pre-
pared in a red heot, and must be of given dimensions.
These pieces of clay, thus prepared, are first to be ap-
plied cold, to the rule of the gauge, tbat there may no
mistake take place in regard to their dimensions. Then
any one of them is to be exposed to the heat which is
to be measured, till it shall have been completely pene-
trated by it.  It is then removed and applied  to the
gauge.  The difference  between iu former and iu  pre-
sent  dimensions will show how much it has shrunk;
and will consequently indicate to what degree the in-
tensity of the heat to which it was exposed amounted.
  High temperatures  can thus be ascertained with ac-
curacy.  Each degree  of Wedgwood's pyrometer to
equal to 130° of Fahrenheit's.
  PYROMUCIC  ACID.  (Aridum pyromucicum; be-
cause it was obtained  from the distillation of gum.)
Pyromucous ocid.  " This ocid, discovered in 1818, by
Houlon Lobillardiere, is one of the products of the dis-
tillation of mucic ocid.  When we wish to procure it,
the operation must be performed in a gloss retort fur-
nished with a receiver!  The acid is formed  in the
brown liquid, which is produced along with it,  and
which contains woter, acetic acid, and empyreumatic
oil; a very small quantity of the pyromucic ocid re-
maining attached to the vault of the retort, under the
form of crystals.   These crystals being coloured, ore
added to the brown liquor, which is then diluted with
three or four times iu  quantity of water, in order to
throw down a certain portion of oil. The whole is
next filtered, and evaporated to  a suitable degree.  A
great deal of acetic  acid is  volatilized, and then the
new acid crystallizes.  On decanting  the mother  wa- 
QUA.
QUA
tern, and concentrating them farther, they yield crys-
tals anew; but as these are small and yellowish, It is ne-
cessary to make them undergo a second distillation to
render them susceptible of being perfectly  purified by
crystallization.  150 paru of mucic acid furnish sboui
6Q of brown liquor, from which we can obtain 8 to 10
of pure pyromucic acid.
  This  acid is white,  inodorous, of a strongly  acid
taste, and a decided action on litmus.  Exposed to heat
in a retort it melts at the temperature of 266° F., then
volatilizes, and condenses into a liquid, which passes
ou cooling into a crystalline moss, covered wilh very
fine needles.  It leaves very slight traces of residuum
in the bottom of the retort.
  Oi: burning coals,  it instantly diffuses  white, pun-
gent vapours.  Air has no action on it.  Water ot 60°
dissolves one twenty-eighth of its weight.  Boiling wa-
ter dissolves  it much more abundantly, and on cooling
abandons a  portion of it, in small elongated plates,
which cross  In every direction."
  Pyro-mucous acid.   See Pyromucic acid.
  PYROPE.  A subspecies of dodecahedral garnet, of
a dark blood-red colour.   It comes from Saxony, and
to highly esteemed as o gem.
  PYROPHORUS.  An artificial product, which takes
fire or becomes ignited, on exposure to ihe air.  It to
prepared from alum by calcination, with the addition
of various inflammable bodies.
  PYROPHYSALITE.   See Physalite.
  PifRO'SIS.   (From avpoia, to burn.)  Pyrosis sue-
cica, of Sauvages.  Cardialgia sputatoria, of Lin-
naeus.  A disease called in Scotland the water-brash;
in England,  black-water.  A genus of disease in the
class Neuroses, and order Spasmi, of Cullen ; known
by a burning pain in the stomach, attended  with co-
pious eructation, generally of a watery insipid fluid.
  PYROSMALlTE.  A liver-coloured mineral, which
comes from Wermelond.
  PYROTARTARIC  ACID.  (Acidum pyro-tartari-
rum; so called because  obtained by the destructive
distillation of tartaric  acid.)   " Into  a coated gloss re-
tort introduce tartar,  or  rather tartaric acid, till it is
half full, and  fit to it a tubulated  receiver.  Apply
heat, which to to be gradually raised to rednes-^  Pyro-
tortarie acid  of a brown colour, from impurity, is found
in the liquid  producU.  We  must filter these through
paper previously wetted, to  separate the oily matter.
Saturate the liquid with carbonate of potassa; evapo-
rate to dryness;  rcdissolve, and filter through clean
moistened paper.  By  repeating this process of evapo-
ration,  solution, and filtration, several times, we suc-
ceed in separating all the oil.  The dry salt to then to
be treated in a gloss retort, at a moderate  heat,  with
dilute sulphuric acid.  There  passes over into the re-
ceiver, first of all, a liquor containing evidently acetic
ocid; but towards the end of the distillation, there is
condensed in the vault of tlie retort, a white and fo-
      QP. An abbreviation of quantum placet, as much
    *  as you please.
  Q. S. The contraction for quantum sufficit, a suffi-
cient quantity.
  Q, V.  An abbreviation of quantum vis, as much as
you will.
  QUADRANGULUS.  Quadrangular.  Often used
to express form of muscles, leaves, Al*   The recepta-
cle  of  the  Dorstenia houstonii, and  contrayerva, is
quadrangulara.
  QUADRA'TUS.  (From quadra, square: so called
from its figure.)  See Depressor labii inferioris.
  Ouadratus femoris.  Tuber-ischiotrochanterien,
of Duinas.   A muscle of the  thigh, situated on the
ouuide of the pelvis.  It to a flat, thin, and fleshy
muscle, but  not of the shape ite name would seem to
indicate.  Il is situated immediately betow the gemini.
It arises tendinous aud fleshy from tbe external sur-
face and lower edge of tlie tuberosity of the ischium,
and to inserted by short tendinous fibres into a ridge
wliich  is seen extending from the bases of the troclian-
       226
 Hated sublimate, which is the pyrotartarlc acid, per
 fectly pure.
  It has a very sour taste, nnd reddens powerfully the
 tincture  of turnsole.  Heated iu on open vessel, the
 acid rises in a white smoke, without leaving the chur-
 coaly residuum whicli is left in a retort  It it very so-
 luble in water, from which it is  separated In crystals
 by spontaneous evaporation.  The bases combine with
 it, forming pyrotartoratcs, of which those of polassa,
 soda, ammonia, barytes, strontites,  and lime, are very
 soluble.   That of potassa to deliquescent,  soluble in
 alkohol, capable of crystallizing in plates, like the ace-
 tate of potassa.  This pyrotartarate precipitates both
 acetate of lead and nitrate of mercury, while the acid
 itself precipitates only tlie latter. Rose is the  disco-
 verer of this acid, which was  formerly confounded
 with the acetic."
  Pyro-tartarous add.  See Pyro-tartaric acid.
  Pyrote'chnia.  (From avp, fire, and rtxvn, an art)
 Chemistry, or that art by which  the  properties of bo-
 dies are examined by fire.
  Pyro'tica.   (From ssupoai, to burn.)   Caustics.
  PYROXENE.  See Augite.
  PY'RUS.  The name of  a genus of plants in  the
 Linnajon  system.  Class, Icosandria;  Order, Penta-
gynia.
  Pyrus  communis.  The  pear-tree.   The  fruit is
 analogous to that of the  apple, but more delicately fla-
 voured.  Iu juice, when fermented, forms perry.
  Pyrus cydonia. The systematic name of the quince-
 tree.  The fruit is termed Cydonium malum, or quince.
 The tree which affords this fruit  is the Pyrus—foliis
 integerrimis, floribus, solitariis, of Linn&us.   Quince
 seeds are directed by the London College to  be made
 into a decoction,  wliich  is recommended  in  aph-
 thous affections, and excoriations of the mouth and
 fauces.
  Pyrus malus.  The systematic name of the apple-
 tree.  The common crab-tree is the  parent of all the
 vast variety of apples at present  cultivated.   Apples,
 in general, when ripe, afford  a pleasant  and easily  di-
gestible  fruit  for the table; but,  when the stomach to
weak, they are very apt  to remain unaltered for some
days, and to produce dyspepsia. Sour fruiu ore to
be considered unwholesome, except when  boiled  or
baked, ond rend red soft and  mellow with the addition
of sugar.
  Pyu'lcum.   (From suov,  pus, and cXkui, to draw.)
An  instrument to extract the pus from the cavity of
ony sinuous ulcer.
  Pyu'ria. See Pyoturia.
  Pyxaca'ntha.   (From avfps, box, and axavBa, a
thorn.)  The barberry, or thorny box-tree.
  PY'XIS.  (Pyxis, idis. f.; so called because it was
made with the iti>f;oc, or box-tree.)   Properly a box;
but,  from its resemblance, the cavity of the hip-bone,
or acetabulum, has been sometimes so called.
ter major to that of the trochanter minor.  Its use to to
bring the os femoris outwards.
  Quadratus gen.-e.  See Platysma-myoides.
  Quadratus  labii  inferioris.   See Depressor
labii inferioris.
  Quadratus lumborum.  Quadratus, seu lumliaris
externus, of Winslow.  Ilio-lumbicostal, of Dumas. A
muscle situated within the cavity of the abdomen. This
is a small, flat, and oblong muscle, that has gotten the
name of quadratus, from its shape, which is that of an
irregular square.  It it situated laterally, at the lower
part of the spine.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from
about two inches from the  posterior part of the spine
of the  ilium.  From this  broad  origin  it ascends
obliquely inwards, and is inserted into  the transverse
processes of the four superior lumbar vertebrte, into
the lower edge of the last rib, and, by a  small tendon,
that passes up under the diaphragm into  the side of the
last vetebraof the back.  When this muscle acts singly,
it draws the loins to one side; when both muscles act,
tbey serve to support the spine, and perhaps to bend It
^ 
QUA
QUA
forwards.  In laborious respiration, the quadratus lum-
borum may assist in pulling down the ribs.
  Quadratus maxill.e inferioris.  See Plalysma-
my aides.
  Quadratus radii.  See Pronator radii-quadratus.
  Quadri'oa.  (From quatuor,  four,  and jugum, a
yoke.)  A bandage which resembles the trappings of a
four-horse cart.
  ["Quadroxalatk of  potassa.  Thto maybe com-
posed  by several  methods.   It  was  formed by Dr.
Wollaston by digesting the bin-oxalate in nitric or mu-
riatic ocid.   The alkali is divided into two parts, one
of wliich unites with the mineral acid, and the other
half remains  in combination with the oxalic  acid.  It
forms  beautiful crystals, which may be obtained pure
by solution, and a second crystallization.
  " If  three parts by weight of  the quadroxolate be
decomposed by burning, and the alkali, which is thus
disengaged, be mixed with  a solution of one part of
the crystallized salt, the  latter to exactly neutralized.
Hence the quadroxalote contains four times  the acid
that extou in the  oxalate.  The  anolysto of this class
of salu, from whicli Dr. Wollaston drew a striking ex-
emplification ofthe law of simple multiples discovered
by Mr. Dalton, may be recopituloted as follows:
                   Atoms of  Atoms             Equiv.
                     bue.   ol acid. Base.  Acid.   num.
The oxalate consists of 1  +  1  48 +   36 =  84
The bln-oxalote......  1  +  2 48 +  72 =  120
Thequadroxolate...   1  +  4 48 -}- 144 =  192
  " Estimating, therefore, from the weights of their
atoms, 100 of potassa should be united, in the oxalate,
with 75  of acid; in the bin-oxalate with 150; and iu
the quadroxolate with 300."— Web's Manual of Che-
mistry.  A.]
  QUARTA'NA.  Febris quartana.  A fourth-day
ague.  Of  this species of ague,  os well  os the other
kinds, there ore several varieties noticed by authors.
The inosl frequent of these are, 1. The double quar-
tan, with two paroxysms, or fits,  on the first day, none
on the second and  third, and two again on the fourth
day.  2.  The double quartan, with a paroxysm  on the
first day, another on the second, but none on the third.
3. The triple quartan, with three paroxysms   every
fourth day.   4.  The  triple quartans with a  slight
paroxysm every  day,  every fourth paroxysm  being
similar.  See also Febris intermittens.
  QUARTATION.   An operation, in  assaying, by
which the quantity of one thing is mode equal to  a
fourth part of tbe quantity of another thing.
   QUARTZ.  This name to given to a genus of min-
erals which Jameson divides into  two species, rhom-
boidal quartz, and indivisible quartz.
  The rhomboidal contains fourteen subspecies.  1.
Amethyst.   2. Rock crystal.  3.  Milk quartz, which is
of a rose red, and milk-white colour.  It is found in Ba-
varia.  4. Common  quartz  of many colours,  and is
one of the most abundant minerals in nature.  6. Cat's
eye.  7.  Fibrous quartz of a grayish or yellowish white
colour, found on the banks of the Moldau, in  Bohemia.
8. Iron  flint.  9. Hornstone.   10. Flinty slate.  11.
Flint.  12. Calcedony.  13.  Heliotrope.  14.  Jasper.
   The indivisible quartz has nine subspecies.  1.  Float-
stone.  2.  Quartz or siliceous sinter, of  which there
are three kinds, the common, opaline, and pearly.  3.
Hyalite.   4.  Opal.   5.  Menilite.   6. Obsidian.   7.
Pitchstone.   8. Peorlstone.  9. Pumicestone.
   [Quartz  rksinitk commune. See Halb-opal.  A.J
   QUA'SSIA.  (From a slave of the name of Qua*«t,
Who  first used it with uncommon success as a secret
remedy  in  the malignant  endemic fevers which  fre-
quently  prevailed at Surinam.)   1. The  name of  a
genus of planU in the Linnasan system.  Closs, De-
candria ; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name  of the bitter quassia.
See Quassia amara.
   Quassia amara.   The systematic name of the bit-
ter quassia-tree.  The root, bark, and wood of this
tree, Quassia—floribus hermaphroditis, foliis impari-
pinnatis, foliolis oppositis, scssilibus, petiolo  articulato
alato, floribus racemosis, of Linnaeus, are oil compre-
hended in the catalogues of the materia  medica.  The
tree to a native of South America, particularly of Suri-
nam, and also of some of the West India islands.
   The roots are perfectly ligneous;  they may be medi-
cally considered in the same light as the wood, which
is now most generally employed, and seems to differ
from the bark in being less intensely bittei; the latter
is therefore thought to be o  more powerful medicine
Quassia has no sensible odoilr; iu laste is that of a
pure bitter, more  intense and duroble than  that  of
almost any  other  known  substance;  it  iiuparu  iu
virtues more completely to watery than to spirituous
menstrua, aud iu infusions are not blackened by the ad-
dition of sulphate of iron.  The watery extract is from a
sixth to a ninth of the weight of the wood, the spirituous
about a  twenty-fourth.  Quassia, as before observed,
derived  iu name  from a negro named Quossi, who
employed it with uncommon success as a secret remedy
in ihe malignant endemic  fevers,  which frequently
prevailed at Surinam.  In consequence of a valuable
consideration, this secret was disclosed to Daniel Ro-
under, a Swede, who brought specimens of the quossia
wood to Stockholm, in the yeor 175G; and since then
the effecu of this drug have been generally  tried in
Europe, ond numerous testimonies of its efficacy pub-
lished by many respectable authors.  Various experi-
menu with quassia have likewise been made, with a
view to ascertain its antiseptic powers; from which It
appears to have considerable influence in retarding the
tendency to putrefaction ; and this, Professor Murray
thinks, cannot be attributed to its sensible qualities, as it
possesses no adstringency whatever; nor can it depend
upon its bitterness, as gentian is much bitterer, yet less
antiseptic.  The medicinal virtues ascribed to quassia
are those of a tonic, stomachic, antiseptic, and febri-
fuge.  It has been  found very effectual in restoring
digestion, expelling flatulencies, and removing habitual
costiveness, produced from  debility  of the intestines,
and common to a sedentary life.  Dr. LetUnm, whose
extensive practice gave him on opportunity of trying
the effecu of quassia in a great number of cases, says,
" In debility, succeeding febrile diseases, the Peruvian
bark is  most generally more tonic and salutary than
any other vegetoble hitherto known ; but in hysterical
atony, to which the female sex is so prone, the quassia
affords more vigour and relief to the system than the
other,  especially  when united with the  vitriolum
album, and still more with the aid of some absorbent."
In dyspepsia, arising from  hard drinking, and also in
diarrhoeas, the doctor exhibited the quassia with great
success.  But with respect to the tonic and febrifuge
qualities of quassia, he says, "I by no means subscribe
to the Linnean opinion, where the author declares,
'me quidem judice chinchinam longe superat'"   It
is very well known, that there are certain peculiarities
of  tlie air,  and idiosyncrasies of constitution, unfa-
vourable to the exhibition of Peruvian bark, even in the
most  clear intermissions of fever;  and writers have
repeatedly noticed it. But  thto to comparatively rare.
About midsummer, 1765, Dr. L. met with several in-
stances  of low remittent and nervous fevers, wherein
the bark uniformly aggravated the symptoms, though
given in intermissions the most favourable to iu success,
and wherein quassia, or snakeroot, wos  successfully
substituted.   In such cases, he mostly observed, that
there was great congestion  in the hepatic  system, and
the debility at the same time discouraged copious eva-
cuations.  And in many fevers, without evident remis-
sions to warrant the use of  the bark, while at the time
increasing debility began to  threaten the life of  the
patient, the Doctor  found that quassia, or snakeroot,
singly or combined, upheld  the vital powers, and pro-
moted a crilicol  intermission of fever, by which an
opportunity was afforded for the bark to effect a cure.
It may be given in infusion, or in pills  made from  the
watery extract; the former is generally preferred, in
the proportion of  three or four scruples of the wood to
twelve ounces of  water.
  Quassia  simarouba.  The systematic name of the
simarouba quassia.  Simarouba; Simaraba; Euonij-
mus; Quassia—floribus monoids, foliis abruptc pin-
natis, foliolis alternis subpetiolatis petiolo nudo flori-
bus paniculatis, of Linnreus.  The bark of this tree,
which to met with in the shops, is obtained from  the
roou; and, acccording to Dr. Wright of Jamaica, it is
rough, scaly, and  waned;  the inside, when  fresh, is a
full yellow, but when dried, paler:  it has  but little
smell; the taste is bitter, but not disagreeable   It is
esteemed in the West Indies, in dysenteries arid other
fluxes, as restoring tone to the intestines, allaying their
spasmodic  motions, promoting tbe secretions by urine
and perspiration, and removing lowness  of spirits at-
tending those diseases.   It is said also  that it soon 
QUE
QUE
 iurposes the patient to sleep;  takes off the gripes and
 tenesmus, and changes tiie stools to their natural colour
 nnd consistence.
  Qua'trio.  (From quatuor, four: so called because
 it has four sides.) The astragalus.
  Queen of the meadow.  See Spiraa ulmaria
  Quxrckra.  See Epialus.
  [Quercitron. See Quercus tinctoria.  A.]
  Quk'rcula.   (Quercula ; diminutive of quercus,
 the oak: so called because it has leaves like the oak.)
 An antiquated name of the germander.  See Teucrium
 chamedrys.
  QUE'RCUS.   (From  quero, to inquire;  because
 divinations  were formerly given from oaks  by the
 Druids.)   The oak.
  1. The name of a  genus of plants iu the  Linnaean
 system.  Class Monacia; Order, Polyandria.
  2. The pharmacopeia] name of the oak.  See Quer-
 cus robur.
  Quercus cerris.  The systematic name of the tree
 wliich affords tiie Nux galla.  Galla maxima orbicu-
 lata.   The gall-nut.  By this name is usually denoted
 any protuberance, tubercle,  or  tumour, produced by
 the pumiureof insecteon plants and trees of different
 kinds.  These galls  ore of various  forms and sizes,
 and no less different with regard to their internal struc-
 ture.   Some have only one cavity, and others a num-
 ber of small cells, communicating with each other.
 Some of  tbem are as hard as the wood of the tree they
 grow on, while others are soft  and  spongy; the  first
 being termed gall-nuts, and  the latter  berry-galls, or
 apple-galls.
  The  gall used in  medicine is thus produced:—tbe
 cynips  quercus folii, an insect of the fly-kind, deposites
 iu eggs in tbe leaves and other tender paru of the  tree.
 Around  each  puncture  an  excrescence is presently
 formed, within which the egg is hatched, and the worm
 passes  through  all the  stages of  iu metamorphosis,
 until it becomes a perfect insect, when it eats its way
 nut of its prison.  The best oak-galls are heavy, knotted,
 and of a bluish colour, and are obtained from Aleppo.
 They ore nearly entirely soluble in  water,  with the
 assistance of heat  From 500 grains of Aleppo galls,
 Sir Humphry Davy obtained  by  infusion 185 grains of
 solid matter, which on analysis appeared to consist of
 tannin  130;  mucilage, and matter rendered insoluble
 by evaporation, 12; gallic acid, with a little extractive
 matter, 31; the remainder, calcareous earth and saline
 matter, 12.  Another sort comes  from the south of
 Europe, of a light brownish or whitish colour, smooth,
 round,  easily, broken, less compact, and of a much
 larger  size.   The two sorts differ only in size   and
 strength, two of the blue galls being supposed equiva-
 lent in  this respect to three of the others.
  Oak-galls are supposed to be the strongest adstringent
 in the vegetable kingdom.  Both water and spirit take
 up nearly all their virtue, though the spirituous extract
 U the strongest preparation.  The powder is, however,
 the best form; and the dose  to from a few grains to
 half a drachm.
  They are  not much used in  medicine, though  they
 are said to be beneficial in intermittenU.  Dr. Cullen
 has cured agues, by giving half a drachm of tbe pow-
 der of  galls every two or three hours during the inter-
 mission ; and by it  alone, or joined with camomile
 flowers,  has prevented the return of the  paroxysms.
 But the Doctor states tbe amount of hto resulu only to
 be thto: that," in many cases, the galls cured the inter-
 mittents ; but that it failed olso in many ca=es in which
 Ihe Peruvian bark afterward proved successful."  A
 fomentation,  made  by  macerating half an ounce of
 btutoed galls inaquart of boiling water for an hour, has
 been found useful for the piles, the prolapsus ani,  and
 the fluor  albus, applied cold.  An injection, simply ad-
stringent, to made by diluting this fomentation,   and
 used in  gleeU and  Ieucorrhcea.  The camphorated
 ointment of galls has been found also  serviceable in
 piles, after the use of leeches; and is made by incor-
 porating  half a drachm of camphor witb one ounce of
 hog's lard, and adding two drachms of galls in very fine
 powder.  In fact, galls may be employed for the same
 purposes as oak-bark, and are  used under the same
 forms.
  Quercus ksculus.  The  systematic name  of the
 Italian oak, whose acorns are, in times of scarcity, said
 to afford  a meal of which bread is made.
  Quercus marina  See Fucus vcsiculosus,
      228
  QuERtrs phellos.  The systematic name of tha
willow-leaved oak, the ocoms of which  are  much
sweeter than chesnuu, and much eaten by the Indians.
They afford, by expression, an oil little inferior to oil
of almonds.
  Quercus robur. The oak-tree. Balanos. Quercus
—foliis oblongis,  glabris  sinuatis, lobis  rotundis,
glandibus oblongis, of Linnaeus.   This valuable tree is
Indigenous to  Britain.   Its  adstringent  effecu were
sufficiently known to the ancients, but it is the bark
which to now directed for medicinal use by our phar-
macopoeias.  Oak-bark manifests to the taste u strong
adstringency,accompanied with a moderate bitterness.
Like other adstringenU, it has been  recommended in
agues, and for restraining haemorrhages, alvine fluxes,
and other immoderate evacuations.   A decoction of it
has likewise  been advantageously  employed  as a
gargle, and as a fomentation or lotion in procidentia
recti et uteri.
  The fruit of litis tree was the food of the first ages;
but when com was cultivated, acorns were neglected.
They ore of little use with us, except for fattening hogs
and other cattle and poultry.  Among the Spaniards,
the acorn, or glans iberica, is said to have long remain-
ed a delicacy, and to have been served up in the form
of a dessert.  In dearths, acorns have been sometimes
dried, ground into meal, and baked  as bread.  Bar-
tholin relates that  they are  used in Norway for this
purpose.  The inhabitants of Chio  held out a long
siege without any other food ; and in a time of scarcity
in France, A. D. 1709, they recurred to thto food. But
they are said to be hard of digestion, and to occasion
headaches, flatulency, and  colics.  In Smoland, how-
ever, many instances occur, in which they have sup-
plied a salutary and nutritious food.   With this view
they are previously boiled in water and separated from
their husks, and then dried and ground;  and the pow-
der is mixed with about one-half, or one-third of com
flour.  A decoction of acorns is reputed good against
dysenteries and colics:  and a pessary of  tbem to said
to be useful in immoderate fiuxesof the menses.  Some
have recommended the powder of acorns in intermit-
tent fever; and in Brunswick, they mix it with warm
ale, and administer it for producing a sweat in cases of
erysipelas. Acorns roasted and bruised have restrain-
ed  a  violent diarrhoea.   For other medical uses to
which they have been  applied,  see Murray's Appar
Medic, vol. i. page 100.
  From some late reports ofthe Acndemy of Sciences,
at Pelersburgh, we learn that acorns are the best sub-
stitute to  coffee  that has been hitherto known.  To
communicate to them the oily properties of coffee, the
following process is recommended.  When the acorns
have  been toasted brown, add fresh  butter in small
pieces to them, while hot in the ladle, and stir them
with care, cover  the ladle and shake it, that the whole
may be  well mixed. The acorns ofthe Holm oak are
formed at  Venice into cups about one inch and a hoi.
in diameter, and somewhat less in depth.  They are
used for dressing leather, and instead of galls for dying
woollen cloth black.
  Quercus suber.  Thesystematicnameofthecork
tree.  Suber.   The fruit of this tree is much more nu-
tritious than our  acorns, and  is sweet and often eaten
when roasted  in some  parts of Spain.  The bark,
colled cork, when burned, is applied as  an astringent ap-
plication to bleeding piles, and to allay the pain usually
attendant on hemorrhoids, when mixed with an oint-
ment.  Pessaries and other chirurgical instruments are
also made of thto useful bark.
  ["Quercus  alba. White oak. Most, and perhaps
all  the species of oak, have a high degree or ostrin-
gency, depending upon tannin, which  they possess in
great quantities, and on account of which they are ex-
tensively  used in  the preparation of leather.  The
white oak to one of the American species, which to
most esteemed for  this property.  The  bark of the
young branches is probably more astringent than that
of the trunk, on account of the mass of dead cortical
layers, which constitutes a part of ths thickness of tbe
■ntter.  Oak-bark has been given in some Instances as
a substitute  for  cinchona, to which,  however, it is
greatly inferior.  Iu chief use is an external astrin-
gent and antiseptic.  A strong decoction is employed
with advantage as a gargle in cynanehe, and as a louoo
in gangrenous ulcers and offensive discharges of differ-
ent kinds."—Big. Mat.  Med.  A.l 
RAB
IlAC
  I" Quercus tihctoria.  Black oak.  This is also
  notive species, the bsrk of which affords the extract
known to dyers, by the name of quercitron.  Iu pro-
perties are similar to those of the preceding. Both are
very common trees, and are properly substituted for
tlie quercus robur, of European Dispensatories, which
is not found here. '—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  [Quekci American*. American oaks. These have
been described and delineated by Andrew Michaux, in
his history of the oaks of America.   He describes
ticenty-nine  species and  varieties of oaks growing
spontaneously  in North America,   He arranges  them
in the following manner, viz.
     " Methodical disposition of American oaks.
                  SECTION  I.
  Quercus, foliis adultoe plants muticis; fructu pedun-
culate; fructificatione annua:—Specie 6ta bienni.
                   Division 1.
                  Foliis—lobatis.
Bpecies 1. Quercus obtusiloba, upland white oak, iron
           oak.
       2. Q. macrocorpa, over cup,  white oak.
       3. Q. lyrata, water white oak.
   ..   4. Q.alba-variety,^n^aa, J  wniteoaks.

                   Division 2.
                 Foliis—dentatis.
Species5. Q.Pnnus—var. palustris—swamp chesnut
                           oak.
                         monticola—mountain ches-
                           nut oak, rock oak.
                         acuminata — narrow leaf
                           chesnut oak.
                         pumila—Chinquapin oak.
                         tomentosa—Ulinoto oak.
                   Division 3.
                 Foliis—integris.
Species 6. Quercus virens.—Live oak of Carolina.
                  SECTION II.
  Quercus, foliis  adultae plants setaceo-mucronatis;
fructu subscssili; fructificatione bienni.
                   Division 1.
                  Foliis integris.
Species 7. Q. Pbellos—var. sylvatica, willow oak.
                         maritima, sea willow oak.
                         pumila, dwarf willow oak.
Species 8. Q. Cinerea—upland willow oak,
         9. Q. Imbricaria—shingle willow oak.
        10. Q. Laurifolia—swamp willow  oak.
                         obtusiloba.
                   Division 2.
              Foliis—breviter lobatis.
Species 11. Q. Aquatica—water oak.
        12. Q Nigra—black oak.
   .. ,2.13- Q" Tinctoria—var. angulosa, great  black
                          oak,  Champlain  black
                               oak.
                          sinuosa—quercitron oak.
Species 14. Q, Triloba—downy black oak.
      Ror IJ.  This letter is placed at tbe beginning of
    * a prescription, as a contraction of recipe, take:
thus, IU Magnes, 3 j. signifies, Take o drachm of mag-
nesia.  " In ancient times, such was the supposed im-
portance," says Dr. Paris, in his most excellent work
on pharmacology, "of planatory influence, that it was
usual to  prefix a symbol of the planet under whose
reign the ingredienu were to be collected ; and it is not
perhaps generally known, that the character which we
at this day place at the head of our prescriptions, and
which to understood and is supposed to mean recipe,
Is a relict of the astrological symbol  of Jupiter, as
may be seen  in many of tbe older works on phar-
macy."
  RABBIT.  A well known animal of the hare kind:
the Lepus cuniculus of Linnams, the flesh of which is
tender, nnd easy of digestion.
  RA'BIES.  (From rabio,  to be mad.)  Modness.
Gens-ally applied to that disease of a dog, under which
                   Division 3.
            Foliis profunde multifldis.
Species 15. Q. Banisteri—running downy-oak.
        16. Q.Falcata—downy red-oak.
        17. Q. Catesboei—sandy red-oak.
        18. Q. Coccinea—scarlet-oak.
        19. Q. Palustris—swamp red-oak.
   ..   20. Q. Rubra—red-oak.
  **We have been the more particular to exhibit this
systematic arrangement of the oaks, because we be-
lieve it will be welcome to our  readers, and enable
them better to understand thto difficult genus of planu."
—Med. Repos.  A.]
  QUESNAY, Francis, was born near Paris in 1694.
Though of humble parentage, and almost without edu-
cation, he displayed an extraordinary zeal for know-
ledge, and after studying medicine in the French me-
tropolis, he settled at Mantes.  Having ably controvert-
ed the  doctrines  of Silva respecting blood-letting, he
was appointed secretary to the Academy of Surgery;
but the duties of this office having impaired his health,
he graduated in physic, and was made consulting phy-
sician to the king.  He was subsequently honoured
with letters of nobility, and other marks of royal fa-
vour ; and became a member of several learned socie-
ties. He died in 1774.  He left several works, which
display much research and observation, but with too
great partiality to hypothesis.  Besides the essays in
favour of bleeding in many diseases, his preface to the
Memoirs ofthe Academy of Surgery, gained him con-
siderable applause: as likewise hto Researches into the
Progress of Surgery in France, though the accuracy of
some of hto statements was controverted.
  Quick-grass.   See Triticum repens.
  Quick-lime.  See Lime.
  QUICKSILVER.  See Mercury.
  Quid pro quo. These words ore applied the same
as succedaneum, when one thing to made use of to sup-
ply the defect of another.
  QUIESCENT.  Quiescens.  At Test
  Quiescent affinity.  See Affinity quiescent.
  Quina quina.   The Peruvian bark.
  QUINCE  See Pyrus cydonia.
  Quince, Bengal.  See Erateva marmdos.
  QUINCY. See Cynanehe.
  QUINIA.  See Cinchonina.
  QUININA. See Cinchonina.
  Quinina sulphas.  Sulphate of quinine.  Sulphate
of  cinchonina.   A  saline  combination of sulphuric
acid, wilh the active principle of cinchona bark.  See
Cinchonina.
  Quinine, sulphate of.  See Quinina sulphas.
  QUINQUEFO'LIUM.   (From quinque, five, and
folium, a leaf: so called because it has five leaves on
each foot-stalk.)   Pentaphyllum.  Cinquefoil, or fiv
leaved gross. See Potentilla reptans.
  Quinquina.  See Cinchona.
  QUOTIDIAN. See Febris intermittens.
the saliva hos the property of producing hydrophobia
in man.  See Hydrophobia.
  Rabies canina.  See Hydrophobia.
  RACE'MUS.   (Racemus, i. m.; from ramus.)  A
raceme or cluster.  A species of inflorescence, consist-
ing of a  cluster of flowers, rather distant from each
other, each on its own proper  stalk, the tops of the
lower ones not coming  near to the tops  of the upper
ones, as in a corymb, and all connected by one com-
mon  stalk ; as a bunch  of curranU.  It is therefore a
kind of pedunculated spike.
  From the division of the  common stalk, it is deno-
minated,
  1. Simple,  not  having any branches;  as in Ribes
rubra, and Acer pscudo-platanus.
  2.  Compound,  being  branched;  as in Vitis vini-
fera.
  3. Conjugate, two clusters going from the end of tha
common peduncle.
                                       229
a 
RAC                                           RAD
  4. Aggregate, several being gathered together; as in
 Acuea racemosa.
  5. Unilateral, the proper stalks of the flowers pro-
 ceeding from one side only of the common stalk ; as in
 Pyrola secunda.
  6. Second, the properstalks ofthe flowers comefrom
 every partof the common >talk, yet they nil look to one
 side only ; as in Andromeda racemosa, Teucrium sco-
 rodonio, &c.
  From tiie direction of the rncenius,
  7. F.redus; as in  Chenopodium album, Ribes alpi-
 nuui, and Astragalus auslnncus.
  8. Pendulus ; as in Cytisus laburnum.
  9. Laxus, easily bent; as in Celosio trigynia, and
 Solanum carolinense.
  10. Strictus,  bent  with difficulty;  as in  Ononis
 certiua.
  From its vesture,
  11. Nudus; as inVaccinium legustrinum.
  12.  Pilus us; as to Ribes nigrum.
  13. Foliatus; as in Chenopodium ambrosioides.
  14. Bracteatus; as in  Andromeda racemosa.
  RACHIA'LGIA.   (From paxts,  tlie  spine,  and
 aXyos, pain.)   A pain in tlie spine.  It was formerly
 applied to several species of colic wliich induced pain
 iu the back.
  RACHIS.   See Rhachis.
  RACHITIS.  (Rachitis, idis. f.;  from paxiS, the
spine of the  back: so called because it was supposed
 to originate in a fault of the spinal  marrow.)  Cyrto-
nosus.   The English disease.  The rickets.  A genus
of disease in the Closs Cachexia, aud  Order Intumes-
centia, of Cullen ; known by a large head, prominent
forehead, protruded  stenium, flattened ribs, big belly,
 and emaciated limbs, with great debility.  Il is usually
confined in ils attack between the two periods of nine
months and two years of age, seldom appearing sooner
than the former, or showing itself for the first time, after
the  latter period.  The  muscles become  flaccid, tiie
head enlarges, the carotids ore distended, tlie limbs
waste  away, and  their epiphyses  increase in bulk.
The bones and spine of tlie  bock are variously dis-
torted ; disinclination to muscular exertion follows; the
 abdomen swells and grows hard; the stools  are fre-
quent and loose;  a slow fever succeeds, wilh cough
and difficulty of respiration; atrophy is confirmed, and
death ensues.  Frequently it hoppens thot noturc re-
stores the general health, and  leaves  the limbs dis-
torted.
  After death, the liver and  tlie spleen  have  been
found enlarged and scirrhous; the mesenteric glands in-
durated, and tlie lungs either charged with vomicae, or
adhering to the pleura; the bones soft, tiie brain flac-
cid, or oppressed with lymph, and the distended bowels
loaded most frequently  with  slime, sometimes with
worms.
  It is remarkable, that in the kindred disease, which
Hoffman and Sauvages  call the atrophy of infants, we
have many of the same symptoms and the same ap-
pearances nearly after death.  They who perish by
this disease, says Hoffman, have the mesenteric glands
enlarged and scirrhous; the liver and spleen obstructed,
nnd increased in size; the intestines are much inflated,
and are loaded wilh black and fcetid matters, and the
muscles, more especially  of the abdomen, waste away.
  In the treatment of rickets, besides altering any im-
 firoprieties in the regimen, which may have co-operated
 n producing it, those means should be employed, by
which  the system may be invigorated.  Tonic medi-
cines are therefore proper, particularly chalybeates,
which are easily given to children;  and the cold-bath
may be essentially  beneficial.  The child should  be
regularly well exercised, kept clean and dry, and a pure
 air  selected;  the food nutritious and easy of digestion.
 When the appetite to much  impaired, an occasional
 gentle emetic  may do good; more frequently tonic
 aperienU, as rhubarb, will be required to regulate the
 bowels; or sometimes a dose of calomel in gross habiu.
 Of  late, certain compounds of lime have been strongly
 recommended, particularly the phosphate, which is the
 earthy basis of the bones;  though it does not appear
 likely to enter the system, unless rendered soluble by
 an  excess of acid.  Others have conceived the disease
 to arise from an excess of acid, and therefore  recom-
 mended alkalies; which may  certainly be useful in
 correcting the morbid prevalence of acid in the prima;
 viae, so frequent in  children.   When the bones are
      230
 Inclined to bend, care must be taken not to throw Ihe
 weight of the body too much upon them.
   Racka'sira balsamum.  See Balsamum ratkaeira,
   RACO SIS.   (Fiom piixos, a rog.)  A ragged exco-
 riation of the relaxed scrotum.
   RADCI.IFFE, John, was born at Wakefield, York-
 skire,  in 1650.  He went to Oxford at the age nf IS;
 and having determined upon the medical profession, hu
 passed rapidly through the preliminary studies, though
 wilh very little profoundness of research; aud having
 token  the degree of bachelor of medicine in  1(575, he
 immediately  began  to practise there.  He profc-i-ed to
 pay very little regard to the rules generally followed,
 whicli naturally drew upon him  the enmity of the old
 practitioners; yet hto vivacity and talents procured
 him a great  number of patienu, even of the highest
 rank.  Iu 1684,  he removed to London, having taken
 his doctor's degree  two  years before, and his success
 was unusually rapid; in the second year he was ap-
 pointed  physician to tlie princess Anne of Denmark;
 and after the Revolution, he was consulted by king
 William.  By his rough independence of spirit and
 freedom  of langungc,  however, he ultimately  lost all
 favour at court; though he is said to have been still
 privately consulted  in cases of emergency.  In 1703.
 he had an attack of pleurisy, which had nearly proved
 fatal from his own imprudence.   He continued, after
 his recovery,  in very extensive practice, notwithstand-
 ing the caprice which he continually displayed: but his
 declining to  attend queen  Anne in  her last illness,
 though it does not appear that he was sent for officially,
 excited the popular resentment strongly against him;
 and  his  apprehensions of the consequences are sup-
 posed to have accelerated his own death, which hap-
 pened about  three  months after, in 1714.  He was
 buried  in St. Mary's church nt Oxford.  He founded a
 noble library  and infirmary at  that  university; and
 also endowed two travelling medical fellowships, with
 an annual income of liOOl. attached to each. Il docs
 not appear that  he ever attempted to write;  and,
 indeed, lie is  believed to have been very little conver-
 sant with books;  yet the universal reputotion which he
 acquired  and  maintained, notwithstanding hto capri-
 cious conduct, s*m to sanction the testimony of Dr.
 Mead,  that " he was deservedly  at the head of his
 profession, on account of bis great medical penetration
 and experience."
  RADIAL.  (Radialis; from radius, the name of a
 bone.)  Belonging to the radius.
  Radial artkry.   Arteria  radialis.  A branch  of
 the humeral  artery that runs down the side of the
 radius.
  Radialis externus brevior.  See Extensor carpi
radialis brevior.
  Radialis externus lonoior.  See Extensor carpi
radialis longior.
  Radialis externus primus.   See Extensor carpi
radialis longior.
  Radialis internus.  See Flexor carpi radialis.
  Radialis secundus.  See Extensor carpi radialis
brevior.     '                                 •
  RADICAL. Tn chemistry, this term is applied to
that wliich  is  considered ns constituting  the  distin-
guishing  part of an acid, by iu union with the acidi-
fying principle or oxygen,  which is common to  all
acids.  Thus  sulphur is the radical of the  sulphuric
and sulphurous acids.  It is sometimes called the base
of the acid;  but base to a term of more  extensive
application.
  Radical vinegar.  See Acetum.
  RADICALIS.   Radical:  applied to leaves.   Folia
 radicalia are such as spring from the root, like those
 of the cowslip.
  RAD1CANS.  A botanical term, applied  to a stem
 which  clings  to  any other body for support,  by means
 of fibres which do not imbibe nourishment; as the ivy,
 Hedera helix.
  RADI'CULA.  (Diminutive of radix, a root.) LA
 radicle, rootlet, or little root.  It  probably means the
 fibres which come from  the main root, and which are
 the most essential to tbe life of the plant, they only
 imbibing the nourishment.
  2. Applied  to the origin of vessels and nerves.
  3. The common radish is sometimes so called  See
 Raphanus sativus.
   RADISH.  See Cocldearia ond Raphanus.
   Radish, garden.  See Raphanus sativus 
RAD
RAD
  Radish, horse.  See Cochlearia armoracia.
  RA'DIUS.  1. A bone of the forearm, which has
gotten its name from iu supposed resemblance to the
spoke of a wheel, or to a weaver's beam; and some-
times, from iu supporting the hand, it has been called
manubrium manus.  Like the ulna, it is of a triangular
figure, but it differs from  that bone, in growing larger
as it descends, so that iu  smaller part answers to the
larger  part of the  ulna, and vice versd.  Of its two
extremities, ihe uppermost and smallest is formed into
a small rounded head, furnished with cartilage, ond
hollowed at iu summit, for an articulation with the
little bead at  the side of the pulley of the os humeri.
The round border of this head, next the ulna, to formed
for an articulation with the  Vess. sigmoid cavity of
that bone.  This little head of the radius is supported
by a neck, at the bottom of which, laterally, to a con-
siderable tuberosity, into the posterior half of which to
inserted tiie posterior tendon of the  biceps, while the
interior half to covered  with cartilage, and surrounded
with a capsular ligament, so as to allow this tendon to
sliile upon it as upon a pulley.  Immediately below
this tuberosity, the body of the bone mny be  said to
begin.   We  nnd  it  slightly  curved  throughout its
whole  length, by which  means a  greater space  is
formed for the lodgment of muscles, and  it is enabled
tp cross  the ulna  without compressing  them.  Of
the three  surfaces to  be distinguished  on the body
of the bone, the external and  internal ones are Ihe
broadest  and flattest  The anterior surface is nar-
rower and more convex.  Of iu angles, the external
and internal ones are rounded;  but  the posterior
angle, which to turned towards the ulna, is formed into
a sharp spine, which serves for the attachment of the
interosseous ligament,  of which mention is made in
the description of the ulna.   This strong ligament,
which is a Uttie interrupted above and below, serves
not only to connect the bones of the forearm  to each
other, but likewise to afford a greater  surface for the
lodgment of muscles.  On the forepart of the  bone,
and  at about one-third of its length from its upper
end, we observe a channel  for vessels, slanting ob-
liquely upwards.  Towards ite lower extremity, the
radius becomes broader, of an irregular shape, and
somewhat flattened, affording three surfaces, of which
the posterior one is the smallest; the second, which is
a continuation of the internal  surface of the body of
tbe bone, to broader and flatter than the first; and the
third, which is the broadest of the  three, answers to
the anterior and external surface of the body of the
bone.  On this last, we  observe  several sinuosities,
covered with a thin layer  of cartilage, upon  which
slide the tendons of several muscles of the wrist and
fingers. The lowest part ofthe bone is formed into an
oblong articulating cavity, divided into two by a slight
transverse rising.   This cavity is formed for an articu-
lation with the bones of the wrist   Towards  the an-
terior and convex  surface of the bone, this cavity is
defended by a remarkable eminence, called the styloid
process of the radius, which to covered with a  carti-
lage that  is extended  to  the  lower extremity of the
ulna; a ligament to  likewise stretched from it to the
wrist.  Besides this  large  cavity,  the  radius has
another much smaller one, opposite its styloid process,
which is lined with cartilage, and receives the rounded
surface of the  ulna.   The  articulation of the  radius
with the  less sigmoid cavity of the ulna, is strength-
ened by a circular ligament which  is attached to the
two extremities of that cavity, and from  thence sur-
rounds the head of the radius.   This ligament is nar-
rowest, but thickest  at iu middle part   But, besides
this ligament, which connecu the two  bones of the
forearm with  each other, the ligamenU which secure
the articulation of the  radius with the os humeri, are
common both to it and to the ulna, and therefore can-
not, well be understood till both these bones are de-
scribed.   These ligaments are a capsular and two
.ateral ligamenU.   The capsular ligament is attached
»o the onterior and posterior surface of the lower ex-
tremity of  the os humeri, to the upper edges and sides
of  the cavities, we  remarked, at the bottom of the
pulley and little head, and likewise to some part ofthe
condyles: from thence it to spread over the ulna, to the
edges of ihe greater sigmoid cavity, so as to include in
It the end of the olecranon and of the coronoid process;
and ii is likewise  fixed round  tbe neck of the radius,
so as to Include the head of that bone within it   The
lateral ligamenU may be distinguished into external
ond internol, or, according to Winslow, into brachio-
radialis ond brachio-cubitalis.  They  both descend
laterally from the lowest port of each condyle of the
os humeri, and, from their fibres spreading wide os they
descend, have been compered to a goose's foot.  The
internal ligament or brachio-cubitalis,  which is the
longest and thickest of the two, is attached to the co-
ronoid process of the ulna.  The external ligament, or
brachio-radiolis, terminates in tiie circular ligament of
the radius.  Both these ligaments adhere firmly to the
capsular ligament, and to the tendons of some of the
adjacent muscles.  In considering the articulation of
the forearm with the os humeri, we find that  when
both the bones are moved togethei upon the os humeri,
the motion of the ulna upon the pulley allows only of
flexion and extension; whereas, when the palm of the
hand  is turned  downwards or upwards, or, in other
words, in pronation and supination, we see the radius
moving upon its axis, and in these motions its head
turns  upon the little head of the os humeri at the side
of the pulley, while its circular edge rolls  in the less
sigmoid cavity of the ulna.  At the lower end of the
forearm the edge of the ulna is received into a super-
ficial cavity at the side of the radius.  This articula-
tion, which to surrounded by a loose capsular ligament,
concurs with the articulation above, in enabling the
radius to turn with great facility upon its axis; and it
is chiefly with the assistance of this  bone that we are
enabled to turn the  polm of the hand upwards or
downwards, the ulna having but a very inconsiderable
share  in these motions.
  2. The term  radius,  in botany, is applied to the
marginal part of the corolla of compound flowers;
thus,  in the daisy, the marginal white flowrets form
the rays or radius, and the yellow central ones the dis-,
cus or disk.  See Discus.
  The rodii of a peduncle of o compound umbel are
the common stalks of the umbel, and pedicelli ore the
stalks of theflowreu.
  RA'DIX.  (Radix, dicis. f.J  A root.  I. In botany,
that port of a plant  which imbibes iu nourishment,
producing the herbaceous part and the fructification,
and which consisu of the caudex, or body, and radi-
cles.—Linnaus.
  That part of the plant by wliich it attaches itself to
the soil in which  it grows, or to the substance on
which it feeds, and is the principal organ of nutrition.
—Kdlh.
  In all planU, the primary root is a simple elongation
of that part which, during the germination of the seed.
is first protruded, and is denominated the radicle; and
as the plant continues to grow, the root gradually as-
sumes a determinate form and structure, which differs
materially in different planU, but always is found simi-
lar in all the individuals of the same species.  From
the figure, duration, direction, and  insertion, rooU are
arranged into,
  From their figure,
  1. Radix fusiformis, spindle-shaped, of an oblong,
tapering form, pointed at ite extremity; as in Daucus
carota, the carrot;  Beta  vulgaris, beet;  Pastinaca
sativa, parsnip, &c.
  2.  Radix  ramosa, branched, which consiste of'a
caudex, or  main root, divided into lateral  branches,
which are again subdivided;  so that it resembles in iu
divisions the stem and branches inverted.  Most trees,
shrubs, and many herbaceous plants, have this form of
root.
  3. Radix fibrosa, fibrous, consisting wholly of small
radicles; as the Hordeum vulgare, common barley,
and most grasses.
  4. Radix pramorsa, abrupt or truncated, appearing
as if bitten off close to the top;  as in Scabiosa succisa,
the devil's bite;  Plantago major, larger plantain; Hie-
racium pramorsum, Sec.
  5. Radix globosa, globose,  having the caudex round,
or subrotund, sending off radicles in many places; as
in Cyclamen europeum, sow-bread;  Brassica  rapa,
turnip, &c.
  6. Radix tuberosa, tuberose,  furnished with farina-
ceous tubers; as in Solanum tuberosum, the potato:
Helianthus tvberosus, Jerusalem artichoke, Sec.
  7. Radix pendula,  pendulous, consisting of tubers
connected to the plant by thin, or filiform portions; ca
in Spiraa. filipendula,   common dropwort;  vaonia
officinalis  pa:ony,&c. 
RAM
RAN
    P. Radix granulata, granulated,  formed of many
 small globules; as in Saxifraga granulata, meadow
 saxifrage, tec
    0. Radix articulata, articulated, or jointed, appa-
 rently formed of distinct pieces united, as if one piece
 grew out of  another, with radicles proceeding from
 each joint: as in  Oxalis acetocella, woodsorrel; Asa-
 rum eanadcnse, wild ginger, &c.
    10. Radix dentata, toothed, which has a fleshy cau-
 dex, wilh teeth like prolongations; as in Ophrys coral-
 lorhiza.
    11. Radix  squamosa, scaly,  covered with  fleshy
 scales; as in Lathraa squamana, toothworrt, &c.
    12. Radix fascicularis, bundled,  or  fasciculate: as
 in Ophrys, nidus avis. Sec.
1    13. Radix  cava,  hollow; as in Fumaria cava.
 There are  other distinctions of modern  botanists de-
 rived from the form; as conical, subrotund, noplform,
 placentiform, filiform, capillary, tufted, funiliform, ge-
 niculate, contorted, moniliform, &c.
    From the direction, roots ore distinguished into,
    14. Radix  perpendicularis,  perpendicular,  which
 descends in a straight direction;  as in Daucus  corota,
 Bda vulgaris, Scorzonera hispanica, Sec.
   15. Radix borizonlalis, horizontal, which to extended
 under Ihe earth transversely ; as in Laserpitium pru-
 thenium, Sec.
    1G. Radix obliqua, oblique, descending obliquely; as
 in Iris germanica, Sec
    17. Radix repeiu,  creeping, descending transversely,
 but here and there tending off new planu; as in Sam-
 bucus ebulus; Glycyrrliiza glabra; Ranunculus re-
 pens, See.
   The duration affords,
    18. Radix annua,, yearly, whicli perishes the same
 year with the plant; as Draba verna, and all annuals.
    19. Radix biennis, biennial, which vegetates the first
 year, flowers the next, and then perishes; as the (Eno-
 thera biennis, Beta vulgaris, Sec
   20. Radix perennis, perennial, which lives for many
 years; as trees and shrubs.
   Roou are also distinguished from their situation into,
   21. 7'errena, earth-root,  which grow only  in  the
 tvvth; as the rooU of most planu.
   91. Aquatica, water-root, which  grow only in the
 water, and  perish when out of it; as Trapa natans,
 Nymphaa alba.
   23. Parasitica,  parasitical,  which inserts the root
 Into another plant; as in Epidendrum vanilla, Sec.
   24. Arrihza, which does not insert radicles, but co-
 heres toother plants by an anastomosis of vessels; as
 in Viscum album, Horanthus europaus, Sec
   II. In anatomy, the term  radix to applied to some
 paru which are inserted into others, as the root of a
 plant to in the  earth;  as the fangs of the teeth, the
 origin of some of the nerves, &c<.
   Radix bkngale.  See Cassumuniar.
   Radix  brasiliensis.  See Callicocca ipecacuanha.
   Radix  dulcis.  See  Glycyrrhiza.
   Radix  Indiana.  See Callicocca ipecacuanha.
   Radix  rosea.   See Rhodiola.
   Radix  rubra.  See Rubia tindorum.
   Radix  ursina.  See JEthusa meum.
   RA' DULA. (From ratio, to scrape off.) A wooden
 spatula, or scraper.
   RAGWORT.  See Senecio Jacobaa.
   RAISIN. See Vitis vinifera.
   Rama'lis vena.   (From ramale, a dead bough.)
 Applied to the vena porta:,  from iu numerous  ramifi-
 cations, which resemble a bough stripped of iu leaves.
    RAMAZ7.INI, Bernardin, was born  at Carpi, in
 Italy, in 1633.  He graduated at Parma at the age of
 96, and, after  studying some time longer at Rome, set-
 tled in the dutcby of Castro: but ill health obliged him
 ■peedily to  return to his native place.  His reputation
 increasing, he removed to Modena in 1671, where he
 met with considerable success;  and, in 1682, he was
 appointed professor  of the theory of medicine  in  the
 university recently established there, which  office he
 filled for eighteen years with great credit.  He was
 then invited to a similar appointment at Padua, and
 exerted himself with laudable ardour for three years;
 when he was attacked with a disease of the eyes,
 which ultimately deprived him of sight  In 1708, the
 senate of Venice appointed him President ot the Col-
 lege of Physicians of lhat capital, and in the following
 year raised him to the first professorship of tbe prac-
       232
 tice of medicine.  He continued to perform the duties
 of these offices with great diligence and reputation till
 hto death, in 1714.   He was a member of many of the
 academies of science,  established  in  Germany, tec.;
 and left several  works iu the Latin language, lemork-
 able for the elegance of their style, and other merits.
 The principal of these, and which will be ever held  in
 estimation, is entitled  " De Morbus Artificum Diatri-
 ba," giving an account of the diseases peculiar to dif-
 ferent artisu and manufacturers.
   RAMENTUM.  A species of pubescence of plants,
 consisting of hairs In form of flat, strap-like  portions,
 resembling shavings, seen on the leaves of some of the
 genus Bigonia.  See Pilus.
   RAMEUS.  Of or belonging  to a bough or branch;
 applied to branch leaves, which are so distinguish-
 ed, because they sometimes  differ from  those of the
 main stem; as  is the case in Melampyrum  arvense;
 and also to a leaf-stalk when it comes directly from tiie
 main branch;  as in Eugenia malacccnsis.
   Ra'mex.  (From ramus,  a branch:  from its pro-
 truding forwards, like a bud.)  An obsolete term for a
 rupture.
   RAMOSISSIMUS.   Much branched.  Applied to a
 stem which is repeatedly subdivided into a great many
 branches,  without order;  as  those of  the apple, pear,
 and gooseberry-tree.
   RAMOSUS.  Branched.  Applied to the roote, and
 especially  those of trees.
   RAMUS.  A branch, or primary division of a stem
 into lateral stems.  In the language of botanists rami,
 or branches, are denominated,
   1. Oppositi, when they go off, or  pair opposite to
 each other, as they do in Mentha arvensis.
  2. Alterni, one after another,  alternately; as in Al-
 thaea officinalis.
  3.  Verticillati, when  more than two go from the
 stem in o whirlwind manner; as in Pinus abies.
  4.  Sparsi, without any order.
  5.  Eredi, rising close to the stem; as in Populus dl
 latata.
  6.  Patentes, descending from  the stalk at an ob-
 tuse angle; as in Galium mollugo, and Cistus  italicus
  7.  Patentissimi,  descending at a right angle; as  in
 Ammonia ramosior.
  8.  Brachiati, the opposite spreading  branches cross-
 ing each other; as in Ptoonia aculeata, and Panisteria
 brachiata.
  9. Defiexi, arched, with the apex downwards; as in
 Pinus larix.
  10. Reflexi, hanging perpendicularly  from the trunk j
 as in the Salix babylonica.
  11. Retroflexi, turned backwards;  as in Solanum
 dulcamara.
  12. Fastigiati, forming  a  kind of pyramid; as in
 Chrysanthemum corymbosum.
  13. Vergati, twig-like,  long and weak ; as in Salix
 vimialis.
  RA'NA. The name of a genus of animals.  Class,
 Amphibia; Order, Reptilia.  The frog.
  Rana esculenta.  The French frog.  The flesh of
 this species of frog, very common in France, is highly
 nutritious and  easily digested.
  RANCID.  Oily substances are said  to have become
 rancid, when, by keeping, they acquire a strong, often
 sive smell, and altered taste.
  RANCIDITY.  The change which  oils undergo by
 exposure to air, which  is probably an effect analogous
 to the oxidation of metals.
  RANINE.  (Raninus, from rana, a frog.) L Apper-
 taining to a frog.
  2. The name of an artery, called also Arteria ra-
 nina.  Sublingual artery.  The  second branch of the
external carotid.
  RA'NULA.  (From rana, a frog: so called  from its
 resemblance to a frog, or because it mokes the patient
 croak like  a frog.)  Batrachos;  Hypoglossus; Hypo-
glossum;  Rana.   An  inflammatory  or indolent tu-
 mour, under the tongue.  These tumours are of va-
 rious sizes and degrees of consistence, seated on either
 side of the frtenuiii.  Children,  as well as adulu, are
 sometimes affected with tumours of this kind ; In the
 former, they impede the action of sucking;  in the latter
 of mastication,  and even speech.  The  contenu of
 them are various;  in some, they resemble the saliva,
 iu others, the glairy matter found in tlie cells of swelled
 joints.   Sometimes it is said that a fatty matter has 
RAN
RAP
 been found in ihem; but from the nature and structure
 of the paru, we are sure that this can seldom happen;
 and, in  by far the greatest number of cases, we find
 that tlie  contenu resemble the saliva itself.  This, in-
 deed,  might naturally be expected, for tlie cause of
 these  tumours is universally to be looked for in an ob-
 struction of the salivary ducts.  Obstructions here
 may arise from a cold,  inflammation, violent  flu of
 the  toothache, attended with swelling in the inside of
 the mouth; and, in not a few cases, we find the ducts
 obstructed by a stony matter, seemingly separated from
 the  saliva, as the calculous  matter to from  the urine;
 but where inflammation has been thecause, we always
 find matter mixed with the other contenu of the tu-
 mour.  As these tumours are not usually attended with
 much  pain, they are sometimes neglected, till they
 burst of themselves, which  they commonly do when
 arrived at the bulk of a large nut.   As they were pro-
 duced  originally from an obstruction in the salivary
 duct, and this obstruction cannot be removed by the
 bursting  of the tumour, it thence happens that they
 eave an ulcer extremely difficult to  heal, nay, which
 cannot be healed at all till the cause is removed.
  R ANUNCULOIDES.  (From ranunculus, and tiSos,
 resemblance: so named from its resemblance to the
 ranunculus.)   The marsh marigold.  See Caltha pa-
 lustris.
  RANU'NCULUS.   (Diminutive of rana, a frog:
 because  it to found in fenny  places,  where frogs
 abound.) The name of a genus  of planU in the Lin-
 naean system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Polygynia.
  The great acrimony of most ofthe species of ranuncu-
 lus is such, that, on being applied to the skin, they excite
 itching, redness,  and inflammation, and even produce
 blisters, tumefaction, and ulceration of the  part.  On
 being chewed, they corrode the tongue ; and, if taken
 into the stomach, bring on all the deleterious effects of
 an acrid poison.  The corrosive acrimony which this
 family of planu possesses, was not unknown to the
 ancienu, as appears from the writings of Dioscorides;
 but its nature and extent had never been investigated
 by experimenu, before those instituted by C.  Kropf, ot
 Vienna, by which we learn that the most virulent of
 the Linnaean species are the bulbosus, sceleratus, acris,
 arvensis, thora, ond illyricus.
  The effects of these were tried, either upon himself
 or upon dogs, and show that  the  acrimony of the dif-
 ferent  species is often confined to certain parts of the
 planu, manifesting  itself either in the rooU, stalks,
 leaves, flowers, or  buds;  the expressed juice, extract,
 decoction, and infusion of the plants, were also sub-
jected to experimenu.   In addition  to these species
 mentioned by Kropf, we may olso notice the R. Flam-
 mula, and especially the  R.  Alpestris, which, accord-
 ing to Haller, is the most  acrid of this genus. Curtis
observes, that even pulling up the ranunculus acris, the
 common  meadow species, which possesses the octive
 principle  of this  tribe, in a very considerable degree,
 throughout the whole herb,  ond carrying it to some
 little distance, excited a considerable inflammation in
 the palm of the hand in which it was held.   It is ne-
 cessary to remark,  thot the acrimonious quality of
 these plants to not of a fixed nature; for it may be
 completely dissipated by heat; and the plant, on being
 thoroughly dried, becomes perfectly bland.   Krapf at-
 tempted  to counteract this venomous  acrimony of the
 ranunculus by means of various other vegetables, none
 of which was found to answer the purpose, though  he
 thought that the juice of sorrel, and that of unripe Cur-
rants, had some effect in this way; yet these were
 much less availing than water; while vinegar, honey,
 sugar,  wine, spirit,  mineral  acids, oil of tartar, p. d.
and  other sapid  substances, manifestly  rendered the
acrimony more corrosive,  it may be also noticed, that
the virulency  of most of the plants of this  genus de-
pends much upon the situation  in which they grow,
and is greatly diminished in the cultivated plant
  Ranunculus abortivus.  The systematic name of
a species  of ranunculus, which possesses acrid and ve-
sicating properties.
  Ranunculus acris.  The systematic  name of the
meadow  crow-foot  Ranunculus pratensis.  This,
 and  some other species of ranunculus, have, for me-
dical purposes, been chiefly employed externally as a
 vesicatory, and are said  to  have the advantage of a
common  blistering plaster, in producing  a quicker ef-
 fect, and never causing a strangury; but, on the other
 hand, it bas been observed, that the ranunculus Is less
 certain in iu operation, and that it sometimes occasions
 ulcers,  which prove very troublesome and difficult  to
 heal.  Therefore their use seems to be applicable only
 to certain fixed pains, and such complaints as require
 a long-continued topical stimulus or discharge from the
 part, iu the way of an issue, which, in various cases,
 has been found to be a powerful remedy.
  Ranunculus  albus.   The plant which bears this
 name in the pharmacopoeias to the Anemone nemorosat
 of Linnxus.   See Anemone ncmorosa.
  Ranunculus bulbosus.  Bulbous-rooted crow-foot
 The roots and leaves of this plant, Ranunculus—caly
 cibus retroflexis, pedunculis sulcatis, caule erects mul-
 tiftoro, foliis compositis, of Linnaus, have no consider-
 able smell, but a highly acrid and fiery taste.  Taken
 internally, they appear to be deleterious, even when  so
 far freed from the caustic matter by boiling in water,  as
 to discover no ill quality to the  palate.  The effluvia,
 likewise,  when freely inspired, are said  to  occasion
 headaches, anxieties, vomitings, &c.  The leaves and
 roou, applied externally, inflame and ulcerate, or vesi-
 cate the paru, and are liable to affect also ihe adjacent
 paru to a considerable extent.
  Ranunculus ficaria.   The systematic name of the
 pilewort   Chelidonium minus;  Scrophularia minor;
 Chelidonia rotundifolia minor • Cursuma hamorrhoi-
 dalis herba;   Ranunculus vernus.   Less celandine,
 and pilewort.  The leaves and root of this plant, Ra-
 nunculus—foliis cordatis angulatis petiolatis, caule
 unifioro, of Linnaeus, are used  medicinally.  The
 leaves are deemed  anti-scorbutic,  and the root reck-
 oned a specific, if beat into cataplasms, and applied to
 the piles.
  Ranunculus flammula.  The systematic  name of
 the smaller water crow-foot, or  spearwort  Surreda
 alba.  The roou and leaves of this common plant, Ra-
 nunculus—foliis ovatis-lanceolatis, petiolatis, caule
 declinato,  of Linnaeus, taste very  acrid and hot, and
 when taken in  a small quantity,  produce vomiting,
 spasms of  the stomach, and delirium.  Applied exter-
 nally, they vesicate the skin.  The best antidote, after
 clearing the stomach, is  cold water acidulated with
 lemon-juice, and then mucilaginous drinks.
  Ranunculus palustris. Water crow-foot  See
 Ranunculus sceleratus.
  Ranunculus pratensis. Meadow crow-foot/  See
 Ranunculus acris.
  Ranunculus sceleratus.  The systematic name
 of the marsh crow-foot  Ranunculus palustris.  Tbe
 leaves of  this  species of crow-foot are so extremely
 acrid, that the beggars in Switzerland are said, by rub-
 bing their legs with them, to produce a very fcetid and
 acrimonious ulceration.
  RA'PA.  See Brassica rapa.
  RAPE.   See Brassica rapa.
  RAPHA'NIA.   (From  raphanus, the  radish, or
 charlock;  because Ihe disease is said to be produced
 by eating the  seeds of a species of raphanus.)  Con-
vulsio ab  ustilagine; Convulsio raphonia; Eclamp-
 sia typhodes ;  Convulsio  solonicnsis ; Necrosis usti-
laginea.  Cripple disease.   A genus of disease in the
class Neuroses, and order Spasmi, of Cullen; charac-
terized by a spasmodic contraction of the joinu, with
convulsive motions, and o most violent pain return-
ing at various periods.  It begins with cold chills and
lossitude, pain  in the  head, and  anxiety about the
pra-cordia.  These symptoms are  followed by spas-
modic twitchings in the tendons  of the fingers and of
the feet, discernible to the eye, heat, fever, stupor, de-
lirium, sense of suffocation, aphonia, and  horrid con-
vulsions ofthe limbs.  After these, vomiting and diar-
rhoea come on, with a discharge of worms, if there are
any.   About the eleventh or  the twentieth day, co-
pious sweats succeed, or purple exanthema, or tabes, or
rigidity of  all the joinu.
  RAPHANISTRUM.  The trivial nameof a species
of raphanus.
  RATH ANUS. (Pa0avoc taapa to paStus (batvtaBat:
from its quick  growth.)  1. A genus of plants in tiie
Linmean system.  Class, Tetradynamia;  Order, Sili-
culosa.
  2. The radish. See Raphanus sativus.
  Raphanus hortensis.   See Raphanus sativus.
  Raphanus niger.  See Raphanus sativus.
  Raphanus rusticanus.   See Cochlearia armoracia
  Raphanus sativus.  Tbe systematic name of thai
                                        233 
REA
REA
radish plant  Raphanus hortensis; Radicvla ; Rapha-
nus niger.  The radish.  The several varieties of this
plant, arc said to be employed medicinally in tiie cure
of calculous affections.  The juice, mode into a syrup,
to  given  to  relieve hoarseness.  Mixed   with ho-
ney or sugar, it to administered in pituitous asthma;
and as antiscorbutics, Iheir efficacy to  generally ac-
knowledged.
  Raphanus  sylvestris.   See Lepidium sativum.
  RA'PHE.   (taqtn, a suture.)   A suture.  Applied
to  parts which appear as if they were sewed together;
as  tbe Raphe scroti, cerebri, Sec.
  Raphe cerebri.  The longitudinal eminence of the
corpus callosum ofthe brain to so called, because it ap-
pears somewhat like a suture.
  Raphe scroti.   The rough eminence which divides
the scrotum, as it were, in  two.   It proceeds from the
root of the penis inferiorly  towards the perinamm.
  RAPl'STRUM.  (From  rapa, the turnip; becouse
iu leaves resemble those  of turnip.  Originally, the
wild turnip: so colled from iu  affinity  to Rapa, the
cultivoted  one.)  1. The name of a genus of planu.
Class, Tctradynamia ; Order, Siliculosa.
  2. The name of two species of Crambe, the oricntalis
and hispanica.
  RA'PUM.  (Etymology  uncertain.)
  1. The turnip.  See Brassica rapa.
 2. The Campanula rapunculus.
  RAPUNCULUS.  (Diminutive of rapa, the turnip.)
The trivial name of a species of Campanula.
  Rapunculus corniculatus.   See Pkyteuma orbi-
culare.
  Rapunculus viroinianus.   The name given by
Morrison to the blue cardinal flower. See Lobelia.
  RA'PUS.  See Brassica rapa.
  BASH.  See Exanthema.
  Raspato'rium.   (From  rado,  to scrape.)  A sur-
geon's rasp.
  RASPBERRY.   See Rubus idaus.
  RASU'RA.  (From rado, to scrape.)
  1. A rosure or scratch.
  2. The raspings or shavings of any substance.
  RAT1FIA.  A liquor prepared by imparting to ardent
spirits the flavour nf various kinds of fruiu.
  RATTLESNAKE.  See Crotalus horridus
  Rattlesnake-root.  See Polygala senega.
  RAUCE'DO.  (From raucus, hoarse.)  Raucitas.
Hoarseness.  It is always symptomatic of some other
disease.
  Ray of a flower.  See Radius.
  REAGENT. Test.  A  substance used in chemis-
try to detect  the presence of other bodies.  In the ap-
plication of tests there are  two circumstances to be at-
tended lo,  viz. lo  avoid deceitful appearances, and to
have good tesu.
  The principal tests are the following:
  1. Litmus.   The purple  of litmus  to changed to
red by every acid; so that this  is the  test generally
made use of  to detect excess of acid in any fluid. It
may be used  either by dipping into the woter o paper
stained .with litmus, or by adding o drop of the tincture
to  the woter  to be examined, and comparing iu hue
wilh that of an equal quantity of tiie tincture in dis-
1 lied water.
  Litmus already reddened by an acid will have iu
purple restored by an alkali; and thus it may also be
used as o test for alkalies, but it to much less active than
other direct alkaline lesU.
  2. Red cabbage has been found by Walt to furnish
as delicate a  test  for acids as Litmus, and  to be still
more sensible to alkalies.  The  naturol colour of on
infusion of thto plant is blue, which  is changed to red
by acids, and to green by alkalies in very minute quan-
tities.
  3. Brazil wood.  When  chips  of this wood are in-
fused in warm woter they yield o red liquor, which rea-
dily turns blue by alkalies, either caustic or carbonated.
It  is also rendered blue by the carbonated earths held
in solution by carbonic acid, so that it is not an  une-
quivocal test of alkalies till ihe earthy carbonates have
been precipitated  by boiling.  Acids change to yellow
tbe natural red of Brazil wood, and restore tiie red when
changed by alkalies.
  4. Violets.   The delicate blue ofthe common scented
violet is  readily changed to green by alkalies, and this
affords a delicate  test for these substances.  Syrup of
violets is generally used as it to at band, being used in
      234
 medicine.  But a tincture of the flower will answer aa
 well.
   5.  Turmeric.  Thto is a very delicate test for alka-
 lies, and  ou the whole, perhaps, is the best   The na-
 tural colour either in watery oi spirituous infusion to
 yellow, which is changed to a brick or orange-red by
 alkalies, caustic or carbonated, but not by carbonated
 earths, on  which  accounl  it is  preferable  to Brazil
 wood.
   Tbe pure earths, such as lime and barytes, produce
 the same change.
   6. Rhubarb.  Infusion or tincture of rhubarb under-
 goes  a similar change with  turmeric, and to equally
 delicate.
   7. Sulphuric acid.  A drop or two of  concentrated
 sulphuric acid, added to water that contains carbonic
 acid, free or in combination, causes llie latter to escape
 with a pretty  brisk effervescence, whereby the presence
 of this gaseous acid may be detected.
   8. Nitric and oxymuriatic acid.  A peculiar use at-
 tends the employ incut of these acids in the sulphuretted
 waters, as the sulphuretted hydrogen to decomposed by
 them, its hydrogen absorbed, and the sulphur separated
 in iu natural  form.
   9. Oxalic acid and oxalate of ammonia.  These are
 the most delicate teste for lime and all soluble calca-
 reous salu.  Oxalate of lime, though nearly insoluble in
 water, dissolves in a moderate quantity in its own or
 any other acid, and hence in analysis oxalate of am-
 monia is often preferred, as no excess of this salt can
 redissolve the precipitated oxalate of lime.   On tbe
 other hand, the ammonia should not exceed, otherwise
 it might give a false indication.
   10. Gallic  acid and tincture of galls.  These are
 tests of iron.   Where the iron to in very minute quan-
 tities, and the water somewhat acidulous, these  tests
 do not always produce a precipitate, but only a slight
 reddening, but their action is much heightened by pre-
 viously adding a few drops of any alkaline solution
   11. Prussiate of potassa or lime.  The presence of
 iron in water is equally well  indicated  by these prus-
 siates, causing a blue precipitate: and if the prussiate of
 potassa is properly  prepared, it will only be precipi-
 tated by a metallic salt, so that manganese and copper.
 will also be  detected, the former giving a white precipi-
 tate, the latter a red precipitate.
   12. Lime-water is the common test for carbonic acid;
 it decomposes all the magnesian salu, and  likewise the
 aluminous salts; it likewise produces a cloudiness wilh
 most of tlie sulphates, owing  to the formation of sole
 nite.
   13. Ammonia.  This alkali when perfectly caustic
 serves as a distinction between the salts of lime and
 those of magnesia, os it precipitates the earth from the
 latter salu, but not from the former.  There are two
 sources of error to be obviated, one is that of carbonic
 acid being present in the water, the other to  the  pre-
 sence of aluminous salu.
   14. Carbonated alkalies.   These are used to precipi-
 tate all the earths; where carbonate of potassa is used,
 particular care should be taken of iu purity, as it gene-
 rally contains silex.
   15. Muriated alumine.  This test is proposed by Mr.
 Kirwnn to detect carbonate of magnesia, wliich cannot,
 like carbonated lime, be separated by ebullition, but re-
 mains till  the whole liquid to evaporated
   16. Barytic salts.  The nitrate, muriate, and  ace-
 tate of barytes are all equally good teste of sulphuric
 acid in any combination.
   17.  Salts  of silver.  The salu of silver are the most
 delicate tesu  of muriatic acid, in any combination,
 producing the precipitated  luua cornea.  All tbe sails
 of silver likewise give a dark-brown precipitate with
 the sulphuretted waters, which to as delicate a test as
 ony that we possess.
   18. Salts  of lead.  The nitrate and ocetote of lead
 are the salu  of this metal employed as  tests.  Tbey
 will indicate the sulphuric, muriatic, and boracic acids,
 and sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphuret of potassa.
   19. Soap.  A solution of soap in distilled waier or in
 alkohol to curdled by water containing any earthy or
 metallic salt
   20. Tartaric add.  This acid to of use in distin-
 guishing  the  salu of potassa (with which it forms a
 precipitate of cream of tartar), from those of soda, from
 which it does not precipitate.  The polassa, however,
. must exist in some quantity to be detected by the test 
REC
REC
  SI. Nitro muriate  of platinum.  This sort is  still
more discriminative  between potassa and the other
alkalies, than ocid of tartar, ond will produce a precipi-
tate with a very weak solution  of any salt with po-
lassa.
  22. Alkohol.  This most useful reagent to applicable
in a variety of ways in analysis.  As it dissolves some
substances found in fluids, and leaves others untouched,
it ^ a means of separating them into two classes, which
Baves considerable trouble in the further investigation.
Those  sails which it does not dissolve, it precipitates
from their wntery solution, but more or less completely
according to the salt contained, and the strength of the
alkohol, and as a precipitant it also osstots in many de-
compositions.
   REA'LGAR.  Arlada;  Arladar;  Auripigmentum
rubrum;  Arsenicum rubrum factitium; Abessi. A
native ore of sulphuret of arsenic.
   RECEIVER.   A  chemical  vessel adapted to the
neck or beak of a retort, alembic and other distilla-
tory vessel, to receive aud contain the product of dis-
tillation.
   RECEPTA'CULUM.  (From  recipio, to receive.)
1. A name given by the older anatoinisu to a part of
the thoracic duct.  See Receptaculum chyli.
   2. In botany, the common basis or point of connexion
of the other parts of the fructification of  planu; by
some called the Thalamus and the Placenta.
   It to distinguished by botantou  into proper ond com-
mon ;  one flower only belongs to the former, and it is
formed mostly from theopex ofthe peduncle or scope;
as in Tuiipagesneriana, and Lilium candidum.   The
latter has many flowers; as in Helianthus annuus.
   The proper receptacle or apex of the peduncle swells
in some flowers, and becomes the fruit: thus the  Fra-
garia  vesca is not a berry, but a fleshy receptacle, with
its naked seeds nestling on iu surface:  so,  in the Ha-
vana dulcis, the peduncles swell  into a thick fleshy re-
ceptacle on which there are small capsules;  and, in the
Anacurdium occidentale, the peduncle swells into  a re-
ceptacle, on which the nut rests.
   The varieties ofthe common receptacle are,
   1. Planum ; as in Helianthus annuus.
   2. Convexum; as in Leontodon taraxacum.
   3. Conicum; as in Billis perennis.
   4. Punctatum ; as in Leontodon taraxacum.
   5. Globosum ; as in Cephalanthus.
   6. Ovale; as in Dorstenia drakenia.
   7. Ocatum; as in Omphalea.
   8. Favosum, cellular on  the  surface, honeycomb-
 like ; as in Onopordium.
   9. Scrooieulaturn, having round and deep holes; as
 in Helianthus annuus.
   10. Subulatum ; as in Scabiosa atropurpurea.
   11.  Quadrangulum; as in Dorstenia houstonii, and
 Contrayerva.
   12.  Turbinatum ; as iu Ficus  carica.
   13. Digitiforme;  as in Arum maculatum, and Calla
 r.thiopica.                                 .
   14.  Filiforme, thread-like;  as in  the catkins and
 corylus.
   15.  Occlusum.  The Ficus carica to a connivent
 fleshy receptacle enclosing the floreu.
   16.  Nudum, without any vesture; as in Lactuca, and
 Leontodon taraxacum.
   17.  Pilosum ;  as in Carthamus tinctorius.
   18.  Villosum ; as in Artemisia absynthium.
   19.  Setosum; as in Echynops spharocephalus, and
 Centaurea.
   20.  Paleaceum, covered with chaffy scales; as in Ze-
 ranthemum, Dipsacus, Sec.
   Ou tbe receptacle and seed-down are founded the
 most solid generic characters of syngenesious planu,
 admirably illustrated by the inimitable Gartner.
   The term receptacle is sometimes extended by Lin-
 no?us to express the base of a flower, or even iu  inter-
 nal port between  the stamens  and pistils, provided
 there  be any thing remarkable in such parts, without
 reference to the foundation of the whole fructification.
 It also expresses the part to which the seeds are attach-
 ed in  a  seed vessel, ond the common stalk of a spike,
 or spikelet, in grasses.
    Receptaculum  chtli.   Receptaculum pecqueti,
  because Pecquet first attempted  to demonstrate it; Di-
  versorium; Sacculus  chylifems.  The existence  of
  such  a  receptacle in the human body is doubted.   In
the dorsal vertebrae where the lacteals all  meet.  See
Absorbents.
  Reciprocal affinity.  See Affinity, reciprocal.
  RECLINATUS. Reclining: applied to stems, leaves,
&c. which are curved towards the ground;  as the
stem ofthe bramble, and leaves of the Leonurus car-
diaca.                              „        ...
  RECTIFICATION   (Rectificatio ; from redifico,
to make  clear.)  A second distillation, in  which sub-
stances are purified by their more volatile  parte being
raised by heat carefully manoged; thus, spirit of wine,
tether,  Sec are rectified  by their separation from the
less volatile and foreign matter which altered or de-
based their properties.                      ...
  Rector spiritus.   The  aromatic part of plants.
See Aroma.                                 , ,
  RECTUM.  (Rectum intestinum:  so named trom
an erroneous opinion that it was straight.)   Apeuthys-
menos;  Longanon; Lpngaon;  Archos;  Cyssaros.
The last  portion of the large intestines terminating in
the anus.  See Intestine.
  RECTUS.  Straight.  Several  ports of the body,
particularly muscles, are so called from their direction.
  Parts of plants also have this term ; as Caulis rectus,
the straight Etem ofthe garden-lily, spinarcda, Sec.
  Rectus abdominis.  Pubio-sternal, of Dumas.  A
long and straight muscle situated near its fellow, at the
middle and  forepart of the abdomen, parallel to the
linea alba, and between the  aponeuroses of the other
abdominal muscles.  It arises sometimes  by a single
broad tendon from the upper and inner  part of the os
pubis,  but more commonly by two heads, one of which
is fleshy, and originates from the upper edge of the
pubis,  ond the other tendinous, from the inside of the
symphysis  pubis,  behind the  pyramidalis muscle.
From these beginnings, the muscle runs upwards the
whole length of the linea alba, and becoming broader
and thinner as it ascends, is inserted by a thin aponeu-
rosis into the edge of the cartilogo ensiformis, and into
the cartilages of the  fifth,  sixth, ond  seventh ribs.
This aponeurosis is placed under the pectoral muscle,
and sometimes adheres to the fourth rib.  The fibres of
this muscle ore commonly divided by three tendinous
intersections, which were first noticed by Berenger, or
os he is commonly colled, Carpi, an Italian anatomist,
who flourished in the sixteenth century.  One of these
intersections is usually where the muscle runs over the
cartilage of the seventh rib;  another is at the umbili-
cus ; and the third is between these two.   Sometimes
there is one, and even two, between the umbilicus and
the pubes.  When one  or both of these occur, how-
ever, they seldom  extend  more than  half way across
the muscle.  As these intersections seldom penetrate
through  the whole substance of the muscle, they are
 oil of them  most apparent on its anterior surlace,
 where they firmly  adhere to  the sheath; the adhesions
 of the rectus to the posterior layer of the internal ob-
 lique, are only by means of cellular membrane, ond of
 a few vessels which pass from one to another.
   Albinus and some others hove seen this muscle ex
 tending as far as the upper part of the sternum.
   The use of the rectus is to compress the forepart of
 the obdomen, but more particularly the  lower part;
 and occording to the different positions of the body, it
 may likewise serve to bend the trunk forwards, or to
 raise the pelvis.  Its situation between the two layers
 of the internal oblique, and its adhesions to this sheath,
 secure it in iu place, and prevent it from  rising into a
 prominent form when in action: and, lastly, iu ten-
 dinous intersections enable it to contract at any of the
 intermediate spaces.
   Rectus abducens  oculi.   See Rectus extei-nus
 oculi.
   Rectus adducens oculi.  See Rectus internus
 oculi.                                      ....
   Rectus anterior brevis. See Rectus capitis in-
 ternus minor.                              . . .
   Rectus ant erior lonous.  See Rectus capitis in-
 ternus major.                     _
   Rectus attollens  oculi. See  Rectus superior

   Rectus capitis anticus lonous.  See Rectus ca-
oi uto animals the receptacle of the chyle to situated on and Cowper
pitis internus major.                        .   .
  Rectus capitis internus major.  A muscle situ-
ated on the onterior port of the neck close to the ver-
tebra;.  Rectus internus major, of Albinus, Douglas,
Trachdobasilaire, of Diunas.  -Rsertta
                          33a 
REC                                           REG
•ntertor langus, of Winslow.  It was known to most
ofthe ancient anatomists, but wos not distinguished by
any particular name until Cowper gave It the present
appellation,  and which hos been adopted by most
writers except Winslow.  It to a long muscle, thicker
and broader above thun below, where  It is thin, and
terminates in a point  It arises, by distinct and flat
tendons, from the anterior poinu ofthe transverse pro-
cesses of the five inferior vertebra of the neck, and as-
cending obliquely upwards is inserted into the anterior
part of the cuneiform  process of the occipital bone.
The use of this muscle is io bend the head forwards.
  Rectus capitis internus minor.  Cowper, who
was the first accurate describer of this little muscle,
gave it the name of rectus interna* minor, which has
been adopted by Douglas and Albinus.  Winslow calls
it rectus  anterior brevis, and Dumas petit-trachelo-
basilairc.  It is in part covered by the rectus major.  It
arises fleshy from the upper and forepart of tlie body
of the first vertebra of the neck,  near the origin of its
transverse process, and, ascending obliquely inwards,
to inserted near the root ofthe condyloid process ofthe
occipital bone, under the last described muscle.  It as-
sisu in bending the head forwards.
  Rectus capitis lateralis.   Rectus lateralis Fal-
lopii, of Douglas.   Transversalis antieus primus, of
Winslow.  Rectus  lateralis, of Cowper;  and Tra-
cheli-altoido basilaire, of Dumas.  This muscle seems
to have been first described by Fallopius.  Winslow
calls it transversalis antieus primus.  It to somewhat
larger than the rectus minor, but resembles it in shape,
and is situated immediately behind the internal jugular
vein, at iu coming out of the cranium. It arises fleshy
from the upper and forepart of the transverse process
ofthe first vertebra of the neck, and, ascending a little
obliquely upwards and  outwards, is inserted into the
occipital bone, opposite to the stylo-mastoid hole of the
os tempons.  This muscle serves to pull the head to
one side.
  Rectus capitis posticus major.   This muscle,
which to the rectus major of Douglas and Winslow, the
rectus capitis posticus minor of Albinus, and  the spine-
axoido-occipital of Dumas, to small, short, and  flat,
broader above than below, and  is situated, not in a
straight direction, as iu name would insinuate, but ob-
liquely, between the occiput ond the second vertebra
of tiie neck, immediately  under the complexus.   It
arises,  by a short thick tendon, from the upper and
posterior partof the spinous process ofthe second ver-
tebra of the  neck; it soon becomes broader, and, as-
cending obliquely outwards, is inserted, by a flat ten-
don, into the  external lateral part of Ihe lower semi-
circular ridge ofthe os occipitis.   The use of this is to
extend the head, and pull it backwards.
  Rectus capitis posticus minor.  Thto is the rectus
minor of Douglas and Winslow, and the tuber-altoido-
occipital of Dumas.  It is smaller than the last-described
muscle, but resembles it in shape, and is placed close
by iu fellow, in the space between the recti majores.
It arises, by a short, thick tendon, from the  upper and
lateral part of a little protuberance in the middle of the
back part of the first vertebra of the neck,-and,  be-
coming broader  and thinner as it ascends, to inserted,
by a broad, flat tendon, into the occipital bone, imme-
diately under the insertion of the last-described muscle.
The use of it is  to assist the rectus major in drawing
the head backwards.
  Rectus cruris.  See Rectus femoris.
  Rectus deprimens oculi.   See Rectus inferior
oculi.
  Rectus externus oculi.  The outer straight mus-
cle of the eye.  Abductor oculi; Iraeundus; Indigna-
bundus.  It arises from the bony  partition between the
foramen opticum and laeerum, being the longest ofthe
straight muscles of the eye, and to inserted into  the
sclerotic membrane, opposite to  the outer canthus of
the eye.  Its use to to move the eye outwards.
  Rectus femoris.  A straight muscle of  the thigh,
situated immediately at the forepart Rectus cive Gra-
cilis anterior, of Winslow.  Rectus cruris, of Albinus;
and Ilio-rotulien, of Dumas.  It arises from  the os
Ilium  by two tendons.  The foremost and shortest of
these springs from the outer surface ofthe inferior and
anterior spinous procesu of the ilium; the posterior ten-
don, which to thicker and longer than the other, arises
from the posterior  and outer part of the edge of the
cotyloid cavity, and from tbe adjacent capsular liga-
I ment.  Thaw two tendons soon unite, and form an
 aponeurosis, which spreads over the anterior surface
 of the upper part of the muscle; and through iu whole
 length we observe a middle tendon, towards which Iu
 fleshy fibres run on each side in an oblique direction,
 so that it may be styled a penniform muscle. Il to in-
 serted tendinous into the upper edge  and anterior sur-
 face of the patella, and from  thence sends off a thin
 aponeurosis, which adheres to the superior and lateral
 part ofthe tibia.  Its use to to extend  the leg.
   Recti s inferior oculi. The inferior of the straight
 muscles of the eye.  Depressor  oculi; Deprimens:
 Humilia;  Amatoriua.  It arises within the socket
 from below the optic foramen, and passes forwards to
 be inserted into the sclerotic membrane of the bulb on
 the under part.   It pulls the eye downwards.
   Rectus internus femoris.  See Gracilis.
   Rectus internus  oculi.   The internal  straight
 muscle of the eye.  Adducens oculi;  Adductor oculi;
 Bibitorius. It arises from the inferior part of the fora-
 men opticum, between the obliquus superior, and the
 rectus inferior, being, from its  situation, the shortest
 muscle ofthe eye, and is inserted into the sclerotic
 membrane opposite to the inner angle. Its use is to
 turn the eye towards the nose
   Rectus lateralis fallopii.   See Rectus capitis
 lateralis.
   Rectus major capitis.  See Rectus capitis posti-
 cus major.
   Rectus superior oculi. The uppermost  straight
 muscle of the eye.  Attollens oculi.   Levator  oculi.
 Superbus.  It arises from the upper part of the foramen
 opticum of the sphenoid bone below the levator palpe-
 bral superioris, and runs forward to be inserted into the
 superior and forepart of the sclerotic membrane by a
 brood and thin tendon.
   RECURRENT.  (Recurrens:  so  named from
 direction.)  Reflected.
   Recurrent nerve.  Two branches of  the par va>
 gum  in  the cavity of the thorax are so called.   TIN
 right to given off near the subclavian artery, which I
 surrounds, and  is reflected upwards to the  thyroid
 gland; the left a little lower, and reflected  around ths
 aorta to the oesophagus, as far as the  larynx.   They
 are both distributed to the muscles of the larynx and
 pharynx.
   RECURVUS.  Recurved; reflexed;  turned  back-
 ward : applied to the leaves of the Erica retorta.
   Red sounders.  See Pterocarpus santalinus.
   REDDLE.  A species of ochre or argillaceous earth,
 of a dark red colour, which has been  used medicinally
 as a tonic and antacid.
   REDUCTION.  Revivification.  This word,  In its
 most extensive sense,  to applicable to  all operations by
 which any substance Is restored to its natural state, or
 which is considered as such : but custom confines it to
 operations by which metals are restored to their metal-
 ic state, after they have been deprived of this, either by
 combustion, as the metallic oxides, or by the union of
 some heterogeneous matters which disguise them, at
 fulminating gold, luno'cornea, cinnabar,   and  othet
 compounds of the same kind.  These reductions ar
 also called revivifications.
   REFLEXUS. Reflected; recurved; bent backward.
 applied to the leaves of plants, as the .Erica retorta, and
 to the border of  the flower-cup  of the (Enothera bien-
 nis, and the petals ofthe Pancratium zeylanicum.
   REFRIGERANT.  (Refrigerans;  from refrigero,
 to cool.)  Medicines wliich allay the heat of the body
 or of the blood.
   REFRIGERATO'RIUM. (From refrigero, to cool.)
 A vessel filled with water to condense vapours, or to
 make cool any suhstance which passes through it
   RE'GIMEN.  (From  rego, to govern.)  A term em-
 ployed in medicine to express the plan or regulation of
 the diet
   REGI'NA.  A queen.  A name given  by way of
 excellence to some planu.
   Regina prati.  See Spiraa ulmaria.
   REGION.  (Regio, onis. f. a rego.)  A part ofthe
 body; generally applied to external parts, under which
 to some particular viscus, that the particular place may
 be known. Anatomists have divided  the  regions, or
 several parts of  the body when entire, as follows:
   Into caput, or head; truncus, or trunk; and txtrtmi-
 tares, or extremities.
   A. Tbe liead to divided into, 
REG
REN
  1. Fades, the face.
  2. Pars capillata, the scalp.
            The regions of the scalp are,
  a  Vertex the top or crown of the head.
  b. Synciput, the forepart ofthe scalp.
  c. Occiput, the back part ofthe head.
  d. Partes later ales, the sides.
            The regions ofthe face are,
  a. Frons, the forehead.
  b. Tempora, the temples.
  c. Nasus, the nose, on wliich are, the radix, or root;
the dorsum or bridge;  the apex, or lip; and the ala,
or sides.
  d. Oculus, the eye.
  e. Os, the  mouth, the external parte of which are,
labia, the lips; anguli oris, where the lips meet; phil-
trum, an oblong depression in the middle of  the upper
lip.
  f.  Mentum,  the chin, the hair of which is called
barba, whereas that of the upper lip to termed mistax.
  g. Bucca, the cheeks.
  h. Auris, the ear, on which are the auricula, helix,
antihelix, tragus, antitragus, concha, scapha, aud  lo-
bulus.
  B. The  trunk is divided into the collum, or neck;
the thorax, or chest; the abdomen, or belly.
  1. Collum, the neck, which has,
  a. Pars antica, in which is the pomum  adami, or
larynx.
  b. Pars postica, in which is the fossa, and nucha, or
nape ofthe neck.
  2. Thorax, the chest, which to divided into,
  a. The front, on which is mamma, the breasu, and
scrobiculus cordis, the pit ofthe stomach.
  b. The back part, or dorsum.
  c. The sides.
  3. Abdomen, is divided into the  forepart, which to
strictly the abdomen, or belly; the  hindpart, or lumbi,
the loins; the lateral parts or sides.
  On the abdomen, or forepart, are the following  re-
gions :—
  The Epigastric, the sides of which are termed hypo-
chondria.
  The Umbilical, the sides of which  are  termed the
epicolic regions.
  The Hypogastric, the sides of which are the ilia.
  The Pubes is the region below the abdomen, covered
with hair; in women, termed mons veneris: the sides
are inguina, or groins.
  Below the pubes are the parte of  generotion in men,
the scrotum and penis ; in women, the labia pudendi,
ond the rima vulva.  The space between the genitals
and anus is called perinaum, or fork.
  C. The extremities are the superior and the inferior.
  The upper extremity has,
  L The shoulder or lop, under which is the axilla, or
arm-pit
  2. The brachium, or arm.
  3. The antibrachium, or fore-arm, in which  are the
bend, orfiexura, and elbow.
  4. The manus, or hand, which has vola,  the palm;
and dorsum, the back ;  and is divided into tiie carpus,
or wrist, the metacarpus, and fingers.
  The lower extremity embraces,
  1. The femur, or thigh, the upper and outer  part of
wliich is called cozo, or the regio ischiadica.
  2. The crus, or leg, in which are the genu, or knee,
cavum popletis, or ham, and the sura, or calf.
  3. Thepes, or foot, which to divided into tlie  tarsus,
metatarsus, and toes.
  Tlie upper part of the tarsus laterally has the mal-
leolus externus and internus, or the inner and outer

  RE'GIUS.   (From rex, a king.)  Royal:  applied to
a disease, and to a chemical preparation; to the former,
the jaundice, becouse in it the colour ofthe skuiis like
gold; and to the latter, because it dissolves gold.
  REGULAR.  Regularis.  A term applied to dis-
eases, which observe their usual course, in opposition
to irregular, in which the course of symptoms  deviate
from what is usual, as regular gout, regular small-
pox, Sec.
  Regular gout.  See Arthritis.
  RL'GULUS.  (Diminutive of rex,a king: so called
because the alchemist expected to find gold, the king of
metals, collected at tlie bottom of the crucible  after
fusion.)  The name reguius  was given by chemisu to
metallic matters when separated from other substances
by fusion.  This name was introduced by alchemisU,
who, expecting always to find gold in the metal col-
lected at the bottom of their  crucibles after fusion,
called this metal, thus collected, reguius, as containing
gold, the king of metals.  It wos afterward applied to
the metal extracted  from tlie ores of the semi-metals,
whicli formerly bore the name that is now given to the
semi-metals themselves. Thus we had reguius of an-
timony, reguius of arsenic, and reguius of cobalt.
  Reguius of antimony. See Antimony.
  Reguius of arsenic.  See Arsenic.
  REME'DIUM.  (A re, and medeor, to cure.)  A re-
medy, or that which is employed with a view to pre-
vent, palliate, or remove a disease.
  Remedium divincm.  See Imperatoria.
  REMEDY.  See Remedium.
  REMINISCENCE.  See Memory.
  REMITTENT.  (Remittens; from remitto, to as-
suage or lessen.)  Any disorder, the symptoms of which
diminish very considerably, and return again, so as not
to leave the person ever free.
  Remittent fever.   See Febris intermittens.
  Rb'mora aratri. (From remoror, to hinder, and
aratrum, a plough.)   See Ononis spinosa.
  Remote cause.  See Exciting cause.
  REN.  {Ren, nis, m. Ren,  airo  rov ptiv;  because
through them the urine flows.)   The  kidney.  See
Kidney.
  RENAL.  (Renalis; from ren, the kidney.)  Ap-
pertaining to the kidney.
  Renal artery.  See Emulgent artery.
  Renal oland.  Glandula renalis.   Renal capsule.
Supra-renal gland.  The supra-renal  glands  are two
hollow bodies, like glands in fabric, and placed, one on
each side, upon the kidney.   They are covered by a
double tunic, and their cavities are filled with  a liquor
of a brownish-red colour.  Their figure is  triangular;
and they are larger in the fcetus than the kidneys; but,
in adulu, they are less than the kidneys.  The right is
affixed to the liver, the left to the spleen and pancreas,
and  both to the diaphragm and kidneys.  They have
orteries, veins, lymphatics, and nerves; their arteries
arise from the diaphragmatic, the aorta, and the renal
arteries.   The vein of the  right  supra-renal gland
empties itself  into the vena cava; that of the left into
the renal vein; their lymphatic vessels go directly into
the thoracic duct; they  hove nerves common alike to
these glands and the kidneys. They have no excre-
tory duct, and their  use to at present unknown.  It is
supposed they answer  one use in  the foetus,  and an-
other in the adult, but what these uses are is uncertain.
Boerhaave supposed their use to consist in their fur-
nishing lymph to dilute the  blood  returned, after the
secretion of the urine, in the renal vein; but this is
very improbable, since  the vein of the  right supra-re-
nal gland goes to the vena cava, and the blood carried
back by the renal vein  wants no dilution.  It  has also
been said, that these  glands not only prepare lymph, by
which the blood is fitted for the nutrition  of  the deli-
cate foetus; but that in adulu they serve to restore to
the blood  of the vena cava the irritable parts which
it loses by .the secretion  of bile and urine.   Some,
again, have considered  them  as diverticula in the fce-
tus, to divert the blood from the  kidneys, and lessen
the quantity of urine.  The  celebrated Morgagni be-
lieved their office to consist in conveying something  to
the thoracic duct.  It is singular, that in children who
are born without the cerebrum, these glands are ex-
tremely small, and sometimes wanting.
  Renal vein.  See Emulgent vrin.
  Renal vessels.  See Emulgent.
  RENIFORMIS.   Kidney-shaped.   1. In anatomy,
this  term  is applied to any  deviations of parts as-
suming a kidney-like form.
  2.  In botany, leaves, seeds, Sec are so  called from
their shape; it is  a short, broad,  roundish leaf, the
base of which  Is hollowed out, as that of the Asarum
europaum, and Sibthorpia  curopaa, and the seeds of
Beta ond Phaseolus.
  RENNET.  Runnet The gastric  juice and con-
tenu of the stomoch of calves. It is much employed
in preparing cheese, and in  pharmacy, for  making
whey.  To about a pound of milk, in a silver or
earthen basin, placed on hot ashes, odd three or font
grains of rennet, diluted with a little water;  as it be-
comes cold, the milk curdles, and the whey, or serous
                                       337 
REP
RES
port,  separates itself from the caseous part.   When
these paru  appear perfectly distinct, pour the whole
upon a strainer, through which  the whey will pass,
while the curds remain behind. This whey to always
rendered somewhat whitish,  by  a very small  and
much divided portion of the caseous part; but it may
be separated iu such a manner, that the whey will re-
main limpid and colourless, and thto to what to called
clarifying it.  Put  into a basin the white of an egg, a
glass  of the serum of milk, and  a few groins of tar-
taric ocid in powder;  whip the mixture wilh an ozier
twig,  and, having added the remainder of the unclari-
fied whey, place the mixture again over the fire until
it begins to  boil.  The tartaric acid completes the co-
agulation of the white partof the milk which remains;
the while of egg, as it becomes  hot, coagulates and en-
velopes the  caseous part.   When  the whey is clear,
filter  it through  paper: what passes will be perfectly
limpid, and  have a greenish colour.  This to clarified
whey.
  Re'nuens.  (From renuo, to nod the head back in
sign of refusal: so colled from ite office of jerking back
the head.}  A muscle of the head.
  REPAXDUS.  Repand; wavy: a leaf to so called
which is bordered with many acute angles, and small
segnicnu of  circles alternately  ; as that of the Meny-
anthes nympha;oides.
  REPELLENT.  (Repellens ; from repello, to drive
back.)  Applications are sometimes so named which
make diseases recede, as it were, from the surface of
the body.
  REPENS.  Creeping; often used in  botany: eaulis
repens, one that creeps along the earth, as thot of the
Ranunculus  repens. Applied to a root, it  means run-
ning transversely,  and here and there giving off new
planu;  as thot of the Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Sambu-
cus ebulus.
  REPULSION.  All matter possesses a power which
is in constant opposition to attraction.  This agency,
which is equally powerful and equally obvious, acu
an important part in the phenomena of nature, ond is
colled the power of repulsion.
  That such o force exUts, which opposes the approach
of bodies towards each other, to evident from number-
le-s facts.
  Newton has shown, that when a convex lens to put
upon a flat glass, it remains at  o distance  of the one-
hiindred-and-thirty-sevenlh pail  of an inch, and a
very considerable pressure  is required to diminish thto
distance; nor does any force  which can be applied
bring them into actual mathematical contact  A force
may indeed  be applied sufficient to break the glasses
into pieces, but it  may be  demonstrated that ft does
not diminish their distance  much beyond the one-thou-
sandth part of an inch.  There is, therefore, a repul-
sive force, which prevenu the two glosses from touch-
ing each other.
  Boscovich has shown, thot when an ivory billiard-
ball seu onother in motion, by striking against  it, an
equal quantity of iu own motion is lost, and the hall
at rest  begins to move while  the  other is still at a
distance.
  There exisU, therefore, a repulsion between bodies;
this repulsion takes place while they are yet at a dis-
tance from each other; and it opposes their approach
towards each other.
  The cause or the nature  of this  force is equally in-
scrutable with that of attraction, but iu existence is
undoubted -. it increases, as far as has been ascertained,
inversely as  the square of the  distonce, consequently
at the point of contact it is infinite.
  The following ex|ieriments will serve to prove the
energy of repulsion more fully.
  Experiment.—When  a gloss tube is immersed  in
water, the fluid to attracted by the glass, and drawn up
into the tube; but if" we substitute mercury instead of
water, we shall find a different  effect  If a glass tube
of any bore  be immersed in this fluid, it does not rise,
but tbe surface of the mercury to  considerably below
the level of that which surrounds it, when the diame-
ter of tbe tube is very small.
  In this case, therefore, a  repulsion takes ploce be-
tween the gloss and the mercury, wliich is even consi-
derably greater than the attraction existing between
the particles ofthe mercury; and hence the latter can-
not rise in the tube, but to repelled, aud becomes de-
pressed.
      239
    .Experiment—When we present the north pole? of a
  magnet A, to the same pole of another magnet B, sus-
  pended on a pivot, and at liberty to move, the magnet
  B will recede as the other approaches; and, by follow-
  ing it with A, nt a proper distance, it may be  made to
  turn round on its pivot with considerable velocity.
    In thto case, there is evidently some  agency, which
  opposes the approach of the north poles of A and  B,
  which acts as an antagonist, and causes the moveable
  magnet to retire before the other.  There is, therefore,
  a repulsion between the two magnets, a repulsion
  which  increases  with  the  power of  the magnets,
  which may be mode  so great, that all  tbe  force of a
  strong mon is insufficient to  moke the two north poles
  touch each other.  The same repulsion  is equally ob-
  vious in electrical bodies, for instance:
    Experiment.—If two small cork  bolls be  suspended
  from  o body, so os to teuch one another, and  if we
  charge the body in the usual manner with electricity.
  the two cork  bolls separate from each other, and stand
  at a distance proportional to  the quantity of electricity
  with which the body to  charged; tiie balls, of course,
  repel each other.
    Experiment.—If we rub over the surface of a sheet
  of paper the fine dust  of lycopodium, or puff-ball, nnd
  then let water fall  on it in small quantities, the water
  will instantly be repelled, and form itself into distinct
  drops,  which do not  touch  the lycopodium,  but roll
  over it with  uncommon ropidity.  That the drops do
  not touch the lycopodium, but ore actually kept at a
  distonce above it, to obvious from the copious reflection
  of white light.
    Experiment.—If .he surface  of water contained in a
  basin  be covered over with lycopodium, a solid stio
  stance, deposited at the bottom of the fluid,  may  he
  token out of it with the -hand, without wetting it   In
  thto cose, the  repulsion to so  powerful as to defend Ihe
  hand completely from the contact of the fluid.
   RES.  A tiling.
   Res  naturales.  The naturals.   According to Boer
  haave, these are life, the cause  of life, and its effects
  These, he says, remain in some degree, however disor
  dered a person may be.
   Res  no.n-naturales.  See Non-nalitrals.
   RESE'DA.   (From resedo,  to appease:  so called
  from its virtue of alloying inflammation.)  The name
 of a genus of plants in the Linna-an system.  Class,
  Dodecandria; Order,  Trigynia.
   2. The name, in some pharmacopoeias, of the dyers'
  weed.  See Reseda luteola.
   Reseda luteola.  The  systematic  name of the
 dyers'  weed.   Dioscorides mentions it as useful  in
 jaundice.
   RESIN.  Resina.  The name resin is used to de-
 note solid inflammable substances, of vegetable origin,
 soluble in alkohol, usually affording much soot by their
 combustion.   They are likewise soluble  in oils, but not
 at all in water; and are more or less acted upon by the
 alkalies.
   All the resins appear to be nothing else but volatile
 oils rendered concrete by their  combination  with oxy-
 gen.  The exposure of these to the open air, and tlie
 decomposition of acids applied to them, evidently prove
 thto conclusion.
   There are some among the known resins which are
 very pure, and perfectly soluble in alkohol, such as the
 balsam of  Mecca and of Capivi, turpentines, tacama-
 haca, elemi: others are less pure, and contain a small
 portion of extract, which renders them not totally solu-
 ble in alkohol; such are mastic, sandornch, guaiacum,
 labdanum, and dragon's blood.
   The  essential properties of resin are, being in the
 solid form, insoluble in water, perfectly soluble in alko-
 hol, and in essential and expressed oils, and being In-
 capable of being volatilized without decomposition.
   Resins are obtained chiefly from the vegetable king-
 dom, either by spontaneous  exudation, or  from  inci-
 sions made into vegetables affording juices which con-
 tain this principle.  These juices contain a portion of
 essentiol oil, which, from exposure  to the air, is either
 volatilized or converted into resinous matter, or some-
 times  tbe  oil is abstracted  by distillation.  In some
 plants the resin is deposited, in  a concrete state, in the
 interstices of the wood, or other parts of the plant.
   Resins, when concrete, are brittle, and have gene-
i  rally a smooth and conchoidal fracture; their lustre is
I peculiar, they are  more or lew transparent and of a 
RES
RE8
eolour which  is  usually some shade  of yellow, or
brown; they are  of a  greater specific gravity than
water; they are often odorous and sapid, easily fusi-
ble, and, on cooling, become solid.
  Resin, black.  See Resina nigra.
  Resin, elastic.  See Caoutchouc.
  Resin-tree, elastic.  See Caoutchouc.
  Resin, white.  See Resina alba.
  Resin, yellow.  See Res ma flava.
  RESINA.  (From  ptia, to flow:  because it flows
spontaneously from the tree.)  See Resin.
  Resina alba.  The inspissated juice of the Pinus
sylvestris, Sec is  so called; and sometimes Ihe resi-
duum of the  distillation of oil  of  turpentine.  See
Resina flava.
  Resina elastica.  See  Caoutchouc.
  Resina flava.  Resina  alba.   Yellow resin, what
remains in the still after distilling oil of turpentine, by
adding water to the common turpentine.  It is of very
extensive use in surgery as an active  detergent, and
forms the base of the unguentum resina flava.
  Resina mora.  Colophonia.  What  remains in the
retort after distilling the oil  of  turpentine from the
common turpentine.  This  name is also given, in the
London Pharmacopoeia, to pitch.
  Resina  novi beloii. See Botany-bay.
  RESOLUTION.   (Reeolutio; from resotvo, to
loosen.)  A termination of  inflammation in which the
disease disappears without any abscess, mortification,
&c. being occasioned.
  The term  is also applied to the dispersion of swell-
ings,  indurations, &c.
  RESOLVENT.   (Resolvens; from resolvo,  to
loosen.)  This term  is applied  by surgeons to such
substances as discuss inflammatory ond  other tumours.
  RESPIRATION.   (Respiratio;  from respiro, to
take  breath.)  To comprehend the important function
of breathing or respiration, it is not only necessary to
hove a knowledge of the structure of the  thoracic
viscera, the form of the parietes, of tlie chest, ond to
comprehend  the  mechanism by which  the air enters
and passes out of it, but  also to be well acquainted
with the chemical and physical properties of the air,
and the circulation of the blood.
  The lungs ore two spongy and vascular organs of a
considerable size, situated in the lateral paru of the
chest.  Their parenchyma is divided and subdivided
into  lobes and lobules, the forms aud  dimensions of
which it is difficult to determine.
   We learn, by the careful examination of a pulmo-
nary lobule, that  it to formed of a spongy tissue, the
areola of which arc so small thot a strong lens is ne-
cessary to observe  them  distinctly; these areola all
communicate with each other, and they are surrounded
by a  thin layer of cellular tissue which  separates them
from the adjoining lobules.
   Into each  lobule enters one of the divisions of the
bronchia, and one of the pulmonary artery; this last  is
distributed in the body of the lobule in o manner that
to not well known; it seems to be transformed into nu-
merous radicles of the pulmonary veins. Dr. Magen-
die  believes  thot these numerous  small vessels, by
which the artery terminates and tbe pulmonary veins
begin, by crossing and joining in different  manners,
form  the areola of the tissue of the  lobules.  The
small bronchial division thot ends  in the lobule, docs
 not enter into the interior of it, but breaks off as  soon
 as it has arrived at the parenchyma.
   This last  circumstance appears  remarkable:  be-
 cause, since  the bronchia do not  penetrate into the
 spongy tissue of the lungs, it is not probable thot the
 surface of the cells with which the air to in contact is
covered by the mucous membrane.  The most minute
 anatomy cannot prove its existence in this place.
   A  part of the nerve of the eighth  pair, and some
 filaments of  the sympathetic, are expended on the
 lungs, but it  is not known  how they  are distributed;
 the surface of the organ  to covered by the pleura, a
 serous membrane, similar to the peritonaum in its
structure and functions.
   Round the bronchia, and near the place where they
 enter into the tissue of the lungs, a certain number of
 lymphatic glonds exist, the colour of which is olmost
 black, and to which the  small  number of lymphatic
 vessels whicli spring  from the  surface and  from the
 Ulterior of the pulmonary tissue are directed.
   Willi regard to tlie lungs, we receive from the art  of
delicate injections some Information that we ought not
to neglect.
  If we Inject mercury, or even coloured water, Into
the pulmonary artery, the injected matter passes im-
mediately Into the pulmonary veins, but ai the same
time a part enters  the bronchia, and goes out by the
trachea.  If the matter  be injected into a pulmonary
vein, it passes partly into the artery and partly into the
bronchia.  Lastly, if it be introduced into the trachea,
it very soon penetrates into the artery, into the pulmo-
nary veins, and even into the bronchial artery ond
vein.
  The lungs  fill up a great  part of the cavity of the
chest, ond enlarge and contract with it; and as they
communicate wilh the external air by the trachea and
the larynx, every time that the chest enlarges it is dis-
tended by the air, which is  again expelled when tlie
chest resumes its lormer dimensions.  We must then
necessarily stop to examine this cavity.
  The breast, or the thorax, is of the form of a cone,
the summit of which is above, and the base below.
  The apparent form and dimensions of the breast are
determined by the length, disposition, and motions of
the ribs upon the vertebra.
  The chest  is capable of  being dilated  vertically,
transversely,  forward and backward, that to, in the
direction of iu principal diameters.
  The principal,  and almost the only, agent of the
vertical dilatation, is the diaphragm, which, in contract-
ing, tends to  lose its vaulted form, and to become a
plone; o motion which cannot take place wilhout the
pectoral motion of the thorax increasing, and the ab-
dominal portion diminishing.
  The sides of this muscle, which are fleshy, ond cor-
respond with the lungs, descend farther than the cen-
tre, which, being  aponeurotic, con moke no effort by
itself, and which is, besides, retained by iu union wilh
the sternum ond the pericardium.
  In most coses this lowering of the diaphragm is suffi-
cient for the dilatation of the breast;  but it often hap-
pens that the sternum and the ribs, in changing the po-
sition between them and the vertebral column, produce
a sensible augmentation  in the pectoral cavity.
  In the general  eievation of the thorax, its form ne-
cessarily changes, as well as  the relations of the bones
of which it  is composed:  the cartilages of the ribs
seem  particularly intended to assist these changes; os
soon as they are ossified, and consequently lose their
elosticity, the breast becomes immoveable.
  While the  sternum is carried upwards, its  inferior
extremity is directed a little forward: it thus undergoes
a slight swinging motion; the ribs become less oblique
upon the vertebral column ; they remove a little from
each other, and their inferior edge to directed outward
by o small tension of the cartilage.  AH these pheno-
mena are not very apparent except in the superior ribs
  A general enlargement of the thorax takes place by
ite  elevation, as  well  from front  to  bock, as trans-
versely, ond upwards.
  This enlargement is called inspiration. It presenU
three degrees: 1st, ordinary  inspiration, which  takes
place by the depression of the diaphragm, and an al-
most insensible elevation of the thorax; 2dly, the great
inspiration, in which there is an evident elevation of
the thorax, and,  at the same time, a depression of the
diaphragm; 3dly, forced inspiration, in which the di-
mensions of the thorax are augmented in every direc-
tion, as far as the physical  disposition of this cavity
will permit.
  Expiration succeeds to the dilotation of the thorax;
that is, the return of the thorax to iu ordinory position
and dimensions.
  The mechanism of this  motion is the  reverse of
what we have just  described.  It is produced by the
elasticity of the cartilages, and by the ligamenU ofthe
ribs, whicli  have a tendency to  resume their former
shape, by  the relaxation of  the  muscles thot hod
raised the  thorax, and  by the controction of  o  great
number of muscles, so disposed thot they lower ond
contract the chest.
  The contraction of the thorax, or expiration, pre-
senU also  three degrees: 1st, ordinary expiration;
2d,great expiration; 3d, forced expiration.
  In  ordinory expiration, the relaxation of the dia-
phragm, pressed  upwards by the obdominol viscera,
which ore themselves urged  by the anterior muscles of
thto cavity,  produces ihe diminution of tlie vertical
                                         334) 
RES                                               RES
 diameter;  vehement expiration  is produced by the
 relaxation of the inspiring muscles, and n slight con-
 traction of those of expiration, which permiu the ribs
 to assume their  ordinary relations wilh the vertebral
 column.  Bui the contraction of the chest may go still
 farther.  If the abdominal and other  expiratory mus-
 cles contract lorcibly, a greater depression of the  dia-
 phragm takes place, the ribs descend lower, the base
 of Die conoid  shrinks, and there is,  consequently, a
 greater diminution of  the  capacity  of the thorax.
 This to called forced expiration.
   We shall now consider the  air as  an elastic fluid,
 which possesses the  property of exerting pressure
 upon the bodies it surrounds, and upon the sides of the
 vessels thot contain it.   This property  supposes, in the
 particles of air, a continual tendency  to repulse each
 other.
   Another property of the air is compressibility ; that is,
 iu volume changes wilh the pressure which it supports.
   The air expands by heat like all other bodies; itt
 volume augmenu 1-480, by an increase of one degree
 of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
  The air has weight: this to ascertained by weighing
 a vessel full of oir, and then weighing  the same vessel
 after the air has been taken out by the air-pump.
  The air is more or less charged with humidity.
  Air, notwithstanding  iu thinness and transparency,
 refracts, intercepu, and reflecte the light
  The air to composed of two goses tbat are very dif-
 ferent in their properties.
  1st, Oxygen:  thto gas  is a little heavier than air, in
 tlie proportion of 11 to 10, and il combines with all the
 simple bodies ;  it is an element of water, of vegetable
 and animal matters, and of almost all  known bodies;
 it is essential for combustion and respiration.  2dly,
 Azote: this gos is a little lighter than air; it to an  ele-
 ment of ammonia and of animal substances; it extin-
 guishes bodies in combustion.
  It has been thus found that 100 parU  in weight of air
 contain 21 paru of oxygen and 79 of azote.  These
 proportions  ore the same iu every place and at all
 heighu, and have not sensibly changed for these fifteen
 years, since they were positively established by che-
 mistry.
  Beside* oxygen and azote, the air contains a variable
 quantity of the vapour of water,  as we have already
 observed,  and a small  quantity of  carbonic  acid,
 the proportion of which has not  yet  been  positively
Ifixed.
  The air is decomposed by almost  all combustible
 bddies, at a temperature which to peculiar lo each.   In
 this  decomposition they combine wilh  tiie oxygen,  and
 set the azote at liberty.
   Of inspiration and expiration.—If we call to mind
 tbe disposition of the pulmonary lobules, the  extensi-
 bility of their tissue, their communication with  the
 external air by means of the bronchia, of the trachea,
 and of the larynx, we will easily conceive that every
 time the breast dilates, the air  immediately enters the
 pulmonary tissue,  in a quantity proportionate to the
 degree of dilatation.   When the breast contracts, a
 port of the oir that it contains is expelled, and passes
 out hy the glottis.
   In order to  arrive at the glottis in inspiration, or to
 go outwards in expiration, the oir sometimes traverses
 the nasal canal and sometimes the mouth: the position
 of the velum of the palate, in these two  cases,  de-
 serves to be described.  When the air traverses the
 nasal canals and the pharynx to enter or to pass  out
 of the larynx, the velum of the palate to vertical,  and
 placed with iu anterior surface against the posterior
 part of the base of the tongue, so that the mouth  has
 no communication with tlie larynx. When the air  tra-
 verses the  mouth in inspiration or  expiration,  the
 velum of the palate is horizontal, its posterior edge  to
 embraced by the concave surface of tlie pharynx,  and
 all communication to cut off between the inferior paru
 of the pharynx and the superior part of this canal, os
 well os wilh tbe nasal canals. Thence the necessity of
 making tiie sick breathe by the mouth, if it to necessary
 to examiue the tonsilsor the pharynx.
   These two ways for the  air to  arrive at the glottis
 were necessary, for they assist each other: thus when
 the mouth to full of food, the respiration takes place
 by the nose; it takes  place by the mouth when tlie
 nasal canals  are  obstructed by  mucus, by a slight
 swelling of the membrane, or any other cause.  The
       240
glottis opens In the Instant of inspiration, and, on till
contrary, It shuts in the expiration.
  It appears that in a given time the number of in-
spirations made by one person are very different from
those of nnother.  Haller thinks there ore twenty in the
space of a minute.   A man upon whom Menzics made
experimenu respired only fourteen times  in a minute
Sir 11. Davy informs us lhat he respires  in the same
period twenty-six or twenty-seven times, Dr. Thomson
says that he respires generally nineteen times; and Dr.
Magendie only respires fifteen times.  Taking twenty
times in a minute  for the mean, thto will give 28,800
inspirations  in twenty-four  hours.  But  this number
probably varies according to many circumstances, such
as ihe state of sleep, motion, distention of the sto-
mach by food, the capacity  of the chest, moral affec-
tions, Sec.  What quantity of air  enters  the chest at
each inspiration 7   What quantity goes  out  at each
expiration 1   How much generally remains 1
  According to Menzies, the  mean quantity of air that
enters the lungs at each inspiration, is 40 cubic inches.
Goodwin  thinks that the quantity remaining after  a
complete expiration is 109 cubic  inches; Menzies af-
firms that this quantity is greater,  and that it amounts
to 179 cubic inches.
  According to Davy, after  a forced expiration, his
lungs contained 41 cubic inches.
  After a natural expiration..............  US
  After a natural inspiration..............  135
  After a forced inspiration...............254
  By a forced  expiration,  after a forced in-
    spiration,  there passed out of  the lungs 190
  After a natural inspiration..............   78.5
  After a natural expiration..............   67.5 c. I.
  Dr. Thomson thinks that we should not be far from
the truth in supposing that the ordinary quantity of
air contained in the lungs is  280, and that there entel
or go out at each inspiration, or expiration, 40 inches
Thus, supposing 20 inspirations in o minute, the quan
tity of air  that would enter  and pass out in this time
would  be 800 inches; which makes  48,000 in the
hour, and in 24 hours  1,152,000 cubic inches.   A great
number of experimenu have been made  by chemists
to determine if Ihe volume of air  diminishes while it
remains in the lungs.  In considering the  latest expe-
riments, it appears, that  in  most cases  there is no
diminution;  lhat is, a  volume of expired air is exactly
the same os one of inspired  air.   When this  diminu-
tion takes place it appears to be only accidental.
  By successively traversing the mouth or  the nasss
cavities, the pharynx, the larynx,  the trachia, and  ths*
bronchia, the  inspired air becomes of a similar tern
perature with the body.   It most generally becomci
heoted, and  consequently rarified, so that  the same
quantity in  weight of air occupies a much greater
space in the lungs than it occupied  before It entered
them.  Besides this change of volume, the inspired air
is charged with the vapour that it carries away from
the mucous  membranes of  the air-passages, and In
this state always,  hot and  humid, it arrives in the
pulmonary lobules; also this portion of air of wbich
we treat mixes with that which  the lungs contained
before.
  But expiration soon succeeds  to inspiration:  aa
interval, only of a few seconds, passes in general be-
tween them ; the air contained by the lungs, pressed
by tbe powers of expiration, escapes by the expiratory
canal in a contrary direction  to that of the inspired air.
  We must here remark that the portion of air expired
to not exactly that which was inspired  immediately
before, but a portion of the mass which the lungs con-
tained after inspiration; and if the volume of air that
the lungs usually contain  is compared with that which
is inspired and expired at each motion of respiration,
we will be  inclined lo believe tbat inspiration  and
expiration are intended to renew in part the consider-
able mass of air contained by the lungs.
  Thto renewal will be so much more considerable as
the quantity of air expired is greater, and as tbe fol-
lowing inspiration  is more complete.
  Physical and chemical changes that the air under-
goes in the lungs.—The  air, in its passage from the
lungs bas a temperature nearly the same as thai of tbe
body; there escapes with it from the breast a great
quantity of  vapour called pulmonary transpiration;
besides, iu chemical composition to different from that
of the inspired air.  The proportion of azote is much 
RES
RES
the same, but that of oxygen and carbonic acid is
quite different.
  In place of 0.21 of oxygen, and a trace of carbonic
acid, whicli the  atmospheric air presents, the expired
air gives 0.18 or 0.19 of oxygen, and 0.3 to 0.4 of car-
bonic acid:  generally, the quantity of carbonic  acid
exactly represenu the quantity of oxygen wliich has
disappeared; nevertheless, the last experimeiiu of Gay
Lussac and  Davy give a small excess of acid; that is,
there is a little more acid formed than the oxygen ab-
sorbed.
  In order to determine the quantity of oxygen  con-
sumed by an adult in 24 hours, we have only to know
the quantity of air respired in thto time.  According to
Lavoisier, and Sir H. Davy, 32 cubic inches are  con-
sumed in a minute, which gives for 24 hours 46,037
cubic inches.
  It is not  difficult  to appreciate the quantity of car-
bonic  acid that  passes out of the lungs in  the same
time, since it nearly represenu the volume  of oxygen
that  disappears.   Thomson values it at 40,000 cubic
inches, though he says it is probably a little  less:  now
this  quantity of carbonic acid  represents  nearly  12
ounces avoirdupois  of carbon.
  Some chemisu say that a small quantity of azote
dtoappeors during respiration; others think, on the
contrary, that iu quantity is sensibly augmented; but
there is nothing positive in this respect.
  We  are  informed of the degree of  alteration that
the air undergoes iu our lungs by a feeling which in-
clines us to renew it: though ibis is scarcely sensible
in ordinary respiration, because we always continue it,
it  nevertheless   becomes  very painful  if we do not
satisfy it quickly; carried to this degree, it to accom-
panied with anxiety and fear, an instinctive warning
pf tiie importance of respiration.
  While the air contained in the lungs is thus modified
in iu  physical  aud chemical  properties, the venous
blood  traverses  the ramifications of the pulmonary
artery, of which the tissue of the lobules of the lungs
to partly formed: it passes into the radicles of tlie pul-
mouary veins, and very soon  into these  veins them-
selves  ; but  in passing from the one to the other, it
changes iu nature from venous to arterial blood.
  Rest-harrow.   See. Ononis spinosa.
  Re'sta bovis. The  plant named in English  rest-
harrow : so called because it binders the plough; and
hence resta bovis.   See  Ononis spinosa.
  RESUPINATUS. Resupinato.  Reversed: applied
to leaves, Sec when the upper surface to turned down-
wards ; as in the leaf of the Pharus latifolius.
  RESUSCITATION. (Resuscitatio; fromresuscito,
to rouse and  awake.) Revivification.  The restoring
of persons, apparently dead, to life.   Under  this head,
strictly speaking, is  considered the restoring of those
who faint, or have breathed  noxious air; yet it is
chiefly confined  to the  restoring  of those who are ap-
parently dead from  being  immersed in a fluid, or by
hanging. Dr. Curry has written a very valuable treatise
on this subject;  from which the  following account is
taken.
  '• From considering," he observes, " tbat a drowned
person to surrounded by water instead of air, and that
in this situation  he makes strong and repeated efforts
to breathe, we  should  expect that the water would
enter and completely fill the lungs.   This opinion, in-
deed, was once very general, and it  still  continues to
prevail among the common people. Experience, how-
ever, has shown, thai unless the body lies so  long in the
water  as to have iu Uving principle entirely  destroyed,
the quantity of  fluid present in the lungs is inconsider-
able ; and it would seem that some of this to the natu-
ral moisture of the part accumulated; for, upon drown-
ing kittens, puppies, Sec. in ink,  or othei coloured li-
quors,  and  afterward examining the lungs, it is found
that very little of tlie coloured liquor has gained admit-
tance to them.   To explain the reason  why the lungs
of drowned animals arc so free from water,  it is neces-
sary lo observe,  that the muscles which form the open-
ing into the wind-pipe are exquisitely sensible, and con-
tract violently upon the least irritation, as we frequent
ly experience when any part of the food or drink hap-
pens to touch  that part.  In the efforts made  by a
drowning person, or animal, to draw in air, the water
rushes into tbe  mouth and throat, and to  applied to
these parts, which immediately contract in such a man-
ner as to shut up the passage into tiie lungs.  This con-
tracted state continues as long as tbe muscles retain the
principle of life, upon which the power of muscular
contraction depends; when that is gone, they become
relaxed, and the water enters the wind-pipe, and com
pletely fills it.  On dissecting the body of a recently
drowned animal, no particular fulness of the vessels
within the skull, nor any disease of the brain or its
membranes, are visible. The lungs are also sound, mid
the branches of tbe wind-pipe generally contain  more
or less of a frothy matter, consisting chiefly of air,
mixed with a small quantity of colourless fluid.  The
right cavity of the heart, and  the trunks of the large
internal veins which open  into it, ond  also the trunk
and larger  branches of the artery which carries the
blood from this cavity through the lungs, are all dis-
tended with dark-coloured  blood, approaching almost
to blackness.   The left cavity of the heart, on tne con-
trary, is nearly, or entirely empty, as are iikewise rite
large veins of the  lungs which supply it with blood,
and the trunk and principal branches of the great arte-
ry which conveys tiie blood from hence to the various
paru of the body.  The external blood-vessels are
empty;  and tlie fleshy parts are as pale as if the ani-
mal had been bled to death.   When a body has Iain in
the water for some time, other appearances will also
be observable; such as, the skin livid, the eyes blood-
shot,  and the countenance bloated  and swoln; but
these appearances,  though  certainly unfavourable, dq
not absolutely prove that life to irrecoverably gone. It
is now known, lhat in tbe cose of drowning, no injury
to done to any of the paru  essential to life ; but that
the right cavity of the heart,  together with the  veins
and arteries leading to and from that cavity, are turgid
with blood, while every other part to almost drained of
this fluid.   The practice of holding up  the  bodies of
drowned persons by the heels, or rolling them over a
cask, is unnecessary; the lungs  not being filled with
any thing that can be evacuated in this way.  There-
fore such a practice to highly dangerous, as the violence
attending it may  readily burst some of those vessels
which are  already overcharged  with blood, and thus
convert what was only suspended animation, into abso-
lute and permanent death.   The operation of inflating
the lungs to a perfectly safe, and much  more effectual
method of removing any frothy matter they may con-
tain ;  and while it promotes the passage of the blood
through them, aiso renders it  capable of stimulating
tiie left cavity of the heart, and exciting it to contrac-
tion.  As soon as the body is taken out of the water, it
should be stripped of any clothes it may have on, and
be immediately well dried.  It should then be wrapped
in dry, worm blonkeu, or in the spore clothes taken
from  some of  the by-standers,  and be removed as
quickly as possible to the nearest house that can be got
convenient for the  purpose. The fittest will be one
that has a tolerably large apartment, in which a fire is
ready or  can be made.  The body may be carried in
men's arms, or laid upon a door; or, in case the house
be at a distance from the place, if a cart can be pro-
cured, let the body be placed in it, on one side,  upon
some straw, with the head and upper part somewhat
raised; and in thto position a brisk motion will do no
harm  Whatever be the mode of conveyance adopt
ed, particular care should be taken that the head bo
neither suffered to hang backwards, nor to bend down
with the chin upon the breast   When arrived at the
house, lay the body on a matrass, or a double blanket,
spread upon a low table, or upon a door supported by
stools; the head and chest  being elevated by pillows.
As the air of a room is very soon rendered impure by
a number of people breathing in it, for thto reason, as
well as to avoid the confusion and embarrassment at-
tending a crowd, no more persons should be admitted
into the apartment where the body is  placed, than are
necessary to assist immediately in the recovery: in
general six will be found sufficient for tlito purpose, and
these should be the most active and intelligent of the
by-standers.  It will be found most convenient to di-
vide the assistants into two seu; one set being em-
ployed iu restoring the heat of  the  body, while the
other institutes an artificial breathing in the best man-
ner they are able.  Every skilful person should be pro
vided with  a flexible tube made of elastic gum, half n
yard in length, to introduce into the wind-pipe, anil
also with a similar tube to whicli a syringe can be
affixed, to be put  into tbe oesophagus.  Should thesf
not be at hand, air should be thrown into tlie lungs in 
RES
ftES
 the best manner that can be suggested  at the time.
 Should it still be found that the air does not pass readi-
 ly into the lungs, immediate recourse must  be had to
 another and more effectual method for obtaining that
 object   As this method, however,  requires  address,
 and also some knowledge of the paru about the throat,
 we would recommend that when there is not a medi-
 cal gentleman present, the mode already described, be
 tried  repeatedly before this be attempted.  As a quan-
 tity of frothy  matter occupying the branches of the
 wind-pipe, and preventing the entrance of the air into
 the lungs, is generally the circumstance which renders
 this mode of inflation necessary, the mouth should be
 opened  from time to time to remove  this matter as it is
 discharged.  While one set of the assistants  are  en-
 gaged  in performing  artificial  respiration,  the other
 should  be employed in communicating heat  to  the
 body.  The warm bath has been usually recommended
 for this purpose; but wrapping the body in blankets,
 or woollen cloths, strongly wrung out of warm water,
 and renewing them as they grow cold, besides being a
 speedier and more  practicable method of  importing
 heat, has thto great advantage, that it  admite of  the
 operation of inflating tiie lungs being carried on with-
out interruption.  Until a sufficient quantity of warm
 water  can be got ready, other methods of restoring
warmth may be employed; such as  the application of
dry worm blankeu round the body and limbs ;  bags of
 warm grains or sand, bladders or bottles of hot water,
or hot bricks applied to the hands, feet, and  under  the
 arm-pits, the bottles and bricks being covered with flan-
 nel : or the body may be  placed before the fire, or  in
the sunshine, if strong at the time, and be gently rubbed
by the  assistants with  their  warm hands, or with
cloths heated at the fire by a warming-pan.  The  re-
storation of heat should always be  gradual, and the
warmth applied ought never to be greater than can be
comfortably  borne by the  assistants.  If the weather
 happen to be cold, and especially if the body has been
 exposed to it for some time, heat should be applied in a
 very low degree at first: ond if the  weather be under
 the freezing point, and the body, when stripped, feel
 cold and nearly in the same condition with one that to
 frozen, it will  be necessary at first t > rub it well with
snow, or wash it with cold water; the sudden applica-
tion of heat in such cases having been found very per-
nicious.  In a short time, however,  warmth must be
gradually applied.  To assist in rousing the activity of
the vital principle, it has been customary to apply va-
rious stimulating matters to different paru of  the body.
 But as some of these applications arc in themselves
 hurtful, and the others serviceable only according to the
time and manner of their employment, it will  be pro-
 per to consider them particularly.  The application of
 all such matters in cases of apparent death, is founded
 upon the supposition that the skin still rntains sensibi-
 lity enough to be affected by them.   It is well known,
 however, that even during life, the skin loses sensibi-
lity in proportion as it is deprived of heat,  and does
not recover it again until the natural degree of warmth
be restored.  Previous to the restoration of heat, there-
fore, to  a drowned  body, all stimulating applications
 are useless, and so far as they interfere with the other
 measures, are also prejudicial.  The practice of rubbing
 tbe body with salt or spiriu to now justly condemned.
The salt quickly frets the skin, and has, in some cases,
produced sores, which were very pafnful and difficult
to heal after recovery.   Spiriu of all kinds evaporate
 fast, and thereby, instead of creating warmth, as they
 bre expected to do, carry off a great deal of heat from
 the body. Spirit of haruhorn, or of sal volatile, are
 liable to the same objection as brandy or other distilled
 spirits, and are besides very distressing to the eyes of
 tne aaatotanu.   When there to reason to think the skin
 has In ony degree recovered iu sensibility, let an assist-
 ant moisten hto hand with spirit of haruhorn, or eau
 de luce, and hold it closely applied to one part: in thto
 way evaporation to prevented, and the  full  stimulant
 effect of the application  obtained.  A liniment com-
 posed of equal paru of spirit of haruhorn and sallad
 oil, well shoken together, would appeartn be sufficiently
 stimulating for the purpose, and as it evaporates very
 slowly, will admit of being rubbed on without producing
 cold.  The places to wliich such remedies are  usually
 applied, are, the wrists, ankles, temples, and tlie paru
 opposite the stomach and heart The intestines, from
 their  internal situation and  peculiar constitution
      "248
 retain  their  irritability longer than tbe other  parol
 of the  body, and,  accordingly,  various  means  nave
 been proposed for increasing the action of their fibres
 in order to restore  the activity of the whole system.
 Tobacco-smoke, injected by way of clyster, to what
 haa been generally employed with thto view, and the
fumigator, or instrument for administering it, makes a
 part of the apparatus wbich is at present distributed by
 the different societies established  for the recovery of
 drowned persons.   Of late, however, the use of tobac-
 co-smoke has been objected to, and upon very strong
 grounds;  for when we consider that tlie same remedy
 is successfully employed with the very opposite inten-
 tion, namely, that of lessening the power of contrac-
 tion iu the muscles, and occasioning the greatest relaxa-
tion consistent with life, il must be acknowledged to be
 a  very doubtful, if  not dangerous  remedy, where the
 powers of life are already nearly exhausted.  Instead
of tobacco-smoke, then, we would recommend a clyster,
consisting  of  a pint or  more of water, moderately
 warmed, with the addition  of one or two table-spoon-
fuls of spirit of haruhorn,  a heaped tea-spoonful of
strong mustard, or a table-spoonful of essence of pep-
permint ; iu defect of one or other of these, half a gill or
more of rum, brondy, or gin may be added, or the warm
water given alone.  This step, however,  need not be
taken, until artificial respiration lias been begun;  for it
 will answer but little purpose to stimulate the heart
through the medium of the intestines, unless we at the
same time supply the left cavity with blood fitted to
act upon  it; which we cannot do without  first re-
moving the collapsed state of the lungs, and promoting
the passage of the blood through them by a regular in-
flation.  As the stomach is a highly sensible part, and
intimately connected with the heart and brain, the in-
troduction of some  moderately warm and stimulating
liquor into it, seems well calculated to rouse the dor-
mant powers of life.  Thto is very conveniently done
by means of the syringe and flexible tube.  The quanti-
ty of fluid thrown in ought not lo exceed half a pint,
and may be either warm negus, or water with the addi-
tion of one or other  of the stimulating matters recom-
mended above, using, however, only half the quantities
mentioned there.  As soon as the pulse or heating of
the heart con be felt, the inside of Ihe nostrils may be
occasionally touched with a feather dipped in spirit of
hortshorn, or shorp mustard ; it being found by experi-
ence, thot ony irritation given to the nose, has consi-
derable influence in exciting the action of tlie  muscles
concerned in respiration.  When the natural breathing
commences, the  flexible tube and canula should be
withdrawn, and any farther  inflation that may be ne-
cessary, performed by blowing into the nostril.   Let-
ting blood  has been generally thought requisite in every
cose of suspended animation.  The practice, however,
does not appear  to  have been founded upon any ra-
tional principle at first, ond it has been continued from
the force of custom, rather  than from any experience
of iu good effecu.  In the  case of drowned  persona
there is not, as in those who suffer from hanging or
apoplexy,  any unusual fulness of the vessels of the
brain; and the quantity of  hlood that can be drawn
from the external  veins,  will not sensibly  diminish the
accumulation of it in those near the heart.  Besides,
blood-letting, which always tends to lessen the action
of the heart and arteries in  the living body, cannot be
supposed to have  a  directly opposite effect in cases of
apparent death; on  the contrary, if employed here, it
will hazard the entire destruction of those feeble powers
which yet remain, and to increase and support wbich
all our endeavours should lie directed.  When the se-
veral measures recommended above have  been steadily
pursued for on hour or more, without any appearance
of returning life,  electricity  should be tried; experi-
ence having shown  it to be one of the most powerful
stimuli yet known, and capable of exciting contraction
in the heart and other muscles of the body, after every
other stimulus hod ceased to produce  the least effect.
Moderate shocks are found to answer best, and these
should, at intervals,  he passed through the chest in dif-
ferent directions, in order, if possible, to rouse the heart
to act.  Shocks may likewise be sent through the limbs,
and along the spine; but we ore doubtful how far it ia
safe or useful to pass them through the brain, as soma
have recommended. The body may be conveniently
insulated, by placing it on a do<ir, supported by a num-
ber of quart-bottles, whose sides are previously wiped 
RES                                          RET
with a towel, to  remove any moisture they may have
contracted.  ByexperimentsmadeondiU'erentnnimato,
It to found that the blood passes through Ihe lungs most
readily when they ore fully distended with air; conse-
quently, that if the lungs of a drowned person are in-
flated, oud kept in the exponded stotc while the elec-
tric shock is passed through the chest, the blood accu-
mulated in the right cavity of ihe heart and its vessels
will move forward without any resistance, should the
heart be brought to contract upon it.  As soon  as the
shock is given, let the lungs be emptied of the air they
contain, and filled again  with fresh  oir;  then pass
another shock, and repeat this until the heart is brought
into action,  or until it appear that all farther attempts
are useless.  In order more ccrtoinly to pass the shock
through the  heart, place the knob of one discharging
rod above the collar-bone of the right side, and the
knob of the  other above the short ribs of the  left: the
position  of  the  discharging rods, however, may be
changed occasionally, so as to vary ihe direction of the
shock.  Two thick brass wires, each about  eighteen
inches long,  passed through two glass tubes, or wooden
cases, well varnished, and having at one end a knob,
and at the other a ring to fasten the brass chain to, form
very convenient discharging rods;  and  by means of
them, the shock may be administered without the risk
of its being communicated to the assistnnU, or corried
off by the skin being wet.  When the potient is so far
recovered as to be able lo swallow, he should  be put
into a warm bed, with  his head and shoulders some-
what raised by  means of pillows.  Plenty of warm
wine-whey, ale-posset,  and other light and moderately
nourishing  drink, should  now be given, and gentle
sw eating promoted, by wrapping the feet and  legs in
flannels well wrung out of hot water.  If the stomach
and bowels  feel  distended and uneasy, a clyster, con-
sisting of a pint of warm water, with a table-spoonful
of common  salt, or on  ounce or more of Glouber's or
Epsom salt, dissolved in it, moy be odministered.  The
generol proctice in this cose, to to give an emetic; but
considering  that the powers of the machine are still
very weak,  the agitation  of vomiting is certainly ha-
zardous.  The  patient should on no account be left
alone, until  the senses are  perfectly restored, and he be
 able to assist himself; several persons having relapsed
 and been lost from want of proper attention to them,
 after the vital functions were, to all appearance, com-
 pletely established. Either from the distention which
 thearteriesof the lungs hove suffered, or from the sudden
 change from great coldness to considerable warmth, it
 now and then happens, that the patient is attacked soon
 after recovery, with inflammation of some of the parts
 within the chest.  This occurrence is pointed out by
 pain in the  breast or side,  increased on inspiration, and
 accompanied with frequent, and full or hard pulse, and
 sometimes with cough.  Here the taking away some
 blood from the  arm,  or  the  application  of cupping-
 glasses,  leeches, or a blister, over the seat of the pain,
 will be very proper; but  the necessity for these mea-
 sures, as well as the times for putting them in practice,
 should be left lo the judgment and discretion of a medi-
 oal person.  Dull pain  in  the head, lasting sometimes
 for two or three days, to by no means an unfrequent
 complaint in those who are  recovered  from thto and
 from the other states of suspended animation;  and
 here also a moderate  bleeding from the neck, either
 with the  lancet  or with cupping-glasses may prove
 serviceable.
   In hanging, the external veins of the neck are com-
 pressed by  the cord, and  the return of the blood from
 the head thereby impeded, from the moment that sus-
 pension takes place ; but as the heart continues to act
 for a few  seconds after the wind-pipe is closed, the
 blood which is sent to the hcod during thto intervol, to
 necessarily accumulated  there.  Hence it to,  that  in
 hanged persons the face is greatly swoln, and of a dark
 red or purple colour:  the eyes are commonly suffused
 with blood, enlarged,  and prominent.   On dissection,
 Ihe blood-vessels of the  brain are found considerably
 distended  but, in general, no further  marks of dis-
 ease appear within the skull.  The lungs are found
 generally quite  collapsed, aid free from frothy matter.
 The heart, and the large blood-vessels adjoining to it
 exhibit the same ap'iearances  as in  the bodies of
 drowned persons. From the great  accumulation of
 blood in the vessels of the head, many have been of
 opinion, lhat hanging kills chiefly by inducing apo-
plexy ; but the  following experiment made at  Edin-
burgh several yeors ago, by on eminent medical pro-
lessor there, clearly proves that in hanging as well as in
drowning, the exclusion of air from the lungs  is tbe
immediate cause of death.  A dog was suspended by
the neck with a cord, an  opening having been  previ-
ously made in the wind pipe, below the place where the
cord was applied so as to admit air into the lungs.   In
this state he was allowed to hang for three-quarters of
an hour, during  which time the circulation and breath-
ing went on. He was then cut down  without appear-
ing to have suffered much from the experiment.  The
cord was now shifted below the opening  into the wind-
pipe, so as to prevent the ingress of  air to the lungs;
and  the animal being again'suspended, he was com-
pletely dead in a few minutes.  Upon the whole, then,
it appears, that  the same measures recommended for
drowned persons, are also  necessary here; with this
addition, that opening the jugular veins, or applying
cupping-glasses to the neck, will tend considerably to
facilitate the restoration of life, by lessening the quan-
tity  of blood contained in the vessels of the head,
ond  thereby toking off the  pressure  from the brain.
Except in persons who  are  very full  of blood, the
quantity taken  owoy need seldom exceed an ordinary
tea-cupful, which will in general be  sufficient  to un-
load the vessels ofthe head without weakening the pow-
ers of life."
   RE'TE.  A net.  Applied  to cellular membranes.
vessels, nerves, parts of plants, Sec. which ore formed
of meshes, like o net.
   Rete malfiqhii.  The fine net-work of the extre-
mities of  the pulmonary arteries.
   Rete mirabile.  A network of blood-vessels in the
 basis ofthe brain of quadrupeds.
   Rete mucosum.  Corpus reticulars ; Corpus muce
sum;  Mucus malpigii.  A mucous  substance, depo-
sited in a net-like form, between  the  epidermis and
cutis,  which covers the sensible  cutaneous papillae,
connecu the epidermis with the cutis, and gives the
colour to  the body : in Europeans it to of a white co-
lour, in Ethiopians black.  See SAin.
   RETICULAR.   (Reticularis;  from rete, a net)
Interwoven like a net
   RETIFORM.  (Retiformis; from rete, a net, and
 forma, resemblance.)  Net-like.
   RE'TINA.  (From rete,  a net)  Amphiblestroides.
The third, or  innermost membrane of the eye, ex
 panded round the choroid coat, lo  the ciliary ligament.
 It is the true organ of vision, and is formed by an ex-
 pansion of the pulp of the optic nerve.  See Vision.
   Retinaculum.   (From  retineo,  to prop  or  re-
 strain.)   An instrument for keeping the bowels in their
 place.
   RETIN-ASPHALTUM.  See Retinite.
   RETINITE. Retin-osphalt of Hatchet  A yellow
 ish  and reddish-brown coloured mineral, composed of
 resin, asphalt, and earth; found at  Bovey Tracy, in
 Devonshire, adhering to coal.
   RETORT.  (Retorta; from relorqueo, to bend back
 again: probably so called, because its neck was curved
 and bent  bock again.)  A chemical vessel employed for
 many distillations, and most frequently for those which
 require a degree of heat superior to that of boiling water.
 They differ in form and materials:  when pierced with a
 little hole in their roof, they are called tubulated re-
 torts.  They are made of common glass, stone-ware,
 and iron.
   RETRA'CTOR.  A muscle, the office of which is
 to retract the part into which it to inserted.
   Retractor anguli oris.   See Buccinator.
   RETRAHENS.  Drawing back.
   Retrahens auris.  Posterior auris, of Winslow.
 Rctrahens auricula, of Albinus.  Deprimens auricula,
 of Douglas.  Retrahens auriculam,  of Cowper ; and
 Jlfaifoia'o-eoneAmien, of Dumas.  Two small bundlen
 of muscular fibres which arise from the external and
 posterior part  of the mastoid  process of the temporal
 bone  immediately  above the insertion of the sterno-
 cleido-mastoideus muscle.   They are inserted  into
 that part of the back of the ear which is opposite to
 the septum which divides the concha and  scapha.
 Their use  is to draw the ear backwards, and stretch
 the concha.
   RETROCEDENT.   Retrocedens.   Retrogradus
 When a disease that moves about  from  one part la
 another,  and to sometimes fixed, has been some time in
                                         943 
RHA
RHE
  lu more common situation, and retires from it, il to
  said to be retrocedent
    RETROGRADE.  See Retrocedent,
    Retrocedent gout.  See Arthritis.
    RETROVERSION.  Retro versie.  See Uterus, re-
  troversion of.
    RETUSUS.  Retuse. Applied to a leaf, which ends
  in a broad shallow notch, as in the Rumex digynus.
    REUSSITE.  A vegetable compound saline,  found
  as an efflorescence on the surface, in the country  round
  Seidlitz and Seidschutz.
    REVERBERATORY.   See Furnace.
    RLVOLUTUS. Revolute, rolled back.  Applied to
  a leaf, the margin of which  is  turned or rolled  back-
  wards, as in Andromeda polifolia.
    REVULSION.  (Revulsio; from  revello, to  draw
  away.)  An  old term  used  by ihe humoral patholo-
  gists, signifying the drawing of humours  a contrary
  wav.
    RHABA'RBARUM.   (From  Rha, and oaroants,
  wild:  so called because it was brought from the banks
  of the  Rha, now  called the Wolga,  in Russia.)  See
  Rheum.
    Rhabarbarum  album.  See  Convolvulus mechoa-
  canna.
    Rhabarbarum  antiquorum.   See Rheum rhapon-
  ticum.
    Rhabarbarum  dioscoridis.   See Rheum rhapon-
  ticum.
    Rhabarbarum  monachorum.   See Rumex pa-
  tientia.
    Rhabarbarum riiaponticum.  See Rheum rhapon-
  ticum.
   Rhabarbarum sibericum. See Rheum undulatum.
   Rhabarbarum tartaricum.   See Rheum.
   Rhabarbarum verum.   See Rheum.
   RHACHIA'LGIA.  (From paxts, the spine of the
  back, and aXyos, pain.)   A pain in the spine of the back.
   RHA'CHIS. (Pax«C|  the spine of the back.)  I. In
 anatomy, the spine.
   2. In botany, the common stalk or receptacle of tbe
 florels in the  spikeleU of grasses, or of the spikeleu
 themselves; os in Lolium, Triticum, Hordeum, Sec
 It  also  means the  rib  or leaf-stalk of ferns, which to
 often winged or bordered.
   RHACHISA'GRA.  (From paxts, the spine of the
 hack, and aypa, a prey.)  A sudden pain in the spine,
 applied to gout fixed in tbe spine of the back.
   Rhachita.  (From paxic, the spine of the back.)  A
 muscle belonging to the spine of the back.
   Rhachitis.   See Rachitis.
   RHACO'SIS.  (From paxos, a rag.)  A  ragged ex-
 coriation.
   RHA'GAS.   (Rhagas, adis. f.; from pnyvvpt, to
 break or bruise.)  Fissura.  A chop or cleft  A malig-
 nant, dry, and  deep cutaneous Assure.
   Rhaooidls.  (From pa\, a grape-stone,  and eirJoc,
 a likeness: so  called from iu likeness in colour to a
 grape-seed.) Applied to the retiform tunic of the eye.
  RHA'MNUS.  (From  paita, to destroy;  because of
 its  many thorns.)   1. The name of a  genus of planu
 in  the Linna-an system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order,
 Monogynia.  Buckthorn.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the purging buck-
 thorn.   See Rhamnus catharticus.
  Rhamnus catharticus.  The  systematic name of
 the buckthorn.  Spina cervina;  Rhamnus solutivus ;
 Spina infectoria;  Cervispina.   Purging buckthorn.
 The fruit or berries of thto shrub, Rhamnus—spinis
 terminalibus floribus quadrifidis dioicis, foliis ovatis,
 caule erecto,of Linnsus, have been long received into (lie
 materia medica: they contain a pulpy, deep green juice,
 of a faint unpleasant smell, a bitterish, acrid, nauseous
 taste, which operates briskly by stool, producing thirst,
 dryness  of the  mouth and fauces, and severe gripings,
 unless some diluting liquor be drank plentifully after
 it:  at present it is rarely prescribed except as a drastic
 purge.   The dose  is said to be about twenty of the
 fresh berries in substance; twice or thrice that number
 in decoction ; a drachm or a drachm and a half of the
 dried berries; an ounce of the expressed juice, or half
 an ounce ofthe rob or extract, obtained by inspissating
 the juice.
  Rhamnus frangula.   The systematic name of the
 black  alder.  Frangula alnus; Alnus nigra; Rham-
nus—inermis floribus monogynis hermaphroditis,foliis
integerrimis, of Linneus.
      244
    AH tlie parts of this tree, aa well tu of the common
  alder, are aslringeut and bitter.  The bark to most as-
  tringent ; a decoction of it has cured agues,  and is
  often used lo repel inflammatory tumours of ihe throat,
  by way of gargle.  The inner yellow bark ofthe trunk,
  or root, given to 3 ij, vomiu, purges, and gripes; but
  joined Willi aromatics, it operates more agreeably. An
  infusion, or decoction in water, inspissated to an ex-
  tract, acts yet more mildly than these.  It is mostly
  employed  by tbe common people in dropsy and other
  disorders.  The berries of aider are  purgative.  They
  are  not in use under their own name, but are often
  substituted for buckthorn berries ;  to discover wliich. it
  should be observed,  tbat the berries of the black alder
  have a black skin, a blue juice, and two seeds in each
  of them; whereas the buckthorn berries  have a green
  juice, and commonly four seeds.  The substitution of
  one for the other is not of material consequence, as the
  planU belong to the  same genus, and tlie berries do not
  differ greatly.
    Dr. Murray, of Gottingen,  recommends, from his
  own experience, the leaves of alder chopped in small
  pieces, and heated  over the fire, as the  best remedy
  with which he is acquainted for dispersing milk in the
  breasts.
    Rhamnus zizyphus.  The systematic  name of the
  tree which affords the jujubs.  A half-dried fruit o''
  the plum  kind, about the size and shape of an  olive.
  Jujubes, when in perfection, have an agreeable, sweet
  taste, and in the southern parts of Europe, where they
  are common, they make au article of food in their re-
  cent state, and of medicine when half dried.     <
    RHA'PHANUS.  See Raphqm.ua.
    RHAPO'NTICUM.  (The Rha of Pontus, i. e.  the
  Rha, in Russia, a river on the banks of which it grew.)
  See Rheum rhoponlicum.
    RJiapontic rhubarb.  See Rheum rhoponlicum.
   Rhaponticum vulgare officinarum.  See Cen-
  taurea.
   RHATA'NIA.  See Krameria.
   RHAZES, was born at Rhei, in  the province of
  IChorosan, about the  year 852.  He is said not to have
 commenced the study of medicine till more than thirty
 years old, having previously removed to Bagdad: but
 by indefatigable application he obtained the highest re-
 putation ; and  was selected to superintend the cele-
 brated hospital of that city.  He has been considered as
 the Galen of tlie Arabians ; and from his assiduous at-
 tention during the rest of a long life, to the varieties of
 disease, he obtained the appellation of the experienced.
 He travelled much in pursuit of knowledge, particu-
 larly into his native country; and was much consulted
 by Almanzor, the chief of that province, to whom se-
 veral of his writings  are dedicated, as well as by other
 princes.  Abi Osbuia enumerated 22G treatises com-
 posed by Rhazes, but only a few of these are preserved
 through the medium of Latin  translations.  The ten
 books dedicated to Almanzor, were designed by him as
 a complete body of physic, and indeed may  be regarded
 as  the great magazine of all the Arabian medicine:
 the ninth book in  particular, treating  of the cure of
 diseases, was in such general  estimation  for several
 centuries, as to be used as a text-book by professors.
 However, they contain little more than the substance
 of the writings of the Greek  physicians; though cer-
 tainly the small-pox, and a few other diseases, are first
 distinctly described by  Rhazes. He was author also
 of  the first ueaiise on the diseases of children.   The
 use of chemical preparations in  medicine appears like-
 wise to have originated with him, or at least with some
 of the Arabians.  He died in the  year 932. Besides
 the ten books above mentioned, and tlie tract on small-
 pox, there are extant  by him a sort  of commonplace
 book, entitled "Continens;" and six books of Apho-
 risms, under the title of "De Secretto."
  RHE'UM. (From Rha, a river in Russia, now called
 the Wolga,  from the banks of wbich it was  first
 brought)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linna;an system.  Class, Enneandria; Order,  Tri
gynia. Rhubarb.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the officinal rhu-
 barb.  See Rheum palmatum.
  Rheum palmatum.  Tbe systematic name of tha
officinal rhubarb. Rhabarbarum;  Rheon ; Rhaum ;
 Barbaria; Lapathum orientale ; Lapathum chinense;
 Rhabarbarum verum ; Rhabarbarum tartaricum. Rhu-
barb.  It  was not until the year 1732 that naturaiiu 
RHE
RHE
became acquainted with any plant which  seemed to
afford the  rhabarbarum officinale; when some plains
received from Russia by Jussieu at Paris, and Rhaud
at Chelsea, were said to supply thto important desidera-
tum, and as such were adopted by Linnaeus,  in iiis first
edition of the Species Plantarum, under the name of
'Rheum rhabarbarum. This,  however, wos not gene-
rally received as the genuine rhubarb plant; and with a
view to ascertain thismattermore completely Kaw Boer-
haave procured from a Tartarian rhubarb merchant the
seeds of those planu whose roots be annually sold, and
jwhich were admitted at Petersburgh to be the true rhu-
ibarb.  These seeds were soon propagoted,  and were
discovered by De Gorter to produce two distinct spe-
cies, viz. the Rheum rhabarbarum of Linnams, or as it
has since been called, the Rheum undulatum, and  an-
other species, a specimen of  which was presented to
'Linneus, who declared it to be a new one; and it was
first mentioned in the second edition of the  Species
Plantarum, in 1762, by the name of RJteum palmatum.
Previous to this time, De Gorter had repeatedly sent iu
seeds to Linnaeus, but the young planu which they
produced constantly perished; at length he obtained
the fresh root,  which succeeded very well  at Upsal,
and afterward enabled the younger Linnasus to describe
this plant,  ann. 1767.  But two years antecedent to
this, Dr. Hope's account of the Rheum palmatum, as it
grew in the Botanic Garden near Edinburgh, had been
read before the Royal Society at London; and of  the
great estimation in which thto plant was held by him,
we have the following proof:—" From the perfect simi-
larity  of this root with the best foreign  rhubarb, in
taste, smell, colour, and purgative qualities, we cannot
doubt of our being at last possessed of tbe plant which
produces the true rhubarb, and may reasonably enter-
tain the agreeable expectation  of iu proving a very im-
portant acquisition to Britain."
  But from the relation we have given, it appears that
both the seeds ofthe R. palmatum, and the R. undula-
tum, were transmitted to Petersburgh, as those of  the
true rhubarb; we are therefore to conclude, that the
former species has an equal claim to thto importance
with the latter; and from further inquiries made in
Russia, there is the best authority for believing that the
R. compactum also affords this very useful drug. The
seeds of the R. palmatum were first introduced into
Britain in  1762, by Dr. Hounsy (who sent them from
Russia), and were supposed to be a part of that already
mentioned; and since their prosperous cultivation by
the late professor of botany at Edinburgh, tlie propa-
gation of this plant has been gradually extended to
most of our English gardens, and with a degree of suc-
cess which promises, in time, to supersede the importa-
tion of the foreign root.  Two sorts of rhubarb roou
are usually imported into this  country forme Jical use ;
viz. the Chinese and the Tartary rhubarl.; the first to
in oblong pieces, flattish on one side, and convex on the
other;  compact, hard, heavy, internally  of  a dull-red
colour, variegated with yellow and white, and when
recently powdered, appears yellow, but on being kept
becomes gradually redder.  The second is  the  most
valuable, and is brought to us  in roundish pieces, with
a  large hole through the middle of each;  it is  more
soft and friable than the former sort, and exhibiu, when
broken, many streaks of a bright red colour.  " The
marks ofthe goodness of rhubarb are, the liveliness of
its colour when cut; its  being firm and solid, but not
flinty or hard; its being easily pulverable, and appear-
ing when powdered of a fine bright yellow colour;  its
imparting to the spittle when chewed a deep saffron
tinge, and  not proving slimy  or mucilaginous in the
mouth ;  iu taste to subacrid, bitterish, and somewhat
styptic; the smell lightly aromatic."
  The purgative qualities of rhubarb are  extracted
more  perfectly by  water than by  rectified spirit: the
part remaining after the action of water is  almost, if
not wholly, inactive; whereas after repeated digestion
in spirit, it proves still very considerably purgative.
The virtue of a watery infusion, on being inspissated
by a gentle heat, is so much diminished, that a drachm
ofthe extract is said to have scarcely any greater effect
than a scruple of the root in substance.  The spirituous
tincture loses less; half a drachm of this extract proving
moderately purgative.  The qualities of this  root, soys
Dr. Cullen, are that of a gentle purgative, ond so gentle
that it is often inconvenient oi. account ofthe bulk of
the dose required, which in adults, must be  from las.
 to Z j.   When given in a large dose it will occasion
 some griping, as other purgatives do; but it is hardly
 ever heating to the system, or shows the other effecu
 of the more drastic purgatives.  The purgative quality
 is accompanied with a bitterness, wbich is often useful
 in restoring the tone of the stomach when it has been
 lost; and, for the most  part, iu bitterness makes it sit
 better on the stomach than many other purgatives do.
 Its operation  joins well with neutral laxatives;  and
 both together operate  in  a less dose than  either of
 them would singly. Some degree of stypticity is always
 evident  in  this medicine; and as this quality  acts
 when tbat of the purgative has ceased, so in  cases of
 diarrhoea, when any evacuation is proper, rhubarb has
 been considered as the most proper  remedy to be em-
 ployed.  It  must, however, be remarked here, that, in
 many cases of diarrhoea, no further evacuation than
 what to occasioned  by the disease, to necessary oi
 proper.  The use of rhubarb, in substance, for keeping
 the belly regular, for which it  is frequently employed,
 is by no means proper, as the astringent quality is ready
 to undo what the purgative has done; but it is found
 that the  purpose mentioned may be obtained  by it, if
 the  rhubarb is chewed  in the  mouth, and no more to
 swallowed than what the saliva has dissolved.  And it
 must be remarked, that in this way employed it is very
 useful to dyspeptic persons.  Analogous to this, is the
 use of rhubarb in solution, in which it appears to me,
 that the astringent quality is not so largely extracted as
 to operate so powerfully as when the rhubarb was em-
 ployed in substance.          ~  '___
   The officinal preparations of "this drug are, a watery
 and a vinous infusion, a simple and  a compound tinc-
 ture. It to also an ingredient in different compositions.
   Rheum rhaponticum.  The systematic name of the
 rhapontic rhuboib. Rhaponticum ; Rhabarbarum dios-
 coridis;  Rhabarbarum  antiquorum.  The  root of
 this species  appears to hove been the true rhubarb of
 the ancients.  By some it is confounded with the mo-
 dern rhubarb, though considerably different from that
 root in appearance, as well as in quality.  The rha-
 pontic to of a dusky colour on  its surface,  and a loose
 spongy texture; to more adstringent than rhubarb, and
 less  purgative; in this  last intention,  two or three
 drachms are required for a dose.
   Rheum undulatum.  The  systematic name of the
 Siberian rhubarb.  The Rheum—foliis subvillosis un-
 dulatis petiolis aqualibus, of Linnaeus.  It possesses
 similar virtues to those of the palmate species, and is
 in common use in Russia.
   RHE'UMA.  (From poa, to flow.)  The  discharge
 from the nostrils or lungs arising from cold; hence the
 following lines of the school of Salernum:
   Sifluit ad pectus, dicatur rheuma catarrhus,
   Ad fauces bronchus, ad nares esto coryza I
   RHEUMATI'SMUS.  (From ptvpartlta,  to be  af-
 flicted with defluxions.)  Dolores rhcumatici et arthri-
 tici, of Hoffman.   Myositis, of Sagor.  This  too genus
 of diseose in the Class Pyrexia, and Order Plegmasia,
 of Cullen; characterized by pyrexia, pains in the joints,
 increased by the action of the muscles belonging to the
joint, and heat of the part.  The blood, after venesec-
 tion, exhibiu an inflammatory crust. Rheumatism is
distinguished into acute and chronic.  The acute is pre-
 ceded by shivering, heat, thirst,  and frequent pulse;
 after which the pain commences, and soon fixes on the
joints.  The chronic  rheumatism is distinguished  by
pain in the joints,  without pyrexia, and is divided into
three species; lumbago, affecting the loins; sciatica,
 affecting  the hip; and  arthrodynia, or pains in the
joints.   The acute rheumatism mostly terminates in
one of these species.
  Rheumatism moy arise at all times of the year, when
there ore frequent vicissitudes of the weather, from
heat to cold, but the spring and autumn are the seasons
in which it is most prevalent; and it attacks persons
of all ages; but very young people are less subject to it
than adults.
  Obstructed perspiration, occasioned either  by wear-
ing wet clothes, lying iu damp linen, or damp rooms, or
by being exposed to cool sir when the body has been
much heated by exercise, is the cause which usually
produces rheumatism.  Those who are much afflicted
with this complaint, are very apt to be sensible of the
approach of wet weather, by finding  wandering pains
about them at that period.
  Acute rheumatism  usually comes on with  lassitude
                                       845 
RHI                                            RHO
and 1 igonrt, succeeded by heat, thirst, anxiety, restless-
ness, and a hard pulse;  soon after which, excruciating
pains are felt in different ports of the body, but more
particularly in the joinu ofthe shoulder, wrist, knees,
and ankles, or perhaps in the  hip; and these  keep
shifting from  one joint  to  another,  leaving a redness
and swelling in every part they have occupied, os like-
wise a great  tenderness to the touch.  Towards eve-
ning there  is usually an exacerbation, or increase of
fever;  and during the night, the pains  become more
severe, and shift from one joint to another.
  Early in  the course of the  disease, some degree of
■weal ng usually occurs; but it is seldom so copious as
either to remove the pains or to prove critical.  In the
beginning, the urine to  without  sediment; but as the
diseose advances in iu  progress, and the fever admits
of considerable remissions, a lateritious sediment is de-
posited ;  but this by no  means proves critical.
  Chronic rheumatism  is  attended  with pains in the
bead, shoulders, knees,  and other large  joints, which,
at times, are  confined to one particular part, and at
others shift from one joint to another, without occa-
sioning any fever; and  in  thto manner the complaint
continues often for a considerable time, and at length
goes off.
  No danger to attendant on chronic rheumatism; but
a person having been once attacked with  it, is  ever
afterward more or less liable to  returns of it; and an
incurable anchylosis  is  sometimes  formed, in conse-
quence of very frequent relapses.  Neither is the acute
rheumatism frequently  accompanied with much  dan-
ger ; but, in a few instances, the patient has been de-
stroyed by general inflammation, and now and then by
a metastasis to some vital  part, such as the head and
lungs.  Acute rheumatism, although accompanied with
a considerable degree of inflammation in particular
paru, has seldom been known to terminate in suppu-
ration ; but a serous or gelatinous effusion takes place.
  Rheumatism seldom  proving fatal, very few oppor-
tunities have offered for dissections ofthe disease.  In
the few which  have occurred, the same appeoronces
have been observed as in inflammatory fever, effusion
within the cranium, and now and  then affections of
some ofthe viscera.
  In the  acute rheumatism the general  antiphlogistic
plan of treatment is to  be pursued, so long as the fe-
brile and inflammatory  symptoms are severe.  It  may
be sometimes proper to begin by a moderate abstraction
of blood, where the patient to' young and plethoric;
and if the  disease attacks any  important port, this
measure must be more actively pursued; but in general
it does not appear necessary.  Even the I ocal abstrac-
tion of blood  is hardly  advisable, unless the affection
be very much  fixed  to one part, and the symptoms
urgent: and it may be  said, that most  local applica-
tions are rather likely  to drive  the disease from one
part to another, than to afford  permanent relief.  After
freely opening the  bowels, the chief object to to en-
deavour to procure a  general  and mild diaphoresis by
antimonial and mercurial preparations,  assisted by
opium, or other narcotic, which may also alleviate the
pain, and occasionally  by the warm bath, where the
skin is  particularly harsh  and dry.  Digitalis, by mo-
derating the  circulation, will sometimes be  usefully
conjoined with these medicines.   As the fever abates,
and the strength appears  impaired, tonics should be
given to promote the convalescence  of the patient, and
obviate a relapse: and where  the inflammation re-
mains fixed in a particular joint, after the pyrexia bas
ceased, fomentations and  other  local measures, ac-
cording to  the state of the part, may be employed for
iu  removal.  In the arthrodynia, or chronic rheuma-
tism, as  it  to commonly called, the remedies of chief
efficacy are stimulant diaphoretics in moderate doses
regularly persevered  in, assisted  by various local
means of promoting the circulation through the affected
part.  Anodynes may  be  also used with  advantage
both internally and locally: and attention should be
paid to support the strength, and correct any observa-
ble deficiency in the several functions.
  RHE'UME.  (From  ptia, to flow.) A defluxion,  a
common cold or catarrh.
  RHEUMIC ACID.   An acid  said to be peculiar to
rhubarb, but not yet sufficiently examined.
  Rhibe'sia.   (From ribes, o currant.)  See Ribes.
  RHINA3'US.  (Rhinaus, sc  musculus; from piv
the nose.;  See Compressor n1™*1
      MS
  RuiNENcnv'TEs.  (From ptv, the nose, and tyxtmt
to pour in.)  A syringe for the nose.
  RHINOPHO'NIA.  (From piv, llie nose, and tbuvn,
the voice.)   A nasal voice.
  Rhiza'ora.   (From pifa, the root, and ayptvia, to
seize.)  An instrument for taking out  the  roou o»
stumps of teeth.
  IIHODIA.  See Rhodiola.
  RHODIOLA.   (A  diminutive  of  Rhodia;  from
ooSov, a rose ; so called be<-ous« iu root smells like the
damask rose j  The  name of a genus of plants.  Class,
Diacia; Order,  Octandria.
  Rhodiola  rosea.   The radix  rhodire  of  some
pharmacopoeias is the produce of the Rhodiola rosea,
of Linnxus, called rosewort.  When dry, it has o very
pleasant smell, resembling  that of the damask rose.
In this odorous matter  the niedical virtue of the root
resides.  Poultices in which this root enters as a chief
ingredient are said to allay violent pains of the head.
  RHO'DIUM.  (From poSov,  arose; a  wood which
smells like roses.)  1. Rhodium, or rosewood.
  2. A new metaldiscovered among the grains of crude
platino, by Dr. Wollaston.  The mode of obtaining it
in the state of a triple saltcombined with muriatic acid
and soda, has been given  under the article Palladium.
Thto  may be dissolved in water, and the metal preci-
pitated from it in a black powder by zinc.
  This powder, exposed to heat, continues black; but
with borax it acquires a white metallic lustre, though
it remains  infusible.  Sulphur, or arsenic,  however,
renders it fusible, and  may afterward  be expelled by
continuing the heat.  The button, however,  is not
malleable.   Its specific gravity  appears not to ex-
ceed 11.
  Rhodium  unites  easily with every  metal  that has
been  tried  except mercury.  With gold or silver  it
forms a very malleable alloy, not oxidated by a high
degree of hcot, but  becoming incrusted with a  black
oxide when  slowly  cooled.  One-sixth of it does not
perceptibly alter the colourof gold, but renders it much
less fusible.  Neither nitric nor nitro-muriatic ocid
acts on it  in either of these alloys; but If it be  fused
with three paru of  bismuth, lead, or copper, the alloy
is entirely soluble in a mixture of nitric acid with two
parts of muriatic.
  The oxide was soluble in every acid Dr. Wollaston
tried.   The solution in muriatic acid did not crystal
lize by evaporation.   Its  residuum formed  a rose-
coloured solution with alkohol.  Muriate of ammonia
and of soda, and nitrate of potassa,  occasioned no pre-
cipitate in the muriatic solution, but formed wiMi the
oxide triple  salts, which were insoluble in alkohol.
Its solution in nitric acid likewise did not crystallize,
but silver, copper, and other metals precipitated it.
  The solution of the triple salt with muriate of soda
was  not precipitated by muriate, carbonate, or hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia, by carbonate or ferroprussiate
of potassa,  or  by  carbonate of soda.  The caustic
alkalies however throw down a yellow oxide, soluble
in excess of alkali; and a solution of platina occasions
in ii a yellow precipitate.
  The title of this product to be considered as a dis-
tinct metal was  at  first questioned; but the experi-
ments of Dr. Wollaston have since been confirmed by
Descotlls.
  Rhodium  lignum.  See Aspulathus canariensis.
  RHODODENDRON.   (From poSov,  a rose, and
StvSpov, a tree: so called because ils flowers resemble
the rose.)  1. The name of a  genus of plants  in the
Linnaan system.   Class,  Decandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of  the oleander.  See
Rhododendron chrysanthemum.
  Rhododendron chrysanthemum.  The systema-
tic name of tbe  oleander, rosebay, or yellow rhodo-
dendron.  This species of rhododendron, foliis oblon-
gis impunctis supra scabris venosissimis, corolla ro-
tata irregulari gemma florifera ferrugineo-tomentosa,
has not yet been introduced in Britain;  it Is a native
of Siberia, affecting  mountainous situations, and flow-
ering in June and July.
  This  plant and iu medical  virtues  were first de-
scribed iu 1747, by Gmelin  end Haller.  Little atten-
tion, however, was paid to ft, till the year 1779, when
it was strongly recommended by Koclpin  as an effica-
cious  medicine, not only in  rheumatism and gout, but
even in veneieal cases; and it u now very generally 
RHU
RHU
employed in chronic rheumatisms, in various parts of
Europe.  The leaves, which are the part directed for
medicinal use, have  a bitterish subadstringent taste.
Taken in a large dose, they prove a narcolis poison;
and, in moderate doses they are said to occasion heat,
thirst, a degree of delirium, and a peculiar sensation
of the parts affected.
  As a powerful and active medicine, this shrub, says
Dr. Woodville, may probably be found an addition to
the materia medica.  Dr. Home, who tried it unsuc-
cessfully in some cases  of acute rheumatism, says,
" It appears to be one of the most powerful sedatives
wliich we have, as, in most of the trials, it made the
pulse remarkably slow, and in one patient reduced it to
thirty-eight beau.  And in other cases, in which the
rhododendron has been used at Edinburgh, it has been
productive of good effecte, and accordingly it is now
introduced into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.  The
manner of using this plant by the Siberians, was by
putting two drachms of tbe dried leaves in an earthen
pot, with  about ten ounces of  boiling water, keeping
it near a boiling heat for a night; and this they took in
the morning, and by repeating  it three or four times,
generally effected a cure.
  Rhodo'meli.   (From  poSov, the  rose, and ptXi,
honey.)  Honey of roses.
  RH03ADEAE.  (From rhaas, the red poppy.)  The
Dame of an order in Linnaeus's Fragmenu of a Natu-
ral Method, consisting of poppy and similar planu,
tha calyx of which is caducous, and the fruit a capsule
or selyna.
  RH03'AS.   (Rhaas, ados. m.; from ptta, to flow.)
The wild poppy is sometimes so called.  See Papaver
rhaas.
  RHCETIZITE.  A  glistening  and pearly  white
mineral, which  is found in  primitive  rocks,  with
quartz Psitzsci, in the Tyrol.
  RHOMBOIDE'US.   (From  pop6os, a  geometrical
figure, whose sides are equal but not right-angled, ond
tiSog, resemblance.)   Rhomboidcus major and minor.
Rhomboides, of Douglas, Winslow, and Cowper;  and
Ceroid  dorso scapulaire, of  Dumas.  This muscle,
which  to so named from iu shape, is situoted imme-
diately underthe trapezius.  We find it usually, though
not always, divided into two portions, which Albinus
describes as two distinct  muscles.  The uppermost of
these, or rhomboidcus minor, arises tendinous from the
spinous processes of the three inferior vertebras of the
neck, and from the  ligamentum colli; the lowermost,
or  rhomboidcus  major,  aris«s tendinous from  the
spinous processes of the  back: the former to inserted
into the basis of the scapula, opposite to iu spine; the
latter into all the basis of the scapula, below its spine.
Iu use to to draw the scapula  obliquely upwards, and
directly backwards.
  RHOMBSPAR. See Bitterspar.
  RHOMBUS.  Diamond-shaped,  approaching to  a
square: applied lo leaves, &c.; as those of the Cheno-
podium olidum, and to the pod of Cicer arientinum.
   RHONCHUS.  (toyKOS, rhonchus, stertor.) Snoring.
   RHOPALO'SIS.   (From poyraXov, a club.)  A disor-
der in which the hair cleaves together, and hangs down
in clusters resembling clubs.  The plaited hoir.  See
Plica.
   RHUBARB.  See Rheum.
   Rhubarb, monk's.  See Rumex patientia.
   Rhubarb, rhapontic.   See Rheum rhaponticum.
   RHUS.  (From ptia,  to flow: so  colled because it
■tops fluxes.)  The  name of a genus of planu in the
Linnaean system.  Class, Pentandria ; Order, Trigy-
nia.  The sumach-tree.
   Rhus beloica. The Dutch myrtle to sometimes  so
termed.  See Myrica gale.
   Rhus coriaria.   Sumach.  Elm-leaved sumach.
This plant, Rhus—foliis pinnatis obtusiuscule serratus
ovalibus subtus villosis, of Linneus, is a small tree, a
native of the south of Europe.  It is singular that this
is the only species of the genus rhus which  is per-
fectly innocent; the others being active poisons.  Both
tiie  leaves and berries of thto plant are used medici-
nally  as  astringents and tonics; tlie former are the
most'powerful, and  have been long in common use,
where they may be easily obtained in various com-
plainU indicating this class of remedies.  The berries,
wliich are red, and of a roundish compressed figure,
contain a pulpy matter, in which is lodged a brown,
Hard, oval seed, manifesting a considerable degree of
adstringency.  The pulp, even when dry, is grateful,
and has been discovered to contain an essential  salt,
similar to that of wood-sorrel.   An  infusion of llie
dried fruit is not rendered black by a solution of iron;
hence it appears to be destitute of adstringency.  But
its acidity is extremely grateful;  therefore,  like many
other fruits, these berries moy be advantageously taken
to allay febrile heat, and to correct bilious putrescency.
  [Rhus  olabrum.   The  berries of this, and several
other American species of sumach, have a strong, acid
taste, and at times exhibit crystallized or saline parti
cles on their surface.  Dr Harsefield supposes tbe acid
they contain to be tartaric; but it to, not improbably,
an acid sui generis.  The acidulous infusion of these
berries to used as a refrigerant in fevers, and a gargle
in sore throoU.  The bark ond leaves of the shrub are
highly astringent, and are used in tanning  leather.—
Big. Mat. Med.  A.J
  Rhus radicans.  See Rhus vernix.
  Rhus tiphinum.. The systematic name of the Vir
ginian sumach, the seeds of which are said to be useful
in stopping hemorrhages.
  Rhus toxicodendron.   Poison oak, or sumach.
This plant to a native of North America. The stems,
if cut, exude a milky juice, which inflames the skin.
The leaves, now inserted in the pharmacopoeia, are in-
odorous, and have a mawkish, subacrid taste.  Their
virtues are extracted more perfectly by water than by
alkohol.   They prove  stimulant and narcotic, when
taken internally.  Dr. Alderson,  of Hull, found them
successful in several cases of paralysis. They excite
a sense of heat and pricking, and irregular twitches in
the affected limbs.  They have been sometimes useful,
also, in herpetic eruptions.  The dose  may be from
half a grain, gradually increased, to four grains, two
or three times a-day.
  Rhus vernix.   Rhus radicans.  The  systematic
name of  a poisonous plant, the efficacy of which Dr.
Fresnoi has endeavoured lo prove, in the disease called
paralysis, and herpetic  affections.  He, in  order lhat
others should not  suffer by his experiments, began by
taking an infusion of one of the three foliola of which
each leaf of this plant consists;  and, as this dose pro-
duced no sensible effect, he increased  the number to
twelve.   Hto urine and  perspiration were increased in
quantity, and he had some pains in his belly.  He re-
lates seven cases, in which he thinks  he can remove
all  doubt of the efficacy of this  infusion, in herpetic
affections.  From these, the following are selected:
  " A  countrywoman," says Dr. Fresnoi, " came to
me in the month of July, 1780, to consult me about the
herpes farinosa, with which her face had been coveted
for more than a year.   She was ordered to  take an in-
fusion of this plant; and, in six weeks, was entirely
free from the disease."
  He likewise relates five cases of paralysis, which
were cured by the use of thto plant.
  The leaves of this plant are to be cut when in the
greatest vigour, about  the month of June.  " Those
who cut this plant,"  says Dr. F.,  "wear leathern
gloves, on account  of  ite  poisonous qualities."  The
same gentleman observes, he saw one case in which
inflammation of the eyelids was produced  by the va-
pour from the plant.  Four pounds of the leaves, being
distilled with thirty-two pounds of water, give it a
slight odour, although the plant is entirely free from it.
IU taste is pungent, and inflames the mouth.  The de-
coction which remains in the  still to  brown, and  is
generally covered with  a light brown  pellicle.  When
slrained  and evaporated, it gives a shining black ex-
tract  The leaves inflame and  swell the  hands and
arms of those who take  them  out of the still, and
bring on an  itching, which remains for several days.
Forty-two pounds of the leaves  afford  twenty ounces
of extract, of a proper consistence for pills.
  "A girl, iu Flanders," says Dr. Fresnoi, "already
subject to fiu, laid down some flowers in her bedroom.
Next day she told me that she had undergone a  great
change:  that she had had  no fiu, and slept much bet-
ter. It occurred to me," says Dr. F. " that  the flowers
occasioned thto change.  Next day, the flowers being
removed, and the window opened, the convulsions re-
appeared ;  on their being again introduced, the fits dis-
appeared ;  whicli proved plainly it was the effect of
the flowers.  The success of  the extract, in tussto
convulsiva, exceeded  my hopes; forty-two children
being cured of this disorder in Valenciennes, during 
RiB                                              RIC
tfie end of the year 1786.  Four grains of extract at*
to be dissolved in four ounces of syrup, of which one
table-spoonful, given to the child every third hour, ge-
nerally abates the cough, and mostly leaves them."
  RH Y'AS.  ('Pvar, a disease of the eye.)  A decrease
or defect of the  lachrymal caruncle.   The proximate
cause to a native defect; or it may originate from exci-
sion, erosion, or acrimony.  This disorder is commonly
Incurable, and it induces an incurable epiphora, or a
continual weeping.
  RHYPIA.   (From 'Pupoc,  sordes.)   Foul,  sordid,
ill-cond'.ioned.
  Rhytido'sis.  See Rulidosis.
' RIB.  Costa.  The ribs are the long  curved bones
Which are placed in an oblique direction at the sides of
the chest.   Their number  is generally twelve on each
side ; but, in some subjects, it  has been found to be
thirteen, and in others, though more  rarely,  only ele-
ven.  They are distinguished  into true and false ribs.
The seven upper ribs, winch are articulated to the ster-
num, are called true ribs; and the five lower ones,
which are not immediately attached to that bone, are
called false ribs.  At the posterior extremity of each
rib, we observe a small  bead, divided by a  middle
ridge into two articulating surfaces, covered with car-
tilage, which are received into two cavities, contiguous
to each other, and formed  in the upper and lower part
of each dorsal vertebra, as we  have  observed in our
description of the  spine.   This articulation, which to
Secured by a capsular ligament, is a species of gingly-
rous, and allows only of motion upwards  and down-
Wards.  The head of each rib to supported by a short
neck, and immediately beyond this we find a flattened
tubercle, affording tin oblong and  slightly convex sur-
face, which is articulated  with  the transverse process
of the lowest of tlie two dorsol vertebrae, with which
Its head is articulated. At some little  distance from
Ibis  tuberosity, the  rib mokes  a considerable curve,
Which is usually called iu angle.  From tbe tubercle to
the angle, the ribs ore of considerable thickness, and
approaching to a cylindrical shape; but, from the an-
gle to their anterior extremity, they become thinner and
latter.  To thto anterior extremity  is  fixed a long,
broad, and strong cartilage, which, in each of the true
ribs, reaches to the sternum, where iu articulation is
secured by a capsular ligament, and by other ligamen-
tous fibres.  The cartilages of the sixth and  seventh
ribs being longer than the rest, are extended upwards,
in order to reach the sternum, the inferior portion of
which is about on a level with the fifth rib.  The carti-
lages of these two ribs are usually united into one, so
as to leave no space between them.  The false ribs are
Supported In a different manner; their cartilages ter-
minate in an acute point before they reach the sternum,
the eighth rib being attoched  by its cartilage to the
lower  edge of the cartilage of the seventh, or  last of
the true ribs; the ninth in  the same manner  to the
eighth; and the tenth to the ninth ;  the cartilages of
each rib being shorter than that of the rib above it
The eleventh and twelfth, which are the two lower-
most ribs, are not fixed at their anterior  extremities
like the other ribs,  but hang loose, and are supported
only by their ligamentous fibres, and by muscles and
other soft parts.
   The external surface of each  rib is somewhat con-
vex, and ite internal surface slightly concave.  On the
Inferior and interior surface of these bones  we observe
a long fossa, for the lodgment of the intercostal vessels
and  nerves.  This channel, however, does not  extend
through the whole length of the rib, being observable
neither at the posterior extremity, wher^j  the vessels
have not yet reached the bone, nor at the fore-end,
where they are  distributed to the parts between the
ribs.  We seldom see any marks of it in the short ribs,
as in the first, second, eleventh, and twelfth.
   Thus far we  hove given a description which is ap-
plicable to the ribs in general; but,as  we find them
differing from each other in shape, length, situation,
and other respects, it will be right to speak  of each rib
in particular.
   The first rib,  which to the shortest of any, is like-
wise the most curved. It is broader than the other
ribs,  and,  instead of being- ploced, as ihey ore,  ob-
liquely, and with iu edges upwards  nnd downwards,
it is situated nearly in  a  transverse  direction, one of
tts edges being placed inwards, or nearly so.  Of these
edges,  the  inner  one to sharp, and the outer one
      9>3
 -»me\fint MWhtM.  Ita Inner surface Is mnooih, nnd
its superior surface  is sometimes •tightly depressed
anterior y by the clavicle   The  head of tins rib, In-
stead of being angular, is flattened, and slightly con
vex, being received  into a cavity, which is formed
wholly in the first vertebra, and not by two vertebras,
us in the case with the other ribs.
  The  second rib Is  longer than the first, but shorter
than the ribs below  it.  Its angle is placed at a small
dismnce  rom its tuberosity, and ite head la articulated
with two vertebras, like the other ribs.   The other ten
ribs, the last two only excepted, differ from the general
description we have  given, chiefly In the difference of
their length, which goes on  gradually Increasing, from
the first or uppermost, to the seventh or last of the true
ribs, and as gradually diminishing from that to  the
twelfth.  Their obliquity, in respect to the spine, like-
wise increases ss they descend, ns  does  the distance
between the head and angle of each rib, from the first
rib to the ninth.  The two lowest ribsdifferfrom nil the
rest in the following particulars:—Their heads, like
that of the first rib, are rounded, and  received info a
cavity  formed entirely in the body of one vertebra ;
they have no tubercle for their articulation with  the
transverse  processes, to which they are  only loosely
fixed by ligaments, and, in this respect, the tenth rii> Is
sometimes  found to  agree with them:  they are  much
shorter than the rest of the false ribs, and the twelfth
to still  shorter than the eleventh.  The length of the
latter, however, is different  in different subjects, and is
not always found to be the some on both sides.   Ante-
riorly, as we have already observed,  their cartilages
are short and loose, not being attached to the cartilages
of the  other ribs; and this seems to be, because the
most considerable motions  of the trunk  ore not per-
formed on the lumbar vertebra) alone, but likewise  on
Ihe lower vertebrae of the bock ; so thot  if these two
ribs had been confined anteriorly,  like the rest, and
likewise united to the bodies of two vertebras, ond to
the transverse process, thto disposition would have im-
peded the motion of the two lost vertebra of the bock,
and consequently would  have affected the motion  of
the trunk in general.
  The  use of the ribs Is to give form  to the thorax,
and to cover and  defend the lungs; also to assist in
breathing;  for they are joined to the vertebrae by regu-
lar  hinges, which allow of short motions, and to the
sternum by cartilages, which yield to the motion of the
ribs, and return again when the muscles cease to act.
  Ribbed-leaf.  See JVemosu*.
  RIBES.  The name of a genua of planu in  the
Linnrean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.  The currant-tree.
  Ribes nigrum.   Black  currant.  This indigenous
plant,  Ribes—racemis pilosis, floribus oblongis,  of
Linnaeus, affords larger berries than those of the red,
which are said to be peculiarly useful in sore throats,
and to  possess a diuretic power in a very considerable
degree.  The leaves of the black currant are extremely
fragrant, and have been likewise recommended  for
Iheir medicinal virtue, which Bergius states  to  be
mundificans, pellens, diuretica.  The officinal prepara-
tions of the berries are the syrupus ribis nigri, and the
succus ribis nigri inspissatus.
  Ribes  rubrum.   Grossularia  non  spinosa.  Tbe
red  currant.  Ribes—inerme; racemis glabris pendu-
lis,  floribus planiusculis, of  Linna-us.   The  white
currant-tree is merely a  variety of the red, the fruit
of both to perfectly analogous; therefore, what to said
of the one applies to the other. The red currant is abun-
dantly cultivated in gardens, and, from iu gnueful aci-
dity, is universally acceptable, either as nature presents
it, or variously prepared by art, with the addition of
sugar.  Considered medicinally, it is esteemed  to  be
moderately refrigerant, antiseptic, attenuant, and ape-
rient  It may be used with considerable advantage lo
allay thirst, in most febrile complaints, to lessen an in-
creased secretion of bile, and to correct a putrid and
scorbutic slate of the fluids,  especially  in sanguine
temperaments; but,  in  constitutions  of a contrary
kind, it is apt to occasion flatulency and indigestion
  RlilWORT.  See  Plantago lanceolata.
  RICE.  See Oryza.
  RI'CINL'S.  (Quasi, ptv  xvvos, a dog's nose:  be-
cause they stick to the noses of dogs.)  1. The name of
a genus of planU in tbe Linmtan system.   Class, Me
nxcia; Order, Monadelphia. 
RIM
ROC
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the plant that affords
the seed from which the castor-oil is prepared.
  Rtci.vus communis.   The systematic nnme of the
castor-oil  plant  Cataputia major; Kerva; Ricinus
vulgaris; Palma ehristi Ricinus—foliis peltatis sub-
palmatis serratis, of Linneus.  This plant appears to
ne the Kiici, or Kporuv, of Dioscorides, who observes,
that the seeds are powerfully cathartic ; it is also men-
tioned by Aelius, Paulus ADgineta, and Pliny.  The
ricinus was first cultivated in England, in the time of
Turner, and is  now annually reared iu many gardens
in the neighbourhood of London; and in that of Dr.
Saunders, at Highbury, tlie plant grew to a state  of
great  perfection.  An oil extracted from the seeds of
this plant, aud known  by the name of oleum  ricini,
palma ehristi, or  castor-oil, is the drug to which the
pharmacopoeias refer, and which has lately come into
frequent use, as a quick but gentle purgative.  The
London College directs this oil to be expressed from the
seeds  in the same way as that of the oil of almonds,
and without the assistance  of heat, by which the oil
would seem to  be obtained in the purest state.   How-
ever, we have some reason to believe that thto method
is seldom  practised, and that the oil usually employed
here is imported from the West Indies, where it is
commonly prepared in the following manner:—" The
seeds  being freed from the  husks, or pods, which are
gathered upon their turning brown, and when begin-
ning to burst open, are first  bruised in a mortar, after-
ward tied up iu a linen bag, and then thrown into a
large  pot, with  a sufficient  quantity of water (about
eight gallons, to one gallon ofthe seeds), and boiled till
the oil  is risen to the surface, when it  is carefully
skimmed  off, strained, and  kept for use.  Thus pre-
pared, the oil is entirely free from acrimony, and will
stay upon the stomach when it rejecu all other medi-
cines."  Mr. Long remarks, lhat the oil intended for
medicinal use, is more  frequently cold drawn, or ex-
tracted  from the bruised seeds by  means of a hand-
press.  But this is thought more acrimonious than that
yrepared by coction.   Dr. Brown is also of this opi-
nion, and prefers the oil prepared by coction to that by
expression;  he  attributes iu greater mildness to the
action of the fire, observing  that tlie expressed oil, as
well as the mixed juices of the seeds, are far more ac-
tive and violent in their operation.
  Dr. Cullen observes,  that '• this oil, when the sto-
mach can be reconciled  to it, is one of the most agree-
able purgatives we can  employ.   It has thto particular
advantage, that  it operates sooner after iu exhibition
than  any  other  purgative I know of, as  it commonly
operates in  two or  three hours. It seldom gives any
griping, and its operation is generally moderate, pro-
ducing one, two, or three stools only. It is particularly
suited to  cures of costiveness, and  even to cases of
spasmodic colic.
  In the West Indies, it is found to be one of the most
certain remedies in the  dry belly-ache, or colica picto-
num.   It  to seldom found heating or irritating to the
rectum; and, therefore, is sufficiently well suited to
hemorrhoidal persons.
  The only inconvenience  attending the use of this
medicine is, that as an  oil it is nauseous to some per-
sons ; and thot, when the dose is large, it occasions
sickness at the stomach  for some time after it is taken.
To obviate those  inconveniences, several means have
been tried; and it is found that the most effectual means
is the addition of a little ardent spirit.  In the West
Indies, they employ rum; but that I might not with-
draw any part of the purgative, I employed the Tine.
senna comp.  This, added in the proportion of one to
three  parts of the oil, and very intimately mixed, by
being shaken together in a phial, both makes the  oil
less nauseous to the taste, and makes it sit more easy
on the stomach.  The common dose of this oil is a
table spoonful, or half on ounce; but mony persons re-
quire  a double quantity."
  Ricinus major.  See Jatropha curcas.
  Ricinus vulgaris.  See Ricinus.
  RICKETS.   See Rachitis.
  RICTUS.  This term to applied by botanists to  the
grinning mouth or opening between the  two hps of a
ringent or personate flower.
   RIGOR.  A sudden  coldness, attended by a shiver-
ing, more or less perfect
   UI'MA.  A fissure, or opening; as the rima laryngis,
rima  vulva.
  RrtfA dlOTTrms.  The  opening of  the  larynx*
through which the  air passes in and out of the lungs.
  RI'MULA.   (Diminutive of rima, a  fissure.)   A
small fissure.
  RINAS'US.  (From pev, the nose.)  See Compressor
naris.
  RING-WORM.  A species of herpes.   See Herpes.
  RINGENS.  Ringent: a term applied to flowers or
their corolla, which are irregular and gaping, like  the
mouth of an animal;  as those of the nettle, &c.
  A ringent flower is also called a lipped or labiate by
some botanists.
  Ri'sagon.  See Cassumuniar.
  Risigallum.   The auripigmentum was so called.
See Arsenious acid.
  RI'SUS.  Laughter;  laughing.
  Risus caninus.  A kind of laughter in which  the
lips ore contracted,  so as to show all the teeth.
  Risus sardonicus.  See Sardonic laugh.
  RIVERIUS, Lazarus, was bom at Montpelier, in
1589.  Being  naturally  slow in his attainments,  he
failed in his first examinations for a degree; but thto
only stimulated him to redoubled exertions, so that in
the following spring he  accomplished his  object at the
age of 22.  His attachment to study became then very
great, and eleven years after that  period  he was  ap-
pointed to the professorship of medicine in the univer-
sity ; wliich office he filled with great honour till Tito
death in 1655.   Riverius published  some valuable
works,  especially  one,  entitled " Praxis  Medica;"
which appeared at  first in o concise form, as a sort of
text-book; but finding it  very favourably received by
the public, he enlarged and improved it considerably:
and it  added  greatly to his reputation, having passed
through numerous editions, as well in the original, as
translated into French and English.
  RIVINUS, Augustus  Ouirinus, was son of a
learned physician  and critic,  Andrew  Bachmann,
whose name was Latinized into Rivinus, and born at
Leipsic, in  1652. He graduated at the age  of 24, and
fifteen years after obtained the professorships of physi-
ology and botany in his  native university; he was also
associated with  many  learned bodies; and he filled
these appointments with  honour to himself till his
death, in 1723.  Rivinus distinguished himself chiefly
as a systematic botonist; but hto arrangement was very
defective, being founded on the number of  tbe petals,
and their being regulator irregular.  Though by  no
means eminent as  a  practical anatomist, he is said to
have discovered a  new salivary duct.  As a medical
writer, he has the  merit  of faithful observation and
description  in his treatise " De Peste Lipsiensi," pub-
lished in 1680.  He wrote also on  dyspepsia, on inter-
mittenU, and various other subjecu.  His " Censura
Medicamentorum officinalium,"  ranks  very high,  on
account of the freedom with which he attacked opi-
nions, however generally  received, which he believed
erroneous;  and to the prevalence of this spirit we owe
the great simplification, and other improvements, which
the Materia Medica exhibits at present.
  ROASTING.  A chemical process,  generally per-
formed in crucibles, by which mineral  substances are
divided, some of their principles being volatilized, and
others changed, so as to prepare them for  other opera
lions.
  ROB.  (Rob, dense, Arabian.)  An old term for an
inspissated juice.
  ROBORANT. (Roborans ; from roboro, to strength-
en.)  That which is strengthening.  See Tonic.
  ROCCELLA.  See Lichen roccella.
  Rochelle-salt.  See Soda tartarisata.
  ROCKAMBOLE.  The Allium scorodoprasum, of
Linnreus.  The root  is used for pickles and high-sea-
soned dishes.
  ROCK-BUTTER.  A greasy mineral which  oozes
out of rocks that contain alum, at the Hurlet  alum-
work, near Paisley.
  Rock cork.   See Asbestos.
  ROCK-CRYSTAL.  A white and brown-coloured
crystallized silicious  mineral, found of great size and
beouty in some parts of Scotland, and Dauphiny affords
most magnificent groupes.
   Rock-oil.  See Petroleum.
   ROCK-SALT.   Of this there are two  kinds, the
foliated ond the fibrous. The principol deposite of this
salt in  Great Britain is in  Cheshire.  In 1000 paru are
contained, according  to Henry, 933 of muriate of soda,
                                         249 
ROS                                            ROS
6} sulphate of lime, a little muriate of lime and mu-
riate of magnesia, ond 10 paru insoluble matter.
  Jteek-samphire.  See Crithmum mantimum.
  Rock, wood.  The ligniform abestos.
  ROCKET.  See Brassica eruca.
  Rocket, Roman.  See Brassica eruca.
  Rocket, wild.   See Brassica erucastrum.
  [ROMAYNE, Nicholas, M. D. was born in the city
of New-York in September,  1756, aud obtained his
elementary education at Hackensnck in New-Jersey,
under the instruction of Dr. Peter Wilson,  the late pro-
fessor of languages in Columbia College.   About the
commencement  of  the  revolutionary war he  went
abroad, and completed his medical studies at Edin-
burgh.  He also visited tbe continent and spent two
years in Paris.  Upon hto return to New-York he com-
menced hto professional career.  He was advantage-
ously known as an able private lecturer on  many
branches of medical science, and it is with pleasure I
bear witness to his efficient instrumentality, in the
foundation of tlie College of Physicians and Surgeons.
He was its first president, and gave instructions in that
institution on Anatomy and the Institutes of Medicine.
Hto address as president, delivered al tlie first opening
of the  college in November, 1807, to an honourable
specimen  of  his diversified  attainments  and talent.
He died in New-York in 1817.
■  " Dr. Roinayne," says Dr. M'Leod, " was a man of
strong mind, well cultivated and much improved by
reading, by the society of learned men, and by travel-
ling. I knew him in health and in the midst of disease;
in affluence and in adversity.  He had much self-com-
mand, though naturally of powerful passions, and very
tender sensibilities.   Bereaved of all hto  children in
their infancy, he could not endure the recollection of
their endearment.  On the lost evening of his life he
gave testimony  to a dear friend, of his respect foi the
Scriptures. He  departed too suddenly for me to see
him on his death bed."—Thach, Med. Biog.  A.J
  Rore'lla.  See Drosera rotundifolia.
  ROS.  Dew.
  Ros calabrinus.  The official manna is sometimes
so termed.
  Ros solis.  See Drosera rotundifolia.
  RO'SA.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linnean system.   Class, Icosandria; Order,  Poly-
gynia.  The rose.
  2.  A name  sometimes given to the erysipelas, be-
cause it begins with a redness like thot of  o rose.
  Rosa alba.  The white rose. The  flowers of this
species  possess  similar but inferior virtues to those of
the damask.
  Rosa canina.   Rosa sylvestris; Cynorrhodon; Cy-
nosbatos.   The  dog rose, or wild-brier,  or hip-tree.
Rosa—germinibus ovatis pedunculisque glabris, caule
petiolisque aculeatis, of Linneus.  Tbe fruit of this
tree, called heps, or  hips, has a sourish taste, and ob-
tains  a  place in the London  pharmacopoeia, in the
form of conserve.  It is  seldom employed but to give
form to more active remedies, in  pills, boluses, Une-
rases, &.C
  Rosa centifolia. The pharmacopoeial and syste-
matic nome of the domosk rose.  Rosa damasceda;
Rosa pallida.   The domosk rose.   The pharmaco-
poeias direct a syrup to be prepared from the petols of
this rose, Rosa—germinibus ovatis pedunculisque his-
pidis, caule hispido aculeato petiolis inermibus, of Lin-
neus ; which is  found to  be a pleasant and useful laxa-
tive  for children, or to obviate costiveness in  adulu.
Most of the roses, though much cultivated in our gar-
dens, are far from being distinctly characterized.
Those denominated varieties are extremely numerous,
and often permanently uniform; and the  specific dif-
ferences, as hitherto pointed out, are in many respects
so inadequate to the purpose of satisfactory discrimi-
nation, that it becomes a difficult matter to distinguish
which are species and which are varieties only.  The
damask rose seems  to be another species widely dif-
ferent from tbe  centifolia, as appears from the descrip-
tion given of it  by Du Roi and Miller.
  The petals are directed for medical use; they are of
a pale red colour, and of a very fragrant odour, which,
to most people, is extremely agreeable; and therefore
this and most of tbe other roses  are  much used as
nosegays.  We  may remark, however, that in some
instances,  they  have, under  certain  circumstances,
produced alarming  symptoms.  The petals "impart
      350
their odorous matter to wateiy liquors, both by Infusion
nnd distillation.  Six pounds of fresh roses impregnate,
by distillation, a gallon, or more, of water, strongly with
Iheir fine flavour.  On distilling Urge quantities, there
separates from tbe watery fluid a small portion of a
fragrant butyraccous oil, which liquefies by beat, and
appears yellow, but concretes in the cold inlo a white
mass.  A  hundred  pounds of the  flowers, according
to the  experiments  of Tacheuius  and  Huffman,  af-
forded  scarcely half on ounce of oil."   The smell of
the oil exactly resembles that of roses, and to therefore
much used as a perfume.  It  possesses very little pun-
gency, and has been highly recommended  for iu cordial
and analeptic qualities.  These flowers also contain a
bitterish substance, which is extracted by water along
with the odorous principle, and  remains  entire in tlie
decoction after the latter has been separated by distil-
lation, or evaporation.
  This fixed sapid matter ofthe petals manifests a pur
gative quality; and it is on this account that the flowers
are received in the Materia Medica.
  Rosa damascena.   See Rosa centifolia.'
  Rosa oallica. The pharmacopoeial and systematic
name of the red rose.  Rosa rubra.  The flowers of
thto species, Rosa—germinibus  ovatis pedunculisque
hispidia, caule petiolisque  hispido  aculeatis, of Lin-
neus, are valued for their adstringent qualities, which
are most considerable  before the petals  expand ;  and
therefore in thto state they are chosen for medicinal use,
and ordered by the pharmacopoeias in different prepa-
rations, as those of a conserve, or confection, a honey,
an infusion, and  a syrup.  The  infusion of roses to a
grateful cooling subadslringenl, and useful in ha.-mop-
tysis, and other hemorrhagic complainU: Its efficacy,
however, depends chiefly on the sulphuric acid added.
  Rosa pallida.  See Rosa centifolia.
  Rosa rubra.  See Rosa gallica.
  Rosa sylvestris.  See Rosa canina.
  ROSA'CEUS.  Rose-like.   1. Applied to corolla
which spread like a rose, as those of the Dry as.
  2. The term  gutta rosacea is applied to little rosy-
coloured spots  upon the face and nose.
  ROSAC1C ACID. There is deposited from the urine
of persons, labouring under gout  and inflammatory fe-
vers, a sediment of a rose  colour, occasionally in red-
dish crystals.  This was first discovered to be a peculiar
acid by M.  Proust, and afterward examined by M;
Vauquelin.  This acid is solid, of  a  lively cinnabar
hue, without smell, with a faint taste, but reddening
litmus very sensibly.  On burning coal it is decomposed
into a  pungent vapour, which has  not the odour of
burning animal  matter.  It is very soluble  in water,
and it even softens in the air.  It is soluble in alkohol
It forms soluble salu with potassa, soda, ammonia, ba-
rytes, strontites,  and lime.  It gives a slight rose-co-
loured  precipitate with acetate of lead.  It also com-
bines with lithic ocid, forming so intimate  a union,  that
the lithic acid  in precipitating from urine, carries the
other, though  a  deliquescent substance,  down along
with it.  It is obtained pure by acting on  the sediment
of urine with alkohol.
  ROSALIA.  A name in  some authors  for tlie mea-
sles, or a disease  very like the measles.
  ROSE.  See Rosa.
  Rose, damask.  See Rosa centifolia.
  Rose, dog.  See Rosa canina.
  Rosea radix.  See  Rhodiola.
  Rose, red. See Rosa gallica.
  ROSE ROOT.  See Rhodiola.
  Rose, white.  See Rosa alba,
  Rosebay willow herb. See Epilobium angustifolium.
  ROSEMARY.  See Rosmarinus.
  ROSEOLA.  (From ro*a, a rose: socaliedfrom the
colour  of the  rash.}   A rose-coloured  efflorescence,
variously figured, without wheals, or papule, and  not
contagious.  It to mostly symptomatic,  occurring in
connexion  with  different febrile complainU, and re-
quiring no deviation from  the treatment respectively
odoptedto them.
  Its principal  varieties are comprised  under the seven
following heads:
  1. The Roseola astiva appears first on  the face and
neck, and in the course of  a day or  two to distributed
over the whole body, producing a considerable degree
of itching and tingling.  It is distributed into separate
small patches,  of various figure, but larger and more
irregular forms than in the measles.  Il is at first red, 
ROS
RUB
 but soon assumes its deep roseate hue. The fauces
 are tinged with the same colour, and a slight rough-
 ness of the tonsils is felt in swallowing.
  The rash continues vivid through the second day;
 after which it declines in brightness, slight specks only
 remaining of a dark hue, on tlie  fourth day;  which,
 with the constitutional affection, wholly disappear on
 the fifth.
  The efflorescence sometimes is partial, extending
 only over portions of the foce, neck, and upper part of
 the breast and shoulders, in patches, slightly elevated,
 and itching considerably, but in this form  the disease
 continues a week or longer, the rash appearing and dis-
 appearing several times; sometimes from taking warm
 liquors, and  sometimes without  any apporent couse.
 The retrocession to usually accompanied with disorder
 of the stomach, headache, and faintncss; which are
 immediately relieved on its appearance.  It commonly
 occurs in females  of irritable constitution in summer.
 Light dieu and acidulated drinks, with occasional  lax-
 atives, palliate the symptoms.
  2. The Roseola autumnalis occurs in children, in the
 autumn, in distinct circular or oval patches, which
 gradually increase to the size of a shilling, and are of
 a dark damask rose  hue. It appears chiefly on the
 arms, sometimes desquamating, and iu  decline seems
 to be expedited by the internal use of sulphuric acid.
  3. The Roseola annulata  occurs on  almost every
 part of the body, in rose-coloured rings, with  central
 areas of the  usual colour of the skin.  When accom-
 panied with  fever iu duration '.s short: at other times,
 without any constitutional disorder, it continues for a
 considerable ond uncertain period. The rings are, at
 first, from a line to two lines in diameter, hut gradually
 dilating leave a larger central space, sometimes of the
 diameter of half an inch. The  efflorescence to  less
 vivid  (and in the  chronic form usually fades) in the
 morning, but increases in the evening or night,  and
 produces a heat ond itching in the skin.  When it be-
comes very faint  in colour for several days, the  sto-
mach is disordered, and languor,  giddiness, and pains
of the limbs  ensue, which are  relieved  by the use of
 the warm bath.
  Sea-bathing and the mineral acids afford much relief
 in the chronic forms of this rash.
  4. Roseola infantilis is a closer rash occurring in in-
 fants  during tbe irritation of dentition, of disordered
 bowels, and  in  fevers. It is very irregular in iu ap-
 pearances,  sometimes continuing only for a night,
 sometimes appearing and disappearing for several suc-
 cessive  days with violent disorder,  and sometimes
 arising in single patches in different ports of the body
successively.  It is alleviated by the remedies adopted
to relieve bowel  complainU,  painful dentition  and
other febrile affections with which it is connected.
  5. Roseola variolosa occurs  previously to  the erup-
tion both of the natural and inoculated small-pox, but
seldom before the former.   It appears in the inoculoted
disease, on the second day of the eruptive fever, which
 is generally the  ninth or tenth after inoculation.   It is
 first seen on the arms, breast, and face; and on the fol-
 lowing day it extends over the  trunk, and extremities.
  Sometimes it  is distributed in oblong  irregular
 patches, sometimes diffused with numerous interstices,
 and sometimes  it forms an almost continuous redness
over the whole body, being in some parte slightly  ele-
 vated.  It continues about three days, on the second or
 last of which, the variolous pustules may be distin-
 guished, iu the general redness, by their rounded eleva-
 tion, hardness, and whiteness of their tops.
  6. Roseola vaccina appears generally in a congeries
of dou and  small patches, but sometimes diffuse  like
the former; takes place on the ninth or tenth day after
 vaccination, at the place of inoculation,  and at the
same time with the areola that to formed round the ve-
sicle, from whence it spreads irregularly over the whole
surface of Ihe body.
  It is usually attended with a very quick pulse, white
tongue, and great  restlessness.
  7. Roseola miliaris often accompanies an eruption of
miliary vesicles after fever.  It is sometimes connected
with attacks of the gout and ofthe febrile rheumatism,
accompanied with considerable fever, extreme languor
 and depression of  spiriu, total loss of oppetite, and tor-
 pid bowels, and terminates on the seventh day by  des-
quamation.
  ROSEWOOD.  See Rhodium lignum.
  ROSEWORT.  See Rhodiola
  ROSIN.  See Resina.
  ROSMARI'NUS.   (Quasi rosa, opvpva, becouse it
smells like myrrh.)  I. The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnean system.  Class, Diandria;  Order,
Monognyia.
  2. The pharmacopeia! name of the  common rose-
mary.
  Rosmarinus hortensis.  See Rosmarinus  offici-
nalis.
  Rosmarinus  officinalis.   The  systematic  name
of the common  rosemary.  Rosmarinus hortensis ;
Libanotis coronaria; Dendrolibanus; Rosmarinus, of
Linneus.  The leaves and tops of this plant have a
fragrant aromatic smell, and a bitterish  pungent taste.
Rosemary to reckoned one of the most powerful of
those planu which stimulate  and  corroborate  the
nervous system; it hos therefore been recommended in
various affections supposed to proceed from debility, or
defective excitement of the  brain and nerves,  as in
certain headaches, deafness, giddiness, and in some
hysterical and dyspeptic symptoms.  The officinal pre-
parations of rosemary are,  an essential  oil from their
leaves, or from the  herb in flower, a conserve of the
flowers, ond o spirit formerly colled Hungary water,
from the flowery tops.   The tops are also  used in tbe
compound spirit of Lavender, and soap liniment.
  Rosmarinus svlvestris.  See Ledum palustre.
  ROSTELLUM.   A .little  beak.   Applied to that
part of the seed which to pointed, penetrates the earth,
and becomes the root.  See Corculum.
  ROSTRATUS. Rostrate.   Applied to the pod of
the Sinapis alba.
  ROSTRUM.  (From rodo,  to gnaw; because birds
use it to tear their food with.) 1. A beak.
  2. The piece of flesh which hangs between the di
vision of the hare-lip is called rostrum leporinum.
  3. Applied in botany to  some elongation of a seed-
vessel, originating from the  permanent style;  as in
Geranium: though it is also  used for naked seeds; as
Scandix.
  ROTACE^E.  (From rota,  a wheel.)  The name of
an order of planu in Linnaeus's Fragments of a Natural
Method, consisting of those which have one flat wheel-
shaped petal.
  ROTACISMUS.  The harsh or asperated vibration
of the letter r or po, which  to  very common in tiie
northern parts of England.
  ROTANG.  See Calamus rotang.
  ROTA'TOR.  (From roto,  to turn:)  A muscle the
office of which is to  wheel  about the thigh.
  ROTATUS.  Rotate, or wheel-like; salver-sbaped
Applied to the corolls, nectary, &c; as the nectary of
the Cyssampdos, the corolla of the Borago officinalis.
  RO'TULA.  (Diminutive of rota, a wheel: so called
from iu shape.)   See Patella.
  ROTUNDUS.   See Round.
  ROUGE.  See Carthamus  tinctorius.
  ROUND.  Rotundus.  Many parts of animals and
vegetables receive thto trivial  name from their shape;
as round ligaments, round  foramen, &c;  and leaves,
stems, seeds, Sec. as the seed of the Pisum Brassica, Sec.
  Round-leaved sorrel.  See Rumex scutatus.
  Round ligaments.   Ligamenta rotunda.  A bun-
dle of vessels ond fibres contoined in a duplicoture of
the peritoneum, that proceed from the sides of the
uterus, through the abdominal rings, and disappear in
tbe pudenda.
  RUBE'DO.  (From mbcr, red.1  A diffused, but not
spotted, redness in any part of the skin; such as that
which arises from blushing.
  RUBEFACIENT. (Rubefaciens; from rubefacio,
to make red.)  That substance which, when applied
a certain time to tbe skin,  Induces a redness without
blistering.
  RUHELTTE.   Red tourmalin.  •
  RUBE'OLA.   (From ruber, red; or from rubeo, to
become red.)  Morbili.  The measles.  A genus of
disease in the Class Pyrexia,  and Order Exanthemata,
of Cullen; known by synocha, hoarseness, dry cough,
sneezing, drowsiness; about  the fourth day, eruption
or small red pointe, discernible by the touch, which,
after three days, ends in mealy desquamation.   The
blood, after  venaesection,  exhibits  an inflammatory
crust.  In addition to the symptoms  already related, it
is remarkable, that the eyes and eyelids always show
tiie presence of this disease, being somewhat inflamed
                                        251 
RUB
RUB
 and suffused with team.  The synocha continues dur-
 ing the whole progress of the disease.  In systems of
 nosology, several varieties of measles are mentioned,
 but  ihey may be all  comprehended under two heads;
 the  one attended with more or  less of the symptoms
 of generol inflammation ; tbe other accompanied by a
 putrid diathesis.
   The measles may prevail at  all seasons of the year
 as an epidemic, but the middle of winter is the time
 they are usually most prevalent; and they attack per-
 sons of all ages, but children are most liable to them.
 They prove most  unfavourable  to  such as are of a
 plethoric or scrofulous habit. Like the small-pox, they
 never affect persons but once in their  life ;  their con-
 tagion appeors to be of a specific nature.  The eruption
 to usually preceded by a general uneasiness, chilliness,
 and shivering, pain in  the  head,  in grown persons;
 but in children a heaviness and soreness in the throat;
 sickness and vomiting, with other affections, such os
 nappen in  most fevers; but  the chief characteristic
 symptoms  are,  a heaviness about  the eyes,  with
 swelling, inflammation, and adefluxionof sharptenrs,
 and great acuteness of sensation, so that they cannot
 bear the light without pain, together with a discharge
 of such serous  humour from the nostrils, which pro-
 duce sneezing.   The heat and other febrile symptoms,
 increase very rapidly;  to which succeeds a frequent
 and dry cough, a stuffing, great oppression, and often-
 times retching to vomit, with violent pains in the loins,
 and sometimes a looseness; at other times there is
 great sweating, the tongue foul  and white, the thirst
 very great, and, in  general, the fever runs much higher
.than in the milder sort of the regular small-pox.  The
 eruptions appear  about the fourth or fifth  day, ond
 sometimes about the end of the third.  On the  third or
 fourth day from their first appearance, the redness di-
 minishes, the spots, orrery small  papula;, dry up, the
 cuticle peels off, and is  replaced  by a new one.  The
 symptoms do not go off on tbe eruption, as in the small-
 pox, except the vomiting; the cough and  headache
 continue, with  the weakness and defluxion  on  the
 eyes, and a considerable  degree  of fever.    On the
 ninth or eleventh  day, no  trace of redness is to be
 found, but the skin assumes ite wonted  appearance;
 yet,  without there have been some considerable  eva-
 cuations cither by the skin, or by vomiting, the patient
 will hardly  recover strength, but the cough will  con-
 tinue, the fever return with new  violence, and bring
 on great distress and danger.
   In the more alarming cases, spasms of the limbs,
 suhsultus, tendinnm, delirium, or what more frequently
 happens, coma, supervene.  This last symptom so fre-
 quently attends the eruptive fever  of measles, that by
 some practitioners it is  regarded  as one of iu diag-
 nostics.
   In measles, as in other febrile diseases, the symp-
 toms generally suffer some remission towards  the
 morning, returning however towards the evening with
 increased severity.
   The measles, even when violent, are not usually
 attended with a putrid  tendency; but it sometimes
 hoppens, that such a disposition prevails both in  the
 course of the disease ond at iu termination.  In such
 cases, petechia; are to be observed  interspersed  among
 the eruptions, ond  these lost become livid, or assume
 almost a black colour.  Hemorrhages break out from
 different paru of the body, the pulse becomes frequent,
 feeble, and  perhaps  irregular,  universal debility  en-
 sues, and the patient is destroyed.
   In those cases where there fa much fever, with great
 difficulty of breathing,  and  other  symptoms of pneu-
 monic inflammation,  or where there is great debility,
 with a tendency to putrescency, there will always be
 considerable danger; but the consequences attendant
 on the measles are in general more to be dreaded than
 the immediate disease ; for although a person may get
 through if, and appear for a time to be recovered, still
 hectic symptoms  and  pulmonary consumption shall
 afterward arise, and destroy him, or an ophthalmia
 ■boll ensue.
   Measles, as well as small-pox, not unfrequently call
 into action  a disposition to scrofula, where such hap-
 pens to exist in the habit  Another bad  consequence
 ofthe measles is, tiratthe bowels are often left by them
 in a very weak  state ; a chronic diarrhoea remaining,
 which has  sometimes proved fatal. Dropsy has also
 been known as a consequence of measles.
      *53
  The morbid atfpearanees to be Observed on dissec-
tions of those who die of measles are pretty much
confined to the lungs and intestines:  the former of
which always show strong marks of inflammation, and
sometimes a  tendency to sphacelus.  Where the pa-
tient dies under the eruption, the trachea and larger
branches of the bronchia, as in the small-pox, ore often
covered with it, which may account for the increase ol
the cough after the appearance of the eruption.
  In the treatment of  this disorder, as it usually ap-
pears, the object is  to  moderate the  accompanying
synocha fever, and attend to the state of certain or-
gans, particularly the lungs nnd the bowels.  When
there are no  urgent local symptoms, it will  be com-
monly sufficient to pursue the general antiphlogistic
plan, (avoiding, however, too free or sudden exposure
to cold,) keeping the bowels open,  and encouraging
diaphoresis  by mild  antimonials, Sec.   Sometimes,
however, in plethoric habiu, especially where the lungs
are  weak, it will be proper to begin by a moderate
abstraction of blood.  Wnere the eruption has been
imprudently checked, much  distress usually follows,
and It will be advisable to endeavour  to bring It out
again by the warm bath, with other means of increas-
ing  the action of the cutaneous vessels.  Should an
inflammatory determination of the lungs occur, more
active evacuations  must be practised,  as explained
under the head of Pneumonia.  The cough may be pol-
lioted by opium, joined  with expectorants, demulcents,
&c.: and an occasional  emetic will be proper, when
there to  much  wheezing.   Where diarrhoea lakes
place, it is better not to attempt to suppress it at once;
but if troublesome, moderate ittiy small doses of opium,
assisted perhaps by astringents.  At the decline  of the
disorder, much  attention is often required to prevent
phthisis pulmonalis supervening.  Should the disorder
ever put on a putrid character, the general plan pointed
out under Typhus must be pursued.
  RU'BIA.   (From rufrer, red: so called from iu red
roou.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in  the Lin-
naean system.  Closs, Tetrandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2.  The  pharmacopoeial name of the  madder plant,
Rubia tindorum.
  Rubia tinctorum.  The  systematic  name  of the
madder plant  Erythrodanum ; Rubia major ;  Radix
rubra.  Dyers' madder.  Rubia—foliis annuis, caule
aculeato, of Linnaeus.  The rooU of this plant have a
bitterish, somewhat austere taste, and a slight smell,
not of the agreeoble kind.  It was formerly considered
as a deobstruent, detergent, and diuretic, but it is now
very seldom used.
  RUBI'GO.   (Rubigo,  inis. f.; c\ colore rubro, from
Its red colour.)  Rust
  Rubigo cupri.  Seo Verdigris.
  Rubigo ferri.  See Ferri subcarbonas.
  Rubi'nus.  (From ruber, red: so named  from its
colour.)  A carbuncle.  See Anthrax.
  Rubinus verus.   See Anthrax.
  RUBULI.  (From rubus, n blackberry or raspberry.)
The specific name in Good's Nosology of  the yaws.
  RU'BUS.   (From rnocr, red: so called from iu red
fruit.)  The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean
system.   Class, Icosandria; Order, Polygynia.
  Rubus arcticus.  The systematic  name of  the
shrubby strawberry.  Rubus—foliis  alternatis, cdule
inermi unifiora.  The berries, Bacca norlandiea, ore
recommended by Linnxus as possessing antiseptic, re
frigcrant, and antiscorbutic qualities.
  Rubus cjesius.  The systematic name of the dew-
berry plant, the fruit of which resembles the blackberry
in appearance and qualities.
  Rubus chamamorus.  The systematic name of the
cloudberry-tree. Chamamorus; Chamarubus foliis ribis
Anglica; Rubus palustris humilis; Vaccinium Lancas-
trense;Rubus alpinushumilis Anglicus.  Cloudberries
and  knotberries.  The ripe fruit of this plant, Rubus
—foliis simplicibus lobatis, caule intcrno unifloro, of
Linneus, is prepared into a jam ; and is recommended
to allay thirst, &c. in fevers, phthisical diseases,  hae-
moptysis, Sec.  As  an antiscorbutic, it is said to excel
the scurvy-grass and other vegetables of that tribe in
common  use.
  Rubus fruticosus.   The systematic  name  of the
common  bramble,  which  affords blackberries.  The
berries are eaten in abundance by children,  and  are
wholesome and gently aperient.  Too lnrge quantities
however, when the stomach is weak, produce  vomit' 
RUM
RUS
fag and great distention of the belly, from flatus.  See
Fruits, summer.
  Rubus idjsus.  The systematic name of the rasp-
berry.  Batinon; Moron.  Rubus—foliis quinato-pin-
natis ternatisque, caule aculeata, petialia canaliculatis,
of Linneus.  The fruit of this plant has a pleasant
sweet taste,  accompanied with a peculiar grateful fla-
vour, on account of which it is chiefly valued.  Its
virtues consist in allaying heat and thirst, and promot-
ing the natural excretions.  A grateful syrup prepared
from the juice is directed for officinal use.
  [Rubus trivialis.  See Blackberry.  A.]
  [Rubus villosus.  See Blackberry.  A.]
  RUBY.  See Sapphire.
  RU'CTUS.  An eructation.
  RUE.  See Ruta graveolens.
  Rue, goats.   See  Galega.
  Run pilul£.   Rufus's  pills.  A compound  very
similar to tbe aloitic pills wilh myrrh.  See Pilula
aloes cum myrrha,
  RUFUS,  the  Ephesiau, a physician and anatomist
of considerable  eminence in  the reign of Trajan, es-
teemed by Galen one of the most able of his prede-
cessors.  He troced the origin of the nerves in the
brain by dissecting brutes, aud considered some of them
as contributing to motion, otberato sensation. He even
observed the capsule of the crystalline lens in tbe eye.
He considered the heart as tlie seat of life, and of the
animal heat, and as the origin of the pulse, which he
ascribed to the spirit of iu left ventricle and of the
arteries.  There is  a very respectable treatise by him
on tlie Diseases of the Urinary Organs, and tbe Method
of curing them.  He also wrote a good work on Pur-
gative Medicines; and a little treatise on the Names
given by the Greeks to the different Parte of the Body.
Galen affirms also, that  Rufus was the author of an
Essay on the Materia Medica, in  verse; and  Suidas
mentions others on  the  Atra bilis, Sec, but these are
all lost
  R  U G O S U S.  Rugged.  A term  applied  to  a
leaf, when  the veins are tighter than the surface be-
tween  them, causing the latter to swell into little ine-
qualities, as the various species of sage.   The seeds of
the Lithospermum arvense are rugose.
  RUM.  A spirituous liquor, well known, the pro-
duce of the sugar-cane.
  RU'MEX.  (Rumex, ids. m.; a sort of pike, spear, or
halberd, which the shape of the leaves in various spe-
cies  much resembles.) The name of a genus of plants
in the Linna-an  system.  Class, Hexandria; Order,
Trigynia.  The dock.
  Rumex acetosa.  The  systematic name of the
common sorrel.  Acetosa; Acetosa vulgaris; Acetosa
pratensis; Acetosa  arvensis.  Sorrel; sour-dock. Ru-
mex—foliis  oblongis  sagittatis, floribus diaciis, of
Linneus. The leaves of this  plant are sour, but not
the root, wbich to bitter.  It grows in the meadows and
common fields.
  Rumex acutus.  The systematic name of the sharp-
pointed wild-dock.   Oxylapathum;  Lapathum.  Ru-
mex—floribus liermaphroditis;  valvulis dentatis gra-
niferis, foliis cordato oblongis acuminatis, of Lin-
neus.  The decoction of the root of this plant is used
in Germany to cure the itch; and it appears to  have
been used in the time of Dioscorides, in the cure of
leprous and impetiginous affections, both alone and
boiled with vinegar.
  Rumex alpinus.   The systematic name of the  plant
which affords  the  monk's rhubarb.  See Rumex pa-
tientia.
  Rumex aquaticus.  See Rumex hydrolapathum.
  ["Rumex britannica.   The  common American
water-dock, which  grows  in wet, boggy soils, end
upon the margin of  ditches, is a moderately stimulating
and astringent  plant It is esteemed by many coun-
try practitioners as  a local application to indolent and
ill-conditioned ulcers. A strong decoction of the root is
usually employed as a wosh in these cases.  Some-
times an ointment,  formed by simmering the root in
hog's lard, to beneficially applied in  herpes.  The use
of this plant, according to Colden, was learned from the
Indians."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  Rumex crispus.  The systematic name of the crisp-
leaved dock.
  Rumex hydrolapathum.  The systematic name of
the water-dock.   Hydrolapathum ;  Rumex aquations ; t
Herba Britannica; Lapathum aquaticum.  The wa-
ter-dock.  Rumex—floribus hermaphroditie, valvulie
integrie> graniferis, foliis  lanceolatis,  of Linneus.
The leaves of this plant manifest considerable acidity,
and are said to possess a laxative quality.  The root is
strongly adstringent, and has been much employed,
both externally and internally, for the cure of some
diseases of the skin, as scurvy, lepra, lichen, &c.  The
root powdered is said to be an excellent dentifrice.
  [" Rumex obtusifolius.  This species of dock to a
foreign plant, naturalized as a weed in the cultivated
grounds in this country.  The root is bitterish and as-
tringent  A decoction, token internally, is laxative
Externally it is applied for the cure of ulcers and cuta-
neous diseases, and sometimes with very good effect.
The Rumex crispus, or curled dock, another important
weed, resembles this in its  qualities, and, in the form
of ointment or decoction, is found to cure mild cases of
psora and other eruptions."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  Rumex  patientia.   The systematic name ofthe
garden  patience.  Rhabarbarum monachorum;  Hip-
polapathum;  Patientia.  Monk's rhubarb.  The root
of thto plant, and that of the Rumex alpinus,  accord-
ing to Professor Murray, is supposed to possess  tbe
virtues of rhubarb, but in an inferior degree.   It to ob-
viously more adstringent than rhubarb, but comes very
far short of iu purgative virtue.
  Rumex  sanguineus.  The systematic name of tbe
bloody dock, the root of which has an  oustere and ad-
stringent taste, and to  sometimes given  by the vulgar
in the cure of dysentery.
  Rumex  scutatus.   The systematic  name of  the
French  sorrel, sometimes  called acetosa rotundifolia,
in the shops.  Acetosa  romana; Acetosa rotundifolia
hortensis.  Roman, or garden sorrel.   Rumex—foliis
cordato-hastatis, ramis divergentibus,  floribus her-
maphroditis, of Linnaeus.  It is common in our gar-
dens, and  in  many places is  known  by the culinary
name of Green-sauce.  Its virtues are similar to those
of common sorrel.  See Rumex acetosa.
  RUNCINATUS.  Runcinate:  applied  to  leaves
which are shaped like tbe tooth of a lion: that is, cut
into several transverse, acute segments, pointing back-
wards ; as in  Leontodon  taraxacum,  called from the
shape of iu leaf, dens de lion, and hence Dandelion.
  Rupellensis sal.  (From Rupella, Rochella, where
it was first made.)  Rochelle salt.  See  Soda  tartari-
zata.
  RUPTU'RA.  Bee Hernia.
  RUPTURE. See Hemia.
  RUPTURE-WORT.  See Hemiaria.
  RU'SCUS.  (A russo colore, from the carnation co -
lour of its berries.)  1. The  name of a genus of planu
in the Linnean system.  Class, Diacia; Order, Syn-
genesia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the butcher's broom.
Ruscus aculeatus.
  Ruscus aculeatus.  The systematic name of
butcher's  broom, or knee holly.  Bruscus;  Oxymyr-
rhine ;  Oxymyrsine; Myrtacantha ; Myacantha; Sco-
pa  regia.  Wild  myrtle.   A small evergreen shrub,
the Rucus foliis supra floriforis nudis  of Linnsus.
It grows in woods  and thickets in this country.  The
root, which is somewhat thick, knotty, and furnished
with long  fibres,  externally brown, internally white,
and of a bitterish taste, has  been recommended as an
operient and diuretic in dropsies, urinary obstructions,
and nephritic cases. It is seldom used in thto country.
See Ruscus.
  Ruscus hypoolossum.  The systematic name of
be  uvularia.   This plant was formerly used  against
relaxation of the uvula, but to now laid aside for more
adstringent remedies.
  RUSH.   See Arundo.
  ["RUSH, Benjamin, M. D., was born  in December,
1745, near the city of Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania,
and he died in that city in  April, 1813, aged 68 years.
Dr. Rush was a man of small stature, but of a strong
and vigorous mind.  During the eventful period of his
life, he occupied the distinguished consideration of his
countrymen, as one ofthe patriots of the American Re-
volution, as an able physician, as a professor in the me*
dical school of Philadelphia, as a philanthropist, and aa
an exemplary Christian.  Hto writings,  on subjecu con-
nected with his professional pursuits, are numerous,
and worthy the attention of members of the profession.
Such as were printed during his life-time, treat on the
following  subjecu, viz.:—"An Inquiry into the Natu» 
RUS
RUT
ral History of Medicine  among the Indians of North
America, and a comparative View of their  Diseases
and Remedies, with those of civilized Nations."—"An
Account ofthe Climate of Pennsylvania, and  iu Influ-
ence upon the Human Body."—"An Account of the
Bilious Remitting Fever,  as it appeared in Philadelphia
in the Summer and Autumn ol i /80."—" An Account
of the  Scarlatina Auginiea,  as H appeared iu Phila-
delphia in  1783 and  "1784."—"An Inquiry  into the
Cause  and Cure of the Cholera Infantum."—"Obsert
vations on the Cynonche Trachealis."—" An Accoun-
of the Efficacy of Blisters and Bleeding in the Cure of
obstinate Intermitting Fevers."—" An Account of the
Disease occasioned by drinking Cold Water in Warm
Weather, and Ihe Method of curing it."—" An Account
of the Efficacy of common Salt in the cure of Hemop-
tysis."—-" Thoughts  on the Cause  and  Cure of Pul-
monary Consumption."—"Observations  upon Worms
in the alimentary Canal,  and  upon anthelmintic Medi-
cines."—"An Account of the external use of Arsenic
in the cure of Cancers."—" Observations on tbe Te-
tanus."—" The Result of Observations made upon the
Diseases which occurred in the  Military Hospitals of
the United States, during the Revolutionary War."—
" An Account ofthe Influence of military and political
Evenu of the American Revolution upon the Human
Body."—" An Inquiry into the Relations of Tastes and
Alimenu on each other, and upon the Influence of this
Relation upon Health and  Pleasure."—" The new Meth-
od of inoculating for the Small-pox."—" An Inquiry into
the Effecu of ardent Spiriu upon the Humon Mind and
Body, with an Account  of the Means of preventing,
and the Remedies for curing them."—"Observations on
the Duties of Physicians, and the Methods of improving
Medicines;  accommodated to the present State of So-
ciety and Manners in the United States."—" An In-
quiry into the Causes and Cure of sore Legs."—" An
Account ofthe State of the Body and Mind in Old Age,
with Observations on its Diseases ond their Reme-
dies."—" An Inquiry into the Influence of Physical
Causes upon the Moral Faculty."—" Observotions upon
me Cause and Cure  of  Pulmonary Consumption."—
" Observations upon the Symptoms and Cure  of Drop-
sies."—" Inquiry into the Cause and Cure of Gout."—
" Observations on the Nature and Cure  of Hydro-
phobia."—" An Account  of the  Measles as they ap-
peared  in Philadelphia in llie Spring of  17eS9."—" An
Account of the Influenza, as  it appeared in Philadel-
phia in the years 1790 and 1791."—"An  Inquiry into the
Cause of Animal Life."—" Outlines of a Theory of
Fever."—" An Account of the Bilious Yellow Fever,
as it appeared in Philadelphia in 1793, and of each suc-
cessive year till 1805."—" An Inquiry into the various
Sources of the usual Forms of the  Summer and  Au-
tumnal  Diseases in the United States, and the Meons
of preventing them."—"Facts intended  to prove the
Yellow Fever not contagious."—" Defence of Blood-
letting, as a Remedy in certain Diseases.—" An Inquiry
into the comparative States of Medicine in Philadel-
phia, between the years  1760 and  1766  and  1805."—
"A Volume  of Essays:  Literary,  Moral, and Philo-
sophical, in which the following  Subjecu are  dis-
cussed:—A Plan for establishing  Public Schools in
Philadelphia,  and for conducting Educotion ogreeobly
to o Republican Form of Government.  Addressed to
the Legislature and Citizens  of Pennsylvania, in the
year 1786.—Of the Mode of Education proper in a Re-
public—Observations upon the Study of the Latin and
Greek Languages, as a Branch of liberal Edqcation;
with Hinu of a Plan of liberal Instruction  without
them, accommodated to tbe present State of Society,
Manners, and Government,  in the United States.—
Thoughu  upon  the  AmusemenU  and  Punishmenu
which  are proper for Schools.—Thoughu upon Female
Education, accommodated to tbe present State of So-
ciety, Manners, and Government in the Uniled States
of America.—A Defence ofthe Bible as a School-book.—
An Address to the Ministers of the Gospel of every de-
nomination in the United  States, upon Subjecu interest-
ing to Morals.—An Inquiry into the Consistency of the
Punishment  of Murder  by Death, with Reason and
Revelation.—A Plan of a Peace Office for the United
States.—Information to Europeans who are disposed to
emigrate to the United Statcsof America.—An Account
of the  Progress of Population, Agriculture, Manners,
and Government, in  Pennsylvania. -An Account of
the Manners  of the German  Inhubitanu of Pennsyl-
      2S4
vanra.—Thoughu on Common Sense.—An Account of
the Vices peculiar to the Indians of North America.—
Observations upon the Influence of the Habitual Use of
Tobacco, upon Health, Morals, and Property.—An Ac-
count ofthe Sugar Maple-tree ofthe United Slates—An
Account of the Life and Death of Ed ward Drinker, who
died on the 17th of November, 1782, in the one hundred
and third year of hto age.—Remarkable Circumstances
in the Constitution and  Life of Ann Woods, on  old
Woman of ninety-six  years of  age— Biographical
Anecdotes  of  Benjamin Lny.—Biographical Anec-
dotes of Anthony Benezet—Poradisc of Negro Slaves,
a Dream.—Eulogium upon Dr. William Cullen.—En-
loglum  upon David. Rittenhouse."—" A  Volume  of
Lectures,"  most of which were introductory to  his
annual Course of Lectures on the Institutes nnd Prac-
tice of  Medicine.—"Medical Inquiries and Observn
tions on the Diseases of the Mind."— Thach.  Med.
Biog.  A.]
  Rush-nut. See Cyperus esculentus.
  Rush, sweet.  See  Andropogon schananthus,  and
Acorus calamy.
  RUSSELL, Alexander, was o native of Edinburgh,
where he received his medical education, and after
ward become  physician to the English factory at
Aleppo, where he resided several years.   He soon ob-
tained a proud pre-eminence above all the practitioners
there, and was consulted by persons of every descrip-
tion.  The pacha particularly distinguished him by his
friendship, and sought his advice on  every act of  im-
portance.  In 1755, he published his " Natural History
of Aleppo," a valuable and interesting work, contain-
ing especially some important  observations  relative
to the Plague.  On his return to England four years
after, he settled in London, and was elected physician
to St Thomas's hospital, which  office he retained till
his death in 1770.  He presented several valuable com-
munications to the Royal Society, as also to the Medi-
cal Society.
  RUSSELL, Patrick, was brother of the preceding,
and his successor as  physician to the English factory
ai Aleppo.   He published a copious treatise on  the
Plague, having had ample opportunities of treating that
disease during 1760, and the  two following years.  In
thto work he has fully discussed the important subject
of Quarantine, Lazarettoes, and the Police to be
adopted in times of Pestilence.  He likewise  gave to
the public a new edition of his brother's work on a
very enlarged scale.
  Russia ashes.   The  Impure potassa,  as imported
from Russia.
  Rust.  A carbonate of iron.
  RU'TA.   (From pvta,  to  preserve, because it pre-
serves health.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in
the Linmcan system.'  Class, Decandria; Order Mo-
nogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the common  rue.
See Ruta graveolens.
  Ruta oraveolens. The systematic nome of  the
common rue. Ruta—foliis  decompositis, floribus la-
teralibus quadrifidis, of Linnaeus.  Rue  hos a strong
ungrateful smell, and a bitter, hot, penetrating taste •
the leoves are so acrid, that by much handling thev
have been known to irritate and inflame the skin ■ and
the  plant, in its natural or uncultivated state, is said to
possess these sensible qualities still more powerfully
The imaginary quality of the rue, in  resisting and ex-
pelling contagion, is now disregarded.  It to doubtless a
powerful stimulant, and to considered, like other me-
dicines ofthe foetid kind,  as possessing attenuating de-
obstruent, and antispasmodic powers. In the former
London Pharmacopoeia it was directed in the form of
an extract; and was also an ingredient in the pulvis e
myrrha  comp.,  but these  are now omitted.  The dose
ofthe leaves is from fifteen grains to two scruples.
  Ruta muraria.  See Asplenium ruta muraria.
  RUTIDO'SIS.   A corrugation and subsiding of tbe
cornea of the eye.  The species ore,
  1. Rutidosis, from a wound or puncture penetrating
the cornea.
  2. Rutidosis, from a fistula penetrating the cornea.
  3. Rutidosis, from a deficiency of the aqueous  hu-
mour, which happens from old age, fevers, great and
continued evacuations, and in extreme dryness of the
air.
  4. Rutidosis, of dead  person*, when  the aqueous
humour exhales through  the cornea, and no fresh hu- 
SAC
SAC
mour is secreted ; so that the cornea becomes obscure
and collapsed: this is a most certain sign of death.
  RUTILE.  An ore of titanium.
  Ruiula.  (From  ruta, rue.)  A smell species of
rue
  RUYSCH, Frederick, was born at the Hague, in
1638.   After going through the preliminary studies with
great  zeal, he graduated at Leyden in 1664, and then
settled in hto native city.  In the  following year he
published his treotise on the lacteal ond  lymphatic
vessels;  in consequence of which  he was invited to
the chair of anatomy at Amsterdam.  From  that pe-
riod hto  attention wos chiefly devoted to anatomical
researches, both human and comparative; and he con-
tributed materially to the improvement of the art of in-
jecting, for the purpose of demonstrating minute struc-
ture, and preserving the natural appearance of parts.
His museum became ultimately the most magnificent
that any private  individual had ever accumulated;
and being at length purchased by the czar Peter for
thirty  thousand florins, he immediately set about a new
collection.  He appears not to have paid sufficient at-
tention to inform himself of the writings  of others,
whence he sometimes arrogated to himself what was
i reaBy before known, which led him into several con-
 troversies; but hto indefatigable researches in anatomy
 were certainly rewarded with many discoveries.  In
 1685, he was appointed professor of physic, and  re-
 ceived subsequently several marks  of distinction, as
 well in hto own as from  foreign countries. In 1738, he
 had the  misfortune to break his thigh by a foil in hto
 chamber, and the remainder of his life, for about three
 years, was chiefly occupied in proceeding with hto new
 museum, in which his youngest daughter assisted him.
 Besides his controversial tracu, he published  several
 other works, chiefly anatomical; " Observntionum
 Aunt  Chirurg.   Centuria;" twelve essays under the
 title of" Thesaurus Anatomicus," at different periods,
 the last containing Remarks on the Anatomy of Vege-
 tables ;  a  "  Thesaurus Animalium,"  with plates;
 three decades of " Adversaria Anat Chirurg.  Me-
 dica," tec.
  Ruyschiana tunica.  The internal surface of the
 choroid membrane of the human eye, which this cele-
 brated anatomist imagined was a distinct lamina from
 the external surface.
  Rvas.  See Rhaas.
  RYE.  See Secale cereale.
be saponacea, edulcorans, rclaxans, pectoralis, vulnc
raria,  antiseptica,  nutriens.  In catarrhal affections,
both sugar and honey are frequently employed: it has
also been advantageously used in calculous complainU;
and from iu known power in preserving animal and
vegetable substances from putrefaction, it has been
given with a view to its antiseptic effecu.   Sugar
candy, by dissolving slowly in the mouth, is well suited
to relieve tickling  coughs and  hoarseness.  Sugar to
every where tbe basis of that whicli to called sweetness.
Iu  presence is  previously necessary in order to the
taking  place  of vinous fermentation.  Its extraction
from planu, which  afford it in the greatest abundance,
and iu refinement for the common uses of life, in a pure
state, are among the most important of the chemical
manufactures.
  The following is  the mode of its manufacture in the
West Indies: The  plants ore cultivated in rows, on
fields enriched by such manures os can most easily be
procured, ond tilled with the plough.  They  ore an-
nually cut. The cuttings are carried to the mill. They
are cut into short pieces, and arranged in small bundles.
The mill is wrought by water,  wind, or cattle. The
parte which act  ori the canes  are  upright cylinders.
Between these the  canes are inserted, compressed till
all their juice to obtained from them, and themselves,
sometimes, even reduced to  powder.  One of these
mills, of the best construction, bruises canes to such a
quantity  as to afford, in one day, 10,000 gallons of
juice, when wrought with only ten mules.  The ex-
pressed juice is received into a leaden bed. It is thence
conveyed into a vessel called the receiver.  The juice
is found to consist of eight parts of pure water, one part
of sugar,  one  part of oil and gummy mucilage. From
the greener paru of the canes there to opt to be  at times
derived an ocid juice, wliich tends to bring the whole
unseasonably into a state of acid fermentation. Frag-
ments of the ligneous part of the cane, some portions of
mud or dirt which unavoidably remain  on the canes,
and a blackish substance called  the crust, which coated
the canes at the joints, are also apt to enter into conta-
minating mixture with the juice.  From the  receiver
tbe juice is conducted along a wooden gutter lined with
leod, to the boiling-house. In  the boiling-house it is
received  into copper pans or caldrons, which have the
name of clarifiers.  Of these cloriffers the number and
the capacity must  be in proportion to the quantity of
canes, and the extent of the sugor plantation on which
the work is carried on.   Each clarificr has a syphon or
cock, by which the liquor to to be drawn off.  Each
hangs  over a separate fire; and this fire must be so
confined, that by the drawing of an iron slider fitted to
the chimney, the fire may be at any lime put  out.  1*
the progress ofthe operations the stream of juice from
 S|   A. The contraction of secundum artem.         I
 *'•  S, or ss.  Immediately following any quantity,
 imports semis, or half.
   Sabadilla.  See Cevadilla.
   SABI'NA.   Named from the Sabines, whose prieste
 used it  in their religious ceremonies.  See Juniperus
 sabina.
   H.ABULOUS. (Sabulosis; fromsabulum,finegravel.)
gritty, sandy. Applied to the calcareous matter in
 urine.
   SABU'RRA.  Dirt, sordes, filth.  Foulness of the
 stomach, of which authors mention  several kinds, as
 the acid, the bitter, the  empyreumaric,  the insipid, the
 putrid.
   SACCATED.   (Saccatus,  encysted.)  Encysted or
 contained in a bay-like membrane, applied to tumours,
 Sec.  See Ascites saccatus.
   Saochari acidum.   See Mucic acid.
   SA'CCHARUM.   CZaxxapov,  from sachar, Ara-
 bian.)   1. The name of a  genus of plants in the Lin-
 nn-an system.  Class,  Triandria;  Order, Digynia.
 The sugar-cane.
   2.  The sweet substance called sugar.  See  Saccha-
 rum officinale.
   Saccharum acernuM.   See Acer saccharinum.
   Saccharum album.  Refined sugar.
   Saccharum aluminis.  Alum mixed with dragon's
 blood and dried.
   Saccharum canadense. See Acer pseudo platanus.
   Saccharum candidum.  Sugar-candy.
   Saccharum non purificatum.  Brown sugar.
   Saccharum officinale.  (Brando saccharifera of
 Sloane.  The systematic name ofthe cane from which
 sugar  to obtained.  Suchar; Succhar;  Sutter; Zu-
 char ;  Zucaro;  Zozar of the Arabians. Xaxxap n
 aaxxapov, of the Greeks.)  Sugar is prepared in the
 West and East Indies from the expressed juice of this
 plant boiled with the addition of quick-lime or common
 vegetable alkali. It may be extracted also from a
 number of plants, las the  maple,  birch, wheat, corn,
 beet-root, skirret, parsnips,  and dried grapes, &c. by
 digesting in alkohol.  The alkohol dissolves the sugar,
 and leaves the  extractive matter untouched, which
 falls to the bottom.  It  may be taken into the stomach
 in very large quantities, without producing any  bad
 consequences, although proofs are not wanting of iu
 mischievous effects, by relaxing the stomach, and thus
 inducing disease. It is much used in  pharmacy, as it
 forms the basis of syrups, lozenges, and other prepara-
 tions.   It is  very useful as  a medicine, although it
 cannot be considered to possess much power, to favour
 the solution or suspension  of resins, oils, Sec. in water,
 and is given as a purgative for infants.  Dr. Cullen
 classes it with the atteiiuantia, and Bcrgius states it to
S 
SAC
SAC
the receiver fills theclnrifiers with fresh liquor.  Lime |
in powder to added in order to take up the oxalic acid,,
and llie carbonaceous matters which ore mingled with
the juice.  The  lime also iu tiie new salu, into the
coinpositior. of which it now enters, odds itself to tbe
sugar, as a part of that which to to be obtained from
the process.  The lime is to be put in the  proportion of
somewhat less than a pint of lime to every hundred gal-
lons of liquor. When it to in too great quantities, how-
ever, it is apt to destroy a part of the pure saccharine
matter.  Some persons employ alkaline ashes, os  pre-
ferable to lime, for the purpose of extracting tlie extra-
neous matter; but it is highly probable that lime, judi-
ciously used, might answer better than ony other sub-
stance  whatsoever.   The liquor  is now  to be heated
almost to ebullition.  The heat dissolves the mecha-
nical union, and thus favours the chemical changes in
its different parts.  When the proper heat  appears from
a rising scum on the surface of the liquor to have been
produced, the fire to then extinguished by the applica-
tion of the damper.  In this state  of the liquor, the
greater part of the impurities, being different in spe-
cific gravity from the pure saccharine solution,  and
being also of such a nature  as to yield more readily to
the chemical action of heat, are brought up to the sur-
face in a scum. After thto scum has been sufficiently
formed on  the cooling liquor, this  liquor is  carefully
drawn off, either  by a syphon, which roises o pure
stream through the scum, or by a cock drawing the
liquor at the bottom from under the scum. The scum,
in either case, sinks down  unbroken, as the  liquor
flows;  and is now, by cooling, of such tenacity, as not
to tend to any intermixture with the liquor. The liquor
drawn, after this  purification from the  boiler, to re-
ceived  into a gutter or channel, by which it is convey-
ed to the grand copper, or evaporating boiler.  If made
from good canes, and properly clarified, it will now ap-
pear almost transparent.  In thto copper the  liquor is
heated to actual ebullition.   The scum raised to the
surface by the boiling to skimmed off as it rises.  The
ebullition to continued till there  be a considerable di-
minution in the quantity ofthe liquor.  The liquor now
appears nearly of the  colour of Madeira wine.  It to ot
last transferred into a second end smaller copper.  An
addition of lime-water is here made, both to dilute the
thickening  liquor, to  detach the  super-abundant acid,
and to favour the formation of the sugar.  If the liquor
be now in ite proper state, the scum rises  in large bub-
bles, wilh very little discoloration.  The skimmingand
the evaporation together produce a considerable dimi-
nution  iu the quantity of the liquor.  It to then trans-
ferred into another smaller boiler.  In this last boiler,
the evaporation is renewed, and continued till the li-
quor to brought to that degree of thickness at  which it
appears fit to be finally cooled.   In  the cooler, (a shal-
low wooden vessel of considerable length and wideness,
commonly of such a size as to contain a hogshead of
sugar,) the sugar, as it cools, granulates, or runs into an
imperfect crystallization, by which it is separated from
the molasses, a mixed saccharine matter too impure to
be capable  even of this imperfect crystallization.  To
determine whether tiie liquor be fit to be taken from
the last boiler to be  finally cooled, it to necessary to
take out a portion from the boiler, and try separately,
whether it does not separate into granulated sugar and
melosses.  From the cooler, the  sugar is removed to
tbe curing-house.   This is a spacious, airy building.
It is provided with a capacious cistern for the reception
of melasses, and over the cistern is  erected a  frame of
strong  joist-work, unfilled  and  uncovered.   Empty
hogsheads open at tbe head, bored at the bottom with
a few holes, and having a stalk of plantain leaf thrust
through each of tbe  holes, while it rises ot the same
time through the inside of the hogshead, are disposed
upon the frames.  The mass of  tile saccharine matter
from the  coolers.is put into these hogsheads.   The me-
lasses drip into the cistern through the spongy plantain
stalks In the holes.  Within the space of three weeks
the melasses are sufficiently drained off, and the sugar
remains dry.  By this process it is at last brought into
the state of what is  called muscovado or raw sugar.
Thto to the general process in the British West Indies.
In this state our West India sugar to imported into
Britain.  The formotion of  loaves of white sugar is a
subsequent process.   Ia the French WeM India isles
it has long  been customory to perforin Ihe last part of
this train of processes in a manner some what different,
      856
and which affords tlie sugar in a state of greater purity
This  preparation,  taking  the  sugar from tiie  cools'
then puu it, not into hogsheads with holes in the bol
torn as above, but into conical pots, each of which has
at its bottom a hole half an inch in diameter, that is, in
the commencement of the process, stopped with a plug
Alter remaining sometime in the pot, tlie sugar be-
comes perfectly cool and fixed.  The plug is then re
moved out of the hole; the pot is placed over a large
jar, and the  melasses are suffered to drip away from it.
After as much  of the melasses as will easily run off
has been thus drained away, the surface of the sugar
in the jar is covered with  a stratum of flue  clay, and
water is poured upon the clay. The water  oozing
gently through the pores  of the clay, pervades the
whole moss  of sugar redissolves the melosses, still re-
maining in it, with some parts of the sugar  iuelf, and
carrying these off by the holes in tlie bottom of the pot,
renders that which resists the  solution  much purer
than the muscovado sugar made in the English way.
The sugar  prepared in this manner is called  clayed
sugar.  It is sold for a higher price in tlie  European
market than the muscovado sugar; but there is a loss
of sugar in  the process by claying, which deters the
British planters from adopting  this  practice so gene-
rally as do the French.
  The raw sugars are still contaminated and debased
by  a  mixture  of ocid, carbonaceous matter, oil, and
colouring resin.  To free them from these to the busi-
ness of the  European sugar-bakers.   A new solution;
clarification with alkaline substances fitted to attract
away the oil, acid, and other contaminating matters;
slow  evaporation; and a final  cooling in  suitable
moulds, are  the processes which at last produce loaves
of white sugar.
  The melasses being nothing else but  a very impure
refuse ofthe sugar from which they drip, are suscepti-
ble of being employed in a new ebullition, by whicli a
second quantity of sugar may be obtained from them.
The remainder of the melasses to employed to yield rum
by distillation.  In rum, alkohol is mixed with oil, water,
oxalic acid, and a mixture of empyreumatic matter.
The French prepare, from the mixture of melasses with
water, a species of wine of good quality.  In its pre-
paration, the solution is brought into fermentation, then
passed through strainers to purify it,  then put iu casks;
sfter clearing  itself in these, transferred into  others,
in which  it is  to be preserved for use.  The ratio of
these  processes is extremely beautiful; they ore all di-
rected to purify the sugar from contaminating mixtures,
and to reduce it into that state of dryness or crystalli-
zation, in which it is susceptible of being the most con-
veniently preserved for  agreeable use.   The heat  in
general acts  both mechanically to effect a sufficient dis-
solution ofthe aggregation of the parts of the cane juice,
ond chemically to produce in it new combinations into
which caloric must enter as an ingredient   The first
gentle heat  is intended  chiefly to operate with the
mechanical  influence, raising to the surface impurities,
which are more easily removed by skimming, than by
any other means; a gentle, not n violent heat, is iu this
instance employed, because a violent heat would pro-
duce empyreumatic salu, the production of which is to
be carefully avoided.  A boiling heat is, in the conti-
nuation of the  processes, mode use of, because, after
the first impurities have  been skimmed off, contami-
nating empyreumatic  salu ore  less readily formed,
because a boiling heat is necessary to effect  the com-
plete developement of the saccharine matter, and be-
cause the gradual concentration ofthe sugor is, by such
a heat, to be best accomplished. Lime is employed, be-
cause it hos a stronger affinity than  sugar with all the
contaminating matters, and particularly because it at-
tracu into a neutral combination thot excess of oxalic
acids which to apt to exist in the saccharine solution.
Skimming removes the new salu, which the most easily
assume a solid form. The drippings carries away a mix-
ture of woter, oil, earth, and sugar, from the crystallized
sugar: for, in all our crystallizations,  we can never per-
form the process in the great way, with  such nicety as
to preserve it free from an inequality of proportions that
must  necessarily occasion  a residue. Repeated solu-
tion, clarification, evaporation, are requisite to produce
pure  white  sugar from the  brown  and raw sugars;
because the complete purification of thto  matter from
acid and colouring matter, is an operation  of great
difficulty, and not to be finally completed without pio- 
bAC
sact
cesses wnich are longer than can be conveniently per-
formed, at the first, upon  the sugar plantation.  From
vegetables  of European  growth, sugor is not to  be
easily obtained, unless the process of germination  be
first produced in  them ; or unless they have been pene-
trated by intense frost.   Germination, or  thorough
freezing, devclopes sugor into all vegetables in  which
iu principles of hydrogen and carbon, with a small pro-
portion of oxygen, exist in any considerable plenty.  It
is not improbable, but that if penetration by a freezing
cold could be  commanded at pleasure with  sufficient
cheapness, ii would enable us to obtain saccharine mat-
ter in a large proportion, from a variety of substances,
from which even generation does not yield a  sufficient
quantity. In the beet and some other European vege-
tables, sugar is naturally  formed by Ihe functions  of
vegetation to perfect  combination.   From  these  the
sugar is  obtained by rasping down the vegetable, ex-
tracting  by water iu saccharine juice, evaporating the
water charged with the  juice  to the consistency  of
syrup, clarifying, purifying, and crystallizing it, just in
the same manner as sugar from the sugar-cane.  It is
afforded  by Ihe maple, the birch, wheat, and Turkey
corn.   Margraaf obtained it from the roou of beet, red
beet, skirrit, parsnips, and dried grapes.
  In Canada, the iuhabitanu extract sugar,  from  the
maple.   At tin  commencement of spring, they heap
snow in the evening at the foot  of the tree,  in which
they previously make apertures  for the passage of the
returning sap.  Two  hundred  pounds of this juice
afford, by evaporation, fifteen of a brownish sugar.
The quantity  prepared annually amounts to  fifteen
thousand weight.
  The Indians likewise extract sugar from the pith of
the bamboo.
  The beet has lately been much cultivated in Germ any,
for the purpose of extracting sugar from iu root.  For
this the  rooU  are taken up in autumn, washed clean,
wiped,  sliced lengthwise, strung  on  threads, and
hung up  to dry.  From these the sugar to extracted by
maceration in  a small quantity of water; drawing off
thto upon fresh  roou, and adding fresh water to the
fresh roou, which is again  to be employed the same
way, so  as to  get out all  their sugar, and saturate the
water as much as possible with it.  Thto water is to be
strained  and boiled down for the sugar.
  Some merely express the juice from the fresh roots,
and boil  this down; others boil tbe roou; but the sugar
extracted in either of these w ays is not equal in quality
to the first.
  Professor Lampadius obtained from 110 lbs. of the
roots, 4 lbs. of well-grained while powder sugar; and
the residuums afforded 7 pinu  of a spirit resembling
rum.   Achard says, that about a ton of roou produced
him 100 lbs. of raw sugar, which gave 55 lbs. of refined
sugar, and 25 lbs. of treacle.
  Sugar is very soluble in water, and to a good medium
for uniting lhat  fluid with oily matters.   It is  much
used  for domestic purposes, and appears on the whole
to be a  valuable and wholesome article of food, the
uses of which are most probably restricted by iu high
price.
  It appears that sugar has the property of rendering
some of the earths soluble in water.
  The union of  sugar wilh the  alkalies has been long
known ; but this is rendered more strikingly evident,
by carbonated potassa or soda, for instance, decom-
posing the solutions of lime and strontia  in  sugar, by
double affinity.
  In making solutions of unrefined sugar for culinary
purposes, a gray-coloured substance  is  found  fre-
quently  precipitated.  It  is probable lhat thto proceeds
from a  superabundance  of lime which has been used
in clarifying the juice of the sugar-cane ot the planta-
tions abroad.  Sugar with this imperfection  is  known
among the refiners of this article by the name of weak.
And  it  is  justly termed so, the precipitated  matter
being  nothing hut lime which  has attracted carbonic
acid from the sugar (of which there is a great proba-
bility), or from the air of the atmosphere.  A bottle, in
whicn Dr. Ure  kept a solution of lime in sugar for at
least four years, closely corked, was entirely incrusted
with  a yellowish-coloured matter, which on  examina-
tion was found to be entirely carbonate of lime.
  Kirchoff, an ingenious  Russian chemist, accidentally
discovered, that starch  to convertible into  sugar, by
being boiled for  some time with a very dilute sulphuric
                                       Aaa
acid.  Saussure showed, that 100 parts of starch yield
110 of sugar.
  Braconnot has recently extended our views concern
ing the  artificial production of sugar and gum.  Sul
phuric ocid (sp. gr. 1.827) mixed with well-dried elm-
dust,  became  very hot,  and  on being diluted  with
water, and neutralized with  chalk, afforded a  liquor
which become gummy on evaporation.  Shreds  of
linen, triturated in a glass mortar, with sulphuric acid,
yield a similar gum.  Nitric acid has a similar power.
If the gummy matter from linen be  boiled for some
time with dilute sulphuric acid, we obtain a crystal-
lizable sugar, and an acid, which Braconnot calls the
vegeto-sulphuric acid.  The conversion of wood also
into sugar, will no doubt appear remarkable; and
when persons not familiarized with chemical specula-
tions ore told, that a pound weight of  rags can be con-
verted into more than  a pound  weight of sugar, they
may regard  the  statement as a piece of pleasantry,
though nothing, says Braconnot,  can be more real.
  Silk to also convertible into gum by sulphuric ocid
Twelve grammes  of glue, reduced to powder, wer<>
digested with  a double weight of concentrated sul
phuric ocid  without artificial heat   In twenty hours
the liquid  wos not more coloured than if mere water
had been  employed.  A decilitre of water was then
added, and the whole was boiled for five hours, with
renewal of the water, from time to time, as it wasted.
It was next t'iluted, saturated with chalk, filtered, and
evaporated to a  syrupy consistence, and left in repose
for a month.  In  this period a number of granular
crystals had separated, which adhered pretty strongly
to the bottom of the vessel, and hod o very decided
saccharine taste. This sugar crystallizes much more
eosily than cane sugar.   The crystals ore gritty under
the teeth, like sugarcandy; and in the form of flat-
tened prisms  or tabular groupes.  Its taste is nearly
as  saccharine as grape sugar; its solubility in  water
scarcely exceeds that of sugar of milk.  Boiling alko-
hol, even  when diluted, has no action on this  sugar
By distillation it yields ammonia, indicating tbe pre-
sence of azote.  This sugar combines intimately with
nitric acid, without sensibly decomposing it, even with
the assistance of heat, ond there results a peculiar
crystallized acid, to which the  name nitro-socchorine
hos been  given.  Annates de Chimie, xii., or Tillock's
Magazine, vols. Iv. and Ivi.
  The varieties of sugar are; cone sugor, maple sugar,
liquid sugar of  fruits,  sugar of figs, sugar of grapes,
starch sugar, the mushroom sugar of Braconnot, man
no, sugor of gelatin, sugar of  honey, and sugar  of
diabetes.
  Sugar of grapes does not affect a peculiar form.   It
is deposited, from iu alkohoiic solution, in small grains,
which have  little consistence, are grouped together,
and which constitute  tubercles, similar to those  of
cauliflowers.   When put in the mouth, it produces ot
first a sensation of coolness, to which succeeds  a sac-
charine taste,  not very strong.  Hence  to sweeten to
an equal degree the some quantity of woter, we must
employ two ond a half times as much sugar of grapes
os of that of the cane.  In other respects, it possesses
all the properties of cone sugar.  Iu extraction is very
easy.  The expressed juice of the grapes to composed
of water,  sugar, mucilage,  bitartratc of potassa, tar-
trate of lime, and a small quantity of othersaline mat
ters.  We pour into it an excess of chalk in powder,
or rather of pounded marble.   There resulu, especially
on  agitation, an  effervescence, due to tiie unsaturated
tartaric acid.  The liquor is then clarified with whites
of eggs or  blood.  It. is next evaporated in copper pans,
till it marks a density of 1.32 at the boiling tempera
tore.  It is now allowed to cool.  At the end of some
days, it concretes into a crystalline mass, which, when
drained, washed with a little cold water, and strongly
compressed, constitutes sugar.
  In the south of France, where this operation was
some years bock corried on on  the greet scale, to pre-
vent fermentation of the must, there was added to
thto a little sulphate of lime, or it was placed in tuns,
in which  sulphur matches had  been previously made
to burn.   The oxygen of the small quantity of air  left
in the tuns  being thus abstracted by the sulphurous
acid, fermentation did not take place.  By this  means
the must can be preserved a considerable time; where-
as, in the ordinary way, it would lose its  saccharine
taste at the  end of a few days and become vinous
                                        257 
■SAC
SAC
Must thus treated, to said to be muted.  The syrup was
evaporated to the density of only J .285.—Proust. Ann.
de Chimie, lvii. 131.;  and the Collection of Memoirs
published by 1'armentier ia 1813.
  It to this  species of sugar which is obtained from
starch  and  woody fibre by  the action of dilute sul
phuric acid.
  Sugar of  diabetes  has sometimes the sweetening
force of sugar of grapes; occasionally much less.
  Braconnot's mushroom  sugar is much less sweet
than that of  the cane.  It crystallizes with remarkable
xncility, forming long quadrilateral prisms with square
bases.  It vields alkobol by fermentation.
  All honeys contain two species of sugar; one simi-
lar to sutiar  of the grape, another like the uncrystal-
lizable sugar of the cane (melasses).  These combined
and mingled in different proportions wilh an odorant
matter, constitute the honeys of good quality. Those
I'
of Inferior quality contain, besides, a certain quantity
of wox and acid : the honeys of Brltanny contain even
an animal secretion (esurain) to which they owe their
putrescent quality.   A slight washing with a little
alkohol separates the uncrystallizable sugar, and leaves
the other, which  may be purified by washing with a
very little more alkohol.
  "The relation " says Dr.  Prout, "which exists be-
tween urea and sugar, seems to explain in a satisfac-
tory manner tiie phenomena of diabetes, which may be
considered  as a depraved secretion of sugar.  The
weight of tiie atom of sugar,  is just half that of the
weight of the atom of urea  ; the absolute quantity of
hydrogen in a given weight of both to equal; while the
absolute quantities of carbon  and oxygen in a given
weight of sugor, are precisely twice those of urea."
  The conslituenu of these iwo bodies and lithic acid,
ore thus expressed by that ingenious philosopher -—-
Elements		Urea.			Sugar		Lithic Acid.		
	No.	Per. Atom.	Per Cent.	No.	Per Atom.	Per Cent.	No.	Per Atom.	Per Cent.
Hydrogen Carbon . . Oxygen . . Azote . .	2 1 1 1	2.5 7.5 10.0 17.5	6.66 19.99 26.66 4G.66	1 1 1	1.25 7.50 10.00	6.66 39.99 53.33	1 2 1 1	1.25 15.00 10.00 17.50	2.85 34.28 22.85 40.00
	5	37.5	100.10	3	18.75	100.10	5	43.75	100.10
  The above compounds appear to be formed by the
union of more simple compounds; as sugar, of carbon
and water;  urea, of carburetted  hydrogen and ni-
trous oxide; lithic acid, of cyanogen  and woter, &c.;
whence it is inferred, thot their artificial formation
falls within the limits of chemical operations.
  Saccharum officinarum.  The systematic name
in some pharmacopoeias of the sugar-cane.  See  Sac-
charum.
  Saccharum purificatum.  Double refined, or loaf-
sugar.  See Saccharum.
  Saccharum saturni.   See Plumbi acetas.
  SACCHOLACTIC.  So called, because it  is sugar
prepared from milk.
  Saccho-iaclic  acid.  Acidum saccholadicum.  See
Mucic  acid.
  SACCHOLATE.  Saccholas.   A salt formed by
the combination of the saccholactic acid with  salifia-
ble bases, as saccholate of iron, saccholate of ammo-
nia, &c. tec
  SACCULUS.  (Dim. of saccus, a bag.)   A  little
bog.
  Sacculus adifosus.  The burse mucosae  of the
joints.
  Sacculus chyliferus.  See Receptaculum chyli.
  Sacculus cordis. The pericardium.
  Sacculus lachrymalis.  See Saccus lachrymalis.
  SA'CCUS. A bog.
  Saccus lachrymalis.   The lachrymal sac to  situ-
ated in the internal canthus of the eye, behind the
lachrymal caruncle,  in a cavity  formed by the  os
unguis.  It receives  the tears from  the puncta lach-
rymalia, and conveys them into the ductus lachry-
malis.
  SA'CER.  (From sagvr, secret,  Heb.)   Sacred.
Applied to some diseases which were supposed  to be
immediately inflicted from heaven ;  as sacer  morbus,
the epilepsy, sacer ignis, erysipelas, Sec.  A  bone is
called  the os sacrum, because it was once offered in
sacrifices. Sacer  also means  belonging to  the  os
sacrum.
   SACK.  A wine used by our ancestors, which some
have taken to be Rhenish, and others Canary wine.
Probably  it was what to called dry mountain, or  some
Spanish wine of thai sort  Howel, in hto French and
 English Dictionary, 1650, translates sack by the words
 vin d'Espagne.   V'in. sec.
   SACLACTATE.  A combination of saccholactic
 acid with a salifiable bosis.
   SACLACTIC ACID.  See Mucic acid.
   Sacra  herba.  Common vervoin.
   Sacra  tinctura. Made of aloes  canella, alba, and
 mountain wine
  SACRAL.  Ofor belonging to the sacrum; as sacra
arteries, veins, nerves, Sec
  SA'CRO.  Words compounded of this belong to the
sacrum.
  Sacro-coccyo/eus.   A  muscle  arising  from  the
sacrum, and inserted into the os coccygis.
  Sacro-lumbalis.   Sacro lumbaris,  of  authors.
Lumbo-costo trachelien of Dumas.  A  long  muscle,
thicker and broader below than above, and extending
from the os socrum to the lower port of the neck, under
the serroti pnslici rhomboideus, tropezius, and latissi-
mus dorsi.  It arises in common with the longissimus
dorsi, tendinous without, and fleshy within, from the
posterior  port of  the os sacrum; from the posterior
edge of the spine  of the ilium; from  all the  spinous
process;  and from near  the roots of the  transversa
processes of the lumbar vertebrae.  At the bottom of
the bock it separates from Ihe longissimus dorsi,  witb
which il had before formed, as it were, only one mus
cle, and  ascending obliquely outwards, gradually di
minishes in thickness, nnd terminates above in a very
narrow  point.  From  tho place  where it quiu the
longissimus dorsi, to that of iu termination,  we find it
fleshy at its posterior, and tendinous at its  anterior
edge. Thto tendinous side sends off as many long and
thin  tendons as there are ribs.  The lowermost of these
tendons are broader, thicker, and  shorter than those
above; they are inserted into the inferior edge of  each
rib, where it begins to be curved forwards towards the
sternum, excepting only the uppermost and last tendon,
which ends in the posterior and inferior part of the
transverse  process of the last vertebra  of  the neck.
From the upper part of the five, six, seven, eight, nine,
ten, or eleven lower ribs, (for the number, though  most
commonly seven or eight,  varies in different subjects,)
arise as  many  thin bundles of fleshy  fibres, which,
after a very short progress, terminate in  Ihe inner side
of this muscle, and have been named by Stenn, musculi
ad sacro  lumbalem accessorii.  Besides these we  find
the muscle sending off a fleshy slip from its upper part,
which is inserted into the posterior and Inferior port
of the transverse processes of tbe five Inferior vertebrae
of the neck, by as many distinct  tendons.  This to
generally described as a  distinct  muscle.   Diemer-
broeck, and Douglas,  and Albinus after him, call it
cervicalis descendens.  Winslow names it Iransver-
salis collateralis colli  Morgognl considers  it as an
 appendage to the sacro  lumbalto. The uses of this
 muscle are to assist in erecting tbe trunk of the body,
 in turning it upon iu axis or to one side, ond  in draw-
 ing  the ribs downwards.   By means of its upper slip,
 it serves to turn the neck obliquely backwards  or to
 one 
SAG
SAL
  Sacro-sciatic lioaments.  The ligamenU which
connect the ossa inuominata with the os sacrum.
  SA'CRUM.  (So colled from sacer, socred; because
it was formerly offered in sacrifices.)   Os sacrum;
Os basilare.  The os sacrum derives iu name from Its
being offered in sacrifice by the  indents, or perhaps
from its supporting the organs ef  generation, which
they considered as sacred.  In  young subjecu it  is
composed of five or six pieces,  united  by cartiloge;
but in more  odvanced age it becomes one  bone, in
which,  however, we may still easily distinguish the
marks of the former  separation.  IU  shape has been
Bometimes compared to  an irregular triangle; and
sometimes, and perhaps more properly, to a pyramid,
flattened before and  behind, with its basis placed
towards the lumbar vertebrae, ond iu point terminating
in the coccyx.   We find it convex behind, and slightly
concave  before, with iu inferior portion bent a little
forwards.   Iu anterior surface is  smooth, ond affords
four, ond  sometimes five transverse lines, of o colour
different from the rest of the bone.  These ore the re-
mains of  the intermediate  cartilages  by which its
several pieces were  united in infancy.  Iu posterior
convex surface has several prominences, the most re-
markable of which are its spinous processes; these ore
usually three in  number, ond gradually become shorter,
so tbat the third is not so long as the second, nor the
second as the first.  Thto arrangement enables us  to
sit wilh ease.  Iu transverse processes are formed into
one oblong process, which becomes gradually smaller
as it  descends.  At the superior part of tiie bone we
observe two oblique  processes, of a cylindrical shape,
and somewhat concave, which are articulated with the
last of the lumbar vertebra;.  At the bose of each of
these  oblique processes is a notch, which, with such
another in the vertebra above it, forms a passage for
the twenty-fourth spinal nerve.  In viewing this bone,
either before  or behind, we  observe  four, and some-
times five boles on each side, situate at eoch extremity,
of the transverse lines which mark the divisions of the
bone.  Of these holes, the anterior ones, and of these
again the uppermost, are the largest, and afford a pas-
sage to the nerves.  The posterior  holes are smaller,
covered with membranes,  and destined for the same
purpose as the former.  Sometimes  at the bottom  of
the bone there is only a notch, and sometimes there  is
a hole common to it and the os coccygis. The covity
between the  body of this bone and iu processes, for
the lodgment of the spinal marrow, is triangular, and
becomes smaller as it  descends,  till at length it termi-
nates obliquely on each side at  the lower part of the
bone.  Below the third division of the bone, however,
the cavity is no longer completely bony, as in the rest
of the spine, but is defended posteriorly only by a
very strong membrane; hence a wound in  this part
may be  attended  with the  most dangerous conse-
quences.  This bone is articulated above, with the last
lumbar  vertebra:  laterally it  is firmly united, by a
brood irregular  surface, to the ossa innominoto, or hip-
bones :  and below it is joined to the  os  coccygis.   In
women  the os  sacrum is usually shorter, broader and
more curved than  in men, by which means the cavity
of the pelvis is more  enlarged.
  SAFFLOWER.  See Carthamus.
  SAFFRON.   See  Crocus.
   Saffron, bastard.  See Carthamus.
   Saffron,meadow.  See Colchicum.
   Saffron of steel.  A red oxide of iron.  •
  SAGAPE'NUM.  (The name  is derived  from some
eastern dialect.)  Serapinum.  It is  conjectured that
this concrete gummi-resinous juice is the  produc-
tion of an oriental umbelliferous plant.  Sagapenum
to brought from Persia and Alexandria in large masses,
externally yellowish, internally paler, and of a horny
clearness.  Ite taste is hot and  biting, iu smell of the
alliaceous and  fcetid kind, and iu virtues ore similar
to those which hove been ascribed to asafoetida, but
Weaker, and consequently it is less powerful In its effects.
  SAGE.  See Salvia.
  Sage of Bethlehem.  See Pulmonaria.
.  Sage of Jerusalem.  See Pulmonaria officinalis.
  Sage of virtue.  See Salvia hortensis minor.
  SAGENITE.  Acicular rutile.
  SAGITTAL.  (Sagittalis; from sagitta, an arrow.)
Shaped like on  arrow.
  Sagittal  suture.   Satura  sagittalis, virgata,
ebtlaa, rhabdoides. The suture  which unites tbe two
                                      Aaa2
parietal bones.  It has been named sagittal, from its
lying between the coronal and lambdoidal sutures, aa
an arrow between the string and the bow.
  SAGITTA'RIA.   (So culled from sagitta, on arrow,
in allusion to the shape of the leaves in the  original
species and some others.)  The  name of a genus of
planu  in the Linnaean  system.   Closs, Monacia;
Order, Polyandria.
  Sagittaria alexipharmica.   Malacca;  Canna
indica; Arundo indica.  The systematic name of the
plant cultivated wilh great care in the West Indies, for
iu root, which is supposed to be a remedy tor the
wounds of poisonous arrows.  The root of this species,
called radix malacca, is sometimes used medicinally.
  Sagittaria saqittifolia.  The  systematic  name
of the common arrow-head, the roou of which are es-
culent, but not very nutritious.
  SAGITTATUS.   (From sagittas, an arrow.)  Ar-
row-shaped : applied to leaves, Sec. which are triangular
and hollowed out very much at the base; as the leaves
of the Sagittaria sagittifolia.
  SAGO.   See Cycas circinalis.
  Sagu.   See  Cycas circinalis.
  SAHLITE.  Malacholite. A sub-species of oblique
edged augite, of a greenish colour, and  found in Unst
in Shetland, in Tiree, and Glentilt
  Saint Anthony's fire.  See Erysipelas.
  Saint Ignatius's bean.  See Ignatia amara.
  Saint James's wort.  See Senecio jacobaa.
  Saint John's wort. See Hypericum.
  Saint Vitus's dance.  See Chorea sancti viti.
  SAL.  (Sal, salis. m.  and, rarely, neut. from the
Greek, &Xs, salt.)  Salt   See Saline.
  Sal  absinthii.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Sal  acetosella:. See Oxalis acetocella.
  Sal alembroth.  A compound muriate of  mercury
and ammonia.
  Sal  alkalinus fixus.  See Alkali fixum.
  Sal  alkalinus volatilis.  See Ammonia.
  Sal  ammoniac.   (So called because it was  found in
Egypt, near the temple of Jupiter Animon.)  Murias
ammonia.  A  saline concrete formed by the combina-
tion of the muriatic acid with ammonia. Thto  salt is
obtained  from  several sources.
  1. It is  found  in  places adjacent to  volcanoes.  It
oppears in the form of an efflorescence,  or groups of
needles, separate or compacted together, generally of a
yellow or red colour,  and  mixed  with arsenic and
orpiment; but no use is made of that which to procured
in this way.  This native sal ammoniac is distin-
guished  by mineralogists, into,  1.  Volcanic, which
occurs in efflorescences, imitative shapes, and crystal-
lized in the vicinity of burning  beds of coal, both in
Scotland and  England, at Solfaterra, Vesuvius, JStna,
&c.  2. Conchoidal, wliich  occurs in angular pieces,
it is said, along with sulphur, in beds of indurated clay,
or clay-slate, iu the country of Bucharia.
  2.  In Egypt  it is made in  great quantities from the
soot of camel's dung, which is burned at Cairo instead
of wood.   This soot is put into large round bottles, a
footand a half in diameter, and terminating in a neck
two inches long.  The bottles are filled up with thto
matter to within four inches of the neck. Each bottle
holds about forty pounds of soot, and affords nearly
six pounds of  salt.   The vessels are put  into a furnace
in the form of an oven, so that only the necks appear
above.  A fire of camel's dung is kindled beneath it,
and continued for  three  days and  three nights.  On
the second and the third  days the salt  is sublimated.
The bottles are then broken, and the salt is taken out
in cakes.   These cakes, which  are  sent just as they
have been taken out of the  bottles in Egypt,  are con-
vex, and unequal on the one side;  on the  middle of
this side they exhibit each a turbercle  corresponding
to the  neck of the bottle in which  it was prepared.
The lower side is concave, and both are sooty.
  3.  In this country, sal  ammoniac is  likewise pre-
pared in  great quantities.  The volatile alkali  is ob-
tained from soot, bones, and other substances known to
contain it.   To this the sulphuric acid  is added, and
Ihe sulphate of ammonia so  formed, is decomposed by
muriate of soda, or common salt, through a double
affinity.  The liquor obtained in consequence of this
decomposition contains sulphate of soda and  muriate
of ammonia.   The first is crysatllized, ond the second
sublimated so as to form cakes, which are then exposed
to sale.
                                        &59 
SAL
SAL
  Aininoniacal muriate has a poignant, acid, and urinous
 taste.  Its crystals are in the form of long hcxahcdral
 pyramids; a number of  them ore  sometimes united
 together in on acute angular direction, so as to exhibit
 the form of feathers. Rome  de Lille thinks the crys-
 tals of ammoniacal muriate to be octahedions bundled
 together.  This salt is sometimes, but not frequently,
 found in cubic  crystals in the middle of the concave
 hollow part ofthe sublimated cakes.  It  possesses one
 singular physical property, a kind of ductility or elas-
 ticity, which causes it to yield under the hammer, or
 even the fingers, and makes il difficult to reduce to a
 powder.   Muriole of ammonia to totally volatile, but
 a very strong fire to requisite to sublime it.  It is liable
 to no alteration from air; it may be  kept for a long
 time without suffering any change; it dissolves very
 readily in  water.  Six parts of cold water are sufficient
 to dissolve one ofthe salt  A considerable cold is pro-
 duced as the solution takes place, aud this cold is still
 keener when the salt is  mixed with  ice.  This  ar-
 tificial cold is happily applied to produce several phe-
 nomena, such as the congelation of water on certain
 occosions, the crystallization of certain salts, the fix-
 ation and preservation of certain liquids, naturally very
 subject to evaporation, Sec.
  Sal ammoniacum acetosum. See  Ammonia acetatis
 liquor.
  Sal ammoniacum liquidum.  See Ammonia aceta-
 tis liquor.
  Sal ammoniacum martiale.  See  Ferrum ammo-
 niatum.
  Sal ammoniacum secretum glauberi.  See Sul-
phas ammonia.
  Sal ammoniacum vegetabile. See Ammonia ace-
 tatis liquor.
  Sal ammoniacus rixus. The muriate of lime was
formerly so termed.
  Sal ammoniacus nitrosus.   See  Nitras ammonia.
  Sal antimonii.   Tartar emetic.
  Sax, aRoenti.  See Argenti nitras.
  Sal, catharticus amarus.  Sec Magnesia sul-
phds.
  Sal catharticus anglicanus. See Magnesia sul-
phas.
  Sal catharticus glauberi.  See Soda sulphas.
  Sal communis.   See Soda murias.
  Sal cornu cervi volatile. See Ammonia subcar-
bonas.
  Sal culinaRIS.  See Soda murias.
  Sal de duobus.  See Potassa sulphas
  Sal diureticus.  See Potassa acetas.
  Sal digestives sylvh.  See Murias  potassa.
  Sal epsomensis.  See Magnesia sulphas.
  Sal febrifugus sylvii. See Murias potassa.
  Sal fontium.  See Soda murias.
  Sal rossiLis.  See Soda murias.
  Sal GEMM.t.  See Soda murias.
  Salglauberii.   See Soda sulphas.
  Sal herbarum.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Sal marinus.  See Soda murias.
  Sal martis.  See Ferri sulphas.
  Sal martis muriaticum sublimatum.  See Fer-
 rum ammoniatitm.
  Sal microcosmilts.  The compound saline matter
 obtained by inspissating human urine.
  Sal mirabilis glauberi. See Soda sulphas.
  Sal muriaticus.  See Soda murias.
  Sal plantarum.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Sal polychri:stus.  See Potassa sulphas.
  Sal polychrestus glaseri.  See  Potassa sul-
fhas.
  Sal polychrestus seionettt.  See Soda tartari-
 lata.
  Sal prvnell*.  Nitrate of'potassa cast  into  flat
 cakes or round balls.
  Sal eupelle n sis .  See Soda tartarizata.
  Sal saturni.  See Plumbi acetas.
  Sal sedativus.  See Boracic acid.
  Sal seidlicensis. See Magnesia sulphas.
  Sal seignetti.  See Soda tartarizata.
  Sal sr/criNi.  See Succinic acid.
  Sal tartari.  Sec Tartaric acid.
  Sal  thermaRum carolinarum.  See  Magnesia
 sulphas.
  Sal vegetabilis.  See Potassa tartras.
  Sal volatile.  See Spiritus ammonia aromaticus,
 and Ammonia subcarbonas.
      KO
   Sal volatilis salis ammoniaci.   See Ammonis
 subcarbonas.
   SALEP.  Salop.  See Orchis morio.
   SALICARIA.  (From *alix, a w Ulow ;  from the re-
 semblance  oi its leaves to those of the willow.)  8ee
 Lythrum salicaria.
   SAL1CORN1A. Thenameofagenusofplantsinthe
 Linna-an system. Class,Afonandria; Oider,jtforio*;ym«.
   Sahcornia EiRoP.tA. The systematic name oi the
 jointed gloss-wort, which is gathered  by llie country
 people and  sold lor samphire.  It forms a  good pickle
 with vinegar, and is little inferior to the samphire.
   SALIFIABLE.  Having  the property of forming a
 salt.  The alkalies, and those  earths, and metallic ox-
 ides, which have the powerof neutralizing  acidity, en-
 tirely or  in part, and producing salu, are called sidifi
 able bases.
   SALINE.  (Salinus;  from sal, salt.)  Of a salt
 nature.   The number of saline substances to very con-
 siderable; and they possess peculiar characters by which
 they are distinguished from other suhstances.  These
 characters ore founded ou certain properties, whicli, it
 must be confessed, arenot accurately distinctive of their
 true noture. All such substances, however, as possess
 several ofthe four following properties,  ore considered
 as saline: 1. A  strong tendency to combination, or u
 very strong affinity of composition;  2. A greater or
 less degree of sapidity; 3.  A greater  or  less degroa
 of solubility in water; 4. Perfect incombustibility.
  SALINUS.   See Saline.
  Salinuca.  See Valeriana celtica.
  SALI'VA.  (So called, a salino sapore, from ite salt
 taste, or  from  oiaXos, spittle.)   The  fluid  which is
 secreted by the  salivary glands into the cavity of the
 mouth.  The secretory  organ is composed of three
 pair of salivary glands.   1. The parotid glands, which
 evacuate their saliva by means of the Stenonian duct,
 behind the middle dens molaris of the  upper jaw.  2.
 The submaxillary glands, which pour out their saliva
 through the Warthonian ducts on each  side ofthe fre-
 nulum of the tongue by a narrow oseulum.   3. The
 sublingual  glands, situated between  the internal sur-
 face of the maxilla and the tongue,  which  pour out
 their saliva through numerous Rivinian ducts at the
 apex of the  tongue.
  The saliva in the cavity  of the mouth  has mixed
 with it, 1. The mucus of the mouth, which exhales from
 the labial and genal glands.  2. The roscid  vapour,
 from the whole surface of the cavity  of the mouth.
 The saliva  is continually swallowed  with  or  without
 masticated food, and some is also spil nut  It has no
 colour nor smell; it is tasteless, although it contains a
 little salt, to which the nerves of the tongue are accus-
 tomed.  IU specific gravity to  somewhat greater than
 water. Iu  consistence is rather plastic and spumous,
 from the entangled atmospheric air.  The quantity of
 twelve pounds  is supposed to be secreted in twelve
 hours.  During mastication and speaking, the secretion
 is  augmented, from  the  mechanical  pressure  of the
 muscles upon the salivary glands. Those who are
 hungry secrete  a great  quantity, from the sight  of
 agreeable food.  It is imperfectly dissolved by water;
 somewhat coagulated by  alkohol; and congealed with
 more difficulty than water.  It is inspissated by a small
dose, and dissolved in a  large dose, of mineral acids.
It to also soluble in  carbonated alkali.  Caustic alkali
and quick-lime extroct volatile alkali from saliva. It cor
rodes copper and iron; and precipitates  silver and lead
 from containing muriatic ocid.  It assisu the spirituous
fermentation of farinaceous substances;  hence, barbar
ousuations prepare an inebriating drink from thechewed
rooU of the Jatropha manihot and Piper methisticum
 It possesses an antiseptic virtue, according lo the ex-
 perimenu ofthe celebrated Pringle.  It easily becomes
 putrid in worm air, and gives off volatile alkali.
  Constituent Principles. Saliva appears  to consist.
 in a healthy state of the body, of water, whicli const'
 lutes at least four-fifths of its bulk, mucilage, albumen.
 muriate of soda, phosphate of lime, and phospha e oi
 ammonia.
  The use ofthe saliva to, 1. It augments  the  taste ofthe
 the food, by evolution of sapid matter. 2. During mas-
 tication ii fixes with, dissolves, and  resolves into iu
 principles, the food; and changes it into a  pultaceoua
 mass, fit  to be swallowed: hence it commences chy-
 mification.  3. It moderates thirst, by moistening the
 cavity of the mouth and fauces. 
SAL
SAL
  8ALIVAL.  (Salivalis;  from saliva, the spittle.)
Of or belonging to the saliva.
  Salival ducts.   The excretory ducu of the salival
glands.  That of the parotid gland to called the Steno-
nian duct; those ofthe submaxillary glands, the War-
thonian ducts; and those ot the sublingual, the Rivi-
nian ducts.
  Salival glands.  Those glands wliich secrete the
saliva are so termed.  See Saliva.
  SALIVA'NS.  (From saliva, spittle.)  That which
excites salivation.
  SALIVA'RIA.  (From saliva, the spittle  so called
because it excites a discharge of saliva.)  See Anthemis
pyrethrum.
  Salivaris herba. See Anthemis pyrethrum.
  SALIVA'TIO.  An increased  secretion  of saliva.
See Ptyalismus.
  SA'LIX.   (From sola, Heb.)  1. The name of a
genusof planU in tbe Linnaean system. Class, Diacia;
Order, Diandria.  The willow.
  2. The  pharmacopoeial name of Salix.  See Salix
fragilis.
  Salix alba.   See Salix fragilis.
  Salix caprea.  The systematic name of a species
of willow, the bark of the  branches of which possess
the same  virtues with  that of the fragilis.   See Salix
fragilis.
  Salix fragilis. The systematic name of the com-
mon crack willow.  Salix.  The bark of the branches
of this species manifests a considerable degree of bit-
terness to the taste, and is very  adstringent.  It is re-
commended as a good substitute for Peruvion bork,
and to said to cure intermittents ond other diseoses re-
quiring tonic and adstringent remedies.  Not only the
bark  of this species of salix, but those also  of several
others,  possess similar qualities, particularly of the
Salix alba  and Salix pentandria, both of which are
recommended in the foreign pharmacopoeias. But Dr.
Woodville is of opinion that the bark of the Salix tri-
andria is more effectual thon thot of any other of this
genus;  at least its sensible qualities give it  a decided
preference  The trials Dr. Cullen made were with the
bork  of the  Salix penlandria, taken from its branches,
the third of  an inch diameter, and of four or five years'
  frowth.   Nevertheless, he adds, in intermittent fevers,
  iergius always failed with this  bark.
   Salix pentandria.  The bark of ihe branches of
this  species  of  willow possesses  the same  virtues  as
 lhat  of the fragilis  See Salix fragilis.
   Salix vitilina.  The bark of the branches of this
species of willow may  be substituted for the fragilis.
See Salix fragilis
   SALMO.  The name of a genus of fishes of the or-
 der Abdominales.  The salmon.
   Salmo alpinus.  The red  chorr.  This beautiful
and delicate little fish, and the Palmo carpio, or gilt
charr, are found  in our hikes of Westmoreland,  in
 Wales, and  Scotland.  They are very  rich, and hard
of digestion.
   Salmo eperlanus.   The smelt.  A  beautiful little
 fish,  found in great abundance in the Thames and river
 Dee, and in the European seas; between November and
 February.
   Salmo fario.  The common fresh-water trout, the
 flesh of which is very delicate and rich.
   Salmo lacustris.  The lake-trout
   Salmo salar.  The systematic name of the com-
 mon salmon.  This fish is considered  ss one of  the
 greatest delicacies.  It to rich, and of difficult digestion
 to weak stomachs, and with some, whose stomachs are
 not  particularly feeble, it  uniformly disagrees.  The
 pickled, salted, and smoked,  though much eoten, are
 only fitted for the very strong and active.
   Salmo salmulus.  The samlet: the least of the
 British species of the salmo-genus.  It is found in the
 river Wye, and up the Severn.
   Salmo thymallus.  The graling salmon, which is
 somewhat  like our trout   It  inhabiu the rivers  of
 Derbyshire, and some of the north, and near Christ-
 church in Hampshire.   It is much esteemed for the de:
 licacy of iu flesh, which is while, firm, and of o fine
 flavour;  and to considered as in the highest season in
 the depth of winter.
   Salmo trutta.  The systematic name  of the sal-
 mon trout, or bill  trout.
   SALMON.  See Salmo.
   SALPINGO.   CFrom XaXxiyl buccina, a trumpet.)
Names compounded of this word belong to the palate,
and are connected with the Eustachian tube.
  Salpinoo-pharynoeus.  This muscle  is composed
of a few fibres of the palatopharyngeus, which  it as-
stote in dilating the mouth of the Eustachian tube.
  Salpingo-staphilinus.  See Levator palati.
  Salpinoo-staphilinus internus.   See  Levator
palati.
  SALSAFY.  See Tragopogon pratense.
  SALSOLA.   (So called from iu saline properties;
hence  the English word  saltwort, most of the species
affording the fossile alkali.)  The name of a genus of
plants  in the Linnaean system   Class,  Pentandria;
Order, Digynia.
  Salsola kali.  Kali  spinosum cochleatum; Tra-
gus,  sive  Tragum  Matthioli.  Snail-seeded  glass-
wort or salt-wort  The  systematic name of a plant
which affords the mineral alkali.  See Soda.
  Salsola sativa.  The systematic name of a plant,
which affords the mineral alkali. See  Soda.
  Salsola soda.  The  systematic name of a plant
which affords mineral alkali.  See Soda.
  SALT.  This term has been usually  employed to
denote a compound, in  definite proportions, of ocid
motter, with on alkali, earth, or metallic oxide. When
the proportions of the constituents ore so adjusted, that
the resulting substance  does not effect the  colour of
infusion of litmus, or red cabbage, it is then called  a
neutral salt.   When the  predominance of ocid to
evinced by the reddening of these infusions, the salt is
said to be acidulous, and the prefix, suptr, or it, is used
to indicate this excess of acid.   If, on the contrary, the
acid motter oppears  to  be  in  defect, or short  of the
quantity necessary for neutralizing the alkalinity ofthe
base, the salt is then said lo be with excess of base, and
the prefix sub to attached to ite name.  The discoveries
of Sir H.  Davy have,  however, taught chemisu to
modify their opinions concerning saline constitution.
Many bodies, such as culinary salt, and muriate of
lime, to which the appellation of *o.It cannot be re-
 fused, have not been proved to contain either acid or
alkaline matter; but must, according to the strict logic
of chemistry, be regarded as  compounds of chlorine
 with metals.
   Salt, acid   This is distinguished by iU sour taste
when diluted with water.  See Acid.
   Salt, alkaline.   Possesses a  urinous,  burning, and
caustic taste, turns the syrup of violeu to a green, has
 a strong affinity for acids, dissolves animal substances,
 unites readily with water, combines with oils and fat,
 and renders them miscible  with water,  dissolves sul
 phur, ond is crystallizable.  See Alkali.
   Salt, ammoniacal, fixed.  Muriate of lime.
   Salt, bitter purging.  Sulphate of magnesia.
   Salt, cathartic.  See Magnesia sulphas,  and Soda
 sulphas.
   Salt, common.  See Soda murias.
   Salt, digestive  Acetote of  potosso.
   Salt, diuretic.  Acetate of potassa.
   Salt, Epsom.  See Magnesia sulphas
   Salt, febrifuge, of Sylvius.   Muriate of potassa.
   Salt, fossil.   A salt found in the earth.
   Salt,fusible. Phosphate of ammonia.
   Salt, fusible, of urine.   Triple phosphate of soda
 and ammonia.
   Sall,microcosmic.  Triple  phosphate  of soda and
 ammonia.
   Salt, nitrous ammoniacal.  Nitrate of ammonia.
   Salt, neutral.  Secondary salt.  Under the name of
 neutral or secondary salts are comprehended such mat
 ters as are composed of two primitive saline substances
 combined together in a certain proportion. These salts
 are called neutral, because they do not possess the cha-
 racters of  primitive salts; that is to say, they are nei-
 ther acid nor alkaline: such as Epsom sails, nitre, tec
 But in many secondary  salts the qualities of one ingre-
 dient predominate; as tartar,  or supertartrate of po
 tassa, has an  excess of acid; borax, or  subborate of
 soda, an excess of base.  The former are termed aci-
 dulous, the latter sub-alkaline salts.
   SALTPETRE. SeeJVitre.
   Salt of amber.  Succinic acid.
   Salt of benzoin.  Benzoic acid.
   Salt of colcothar.  Sulphate of iron.
   Salt of lemons.  Superoxylate of potassa
   Salt of Saturn.  Acetate of lead.
   Salt of Seidlitz.  Sulphate of magnesia.
                                         901 
SAM
SAN
   lait of sorrel.  Superoxylate of potassa.
   Salt, Rochelle.  See Soda tartarizata.
   Salt, eea.  See Soda murias.
   Salt of elect.  See Ferri sulphae.
   Salt,polychrest.   Sulphate of potassa.
   Salt, secondary.   See Neutral salt.
   Salt, sedative.  Boracic acid.
   Salt, spirit of.  Muriatic acid.
   Salt of vitriol.  Purified sulphate of zinc.
   Salt of wisdom.   Sal alembroth.
   Salt, primitive. Simple salt  Under this  order to
comprehended those salu which were formerly thought
to be simple or primitive, and which  are occasionally
called simple salts.   The  accurate experiments of tiie
moderns  hove proved thai these are for the most port
compounded;  but the term is retained with greater
propriety when it is observed, that these  salu  com-
posed,  when united,  salts which ore termed secondory.
These salu ore  never  met with perfectly pure in na-
ture, but require artiricial^processes to render  them so.
This order is divided into three genera, comprehending
saline terrestrial substances, alkalies, and acids.
  SALTWORT.  See Salsola kali.
  SALVATE'LLA.  (From  aalus,  health,  because
the opening of this vein was formerly thought  to be of
singular use in melancholy.)  This vein runs along the
little finger, unites upon the back of the hand with the
cephalic of the thumb, and empties its blood  into the
internal ond external cubical veins.
  SA'LVIA.  (A salvendo.)  1. The name of a genus
of planu in the Linnean system.  Class, Diandria;
Order,  Monogynia,  Sage.
  2. The pharmacopoeial  name of the common sage.
See Salvia  officinalis.
  Salvia hortensis minor  The small sage, or sage
of virtue.  A variety of the officinal soge,  possessing
similar virtues.
  Salvia officinalis.  The systematic name of the
garden soge.  Elelisphacos. Salvia—foliis lanceolato
ovatis  integris  crenulatis, floribus spicatis, calycibus
acutis, of Linnteus.  In ancient times sage  was  cele-
brated as a remedy of great efficacy,  as would appear
from the following lines of the school of Salernum :

  1 Cur moriatur homo, cui salvia crescit in horto ?
   Contra vim mortis, non est medicamen in hortis ?
  Salvia salvatrix, natura conciliatrix.
  Salvia cum ruta faciunt tibipocula tuta."

But ot present  it to not  considered as an article of
much importance.  It has a fragrant, strong smell; and
a warm, bitterish, aromatic taste,  like other planu con-
taining an essential  oil.  It has a remarkable property
in resisting the putrefaction of animal substances, and
to in frequent use among the Chinese os a tonic, in the
form of tea, in debility of the  stomach and  nervous
system.
  Salvia sclarea.  The systematic name of the gar-
den clary, called  horminum in  the pharmacopoeias.
Sclarea hispanica.  The  leaves and seeds are recom-
mended os corroborants and  antispasmodics, particu-
larly in leucorrhrjeas and hysterical weaknesses. They
have a bitterish, warm tasle, and  a strong smell of Ihe
aromatic  kind.   The seeds are  infused in white wine,
and imitate muscadel.
  SAMARA.  (The name, according to Pliny, of the
fruit of the  elm.)  1. The name of a genus of planu
in the Linnaian system. Class, Tetrandria; Order,Mo-
nogynia.
  2. A species of capsule of a compressed  form, and
dry coriaceous  texture, with one or two cells, never
bursting, but falling  off entire, and dilated into a  kind
of wing al the summit or sides.  Iu Fraxinus, it  goes
from the summit of the seed:  in Acer and  Batula,
from the side: in Ulmus campestris, it goes all round.
  SAMBU'CUS.  (From  sabucca, Heb. a musical in-
strument formerly made of this tree.)  Eider.
   1. The name  of a genus of planu in the Linnaean
system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order, Trigynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial  name of the elder-tree.  See
Sambucus nigra.
  Sambucus ebulus.  Tbe systematic name of the
dwarf-elder.  Ebulus; Chamaacte;  Sambucus humi-
lis; Sambucus herbaceo.  Dwarf elder, or dane-wort
The  root interior bark, leaves, ;lowers, berries, and
seeds of this herbaceous plain, Sambucus—cymis tri-
fidis, stipulis foltaccts, caule  herbaceo, of Linnaeus,
oave all  been administered medicinally) in moderate
      96S
doses,  as  resolvents and deobstruent*, and, in larger
doses,  as hydragogues.  The plant is chiefly employed
by tbe poor of this country, among whom it is in com-
mon use as a purgative, but Dr. Cullen speaks of il ns
a violent remedy.
  Sambucus  nigra.  The systematic name of the el-
der-tree.   Sambucus vulgaris;  Sambucus arborea,
Acte;  Infelix lignum.   Sambucus—cymis  quinque-
partilis, foliis pinnatis,  caule arborco,  of Linmeus.
This indigenous  plant  has an  unpleasant narcotic
smell, and some authors have reported ite exhalations
to be so noxious, as to render it unsafe to sleep under
its shade.  The paru of thto tree that are proposed for
medicinal use in the pharmacopoeias arc  the  inner
bark, the flowers, and  the berries.   The  first has
scarcely any smell, and very little taste; on first chew-
ing, it impresses  a degree of sweetness, whicli is fol-
lowed by a very slight but durable acrimony, in wh ich i is
powers seem to reside.  From iu cathartic properly it
is recommended as an effectual hydragogue by Syden-
ham and Boerhaave: the former direcu three handftils
of it to be boiled in a quart of milk and water, till only
a pint  remains, of which one half to to be taken night
and morning, and repeated for several days; it usually
operates both upwards ai.l downwards, aud upon the
evacuation it produces, iu utility depends. Boerhaave
gave its expressed juice in doses from a drachm to half
an ounce.  In smaller doses it is said  lo be a useful
aperient and deobstruent in various chronic disorders.
The flowers have an agreeable ffovour;  and infusions
of them, when fresh, are gently laxative  mid aperient
When dry, they are said to promote chiefly the cuticu-
lar excretion, and to be particularly serviceable in ery-
sipelatous and eruptive disorders.  Externally they are
used in fomentations, Sec. and in the London pharma-
copoeia are directed in the form of an ointment.  The
berries in taste are somewhat  sweetish, and not un-
pleasant -  on expression they yield a fine purple juice,
which  {.roves a useful aperient and resolvent in sun-
dry chronic  diseases,  gently loosening  the  belly, and
promoting the urine and  perspiration.
  Samphire.   See Crithmum maritimum.
  Sampsuchus.   See Thymus mastichina.
  Sampsychum.  (From cram, to preserve, and uVvyij
the mind; because of  iu cordial qualities.)   Mar-
joram.
  SANATIVE.  (From sano, to cure.)  That which
heals diseases.
  Sancti antonh ignis.   See Erysipelas.
  SANCTORIUS, Sanctorius, was born in 1561, at
Capo d'Istria.   He studied  medicine at Padua, where
he took  his degree, and then  settled at Venice, and
practised with  considerable success.  At the age of
fifty, however, he was appouited professor of the the-
ory of  medicine ot Padua; in wliich office  he distin-
guished himself for thirteen years.  He  was then  al-
lowed  to  retire on his salary,  finding his health im-
paired  by the fatigue of the visiu, which he was fre-
quently obliged to moke in his professional capacity, to
Venice, where he passed the remainder of his life in
great reputation.  On  hto death, in  1636, a statue of
marble was raised to hto  memory; and an annual ora-
tion wos instituted by  the College of Physicians, to
whom  he had bequeathed an annuity, in commemora-
tion of his benevolence.   Sanctorius first called the
attention of physicians to the cutaneous and pulmo-
nary transpiration, which  he proved to exceed the other
excretions considerably in weight; and he maintained
that this furction must have a  material influence on
the system, and was deserving of great  consideration
in the treatment of diseases.  There is, no doubt, much
truth, in this general observation; but in ils applica-
tion to practice, he appears to have gone to an extra-
vagant length, and to have contributed  much to pro-
long the reputation of the humoral pathology.  Hia
treatise, entitled " Ars de Statica Medicina," was Aral
published  in  1614, and  passed through more  than
twenty editions, including  translations,  with various
commentaries:  it to written in an elegant  and per
spicuous Latin style.  He was also author of a Method
of avoiding Errors in  Medicine, to which was after
word added an essay " De Inventione Remediorum ;"
and of Commentaries  on some  of the ancient physi-
cians.  Besides the statical chair, by which he con
trived  to  determine the  weight of  the  Ingesta and
Egesta, be invented an  instrument for measuring the
force of tbe pulse, and several others for  surgjcal use; 
SAN
SAN
and he was tne first who attempted to determine the
temperature of the body by a thermometer, of which,
indeed, he is considered as the inventor.
   Sanctum semen.   The worm-seed,  or  santo-
nicuui.                                     '■
  SA'NCTUS.  Holy.  A  term formerly  applied to
diseases, herbs, Sec  See Chorea, Carduus  benedic-
tus, Sec
  SANDALIFORMIS.  Sandal or slipper-like.  Ap-
plied to the nectary of the Cypripedium calceolus.
  SANDARA'CHA. (From saghad narak, Arabian.)
1. A gummy resin.
  2.  A sort of arsenic.
  Sandaracha arabum.   Arabian sandarach. This
resinous juice appears to have  been the produce of a
large species of juniper-tree.
  Sandbath.  See Bath,
  SANDERS.  See Pterocarpus sanlalinus.
  Sandrack.   (An Arabian word.) See  Juniperus
communis.
  Sandyx.   (From sani duk, red, Arabian.)  Cerusse
burnt till it becomes red.
  SANGUIFICATION.  (Sanguificatio;  from  san-
guis, blood,  and faceo, to make.)  A natural  function
of the body, by  which the chyle to changed into blood.
The uses of sanguification are the generation of blood,
which serves to" fill the blood-vessels, to  irritate and
stimulate the heart  and arteries, to generate  or cause
heat,  to secrete the humours,  and to excite  the vital
actions.
  Sanguinalis.  (From  sanguis,  blood:  so named
from  its use in stopping bleedings.)   The Polygonum
aviculare, or knot-gross, to sometimes so called.
  Sanguinaria.  (From  sanguis,  blood:  so named
from iu use in stopping bleedings.)  See Polygonum
aviculare.
  [Sanguinaria canadensis.  See Blood-root.  A.]
  SANGUINEOUS.  Bloody.  Appertaining to the
blood.  Applied to certain conditions of the body and
diseases, and appearances of solids and fluids; as san-
guineous temperament, sanguineous apoplexy.
  Sanguineous  apoplexy.  See Apoplexy.
  Sanbuipurgium.  (Fromsanguis, blood, andpurgo,
lo purge.)  A gentle fever, or such  a one as by iu dis-
charges is supposed to purify the blood.
  SA'NGUIS.  (Sanguis, guinis. m.)  See Blood.
  Sanguis  draconis.   See Calamus rotang.
  Sanguis her( ;;i.is.   A name for the crocus.
  SANGUISO'RBA.  (Probably so  named originally
from  the blood-red colour of iu flowers, although the
juices of this plant, being  astringent, the medicinal
properties it possesses of stopping haemorrhages may
be a better warrant for iu name.) The name of a genus
of plants in the Liiiua>au system.   Class, Triandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Sanguisorba officinalis.  The  systematic name
of ihe Italian pimpinel, which was formerly much es-
teemed as on astringent, but is not now in use.
  SANGUISU'GA. (From sanguis, blood, and sugo,
to suck.)  The leech or blood-sucker. See Leech.
  SANICLE.  See  Sanicula.
  Sanicle,  Yorkshire.   See Pinguicula.
  SANI'CULA.  (From sano,  to heal: so called from
IU virtues in healing.)
  1.  The name of a genus of  plonU in the Linnxan
system.   Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2.  The pharmacopoeial name of sanicle.
  Sanicula eboracensis.  See Pinguicula vulgaris.
  Sanicula europea.   The systematic name of the
sanicle.  Cucullata;  Dodecafieon;  Symphytum pe-
traum;  Sanicula mas; Diapensia corlusa.   This
herb was formerly recommended as a mild adstringent,
and is supposed to have received its name from its sa-
native power.  Its sensible qualities are a bitterish and
somewhat  austere  taste, followed  by an acrimony
which chiefly affects the throat.  It is only in use in
the present day among the country people.
  Sanicula mas.  See Sanicula europea.
  SA'NIES.  Ichor.  This term is sometimes applied
to a thin, limpid, and greenish discharge; and at other
times to a thick and bloody kind of pus.
   SA'NTALUM.   (From  zandal,  Arabian.)  The
name of a  genus of planu in the Liruia-ai. system.
Class, Tetrandria;  Order, Monogynia.  Saunders.
   Santalum album.   The systematic name of the
yellow sounders.  Santalum citrinum; Santalum pal-
lidum,  Yellow saunders.  White sounders  wood  is
of a pale white colour, often with a yellowish tinge,
and, being destitute of taste or odour, it is superseded
by the santalum citrinum, which is of a brownish yel-
low  colour, of a  bitterish  aromatic taste,  and of a
pleasant smell, approaching to that of the rose.  Both
kinds are brought from the East Indies in billets, con-
sisting of large thick pieces, wliich, according to Rum-
phius, are sometimes taken from the same, and some-
times from different trees.   For though the white and
yellow saunders are the wood of the same species of
tree, yet the latter, wliich forms the central part of the
tree, is not olwoys to be found in sufficient quantity to
repay the trouble and expense of procuring it, espe-
cially, unless the trees be old; while the white, which
is the exterior part of the wood, is always more abun-
dant, and is consequently much cheaper.
  Yellow saunders, distilled with water, yields o fra-
grant essential oil, wliich thickens in the cold into the
consistence of a balsam, approaching in smell to  am-
bergris,  or  a  mixture of ambergris and roses;  the
remaining decoction,  inspissated  to the consistence
of  an  extract,  is  bitterish,  and  slightly   pungent.
Rectified spirit extracts,  by digestion,  considerably
more than water;  the colour of the  tincture is  a
rich yellow.  The  distilled spirit is slightly impreg-
nated wilh the flavour of the wood; the remaining
brownish extract  has a weak smell, and a moderate
balsamic pungency.  The wood is valued  highly on
occount of its fragrance; hence the Chinese are said
to fumigate their clothes with it, and to burn it in their
temples in honour of their gods.  Though still retained
in the Materio Medica, it cannot be thought to possess
any considerable share of medicinal power.   Hoffman
considers iu virtues as similar to those of ambergris;
and some others have esteemed it in the character of o
corroborant and restorative.
  [" The sandal-wood, which is found on some of the
islands of the South Sea, has been a great article of com-
merce for the Chinese market The following extract of
a letter from Coles Fanning & Co. to Dr. MitchiU gives
an account of the trade and employment of this wood as
a perfume.
  " In the month  of August, 1806, we despatched the
ship Hope, Capt  Brumley, from  New-York, on a
voyage to the  Fejee islands, to procure a cargo of San-
dal-wood, for the Canton market  The Hope having
succeeded at the island of Toconroba,  in procuring a
full cargo for herself, and in  part freighting an English
brig that she  met with at said island, arrived in No-
vember 1807, at Canton, where both cargoes were sold
at  about 25  cents  per pound.  While at  the Fejee
islands the Captoin of the Hope contracted and paid in
part to the chief of the island for about 270 tons more
of sandal-wood, (this being  about the whole quantity
of good wood remaining on the islands) to  be taken
away in a certain time.  In  order therefore to seize so
profitable a speculation while there were so few to par-
ticipate in it, wc built and sent the ship Tonquin, com-
manded by E. Fanning, in May, 1807, to meet theHope
ot Canton; but the  Hope not having arrived in time
for Copt Fanning to fulfil our original intentions, the
season wos so far wasted as to compel him to lood the
Tonquin for New-York, and he met the Hope in the
mouth of the Tigris or (Canton river).  Both vessels
will, therefore, return to the United States under no
expectations thai  the trespasses of European nations
would compel our government to inhibit their depar-
ture again on said voyage.  Being thus situated we
have taken the liberty to address you for your advice,
whether, under the embargo law, or the supplements,
the  Executive will not  have  sufficient authority to
permit us to proceed immediately with a ship sufficient
to bring the  above quantity of wood, and  by  that
means save  to ourselves and our country at least
$130,000, which will probably, if such permission is re-
fused, foil into English hands; for  you will please to
observe, that  there was in the first place but a small
patch of the wood on one of the islonds, that the Hope
left four English vessels there, selecting from the refuse
a little of very inferior quality, and in expectation too
that some accident would prevent  our ship from re-
turning within the limited time, which would release
the chief from his engagement, ond leave him at liberty
to sell the  good wood purchased by>Capt Brumley to
their  From the knowledge Copt. Brumley has of tha
chief's conduct, we  rely as confidently on his keeping
bis enEoscmeiu for ths time limited as we would on tho
                                        803 
SAP
SAP
thief of the most civilized nation.  You will no doubt
recollect that the Chinese have long considered sandal-
wood as possessing religious properties; they are ac-
customed  to burn it on their altars as incense;  their
god Josh is supposed always out of humour, unless his
nose to  regaled with iu delightful effluvia.  We have
enclosed a small piece ofthe wood, that you may have
an opportunity of judging how far a Pagan god's taste
may be deemed exquisite.  The Hope to the first ve>sisl,
to tbe best of our knowledge, that  ever proceeded from
the United Stotes on this voyoge, ond on her return, we
presume she will pay about $40,000 into the Treasury
for duties from thi proceeds of llie wood, wliich origi-
ginally cos', only about nine hundred dollars.'"—Med.
Repos.  A.]
  Santalum citrinum.  See Santalum album.
  Santalum pallidum.  See Santulum album.
  Santalum rubrim.  Red sounders.   SeePlerocar-
pus santalinus.
  SANTOLI'NA.  (From santalum,  saunders; be-
cause it smells like the saunders-wood.)  SeeArtemisia
santonica.
  Santolina  cham.e-cyparissus.   The systematic
name of the lavender cotton.
  Santonicum.   (From  Santonio, its  native place.)
See Artemisia santonica.
  SAPHE'NA. (From aatbns, visible.)  Venasaphena.
The large  vein of the leg, which ascends along the little
toe over the external ankle, and  evacuates part of tlie
blood from the foot into the popliteal veins.
  Sapienti.*:  dentes.   {Sapientia,  wisdom, discre-
tion : so colled because Ihey appear when the person to
supposed to  be at years of discietion.)  See 7'eefA.
  SAPINDUS.  (Thot is,  Sapo Indus,  Indian  soap:
the rind of the fruit serving instead of soap to cleanse
linen, but  not without hazard of  injury to the texture
ofthe cloth.)  The name of a genus of plonte.  Class,
Octandria; Order, Digynia.  The soap-tree.
  Sapindus saponaria.  The systematic name of the
plant which affoids soap-nuts.   Saponaria nucula;
Bacca bermudensis.  Soap-berries.  A spherical  fruit,
about the size of a cherry, the cortical part of which is
yellow, glossy, and so transparent  as to show the sphe-
rical black nut which rattles within, and which includes
a while kernel. The tree grows in Jamaica.  It is said
that the cortical port of this fruit hos a bitter taste, and
no smell;  that it raises a soapy froth wilh water, and
has similar effecu with soap in  washing; that it is a
medicine of singular and specific  virtue in chlorosis.
They are not known in the shops of this country.
  SA'PO.   (Sapo, nis. m.)  Soap.  A  compound, in
definite proportions, of certain principles in oils, fats, or
resin, wilh a salifiable base.  When this base is potassa
or soda, the  compound  is used as a detergent in wash-
ing clothes.   When an alkaline earth, or oxide of a
common metal, as litharge, to the salifiable base, the
compound is insoluble in water.  The first of these
combinations is scarcely applied to any use, if we ex-
cept that of linseed oil with lime-water,sometimes pie-
scribed  as o liniment against burns; and the last to
known only in surgery  as the basis of certain plasters.
Concerning  the chemical,constitution  of soaps  and
saponification, no exact ideas  were entertained prior to
Chevreuil's  researches.
  Fau are compounds of a solid and a liquid substance;
the former called stearine, the latter resembling vegeta-
ble oil, and therefore called daine. When fat is treated
with a hot ley of potassa or soda, the constituents react
on one another, so as to generate the solid pearly mat-
ter margarie acid, and  the fluid  matter oleic acid, both
of which  enter into a species  of saline combination
with the  alkali;  while the third  matter  that is  pro-
duced, the  *ioeef: pnndple, remains free.  We  must
therefore regard our common  soap as a mixture of an
alkaline margarate and  oleate, in prorations  deter-
mined by the relative proportions of the two acids pro-
ducible from the peculiar species of fat   It is probable,
on the other hand, that the soap formed from vegetable
oil is chiefly an oleate.  No chemical researches  have
hitherto been made known, on the compounds of resin
with alkalies, though these constitute the brown  soaps
so extensively manufactured  in this country.  All oils
or fau do not possess in an equal  degree the property
of saponification.  Those which saponify best, are,
   1. Oil of olives, and  of sweet almonds.
  8. Animal oils; as  hog's-lard, tallow, butter, and
horse-oil.
        964
  3.  Oil of colza, or rape-seed oil.
  4.  Oil of becch-masi and poppy-seed, when mixed
wiih olive-oil or tallow.
  5.  The seieiol fish-oils, mingled like the preceding.
  6.  Hempseed-oil.
  7.  Nut-oil and linseed-oil.
  8.  Palm oil.
  9.  Rosin.
  In general, the only soaps employed in commerce,
are those of olive-oil, tallow, lard, palm-oil, end  rosin.
A species of *oap can also be foinied  by the  union of
beeswax wilh alkali; but this hos no detergent  appll
cation, being used only for painting in encavsto.
  The specific gt avity of soup is in general greater than
that of water. Its taste is loinily alkaline.  When sub
jected to heat it speedily fuses, swells up, and is then
decomposed.  Exposed to the air in thin slices, it soon
becomes dry; but the whole  combined water does not
leave it, even by careful desiccation on a sand-balh.
  Soap is much more soluble in hot than iu cold water.
This solution is instantly disturbed by Ihe greater nuin
ber of ocids, whicli seizing  the alkali, either separate
the fatty principles, or unite with them into an acido-
soapy emulsion.  The solution is likewise decompose!
by almost all the earthy and metallic salts, which give
birth to insoluble compounds of the oleic and margarie
acids, with the salifiable bases.
  Soap is soluble in alkohol, and in large quantity by
the aid of heat.  When  boiling alkohol to saturated
with soap, the liquid, on  cooling, forms o consistent
transparent moss of a yellow colour.   When this mass
is dried, it still  retains  iu transparency, provided the
soap be a compound of tallow and soda; and in this
state it is sold by the perfumers in this country.
  Good soap possesses  the property of removing from
linen and cloth the  greater part of fatty subsiancaa
which may have been applied to them.
  The medicinal soap, sapo amygdolinus, is made with
oil of sweet almonds, and half  its weight of caustic
alkali. Common or soft soap, sapo mollis, to made of
potassa and oil, or tallow.  Spanish, or Castile  soap,
sapo durus, of oil of olives and soda, or barilla.  Black
soap is a composition of train oil and an alkali; and
green soap of hemp, linseed, or rape oil, with an alkali.
The white Spanish soap, being made of  the finer kinds
of olive oil, to the best, and therefore preferred for in-
ternal use.  Soap was  imperfectly known-to  the  an-
cienu.  It is mentioned by Pliny as  made of fat and
ashes, and as an invention of the Gauls.  Aretaeus and
others inform us, that the  Greeks obtained their know-
ledge of iu medical use from the Romans.  Iu virtues.
according to Bergius,  are  detergent, resolvent, ana
aperient,  and its use recommended in jaundice, gout,
calculous complainU, and obstruction of the  viscera.
The efficacy of soap, in the first of these diseases, was
experienced by Sylvius, and  since recommended very
generally by various authors who have written on this
complaint; and it has also been thought of use in sup-
plying the place of bile in the prima? viae.  The utility
of this medicine in icterical cases was infetred chiefly
from its  supposed  power of dissolving  biliary concre-
tions ; but this medicine has lost much of its reputation
in jaundice, since  it is now known, that gall-stones
have been  found in  many after death who had been
daily taking soap for several months, and even years.
Of ils good effecu  in urinary calculous affections, we
have the testimonies of several, especially when  dis-
solved in lime-water, by which its efficacy is considera-
bly increased; for it thus  becomes a powerful solvent
of mucus, which an ingenious modern author supposes
to be the  chief agent in the formation of calculi;  it is,
however, only in the incipient state of the disease that
these remedies  promise effectual benefit, though they
generally abate the more violent symptoms where they
cannot remove the cause.  With Boerhaave, soap was
a general medicine; for  as he attributed most com-
plaints to viscidity of the fluids, he, and most of the
Boerhaavlan school,  prescribed it, in conjunction with
different  resinous and other substances, in gout, rheu-
matism, and various visceral complainU.  Soap is also
externally employed as a resolvent, and gives  name to
several officinal preparations.
  [" The history of personal cleanliness is very impor-
tant, and has been lamentably neglected.  Pliny, in hit
Natural History, treating of strumous swellings, moke*
mention of  Soap:  Prodet  est sapo.  Galliarum hoe
inventum rutilandis capillis.  Pit ex  sebo et etnert. 
SAP
SAR
 Optimue ex fagine et taprino : duobis modis, spissus
 ac liquidus : uterque apud Germanus  majore in usu
 viris quamfaminis.  " Soap is good for them.  This
 was  invented in Gaul, and used for reddening the
 hair.  It is made of fat and ashes.  The best is pre-
 pared from the ashes of the beach-tree and the suet of
 the goat.  There are two sorts, the thick and the liquid.
 Among the Germans, both kinds are more used by the
 men than by the women."  Priscian writes  of  " Sapo
 Gallicus," or Gaulish soap! and Martial of " Spuma
 Batava," or Dutch lather, and " Spuma Coustico," or
 Caustic foam.  The  German soap was reckoned the
 best and cleanest   The Gaulish was next  in  quality
 and value.
   Il is clear, ond  President  Goguet to of  the same
 opinion, (in hto history ofthe origin of laws, &c.) that
 the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans knew no-
 thing of soap.  These nations used to supply the want
 of it by  various other means.  From  the  borbarous
 people of the north, the  knowledge and  employment
 of soap passed to the Romans; and from  the Romans
 was made known to the Greeks.  A very remarkable
 fact!
   When the Romans first became acquointed with
 soap, they called it" Unguentum Cineris," or Ointment
 of ashes.  So prevalent was the idea of iu origin, thot
 several writers have treated of it under  the denomina-
 tion of" Cinis," or ashes, iuelf.   And those who con-
 sumed soap were in those days called" Cinerorii," or
 Ashes users.
   After a while, however, thto detergent ointment wos
 distinguished among the Romans by the  word " Sapo."
 Thto term  probably is of Gothic or Barbarian  origin.
 Some of the Parthian and other nations bordering on
 the frontier provinces of the Roman Empire,  distin-
 guished their rulers or chiefs by the name  " Sapor" or
 " Sapores."  The good they derived from the Unguen-
 tum Cineris was so great and excellent, and it was so
 powerful in overcoming bodily inconveniences, and so
conducive to personal comfort, that they called this
preserver of private health, by a name  corresponding
to, and derived from the sovereigns who presided over
tbeir public safety.  From  Sapor, thus was derived
Sapo; two ternis significant of the powers which pro-
tected  the political  and the  individual  bodies  of the
people.   The Romans adopted Sapo, and  naturalized
 it to their language.  From them the Greeks borrowed
their oairiav-  The French have derived their " savon"
from the same source, and so have the  English their
"soap."
   But if soap was so late an invention, and learned
from the rougher nations of the north of Europe at so
advanced a period  of the history of their southern
neighbours, how comes it to pass the Hebrews were ac-
quainted with it, as we read in the English version of
the Bible, translated under the auspices of king James 1
The term " soap" does indeed occur there In Jeremiah,
chap. ii. v. 22, and  in Malachi, chap. iii. v. 2.  Yet
there  can scarcely  be entertained a doubt, that the
translators were mistaken. This opinion of their having
 misinterpreted the text is supported by the Latin vul-
gate version, which expresses the former of these pas-
sages by tbe words, " herbam borith," and the latter
by " herba fullonum."  What, now, is  the plant Bo-
rith, and what is the Fuller's herb ?  Calmet, in his
Dictionary of the Bible, states, that il is the kali or sa-
line vegetable, of whose ashes "ley and soap are made."
 Goguet thinks it was salt-wort, a  plant very common
in Syria, Judca, Egypt, ond Arobia; which, if burned
to ashes,  and the ashes mingled with water, formed a
strong  ley fit for cleansing  and whitening cloths, and
doubtless they were right.
  Notwithstanding all thto authority, Beza  evidently
missed the true meaning of the original, which he ex-
presses in both the before-mentioned texu, by the sub-
Btantive "smegma."  Bui John Jacob Schmidt, in his
Biblischer Medicus, mentions this  cleansing article by
the Hebrew name of " Bor."  This substantive being
derived from the root " ur" fire, plainly indicates that
the purifying material in question was obtained by or
through fire. Borith would thus seem to  be the plant
which, by the action of the fire, yielded Bor, that is,
Ihe detergent article of the washers and  fullers.  Or
the two words might  be used Indifferently to  signify
the plant both before and after incineration.  Hence,
it may be inferred, the plant was a species of Salsola or
 Glass-wort, and that the saline residuum, after burn-
 ing, was ftelp or barilla; a material possessing qualifies
 similar  to the oriental nation or mineral alkali.  The
 same thing has been latterly called Soda, wlience comes
 La Soude of the French, and the Suds or Alkaline
 lixivium ofthe English."—Ncu>- York Med. Repos. A.]
   Sapo terebinthinje.   Starkey's soap.
   IjL kali preparati calidi,  |j.  Olei terebinth,  Siij.
 The hot kali preparatum to to have the oil of turpen-
 tine gradually blended with it, in a heated mortar.
 Indolent swellings were formerly rubbed with this ap-
 plication, and perhaps some chronic  affections of the
 joinu might still be benefited by it.
   SAPONA'RIA.  (From sapo, soap: so called be
 cause iu juice, like soap, cleans cloths.)  1. The name
 of a genus of planu in the  Linnasan system.  Class,
 Decandria;  Order, Digynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of the soap-wort.  See
 Saponaria officinalis.
   Saponaria nucula.  See Sapindus saponaria.
   Saponaria officinalis. The systematic name of
 the soap-wort, colled  also bruise-wort.  Struthium;
 Lanaria;  Lychnis sylvestris; Ibixuma.  The  root
 of this  plant, Saponaria—calycibus cylindricis, foliis
 ovalo-lanceolatis, of Linnaeus, is  employed medicin-
 ally; it  has  no  peculiar smell; iu taste is sweetish,
 glutinous, ond somewhat bitter. On being chewed for
 some time, it is said to discover a degree of acrimony,
 which continues to affect the mouth for o consideroble
 time.  According to Neumon, two ounces of the  root
 yielded eleven drachms of watery extract; but Cartheu-
 ser, from a like quantity, only obtained six drachms,
 and twenty-four groins.   This extract manifested a
 sweetish taste, followed by an acrid quality.   The
 spirituous extract is less in quality, but of a more pene-
 trating acrid taste. Decoctions of the root, on being
 sufficiently agitated, produces a soponoceous froth; a
 similar soapy quality is observable also in the extract,
 and still  more manifestly in the leaves, insomuch  that
 they have been used by the mendicant monks as a  sub-
 stitute for soap in washing of their clothes; and Ber-
 gius, who made several experimenu with the saponaria,
 declares that it had all the effects of soap itself.
  From these peculiar qualities of the saponaria, there
 can be little doubt of iu possessing a considerable share
 of medical efficacy, which Dr. Woodville says he could
 wish to find faithfully ascertained.
  The diseases for which the saponaria is recommend-
 ed, as syphilis, gout, rheumatism, ond jaundice,  are
 not, perhaps, the  complainU in which its use is most
 availing; for a fancied resemblance ofthe roots of sa-
 ponaria with those of sarsaparilla, seems to have led
 physicians to think them  similar in their  effecu;  and
 hence they have both been administered with the some
 intentions, particularly in fixed pains, and venereal af-
 fections.  Bergius says, "in  arthritide, cura mercuri-
 ale, &c. nullum aptiorem potuni novi."  However, ac-
 cording to several writers, the most inveterate cases of
 syphilis were cured by a decoction of this plant, with-
 out the use of mercury.
  Haller informs us lhat Boerhaave entertained a high
 opinion of iu efficacy in jaundice and other visceral
 obstructions.
  SAPONULE.   Saponulus.  A combination of a vo
 latile or essential oil with different bases; as saponule
 of ammonia, Sec.
  Sapota.  (The West Indian name of several sorte
 of fruiu of Ihe plum kind.)  See Acras sapota.
  Sappan lignum.  See Hamatoxylon campechianum
  SAPPHIRE.   Telesie of Hafiy.   Perfect corundum
 of Bournon.  The oriental ruby and topaz are sap
 phires.  Sapphire is a subspecies of ihomboidal corun-
 dum. It to one of the esteemed precious stones, a sap-
 phire of ten carau' weight being worth fifty guineas.
 Iu colours are blue, red, and also gray, white, green,
 and yellow.   It is found in blunt-edged pieces, in
 roundish pebbles, and crystallized after tho diamond.
 It is the hardest substance in nature.
  Sapphirina aqua.  (So called from ite  sapphire of
 blue colour.)  Aqua cupri ammoniati.  Made by a so-
 lution of sal ammoniac in lime-water, standing in a
 copper vessel.
  Saracens consound.   See Solidago virga aurea.
  SARATOGA.   The name of a county in the Stote
 of New-York, in America, celebrated for Its springs o|
mineral water, which are numerous throughout a  cir
cuit of several miles near the  centre of that county
The ground throughout this circuit is, geaerajh/ speak- 
SAR
SAR
 ing, flat, and in two or three places is covered with ex-
 tensive sheeu of limpid water, which arc  fed by
 streams that toke their origin in ihe neighbouring moun-
 tains of granite and  gneiss.   The soil  in which the
 springs rise is sandy, and rests upon a bed of compact
 limestone, or argillaceous slate,  or gray wacke; and
 they are apparently more numerous where lliese spe-
 cimens of the transition ond secondary formation are
 ascertained to meet.   There is more variety in the de-
 gree of mineral impregnation at  two  poinu,  about
 seven miles distant from each other, where accommo-
 dation has  been more liberally provided for  visiters,
 and which have  taken  the  names nf Saratoga and
 Ballston Spa.  The formerof these seems to hove been
 known to tlie Indians before the formation of European
 settlemenu, and was pointed out by them  to Sir Wil-
 liam Johnson, in 1767.  It was called in their language
 the Spring of Life, and is in temperature about 50° of
 Fahrenheit  Most of llie American chemisu have
 made ihe  anolysto of the Saratoga water an object of
 inquiry and  publication,  and  though one or two of
 them differ as to the existence of some ofthe more tri-
 fling impregnations, they agree generally that it con-
 tains carbonic acid gas, muriate of soda, carbonate of
 soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate of iron, and carbo-
 nate of magnesia.
  Iu two or three of the springs, there is, besides, sul-
 phuretted  hydrogen gas, and in one at least traces of
 silica ond alumina.  These  incidentol vorieties give
 rise  to slight differences in the medicinal effecu of the
springs; but, ss a general rule for guiding strangers in
 their selection, il may he  stated,  that the more abun-
 dant the muriate of soda,  and carbonates of soda, lime,
 and  magnesia, the more aperient and diuretic will be
the water; while the greoter the quantity of carbonic
acid and of iron, in  proportion to the  former ingre-
dients, the more powerful will be iu tonic effects.
  The great superiority  of these American  mineral
waters over  every thing  of  the  kind to be found in
Europe, consists,
  1st, In their containing a greater quantity of carbo-
nic acid, or fixed air, by which they are capoble of re-
taining in solution a much larger proportion of useful
saline matter, of a particular character, than any Euro-
pean mineral water.
  2dly, In their possessing more efficient purgative pro-
perties than any ofthe springs of Europe, with the ex-
ception of Harrowgote, and perhaps Cheltenham, which
ar«- both not only destitute of the refreshing taste given
by the carbonic acid,  but contain (Harrowgate in par-
ticular) matters which render them to the palate in
some degree offensive.
  3dly, In containing such a combination of materials,
in the most eligible form, as fit them to become at once
a most refreshing beverage to all,  and to those suffering
from the diseases about to be mentioned in  particular,
a more perfect union of what is agreeable with that
wbich is necessary ond useful in the way of medicine,
than any that has hitherto been provided, either by na-
ture or art
  The  diseases in  which the Saratoga  waters  have
been found to be productive of the best effecu, are,
dyspepsia, cutaneous diseases, scrofulous  affections,
dropsy, chlorosis, and other affections peculiar to the
female sex, nephritic affections ond gravel.
  SARCI'TES.  (From <rap£, flesh.)  See Anasarca.
  SA'RCIUM.  (Diminutive of-rap^, flesh.) A carun-
 cle, or small fleshy excrescence.
  SARCOCE'LE.  (From cat\, flesh, and xnXv, a tu-
 mour.)  Hernia carnosa.  This to a disease of the
 body of the testicle, and as the term implies, consists,
 in general, in such an alteration mode in  the structure
 of it, os produces a resemblance to a hard fleshy sub-
 stance, instead of that fine, soft, vascular texture, of
 which it to, in a natural and healthy state, composed.
  The ancient writers have made a great number of
 distinctions  of the different kinds of this disease, ac-
 cording to its different appearances, and according to
 the mildness, or malignity of the symptoms with which
 it may chance to be attended.  Thus, the sarcocele, the
 hydro-sarcocele, the scirrhus,  the cancer, the caro ad-
 nata ad tat em, ond the caro adnata ad vasa, which
 are really  little  more thon  descriptions of different
 states  and circumstances of the same  disease, are
 reckoned as so many different complainU, requiring o
 voriety of treatment, and deriving their origin from a
 variety of different humours
      966
   Every species of sarcocele consisu primarily In an
 enlargement, induration, and  obstruction  of the vas
 cular part of the testicle;  but  this alteration Ii, in dif-
 ferent people, attended with such  a variety of circum-
 stances, as to produce several different appearances,
 and to  occasion the many distinctions which have
 been made.
   If the body of the testicle, though enlarged, and indu-
 rated to some degree, be perfectly  equal in iu surface,
 v lid of pain, has no appearance of fluid in iu tunica
 vaginalis, and produces very little uneasiness,  except
 whot is occasioned  by its mere weight, it is usually
 called a simple sarcocele, or an indolent scirrhus; if,
 at the same time that the testis is enlarged and harden-
 ed, there be n palpable accumulation of fluid in  tbe va-
 ginal  coat, the disease has by many been named  a
 hydro-sarcocele ; if the lower part of tiie spermatic ves-
 sels, and the  epididymis were enlarged, hard, and
 knotty, they supposed it to be a fungous, or morbid ac-
 cretion, and called it the caro adnata ad vusa; if the
 testicle  iuelf wos unequal in  its  surface, but  at  the
 some time not painful, they distinguish it by the title of
 caro adnata ad testem; if il wos tolerably equal, not
 very painful, nor frequently so, but at the same time
 hard and large, they gave it the appellation of an occult
 or benign cancer; if it was ulcerated, subject to fre-
 quent acute pain, to haemorrhage, &c. it was known by
 that of a malignant or  confirmed  cancer.  These dif-
 ferent appearances, though distinguished by different
 titles, are really no  more  than so many stages (as  it
 were) of the same kind of disease, and depend a great
 deal on several accidental circumstances, such as age,
 habit, manner of living, &c.  It is true, that many peo-
 ple  pass several years with this disease, under its most
 favourable appearances, and without encountering any
 of its worst; but, on the other hand, there are many
 who, in a very short space of time, run through all iu
 ■stages.  They who are most conversant with' it, know
 how very convertible its mildest symptoms are into its
 most dreadful ones, and how very short a space of time
 often intervenes between tlie one and the other.
   There is hardly any disease affecting  the  human
 body, which is subject to more variety thon this is, both
 with regard to its first manner of appearance, and the
 changes which it may undergo.
   Sometimes the first appearance is a mere simple en-
 largement and induration of the body of the testicle;
 void of  pain, wilhout inequality of surface, and  pro-
 ducing no uneasiness, or  inconvenience, except what
 is occasioned by iu  mere weight.  And some  people
 ore so fortunate to have it remain in this state for a
 very considerable length of time wilhout visible or  ma-
 terial  alteration.  On the other hand, it  sometimes
 happens that very soon after  its  appearance in  this
 mild manner, it suddenly becomes unequal und knotty,
 and is ottended witb very acute pains darting up to the
 loins and hack, but still remaining entire, that  is, not
 bursting through the integuments. Sometimes the fury
 of the disease brooks no restraint,  but making its way
 through all the membranes which envelope tbe testicle,
 it either produces a  large, foul, slinking, phagedenic
 ulcer,  with  hard edges, or it thrusts forth a  painful
 gleeting  fungus, subject to frequent haemorrhage.
   Sometimes on accumulation of woter to made in the
 tunica vaginalis, producing that  mixed appearance,
 called the hydro-sarcocele.
   Sometimes there to no fluid at all in the cavity ofthe
 tunica vaginalis: but the  body of  the testicle iuelf to
 formed into cells, containing either  a  turbid kind of
 water, a bloody  sanies, or a purulent foetid matter.
 Sometimes the disorder seems to be merely local, that
 is, confined to the testicle, not proceeding from a mint-
 ed habit, nor accompanied with diseased viscera, the
 patient having all the  general appearances and  cir-
 cumstances of health, and deriving hto local mischief
 from  on externol injury.   At other times, a  pallid,
 leaden countenance, indigestion, frequent nausea, co-
 licky pains, sudden purgings, &c.  sufficiently indicate
 a vitiated habit,  and diseased viscera, which diseased
 viscera moy also sometimes be discovered and felt.
   The progress also which it makes from  the testis up-
 ward, toward the process, is very uncertain; the dis-
 ease occupying the testicle only, without affecting the
 spermatic process, in some subjects, for a great  length
 of time; while, in others, it totally spoils the  testicle
 very soon, and almost as soon wjw.es on the spermatic
»chord. 
SAS
SAU
  SARCOCOLLA.   (From trapl, flesh,  and xoXXa,
 glue; because of iu supposed powerof gluing together
 wounds.)  A  spontaneous exudation from a tree of
 the fur kind, which grows in Persia, supposed to be
 similar to olibanum or frankincense.
  SARCOEPIPLOCE'LE.   Enlorged testicle, with
 rupture, containing omentum.
  SARCOL1TE.   A variety of analcime.
  dARCO'LOGY.  (Sarcologia; from oap\, flesh, and
 \jyos, a discourse.)  The doctrine of the muscles and
 soft pans-
  SARCO MA.  (Sarcoma, atis. n.; from oap\, flesh.)
 Sarcosis; Parvus; Sarcophyia  Navus.   A fleshy
 excrescence-   A genus of disease in the Class Locales,
 and Order Tumores, of Cullen.
  SARCO'MPHALUS.  (From o-apl-, flesh, and optba-
Xos, the navel.) A fleshy excrescence about the novel.
  Sarcophyia. (From oap\, flesh, and ipvia, to grow.)
A fleshy excrescence.
  Sarcopyodks.  (From aapt, flesh, and avov, pus.)
Applied  to the purulent, fleshy dischorge, which to
thrown up in some stoges of consumption.
  SARCOSIS. (From capl, flesh.)  1. A fleshy tu-
mour.
  2. The generotionof flesh.
  Sarcotica.   (From oapl, flesh.)  Medicines which
promote the generation of flesh in wounds.
  SARDE.  Sardoin.   A  variety of cornelian of a
deep blood-red colour.
  Sardiasis.  (From oapStavin, the sardonia, or herb,
which, being eaten, causes convulsive laughter.)  See
 Sardonic laugh.
  Sardonia.  (From  Sardonia, its native soil.)  A
 kind of smallage.
  SARDONIC LAUGH.   (Risus sardonicus: so
called from the herb sardonia, which being eaten is
said to cause a deadly convulsive laughter.)  A kind
of convulsive laugh, or spasmodic grin.   See Spasmus
cynieus.
  Sardonicus risus.  See Sardonic laugh.
  SARDONYX.  A variety of cornelian composed of
layers of white and red.
  SARMENTACEA^.  The name of a  natural order
of Linnaeus's Fragmenta : embracing the plante with
twining or trailing stems.
  SARMENTOSUS.  (From sarmenrum, a twig, or
trailing stalk.)  Trailing.  Applied too creeping stem,
barren of flowers, thrown out from the root for  the
 purpose of increase.
  SARMENTUM.  (Sarmen; from sarpio, to prune,
 lop, or cut off.) A twig, a runner.
  SABSAPARI'LLA.   (Thto word is  of  Spanish
origin, signifying  a red tree.)   See Smilax sarsapa-
 rilla.
  Sarsaparilla germanica.  See Carex armaria.
  SAR'TORIUS.   (From sartor, a tailor;  because
tailors cross their legs with it)   Sartorius seu longis-
simus femoris, of Cowper; Ilio cresti tibial of Dumas.
 This flat and  slender muscle, which is the longest of
 the human body, and from an inch and a  half to two
 inches in breadth, to situated immediately under the
 integumenu,  and  extends obliquely from the upper
 and anterior part of the thigh, lo the upper, anterior,
 and inner part of the tibia, being enclosed by a thin
 membraneous sheath,  which is derived from the adja-
 cent fascia lata.   It arises, by a tendon of about half
 an  inch in breadth, from the outer surface and inferior
 edge  of the anterior superior spinous process of the
 ilium, but soon becomes fleshy, and runs down a little
 way obliquely inwards, and then for some space upon
 the rectus, nearly in a straight direction,  after which
 it passes obliquely over  the vastus internus,  and the
 lower part of the  adductor longus, and then running
 down between the tendons of the adductor magnus,
 and the  gracilis, is inserted, by a thin tendon, into the
 inner partof the tibia, neor the inferior part of its tu-
 berosity, and for the space of an inch or two below it.
 This  tendon sends off a thin aponeurosis, which is
 Bpread  over the upper and posterior part  of the leg.
 This  muscle serves to  bend the leg  obliquely inwards,
 or  to roll the thigh outwards, and at the  same time
 to  bring one leg across the other, on which account
 Bpigelius first gave it the name of sartorius, or the
 tailor's muscle.
  SA'SSAFRAS.   (Quasi saxifraga;  from saxum,
 a stone, and  frango, to break;  so called  because
 a decoction of its wood was supposed good for the
stone; or, which is most probable, from the river Sas-
safras, in America, on the banks of which it grows in
abundance.)  See Laurus sassafras.
  SASSOLINE.  Native boracic  acid, found on the
edges of hot springs near Sasso in Florence.  It con-
sists of boracic acid 86, ferruginous sulphate of man-
ganese 11, and sulphate of lime 3.
  SATELLITE.   The veins which  accompany the
brachial artery as for as the bend of the cubit, are so
called.
  SATIN SPAR. A species of fibrous limestone.
  Saturantia.   Medicines which neutralize the ocid
in the stomach.
  SATURATION.  Saturatio.  A term employed in
pharmacy ond chemistry to express the state of a body
which hos a power of dissolving another, to a certain
extent only, in which it has effected lhat degree of so-
lution.   Some  substances unite  in  all  proportions.
Such, for exampie, are acids hi general, and some other
salts with water; and many of the metals with each
other.   But there are likewise many substances wliich
cannot be dissolved in a fluid, at a certain temperature,
in any quantity  beyond  o certain  proportion.  Thus
water will dissolve only about one-third of its weight
of common salt, ond, if more be added, it  will remain
solid.  A fluid, which holds in solution as much of any
substance as it can dissolve, to said to be saturated with
it.  But saturation with  one substance does  not de-
prive the fluid of its power of acting on and dissolving
some othet bodies, and  in many cases it increases this
power.  For example,  water salurated with salt will
dissolve sugar; and water saturated with carbonic acid
will dissolve iron, though wilhout this addition its ac-
tion on this metal is scarcely perceptible.        ,
  The word saturation to likewise used in another
sense by chemisu: The union of two principles  pro-
duces a body, the properties of which differ from those
of iu component parts, but resemble those of the pre
dominating  principle.   When the principles  are in
such proportion that neither  predominates, they are
said to be saturated with each other; but if otherwise,
the most predominont principle is said lo be subsaturated
or undersaiurated, and the other supersaturated or over
saturated.
  SATUREI'A.   (From satyri, the lustful satyrs; be-
cause it makes those who eat it lascivious.  Blanch.)
1. The name of a genus of plants in the Linnaean sys-
tem.  Class, Didynamia ; Order, Gymnospermia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the summer savory.
  Satureia capitata.   The systematic nome of the
ciliated savory.   Thymus creticus.  It possesses simi-
lar virtues to our thyme, but in a stronger degree.
  Satureia  hortensis.  The systematic name of
the summer savory.  Saturda saliva; Culina sativa
Plinii;  Thymbra.  This low shrub is cultivated in
our gardens for  culinary purposes. It has a warm,
aromatic, penetrating taste, and smells like thyme, but
milder.  It to an ingredient in most of  the warm stews
and made dishes.
  Satureia sativa.  See Satureia hortensis.
  SATU'RNUS.  (From the planet or heathen god, of
that name.)  The chemical nome of lead,
  SATYRI'ASIS.  (From ourupoc, a satyr; because
they are said to be greatly addicted to  venery.)  Saty-
riasmus; Priapismus; Salacitas ; Brachuna; Aras-
con. Excessive ond violent  desire  for coition in men.
A genus of disease in, the Class Locales, and Order
Dysorexia, of Cullen.
  SATY'RION.  (From oa-rupoc, on animal given to
venery : so colled becouse it was supposed to excite
venery if only held in the hand.)  Sec  Orchis mascula.
  SATYRIUM.  See Orchis mascula.
  Sauce alone.  See Erysimum alliaria.
  SAUNDERS.  See Santalum album.
  Saunders, red.  See Pterocarpus.
  Saur kraut   Cabbage preserved in brine.   An ar-
ticle of food common  in Germany, like our pickled
cabbage.
  SAUSSURITE. A hard mineral, placed by Jameson
near Andolusite, of white and gray or green colour,
found at the foot of Mount Rosa.
  SAUVAGES, Francis Boissier de, was born at
Alais in Lower Languedoc, in  1706.  He  graduated
at Montpelier when only 20, but  still continued his
studies, and four years after went  for farther  im-
provement to Paris.  On his return to Montpelier he
obtained a professorship in 1734; but bis reputation 
SCA
SCA
 fbr ingenuity of speculation is said to have obstructed
 his success in practice.  In 1752 he was made professor
 of botany, having  for twelve years before officiated as
 demonstrator of tbe plants in the botanic garden.  His
 death occurred in 1767.  He was a member of several
 nf the learned societies of Europe, and obtained the
 prizes given by many public bodies for the best essays
 on given subjects.  Among his earlier publications
 was one, entitled  "Nouvelles Classes des Maladies,"
 the outline of the system of Nosology, which has ren-
 dered his name illustrious, but which did not appear in
 iu complete  form, till after an additional labour of
 thirty years had been  bestowed  upon  it This work,
 consisting of Ave octavo volumes, contains an immense
 body of information, indeed, almost every thing then
 known concerning the species of disease; but the whole
 is very loosely arranged. He had collected many new
 observations and descriptions, wilh a view to incorpo-
 rate them in a second edition; which, however, he did
 not live to accomplish.  These materials were  used by
 Dr. Cramer after  his death.   Besides  this valuable
 work, Sauvages was author of numerous others on
 different subjecu relating to medicine.
  SAVIN. See Juniperus sabina.
  Savin ointment.  See Ceratum sabina.
  Savina.  See Juniperus sabina.
  SAVOURY.  See Satureia.
  SAXI'FRAGA.  (From saxum, a stone, ond frango,
 to break: so called because it was  supposed to be good
 against the stone in the bladder.)  The name of a ge-
 nus of planu in the Linmeau system.  Class,  Decan-
 dria ; Order, Digynia.
  Saxifraga alba.  See Saxifraga granulata.
  Saxifraga anolica.  See Peucedanum.
  Saxifraga crassifolia.  The root of this species of
 saxifrage to extolled by professor Pallas as an antiseptic.
  Saxifraga granulata.   The systematic name of
 the white saxifrage.  Saxifraga alba.   Called  by Ori-
 bosius  Besto.   Sanicula sedum.   Linnreus describes
 the laste of this plant to be acrid and  pungent, which
 we have not been able to discover; neither the tuber-
cles of the root nor the leaves manifest to the organs
 of taste any quality likely to be of medicinal use, and
 therefore, though this species of saxifrage has been
 long employed  as a popular remedy in  nephritic and
 gravelly disorders, yet we do not find either from iu
sensible qualities, or from  any published instances of
 its efficacy, that it deserves a place in the Materia Me-
dica.  The superstitious doctrine of signatures sug-
gested the use of the root, whicli is a good example of
 what Linnaeus has termed radix granulata. The bulbs
 or tubercles of such roots  answer an important pur-
 pose in vegetation,  by supplying  the plants with nou-
 rishment and  moisture, and thereby enabling them to
 resist the effecte of that drought to which the dry soils
 they inhabit peculiarly expose them.
  Saxifraga rubra.  See Spiraa filipendula.
  Saxifraga vulgaris.  Seu Peucedanum silaus.
  SAXIFRAGE.   See Saxifraga.
  Saxifrage, burnet.   See Pimpinella saxifraga.
  Saxifrage, English.  See Peucedanum silaus.
  Saxifrage, meadow.  See Peucedanum silaus.
  Saxifrage, white. See Saxifraga granulata.
  Saxon blue.   See Blue, saxon.
  SCAB.  A hard substance covering superficial ulcera-
 tions, and formed  by a concretion of tbe fluid dis-
 charged from  them.
  SCABER.  Rough to the touch from any little rigid
 inequalities:  applied io several parU of plants.
  SCA'BIES.   (Scabies, ei. f.; from scabo, to scratch.)
 See Psora.
  SCABIO'SA.  (From scaber, rough: so called from
 iu rough hairy  surface.) 1. Thenaiueof a genus of
 planu in the Linnaean system.   Class,  Trtranuria;
 Order, Monogynia.
  3. The  pharmacopoeial name of the common scabi-
 ous.  See Scabioea arvensis.
  Scabiosa arvensis.  The systematic name of the
 common field scabious.  This herb, Scabiosa—corollis
 quadrifidis radiantibus; foliis  pinnatifibis, incisis;
 caule hispido, of Linneus, and  iu flowers are some-
 times used medicinally.  The whole plant possesses a
 bitter andsubadstriugent taste, and  was formerly much
 employed in the cure  of some leprous affections and
 diseases of the lungs.
  Scabiosa succisa.  The systematic name  of tbe
 devil's bit scabious.
  8CABRIDEJE.  (From scaber, rotteh.)  The name
nf an order of planu in Linnaeus's Fragments of a
N atural Method, consisting of planis wilh rough leaves,
incomplete and inelegant flowers.
  ISCA'LA.  A ladder or staiicose.
  Scala tympani.  The superior spiral cavity of tha
cochlea.
  Scala vestibuli.   The inferior spiral cavity of tha
cochlea.
  SCALD.  See Ambustie.
  Scald head.  See Tinea capitis.
  SCALE.  Sonoma.  A lamina of morbid cuticle.
hard, thickened, whitish, and opake, of a very small
size, and irregular, often increasing  iulo layers, deno-
minated crusts.  Both scales and crusu repeatedly fall
off, and are reproduced in u short time.
  SCALENUS.  (Scalenus,sc.Musculus ; from oxa-
Xrrvos,  irregular or unequal.)  A muscle about which
anatomical writers have differed greatly in  their de-
scriptions.  It is situated at the side of the neck, be-
tween tiie transverse processes of the cervical vertebra
and the upper part of the thorax.  The ancienU who
gave it iu name from iu resemblance to an irregular
triangle, considered  il as one  muscle.  Vesalius and
Winslow divide it into two, Fallopius nnd Cowper into
three, Douglas into four, and Albinus inlo five portions,
which  they describe ns distinct muscles.   Without
deviating in the least from anatomical accuracy, It may
be considered as one muscle divided into three portions.
The anterior portion arises  commonly from the trans-
verse processes of the six inferior velebrae of the neck,
by ns many short tendons, and descending obliquely
outward,  to inserted tendinous and  fleshy,  Into tha
upper  side of the first rib,  near ite cartilage.   The
axillary artery passes through this portion, and some-
times divides it into two slips, about  an inch and a
half above its insertion.  The middle portion arises by
distinct tendons, from the transverse processes uf the
four last vertebrae of the neck, nnd descending obliquely
outwards and a little backwards, is inserted tendinous
into the outer and upper pari  of the first rib, from its
root to within the distance of an inch from ite cartilage.
The space between this  and the anterior portion, af-
fords a passage  to the nerves going lo tlie  upper ex-
tremities.  It is in part covered by the third or posterior
portion, which is the thinnest and longesi of the three.
This  arises  from the  transverse  processes%of the
second, third, fourth,  and fifth vertebra; of the neck,
by distinct tendons, and to inserted into the upper edge
of the second rib, at the distance of about an inch and
a half from iu articulation, by a broad flat tendon.
The use of the scalenus to to move the neck to one
side, when it acu singly, or to bend  It forwards, when
both muscles act; and when the neck is fixed, it serves
to elevate the ribs, and dilate the chest
  Scalenus primus   See Scalenus.
  Scalenus secundus.  See Scalenus.
  Scalenus tertius.   See Scalenus.
  SCALPE'LLUM.  A scalpel or common dissecting
knife.
  Scalprum.   A denticular raspetory, used in tie
panning.
  Scaly.   See Squamosus.
  SCAMMONIUM.   (A corruption  of the Arabian
word chamozah.)  See Convolvulus scammoma.
  SCAMMONY.  See Convolvulus scammonia.
  SCANDENS. Climbing, either with spiral tendrils
for iu support, o r by adhesive fibres   A pplied to stems,
Sec as  thot of the Vitis vinifera, ond Bryonia dioica.
  SCA'NDIX.  The name of a genus of'planu in the
Linnaean system. Class Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  Scandix cerefolium.  The systematic name of
the officinal  chervil.   Cerefolium;  Charophyllum;
Charefulium.  Chervil.  This  plont,  Scandix—semi-
nibus nitidis, ovato-subulatis ;  umbellis sessilibus late-
ral/bus, of Linnaeus, to a salubrious  culinary herb,
sufficiently grateful both to the palate and stomach,
slightly aromatic, gently aperient, and diuretic.
  Scandix odorata.   The systematic name of the
sweet cicely, myrrhis, which possesses virtues similar
to the common chervil.  See Scandix cerefolium,
  SCA'PHA.  (A skiff, or cock-boat;  from oxairrta,
to make hollow:  because formerly it was made by
excavating a large tree.)  1. The excavation or cavity
of the auricula, or external ear, between the heflx aad
antihelix.
  2. Tne name w» Amble-headed roller. 
SCA                                              SCA
  SCAPHOID.  See Scaphoides.
  SCAPHOI'DES.   (From oxafn, a  little vessel, or
 boat, and tiSos, resemblance.)  Boat-like.  See Navi-
 eulare os.
  SCAPOLITE.  Pyramidal felspar. Professor Jame-
 son divides this into four subspecies:
  1 Radiated, of a gray colour, resinous, end  pearly
 In  distinct concretions, and crystallized, found  in the
 neighbourhood of  Areudal, in Norway, associated wilh
 magnetic ironstone, nnd felspar.
  2. Foliated scapolite,  crystallized and of a gray,
 green, and block colour, found in granular granite, or
 wliitestone, in the  Saxon Erzegebirge.
  3. Compact scapolite, of a red colour, found with
 the former species.
  4. Elaolite.
  SCA'PULA.  (From the Hebrew schipha.)  Omo-
plata;  Os homoplala; Scoptula;  Epinotion.   The
shoulder-blade.  This bone, which  approaches nearly
to a triangular figure, is fixed, not unlike a buckler, to
the upper, posterior, and lateral part  of the thorax,
extending from the first to about the seventh rib.  The
onterior  ond  internal surface is irregularly concave,
from the impression, not of the ribs, os the generolity
of ouaiomisu have supposed, but of the subscopularis
muscle.  Its posterior and  externol surface is convex
and divided into two unequal fossae by  a considerable
spine, which, rising small  from the posterior edge of
the scapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, as
it approaches the  anterior  and superior  angle of the
bone, till at length it terminates in a broad  and flat
process, at the top of  the shoulder, called the processus
acromion.  On  the  anterior edge of  this processus
acromion, we observe an oblong, concave, articulating
surface covered with cartilage, for the articulation of
the scapula with the clavicle.  At  its lower part, the
acromion is hollowed, to allow a passoge to the  supra
and infra spinati muscles.   The ridge of the spine af-
fords two rough, flat surfaces, for the insertion of the
trapezius and deltoid muscles.  Of  the two fossae into
which the external surface  of the bone to divided by
the spine, the superior one, which to the smallest, serves
to lodge  the supra spinatus muscle; and the inferior
fossa, which to much larger than the other, gives origin
to the infra spinatus.  The triangular  shape of the
scapula  leods us to  consider its  angles and its  sides.
The upper posterior angle is neither so thick,  nor has
so rough a  surface, as the inferior one ; but the most
remarkable of the  three angles of this bone is the an-
terior one, which  is of great  thickness, and formed
into a glenoid cavity of an oval shape, the greatest
diameter of which  is from  below upwards.  Thto
cavity, in the recent subject, isfurnished with cartilage,
and receives the head of the os humeri.  The cartila-
ginous crust, which surrounds its brims, makes it ap-
pear deeper in the fresh subject than in the skeleton.
A little beyond this glenoid cavity, the  bone becomes
narrower, so as to give, the appearance of a neck: and
above  this rises a considerable process,  which, from
being thick ot its origin, becomes thinner, ond, in some
degree, flattened ot iu extremity.  This process projects
considerably, ond  is curved downwards.  From its
supposed resemblance to a  beak of a bird, it  is colled
the coracoid  process.  From the whole external side
of this process, a strong and brood ligament to stretched
 to the processus acromion, becoming narrower as it
approaches the latter process, so as to  be of a  some-
what triangular shape.  This ligament, ond  the two
processes with which it is connected, are  evidently in-
tended for the protection of the joint, and to prevent a
luxation of the os  humeri upwards.   Of the three
sides of  the scapula, the posterior one, which  is the
longest, is called the basis.   This side is turned towards
the vertebrae.  Iu other two sides  are called  costa.
The superior costa,  which is llie upper ond shortest
side, is likewise thinner than the other two, having a
sharp edge.  It is nearly horizontal, and parallel with
the second  rib; and is interrupted near the basis of the
coracoid process,  by a semicircular niche, which to
closed by a ligament that extends from one end of it to
the other, and affords a passage to vessels and nerves.
 Besides  this  passage, there are other  niches in the
scapula  for the transmission of vessels; viz. one be-
 tween the coracoid process and the head of the bone,
 and another between iu neck and the processus acro-
 mion.  The third  side of the scapula, or the inferior
 costa, as it  to called,  is of considerable  thickness, and
extends  obliquely from the neck of the  bom to ill
inferior angle,  reaching  from about tbe third to the
eighth rib.  The scapula has but very little cellular
substance, and is of unequal  thickness,  being very
thin at iu middle part, where it is covered by a great
number of muscles, aud hav ing its neck, the acromion,
and coracoid process, of considerable strength.  In the
fcetus, the basis and the neck of the scapula, together
with iu  glenoid  cavity,  acromion,  coracoid process,
and tlie ridge of the spine, are so many epiphyses with
respect to the rest of the  bone, to which they are not
completely united till o considerable time after  birth.
The scapula is articulated to the clavicle and os hu-
meri, to which last il serves as a  fulcrum  ; and, by
altering its position, it affords a greater scope to the
bones of the arm in their different motions.  It likewise
affords attachment to a great number of muscles, and
posteriorly serves as a defence lo the thorax.
  SCAPULAR.  (Scapularis;  from  scapula, the
shoulder bone.)  Belonging to the scapula; as the sca-
pulary arteries ond veins, which are branches  of the
subclavian ond axillary.
  SCAPULA'RIA.  (From  scapula,  the  shoulder-
bone.)  A scapulary.  A  bandage for the shoulder-
blade.
  SCAPUS.  (Scopus, i. m.; from oxattra, to lean or
rest upon: because  it reste as it were on the root or
base.)  A stalk which springs from the root, and bears
the flowers and fruit, but not tiie leaves.  The  prim
rose and cowslip are good examples of it.
  The following are the principal varieties:
  1. Teres; as in Plantago major.
  2. Angulosns ;  ass in Plantago lanceolata.
  3. Ventricosua,  hollow at the bottom; as in Allium
cepa.
  4. Flexuosus; as in Orchis flexuosa.
  5. Anceps; as Alium augulosuin.
  6. Filiformis; as Bellis bellidoides.
  7. Triquctrus; as Allium triquetrum.
  8. Spiralis; as  Anthericum spirale, and tnat  won-
derful plant, Valisneria spiralis.
   9. Penlagonus ;  as Ophris paludosa.
  10. Articulatus  ;  as Statice echioides.
  11. Erectus ; in Tuiipa gesneriona.
  12. Ascendens; in Silymbrium vimineum.
  13. Dcclmatus; as Astragalus incanus.
  14. Decumbens; as Potentilla sobacaulis.
  15. Dichotomus;  as Statice tartarica.
  16. Nadus;  as Convallaria majalis.
  17. Foliosus; as Ophris insectifera.
  18. Bracteatus, and most of the Orchides.
  19. Imbncatus ; as Tussilago farfara.
  20. Selaceus; as Schaenus bulbosus.
  21. Vaginatus; as Arethusa bulbosa.
  When several species of the same plant have a sea
pus, and  it is wanting in one of the same species, it is
termed exscapus; as in Astragalus exscapus.
  SCARBOROUGH. 1. The name of a town in York-
shire, noted for ils ferruginous spring.  There are two
species of chalybeate water found  in this spot, and
they differ considerably in their composition, though
they rise nearly contiguous to each other.  The one is
a simple carbonated chalybeate, similar to the  Tun-
bridge water; the other,  which is better known and
more frequented, and more particularly distinguished
os Scarborough water, has,  in  conjunction  with the
iron, a considerable admixture of o purging salt, which
adds much to iu  value.  The diseases in which it is
ordered  are similar to those in whicli Cheltenham
water to prescribed, only it is necessary to increase the
purgative effect of this water by adding similar salts.
It to, therefore, chiefly as an  alterative that this water
con be employed in iu natural state.
  Scarborough has an advontoge belonging to its situ-
ation which Cheltenham does not possess,  that of af-
fording  an  opportunity for sea-balhiiiL', the use of
which will, in many coses, much assist in the plan of
cure for many of the disorders for whicli the mineral
water is resorted to.
  2. The  nome of a physician.  Sir Charles, born
about the year 1616.  Intending  to follow the medical
profession, he went to study at Cambridge, and applied
himself particularly to the mathematics, in which he
made great proficiency.  During the  civil wars he was
obliged to remove  to Oxford, where he entered under
(he celebrated Harvey, then warden of Merton Col-
lege, who, being employed in writing his ueattoe " De 
SCA                                             SCA
 Grneratione Animalium," gladly accepted the assist-
 once of Mr. Scarborough.  Upon taking the degree of
 doctor of medicine, he settled in tbe metropolis, where
 he practised with great reputation.   He became a fel-
 low of the collegeof physicians, in which he was much
 respected for his talenu; and being appointed to intro-
 duce the Marquis of  Dorchester, who was  admitted
 into that body in 1658, he made on elegant Latin speech
 on that occasion.  In the mean time he began to deli-
 ver anatomical lectures at Surgeons' Hall, which were
 highly approved, and continued lor sixteen or seventeen
 years.  In 1669 the order of knighthood was conferred
 upon him by Charles II., who also appointed him hto
 chief physician; and he enjoyed tbe same office under
 the two succeeding monarchs.  He was likewise made
 physician  to the Tower of London, which appoint-
 ment he retained till his death about llie year 1702.
 The works left by him were chieflv mathematical.
   SCARF-SKIN.  See Cuticle and Skin.
   SCARIFICATION.  (Scarificatio; from scarifico,
 to scarify.)  A superficial incision made with a lancet,
 or a chirurgical instrument called a scarificator, for the
 purpose of taking away blood, or letting out fluids, &c.
   SCARIFICATOR.   An instrument used  by sur-
 geons  and cuppers to evacuate blood.  It is made in
 form of a box, in which are fitted, ten, twelve, or more
 lanceu, all perfectly in the same plane ; which being,
 as it were, cocked, by means of a spring are all dis-
 charged at the same time, by pulling a kind of trigger,
 and driven equally within the skin.
   SCARI'OLA.  See Lactuca scariola.
   Scariola oallorum.   See Lactuca scariola.
   SCARLATINA.   (From scarlatto, the Italian for
 a deep red.)  The scarlet fever.  A genus of disease
 in the Class  Pyrexia, and  Order Exanthemata, of
 Cullen;  characterized  by  contagious synocha; the
 fourth day the face swells; a scarlet eruption appears
 on the skin in patches; which, after three or four days,
 ends in the desquamation of the cuticle, and is often
 succeeded by anasarca.   It has two species:
   1. Scarlatina simplex, tbe mild.
   2. Scarlatina cynanchica, or anginosa, wilh ulcerated
 sore throat
   Dr. Willan has added to these a third, called  malig-
na, agreeing with the  cynanehe maligna, of Cullen.
   Some have asserted  that scarlatina never attacks the
 Bame person a second lime; more extensive observa-
 tion has confuted thto opinion.  It seizes persons of all
 ages, but children and young persons are most subject
 to it, and it appears at all seasons of the year; but it is
 moie frequently met wilh towards the end of autumn,
 or beginning of winter, than ot any other periods, at
 whicli time it very often becomes  a  prevalent epi-
 demic.  It is, beyond all  doubt, a very contagious dis-
 ease.
   The one to which it bears the greatest resemblanc
 to the measles; but from thto it  to readily to be distin-
 guished by the absence of the cough, watery eye, run-
 ning at the nose  and sneezing, which arc the predo-
 minant symptoms in the early stage of the measles, but
 which do  not usually attend  on the scarlatina, or at
 least in any high degree.
   It begins, like other fevers, with languor, lassitude,
 confusion of ideos, chills, and shiverings, alternated by
 fiu of heat.  The thirst  is considerable, the skin dry,
 and the patient is often incommoded with anxiety,
 nausea, ond vomiting.  About the third doy, the scar-
 let efflorescence appears on the skin, which seldom pro-
 duces, however, ony remission of the fever.  On the
 departure of the efflorescence, which usually continues
 out only for three or four days, a gentle sweat comes
 on, the fever subsides, the cuticle or scarf-skin  then
 falls off in smoll scoles, ond the potlent gradually re-
 gains his former strength and heolth.
   On the disappearance of the efflorescence in scarla-
 tina, it is, however, no  uncommon occurrence for an
 onasarcous swelling to affect the whole body, but this
 is usually of a very short continuance.
   Scarlatina anginoso, in several instonces, approaches
 very near to the malignant form.  The patient to seized
 not only  with a coldness and shivering, but likewise
 wilh great languor, debility, and  sickness, succeeded
 by heat,  nausea, vomiting of bilious matter, soreness
 of the throat, inflammation, and ulceration in the ton-
 sils, &c, a frequent  and laborious  breathing, and a
 quick ond small depressed pulse.  When the efflores-
 cence  appears, wliich is usually on  the third day, it
      270
brings  no relief; on the contrary, the symptoms are
much aggravated, and fresh ones arise.
  In the progress of the disease, one universal redness
unattended,  however, by any pustular eruption, per-
vades the face, body, and limbs, which poru appear
somewhat swollen.  The eyes ond  nostrils partake
likewise more or less of the redness, and, in proportion
as the former have an inflamed appearance,so does the
tendency to delirium prevail.
  On the first attack, the fauces are often much in-
flamed ; but thto Is usually soon succeeded by grayish
sloughs, which give the parte a speckled appenrance,
nnd render the breath more or less fcetid.  The patient
is often cut off in a  few days : and even if he reco-
vers, it will be by slow degrees;  dropsical swellings, or
tumours of the parotid, and other glands, slowly sup-
purating, being very apt to  follow.  In the malignant
form of the  disease the symptoms at first are pretty
much the same; but some of the following peculiari-
ties are afterword observoble.  The pulse is smoll, in-
distinct,  and irregular; the tongue, teeth, and  lips,
covered with a  brown or black incrustation ; o dull
redness of the eyes, with o dark-red flushing of the
cheeks, deafness, delirium, or coma;  the  breath is ex-
tremely foetid; the respiration rattling and laborious,
partly from viscid phlegm clogging the fauces; the de-
glutition is constricted and painful; and there is a ful-
ness and livid colour of the  neck, with retraction of
the head.  Ulcerations are observed on the tonsils and
adjoining  poru, covered with dark  sloughs, and sur-
rounded by a livid base; and the tongue is often so ten-
der as to be excoriated by the slightest touch.  An acrid
discharge flows from the  nostrils, causing soreness, or
chaps, nay, even blisters, about the nose and lips; the
fluid discharged being at first thin, but afterward thick
and yellowish.  The rash is usually faint, except in a
few irregular patches ;  and it presently changes to a
dork, or livid red colour:  it appears late, to very uncer-
tain in its duration, and often intermixed with pete-
chias ; it sometimes disappears  suddenly a few hours
after it is formed, and comes out again at the expira-
tion of two or three  days.  In an  advanced stage of
the disease, where petechia?, and other symptoms  cha-
racteristic of putrescency, are  present,  haemorrhages
frequently break forth from the nose, mouth, and other
parts.
  When scarlatina is to terminate  in health,  the
fiery redness  abates gradually, and is succeeded  by a
brown colour, the skin becomes rough, and peels off in
small  scales,  the tumefaction subsides, and health is
gradually restored. On the contrary, when it is to ter-
minate fatally, the febrile symptoms run very high from
the first of its attack, the skin is intensely hot and dry,
the pulse is  very frequent but small,  great thirst pre-
voils, the breath to very fcetid, the efflorescence makes
iu appearance on the second day, or sooner, and about
the third or fourth  is probably interspersed with large
livid spots; and  a high degree of delirium ensuing, or
hemorrhages breaking out, the patient is cut off about
the sixth or eighth day.  In some coses a severe purging
orises, which never fails to prove foiai.  Some, again,
where the symptoms do not run so high, instead of re-
covering, os is ustiol,  obout the time the skin begins to
regain its natural colour, become dropsical, fall into a
kind of lingering way, and are carried off in the course
of a few weeks.
  Scarlatina, in iu inflammatory form, is not usually
attended with danger, although a considerable  degree
of delirium sometimes prevails for a day or two; but
when it partakes much of the malignant character, or
degenerates into  typhus putrida, which it to apt to do,
it often proves fatal.  On dissection  of those who die
of this diseose, the fences  are  inflamed, suppurated,
and gangrenous; and the trachea and larynx are like-
wise in o state ofinflammation, and lined with a viscid
foetid  matter.  In  many instances the inflammatory
affection  extends  to the  lungs themselves.   Large
swellings of the  lymphatic glands obout the neck, oc-
casioned by on absorption of the acrid matter poured
out in the fauces, are  now anil then to be found.   The
same morbid appearances which are to he met with in
putrid fever,  present  themselves in other parte of tha
body.
  The  plan to be pursued will differ according to the
form ofthe disease. In the scarlatina simplex little to
required, except clearing the bowels, nnd observing tbe
antiphlogistic regimen.  But where the throat is of- 
SCH
SCI
fected, and the fever runs higher, more active means
become necessary, varying according to the type of
this, whether synochal, or typhoid.  In general, we
may begin by exhibiting a nauseoting emetic, which,
besides its effect on the fever, may be useful in check-
ing inflammation in the throat;  and occasionally the
repetition, of such a remedy after a time, may answer a
good purpose: but commonly it will be better to follow
up the first by some cathartic remedy of sufficient ac-
tivity. Then, so long as the strength will allow, we
may endeavour to moderate the fever by mercurial and
antimonial preparations, or other medicines promoting
the several secretions, by  steadily pursuing the anti-
phlogistic  regimen, ond occasionally applying cold
water  to the skin, when this  is very  hot  ond dry.
Sometimes severe inflammation  in the throat at an
early  period may  render it advisable  to opply o few
 eeches externally, or blisters behind the ears;  and gar-
gles of nitrate of potasso, the mineral acids, &c. should
be  used  from time to time.  But where the disorder
exhibits the typhoid character, with ulcers in the throat,
tending peihaps to gangrene, it is necessary to support
the system by a nutritious diet, with a moderate quan-
tity of wine, and tonic or stimulant medicines, as the
cinchono, columbo,  ammonia, capsicum, Sec.; the
acids  will also  be very proper from their antiseptic,  as
well as tonic power; ond stimulont antiseptic gargles
should be frequently employed, as the mineral acids suf-
ficiently diluted, with the addition of tincture of myrrh,
or these mixed  with the decoction of bark, Sec.  Be-
sides  the general measures, thus varied according  to
the character of the disease, particular alarming symp-
toms may require to be palliated ; as vomiting by the
effervescing draught, and occasionally a blister to the
stomach, if there be tenderness on pressure; diarrhoea
by small  doses of opium, &c.   The  management  of
these, however, as well  as of the dropsical swellings,
and other sequels of the disease, will  be understood
from what is said under those heads respectively.
  Scarlatina anginosa.  See Scarlatina.
  Scarlatina cynanchica.  See Scarlatina.
  Scarlatina simplex.  See Scarlatina.
  Scarlet fever.  See Scarlatina.
  Scelotvrbe.  (From oxtXos, the leg, and rupfji;,
not, intemperance.) A debility of the legs from scurvy,
or an  intemperate way of life.
  Schaalstein.  See Tabular spar.
  Schaum earth.  See Aphrite.
  SCHERO MA.  A drynessof the eye from the want
of the lachrymal  fluid.  The effects of this lachrymal
fluid being deficient are, the eyes become dry, and in
their  motions produce a sensation  as though sand, or
some  gritty substances, were between the eye and  the
eyelid; the vision is obscured, the globe of the eye ap-
pears foulish and  dull, which is a bad omen  in  acute
diseases.  The species are,
  1. Scheroma febrile, or a dryness of the eyes, which
is observed in fevers complicated with a phlogistic den-
sity of the humours.
  2. Scheroma exhaustorum, which happens after great
evacuations, and in persons dying.
  3. Scheroma infiammatorum, which to a symptom of
the ophthalmia sicca.
  4. Scheroma itinerantium,or the dryness ofthe eyes,
which happens in sandy places, to travellers, as in hot
Syria, or from dry winds,  wliich dry up the humidity
necessary for the  motion of the eyes.
  Sciiidace'don.  (From  axiSa\, a splinter.) A lon-
gitudinal fracture ofthe bone.
  SCHILLER SPAR.  This  mineral  contains  two
subspecies:
  1. See Bronzite.
  2. The common Schiller spar, which  to of an olive
grpen  colour, and occurs  imbedded in serpentine  in
Shetland, Cornwall, &c.
  Schinel^um.  (From oxtvos, mastich, and tXawv,
oil.)  Oil of mastieh.
  SCHNEIDER, Conrad Victor, was born at Bitter-
feld,  in Misnia.  He filled the offices of professor  of
anatomy, botany, and medicine, at Wittemberg, with
great reputation : ond was father of the faculty when
he  died in 1680.  He wrote  many treatises ;  those  on
anatomical subjecu relating chiefly to the bones of the
cranium, and to the pituitary membrane of the nostrils,
to  wbich his name is still attached.   He refuted  an
 ancient error, that the mucus in catarrh distilled through
the cribriform bone from the brain, showing that it was
secreted by the pituitary membrane.  In other respeebt,
his writings, except in anatomy, are diffuse and ob-
scure, and full of ancient hypothetical doctrines.
  Schneider's membrane.  So called from ite  dis
coverer.  See Memlirana Schneideriana.
  SCHOSNA'NTHUS.  (From oxoivos, a rush,  and
avBos, a flower.)  See Andropogon schananthus.
  Schenolagurus.  (From oxoivos, a rush, Xaytas, a
hare, and ovpa, a tail: so called from its resemblance
to a hore's-toil.)   Hore's-toil.  The  Trifolium ar-
vense.
  SCHORL.  A sub-speciesof rhomboidal tourmaline,
of a velvet black colour,  found imbedded in granite,
gneiss, &c. in Scotland and Cornwall.
  Schorl, blue.  A variety of Haiiyne.
  Schorl, red and titanic.  Rutile.
  SCHORLITE.  Schorlous topaz.  Pycnite of Wer-
ner.  This mineral  is of a  straw-yellow  colour,  ond
becomes electric by heoting.  It is found at Altenberg
in Saxony, in a rock of quartz and mica in porphyry.
  SCIATIC.  (Sciaticus; from ischiaticus.)  Belong-
ing to the ischium.
  Sciatic artery.  Arteria sciatica.  Ischiatic re-
tery.  A branch of the internal iliac.
  Sciatic nerve.  Nervus sciaticus. Ischiatic nerve.
A branch of a nerve of the lower extremity, formed by
the union of the lumbar and  sacral   nerves.   It  is
divided near the  popliteal cavity into  the tibial and
peroneal, which are distributed to the leg and foot.
  Sciatic notch.  Ischiatic  notch.  See Innomina-
tum os.
  Sciatic vein.  Vena sciatica.  The vein which ac-
companies the sciatic artery in  the thigh.
  SCIATICA.  A  rheumatic affection of the  hip-
joint
  Sciatica cresses.  See Lepidium ibcris.
  SCI'LLA.  (From extXXta, to dry : so  called  from
iu property of drying up humours.)   1. The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Hex-
andria ; Order Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name ofthe medicinal squtl.
See Scilla maritima.
  Scilla hispanica.  The Spanish squill.
  Scilla  maritica.  The syslematic name of lbs
officinal squill.  Ornithogalum marilimum; Squitlt*.
Scilla—nudiflora,  bradeis refradis, of Linnaeus.  A
notive of Spoin, Sicily, ond Syria, growing on the sea
coast.  The red-rooted variety has been supposed to bo
more  efficacious than the white, and is, therefore, still
preferred for medicinal  use.  The root of the squill,
wliich appears to have been known  as  a  medicine  in
the early ages of Greece, and has so well maintained ite
character ever since, as to be deservedly in great esti-
mation, and of very frequent use at this  lime, seems  to
manifest a poisonous quality to several animals.  Iu
proof of this, we have the testimonies of Hillefield, Ber-
gins, Vogel, and others.  Its acrimony is so great, lhat
even if much  handled, it exulcerates the skin, ond  if
given in large doses, and frequently repeoted, it not
only excites nausea, tormina, and violent  vomiting,
but il has been known  to produce strangury, bloody
urine, hypercatharsis, cardialgia, haemorrhoids, con-
vulsions, with  fatal inflammation, and gangrene ofthe
stomach ond bowels.  But os many of the active arti-
cles of the Materia Medica, by injudicious administra-
tion, become equally deleterious, these effects of the
scilla do not derogate from its medicinal virtues; on
the contrary, we feel ourselves  fully warranted, says
Dr. Woodville, in representing this drug, under proper
management, and in certain cases and constitutions,  to
be a medicine of great practical utility and real im
portance in the cure of many obstinate diseases.  Ite
effecu,  as stated by Bergius,  are incidens,  diuretica,
emetica, subpurgans, hydragoga, expectorans, emme-
nogoga.  In dropsical cases it has long  been esteemed
the most certain and effectual diuretic wilh whicli we
are acquainted; and in asthmatic affections, or dys^t-
nosa, occasioned by the lodgement of tenacious phlegm,
it has been the expectorant  usually employed.  The
squill, especially in large  doses, to apt to stimulate the
stomach, and to prove emetic ;  and it sometimes  acts
on the intestines, and becomes purgative; but when
these operations take place, the medicine is prevented
from reaching  the blood vessels and kidneys, and the
patient is deprived of its diuretic effects, which are  to
be obtained by giving the squill in smaller  doses, re-
peated at more distant intervals, or by Ihe/oining of aa 
SCI
SCI
opiate to this medicine, wbich was found by Dr. Cullen
to answer tbe same purpose.  The Doctor further ob-
serves, that from a continued repetition of the squill, the
dose may be gradually  increased, and the interval of
its exhibitions shortened; and when in this  w ay the
dose becomes to be tolerably  large, the opiate may be
most conveniently employed to direct the operation of
the squill more certainly in tbe kidneys.   " In cases of
dropsy, thai is, when there to an effusion of water into
the cavities, ond  therefore less water goes to the kid-
neys, we are of opinion that neutral salt, accompany-
ing the squill, may be of use in determining this fluid
more certainly to  the kidneys ;  and whenever it can be
perceived that it takes this course, we are persuaded
that it will be always useful, ond generally safe, during
the exhibition ofthe squills, to increase the usual quan-
tity of drink."
  The diuretic effecu of squills hove been supposed to
be promoted by the addition of some mercurial; and
the less purgative preparations of mercury, in the opi-
nion of Dr. Cullen, are best adapted to this purpose;
he therefore recommends a solution of corrosive subli-
mate, as  being more proper than any other, becouse
most diuretic.  Where the primae  viae abound with
mucous matter, and tlie lungs ore  oppressed with viscid
phlegm, this medicine  is  likewise in general estima-
tion.
  As an  expectorant, the squill may be supposed not
only to attenuate the mucus in the follicles, but also to
excite a more copious  secretion  of it from the lungs,
and thereby lessen the congestion, upon which the
difficulty of respiration very generally depends. There-
fore in all pulmonic affections, excepting only those of
actual or violent inflammation, ulcer, and spasm, the
squill has been experienced to be a useful medicine.
The officinal preparations of squills are, a conserve,
dried squills, a syrup,  and vinegar,  an  oxymel, and
pills. Practitioners have not, however, confined them-
selves to  these.  When  this root was intended as  a
diuretic, it has most  commonly been used in powder,
as being, in this state, less disposed to nauseate the sto-
mach ; and to the powder it  has been the practice to
add neutral salu, as nitre, or crystals of tartar, espe-
cially if the patient complained of much thirst; others
recommend calomel; and with  a view to render the
squills less offensive lo the stomach, it has been usual
to  conjoin an aromatic.   The dose of dried  squills is
from one to four or six grains once a day, or half this
quantity twice a day; afterward to be regulated ac-
cording lo ite effecu.  The dose  of the other prepara-
tions of this drug, when fresh, should be five times this
weight;  for this root  loses in the process of  drying
four-fifths of iu original weight, aud this loss is merely
a watery exhalation.
   Scillites.  (From exiXXa, the  squill.)  A wine
impregnated with squills.
   SCILLITIN.  A white transparent, acrid substance,
extracted by Vosel from squills.
   SCI'NCUS.   (From sAecue, Hebrew.)  The skink.
This amphibious animal is  of  the lizard kind, ond
caught about the  Nile, Ond thence brought dried into
 this country, remarkably smooth and glossy, as if var-
 nished.  The flesh of the animal, particularly of the
 belly, has been soid to be diuretic, alexipharmic, aphro-
 disiac, and useful in leprous disorders.
   SCIRRHOMA.   (From oxtppoia, to harden.)  See
 Scirrhus.
   SCIRRHUS.  (From extppoia,  to harden.)   Sdr-
 rhoma ; Scirrhosis.  A genus of disease in  the Class
 Locales, and Order Tumores, of Cullen ; known by a
 hard tumour of a  glandular part, indolent, and not
 readily suppurating.  The following observations of
 Pearson  are deserving of attention.  A scirrhus, he
 says, is usually defined to be a hard, and almost insen-
 sible tumour, commonly situated in a glandular part,
 and accompanied  wilh little or no discoloration of the
 surface of the skin.  This description agrees with the
 true or exquisite scirrhus: but when it hos proceeded
 from the indolent to Ihe malignant stale, the tumour is
 then unequal in iu figure, it  becomes painful, the skin
 acquires a purple or livid hue, and the cutaneous veins
 are often varicose.  Let us now examine whether this
 enumeration of symptoms be sufficiently accurate for
  practicol purposes.
    It is probable, that any gland in the living  body may
  be tbe seat of a cancerous disease, but it appears more
  frequently as an idiopathic affection in  those  glands
that form the several secretions than in the absorbent
glunds •  and of ihe secreting organs, those which sepo
rate fluids tiat are to be employed in the animal eco-
nomy, suffer much oftentr llian the  glands  whicli
secrete the excrementitious  poru of the blood.  In-
deed it  may be doubted whether an absorbent gland
be ever the primary  seat of a true  scirrhus.   Dully
experience evinces, that these glands may suffer con-
tamination from  their connexion with  a  cancerous
part; but under such circumstances, this morbid altera-
tion being the effect  of a disease In that neighbouring
part, it ought to  be regarded as a secondary or conse-
quent affection.  I never yet met with an unequivocal
proof of a primary scirrhus iu an absorbent gland; and
If a larger experience  shall confirm tins observation,
and establish it as a general rule, it will afford material
assistance in forming tiie diagnosis of this disease.
The general term scirrhus hath been applied, with too
little discrimination, to indurated tumours of lymphatic
glands.  When these appendages of the absorbent sys-
tem enlarge in the early part of life, the disease is com-
monly treated as strumous; but as a similar alteration
of these ports may, and  often  does, occur at  a more
advanced period, there  ought lo be some very good
reasons for ascribing malignity to one rather than ill s
other.   In old people the tumour to indeed often larger
more  indurated, and less tractable than In children,
but when the alteration .originated in the  lymphytic
glands, It will very rarely be found to possess any thing
cancerous in iu nature.
  If every other morbid alteration in a part were at
tended with pain and softness,  then  induration and
defective sensibility might point out the presence of a
scirrhus.  But this  is so far from being the case, that
even  encysted tumours, at their commencement, fre-
quently excite the sensation of impenetrable hardness.
  All glands are contained  in capsulie, not very elas-
tic, so that almost every species of  chronic enlarge-
ment of these bodies must be hard;  hence this indura-
tion to rather owing to the structure of the part, than
to the peculior nature of the disease; and as glands in
their  healthy state ore endowed with much sensibility,
every disease thot gradually produces induration, will
rather diminish than increase their perceptive powers.
Induration and insensibility may, theiefore, prove that
the affected part does not labour under an acute dis-
ease; but these symptoms alone can yield  no  certain
information concerning  the true nature of the morbid
alteration.  Those  indolent affections of the   glands
that so frequently appear after the meridian of life,
commonly manifest a hardness and waul of sensation,
not inferior to thot which accompanies a true scirrhus;
and yet these tumours will often admit of a cure by the
same mode of treatment which we And to be success-
ful in scrofula;  and when they prove unconquerable
by the powers of medicine, we generally see them con-
tinue stationary ond  innocent to the latest period of
life.  Writers have indeed said much about  certain
tumours changing their nature, and  assuming  a new
character; but I strongly suspect thai ihe doctrine of
the mutation of diseases into each other, stands upon a
very uncertain foundation.  Improper tieaiment may,
without doubt, exasperate diseases, and render a com-
 plaint, which appeared  to be mild and tractable, dan
gerous, or destructive; but to aggravate the symptoms,
and to change the form of the disease, are things that
ought not to be confounded.  I do not affirm, lhat a
 breast which has been the seat of a mammary abscess,
or a gland that  has been affected with scrofula, may
 not become cancerous:  for they might have suffered
 from thto disease had no previous complaint existed;
 but these morbid alterations generate no greater ten.
 dency to cancer than if the  parte had always retained
 their natural condition.   There is  no necessary con-
 nexion between the cancer and any other disease, nor
 has it  been proved  that one is convertible into tlie
 other.
    Chirurgical writers have generally enumerated tu-
 mour os an e.-senlial symptom of the scirrhus; ond it
 is very true, that this disease is often accompanied
 with on increase of bulk iu the port affected.  From
 long and careful observation, I am however induced to
 think,  thot an addition  to  the quantity uf matter to
 rather an accidental  than a necessary consequence of
 the presence of this affection.
    When the breast is the seat uf a scirrhus, the altered
 part is hard, perhaps unequal iu its figure, and definite; 
SCO
SCO
 hut these symptoms are not always-connected with an
 actual increase  in the dimensions of the breast  On
 the contrary, the true scirrhus is frequently accompa-
 nied with a contraction and diminution of bulk, o re-
 traction of the nipple, and a puckered slate of the
 skin.
  The irritation  produced by an indurated substance
 lying in the breast, will very often cause a determina-
 tion of blood to that organ, and a consequent enlarge-
 ment of it; but I consider this as an inflammatory state
 of the surrounding parts, excited by the scirrhus, act-
 ing as a remote cause, and by no means essential to the
 original complaint  From the evident utility of topical
 blood-letting  under  these circumstances, a notion has
  revailed that the scirrhus to an inflammatory diseose ;
  ut  the strongly-marked  dissimilarity of a phlegmon
 and  an exquisite scirrhus, in  their appearances! pro-
 gress, and mode  of termination, obliges me to dissent
 from thot opinion.  That one portion of the breast may
 be in a scirrhous stote, while the other ports ore in a
state of inflammation, is agreeable to reason and ex-
perience ; but that an inflammation, which is an acute
disease, and a scirrhus, whose essential characters are
almost directly the reverse of inflammation, shall be
coexistent in the same part, is not a very intelligible
proposition.  Tumour and inflam motion are commonly
met with on a variety of other occasions, and in this
particular instance they may be the effects of the dis-
ease, but are not essentially connected with iu presence.
  An incipient scirrhus is seldom accompanied with a
 discoloration ofthe skin;  and a dusky redness, purple,
 or even livid appearance of the surface, to commonly
 seen when there is a malignant scirrhus.  The pre-
 sence or  absence of colour can, however, at the best,
 afford  us but a very precarious criterion of the true
 nature of the complaint  When  the disease is clearly
known, an altered  state of the skin may assist  us in
judging of the progress it has made; but as the skin
may suffer similar variations in a number of very dis-
similar diseases, it would  be improper to found an opi-
nion upon so delusive o phenomenon.
  SCITAMINEAJ.   (From scitamentum,  a dainty.)
The  name of an order of planu in Linnaeus's Frag-
menU of a Natural Method, consisting of those which
have an herbaceous stalk, broad leaves, and the ger-
men obtusely  angled under an  irregular corolla; as
amomum, canna, musa, &c.
  SCLA'REA.  (From oxXiipoc, hard;  because iu
 stalks are hard ond dry, Blanch.)  See Salvia sclarea.
  Sclarea hispanica. See Salvia sclarea.
  SCLERI'ASIS.  (From oxXnpota, to harden.)  Scle-
 roma;  Sclerosis.  A hard tumour or  induration; a
 scirrhus.
  SCLEROPHTHA'LMIA.   (From oxXnpos,  hard,
 and otbBaXpos, the eye.)  A protrusion of the eyeball.
 An inflammation of the eye, attended with hardness
of the  parte.
  Sclkrosarcoma.  (From oxXtjpos, and oapxtapa, a
 fleshy  tumour.)   A hard fleshy excrescence on the
 gums.
  Sclerosis.  See Sclerietsis.
  SCLERO'TIC.   (Sclerotitis;  from oxXripota, to
 harden.)   The name of one of the coats of the eye.
 See  Sclerotic acid.
  Sclerotic coat.   7Vniea sclerotica;  Membrana
 sclerotica; Sclerotis.  The outermost coat of the eye,
 of a white colour, dense, and tenacious.  Ils anterior
 part, wliich is transparent, is termed the cornea trans-
 parens.  It to into this coat of tlie eye that the muscles
 of the bulb are inserted.
  SCLEROTIS.  See Sclerotic coat.
  Solopetaria  AQUA.  (From sclopelum, a gum: so
 called  from its supposed virtues in  healing gun-shot
 wounds.)  Arquehusode.  It  is  made  of sage,  mug-
 wort, and mint, distilled in wine.
  SCLOPETOPLA'GA.    (From  sclopetum, a  gun,
 and plaga, a wound.)  A gun-shot wound.
  SCOH'ASIS.  (From  oxoXtota,  to twist)  A dis-
 tortion of the spine.
  SCOLOPE'NDRIA. See Asplenium eelerach,
  SCOLOPENDRIUM.   (From oxoXorrcvopa, the ear-
 wig: so called because its leaves resemble the earwig.)
 See Asplenium ceterach.
  ScoLOPOMAcacRiuM.  (From oxoXtaira\, the wood-
 Cork, and paxaipa, a knife: so called  because it is bent
 a little at the ena like a woodcock's bill.) An incision-
 knife.
                                       B bb
  SCO'LYMUS.  iFrom ovtoAoc, a thorn:  so named
from its prickly leaves.)  See Cinara scolymus.
  SCOMBER.  The name of a genus of fishes of the
order Thoracici.
  Scomber  scomber.  The systematic nome of the
common mockarel, a beautiful fish, of easy digestion,
which  frequents our shore in vast shoals,  between the
months of April and July.
  Scomber  thynnus.  The systematic name of Ihe
tunny-fish, which frequents the shore of the Mediterra-
nean, and, though a coarse  fish,  was much esteemed
by the Greeks and Romans, and is still considered a de-
licacy by some.
  Scopa reoia.  See Ruscus aculeatus.
  Scorbu'tia.  (From scorbutus, the scurvy.)  Me
dicines for the scurvy.
  SCORBUTUS.  (From schorboet, Germ>  Gingi
brachium, when the gums and orins, ond gingipedium,
when the gums and legs, are affected by it. The scurvy.
A genus  of  disease in the Class Cachexia, and Order
Impetigines, of Cullen ; characterized by extreme de-
bility;  complexion pale and bloated;  spongy gums;
livid spoU on the skin;  breath offensive; cedematous
swellings in  the legs; hemorrhages; foul ulcers; fcetid
urine;  and extremely offensive stools.  Tiie scurvy is
a diseose of  a putrid nature,  much more  prevalent in
cold climates than  in warm  ones, and which chiefly
affects  sailors, and such as are shut  up in  besieged
places, owing, as  is supposed, to their being deprived
of fresh  provisions, and a due  quantity of  acescent
food, assisted by the prevalence of cold and moisture,
and by such other causes  as  depress the  nervous
energy, as indolence, confinement, want of exercise,
neglect of cleanliness, much labour and fatigue, sad-
ness, despondency,  Sec  These several debilitating
causes, with the concurrence of a diet consisting  prin-
cipally of salted or putrescent food, will be sure to prcf
ducc this disease.   It seems, however, to depend more
on a defect  of nourishment, than on  a vitiated state;
and the reason that salted provisions are so  productive
of  the scurvy,  to, most  probably, because they are
drained of their nutritious juices, which are extracted
ond run off  in brine.  As the diseose is apt to become
pretty  general among the crew of a ship when it has
once made  its appearance,  it has been  supposed by
many to be of a contogious nature; but the conjecture
seems by no means well founded
  A preternatural saline state of the blood has  been
assigned  as  iu proximate cause.   It has  been con-
tended, by some physicians, thot  the primary morbid
affection in  this disease is  a debilitated state of the
solids,  arising principally from the want of aliment
The scurvy  comes on gradually, with heaviness, wea-
riness, and unwillingness to  move about, together with
dejection of spiriu, considerable loss of strength, and
debility.  As it advances in its progress, the counte-
nance  becomes sallow  and  bloated, respiration is hur-
ried in the least  motion, the teeth become loose, the
gums  are spongy, the  breath is very  offensive, livid
spots appear on different paru of the body, old wounds
which have been  long heeled up break out  afresh, se-
vere wondering poins ore felt, particularly by night, the
skin is dry,  the urine small  in quantity,  turning blue
vegetable infusions of a green colour; and the pulse is
small,  frequent, and, towards the  last, intermitting;
but the intellects are, for the most port, clear,  and dis-
tinct.  By an aggrovation of the symptoms, the disease,
in iu last stage, exhibits a most wretched appearance.
The joinu become swelled and stiff, the tendons of the
legs are rigid and contracted, general  emaciation en
sues, haemorrhages  break forth  from  different parte,
foetid evacuations are discharged by stool, and a diar-
rhoea or dysentery arises, which soon terminates the
tragic scene.
  Scurvy, as usually met with on shore, or  where tha
person has not been exposed to the influence of the re-
mote causes before enumerated,  is unattended by any
violent symptoms, as slight  blotches, with scaly erup-
tions on different parts of the body, and a  sponginess
of the  gums, are the chief ones to be observed.
  In forming our judgment  as to the event  of the dis-
ease, we are to be directed by the violence of the symp-
toms, by the situation of the patient with respect to a
vegetable diet, or other proper substitutes, by hto for-
mer state of health and by his constitution,  not having
been impaired by previous diseases.
  Dissections of scurvy have always discovered the
                                        373 
SCR
6CR
blood to be in a very dissolved state,  The thorax
usually contains more or less of a watery fluid, whicli,
in many cases, possesses so high a degree of acrimony,
as to excoriate the hands by coming in contact wilh it;
the  cavity of the abdomen contains the same kind of
fluid ; the lungs are black and putrid ; and the heart
itself has been found ill a similar state, with its cavity
filled wilh a  corrupted fluid.   In many instances, the
epiphyses have been found divided from the bones, the
cartilages  separated from the ribs, and several  of the
bones themselves dissolved by caries.  The brain sel-
dom shows ony diseose.
  In the cure, os well os the prevention of scurvy, much
more is to be done by regimen, thon by medicines, ob-
viating as far as possible the several remote causes of
the disease, but particularly providing the patient with
a more wholesome diet, and a large proportion of fresh
vegetables; and it has been found that those articles
are especially useful, which contain a native acid, as
oranges, lemons, &c. Where these cannot be procured,
various substitutes have been proposed, of which the
best  appear  to be the inspissated juices of the same
fruits, or the crystallized  citric acid.   Vinegar, sour
crout, and farinaceous substances mode to undergo the
ocetous fermentation, hove likewise been  used with
much advantage: also brisk fermenting liquors, as spruce
beer, cider, ond the like   Formerly many plants ofthe
Class Tetradynamia, as mustard, horse-raddisb, &c.
likewise garlic, and others of  o stimulant quality, pro-
moting the secretions, were much relied upon, and, no
doubt, proved useful to a certain extent.  The spongy
state of the  gums may be remedied by washing the
mouth wilh some of the mineral acids sufficiently di-
luted, or perhaps mixed with decoction of cinchona.
The  stiffness ofthe limbs by fomentations, cataplasms,
and friction; and sometimes in hot climates, the earth-
bath hos afforded speedy relief to this symptom.
  SCO RD1UM.   (From oxopoSov,  garlic: so  called
because it smells like garlic.)  See Teucrium stor-
dium.
  SCO'RIA7..  (Scoria; from axta,excrement)  Dross.
The  refuse or useless paru of any substonce.
  Scorodoprasum.  {From oKopoSov,garlic, andirpaaov,
the leek.)  The wild garlic, or leek shalot.
  SCO'RODUM.  (Airo too oxiap o\tiv, from lis filthy
smell.)  Garlic.
  Scorpiaca.  (From oxopmos, a  scorpion.)   Medi-
cines ogainst the bite of serpents.
  SCORPIOI'DES.   (From oxopmos, a scorpion, and
tiSos, a likeness: so called because iu leaves resemble
Ihe tail of a scorpion.) Scerpiurus.  The  Myosurus
scorpioides.
  SCORPIU'RUS.  See Scorpioides.
  SCORZA.   A variety of epidote.
  SCORZONE'RA.  (From escorza,  a serpent,
Spanish: so  called because  it is soid to be effectual
against the  bite of all venomous  animals.)   1. The
name of  a genus  of planu in the  Linnaean system.
Class, Syngenesia;  Order, Polygamia aqualis.
  2.  The pharmacopoeial name of the viper grass.  See
Scorzoncra humilis.
  Scorzoneea hispanica.  Tbe systematic name of
the  esculent  vipers' grass.   Serpentaria  hispanica.
The root of this plant is mostly sold  for that  of tbe
An »ii7i*.
  Scorzoner a humilis.  The systematic name ofthe
officinal vipers'grass.  Escorzonera; Viperaria; Ser-
pentaria hispanica.  Goau'grass;  Vipers'gross. The
roou of  this plant, Scorzoncra—caule subnudo, vni-
floro; foliis lato-lanceolatis,  nervosis, planis, or Lin-
naeus, have been sometimes employed medicinally as
alexipharmics, and  in hypochondriacal disorders and
obstructions of the viscera. The Scorzoncra hispanica
mostly supplies the shops, whose root is esculent, olera-
ceous, and against diseases inefficacious.
  SCOTODINE.  See Scotodinus.
  SCOTODI'NUS.  (From o-«oroj,darkness, and Sivos,
a giddiness.)  Scotodinia ; Scotodinos ; Scotoma ; Sco-
todine;  Scntomia.  Giddiness, witb impaired sight
  SCOTOMA. (From oxoros, darkness.)  Blindness.
See Scotodinus.
  SCRIBONIUS, Largus, a Roman physician  in the
reign of Claudius, who wrote a treatise, "De Compo-
sitione Medicamenlorum."   Many of these formula?
are perfectly trifling and superstitious; and  the  whole
work displays o great attachment to empiricism.  The
Biyle is also very  deficient in elegance for the time in
      974
 which he lived, whence he appears to have been a pel
 son of inferior educntion.
   SCROBICULATUS.  (Scrobiculus, a ditch, or fin-
 row.)  Hollowed;  having a  deep,  round  foramina:
 applied to the receptacle of the Helianthus unnuus.
   SCRUM CULL'S CO RDIS. (Diminutiveof scrobs,
 a ditch.)  The pit of the stomach.
   SCRO'FULA.  (From scrofa, a swine; because this
 animal is said lo be much subject to a similar disorder.)
 Scrophula; Struma; Coiras; Chraas; Ecruelles; Fr.
 Scrofula.  The  king's evil.  A genus of disease in the
 Closs Cachexia, ond Order Impetigines, of Cullen. He
 distinguishes four species.  1. Scrofula vulgaris, when
 it is  without other disorders external and permanent
 2. Scrofulo mesenterica, when internal, with loss of
 appetite, pale countenance, swelling of the belly, and
 an unusual  foetor of  the excremenU.  3. Scrofula
 fusax.  This  to of the most simple  kind; it Is seated
 oulyiabout tbe neck, and  for the most part is caused
 by absorption from  sores on  the head. 4. Scrofula
 americana, when it is joined with Ihe yaws.  Scrofula
 consists in hard indolent  tumours of  the conglobuie
 glands  in various parts of the. body; but particularly
 in the neck; behind the ears, and under the chin, which,
 after a time, suppurate and degenerate into ulcers, from
 which, instead of pus, a white curdled matter, some-
 what resembling the coagulum of milk is discharged.
   The first appearance of the disease is most  usually
 between the third and seventh year of the child's age;
 but it may arise at any period between this and ihe
 age of  puberty; after which it seldom makes  its first
 attack.  It most commonly affects children of  a lax
 habit,  with  smooth, fine skins,  fair hair,  and rosy
 cheeks. It likewise is apt to attock such children ns
 show o disposition to rachitis, marked by a protuberant
 forehead, enlarged joints, and a tumid abdomen.  Like
 this disease, it seems to be peculiar to cold and variable
 climates, being rarely met with in warm ones.   Scro-
 fula  is  by no means a contagious disease, but, beyond
 all doubt, is of an hereditary nature, and is often entailed
 by parents on their children.  There are, indeed, some
 practitioners who wholly deny that this, or any other
 disease, can  be acquired  by  an hereditary right; but
 that a peculiar temperament of body, or predisposition
 in the constitution of some diseases, may extend from
 both  father and mother to their offspring, is, observes
 Dr. Thomas,  very clearly proved.  For example, we
 very  frequently meet wilh gout in young persons of
 both  sexes, who could never have  brought it on  by
 intemperance, sensuality, or  improper diet, but must
 have acquired the predisposition to it in this way.
   Where there to any predisposition in the constitution
 to scrofula,  and the  person  happens to contract a
 venereal taint, this  frequently excites into  action the
 causes  of the former; as  a venereal bubo  not unfre-
 quently becomes scrofulous, as soon  as the virus is
 destroyed by mercury.  The  lote Dr. Cullen supposed
 scrofula to depend upon a peculiar constitution of the
 lymphatic system.   The attacks  of the disease  seem
 much affected or influenced  by the  periods of the sea-
 sons.  They begin usually some time in the winter and
 spring,  and often disappear, or are greatly amended in
 summer and autumn.  The first appearance of the dis-
 order is commonly in  that of small oval, or spherical
 tumours under  the  skin,  unattended by any pain  or
 discoloration.   These appear, in general, upon the
 sides of the neck, below the ear, or under the chin;
 but, in  some cases, the joints of Ihe elbows or ankles!
 or those of the fingers and  toes, are the  parts first
 affected.  In these instances, we do not, however, find
 small moveable  swellings;  but,  on the contrary,  a
 tumour almost uniformly surrounding the joint, and
 interrupting iu motion.
   After some length of time the tumours become larger
 and more  fixed, the skin wliich  covers them acquires
 a purple or livid colour,  and, being much inflamed,
 they at lost suppurate, and break into little holes, from
 wliich,  at first, a matter somewhat puriform oozes out;
 but this changes by degrees into a kind of viscid serous
 discharge, much intermixed with small pieces of a white
 substance, resembling the  curd of milk.
   The  tumours subside gradually, while the ulcers at
 the same time open more, and spread unequally  In
 various directions.   After o time some of  the ulcers
 heal; but other tumours quickly form iu different parte
 of the body, and proceed on, in the same slow manner
i as the  formei ones, to suppuration-  In thto maiuiei 
SCR
SEA
the disease goes on for some years, ana appearing at
last to have exhausted itself, all the ulcers heal up,
Without being succeeded  by any fresh swellings; but
leaving behind them  an  ugly  puckering of the skin,
and o  scar of considerable extent.  This to the most
mild  form under which  scrofulo ever appears.  In
more virulent cases, the eyes are particularly the seot
of the disease, and are affected with ophthalmia, giving
rise to ulcerations in the torsi, and inflammation of the
tunica adnata, terminating not unfrequently in  an
opacity of the transparent cornea.
  In similar  cases, tiie joinu  become affected, they
swell and ore incommoded by excruciating deep-seated
pain, which to much increosed upon the slightest mo-
tion.   The swelling and pain continue to increase, the
muscles of the limb become at length much wasted.
Matter to soon afterword formed, ond this is dis-
charged ot small openings mode  by the bursting of the
skin.   Being, however, of a peculiar acrimonious na-
ture, it erodes the ligamenu and cartilages, and pro-
duces a caries of the neighbouring bones.  By an ab-
sorption of the  matter into the system, hectic fever at
last arises, and, in the end, often proves fatal.
  When  scrofula is confined  to the external surface,
it is  by no means attended with danger, although  on
leaving one part, it is apt  to be renewed in others; but
when  the ulcers  are imbued wilh  a sharp acrimony.
spread, erode, and become deep, without showing any
disposition lo  heal; when deep-seated collections of
matter form among the small bones of tiie hands ond
feet, or in the  joinu,  or  tubercles in the lungs, with
hectic  fever, arise, the consequences will be fatal.
  On opening the bodies of persons who have died of
ll-is diseose, many of the  viscera ore usually found in
o diseased state, but more particularly the glands of the
mesentery, which are not only much tumified, but often
ulcerated.  The lungs are frequently discovered beset
with a number of tubercles or  cysts, which  contain
matter of various kinds.   Scrofulous glands, on being
examined by dissection,  feel somewhat softer to the
touch than in their natural state, ond when loid open,
they ore usually found to  contain a soft curdy matter,
mixed with pus.  The treatment consisu chiefly in the
use of  those means, which are calculated to improve
the general health; a nutritious diet, easy of digestion,
a pure dry air, gentle exercise,  friction, cold  bathing,
especially in the sea, and strengthening medicines, as
the preparations of iron, myrrh, &c.; but, particu-
larly the Peruvian  bark,  with sodo.  Various mineral
waters, and  other  remedies which  moderately pro-
mote the  secretions, appear also to hove been often
been employed with much  advantage.   Mercury  is
generally injurious to scrofulous persons, when carried
so for as to affect the mouth; yet they hove sometimes
improved under the use of the milder preparations of
that metal, determined principally towards the skin.
Moderate ontimoniols also, decoctions of sarsaparilla,
mezereon,  guaiacum, &c, burnt sponge, muriate  of
lime, and other such remedies, have been serviceable
in many coses, perhaps  chiefly in the same way.  The
application to scrofulous tumours and ulcers must vary
according to the state ofthe parts, whether indolent or
irritable: where the tumours  show no disposition to
enlarge, or  become inflamed, it is, perhaps, best to in-
terfere little with  them; but their inflammation must
be  checked by1 leeches, Sec, and when  ulcers exist,
stimulant lotions  or dressings must be  used to give
them a disposition to heal; but if they are in an irrita-
ble state, a cataplasm,  made, perhaps, with hemlock,
or other narcotic.
  SCROPHULA.  See Scrofula.
  SCROPHULARIA.   (From scrofula, the  king's
evil: so called from the  unequal tubercles upon  its
roou, like scrofulous tumours.) The name of a genus
of plants in the Linnreon system.  Class, Didynamia;
Order, Angiospermia.  The fig-wort
  Scrophularia aquatica.  Betonica aquatica. Great-
er water fig-wort.   Water-betony.  The leaves of this
 Slant Scrophularia—foliis cordatis obtusis, petiolatis,
 ccurrentibus; caule membranis  angulato ;  racemis
terminalibus, of Linnaius, are celebrated os correctors
ofthe ill-flavour of senna.  They were, otoo, formerly
In high estimation against piles, tumours of a scrofu-
lous nature, Inflammations, Sec.
  Scrophularia minor.  The pile-wort is sometimes
so called.   See Ranunculus ficaria.
  Scrophularia  nodosa.  The systematic name of
the fig-wort.  Scrophularia vulgaris ; Millcmorbia ;
Scrophularia.  Common fig-wort or kernel-wort. Tbe
root and leaves of this plant, Scrophularia—foliis cor-
datis, trinervatis; caule obtusangulo,  of Linnaeus,
have been celebrated both as an internal and external
remedy against  inflammations, the  piles, scrofulous
tumours and old ulcers; but they are now only used in
this country by the country people.
  Scrophularia vulgaris. See Scrophularianodosa.
  SCROTAL.  Belonging to the scrotum.
  Scrotal hernia.  Scrotocele.  A protrusion of any
part of on abdominal viscus or viscera into the scrotum.
See Hernia.
  SCROTIFORMIS. Bag-like: applied to the nectary
ofthe genus Satyrium.
  SCROTOCE'LE.  (From  scrotum, and 107X17, a  tu-
mour.)  A rupture or hernia in the scrotum.
  SCRO'TUM.   (Qmo*i scrotum, a skin or hide.)
Bursa testium; Oscheus ; Oschcon; Orchea, of Galen
The common integumenu which cover the testicles.
  SCRU'PULUS.  (Dim. of scrupus, a small  stone.)
A scruple or weight of 20 grains.
  SCULTETUS, John, was born at Ulm, in 1595, and,
after  the requisite studies, graduated at Padua.  He
then  practised  with  considerable reputation  in  his
native city, as well in surgery os in physic, ond he  ap-
pears to have been very  bold in his operations.  He
was carried off by an  apoplectic stroke, in 1645.  His
principal work is entitled, "Armamentarium Chirur-
gicum," with plates of ihe instruments;.  wbich was
published after his death, and has  passed  through
many editions, and been translated into most European
languages.
  SCURF.  Furfura.  Small exfoliations of the cuti-
cle, which take place after some eruptions  on  the
skin,  a  new cuticle being formed underneath during
the exfoliation.
  SCURVY.   See Scorbutus.
  Scurvy-grass.  See Cochlearia officinalis.
  Scurvy-grass, lemon.  See Cochlearia officinalis.
  Scurvy-grass, Scotch.  See Convolvulus soldanella.
  SCUTIFORM.  (Scutiformis; from cxvros, a shield,
and  £«5os,  resemblance.)   Shield-like.  See  Thyroid
cartilage.
  Scutiform cartilaoe.  See Thyrmd cartilage.
  SCUTELLA.  A little dish or cup.  Applied to the
round, flat, or shallow fruit, of the calyculote algae,
seen in lichen stellaris.
  SCUTELLARIA.   (From scutella, a smoll dish ot
saucer, apporently in allusion to the little concave op<
useful.  In irritable stotes of Ihe system, hemlock has| (pendoge which crowns the colyx.  Some have though!
 it to be more directly derived from scutellum, a littfj
 shield, to which they have compared the shield.)  Tr«j
 name of a genus of plants in the  Linnaeon system
 Closs, Didynamia ; Order, Gymvospermia.
  Scutellaria galericulata. The systematic namg
 of the skull-cap.  Tertianaria. The Scutellaria, folia}
 cordato lanceolatis, crenatis ; floribus axillaribus, ot
 Linnaeus,  which is common in the hedges and ditches
 of this  country.   It  has  a  bitter tasle and o garlic
'smell, and is said to be serviceable against that species
 of ague wliich attacks the patient every other day.
  SCY'BALUM.   "ZxvtiaXa   Dry hard excrement,
 rounded like nuts or marbles.
  Scythicus.   (From  Scylhia, Its native soil.)  An
 epithet of the liquorice root, or ony thing brought from
 Scythio.
  SEA.  Jlfare.  The air of the sea, the motion of the
 vessels, the exhalation from  the tar as well as the
 water of the oceon, and iu contenu all come under the
 attention of the physician.
  I.  Sea-air is prescribed in a variety of complaints,
 being considered as more medicinal and salubrious than
 thot on land, though not known to possess in its com-
 position a greater quontity of oxygen.  This  is o most
 powerful ond valuable remedy.  It is resorted to with
 the happiest success agoinst most coses ot debility, and
 particularly agoinst scrofulous diseases affecting  thf
 external parts ofthe body.  See Bath, cold.
  2.  Sea-sickness.  A nausea or tendency to  vomit
 which varies, in respect of duration, in different per
sons  upon their first going to sea.   With some  it con
 tinues only for a day or two; while with others ltr*
mains throughout the voyoge.  The diseases in whicj
sea-sickness is principally recommended are asthnu
and consumption. 
SEB
SEC
   3. Sea-water.  This H  arranged'among the simple
 saline waters.  Iu chemical analysis gives a propor-
 tion of one of saline contents to  about twenty-three
 ond one-fourth of water; but on our shores it is not
 •reoter than one of salt to about thirty of water. Sea-
 aoier on the British coost may therefore be calculated
 (u contain  in  the wine pint of  muriated  soda 186.5
 grains, of muriated magnesia fifty-one, of selenite six-
 grains ; total 243 one-half grains; or half an ounce and
 three and one-half grains of saline contenu.  The dis-
 orders for wliich tlie  internal use of sea-water has
 been  and may be resorted to, are in general tbe same
 for which all ihe simple saline waters may be used.
 The peculiar power of sea-water  ond sea-salt as a dis-
 cutient, employed either Internally or externally  in
 scrofulous  habits, to well known, and is attended witb
 considerable advantage when judiciously applied.
  Sea-holly.  See Eryngium.
  Sea-moss.  See Fucus helminthocorton.
  Sea-oak.  See Fucus vesiculosus.
  Sea-onion.  See Scilla.
  SEA-SALT.  Muriate of Soda. See Soda murias.
  SEA-WAX.  Maltha.   A  white,  solid,  tallowy-
 looking fusible substance, soluble in alkohol, found on
 the Baikal lake, in Siberia.
  Sea-wrack.  See Fucus vesiculosus.
  Sealed earths.  See Sigillata terra.
  SEARCHING.  The operation of  introducing a
 metallic instrument through the urethra into the blad-
 der for the purpose of ascertaining whether the patient
 has the stone or not.                  /
  SEBACEOUS   (Sebaceus; from sebum, suet.)   A
 term applied to glands, which secrete a  sueity hu-
 mour.
  SEBACIC ACID.  Subject to a considerable heat, 7
or 8 pounds of hog's lard, in a stoneware retort capa-
 ble  of holding  double  the quantity, and connect its
 oeok by an adopter with o  cooled receiver.  The con-
densible producu are chiefly fat, altered by  the fire,
 mixed with  a little  acetic  and sebacic acids.  Treat
 thto product with boiling water several times, agitating
 the liquor,  allowing  it to cool,  and decanting each
 time.   Pour at last into the watery liquid, solution of
 acetate of lead in excess.   A white flocculent precipi-
 tate of scbate of lead will instantly fall, which must be
 collected on a filter, washed, and dried.   Put the  sebale
 of lead into a phial, and pour upon it ils own weight
 of sulphuric acid, diluted  with  five  or six times its
 wenzht of water.  Expose this phial to a heat of about
 212°.   The sulphuric acid combines with the oxide of
 lead, and seu the sebacic  acid ot liberty.  Filter the
crystallizes,  which must be washed to free it  com-
pletely from the adhering sulphuric acid.  Let  it be
then dried at o gentle heat
  The sebacic acid is inodorous; iu taste is slight, but
it perceptibly reddens litmus paper;  its specific gravity
is above thot of woter, ond iu crystals ore smoll white
needles of little coherence.   Exposed to  heat, it melts
like fat, is decomposed, and partially evaporated.  The
air has no effect upon it.  It is much more soluble in
hot thon iu cold water;  hence boiling water saturoted
with it, assumes a nearly solid consistence on cooling.
Alkohol dissolves it abundantly at the ordinary tempe-
 ature.
  With the alkalies it forms soluble neutral salts; but
if we pour into their concentrated solutions, sulphuric,
nitric, or muriatic acids, the sebacic is immediately de-
posited in large  quantity.  It affords precipitates with
the acetates and nitrates of lead, mercury, and silver.
  Such is the account given by Thenard of this acid.
in the third volume of his Traite de  Cbimic, published
in 1815.  Berzelius, in 1806, published an elaborate dis-
sertation, to prove  that Thenard's  new sebacic  acid
was  only the benzoic contaminated by  the fat, from
which however it  may be freed, ond brought to the
state of common benzoic acid.  Thenard takes no no-
tice of Berzelius whatever, but concludes his account
by stating that it has been known only for twelve or
thirteen years, and lhat it  must not be confounded
wilh tbe acid formerly called sebacic, which possesses
a strong disgusting odour, and was merely acetic or
muriatic acid; or fat which bad been changed in some
way or other according to the process used in the pre-
paration.
  Sebadilla  Sec Cevadilla.
  SEDATE. (SiOas; from sebum, suet.)  The name
      276
In the neutral compound of the acid of Ait, with a sail
liable bose.
  Skbesten.  (AnEgyptian word.)  See Cvrdt'a myxa.
  SECALE.   (Sccalc, i. neut   A name in  I'liny,
which some etymologists, among whom is DeTheu, de-
rive from the Celtic segal.  This, says he, comes from
sega, n sickle in the same  language, and llience scges,
the Latin appellation of all groin lhat is cut with a si-
milar instrument   Those who have looked  no farther
for an etymology than the Latin eeco, to cut or mow,
have come to the same conclusion.)  1. The name of
a genus of plantt in the Linnaean system.  Class, Tri-.
andria';  Order, Digynia.  Rye.
  2. The common  name of the seed of the Seoul* ce-
reale, of  Linnaeus.
  Secale cereals.   The systematic name of the
rye-plant   Rye-corn is principally used as an  ar-
ticle of diet, and in the northern countries of Europe Is
employed for affording an  ardent spirit.  Rye-breod is
common  among the northern  ports of Europe; it is
less nourishing "thon wheat, but a sufficiently nutritive
and wholesome grain.  It is more than any other grain
strongly disposed to acesceucy; hence it is liable lo fer-
ment  in  the stomach, aud to  produce  purging, which
people on the first using it commonly experience.
  Secale cornutum.  Secale corniculatum; Claviue
secalinus.  Mutterkom kornzapfeu, of the Germans.
Ergot; Sdgle ergote of the French.  A black, curved,
morbid excrescence, like the spur of a  fowl, which is
found in  the spike of the Secale cereale of Linnaeus, es-
pecially in hot climates, when a great heat suddenly
succeeds  to much moisture. The seed, which has this
diseased  growth, gives off, when powdered, an  odour
which excites sneezing, and flfilales the nose, like to-
bacco.  It has a mealy, and then a rancid, nauseous.
and biting taste,  which remains  a long time, and
causes the  mouth and fauces to become  dry; which
sensation is not removed by watery fluids, but is soon
relieved by milk.  The csuse of this excrescential dto-'
ease in rye appears to be  an  insect which penetrates
the grain, feeds on  its amylaceous part, ond leaves iu
poison in the parenchyma; hence it is full  of  small
foramina or perforations made by the insect.
  The secale cornntum has a singular effect on the
animal economy.   The meal or flour sprinkled on a
wound coagulates the blood, excites a heat and then a
numbness in the pari, and soon after in theextrcmilies.
Bread which contains some of it,  does not ferment
well, nor  hake well, and to glutinous and  nauseous.
The bread when eaten produces intoxication, lassitude,
a sense of something creeping  on the skin, weakness
whole while hot.  As the liquid cools, the sebacic acidf ^Df the joints, with convulsive movements occurring pe-
 riodically.  This state to what to called raphanio^and
 convulsiones cercalia.  Of those so affected, some con
 only breathe  in an upright posture, some become ma-
 niacal, others epileptic, or  tabid, and some have a thirst
 not to be quenched; and livid eruptions and cutaneous
 ulcers are not  uncommon.   The  disease continues
 from ten days  to two or three months and  longer.
 Those who hove formication,  pain, and numbness of
 the extremities  in the commencement, generally lose
 the feeling in these parte, ond the skin, from the fin-
 gers to the fore-arm, or from the toes to the middle of
 Ihe tibia, becomes dry, hard, and black, as  if covered
 with  soot    Thto species of  mortification is called
 Necrosis cerealis.
  Asa medicine, thesecale cornutum to given internally
 to excite the  action of the  uterus in  an atonic state of
 lhat organ, producing amenorrhea, tec and during
 parturition.   Given  in the dose of ten grains, it sooa
 produces o desire to make  water, and the labour pains
 quickly follow;  but it to  a dangerous medicine, the
 effect not being controllable..
  The antidote to the ill effecte produced in the mouth
 and fauces by eating  bread which has thto poison,  is
 milk.   Against the convulsions, vomits, Baline purga-
 tives, clysters, submuriate  of mercury as a purgative,
 ore first to be  given, and after the prima; viae have been
 duly cleoned, stimulants of camphire, ammonia, and
 (Pther with opium.  To the necrosis, rectified oil of
 turpentine is  very beneficial in stopping iu progress,
 and then warm stimulating fomentations and  poultices.
 [Seepulvis parturiens.  A.]
  SECONDARY.  This term denotes something that
 acts as second or in  subordination lo another.  Thus,
in diseases, we have secondary symptoms.   Sec Pri-
 mary. 
SEC
SEC
  Secondary  fever.   That febrile  affection  whicli
arises after a crisis, or the discharge of some morbid
matter, as after the declension  of tiie smallpox or llie
measles.
  SECRETION.  Secrette.  "The generic name of
secretion is given to a function, by which a part of the
blood escapes from the organs of circulation, and dif-
fuses itself without or  witliin ; either preserving iu
chemical  properties, or dispersing  offer its elemenu
hove undergone another order of combinations.
  The secretions ore generally divided into three sorts;
the  exhalations,  the follicular secretions,  and  the
glandular secretions.
  Exhalations.—The exhalations take place as well
within the body as at the skin, or in the mucous mem-
branes ; thence their  divisions into external and in-
ternal.
  Internal exhalations.—Wherever large or small sur-
faces are  in  contact,  an  exhalation takes  place;
wherever  fluids are  accumulated in  a cavity without
any apparent opening, they are deposited there by ex-
halations: the phenomenon of exhalotion to also mani-
fested in almost every partof the animal economy.  It
exist-s in the serous,  the synovial,  Ihe mucous mem-
branes ;  in the cellular  tissue, the interior of vessels,
the adipose cells, the interior of the eye, of the ear, the
parenchymaof many of the organs, such as the thymus,
thyroid glands, the capsula suprarenales, Sec. Sec.  It is
by exhalation that the  watery humour, Ihe vitreous
numour, the liquid  of the labyrinth, are  formed and
renewed.  The fluids  exhaled  in these different parte
have not  all  been analyzed;  among those that have
been, several approach more or less to the elements of
the blood, and particularly to the serum; such are the
fluids of the serous membranes of the cellular tissue,
of the chambers of the eye; others differ more from it,
as the synovia, the fat, &c.
  Serous  exhalation.—All tlie  viscera of the head, of
the chest,  and the abdomen, are covered with a serous
membrane, which also lines the sides of these cavities,
so that the viscera are not in contact witlvthe sides, or
with the adjoining viscera, except  by the intermedia-
tion of the same membrane; and as iu surface  is very
smooth, the viscera can easily change their relation
with  each other, and with the sides.  The  principal
circumstance which keeps up tiie  polish of their sur-
face is  the exhalation  of which they are the seat;  a
very thin  fluid constantly passes out of every point of
the membrane, and mixing with that of the adjoining
parts, forms  with  it a humid layer  that favours the
frictions of the organs.
  It  appears that this  facility of  sliding upon  eoch
Other to very favourable to the action  of the  organs,
for as soon as they are deprived  of it by any malady
of the serous membrane, their functions are disordered,
and  they sometimes cease entirely.
   In the state of health, the fluid secreted by the serous
membranes appears to  be the serum of the blood, a
certain quantity of albumen excepted.
   Serous exhalation  of  the  cellular tissue.—This
tissue, which is called cellular, is generally distributed
through animal bodies; it is useful at once to separate
and  unite the different organs, and the  parts of the
organs.  The tissue to every where formed of a great
number of small thin  plates, which, crossing  in  a
thousand different ways, form a  sort of felt  The
size and arrangement of the plates vary according to
the different parte of the body. In one place they are
larger, thicker, and constitute  large cells; in another,
 they are  very norrow and thin, ond form extremely
small cells; in some poinu the tissue is capable of
extension ;  in others, it to Utile susceptible of it, and
 presenU  a considerable resistance.  But whatever is
 tlie disposition of the cellular tissue,  iu plaies, by their
 two  surfaces, exhale o fluid  which has  the greatest
 analogy with that of the serous membranes, and which
 appears to have the same uses; these are to render tlie
 frictions of the plates easy upon each other, ond there-
 fore to favour the reciprocal motions of the  organs,
 and even the relative changes of the different paru of
 which they are composed.
   Fatty exhalation.—Independently of the serosity, a
 fluid is found in many parte of the cellular tissue of a
 very different nature, whickis the fat.
   Under the relation of the  nresonce of the fat, the
 cellular tissue may be divided into three sorts; that
 which contains it always, that wliich contains it some-
limes, aud that whieh never contains it.  The orbit,
the sole of the foot, tlie pulp of the fingers, that of the
toes, always present  fat; the  subcutaneous cellular
tissue,  and thot which covers the heart, veins, Sec.
present it often; lastly, thot of the scrotum, of the eye-
lids, of the interior of the skull, never contain it
  The  fat to contained iu distinct cells tha/ never com-
municate with the adjoining ones.   Il has been sup-
posed,  from this  circumstance, that the  tissue that
contains, and that forms the fat, was not the same as
thot by which the serosity is formed; but as these fatty
cells hove never been shown, except when full of fat,
this anatomical distinction seems doubtful.  The size,
the form, the disposition of these cells, are not less
variable than the quantity of fat which they contain.
In some individuals scarcely a few ounces exist, while
in others there are several hundred pounds.
  According to the last researches, the human fot  is
composed of two ports, the one fluid, the other con-
crete, which  ore themselves compounded, hut in dif-
ferent proportions, of two new proximate principles.
  Synovial exhalations.—Round the moveable articu
lotions a thin membrane to found, wliich has much
onology with the serous membranes;  but which, how-
ever,  differs  from  them by  having  small  reddish
prolongations that  contain  numerous blood-vessels.
These  are  called synovial  fringes; they are very
visible  in the great articulations of the limbs.
  Internal  exhalation of the eye.—The different hu-
mours  of the eye are also formed by exhalation; they
are each of them separately enveloped in a membrane
that appears intended for exhalation and absorption.
  The  humours of the eye are, the aqueous humour,
the formation of which is at present attributed to the
ciliary processes; the vitreous humour,  secreted by
the hyaloid; the crystalline,  the black matter of the
choroid; and that of the  posterior surface of the iris.
  Bloody exhalations.—In all the exhalations of which
we have spoken,  it is only a part of the  principle of
the blood that passes out ofthe vessels;  the blood
itself appears to spread in several of tiie organs, and fill
in them the  sort of cellular tissue  which forms their
parenchyma; such are  the cavernous bodies of the
penis and of the clitoris, the  urethra  and the glans,
the spleen, the mamilla, &c.  The anatomical exami-
nation of these different issues seems to show that
they  are habitually  filled with venous  blood, the
quantity of which is variable according to different
circumstances, particularly according to  the state of
action or inaction of the organs.
   Many other interior exhalations exist also, among
those of the cavities of the internal ear, of the paren-
chyma, of the thymus, of the thyroid gland ;  that of
the cavity of the capsula suprarenales, Sec:  but the
fluids  formed in these different parts are  scarcely un
derstood; they have  never  been analyzed, and their
uses are unknown.
   External exhalations.—These  are  composed en-
tirely of the exhalations of the mucous membranes, and
of that of the skin, or cutaneous transpiration.
   Exhalation of the mucous membranes.—There are
two mucous membranes; the one covers the surface
of the eye, the lachrymal ducts, the nasal cavities, the
sinuses, the middle ear, tbe mouth, all the intestinal
canal, the excretory  canals  which  terminate in it,
lastly, the larynx, the trachea, and the bronchia.
   The other mucous membrane covers the organs of
generation and of the urinary apparatus.
   Cutaneous transpiration.—A transparent liquid, of
an odour more or less strong, salt, acid, usually passes
through the innumerable openings of the  epidermis
See Perspiration.   This liquid is generally evapo-
rated as soon as it is in  contact with the air, and at
other  times it flows upon the surface of the skin.  In
the first case it is imperceptible, and bears the name
of insensible transpiration; in the second it to called
 sweat.
   Follicular secretions.—-The follicles are small hollow
 organs lodged in  the skin or mucous membranes, and
 which on that account  are  divided  into mucous arid
 cutaneous.
   The follicles are,  besides, divided into simple and
 compound.   The simple mucous  follicles  are seen
 upon  nearly the whole extent  of the mucous mem
 branes, where thev are more or less abundant; how
 ever, there are poinu of considerable  extent of these
 membranes where they are not seen.
                                         577 
SEC
SEC
 '  The bodies that bear the name of fungous papilla
 of the tongue the amygdala?, the glands uf the cardia,
 the  prostate, Ax. are considered  by anatomists as
 collections of simple follicles.  Perhaps this opinion to
 not sufficiently supported.
   The fluid lhat they secrete is little known; it appears
 analogous to the mucous, ami lo have the same uses.
 In almost all the points of the  skin, little openings
 exist, which ore  the  orifices of smoll hollow organs,
 with membranous  sides, generally filled  with  an al-
 buminous and fatty matter, the consistence, the colour,
 the odour, and even the savour of which are variable,
 according to tiie different parts of the body, and which
 to continually spread upon the surface of the skin.
   These  small orgons ore colled the follicles of the
 skin; one of them at least exists ot the base of each
 hoir, and generally the  hairs traverse the cavity of a
 follicle in their direction outwards.
   The follicles form  that  mucous and  fatty matter
 which is seen upon the skin of the cranium, and on that
 of the pavillion of the  ear; the  follicles  also secrete
 tbe cerumen in the  auditory canal; that whitish mat-
 ter, of considerable consistence, thai is pressed out  of
 the  skin  of the face,  in the form of small worms, is
 also  contained in follicles; it is the some motter which,
 by its surface being in contact with the air, becomes
 black, and produces the  numerous spots that are seen
 upon some persons' laces, particularly on  the sides of
 the nose and cheeks.
  The follicles also appear to secrete thnt  odorous,
 whitish matter, which is always renewed at the ex-
 ternal surface of the genital parts.
  By spreading on the surface of the epidermis, of the
 hair  of tbe  head, of the skin, Sec, the matter of tbe
 follicles supports the suppleness and elasticity of those
 poru, renders their surface smooth and polished, favou rs
 their frictions upon one another.  On account  of its
 unctuous nature, it renders them less penetrable  by
 humidity, &c.
   Glandular Secretions.—The name of gland is given
 to a secreting organ which sheds the fluid that it forms
 upon the surface of a mucous membrane, or of the
 skin, by one or more excretory glands.
  The number of glands to considerable, the action of
 each bears  the name of glandular secretion.  There
 are six secretions of thto sort, that of the tears, of the
 saliva, of the bile, of the pancreatic fluid, of tlie urine,
 of the semen, and lastly, that of the milk. We may
 add tlie action of the mucous glands, and ofthe glands
 of Cowper.
  Secretion of Tears.—The gland that forms the tears
 is very small; it  is situated in the orbit of the eye,
 above and a little outward; it to composed of  small
grains, united by cellular  tissues;  ite excretory canals,
small and numerous, open behind tbe external angle of
Die upper eyelid:  it receives a small artery, a branch
 of tiie ophthalmic, and a nerve, a division of the filth
pair.
  In a state of health,  the tears are In small quantity;
the liquid that forms them is limpid, without odour, of
 o  salt savour.  Fourcroy ond Vauquelin, who ana-
 lyzed it, found it composed of much water, of some cen-
 tesimal*  of mucus, muriate and  phosphate  of soda,
 and a little pure soda and lime. What  are called tear*,
are not, however, the  fluid secreted entirely by the
lachrymal gland; it is  a  mixture of thto fluid with the
matter secreted by the  conjunctiva, and probably with
that of the glands of Meibomius.
  The tears"form a layer before the conjunctiva of the
eye, and defend it from the contact of air;  they facili-
tate the frictions of tlie  eyelids upon  the eye, favour
the expulsion of foreign bodies, ond prevent the action
of irritating bodies upon the conjunctiva; in this cose
the quantity rapidly augments.  They are also a means
of expressing the  passions: the tears  flow from vex-
ation, pain, joy, ond pleosure.  The nervous system
has therefore a particular influence upon their secre-
tion.  This influence probably takes place by means
of the nerve that the fifth pair of cerebral nerves sends
to the lachrymal gland.
  Secretion of the Saliva.—The  salivary glands are,
1st, the two  parotids, situated before tbeear and behind
the neck, and the branch of the jaw ; 2d, Ihe submax-
illaries, situated below and on the  front of tbe body of
thto bone- 3d, lastly, the sublinguals, placed  immedi-
ately below the tongue.  The parotids and the sub-
maillxaries have onlv one excretory canal; the sublin-
     S78
 glials have several.   All  these glands are formed t>»
 the  union of the granulations of different forms ond
 dimensions;  they receive a  considerable quantity of
 arteries  relatively to their mass.   Several nerves ore
 distributed to them, which proceed from tiie brain or
 the spinal marrow.
   The saliva which these glands  secrete flows con
 slantly into the mouth, and occupies the lower part of
 it; it to at first placed between the anterior and lateral
 part of the tongue nnd the jaw ; and when the spoce is
 filled, It passes into the space between the lower lip, the
 cheek, and tiie  externol side of the jaw.  Being thus
 deposited in   the mouth, it mixes with the fluids se-
 creted by the membranes and tbe mucous follicles.
   Secretion of the Pancreatic Juice.—The pancreas is
 situated  transversely  iu the abdomen, behind the sto-
 mach.  It has an excretory canal, which opens into the
 duodenum, beside that of the  liver.  The- gronulous
 structure of this gland  has  mode it  be considered  a
 salivary gland;  but  it is  different  from  them  by the
 smallness of  the arteries that it receives, and  by not
 appearing to  receive any cerebral  nerve.
   It to impossible to explain the use of the pancreatic
 juice.
   Secretion of the Bile.—The liver is the largest of all
 the glands; it is also distinguished by the singular cir-
 cumstance among the secretory organs, that it is con-
 stantly traversed by a great quantity of venous blood,
 besides the arterial blood, which it receives as well as
 every other port Ite parenchyma does not resemble,
 in ony  respect,  that of the other glands, ond the fluid
 formed by it to not less different from that of the other
 glandular fluids.
   The excretory canal of the liver goes to the  duode-
 num ; before entering it, it communicates with  a small
 membranous  bag, called vesicula fellis,  and on this
 account, that it is almost always filled with bile.
   Few fluids  are so compound, and so different from
 the blood, as  the bile.  Its colour is greenish, iu taste
 very bitter; it to viscous,  thready, sometimes limpid,
 and sometimes muddy.  It contoins  water, albumen, a
 matter called  resinous by some chemists,  a yellow co-
 louring principle, soda,  and some salu, viz. muriate,
 phosphate, ond sulphate of soda, phosphate of lime
 and oxide of iron.  These properties belong to the bile
 contained in the gall bladder.  That which goes out
 directly from  the liver, called hepatic bile, has never
 been analyzed: it appears to  be of  a less deep colour,
 less viscous, and less  bitter than the cystic bile.  The
 formation of the bile appears constant
  The liver receiving venous blood at Ihe same time by
 the vena  porta, ond arterial blood by tbe hepatic artery
 physiologisu  have been very eager to know which of
 the two  it is that forms the  bile.   Several have said
 that the blood of the vena porta, having more earbon
and hydrogen than that of the hepatic artery, is mora
 proper for furnishing the elements of the bile. Bichat
 has successfully contested thto opinion; he has shown,
that the quantity of arterial blood  which arrives at the
 liver is  more in relation  with the quantity of bile
formed that tbat of the venous blood; that the volume
of the hepatic canal is not in proportion with the vans
 porta; that the fat, a fluid much hydrogenated, is secre-
ted by the arterial blood, Sec.  He might  have added,
that there to nothing to prove that the blood of the vena
porta has more analogy wilh the bile than the arterial
 blood.  We shall take no part in this discussion; both
opinions  are  equally destitute of proof.   Besides, no-
thing repels the idea, that both sorts of blood serve in
the secretion. This seems even  to be indicated by
 anatomy; for injections show that all the vessels of the
 liver, arterial, venous, lymphatic,  and excretory, com-
 municate with each other.
  The bile contributes very  usefully in digestion, but
 the manner is unknown.  In our  present ignorance
 relative to the causes of diseases, we attribute noxious
 properties to  the bile, wbich it to  probably far from
 possessing.
   Secretion of the Urine.—This secretion is different
 in several  reepecu from  the preceding.   The liquid
 which resulu  from it is much  more abundant than that
 of any other gland ; In place of serving in any internal
 uses, it is expelled ; iu retention would be attended by
 the most dangerous consequences.   We are advertised
 of the necessity of iu expulsion by a particular feel-
 ing,  which, like the instinctive  phenomena of this
 sort  becoin   very painful if not  quickly attended to. 
BED
SEL
  In explaining the glandular secretions, physiologists
have given full scope to their imagination. The glands
have been successively considered as sieves, filters, as
a focus of fermentation.  Bordeu, and, more recently,
Bichat, hove attributed a peculiar motion and  sensibi-
lity  to  their particles, by  which they choose, in the
blood'which traverses them, the particles lhat ore fit lo
enter into the  fluids lhat ihey secrete.   Atmospheres
and  compartmenu have been allotted to liiem; they
have been supposed  susceptible of erection, of sleep,
Sec   Notwithstanding the  efforts of many  learned
men, the truth to, that what passes in a gland when it
acts, is entirely unknown.  Chemical phenomena ne-
cessarily lake place.
  Several secreted fluids are acid, while the blood to
alkaline.  The most of them contain proximate prin-
ciples which do not exist in the blood, and which are
formed in the glands,  but the particular mode of these
combinations is unknown.
  We must not, however, confound among these sup-
positions upon the action of  the glands, an ingenious
conjecture of Dr. Wollaston.   This learned man sup-
poses that very weak electricity moy have o marked
influence  upon the  secretions.  He  rests his opinion
upon a curious experiment, of wliich we will here give
an account.
  Dr. Wollaston took a glass tube, two inches long, and
three quarters of  an  inch diameter: he closed one of
iu extremities wilh a bit of bladder.   He poured a lit-
tle water into the tube, with 1-240 parts of its  weight
of muriate of soda.   He wet the bladder on the out-
side, and placed it on a piece of silver.  He then bent
a zinc wire, so that one of ils ends touched the silver,
and the other entered tbe tube  the length of an inch.
In the same  instant the external face of the  bladder
gave indications of the presence of pure soda;  so that,
under the influence of ihis very weak electricity, there
was a decomposition of muriate of soda, and a pas-
sage of  the soda, seporoied from the ocid, through the
blddder.   Dr. Wollaston thinks it is not impossible thot
something analogous may happen in the secretions;
but, before admitting this idea, many other proofs are
necessary.
  Several organs, such as the thyroid and thymus bo-
dies, the spleen, the  supra-renal capsules, have been
called glands by many anatomists.  Professor  Chaus- |
sier has substituted for this denomination that of the
glandiform ganglions. The use of these parts is en-
tirely unknown.  As  they are generally more nume-
rous iu the foetus, they are supposed to have important
functions, but there exisu no proof of it.  Works of
physiology contain a great many hypotheses intended
to explain their functions."—Magendie's Physiology.
  Sectio cjEsarea.  See Casarian operation.
  Sectio franconia. See Lithotomy.
  SECUNDINES.  The after-birth,  and membranes
which are expanded from iu edge, and which form a
complete involucrum  of the  foetus  and  its waters, go
under the term  of secundines.  See Placenta.
  SECUNDUM ARTEM.   According to art.  A term
frequently used in prescription, and denoted by the let-
ters 3. A., which ore usually affixed,  when the  making
up of the recipe in perfection requires some uncommon
care and dexterity.
  SECUNDUS.  Applied by botanists to leaves ond
ports of the fructification which ore  unilateral, all
leaning towards one side; as ihe leaves and flowers of
the Convallaria majalis.
  Securidaca.  (From securis, an axe: so called be-
cause its leaves resemble a  small axe.)  See Hyoscy-
amus niger.
  SEDATIVE.  (Sedativus; from  sedo, to ease or
assuage.)  Sedantia.  Medicines which have the power
of diminishing  the animol energy, without destroying
life.  They ore divided into sedativa  soporifica,  as
opium,  papaver, hyoscyamus; and  sedativa refrige-
rantia, as neutral salu, acids, Sec
  Sedative salt.  See Boracic acid.
  Sedentaria  ossa.   The bones on which  we sit.
The os coccygis ond ischio.
  SEDGE.  See Iris pseudacorus.
  SEDIMENT. The  heavy parts of liquids which fall
to the bottom.
  Sediment, lateritious. See Lateritious sediment.
  SKDLITZ.   Seydschutz.   The name of a  village
of Bohemia, in the  circle of Saartz, where Hoffman
discovered a simple mineral  water, Aqua Sedlitziana.
From chemical analysis it appears, that it is strongly
impregnated with sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salt,
and it is to this, along with, probably, the small quan-
tity of muriate of magnesia, that it owes iu bitter and
saline taste, ond its purgative properties.  The diseases
in wliich this water is recommended are, crudities of
the stomach, hypochondriasis,  amenorrhoea, and the
aiiuiuaious complaints succeeding the cessation of the
catamenia, cedematous tumours of the legs in literary
men, haemorrboidal affections, and  scorbutic  erup-
tions.
  SE'DUM.  (From sedo, to assuage: so called because
it allays inflammation.)  The name of a genus of
planU  in the Linnean system.  Closs, Decandria;
Order,  Pentagynia.
  Sedum acre.  Itlecebra;  Vermicularis; Piper mw
rale;  Sedum minus.  Wall-pepper; Stone-crop. The
plant thus called is, in its recent state, extremely acrid,
like the hydropiper; hence, if token in large doses, it
acu powerfully on the primae viae, proving both emetic
and cathartic; applied to the skin as a cataplasm, it
frequently produces vesications and erosions.   Boer-
haave therefore imagines, that iu internal employment
must be unsafe; but experience has discovered, lhat a
decoction of this plant is not only safe, but of greal effi-
cacy in scorbutic complaints.  For which purpose, a
handful of the herb is directed, by Below, to be boiled
in eight pints of  beer, till they are reduced to four, of
which  three  or four ounces ore to be token every, or
every other morning.  Milk hos been found to answer
this purpose better  than beer.   Not only ulcers simply
scorbutic, but those of a scrofulous or even cancerous
tendency, have been cured by the use of this plant; of
which  Marquel relates several instances.  He likewise
found it useful as an external application in destroying
fungous flesh, and  in promoting a discharge in gan-
grenes ond carbuncles.  Another effect for which this
plant  is esteemed, to that of stopping  intermittent
fevers.
  Sedum luteum murale.  Navel-wort.
  Sedum majus.  See Sempervivum tectorum.
  Sedum minus.  See Sedum acre.
  Sedum telephium.  The systematic nome of the
orpine.   Fabacrassa; Telephium ; Fabaria crassula;
Anacampseros.   The plant which bears these names in
various pharmacopoeias, is the Sedum—foliis planiue-
culis serratis, corymbo folioso, caule credo, of Lin
naeus.  It wos formerly ranked as an antiphlogistic, but
now forgotten.
  SEED.  See Semen,
  Seed vessel.  See Pericarpium.
  SEEING.  See  Piston.
  Seignette's salt.  A neutral salt: first prepared
and made known  by Peter Seignette, who lived  at
Rochelle,in France, towards the end of the seventeenth
century. See Soda tartarizata.
  SELENI'TES.  (From atXrrvn, the moon.)  1. Sparry
gypsum, a sulphate of lime.
  2. A white stone having a figure on it resembling a
moon.
  SELENIUM.  (From otXnvn, the moon.  so called
from its usefulness  in lunacy.)  1. A kind of peony.
  2. A new elementary body extracted by  Berzelius
from the pyrites of Fahlun, which, from iu chemical
properties, he places  between sulphur and tellurium.
though it has more  properties in common with the for-
mer, than with the  latter substance.
  SELF-HEAL.  See Prunella.
  SELINE.   (From otXnvn,  the moon; because they
are  opake, and look  like  little moons.)  A disease of
the nails, in which white spoU are occasionally seen in
their substance.
  SELINIC  ACID.  Acidum selinicum.   If selinium
be heated to  dryness it forms  with nitric acid,  a vola-
tile  and crystallizable compound, called  selinic acid,
which unites to some of the metallic oxides producing
salu, called seleniates.
  SELl'NUM.  (The ancient generic name of Tbe-
ophrastus and Dioscorides, whose TtXiov is said to be
derived from jrapa to tv tXti tbvtcBai, on account of its
growing in mud; whence Homer's tXto&pnr'jov atXivov.
De Theis says, lhat selinum is derived from otXnvtj
the moon, because of the  shape of iu growing seeds*
and that it to the foundation of many other compound
names  of umbelliferous plants  among the Greeks, aa
optootXtvov, ittipoatXivov, Sec)  The name of a genus
Of plante.  Class, Pent andria; Order, Digynia, 
SEM
SEM
  BELLA.  (Sella, quasi sedda ; from settee, to sit)
A saddle.
  Se'lla turcica.  (So called from iu supposed re-
semblance lo a Turkish saddle.)  Ephippium.  A cavity
in the sphenoid  bone, containing the pituitary gland,
surrounded hy the four clinoid processes.
  SELTZER.  The name of a place in Germany,
Neider Seltzer, about ten miles from Frankfort on the
Mayne, where a saline mineral  water rises, which to
slightly alkaline, highly acidulated with carbonic acid,
containing more of this volatile principle than to suf-
ficient to saturate  the alkali, ond the  earths which it
holds in solution.  It is particularly serviceable in re-
lieving some of the symptoms thot indicate a morbid
affection of the lungs; in slow  hectic fever, exanthe-
matous eruptions ofthe skin, foulness of the stomach,
bilious vomiting, acidity, and  heartburn,  spasmodic
pains in any part of the alimentary canal, and bloody
or highly offensive stools.  On account of its property
in relieving spasmodic pains, and from ite rapid deter-
mination to the kidneys, and perhaps iu  alkaline con-
tenu, it  has been sometimes employed with great advan-
tage in diseases of the urinary organs, especially those
that are attended with tlie formation of calculus. A large
proportion of the Seltzer water, either genuine or  arti-
ficial, that is consumed in this country, is for the relief
of these disorders.  Even in gonorrhoea, either simple
or venereal, Hoffmann asserts, that advantage is to
be derived from this medicine.  The usual dose is from
half a pint to a pint
  SEMECA'RPUS.  (From anpttia, to mark, and  *ap-
«roc,  a fruit: a name evidently derived from the use
that is made of iu nut in the East Indies to mark table
linen and articles of apparel.)  The name of a  genus
of plants, (Mass Pentandria; Order, Trigynia.
  Semecarpus anacardium.  The marking nut-tree.
The systematic name, according to some, of tlie tree
which, to supposed to afford the Malacca bean.   See
Avicenna tomentosa.
  Se.meio'sis.   (From crnpuota, to notify.)   See Se-
miotice.
  SE'MEN.  (Semen, inis. n.; sero, to sow.)  A. The
seed or prolific liquor of animals secreted in the testi-
cles, and carried through tlie epididymis and vas defe-
rens into the vesiculae seminales, to be emitted  sub
coitu into the female vagina, and there, by iu aura, to
penetrate ond impregnate the ovulum in the ovarium.
  In castrated animals, and in eunuchs, the vesiculae
seminales are small, ond contracted; and a little lym-
phatic liquor, but no semen, to found in them.  The
Bemen is detained for some time  in the vesiculae semi-
nales, and rendered thicker from the continual absorp-
tion  of  iu very thin part, by the osculo of the lym-
phatic vessels.  In lascivious men, the semen to some-
times, though rarely,  propelled by nocturnal pollution
from the vesiculae seminales, through the ejaculatory
ducta (which arise  from the vesiculae seminales,  per-
forate the urethra transversely,  and open themselves
by narrow and very nervous mouths at the sides ofthe
caput gallinaginis),  into the urethra, and from it to
some distance.  But in chaste men, the greatest part is
again gradually absorbed from the vesiculae seminales
through the lymphatic vessels, ond  conciliotes strength
to the body.  The  smell of semen  is specific, heavy,
affecting the nostrils, yet not disagreeable. The same
odour to observed in the roots of the orchis, the iuli of
chesnuu, and the antherae of many planu.  The smell
ofthe semen of quadrupeds, when at heat, to so pene-
trating, as to render their flesh foetid and useless, unless
castrated.  Thus the flesh of tbe stag, tempore coitus,
m unfit to eat.   The taste of semen to fatuous,  and
somewhat acrid. In the testes,  iu consistence to  thin
and diluted; but in  the  vesiculae  seminales, viscid,
dense, and rather pellucid; and by venery and debility
it is rendered thinner.
  Specific gravity.  The greatest part of the semen
sinks to the bottom in water, yet some part swims on
its surface, which it covers like  very fine threads mu-
tually connected together in the form of a cobweb.
  Colour.  In the testicles it to somewhat yellow, and
in the vesiculae  seminales it  acquires a deeper hue.
That emitted by pollution  or coition, becomes white
from iu mixture with the whitish liquor ofthe prostate
gland during iu passage through  the urethra.  In those
people who labour under jaundice, and from the abuse
of saffron, the semen has been seen yellow, and, in an
atrabilary young man black.
      180
   Quality.  Semen, exposed to the  atmospheric air,
 loses iu pellucidity, and becomes thick, but after a few
 hours il is again rendered more fluid and pellucid than
 it was immediately after its emission.  This phenome-
 non cannot arise from water or oxygen attracted from
 the oir.  At length it deposites phosphate of lime, and
 forms a corneous crust
  Experiments with semen prove, that it turns the syrup
 of vioteu green, and dissolves earthy, neutral, and me-
 tallic salu.   Fresh semen is insoluble in water, until il
 has undergone the above changes in atmospheric air.
 It to dissolved by alkaline salu.   By ssthereal oil il la
 dried into a pellucid pellicle, like the cortex of the brain.
  It is dissolved by oil acids, except the oxymuriatic,
 by  which it is coagulated In  the form of white flakes.
 It to also acted upon by alkohol of wine.
  Vauquelin, who analyzed it, found it  composed of
        1.  Water...................... 900
        2.  Animal mucilage............   60
        3.  Soda......................   10
        4.  Phosphate of lime...........   30
  5. Examined by the microscope, a multitude of ani*
 molcula  ore  observed in  it, which appear lo have a
 round  head and a long toil; the-~e onimolcula move
 wilh considerable ropidity;  they seem to fly the light,
 and to seek the shade.   6. The odorous principle,
 which flies off immediately from fresh semen.  It ap-
 pears to consist of a peculiar vital principle, and by the
 ancienu was called aura seminis.
  Use.  1.  Emitted into the female vagina, sub coitu,
 it possesses the wonderful and  stupendous power of
 impregnating the ovuluin in the female ovarium.  The
 odorous principle, or aura spermatica only, appears lo
 penetrate through the cavity ofthe uterus and Fallopian
 tubes to the female ovarium, and there lo impregnate
 the albuminous latex of the mature ovulum by its vita]
 power.  The other  principles of the semen appear to
 be  only a vehicie of the seminal aura.  2. Iu  chaste
 men, the semen returning through the lymphatic ves-
 sels into  the  mass of the blood, gives strength to the
 body and mind; hence the bull is so fierce and  brave,
 the castrated ox so gentle and  weak;  hence  every
 animal languishes post coitum;  and hence tabes dor-
salis from onanism.   3. It to by the stimulus  of the
semen absorbed, at the age of puberty, into the mass
of the humours, that the beard and hair of the pubes,
 but in animals, the horns, are produced; and the weep-
ing voice of the boy changed into that of a man.
  B. The seed of planu or nucleus formed in the ger-
men of a plant, for the purpose of propagating ite spe-
cies, the sole " end and aim" of  all tbe organs of fruc-
tification.   Every other part is in some manner subser-
vient lo the forming*.perfecting, or dispersing of these.
  A seed consists of several parts, some of which are
more essential than others, viz.
  1. The hilum, or scar.
  2. The funiculus umbilicalis,  or filament, by which
 the immature seed is connected to the receptacle.
  3. The testa, or tunica seminis.
  4. The seed lobes, or cotyledons.  These parts are
beautifully  seen by macerating the seeds of a kidney
or other bean, or gourd, in water.
  The less essential parts are,
  1. The arillus.    4. The capsula.
  2. The pappus.   5. The ala.
  3. The cauda.
  From the difference in the  form, surface, situation,
 and number, rise the following distinctions of seeds.
  1. Semina arillata ; as in Jasminum.
  2. Paposa; as in Leontodon taraxacum.
  3. Caudata; as in Clematis vitalba.
  4. Calyculata, covered with a bony calyx; as in Coix
 lachryma.
  5. Alata; as in Bignovia.
  6. Hamosa, furnished with one or  three hooks; aa
 in Daucus muricatus.
  7. Lanata, covered with wool; as in Bombax, Get-
 sipium, and Anemone hortensis.
  8. Rotuda; as in Pisum, and  Brassica
  9. Rotunda-compressa ; as Ervum lens.
  10. Oblonga; as in Boerhavia diffusa,
  11. Conica ; as in Bellium.
  12. Ovota; as in Quercus robur.
  13. Triquetra; as in Rheum, and Rusur.
  14. Lanceelata;  as in Fraxinus.
  15. Acuminata ; as Cucumis sativus.
  16. Reniformia ;  as in Phaseolus. 
SEM
SEM
  17. Aculeata; as Ranunculus arvensis.
  16. Cochleata; as in Salsola.
  19. Cymbiformia; as in Calendula officinalis.
  20. Linearia; as  in Crucianella.
  21. Aristata ; as in Holcus sarcharatus.
  22. Echinata; os iu Verbena lapulacea.
  23. Hispida; as Daucus carota.
  24. Hirsuta; as in Scandix trichosperma.
  25. Muricata; as Ranunculus parvifiorus.
  26. Glabra; as iu Galium montanum.
  27. Rugosa; as in Litltospermutn arvense.
  23. Callosa ; as m Citrus medica.
  29. Lap idea ; as in Lithospermum.
  30. Colorata; as in Charophyllum aureum.
  31. Striata; as in Conium maculatum.
  32. Sulcata ; as in SccmoKx odorata.
  33. Transversim sulcatu ; as Picris.
  34. JVuda; as in the Gymnospermial plante.
  35.  Teda; as inAngiospermial plants.
  36. Nidulantia, adhering to the external surface ; as
in Fragaria vesca.
  37. Pendula, suspended by a filament external to the
seed vessel; as in Magnolia grandiflora.
  38. Pauca, when few in number.
  39. Plun'ma, many; as in Papaver.
  The parte of a seed when germinating are,
  1. Colyledones.
  2. Corculum.
  The voriety of forms of seeds ore not without their
uses, and the various modes by which seeds are dis-
persed, cannot fail to strike an observing mind with
admiration.  " Who has not listened," says Sir James
Smith, " in a calm and sunny day, to the crackling of
furze bushes,  caused by the explosion of their little
elastic pods; nor watched the down  of innumerable
seeds floating on the summer breeze, till they are over-
taken by a  shower, which, moistening their wings,
stops their further flight,  and at the same time accom-
plishes iu final purpose, by immediately promoting the
germination of each seed in the moist earth 1 How little
are children aware, as they blow away the seeds of
dandelion, or stick  burs,  in  sport, on each other's
clothes, that they are fulfilling one of the greatest ends
of nature.   Sometimes the calyx, beset with hooks,
forms the bur; sometimes books encompass the fruit
itself.  Pulpy fruiu serve  quadrupeds and birds as
food, while their seeds, often small, hard, and indigesti-
ble, pass uninjured by them through the intestines,  and
are deposited far  from their original place of growth,
in a condition peculiarly fit for vegetation.  ,Even such
seeds as are themselves esten, like the various eoru of
nuts, are hoarded up in the cracked ground, and occa-
sionally forgotten,  or the earth  swells and encloses
them.  The ocean  iuelf serves to waft the  larger
kinds of seeds from their native soil to far distant
Bhores."
  Semen adjowaen.  A seed imported from the East,
of a pleasant smell, a grateful aromatic  taste, some-
what like savory.   It possesses exciting, stimulating,
and carminative virtues, and to given in  the East in
nervous weakness,dyspepsio, flatulency, and heartburn.
  Semen aoave.    An  East Indian  seed, exhibited
there in atonic gout.
  Semen contra.   See Artemisia santonica.
  Semen sanctum.  See Artemisia santonica.
  SEMI.  (From npiov, half.)   Semi, in composition,
universally signifies half; as semieupium,  a half-bath,
or bath up to the navel; semilunaris, in the shape of a
half-moon.
   SEMICIRCULAR.  Semicircularis. Of the shape
of half a circle.
   Semicircular canals.  These canals are three m
number, and take their name from their figure.  They
belong to the organ of hearing, and are situated In the
petrous portion of the temporal bone, and open  into
the vestibulum.
   SEMICU'PIUM.   A half-bath, or such as receives
only the hips, or extremities.         .,_..„
   SEMICYLINDRACEUS.  SemicyhndricaL; flat on
one side, round on the other, os the leaves of the Con-
thium gibbosum.                            ....
   Semi interosseus indicis.  See Abductor indicts
manus.
   SEMILUNAR.   Semilunaris.  Half moon shaped.
   Semilunar valves.  The three valves at the be-
ginning of  the pulmonary artery and aorta are bo
 termed, from their half-moon shape.
  SEMI-MEMB RANO'SUS.  Ischio-papliti-femoral,
of Dumas.  This muscle arises from the outer surface
of the tuberosity of the ischium, by a brood flat ten-
don which is three inches in length.  From this tendon
it has gotten the name of semi-membronosus.  It then
begins to grow fleshy, and runs ot first under the long
heod of llie biceps, and afterword between  thai mus-
cle and the semi-tendinosus.  At the lower part of tbe
thigh it becomes narrower again, and terminates in a
short tendon, which is  inserted chiefly into the upper
and back part of the head of the tibia, but some of
its fibres  are spread over the posterior surface of the
capsular ligament of the knee. Between this cupsular
ligament and the tendon of the muscle, we find a small
bursa mucosa.   The tendons of thto and the last-
described  muscle form the inner ham-string.  This
muscle bends the leg, and seems likewise to prevent the
capsular  ligament from  being pinched.
  Semi-nervosus.  See Semitendinosus.
  Seminis  Cauda.  See Cauda seminis.
  Seminis  ejaculator.  See Accelerator urina.
   Semiopal.  See Opal.
  Semi-orbicularis oris.  See Orbicularis oris.
  SEMIO'TICE. (From onpttov, a sign.)  Cemeiosis.
That part  of pathology which treats on the signs of
diseases.
   Semi-spinalis coldi.   Semi-spinalis  sive  trans-
verso-spinalis colli, of Winslow ; Spinalis cervicis, of
Albinus; Spinalis colli, of Douglas; Transversalis
colli, of Cowper; and  Transversospinal, of Dumas,
A muscle  situated on  tiie posterior part of the neck,
which turns the neck obliquely bockwords, ond a little
to one side. It orises from the transverse processes of
the uppermost six vertebrae of the bock by as many
distinct tendons, ascending obliquely under the com-
plexus, a.id is inserted into the spinous processes of all
the vertebrae of the neck, except the first and last.
   Semi-spinalis dorsi.  Semi-spinalis  externus seu
transverso-spinalis  dorsi, of Winslow.   Semi-spina
tus, of Cowper; and Transversospinal, of  Dumas.
A muscle  situated  on  the back, which  extends the
spine obliquely backwards.  It orises from the trans-
verse processes  of  the seventh, eighth, ninth, and
tenth vertebrae of the  back, by as many distinct ten-
dons, which soon grow fleshy, and then become tendi-
nous again,  and are inserted  into the spinous pro-
cesses of all the vertebrae of the back above the eighth,
and into the lowermost of the neck, by as many ten-
dons.
   Semi-spinalis externus.  See Semi-spinalis dorsi
   Semi-spinatus.  See Semi-spinalis dorsi.
   Semi-tendinosus. This muscle, which is the semi-
nervosus, of Douglas and Winslow; and Ischio-creti-
tibial, of Dumas, to situated obliquely along the back
part of the thigh. It arises tendinous and fleshy from
the inferior, posterior, and outer  part of the tuberosity
of the ischium, in common with the long head of the
biceps  cruris, to the  posterior edge of which  it conti-
nues to adhere, by a great number of oblique fibres, for
the space of two or three inches.  Towards the lower
part of the os femoris, it terminates in  a round ten-
don, which passes behind the inner condyle of tlie thigh
bone, and, becoming flat, is inserted into the upper and
inner part of the ridge of the tibia, a little below its
tuberosity.  This tendon  sends off an  aponeurosis,
which helps  to form the tendinous fascia that covers
the muscles of the leg.   This muscle asstote in bend-
ing the leg, and at the  same time draws it  a  little In-
wards.
   SEMPERVIRENS.  Evergreen.  Applied to leaves
which are  permanent through one, two, or  more win-
ters, so that the branches are never stripped; as the
ivy, fir, laurel, bay, Sec
   SEMPERVI'VUM.   (From semper, always, nnd
vivo, to  live: so called because it to always green.)_
1. The name of a  genus of plants in  the Linnaean
system.  Class, Dodecandria; Order, Polygynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of some plants.
   Sempervtvum acre-  The stone-crop to occasionally
so termed. See Cedum acre.
   Sempervivum tectorum.  The systematic name
ofthe houseleek.  Cedum majus; JEonion; Aiioum;
Aiioon; Barba jovis.  Houseleek, or sengreen. The
leaves of this plant have no remorkoble smell, but dis-
 cover  to the taste a mild subacid austerity; they or*
frequently applied by  the vulgar to bruises and old 
SEN
SEN
  SENAG, John, was bom in Gascony, about the
close ofthe seventeenth century. He is slated to have
received the degree of doctor at Rheims, ond thot of
bachelor of physic at  Paris.  He was a man of pro-
found erudition, united with great  modesty; and by
his industry  acquired  much experience.   Hto merits
procured him the favour of Louis XV. who appointed
him his consulting, and afterword his chief physician,
which office he retained till his death in 1770.   He wos
also a member of the  Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris,  and of tlie Royal  Society of Nancy.   He left
some works, which will probably maintain  a lasting
reputation, particularly hto treatise  on  the Structure.
Function, and  Diseases of the  Heart.  An edition of
Heister's Anatomy, with  some interesting  Observa-
tions, was published  by him when young.   A paper
on  Drowning,  in the  Memoirs of  the Academy of
Sciences, refuting certain erroneous opinions respecting
the Cause of Death, and tbe Treatmen founded upon
them, is also due to him; as well as some other minor
publications.
  SENE'CIO.  (Senecio ;  from  senesco, to grow old :
so called because it has a grayish down upon it, like
the beard of old men.)
  1. Tbe name of a genus of planu in the Linnaean
system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polygamia su-
perflua.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name  also  of llie groundsel.
See Senecio vulgaris.
  Senecio jacob-ea.  The systematic  nome of the
Jacobaa, of old writers. St. James's wort.  Ragwort
The leaves of this common plant  have  a roughish,
bitter, sub-acrid taste, extremely nauseous.   A decoc-
tion to said to have been nf infinite service in the cure
of epidemic camp dysentery.  A poultice made of the
fresh leaves to  said to have a surprising effect in re-
moving pains of the joinu, and to remove the sciatica,
or hip gout, in two or three applications when ever so
violent.  The root to of an adstringent nature.  A de-
coction of it was  formerly  good  for wounds and
bruises.
  Senecio madraspatant/s.   See  Senecio  pseudo-
china.
  Senecio Pssuoo-cniNA.   China supposita; Sene-
cio  madraspatanus.   Bastard China.  It grows iu
Malabar.  The root greatly resembles the China root
in appearance and qualities.
  Senecio  vulgaris.   Erigerum;  Senecio; Erige-
ron.  Groundsel. Thto very common  plant is fre-
quently opplied bruised to inflammations and ulcers, as
a refrigerant and antiscorbutic.
  Senecta anouium.   The cast  skin of a serpent; its
decoction is said to cure deafness.
  SENECTUS.  See Age.
  [Seneca oil.   See Genes see oil.]
  SE'NEGA.  (So called because the Seneca or Sene-
gow Indians use it against Ihe bite of the rattlesnake.)
See Polygala senega.
  Senegal gum.  See Mimosa Senegal.
  Senegaw milkwort.   See Polygala senega.
  SENEKA.  See Senega.
  SENGREEN.  See Sempervivum tectorum,
  SE'NNA.  (From senna, on  Arabian, word, signi-
fying acute: so colled from its sharp-pointed  leaves.)
See Cassia senna.
  Senna alexandrina. See Cassia senna.
  Senna italica.  Pee Cassia senna
  Senna pauperum.  Bastard senna, or milk-vetch.
  Senna scorpium.   The scorpion senna.
  Senna extractum.  Extract of senna.
  SENN'ERTUS, Daniel, was born at Breslaw in
1572.  He wos sent to Wittemberg ot the ago of twen-
ty-one, and exhibited such maiks of talent, that every
opportunity wos afforded him of visiting the other ce-
lebrated universities of Germany.  On  his return in
1601, he received the  degree of doctor, and the  next
year was appointed lo a professorship of medicine.  He
distinguished himself greatly by his eloquence and
sound knowledge, and  his publications concurred in
raising his fame, insomuch lhat he was consulted by
patienu from all paru of the world; towards whom
he evinced great disinterestedness.   The plague pre-
vailed seven times at Wittemberg, while he was pro-
fessor there, yet be never quitted  hto post, nor  declined
bis services, even to tlie poorest sick :  however, he was
at last a victim to that diseose in 1637. Sennertus was
a voluminous writer, and has  been represented by
 some as a mere compiler; but his works are valuable,
 as containing a full and clear epitome of ancient learn-
 ing; and  besides, display much judgment, and  free
 dom, in criticising their doctrines, which  indeed in-
 volved him in many controversies.  He first introduced
 the study of  chemistry  at Wiltemberg; and in his
 writings he maintained the propriety of admitting che-
 mical as well  as  Galenical theories and remedies Into
 medicine.
   SENSATION.  Sensatio.  Sensation, or feeling, is
 Ihe consciousness of a change taking place in any part,
 from the contact of o  foreign body with the extremi-
 ties of our nerves. The seat of sensation to in the pulp
 of the nerves.
   The impression produced on any organ by the action
 of an external body constitutes sensation.  This sen-
 sation, transmitted by nerves to the brain, is perceived,
 lhat is, felt by tlie organ ; the sensation then becomes
 perception;  and thto first modification implies, as  must
 be evident, the existence of  a central organ, to which
 impressions produced on the senses ore conveyed.  Tbe
 cerebral fibres are acted on wilh greater or less  force
 by the  sensations propagated  by all the senses influ-
 enced  ot  the same time; and we could only acquire
 confused  notions of ell bodies thai produce them, if
 one particular and stronger perception did not oblite-
 rate the others, and fix our attention.  In this collective '
 state of the mind on the same subject, the brain to weakly
 affected, by several  sensations which leave no trace
 behind.  It is ou this principle that, having read a book
 witli great attention, we forget the different sensations
 produced by the  paper and character.
   When a sensation to of short duration, the knowledge
 we have  of it is so weak, lhat soon afterward there
 does not remain any knowledge of having experienced
 it  In proportion as a sensation, or an  idea, wliich to
 only a sensation transformed or perceived by the cere-
 bral organ, has produced  iu the fibres of this organ a
 stronger or weaker impression, the remembrance  of it
 becomes more or less lively and permanent.  Thus we
 have a reminiscence of it, that is, coll to mind that we
 have already  been  affected  in the  same manner; a
 memory, or the act of recalling tlie object of the sensa-
 tion with some of its attributes, as colour, volume, &c.
  When the brain is easily excitable, and, at the some
 time, accurately preserves impressions received, il  pos-
 sesses the power of representing to iuelf ideas with
 all their connexions,  and all  the  accessory circum-
 stances by which they ore accompanied, of reproducing
 them in o certain degree, and of recalling an entire ob-
ject, while the memory only gives us an idea of iu
 qualities.  This creative faculty Is called imagination.
 When two ideas  arc brought togclher, compared,  and
 their analogy considered, we  are said to form a judg-
ment;  several judgments  connected  together consti-
 tute reasoning.  Besides the sensations that are carried
 from the orgons of sense to the brain, there are others,
internal, that seem to be transmitted  to it by a kind of
sympathetic reaction.  It is well known what uneasi-
 ness  the affection of certain organs conveys  to the
mind, how much an habitual obstruction of the liver is
connected  with a certain order of ideas;  these internal
sensations are the origin of our moral faculties, in the
same manner os  impressions thot ore conveyed  by the
organs of sense are the source of intellectual faculties.
 We aie  not on thot account  to place the seot  of the
 passions of the mind in the viscera; it is only neces
sary to remember that the appetites, whence arise the
 passions, reside in their respective  organs, and are a
 phenomenon purely physical, while passion  consists,
 at the some time, in the intellectual exertion.  Thus
 on accumulation of semen in the cavities that are cm-
 ployed  os  o reservoir for it,  excites the appetite foi
 venery, very distinct from the passion of love, although
 it may be frequently the determinate cause of it.
  The senses may be enumerated under the following
 heads,  viz. the  sense  of vision,  hearing,  smelling,
 tasting, touching.
  SENSIBILITY.  Sensibilitas.  That action of the
 brain by which we receive  impressions, either from
 within, or from without
  " What  to said of sensation generally, to applicable
 to sensibility;  for this reason, we only  mention here
 that  this faculty  exerts itself in  two ways very  dif-
 ferent.  In the first, the phenomena happens, unknown
 to us; in the second, we are  aware of It, we perceive
 the sensation. It is not enough that a body may act 
SEP                                             SER
upon one  of our senses, that a nerve transmiu to the
brain the  impression which is produced—it  is  not
enough that this organ receive the impression: in order
that there may be really a sensation, the brain must
perceive the impression received.  An impression thus
perceived  is called, in Ideology, a  Perception, or an
Idea.
  These two modes of sensibility may be easily verified
upon ourselves.  For  example, it 'to easy to see that a
number of bodies  have  a continual action upon our
senses without our being aware of it: thto depends in
a great measure upon habit
  Sensibility is infinitely variable: in certain persons
it is very "obtuse; in others it is very elevated: gene-
rally a good organization keeps between the extremes.
  Sensibility is vivid  in  infancy and youth;  it con-
tinues in a degree something less marked until past the
age of manhood; in old age it suffers an evident dimi-
nution ; and very old  persons appear quite insensible
to all tlie ordinary causes of sensations."
  All poru possessed of a power of producing achonge,
so os to excite a sensation, are called sensible; those
which  are not possessed of thto property, insensible.
To the insensible paru by nature belong all our fluids,
the blood,  bile, saliva, &c. and many of the solids, the
hair, epidermis, nails,  Sec.;  but tbe sensible paru are
the skin, eyes, tongue, ear, nose, muscles, stomach, in-

  SENSO'RIUM.   The organ of any of the  senses.
 See Cerebrum.
  Sensorium commune.  See  Cerebrum.
  SENSUS.  (Sensua, ils. m.;  d  sentiendo.)   The
 senses are  distinguished into  external and internal.
 The external senses are seeing, hearing, tasting, smell-
 ing, and feeling.   The internal, imagination, memory,
 judgment attention, ond the passions.
  8ENTICOSA3.  (From sentis, a  brier.)  The name
 of an order of plante in  Linnaeus's Fragments of a
 Natural  Method,  consisting of such as resemble the
 bramble, rose, &c.
  SENTIENT.  This term is applied to those parts
 Which are more susceptible of feeling than others, as
 the sentient extremities of the nerves, Sec.
  Sentis caninus.   (Sentis, a thorn; from iu  being
 prickly like a thom.)  See fio*a canina.
  Separato'rium.  (From separo, to separate.)  An
 instrument for separating the  pericranium from the
 skull, and a chemical vessel for separating essential
 parts of liquids.
   SEPIA. The name of a genus offish, ofthe Class,
 Vernes;  Order, Molusca.  The cuttle-fish.
   Sepia officinalis. Sepium; Pracipitans magnum.
 The cattle-fish.   The systematic name of the  fish, the
 shell of which  is a  phosphate of lime, and  to often
 mixed into tooth-powders.
   Sepis  os.  See Sepia officinalis.
   SEPIARLE.   (From sepes, a hedge.)   The name of
 an order of plants in Linnaeus's FragmenUof a Natural
 Method,  consisting of woody planu, which  form a
 hedge-like  appeorance; the flowers ore mostly a thy-
 mus or panicle.
   SE'PlUM.  See Sepip, officinalis.
   SEPT ARIA.  Ludi helmontii.  Spheroidal  concre-
 tions that vary from a few inches to o foot in diameter.
 When broken in  a longitudinal direction, the interior
 ofthe mass is observed intersected by a number of fis-
 sures, sometimes empty, sometimes filled with  calcare-
 ous spar.  The  body of the concretion is ferruginous
 marie   From these septaria is manufoctured  thot ex-
 cellent material for building under water, called Parke's
 cement, or Roman cement.                   .
    Septenary years.  Climacteric years.   A period, or
 succession of years in human life, at which, important
 constitutional chonges are supposed to take place; and
 the end of this period to therefore judged critical.  This
 aeriod is fixed at every seventh year.  The grand cli-
 macteric to fixed at 63, and, passing that time, age, it is
 considered, may be protracted to 90.  So general is this
 belief, that the  passing of 60 generally gives much
 anxiety to most people.
    SEPT FOIL.  See Tormentilla.
    SEPTIC.  (Septicus; from oniria, to putrefy.) Re-
  lating to putrefaction.
    SEPTIFO'LIA.   (From septem, seven, and folium,
  a leaf: so named from the number of iu leaves.) Co-
  ralwort, or septfoll toothwort.
    SEPTINE'RVIA- (From stptem, seven, and nervus,
a string: so called from the seven strings upon iu leaf J
A species of plantain.
  SEPTUM.  A partition.
  Septum cbrebelli.  A process of the dura mater,
dividing the cerebellum perpendicularly into two prin
cipal parte.
  Septum cerebri. The falciform process of the dura
mater is sometimes so called.  See Falciform process.
  Septum cordis.  (Septum; from sepio, to separate.)
The partition between the two ventricles ofthe heart
  Septum lucidum.  Septum  pellucidum. The thin
and tender portion of the brain, dividing the lateral
ventricles from each other.
  Septum narium.  Interseptum.  The partition be-
tween the nostrils.
  Septum palati.   The partition of the palate.
  Septum pellucidum.  See Septum lucidum.
  Septum thoracis.  See Mediastinum.
  Septum transversum.  See Diaphragm.
  SERA'PIAS.  (From Serapis, a lascivious idol: so
called because it was thought to  promote venery ; or
from the testiculated shape of ite roou.) The name of
a genus of planu in the Linnaean system.   Class, Gy-
nandria;  Order, Diandria.
  Serapi'num.  The gum-resin sagapenum  is some-
times so called.  See Sagapenum.
  SERAPION, of Alexandria, lived about 280 years
before Christ, and is affirmed by Celsus to have been
the founder of the,empiric sect of physicians; though
others have attributed the origin of this sect to Phi-
linus.
  SERAPION, John, an Arabian  physician who lived
between the time of Mesue and Riiazes, towards the
middle  of the ninth century, and  is supposed to have
been the first writer on physic in Ihe Arabic language.
Haly Abi.as describes his writings as containing only
Ihe cure of diseases, without any precepts concerning
the preservation of health, or relating to surgery: and
they are frequently quoted by Rhazes.  He often tran-
scribes the remarks of Alexander Trallian, with whom
the  other Arabians appear to be  little acquainted.
Some confusion appears to exist respecting another Se-
rapion, who is supposed to have lived 180 years later,
and to have been the author of a work on the Materia
Medica, entitled  "De  Medicomentistom simplicibus,
quam compositis;"  in which authors are quoted, much
posterior to Rhazes, Avenzoar for instance, so that it
must have been written towards the latter part of the
eleventh century.
   SERICUM.  Silk.  A species  of  hairy pubescence
 of planu, which consists of a white  shining  silkiness:
 hence the leaves of the Potentilla  onserino, Alche-
 milla p.lpino, &c. ore colled Folia sericea.
   SERI'PHIUM.  (Seems to have been applied to this
 genus on account of the analogy in ite habit ond foliage
 with the Artemisia pontica of  Pliny, called by tbe
 Greeks Dtpctpiov.  The origin of thto name may  be
 traced to Seriphion, or, os it is now called, Scrpho, an
 island  in the Aegean sea, the soil of which is of so dry
 and sterile a nature, as only lo abound in plants of this
 rough kind.)  The name of a genus of planu.  Class
 Syngenesia; Order, Polygamiasegregata.) Flix-weed.
   SE'RIS.  Xtpis-  Endive.
   SERMOUNTAIN.  See Laserpitium  siler.
   SEROUS.  (Serosa*;  from serum.)  Relating  to
 serum.
   Serous apoplexy.  See Apoplexia.
   SERPENTARIA.  (Serpentaria, e.  f.:  so called
  from the resemblance of the roou of the plant wbich
  first bore this name to ihe tail of the rattle-snake.)  See
  Aristolochia serpentaria.
   Serpentaria oallorum.  See Arum dracunculus.
   Serpentaria hispanica.  The viper's grass.  See
  Scorzonera hispanica,
   Serpentaria  virginiana. See  Aristolochia ser-
  pentaria.                               ..  .  .
   SERPENTINE.  A hard  mineral, of which there
  are two kinds, the common and  precious.   The com
  mon is of a green colour, and to found to various moun-
  tains in Scotland and Ireland.  Of the precious, there
  are two species; the splintery, found in Corsica, ond
  is cut into snuff boxes; and the conchoidal, which is of
  a leek green colour.             ...
   Serpentom lionum.   See Ophtoxylum serpents-
  num.                             .
   Serpentum radix.  See Ophiorrhiza mungoe.
   SERPI'GO.  (From serpo, to creep;  because it 
SER
SES
  creeps on the surface of the skin by degrees.)  A ring-
  worm, or tetter.  See Herpes.
    SERPY'LLUM.   (From  epirta, to creep, or a err-
  pende, by reason of iu creeping nature.)  Bee Thymus
  eerpyllum.
  t Serpyllum citratum.  See Thymus serpyllum.
    Serpvllum  vuloare  minus.   See Thymus  ser-
  pyllum.
    SERRATA.  (From *rrra, a saw: so  called from
  lu serrated leaves.)   See  Scrratula.
    SERRA'TULA.   (From  serra,  a saw:  so called
  from iu serrated leoves.;  The name of a genus of
  planu in the Linnaean system.  Class, Syngenesia;
  Order, Polygamia aqualis.
    Serratula amara. The systematic name of a spe-
  cies of saw-wort, which to said to cure agues.
    Serratula arvensis.  The common creeping way-
  thistle.   Carduus arvensis; Carduus hamorrhoidalis;
  Circium arvcnse. This plant was formerly used In an
  application to resolve scirrhous tumours, and  to now
  considered useful against  piles.
    SERRATUS.  (From  serra, a saw.)  Serrated ; a
  botanical  term applied to leaves when  the  teeth arc
  sharp, and resemble those of a saw, pointing towards
  Hie extremity of the leof,  as in Urtica; and the petals
  of the Dianthus arboreus, and Cystus polyfolius.
    Some leaves are called  duplicato-serrate;  these are
  doubly serrate, having a series of smaller serratures in-
  termixed with the larger;  as in Campanula trachelium.
    Serratus anticus. See Pectoralis minor.
    Serratus magnus. (So called  from its  saw-like
  appearance.)   Serratus major antieus, of Douglas and
  Cowper.  Serratus major,  of  Winslow;  and  Costo
  basi-scapulaire, of Dumas.  This muscle is so named
  by Albinus.   Douglas calls It Serratus major anticus,
  but improperly, as it  is seated at tbe side, and not at the
  anterior part of the thorax.  It is a broad fleshy muscle,
  of a very irregular shape,  and to in part covered by the
  subscapulars,  pectoralis, and latissimus dorsi.   It
  arises, by fleshy digitauons,  from the eight superior
  ribs, and is inserted  fleshy into the whole basis of the
  scapula Internally, between the insertion nf the rhom-
  boides, and the origin of the sub-scapularis, being fold-
  ed, as It were, about tbe  two angles of the scapula.
  Thto muscle may easily be divided into two and even
  three portions.  The latter division  hos been adopted
  by Winslow.  The first of these portions Is the thick
  and short part of the muscle that arises from the first
  and second ribs, and is inserted Into the upper angle of
  the scapula, iu fibres ascending obliquely backwards.
  The second portion arises  from the second  rib, behind
  the origin of  the first portion, and likewise from the
  third and fourth ribs; this portion is  thin  and short,
  and iu fibres run nearly in a horizontal direction, to be
  inserted  into the basis of the scapula.  The third, ond
  most considerable portion, is that which arises from
  the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs, and to inserted
  into the lower angle of the  scapula.  The serratus mag-
  nus  serves to move the scapula forwords, and it  is
  chiefly by the contraction of this muscle that the shoul-
  der is supported, when loaded with any heavy weight.
  The ancienu, and even many ofthe moderns, particu-
  larly Douglas and Cowper, supposed iu chief use to be
  to dilate tiie thorax,  by elevoting the ribs; but it con
 only do this when the scapula to forcibly raised.
   Serratus major anticus.  See Serratus magnus.
   Serratus minor anticus. See Pectoralis minor.
  ' Be rr atus posticus inferior.  Dorsc-lumbo-costal,
■-of Dumas.    This is a thin muscle of considerable
 breadth, situated at tbe bottom of the back, under the
 middle part of the  latissimus dorsi.  It arises by a
 broad thin tendon, in common with that of the last-
  mentioned muscle from the spinous processes of the
  two, and sometimes of the three inferior dorsal verte-
 '.brse( and from three, and sometimes four of those ofthe
 -lumbar vertebrae.  It then  becomes fleshy, and, ascend-
 ing a little obliquely outwards and forwards, divides
 into three, and sometimes four fleshy slips,  which are
 inserted  into the lower edges of the three or four infe-
 rior ribs, at a Hide distance from their cartilages.  Its
 use seems to be to poll the ribs downwards, backwards,
 and outwards.
   Serratus superior posticus.  Cervid-dorso-cas
 ■ted, ofOmnas. TBis is a smoll, fist,  and thin muscle,
 situated  at  the  upper port of the back, immediately
 under the rhomboideus.  It  arises,  by a broad thin
 tendon, from tbe lower part of the ligameatum colli,
 from the spinous process of the last vertebra  of tha
 neck, and ihe two or three uppermost of tbe bock, aad
 is inserted into the second, third, fourth, and some-
 times fifth ribs, by as many distinct slips.  Iu use is to
 expand the thorax, by pulling  tiie ribs upwards and
 outwards.
   SERRULATUS.  Minutely serrate: applied to such
 snw-like edged leaves which hove their Icclh very fine;
 as in Polygonum ninphibium.
   Sbrtula. campana.   See Trifolium melilotua.
   SE RUM.   (From serus, lata; because it is the re-
 mainder of the milk, after iu better  parte have been
 taken from it)
   1.  Whey.
   2. The yellow and somewhot greenish fluid, which
 separates from the blood when cold ond at rest.  See
 Blood.
   Serum aluminosum.  Alum whey.
   Serum lactis.  Whey.
   SERVETl'S. Michael, was born at Villanuevo, tn
 Arrogon, in 1509.  He first studied the low ot Tou-
 louse; but his attention was drown to theology hy the
 discussions of the reformers; and as be was  disposed
 to carry his dissent from tbe church of Rome even to a
 greater length, he judged it prudent to retire into Swit-
 zerland, where he published bis opinions  concerning
 the Trinity.   He afterward  went  to study physic at
 Paris, where he look his degree, and then gave mathe-
 matical lectures, while he followed the profession of a
 physician: but having quarrelled with tbe faculty, and
 his " Apology" being suppressed by the parliament, he
 removed to Charlieu, and soon  after to Vienna, at the
 invitation of the archbishop.   Here he  published a
 more full account of hto religious opinions  under a
 feigned name; but Calvin, the reformer, in whom lie
 had confided, betrayed him to the magistrates, so that
 he was thrown into prison, from which, however, he
 escaped.   But as  he was passing through  Geneva.
 Calvin, whose treachery he did  not suspect, procured
 hto arrest, and  a charge of blasphemy and heresy to be
 brought against him; of which, being found guilty, he
 was cruelly burnt alive  in  1553.  Servetus  is num-
 bered among those  anatomists who made tbe nearest
 approach to the doctrine of the circulation of tbe btood :
 in the work already mentioned, which  led to his death,
 the passage of the blood through the  lungs is clearly
 staled.  He was a man of grcal leorning ond unfeigned
 piety, and generally admired for bis worth and talenu,
 ond the discoveries which he  mode  in medicine, as
 well as other branches of knowledge.
   Service-tree.   See Sorbus aucupario,
  SESAMOID.  (Os sesamoideum; from enoaui), an
 Indian grain, and eiooc, likeness.)  This term to ap-
 plied to the little bones, which, from their supposed
 general  resemblance to the seeds of the sesamum, are
 called Ossa sesamoidea.  They are found at the articu-
 lation of the great toes, and sometimes at tiie joints of
 the thumbs; now and then we meet Willi  them upon
 the condyles of the os femoris, at the lower .extremity
 of the fibula, under the os cuboides  of the tardus, sec
 Tbey do not exist in the foetus ;  but  as we advance  in
 life, begin first to appear in a cartilaginous state, and, at
 length, in adult subjecu, ore completely ossified.  Age
 and bard labour seem to odd to the n u mber and size of
these bones, and being most commonly  found wherever
Ihe tendons and ligaments are most exposed to pressure
from the action of the muscles, they  are now generally
considered by anatomism as the  ossified paru of ten-
don* and ligaments. These bones a-e usually smooth
and flat on tlie side of the bone on which they are
placed :  their upper surface to convex, and, in general,
adheres to the tendon that covers it, and of which it
may, in some measure, be  considered  as a  part.  Al-
 though their formation seems to be owing touccidental
circumstances; yet, as the two at the  first joint of the
great toe are much larger than the rest, and ore seldom
 wanting in an adult, it would seem  as if these bones
 were of some utility; perhaps by removing the ten
dons farther from the centre of motion, and thus in-
creasing  the power of the muscles.  The  osso sesa-
 moidea of the great toe and thumb seem likewise to be
of use, by forming  a groove for lodging the flexor ten-
 dons secure from compression.
  Sesamoidal bones.  See Sesamoid.
  SE'SAMUM.  (An Egyptian word.)
  l. The name of a genus of plants in the T Innsun
system. 
SET                                             SHA
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the oriental sesa-
mum.  See Sesamum orientals.
  Sesamum  oribntale.  Sesamum.  The seeds  of
this plant are in much esteem in South Carolina, where
they ore called  oily grain ; they ore mode into soups
and puddings, after the manner of rice.  Toasted over
the fire, they are mixed with other ingredients,  and
stewed into a delicious food.  The fresh seed sffords
a considerable quantity of a worm pungent oil, other-
wise not unpalatable.  In o year or  two the pungency
leaves it when the oil is used for salad, Sec  The seeds
of the Sesamum indicum are used in the same manner.
The leaves are also used medicinally in some countries,
Being of o mucilaginous quality.  [See Benne seed and
Benne oil.  A.]
  SE'SELI.  (Hapa ra oataoai  tXXov; because it to
salutary for young fawns.)
  1. The name of o genus of plants.  Class, Pentan-
dria ; Order, Digynia.
  2. An old name of the hart-wort.  See Laserpitium
eiler.
  Seseli creticum.  There is great confusion among
the species of the seseli. The plant wliich bears this
epithet in the pharmacopoeias is the Tordylium offici-
nale,  of  Linnaeus.  The seeds  ore said  to be  diu-
retic.
  Seseli massiliense.  See Seseli tortuosum.
  Seseli tortuosum.  The systematic name of the
hart-wort of Marseilles.  Seseli masiliense.  The seeds
of this plant ore directed for medicinal use, and have
a warm biting taste, and a greater degree of pungency
than those of the Laserpitium.
  SESQ.UI.   This word,  joined with  any number,
weight, measure, &c. signifies one integer and a half;
as sesqui granum, a grain and a half.
  SESSILIS.  (Sessilis, thotsitteth, as it were.)   Ses-
sile.  This term is applied to many  poru of plants, as
flowers, leaves, and paru of the fructification, and im-
plies  that they are  without footstalk, flowerstalk, or
what often supports them :  hence, flores sessilis, as in
Centaurea calciptropo; folia sessilia, as in Pinguicula
vulgaris; stigma sessile, Tuiipagesneriana, &c.
  SETA.  (Seta, oi. f.; from xa^ra, a bristle.)  A. The
fruitstolk of mosses, which is either solitary, aggregate,
terminal, axillary, or lateral.
  B.  A bristle, as applied in botanical language to a
hollow, rigid, sharp-pointed pubescence, which either
wounds the finger when it is pressed upon it, or gives
 a very harsh scobrous, or prickly chorocter to the sur-
 face of the  stem, or of the leaves when the finger is
rubbed over them.
   Bristles ore often arranged into aculei in elementary
works, but they have  more affinity to hairs.  They
 are simple and compound.
   1. Seta simplices ate of two kinds, awl-shaped and
 spindle-shaped.
   a.  The subulate is the most common of the simple
 bristles -, it is slightly curved, and  gradually  tapering
 from the bose to the  apex, which is rigid and  very
 sharp.  These bristles, when they all incline in the
 same direction, produce the scabrous character of some
 leaves, as in symphitum orientate.  A variety of the
 owl-shoped bristle, found on the  stem ond branches of
 the sensitive plant, is barbed on its sides; and another
 variety, os  exemplified  on the leaves of  the  Bo-
 rago officinalis, is  seated on a vesicular tubercle con-
 taining  a fluid, which is ejected  through the bristle
 when it is compressed, so os to wound the finger, and
 which being left in the wound excites inflammation
 in the part.  But the sting of the nettle is the best ex-
 ample of this form of bristle.
   o. The fusiform is, as its name implies, thickest in
 tbe centre, and accumulated at each end.  It lies pa-
 rallel to the surfoce ofthe Ieof, to which it is affixed by
 a very smoll footstalk, is hollow, and contains a co-
 loured liquid, which apparently enters it through the
 footstalk.   This form of bristle to peculiar to tlie genus
  Malphigia.           __
   2. Seta composita.  These are almost always solid.
  The term comprehends two species of bristles, furcata
  and fasciculata.                          ....
    a. The forked are,  in some instances,  merely rigid
  hair-like bodies terminating in two or three diverging
  poinu, as in Thrincia hispido:  but in other instonces,
  as Ihe stems ond leaves of the  hop plant, the stalk of
  the bristle, wliich to supported on a firm cellular tubercle,
  is very short, and its forking extremities resemble two
flattlsh, awl-shaped bristles, pointing in opposite dine-
tions.
  b. The fasciculated  consist of a number of simple,
straight bristles, diverging from a papillary knob; as in
Cactus flagilliformis.
  There to still another species of pubescence which
cannot properly be arranged with the pilus or seta: it
is found on a species of house-leek, extending like a
very fine thread, stretching from the tip of  one leaf to
thot of onother, and resembling so exactly a spider's
web, that the plant has been  named Arachnotdeum.—
Thompson.
  Bristles are also distinguished into erect, as in Leon-
todon hirtum ;  hamose, as in the pericarp of the Arcli
cum lappa; stellate and plumose.  The bristles of
plants have received other denominations.
  1.  Striga, that voriety of the subulate which to seen
in Borago officinalis.
  2.' Hamus, thot which is hooked at iu extremity ;  as
in Galium aperine, Caucalis daucoides, Sec.
  3.  Glochis when several sharp tooth-like  processes
are turned back from the apex of the bristle.
  5.  Arista, a long bristle proceeding from the husk of
grasses; as in Hordeum vulgare.
  SETACEUM.  (From seta, a bristle; because horse-
hairs were first used to keep open the wound.)  A se
ton.  See Seton.
  SETACEUS.  Bristly.  Applied to ihe  petals  of
Trapreolum majus.
  SETIFORMIS.  Setiform: bristly.  Applied to tha
nectory, as thot of Ihe Periploea graca.
  SETON.  Setacsum.  An  artificial ulcer made un-
der  the skin by means  of an instrument called thsl
seton needle, which carries with it a portion  of thread
or silk, that is moved backwards or forwards, and thus
keeps up a constant irritation.
  SETOSUS.  Setose: brftly ; applied to  the recepta-
cle of theEchynopssphaeioccphalus,ondof Centaurea.
  SETTERWORT.  See Heileborous fatidus.
  SEVERINUS, Marcus  Auwelius, was bom in
Calabria, in 1580.  He graduated at  Naples,  where he
became one of  the most celebrated professors in anato-
my and surgery.  He was, however, somewhat harsh
in his practice; and  in hto work, "De Efficaci Medi-
cina," condemned his contemporaries for neglecting tha
use of the cautery, and  of the knife, as practised by
the oncienu.  He  died  in 1656.  Many  publications
were written by him, evincing much boldness and ori-
ginality of thought, but  too great attachment to para-
dox.  Hto treatise on abscesses, in eight books, paso«d
through many  editions.  He  paid considerable atten-
tion to comparotive anotomy, on which subject sorm
of his works are composed.
  SE'VUM.  Suet.  See Fat.
  Sevum ceti. See Physeter macrocephalus.
  Sevum o vile.   Sevum ovillum.  Mutton suet.
  SEXUAL.   Appertaining  to the sexes.
  Sexual actions.   Sexual  functions.  Those fun
tlons proper to  each sex, by which the species is pr«
 pagated, as the excretion of  semen in  men; menstr*
ation, conception, the evolution of the fcetus, partus
tion, &c. in women.
  Sexual oroans.  See Generation, organs of, Sta
men, and Pistillum.
   Sexual system.  See Plants.
   SEYDSCHUTZ.  See Scdlitz.
   [SHAD.  See Clupea alosa.  A.]
   SH A DDOCK.   A variety of orange
   SHALLOT.  A species of allium.
   SHARP. 1. See Acutus.
   2. Samuel, an able and distinguished surgeon in tne
 middle of the last century, was a pupil of Cheselden,
 and afterward studied with great zeal at Paris.  He is
 said to have commenced bis profession rother lote in
 life; nevertheless, offer settling in London, ond becom-
 ing surgeon to  Guy's hospital, hto genius and assiduity
 soon procured him great celebrity and extensive prac-
 tice. He wos  elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
 and a Member of the Academy of Surgery at Paris
 He  contributed to the improvement of his art by two
 valuable publications, which passed through many edi
 tions, and were translated  into several  foreign lan-
 guages.  The  first of these, was a "Treatise on the
  Operations of  Surgery," with an Introduction on the
  Nature  and Treatment of Wounds, &c. The other
  work was entitled "A Critical Inquiry into the  pre-
|  sent State of Surgery," first printed In 1750. 
SIG
SIL
  Sharp-pointed dock.  See Rumex acutus.
  811AW, Peter, a physicionof considerable reputa-
tion in  the early part of the lost  century.  His firsl
publication wos entitled " New Proctice of Physic," in
two  volumes, I72li, contoining o brief Description of
Diseases, and their Treatment   He then published an
• Inquiry  into  the Virtues of the Scarborough Spa
Waters;" and about the some  time hto "Chemical
Lectures," which was  deemed a scientific work, and
translated into French.  He also  edited the Edinburgh
Dispensatory ; and gave to the world some other minor
publications.
  SHEATH. See Vagina ; and Spatha.
  Sheathing leaves.   See  Vaginans
  Shcdding-teeth.   The primary or milk-teeth.  See
Teeth.
  SHELL.  See Testa preparala.
  SHERBET.  A compound liquor prepared for punch
before the spirit is added.
  SHINGLES.   See Erysipelas.
  Shistus, argillaceous.  Clay-slate.
  SHRUB.  1.  A low bushy tree.
  2.  A spirituous liquor  composed of the juice  of
oranges, mixed with brandy and ruin.
  SI'AGON. •Ziavtov.  The  jaw.
  Siaoona'ora.  (From aiayiav,  the jaw, and aypa, a
seizure.)   The gout in the jaw.
  SIALAGOGUE.  (Sialagogus;  from oiaXov, sali-
■•a, ond ayia, to expel.)  Those medicines ore so called,
vhich  excite on uncommon flow of saliva:  such  are
nercurial preparations, pyrethrum, &c.   They  ore
divided into sialagoga lopica, as scilla, nicotiana, pi-
per, Sec.; and sialagoga  interna, os  the various pre-
parations of mercury.
  S1BBENS. A disease resembling syphilis.
  SIBERITE.  Red  tourmaline.
  Sicca'ntia. (From *('cco, to dry.) Drying medicines.
  Siccha'sia.  (From o-iicptoc, weak, weary.)  An un-
pleasant lassitude and debility peculiar to women with
child.
  Si'cula.  (Dim. of *i'ca, a  short sword: so  called
from its dagger-like root.)  The beet.
   Sictb'don.   (Prom oikvos,  a cucumber.)  A trans-
verse fracture like a cucumber broken in two parts.
  Sicyo'ne.  (From oikvos, a  cucumber or gourd: so
named from iu  resemblance lo a gourd.)   A cucurbit
  SIDERA'TIO.   (From sidus, a planet;  because
it was thought to be produced by the influence of  the
planeu.)   An apoplexy; a blast; a slight erysipelas.
  SIDE'RIUM.  (From oiSnpos,  iron.)   An  herb  so
called from iu  supposed virtues in healing  wounds
made by  iron instrumenu.
  SIDERUM.  Phosphuret of iron.
  SIENITE. Syenite.  A compound granular aggre-
gated rock, composed of felspar and  hornblende, and
sometimes quartz and black mica.  The hornblende to
the characteristic ingredient,  and distinguishes it per-
fectly from granite, with which it is often confounded;
but the felspar,  which is  almost  always red, ond sel-
dom inclines to green, forms  the most abundant and
essenliol ingredient of the rock.  Some varieties con-
lain a very considerable portion  of quartz and mica,
but  little  hornblende.  This is particularly the case
with the Egyptian varieties, and  hence these are often
confounded wilh real granite.
   SIGESBE'CKIA.  (So named  by Linnams himself,
in memory of  bis antagonist, Dr. J. G.  Siegesbeck,
Superintendent of the Physic  Garden ot Petersburgh,
who raised various  objections against the sexes  of
plants.)  The name of a genus of plants, Class, Syn-
genesia ; Order, Polygamia superflua.
   Sioesbeckia orientalis.  The systematic name
of a plant which is said to be useful in removing
Btrongury, and  in calculous diseases, gout, and fluor
albus.
   SIGHT.  See Vision.
   Sigilla'ta terra.  Sealed earth; a species of  bo-
lar earth made  into cakes.
   SIGI'LLUM. (Diminutive of signum, a sign.)
   Sigillum BEAT.E mari.c.  Block briony, or Tamus
communis.
   Sioillum hermeticum.   An  hermetic  seol,  made
by closing the end of a glass lube by melting  it
   Sioillum solomoms.  (Called Solomon's seal, be
cause it  hos upon iu root the n-semblance of an  im-
pression  made  by a  seal;   i?.-t Convallaria poly go
natum.
       286
  SIGMOID.   (Sigmoides;  from  the  Greek  letter
aiypa, anciently written C, and nios, a likeness.)  Re-
sembling the Greek letter aigma.   Applied to several
ports, as the valves of the heart, the cartilages of the
trachea, the semilunar apophysis of llie bones, and the
flexure or turn of the colon.
  Siqmoide'a  flexura.  Thosigmoidflc.\ure,orturn
of the colon.
  Siomoi'des processus.  Valves of the heart.
  Siona  critica.  Signs of the crisis of disease.
  Siona diaunostica.  Diagnostic or distinguishing
signs.
  SIGNUM.   A sign: applied to symptoms.   Se«
Semiotice.
  Siler montanum.  Common hartwort  See  La-
serpitium siler.
  [Silex, resinite.   See Halb-opal.  A.]
  SILICA. (Selag,  Hebrew.)   Silex.  One of the
primitive earths is  the principal constituent port of a
very great number  of the compound earths and stones
forming Ihe immense mass of the solid nucleus of the
globe.  It is the basis of almost all the scintillating
stones, such as flint, rock crystal, quartz, agate, calce-
dony,jasper, Sec.   The sand of rivers, and of the sea-
shore, chiefly consist of it.  It is deposited in vegetable
substances forming petrified wood, &c.  It is likewise
precipitated from certain springs In  a slalactical form.
It has been discovered in several waters in a state of
solution, and to found in many planu, particularly
grosses ond equisetums.  Professor Davy has proved
thot  it forms a partof the epidermis of these vegeta-
bles.  It to never met with absolutely pure in nature.
  Properties.—Silica, when  perfectly pure, exists in
tlie form of a white powder.   It to insipid nnd inodo-
rous.  It is rough to the touch, cuts glass, and scratches
or wears away metals.   Iu specific gravity is about
2.66. It is unallernh'e by the simple combustible bodies.
When mixed with  water it does not form a cohesive
mass.  Iu molecule, when diffused  in water, are pre-
cipitated with the utmost facility.  It is not octed on
by any ocid, except the fluoric.  When  in a  state of
extreme division it to soluble in alkalies; fused with
them it forms gloss.  It melts with the phosphoric and
boracic acids.  It is unchangeable in the air, and unal-
terable by oxygen and the rest of the gaseous fluids. It
has been considered as insoluble in water, but it ap-
pears when in a state of extreme division to be soluble
in a minute quantity.
  Method of obtaining Silex.—Silex moy be obtained,
tolerably pure, from flinu, by the following process:
Procure some  common gun-flints; expose them  in  a
crucible to a red heat, and then  plunge them into cold
water; by this treatment they will become brittle, and
eosily reducible to  powder.  Mix them, when pulve-
rized, with  three or four times their weight of carbo-
nate of potassa, ond let the mixture be fused, in a dull
red heat, in a silver crucible.   We shall thus obtain a
compound of alkali and  silex, called silicious potassa.
Dissolve  this compound in  water, filter the solution,
and add to  it dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid.  An
immediate  precipitation now  ensues, ond as  long a*
this continues, add  fresh portions of acid.   Let the pre-
cipitate subside; pour off' the fluid that floats oboveit;
ond wosh ihe precipitate  with hot  water till it comes
off tasteless.  This powder when dry is silica.
  In thto process the acid, added to ihe solution of flint
unites to the potassa, and forms sulphate or mm iote of
potassa ; the silicious earth is therefore precipitated.
  It is necessary to  odd on excess of  acid, in order that
all the foreign earths which are present may be sepa-
rated.
  If the solution of flinu be diluted with a great quan-
tity of water, as for instance, in the proportion of 21
ports lo one, and in this state an acid be poured upon
It, no perceptible  precipitation  will ensue; the silex
continues suspended in the fluid, and is invisible on
account of  iu  transparency; hut it  may be made '.o
appear by evaporating partof the water.
  The solution of flint, on account of iu affinity with
the carbonic acid, is also in course of time decomposed
by mere contact with air.
  Another method  of obtaining silica exceedingly pure
is to separate it from fluoric acid.  In consequence of
Sir H. Davy's  researches on the metallic bases of the
alkalies and earths, this earth has  been recently re-
garded as a compound of o peculiar combustible prin
ciple willi oxygen.   If we ignite powdered quartz *vith 
SIL
SIL
three parts of pure potassa in a silver crucible, dissolve
the fused compound in water, add  to the solution a |
quantity of acid, equivalent to saturate the alkali, and i
evaporate to dryness, we shall obtain a fine gritty pow-
der, which being well  wueiied with hot woter,  and
ignited, will leave pure silica.  By passing the vapour
of potassium over silica in an ignited tube, Sir H. Davy
obtained a dark-coloured powder, whicli  apparently
contained silicon, or silicium,  the basis of the earth.
Like boron and carbon, it is capable of sustaining a
high temperature wilhout suffering any change.
  SILICON.  The base of silica.
  SILICULA.  A  pouch,  or  pod,  that u  Scarcely
longer than it is broad.  It is,
  1. Orbiculate, in  Thlaspi arvense.
  2. Cordate, in Isatis armena.
  3. Obcordate, in  Thlaspi bursa partoris, alpestre,
and Myagrum perfoliatum.
  4. Lanceolate, in Lepedium alpinum, and Isatis
tinctoria.
  5. Angulate, in Myagrum agyptiacum.
  6. Emarginate, in Alyssum, and Cochlearia.
  7. Drupaceous,  if the membrane is  double,  soft
externally, and hard  within; as  in Erucago  and
Bunias.
  SILIGO.  "LtXiyvts-   Fine wheat or rye.
  SI'LICIUA.   (From silo, a nose turned up, a hooked
nose.)   A long, dry, membranaceous pericarpium, or
seed-vessel, of two valves, separated by a linear recep-
tacle, along the edges of each of which, the seeds are
arranged alternately.  The dissepiment  is a partition
dividing a siliqua and silicula into two loculaments, or
cells.  Botanists distinguish,
  1. The round pod iu Fumaria lutea, and Cheiran-
thus tricus pidatus.
  2 The compressed, with level valves, in Cheiranthus
annuus.
  3. The four-edged, in Erysimum ;  Cheiranthus ery-
simoides, and Brassica orientalis.
  4. Articulate, in  Raphanus raphanistrum.
  5. The tortulose, which lias elevated nodes here and
there, in Raphanus sativus.
  6. Rostr' 'c, having tbe partition very  prominent at
the apex; .s in Sinapis alba.
  Siliqua dulcis. See Ceratonia siliqua.
  Siliqua hirsuta.  See Dolichos pruriens.
  Silujua'strum.   (From  siliqua, a  pod:  named
from its pods.) Judas-tree  The Capsicum, or Guinea-
pepper, was so termed by Pliny.  See Capsicum.
   SlLlQ-UO'SiE.   (From siliqua, a pod.)  Crucifor-
mis.   The name of an order of planu  iu Linnaeus's
Fragmenu of a Natural Method,  consisting of such as
have a siliqua or  silicula, the flower tetrodynamous
and cruciate.
   Soliquosa indica.   An American plant;  iu  juice
 lsalexipharmic.
   SILK-WORM.  See Bombyx.
   Silk-worm, acid  of.   See Bombic acid.
   Si'lpiuum.   (Zalaph, Arabian.)   Asafoetida, or the
 plant which affords it
   SILVER.  Argentum.  This  metol  is found  both
 native ond mineralized, ond combined with leod, cop-
 per,  mercury, cobalt,  sulphur,  arsenic, Sec.   The
 principal ores of this metal are the following: Native
 silver; antimeniated  silver; sulphuret  of silver;
 sulphuretted oxide of silver ond antimony; muriate of
 silver; native oxide, of silver, Sec  It to found in dif-
 ferent poru  of the earth.  The mines  of the Erzge-
 biirge or the  metalliferous rocks of Mexico and Potosi,
 Bohemia, Norway, Transylvania, &x. ore the richest.
    JValiue silver possesses all the  properties of this
 metal, and il appears in series of octahedra inserted in
 one  another;  in  small capillary flexible threads in-
 twined together;  in plates; or in masses.  The colour
 of native silver to white, often tarnished. Silver al-
 loyed v/ith gold forms the auriferous native silver ore.
 The colour  of this ore is a yellowish wiiite. It has
 much  metallic lustre.  The  anlimoniated silver ore
 belongs to this class.   Silver, combined with sulphur,
 forms the sulphuretted oxide of silver, or vitreous
 silver ore.   This ore occurs in  masses, sometimes  in
 threods and sometimes crystallized in cubes or regular
 octahedra   Its colour is dark bluish gray, inclined  to
 block.  Iu fracture is  uneven, and  its lustre  metallic.
 It is soflenough to he cut with a knife.   It is .sometimes
 found alloyed with antimony (gray silver ore).   Silver
 united with muriatic acid fotnisthe corneous silver ore
(muriate of silver), which appears under different
colours and shapes.  Silver united to oxygen consti-
tutes the calif orm silver ore, of which there are several
varieties.  The colour  of these ores is a lead gray, or
gray ish black.  They occur massive, disseminated, and
crystallized.
  Germany, and other countries of Europe, but more
especially Peru ond Mexico  in South America, contain
the principal silver mines.  There are, however, silver
mines in Ireland,  Norway, France, and many other
paru in the world.
  Method of obtaining silver.—Different methods are
employed in different countries to extract silver from
its ores.  In Mexico, Peru, Sec. the mineral is pounded,
roosted, washed, ond then triturated with  mercury
in vessels filled with water.  A mill to employed to
keep the whole in agitation. The silver combines by
that means wilh the mercury.  The alloy thus obtained
is afterword washed, to separate  any foreign motlera
from it,  ond then strained and pressed through leather
This being done, heat is applied to drive off the mer-
cury from the silver, which  to then melted and cast into
bars or ingots.
  In order to  extract silver from  sulphuretted or vit-
reous silver ore, the mineral is roasted, and then melted
wilh lead and borax, or some other flux  to assist the
fusion.   By the first operation the sulphur to volatilized,
and by the second the  silver is obtained, though for
the most part alloyed wilh other metals, from wliich
it is separated by cupellation,  or fusion with lead or
bismuth.
  "Silver is  the whitest of all  metals,  considerably
harder than gold, very ductile and malleable, but less
malleable than gold ; for the  continuity of its  parts
begins to break when it is hammered out into leaves
of about the hundrea and sixty thousandth of on inch
thick, which is more thon one-third thicker than gold
leaf; in this state  it does not transmit the  light. Its
specific  gravity to from  10.4 to  10.5.   It ignites be
fore melting, and requires a strong heat to fuse it.  The
heat of common furnaces is insufficient to oxidize it;
but  the heat of  the most powerful  burning lenses
vitrifies a portion of it, ond causes it to emit fumes <
whicli when  received on a plate of gold, are found te>
be  silver in the metallic state.   It has likewise been
partly oxidized by twenty successive exposures to the
heat of the porcelain furnace at Sevres.  By passiug a
strong electric shock through a silver wire, it may be
converted into o black oxide; ond by a powerful ga.-
vauic battery, silver leaf may be made to burn with  a
beautiful green light.   Lavoisier oxidized  it by the
blow-pipe  and oxygen gas;  and a fine silver wire
burns  in the kindled  united  stream of oxygen and
hydrogen gases.  The air alters it very little, though it
is  disposed to obtain a  thin purple or black coating
from the sulphureous vapours which are emitted from
animal  substances, drains, or  putrifying  matters.
This coating, after a long series of years, has been ob-
served  to scale off from images of silver exposed in
churches:  and wos found, ou examination, to consist
of silver united with sulphur.
   There seems to  be only one oxide of silver, which is
formed  either by  intense ignition in an open vessel,
 when an olive-coloured glass is obtained ; or by adding
 a solution of caustic barytes to one of the nitrate of
silver, and heating the precipitate to dull  redness. Sir
 H. Davy found that 100 of silver combined with 7.3 of
oxygen  in the above oxide ; and if we suppose it to
 consist of a prime equivalent  of each  constituent, we
shall have 13.7 for the  prime of silver.  Silver leaf
 burned with a voltaic battery, affords the same  olive-
coloured oxide.
   Silver combines with chlorine, when the metal is
 heoted in contoct with the gos.  This chloride is, how-
 ever,  usually  prepared  by adding muriatic  acid  or
 a muriate, to nitrate of silver.  It has been long known
 by the name of luna-cornea,  or horn silver, because
 though a white  powder,  as  it  foils down from the
 nitrate solution, it fuses at a moderate heat, ond forms
 a horny-looking substance when it cools.   It consiste
 of 13.875 silver + 4.5 chlorine.
   The sulphuret  of silver is a  brittle substance, of a
  black colour and metallic lustre.  It is formed by heat-
  ing to redness thin plates  of silver stratified with su.-
  phnr.   Il consists of 13.875 silver + 2 sulphur.
    Silver to soluble in the sulphuric acid when concen-
  trated and boiling, and the mctai in a state of division,
                                          265 
SIL
SIN
   The muriatic acid docs not act upon It, but the nitrie
 acid, if somewhat diluted, dissolves it with great ra-
 pidity, and with a plentiful disengagement ol  nitrous
 gas; which, during its extrication, gives a blue or green
 eolour to the acid, and entirely disappears if the silver
 made use  of be pure; if it contain copper, the solu-
 tion remains greenish; and if the acid contain either
 sulphuric or muriatic ocid, these combine with a por-
 tion of the silver, and form scarcely soluble compounds,
 which fafl  to the  bottom.  If the silver contain gold,
 thto metal separates in blackish-coloured flocks.
   The nitric acid  dissolves mure than half its  weight
 of silver;  and the solution is very caustic, that is to
 soy, it destroys and corrodes animal substances very
 powerfully.
   The solution of silver, when fully saturated, deposites
 thin  crystals as   it cools,  ond also by evaporation.
 These are called lunar nitre, or nitrate of silver.   A
 gentle heat to sufficient to fuse them, and drive off' their
 waterof crystallization.  In thto situation the nitrate,
 or rather subnitrote, for the heat drives  off port of the
 acid, is of a black colour, may be cost into small sticks
 in a mould, and  then forms  the lapis infernahs, or
 lunar caustic used  in surgery.  A stronger heat decom-
 poses nitrate of silver, the ocid flying off, and the silver
 remaining pure.  It is obvious that, for  the purpose of
 forming the lunar caustic, it is not necessary to suffer
 the salt to crystallize, but that it may be made by eva-
 porating the solution of silver at once to dryness; and
 as soon as the salt to fused, and ceases to boil, it  moy be
 poured out.   The nitric ocid driven off from nitrate of
 silver to decomposed, the producte being oxygen and
 nitrogen.
  The sulphate of silver, which to formed by pouring
 sulphuric acid  into the nitric solution of silver, is
 sparingly soluble in water:  and on this account forms
 crystals, which ore so small, that they compose a white
 powder.  The muriatic ocid precipitates from nitric
 acid the saline compound called luna-cornea, or horn-
silver; which  has  been  so  distinguished, because,
when melted and  cooled, it forms a  semitransparent
 and partly flexible moss, resembling  horn.   It is sup-
 posed that a preparation of this kind has given rise to
 tlie accounu of malleable glass. This effect takes place
 with aqua regia,  which acu  strongly  on silver,  but
 precipitates  it in the form  of muriate,  as fast  as it is
dissolved.
  If any salt with base of alkali, containing the muriatic
 acid, be added to the nitric solution of silver, the some
 effect tokes place by double affinity; the alkaline base
 uniting with the nitric ocid, and the silver falling down
in combination with the muriatic acid.
  Sulphur combines very easily with  silver,  if thin
plates imbedded in it, be exposed to a heat sufficient to
melt the sulphur.   The sulphuret is of a deep violet
colour, approaching to black, with a degree of metallic
 lustre, opake, brittle, and soft.  It to more fusible than
silver, and thto in proportion to the quantity of sulphur
combined  with it   A strong heat expels part  of  the
 sul|ihur.
  Sulphuretted hydrogen soon tarnishes the surface of
polished silver, and forms  on it a thin layer  of sul-
phuret
  The alkaline sulphurets combine with  it by heat, and
 form a com|K>und, soluble in water. Acids precipitate
sulphuret of silver from this solution.
  Phosphorus left in a nitric solution of silver, becomes
covered with the metal in  a dendritic form.  By boil-
 ing thto becomes first  white, then a light block  moss,
 and is ultimately converted into a light brown phos-
 phuret  The best method of forming a phosphuret of
silver is  Pelletier's, wliich consisu in mixing phos-
 phoric acid and charcoal with the metal, and exposing
 tbe mixture to beat.
   Most metallic substances  precipitate silver  in tbe
 metallic slate from iu solution.
  Silver unites with gold by fusion, ond forms a pale
 alloy, as hos been already mentioned in treating of that
 metal.  Wilh phuina it forms a hard mixture, rather
 yellower than silver itself, and of difficult fusion.
   Silver very readily combines with mercury.  A very
 sensible degree of  heat to produced, when  silver leaf
 and mercury are kneaded together in the po'w  of the
 hand.  With leod it forms n soft mass, less sonorous
 than pure silver.  Witb copper it becomes harder and
 more sonorous, at  the same time lhat it remains suf-
 ficiently ductile: this mixture  to used in the British
      an
 coinage.  12$ parts of silver, alloyed with one of cop
 per, form the compound called standard silver.  The
 mixture of silver and iron has been little examined.
 With tin It forms a compound, which, like that of gold
 with the same metal, has been said to be brittle, how-
 ever small the proportion;  though there to probably as
 little foundation for the assertion in the one ease as in
 the other.   Wilh bismuth, arsenic, zinc, and antimony,
 it forms brittle  compounds.  It does not  unite with
 nickel. The compound of silver nnd tungsten, in the
 proportion of two ofthe former to one of Ihe latter, was
 extended under the hammer during a few strokes;  but
 afterward split in pieces.
   The uses of silver  are well known:  it is chiefly ap-
 plied lo the forming  of various utensils  for domestic
 use, and as the medium of exchange in money.  Iu
 disposition to assume a block colour by tarnishing, and
 its softness, appear to be the chief objection to its use
 iu the construction of graduated instruments for astro-
 nomical and  other purposes, in which a good  white
 metal  would he a desirable acquisition.  The nitrate
 of silver, besides its  great use as a caustic, has been
 employed as a medicine."
   SILVER-WEED.  See Potsntilla anserina.
   SIMAROU'BA.  (A patronymic name of America.)
 See Quassia simarouba.
   Si'mije lapis.  See Bezoar simia.
   Simple affinity.  See Affinity simple.
   Simple attraction.  See Affinity simple.
   Simple leaf.  See Leaf.
   Simple substance.  See Element.
   S'IMPLEX.  Simple:  applied  very  generally  In
 every department of nature to designate that which is
 not compound.
   Simplex oculus.   A bandage for the eye.
   SINAPE.   See Sinapis.
   SINAPELAil'UM.   (From crivam,  mustard,  and
 tXaiov, oil.)  Oil of mustard.
   SINATI.  See Sinapis.
   SINA'PIS. (On oivtt rovs tairas, because it  hurts
 the eyes.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linnaean system.  Class, Tetradynamia; Order, Sili-
 quosa.  Mustard.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the black mustard
 See  Sinapis nigra.
   Sinapis alba.  The systematic name of tbe white
 mustard plant, which is directed for  medicinal use in tha
 Edinburgh pharmacopoeia.   It to somewhat less pun-
 gent than the black species. See Sinapis nigra.
   Sinapis nigra.  The systematic name of the com-
 mon black  mustard.  Napus; Eruca;  Sinape;  Si-
 napi.   Common black  mustard.   Sinapis—siliquis
 glabris racemo appressis, of Linnaeus.  The seeds of
 this species of mustard, which are directed by the Lon-
 don College, and those of the Sinapis alba, which are
 preferred by that of  Edinburgh, manifest  no remark-
 able difference to the taste, nor in their effects, and
 therefore, answer equally well for  medicinal and culi
 nary purposes.  They have an acrid pungent taste
 and, when  bruised, this pungency shows its volatility
 by powerfully affecting tiie organs  of smell. Mustard
 is considered as capable of promoting appetite, assist
 ing digestion, attenuating viscid juices,  and, by stimu
 lating ihe fibres, it proves a general  remedy iu paralytic
 affections.   Joined to iu stimulant  qualities, it fre-
 quently, if taken in  considerable quantity, opens the
 body, and increases the urinary discharge, and hence il
 has been found useful in dropsical complaints.  Exter-
 nally, flower of mustard is frequently used mixed with
 vinegar, us a stimulant or sinapism.
  S1NAP1SMUS.  Sinapismum;  Cataplasma sina-
pios.   A sinopism or mustard poultice.  A term given
 to a mixture of mustard and vinegar in form of poultice
 generally applied to the calves ofthe legs, or soles ofthe
 feet, as a stimulant, and employed in low slates  of
 fevers  and  other diseases, nnd  intended to supercede
 the use of a  blister.  See Cataplasma sinapis.
  SINA'PIUM.   (From oivam, mustard.)  An in
 fusion or decoction of mustard-seed.
  SINCIPUT.  The forepart of the head. See Caput.
  SI'NE PABI.  Several  muscles, veins, arteries'
 tec. are so called which are without a fellow. See
 Azygos.
  Single elective attraction.  See Affinity simple.
  SINGULTUS.  Lygmos.  The hiccough.  A con-
 vulsive  motion of the diaphragm and parte adjacent
  SINUATUS.   Sinuated: applied  to leave* which 
S1U
SKI
are cut into rounded or wide openings; as in Statice
itnuata.
  SI'NUS.  1. A cavity or depression.
  2.  In surgery it means a long, narrow, hollow track,
leading from some abscess, diseased bone, tec
  3.  The veins of the dura mater are termed sinuses.
They are several  in number, the principal of which ore,
1.  The longitudinal  sinus, which rises  anteriorly
from the crista galli, ascends and passes  between the
two  lamina: of the falciform process to v. here this pro-
cess  ends.   It then opens into, 2. Two lateral sinuses,
distinguished into right and left, which lie in the cru-
cial spine of tiie  os occipitis: 3. The inferior longitu-
dinal, wliich is o small sinus situated at the acute in-
ferior margin of  the falx.
  Sinus coxm.  The acetabulums.
  Sinus genje tituitarius.  See Antrum of High-
more.
  Sinus lateral.  See Lateral sinuses.
  Sinus longitudinalis.  See Longitudinal sinus.
  Sinus maxillaris.  See Antrum of Highmore.
  Sinus muliebris.  The vagina.
  Sinus vena: portarum.  The entrance into the
liver.
  Si'philis.  See Syphilis.
  SIPHONIA.  (From oitbtav, a pipe; alluding to the
uses made of the exudation of the tree, called Indian
rubber.)   The name of a genus of plante in the Lin-
naaii system.  Class, Monada ; Order, Monadelphia.
  Siphonia elastica.  Tlie systematic name  of the
elastic resin-tree. See Caoutchouc.
  SIRI'ASIS.  (From a«po$, a cavity.) An inflamma-
tion of the  brain peculiar to children, and attended
with a hollowness of the eyes and depression  of the
fontanello.
  Si'rium  myrtifolium. The systematic  name  of
the tree which is supposed by some to afford the yellow
sounders.   See Santalum album.
  SI'SARUM.  (Sisa, Hebrew.)  Stoer or skirret. See
Sium sisarum.
  SI'SER.  See Sium sisarum.
  SISON.  (Ziatov- A nome adopted by Dioscorides.)
The name of  a  genus of planU.  Class, Pentandria,
Order, Monogynia.
  Sison ammi.  The  systematic name of the  plant
which affords tbe amnii verum of the shops.  The
seeds of this plant, Sison—foliis tripinnatis, radicali-
bus  linearibus. caulinis setaceis stipularibus longio-
ribus,  of  Linuasus, have a grateful smell, somewhat
like that of origanum, and were formerly administered
as a carminative.
  SISYMBRIUM.   (From oiov6os, fringe: so named
from its fringed rooU.)  The name of a genus of plants
in the Linnaean system. Class, Tetradynamia;  Order,
Siliquosa.
  Sisymbrium nasturtium.  The systematic  name
of the water-cress.   Nasturtium aquaticum ;  Lover
odor alum; Craleva sium; Cressi; Cardamines. Water-
cress.   This indigenous plant, Sisymbrium—siliquis
declinatis,  foliis pinnatis,  foliolis  subcordatis,  of
Linmeus, grows plentifully in brooks and  stagnant
waters.  The leaves have a moderately pungent taste,
emit a quick penetrating smell, like that  of mustard-
seed, but much weaker.  Water-cresses obtain a place
in the Materia  Medica, for their  antiscorbutic quali-
ties, whicli have been long very generally acknowledged
 by physicians.  The most pleasant way of administer-
 ing  them  is in form of a salad.
   Sisymbrium  sophia.  The systematic  name of the
 herb sophia.  Sophiachirurgorum.  Thto plant is now
 almost banished from practice.   It was formerly in high
 estimation in the cure of wounds.  It bas been given
 internally in hysterical affections and uterine hemor-
 rhages, and the  seeds are said to be efficacious in de-
 stroying intestinal worms.
   SlTiOLOGY.  (Sitiologia:  from ai7oc, aliment,
 and Xoyos, a discourse or treatise.)  A doctrine or trea-
 tise on aliment.
   SI'UM.  (From otitu, to move; from iu agitation in
 water.  1.  The name of a genus of planu in the Lin-
 ua;an  system.   Closs, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of the creeping water-
 parsnip.,
   Sium aromaticum.  The amomum u sometimes so
 called.                              ,     ,
   Sium ninsi.  The systematic name of the plant, the
 rool of which is called radix ninsi; Ninzin: Nindsin.
                                        Ccc
This root was long supposed to be the same as ginseng
It now appears, however, to be the produce of this plant
It possesses  similar, though weaker properties, than
ginseng.
  Sium nodiflorum.  The  systematic name  of  the
creeping water-porsnip. Thto plant was admitted into
the London pharmacopoeia in the character of an anti-
scorbutic.  It to not nauseous, and children take it rea-
dily if mixed with milk.
  Sium sisarum. The siser or skirret.  The root of
this plont is eatable, but now out of use, though culti-
vated in the days of Gerarde and Parkinson. Its flavour
to said to be aromatic, with a sweetness not acceptable
to every  palate, and of a flatulent ond indigestible
quality.
  SKELETON.   (Sceletus,  from cKtXXta, to dry.)
Sceleton.   When the bones of ibe  body ore preserved
in their natural situation, ond deprived ofthe flesh, the
assemblage is called a skeleton. See Bone.
  Skeleton, artificial.  The assemblage of all the
bones of  the animal, when hung  in  their  respective
situations by means of wire.   See Bone.
  Skeleton, natural.  A skeleton is so  termed in
opposition to an  artificial one, when the bones are re-
tained in their proper places by means of their natural
ligamenU.
  SKIN.   Atppis-  Pellis; Cutis.  The skin,  though
apparently a simple membrane, is in reality  laminated,
consisting of several subdivisions; the outermost lamina
is termed with us scarf skin, or cuticle; the second has
no English name, to known only to anatomists, and is
called rete mucosnm.  After these two are removed, we
come to, as to commonly thought, the surface of the skin
iuelf.
  When a blister has been applied to the 6kiif of a ne-
gro, if it has not been very stimulating, in twelve hours
after a thin transparent grayish membrane  to  raised,
under wliich we find  a fluid.   Thto membrane is the
cuticle or scarf skin.   When this, with the fluid, is re-
moved, the surface under  them appears black; but if
the buster had been very stimulating, another mem-
brane, in which  this black colour resides, would also
have  been raised with the cuticle.  This is the  rete
mucosum, which is iuelf double, consisting of another
gray transparent  membrane, and of a  black web, very
much resembling the nigrum  pigmentum of the eye.
When this membrane  is removed, the surface of the
true skin (as has hitherto been believed) comes in view,
ond is white, like that of a European.   The rete  mu-
cosum gives the colour to the skin; is black in the Ne-
gro; white,  brown, or yellowish, in the European.  The
reason why  this  membrane is black in  the  Negro, to,
perhaps, that his  body may be better able to defend itself
against ihe sun's rays, and that the heot may be pre-
vented from penetrating.  The intention of a similar
membrane behind the retina in the eye, appears to be
not only lhat of absorbing the superfluous rays of light,
but, like the amalgam behind  the looking-glass, it may
enable the retina lo reflect the rays, in order  to perfect
vision.  It to hot very improbable that some such pur-
pose, os enabling the cuticle to reflect  tbe sun's rays in
those warm climates, where the inhabitants originally
go naked, may be the intention of nature, in giving
them the black membrane.  Perhaps,  too, the circum-
stance ofthe countenance becoming brown, when ex-
 posed io the sun's rays in summer, in our own climate,
may be o process of nature to defend herself against the
access of external beat into the body.
  Both cuticle and rete mucosum send innumerable pro-
cesses into the pores of the true skin.  The 'process of
 tiie rete mucosum is always within that of the  cuticle,
and in contact with the sides of the pore, as formed by
the true skin.  These processes are remarkable in the
cuticle and rete mucosum of the elephant, some of them
are nlmost an inch long; tbe cuticle, or rete mucosum
or a membrane very similar, having the same  proper
 ties with  these,  appears to be also continued into the
inside of the mouth, over the tongue, internal  surface
 of the lungs, oesophagus, stomach, and intestinal tube
 In  most of  the last-named parts, the cuticle, however,
 forms sheaths for villi, and not processes  which line
 pores.  On  viewing the surface of the skin, even with
 tbe naked eye, we find it porous; more so in some places
 thon in others;  and tlie pores are  also larger in  some
 parte than othere.  Some of these pores are ducu of
 sebaceous glands, and others serve not only to transmit
 hairs, but, it is supposed, the greatest part  of the per 
SLL                                              SLL
■plroblo matter iuelf.   Absorption on the skin also, In
all probability, begins on the sides of these pores. They
are  particularly remarkable about the mouth, nose,
palms of tiie hands, soles of the feet, external  ear,
scalp, mons veneris, and around tiie nipple iu women.
   Tbe skin itself was given to man not only for feeling
in a general sense, but for perspiration, absorption, and
particularly for touch, in which he excels oil other  ani-
mals, and which resides principally in the lips of the
fingers.  He  was intended for examining, reasoning,
forming  a judgment, ond  acting accordingly;  he  wos
fitted by  this sense lo examine accurately the properties
of surrounding bodies, not  capable  of being examined
by his other senses.   This, among other reasons,  was
one why he was made  erect, that the point of  his fin-
gers should noi be made  callous, or less sensible, by
walking  on them.
   When  carefully dissected off and separated from oil
adventitious  matter  in a  middle-sized man, the skin
weighs about four pounds  and a half.
   The skin of human bodies is always of a white colour,
in the dead body, let the colour ofthe rete mucosum be
what it  may ;  it is extremely full of pores, and  ex-
tremely vascular; a child in full vigour comes Into the
world from lliis circumstance, scarlet; it is endowed
with  intense  sensibility.  Almost all the pain, in the
different  operations of surgery, is past when we have
divided the skin.  Some parts of the skin have more
feeling than  others;  the lips, for example, as Haller
says,  " ad basia destinata."  The glans clitoridis,  and
the glans penis, with a similar intention; there, though
the nerves are not so large  as in some other parts, they
are longer, more numerous,  and  endowed with more
exquisite feeling;  but where the common offices of life
merely are intended, the marks of superior feeling or
touch, in the skin, are the  projections, above the com-
mon  surface, of those pockeu of  arteries, veins,  and
absorbenu, called villi.  The nerves are there not only
also longer, but larger, as in the poinU of tiie fingers  and
toes.
   We are not certain thot the skin to muscular, but it
has properties very like those of  muscle; it contracts,
relaxes, and even vibrates in some places, on  certain
occasions.  It to extremely distensible; the skin of  the
 Jierinaum lias stretched in labour from a quarter of an
 nch to six inches.  It is also extremely elastic, and in-
stantly after labour has returned again to the original
quarter of on inch; It to thickest on those parte intend-
ed by nature to bear weight or pressure;  of course  it to
thickest on the back, on the soles of the feet, nnd palms
of ihe honds.   It is thinner on the forepart of the body,
on the insides of the arms and legs, and where its  sur-
faces touch opposite surfaces.  It is extremely thin on
the lips, and allows  the colour of the blood lo shine
through it. It is also extremely thin on the glans penis
in men,  glans  tlttoridis in women, and on the inside
of the labia pudendi.   Skin dried and dressed is ex-
tremely strong and durable, and therefore employed in
making harness for horses, clothing for men, and a va-
riety of other purposes.
   Skin, scarf.  See Cuticle, and  Skin.
   SKINK.  See Scincus.
   SKORODITE.  An  arsenate of iron, without cop-
per, of a green colour, found in quortz and hornstone
in primitive rocks in Saxony.
   SKULL.  Cranium.  The skull, or thot bony  box
which contains the brain.  It forms the  forehead,  and
every part of the head, except the face.  It consisu of
eight bones, nnnicly, one os frontis, one os occipitis, one
os sphenoides, one os ethmoidcum, two ossa tempora-
lis, and two ossa parietalia.
   [Skunk cabbage.  See Dracontium.   A.]
   Slaters. See Qjiiscus asellus.
   SLEEP.  Somnus.  Tbat state of the body In wbich
the internal and external senses and voluntary motions
are not exercised.  The end ond design of sleep to both
to renew, during the silence ond  dorkness ofthe night,
the vital energy which  has been exhausted through the
day,  and to assist nutrition.
   " When the time of  being awake has continued for
sixteen or eighteen hours, we have a general feeling of
fatigue and weakness; our motions become more diffi-
cult, our senses lose their Activity, the mind becomes
confused, receives sensations indistinctly, and governs
muscular contraction  with  difficulty.  We recognise,
by those signs, the necessity of sleep ; we choose such
a position as can be preserved with  little  effort;  we
       290
 seek obscurity and silence, and sink  Into tlie arnii of
 oblivion.
   The man who slumbers loses successively the use of
 hto senses.  The sight first ceases to act by the closing
 of the eyelids, the smell becomes dormant only ofter
 the taste, the hearing after the smell, aud  the  touch
 after  the hearing:  the muscles of the limbs,  being
 relaxed, cease  to act before those  that  support tlie
 head, and these before those of the spine.   In propor-
 tion os these  phenomena proceed, the respiration be-
 comes slower and more deep; the circulation  dimi-
 nishes ;  the blood proceeds in greater quontlty  to the
 head; animal heat sinks; the different  secretions be-
 come less abundant.  Man,  although plunged in this
 sopor, has not, however, lost llie feeling of hto existence;
 he is conscious of most of the changes that happen in
 him, and which are  not without their charms;  ideas,
 more or less incoherent, succeed each other in his mind;
 he ceases, finally, to be sensible  of existence:  he to
 asleep.
   During sleep, the circulation and respiration are re-
 tarded, as well as the different secretions, and, In conse-
 quence, digestion becomes less rapid.
   I know not on what foundation the most port of au-
 thors say that absorption  alone acquires more energy.
 Since the nutritive functions continue in sleep, it is evi-
 dent thai the brain has ceased to act, only  with regard
 to muscular contraction, and os an organ of Intelligence;
 and that it continues to influence the muscles of respi-
 ration, the heart, the arteries, the  secretions, and nu-
 trition.
   Sleep is profound when  strong excitanU are neces-
 sary to arrest it; it to light when it ceases easily.
   Sleep, such as it  has been described,  is perfect, that
 is, it resulu from the suspension of  the action of the
 relative organs of life, and from the diminution of the
 action of the nutritive functions; but it  to not extraor-
 dinary for some of the relative organs of life lo preserve
 their activity during sleep, as it happens when one sleeps
 standing; it to also frequent for one or moreof the senses
 to remain awake, and transmit the impressions Which
 it perceives to the brain ;  it is still more common for the
 brain to take cognizance of different internal sensations
 that are developed during sleep, as wants, desires, pain,
 &c.  The  understanding itself may be in exercise in
 man during sleep, either in an irregular and Incoherent
 manner, as in most dreams, or in a consequent and re-
 gular manner, as it  happens in some persons  happily
 organized.
   The turn which the  ideas assume during sleep, 01
 the nature of dreams, depends m uch on the state of the
 organs.  If the stomach to overcharged with indigested
 food, the respiration difficult on account of position, or
 other causes,  dreams are painful, fatiguing;  if hunger
 is felt, the person dreams of eating ngreeable food; if
 it is the venereal appetite, the dreams are erotic, &c.
 The character of dreams to no less influenced by ha-
 bitual occupations of the mind ; the ambitious dream
 of success or disappointment, the poet  makes verses,
 the lover sees his mistress, Sec.   It is because the judg-
 ment is  sometimes correctly exercised in dreams, with
 regard to future evenu, thot in times of ignorance the
 gift of divination was attributed to them.
   Nothing is more curious  in the study of sleep than
 the history of sleep-walkers.
   Those individuals being first profoundly asleep, rise
 all at once, dress themselves, see, hear, speak, employ
 their bands with ease, perform certain exercises, write,
 compose, then  go to bed,  ond preserve, when  they
 awake,  no  recollection  of what  happened lo them.
 What difference to there, then, between a sleep-walker
 of thto kind,  and a man awoke 1  A very evident dif-
 ference,—the one to conscious of his existence, and the
 other to  not
   Many hypotheses hove been offered on the proximate
 cause of sleep, as the depression of the lamina; of the
 cerebrum, the afflux of blood to the brain, &c.  Sleep,
 which is the immediate effect ofthe laws of organiza-
 tion,  cannot  depend on  any physical  cause  of thto
 kind.   Its  regular return  is one of the circumstances
 thot contributes the  most to the preservation of health;
 Its suppression, even for o short time, is often attended
 with serious  inconvenience, and in  no case can it be
 carried beyond certain limits.
   The orpVary duration of sleep Is variable; generally,
i it Is froui SU to eight hours.  Fatigue of the musculo!
! system,  strong exertions of the mind, Livery and iuulr> 
SME                                           SME
plied sensations, prolong it, as well as habits or Idle-
ness, the immoderate  use of wine, ond of too strong
alimenu.  Infancy and youth, whose life of relotion is
very active,  have need  of longer reiiose.  Riper age,
more  frugal of time, and tortured with cares, devotes
to it but a small portion.  Very old people present two
opposite modifications; either they ore almost always
slumbering, or their sleep is very light; but the reason
of thto latter is not  lo be found in the foresight they
have of their approaching end.
  By uninterrupted  peaceable sleep, restrained within
proper limits, the powers ore restored, and the organs
recover the facility of oction; but if sleep is troubled
by  disagreeable dreams, and painful impressions,  or
even prolonged beyond measure, very far from repair-
ing, it exhausts llie strength, fatigues the orgons, and
sometimes becomes the occasion of serious diseases,
asidiotism and madness."
  SLICKENSIDES.  The specular variety of galena
to so called in Derbyshire.
  SLOE.  See Prunus sylvestris.
  SMALLAGE.  See Apium graveolens.
  SMALL POX. See Variola.
  SMALT.  See Zajfre.
  SMARAGDITE.  See Diallage.
  SMARAGDUS.  See Emerald.
  SMELLIE,  William, was born in Scotland, where
he  practised midwifery  for nineteen years, and then
settled in London.  He attained considerable reputa-
tion as a lecturer, which he appears to have merited by
his assiduity and talents.  He introduced many  im-
provenienu  in  the  instruments  employed  in that
branch of the  profession, and established some useful
rules  for their application.  He was the first writer
who, by accurately determining the shape and size of
the pelvis, and of the head of the foetus, and consider-
ing its true  position in utero, clearly pointed out the
whole progress of paturition: and his opinions were
subsequently confirmed,  especially by his pupil,  the
celebrated Dr. W. Hunter.  He abolished many super-
stitious notions, ond erroneous customs, thot prevailed
in the management of parturient women, and of the
children ; and hod the  sotisfoction of seeing most of
these improvements adopted, as well in this as in other
countries of Europe.  In 1752,. he  published the sub-
stance of his lectures in an octavo volume;  to which
he added, two years after, a second volume of cases;
and a third appeared about five years after his death,
in 1768.  In 1754, he  also published a set of anatomi-
cal plates, of a large folio size, to elucidate his doctrines
farther.
  SMELL.  " There  escapes from almost every body
in  nature certain particles of  an extreme tenuity,
which are carried by the oir often to a great distance.
These particles constitute odours.  There to one sense
destined to perceive and appreciote them.  Thus an
important relation between animals and bodies is esta-
blished.
  All bodies of wbich  the atoms are fixed ore colled
inodorous.
  The difference of bodies is very great relative to the
manner in which odours are developed.   Some permit
them to escape only when they ore heated ; others only
when rubbed.   Some again produce very weak odours,
while others produce only those which are highly pow-
erful.  Such is the extreme tenuity of odoriferous par-
ticles, that o body moy produce them for o  very long
time without losing weight in ony sensible degree.
  Every odoriferous  body  hos an odour peculiar to
iuelf.
  As these bodies ore very numerous, there hove been
attempts made to class them, which have nevertheless
all  failed.
  Odours can  be distinguished only  into weak  and
strong, agreeable and disagreeable.  We can recognise
odours which  are musky, oromotic, fcetid, rancid, sper-
matic, pungent, muriatic, A;c. Some are fugitive, others
tenacious. In most cases an odour cannot be distinguish-
ed but by comparing it with some known body.   There
have been attributed to odours properties which are
nourishing, medical, and even venomous; but in the
cases which  have given rise to these opinions, might
not the influence of odours  have been confounded with
the effects of absorption 1  A man who pounds jalap
for sonic time  will be purged in the same manner as if
he had actually swallowed part of it  Thto ought not
to be attributed to the effects of odours, hut nther to
                                      Cce 2
the particles which, being spread around, float in tbe
air, and are introduced either with the saliva or wilh
the breath.  We ought to attribute to tiie same cause
the drunkenness of persons who ore exposed for some
time to the vapours of spirituous liquors.  The oir is
the only vehicle of odours;  it  transports them to a
distance ; they are  also produced,  however, in vacuo,
and there ate  bodies which project odoriferous parti-
cles with  a  certain force. This motter hos not yet
been carefully studied ; it  is not known if, in the pro-
pagation of odours, there  he  any thing analogous to
the divergence, the convergence, to the reflection, or
the refraction  of the rays of light.  Odours mix or
combine wilh  many liquids, as well as solids.  This to
the means employed to fix or preserve them.  Liquids,
gases, vapours, as well os  many solid bodies reduced
to powder, possess  the property of acting on the organs
of smell.
  Apparatus for smelling.—The olfactory apparatus
ought to be represented as a sort of sieve, placed in the
passage of the air, as it is introduced into the chest,
and intended  to stop every foreign body that  may be
mixed with the air, particularly the odours.
  This apparatus to extremely simple; it differs essen-
tially  from thot of  the sight and the hearing ;  since it
presents no part  anterior to the nerve, destined for the
physical modification of  the external  impulse, the
nerve is to a certain degree exposed.  The apparatus
is composed of the pituitary membrane, vvhich covers
the nasal cavities,  of the membrane which covers the
sinuses, and of the olfactory  nerve.
   The pituitary  membrane covers the whole extent of
the nostrils, Increases the thickness of the spongy bones
very much, is  continued beyond their edges and their
extremities, so that the air cannot traverse the nostrils
but in  o  long narrow direction.  This membrane is
thick, arid adheres  strongly to the bones and cartilages
that it covers.  Its surface presents an infinity of small
projections, which  have been considered by some as
nervous papilla, by others  as  mucous  follicles, but
which, according to all appearance, are vascular.
   These small projections give to the  membrane an
appearance of velvet.  The pituitory to agreeable and
soft to  the touch,  and it receives a great number of
vessels and  nerves.  The passages through which the
air proceeds to arrive ot the fauces deserve attention.
   These are three in number.  They are distinguished in
anatomy by the names of inferior, middle, and superior
meatus. The inferior is the broadest and the longest,
the least oblique and least crooked; the middle one is
the narrowest, almost as long, but of ereater extent
from  top to bottom.  The superior is much  shorter,
more oblique,  and narrower.   It is necessary to aud to
these the interval, which  is very narrow, and which
seporotes the partition of the external side of the nos-
trils in  its whole extent  These canals are so narrow,
that the leost swelling of the pituitary renders the pas-
sage of the air hi  the nostrils difficult, ond sometimes
impossible.
   The two superior meatus communicate with certain
cavities, of dimensions  more  or less  considerable,
which are hollowed  out of the bones of the head, and
are called sinuses.  These sinuses are the maxillary,
the palatine, the sphenoidal, the frontal; and  those
which  ore  hollowed out of the ethmoid bone, better
known by the nome  of ethmoidal cells.
   The sinuses communicate only with the two  supe-
rior meatus.
   The frontal, the maxillary sinus, the anterior cells
of the ethmoid bone, open  into the middle meatus; the
sphenoidal, the palatine  sinus, the posterior cells of
the ethmoid, open  into the  superior  meatus.  The
sinuses are covered by other soft membranes, very lit-
tle adherent to tlie  sides, and which appear to be ofthe
mucous kind.  It  secretes more or less abundantly a
motter colled nasal mucus, which is continually spread
over the pituitary, and seems very useful in smelling.
A more considerable extent of the st'nu* appears to co
Inclde with a  greater perfection of the smell.  This is
at least oneof the most positive  resulu of comparative
phvsiology.
   The olfactory  nerve springs, by three distinct roots,
from  the posterior, inferior,  and internol paru of tbe
onterior lobe  of tbe  brain.  Prismotlc ot first, it pro-
ceeds towards the perforated plate ofthe ethmoid bone.
It swells all  at once, and then divides  iuelf into a
great number of 6inall threads, which  sprr-ari them- 
SME
SMI
selves upon the pituitary membrane, principally on the
superior part of it.
  It to Important to remark, that the filaments ofthe ol-
factory nerves have never been traced upon the infe-
rior spongy bones, upon the  internal surface  of Ihe
middle meatus, nor iu any of the sinuses.   The pitui-
tary membrane receives not only the nerves ofthe first
pair, but also a great number  of threads, which spring
from the  internal aspect of the sphenopalatine gan-
glion.  These threads are distributed in the meatus,
and in the inferior part of the membrane.  It covers
also, for a considerable length, the ethmoidal thread of
tbe nasal  nerve, and receives from  it a considerable
number of filaments.   The membrane which covers
the sinus receives also a number of nervous ramifi-
cations.
  The nasal fossa communicate outwardly by means
ofthe nostrils, the form and size of which are very va-
riable.   The  nostrils are covered with hair on the in-
Bide, and  are capable  of being increased  in  size by
muscular  action.  The nasal  fossae open into the pha-
rynx by the posterior nostrils.
  Mechanism of  Smelling.—Smell  is exerted essen-
tially at the moment when the air traverses the nasal
fossa* in proceeding towards the lungs. We very rarely
perceive any odour when  the air proceeds from the
lungs;  it happens sometimes, however, particularly in
organic diseoses ofthe lungs.
  The mechanism of smell is  extremely simple.  It to
only necessary that the odoriferous particles should be
slopped  upon the pituitary membrane, particularly in
the places where it receives the threads of the olfac-
tory nerves.
  As it is exactly in  the superior  port of the nasal
fossa;, where the extremes are  so norrow, thot they are
covered with mucus, it is also natural that the parti-
cles should stop there.
  We may conceive the utility of mucus.  Its physical
properties are such that it appears  to have a much
greater affinity with the odoriferous particles than with
air; it  is also extremely Important  to the olfactory
sense, that the nasal mucus should always preserve the
same physical properties. Whenever they are changed,
as it is  observed  In different degrees of  coryza, the
smell is either not exerted at all, or In a very imperfect
manner.
  After what has been said of the distribution of the ol-
factory nerves, it is evident that the odours that reach
the upper part of the nasal cavities will be perceived
with greater  facility and acuteness:  for this reason,
when we wish to feel  more acutely, and with  greater
exactness, the odour of any body, we modify the air in
such a manner that it may be directed towards this
point.  For the same reason, those who take snuff en-
deavour also to  make it reach the upper part of the
nasal fossae.   The internal face of the ossa spongiosa
appears well disposed to stop the odours ot the instant
tiie air passes.  And, as there  is an extreme sensibility
in thto  point, we are inclined to believe thai here the
smell is exerted, though the filamenU of the first pair
have not been traced so far.
  Physiologists hove not yet determined the use of the
external nose in smelling; it appears intended to direct
the air charged with odours towards the superior part
ofthe nasal cavities.
  Those persons who have their noses deformed, par-
ticularly if broken ; those who have small nostrils, di-
rected forward, have in general almost no smell. The
loss ofthe nose, either by sickness or accident, causes
almost entirely the loss of smell.   Such people  recover
the benefit of this sense by  the use of an artificial
nose.
  The  only use of the sinuses which is generally ad-
mitted,  is lhat of furnishing  the greater port of the
nasal mucus.  The other uses which  are attributed to
them are, to serve as a depot to the air charged with
odoriferous particles, to augment the extent of the sur-
face which is sensible to odours, and to receive a  por-
tion ofthe air that we inspire for the purpose of putting
the power of smell in aetion, Sec   These are far from
being certain.
  Vapours and gases appear to act in tbe same manner
upon the pituitary membrane as odours. The  mecha-
nism of it ought, however,  to be a little different
Bodies reduced"to a coarse powder have a very strong
action  on thto membrane; even their first contact is
p-iinful: hut habit changes ihe pain into pleasure, as is
      238
seen in the case of taking snuff.  In medicine, thto pro-
perty of the pituitary  membrane to employed for the
purpose of exciting s sharp instantaneous pain.
  In the history of smell, the use of those hairs with
which Ihe nostrils and the nasal fossss ore provided,
must not be forgotten.   Perhaps they  are Intended to
prevent the entrance of foreign  bodies along with the
air into the nasal fossa. In this cose, they would beor
o strong analogy to the eyelashes, and the hairs with
whicli the ear is provided.
  It Is generally agreed that the olfactory nerve is es-
pecially employed in,transmitting to the brain Ihe Im-
pressions produced by odoriferous bodies; but there Is
nothing to prove that the other  nerves,  which are
placed  upon thepitui'art/, as well as those  near It,  may
not concur in the  some function."—Magendie's Phy-
siology.
  SMELT.  See Salmo eperlanus.
  SMl'LAX.  (From  opiXcvta, to cut: so called from
the roughness of iu leaves ond stalk.)  The name of a
genus of plants in the Linnaean system.  Class, Diacia;
Order,  Octandria.  Rough bind-weed.
  Smilax china.  The systematic name of the China
root tree.  China; China orientalis ;  Sankira; Gua-
quara ; Smilax  aspera Chinensis.  China root.  It was
formerly in esteem, as sarsaparilla now is, in the  cure
of the venereal disease, and cutaneous disorders.
  Smilax, Chinese.  See Smilax china.
  Smilax sarsaparilla.  The systematic nameof the
plant which affords the sarsaparilla.   Sarsaparilla;
Smilax aspera Peruviana; Sarsa;  Carivillandi; Iva
pecanga; Macapatli;  Zarza;  Zarzaparilla;  Salsa-
parilla;  Zarcaparilla.  The root of this plant, Smilax
—caule aculeato angulato, foliis inermibus ovatis re-
tuso mucronatis tnnerviis, of Linnteus, has a farina-
ceous, somewhat bitter taste, and nosmelf. About two
centuries ago it was introduced  inlo Spain, as an un-
doubted specific in syphilitic disorders; but owing to
difference of climate,  or other causes, it  has not an-
swered the  character  which it had  acquired  in the
Spanish West Indies.  It is now considered as capable
of improving the general habit of body, after it has been
reduced by the continued use of mercury.
  To refute the opinion that sarsaparilla possesses an-
ttoyphilitic virtues, Mr. Pearson, ofthe Lock Hospital,
divides the subject into two distinct questions.  1. Is
the sarsaparilla  root, when given alone, to  be safely re-
lied on in the treatment of lues venerea f The late Mr.
Bloomfield, his  predecessor, and during some years his
colleague  at the Lock Hospital, has given a very de-
cided answer to this question: " I solemnly declare,"
says he,  " I never saw a single instance in my life
where it cured that disorder without the assistance of
mercury, either  at the same time with it, or when it
had been previously taken before the decoction was di-
rected."  Pearson's ex perience, du ring many years, co-
incides entirely with the observations of Bloomfield.
He has employed Ihe sarsaparilla, in powder and in de-
coctions,  in an  almost infinite  variety of cases,  and
feels himself fully authorized to  assert that this plant
has not the power of curing ony one form of the lues
venerea.   The sarsaparilla, indeed,  like llie guaiacum,
to capable of alleviating symptoms derived from the
venereal virus; and it sometimes manifests the power
of suspending, for a time, the destructive ravages of
thot contagion;  but where the poison has not been pre-
viously subdued by mercury, the symptoms will  quick-
ly return; and,  in addition to them, we often see the
most indubitable proofs that the diseose to making an
actual  progress, during the regular administration of
the vegetable remedy.
  2.  When the  sarsaparilla root is given  in conjunc-
tion with mercury, does it render the mercurial course
more certain and efficacious 1 In replying to this query,
it to necessary to observe that the phrase, " to increase
the efficacy of mercury," moy  imply,  that a smaller
quantity of this mineral antidote will  confer security
on an infected person, when sarsaparilla is added to it;
or it may mean, lhat mercury would be sometimes un-
equal lo the cure, without the aid of sarsaparilla.  If a
decoction of Ihis root did indeed possess so admirable
a quality, that  the quantity of mercury, necessary to
effect a cure, might be safely reduced, whenever it was
given during n mercurial course, it would form a most
valuable  addition to our Materia Medica.  This  opi-
nion hap been, however, unfortunately falsified by the
most ample experience, and whoever shall be so un 
SMI
SOD
wary aa to act upon such a presumption, will bo sure to
find his own and his patient's expectation* egregiously
disappointed.
  If the sarsaparilla root be a genuine antidote against
the syphilitic virus, it ought io cure  the disease  ad-
ministered  alone; but, if no direct proof can De  aa-
duced of iu being equol to this, any argumenu lounded
on histories where mercury has been previously given,
or where both the medicines were administered at the
same time, must be ambiguous and undecisive.
  It appears probable, that Sir William Fordyce, and
some other persons, entertained a notion, that there
were certain venereal symptoms which commonly re-
sisted the potency of mercury, and that the sarsapa-
rilla was an appropriate  remedy in these cases.  This
opinion, it  is presumed, is not correct, for it militates
against all Mr. P. has  ever observed of the progress
and treatment of lues venerea.  Indeed, those patienu
who have  lately used a full course of mercury, often
complain of nocturnal  pains in their limbs; they are
sometimes  afflicted with painful enlargemenu of the
elbow  and  knee-joinu; or  they  have membranous
nodes, cutaneous exulcerations, and certain other symp-
toms, resembling those which are the offspring of the
venereal virus.
  It may and does often happen, that appearances like
these are mistaken for a  true venereal affection, and, in
consequence of thto error, mercury is administered,
which never fails lo exasperate the disease.  Now, if a
strong decoction of sarsaparilla root be given to  per-
sons under these circumstances, it will seldom fail of
 producing the most beneficial effecu; hence it has been
 contended, that symptoms derived from the contogion
 of lues venerea, which could not be cured by mercury,
 have finally yielded to this vegetable remedy.   It must
 be acknowledged, that representations of this kind
 have a specious and imposing air; nevertheless, Mr.
 Pearson endeavours to prove, that they are neither ex-
 act nor conclusive. If any of the above-named symp-
 toms should appear near the conclusion of a course of
 mercury, when that medicine  wos operating power-
 fully on the whole system, it would be a strange and
 inexplicable thing if they could possibly be derived im-
 mediately  from the uncontrolled agency of the vene-
 real viru6.                    ...      ...
   This would imply something like a palpable contra-
 diction that the antidote should be operating with suffi-
 cient efficacy to cure the venereal symptoms, for which
 it was directed, while, at tbe some time  the venereal
 virus was proceeding to contaminate new parte, and to
 excite a new order of appearances.
    One source, and a very common one, to which some
 ofthe mistakes committed  upon this subject may be
 traced, is a persuasion lhat every morbid alteration
 whicli arises in an infected  person is actually tainted
 wilh tiie venereal virus, and ought to be ascribed to it
 as ite true cause.                 ,         .
    Every experienced surgeon must, however, be aware,
 that very little of truth and reality exists in a represen-
 tation of this kind.  The contagious matter, and  the
  mineral specific may jointly produce, in certain habits
  of body,  a new series of  symptoms, which, strictly
  speaking, are  not venereal, which cannot be cured by
  mercury, and which are sometimes more to be dreaded
  than the simple omi natural effecUof tbe venereal virus.
    Some of the most formidable of these appearances
  may be sometimes removed by sarsaparilla, the vene-
  real virus stiff remaining in llie system; and, when the
  force of that  poison has been completely subdued by
  mercury, the same vegetable is also capable of freeing
  the patient from what may be called tiie sequela; of a
  mercurial course.                            ,    ,
    The root of the saisaparilla u sometimes employed
  In rheumatic affections, scrofula, and cutaneous com
  plaints, where an acrimony of the fluids prevails.
    f" SMITH, Eliuu H, M. D.  Dr. Smith was one of
  the first  projectors of the New-York Medical Reposi-
  £ry, unittog wilh Drs. MitchiU and Miller in establish-
  in" one of the first Medical and Scientific Journals in
  this country.  He, however, survived but a short time
   afte^commencing, having died of the Yellow-Fever
   in New-York in 1798.  Dr. E. H. Smith was born in
   Litchfield, in Connecticut,  in  1771, and died  in the

   ^rannounliTthe death of Dr, Smith, the  sur-
   viving editors of the Medical Repository thus speak:
   Asaphysjcian his loss is irreparable. He had explored
at hto early age an extent of Medical learning, for which
the longest lives are seldom  found sufficient.  The
love of science, and the impulse of philanthropy, di-
rected his » hole professional career, and left little room
for the calculations of emolument   He had formed
vest designs of medical improvement, which embraced
the whole family of mankind; was animated by the
soul of benevolence, and aspired after every object of a
liberal and a dignified ambition.   He wus ripe for the
highest honours of his profession; his merits were every
day becoming more conspicuous, and nothing but his
premature fate deprived him of that  extraordinary de-
gree of public confidence which awoited a longer con-
tinuance of his life "—N. Y. Med. Repos. A.]
   Smy'rnion HORTeNsz.  Sec Imperatoria ostmthium.
   SMY'RNIUM.   (So called from opvpva, myrrh, the
smell of the seed resembling that of myrrh very much.)
The name  of a genus of plants.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Digynia.           __
   Smvrnium olusatrum.   The systematic  name of
the plant  called Alexanders.  Hipposelmum; Smyr-
nium;  Macerona; Macedonisium;  Herba  alexan-
drina;  Grielum;  Agriosdinum.   Common Alexan-
ders.  Thto plant wos formerly cultivoted in our gar-
dens, for culinary use, but to no w superseded by scelery.
The seeds ore bitter and aromatic,  ond the  roott  are
 more powerfully bitter.  They 6tand recommended as
 resolvents, diuretics, and emmenagogues, though seldom
 used in medical prescriptions.
   S.msrnium rotundifolium.  The blanched leoves
 of this species are said to be more agreeable than those
 of the olusatrum.
   SNAIL.  SeeLimax.'
   Snail-seeded glasswort.   See Salsola kali.
   SNAKE.  Anguis. The flesh was formerly made
 into broth as a restorative.                  .
   Snake, common.  The Coluber nalnx, of  Linnasua.
   Snake, rattle. See Coluber.
   SNAKEROOT.  See Aristolochia serpentaria, and
 Polygala senega.
   [Snake-root, black.  See Cimicifuga.  A.
   SNAKEWEED.  See Polygonum bistorta.
   SNAKEWOOD.  See Colubrinum lignum.
   Snake-killing birthwort SeeAristolochiaanguicida.
   SNAP-DRAGON.  See Antirrhinum,
   SNEEZEWORT.   (So called,  because  the dried
 flowers and 100U, when powdered, cause sneezing when
 applied to the nose.)  See Achillea ptarmica.
    SNEEZING.   Snernutatio.   A convulsive action
  of the  muscles of the chest from irritation of the nos-
  trils.
    SNUFF.  See JVicoliana.
    SOAP.   See Sapo.
    SOAP-BERRY.  See Saponaria officinalis.
    SOAP, MOUNTAIN.   A  pale brownish black mi-
  neral, which has a greasy feel; writes, but does not
  soil:  and occurs in Irap rocks in the Isle of Skye.  It to
  used in crayon painting.
    SOAP-STONE.  See Steatite.
    SOAP-TREE.   See Saponaria.
    SOAP-WORT. See Saponaria.
    Socotorine dots.  Aloes  brought  from  Socotora
  See Aloe.                     .    _.
    SO'DA.   (An Arabian word.)  The name  now
  universally given by chemisu and physicians to the
  mineral alkali.
    It to obtoined from several sources, but  principally
   from planu growing on the sea coast.  It occurs iu the
   mineral kingdom, united with sulphuric, muriatic, and
   boracic acids; it to  also  found in large quantities in
   Egypt, combined with carbonic acid.   It appears to be
   deposited iu large impure masses,  under the surface of
   the earth, in various countries, from  which it to ex-
   tracted by running waters.  Thus it to found, after the
   spontaneous evaporation of the woter, mixed with sand
   in the bottom of lakes in Hungary; in the  neighbour-
   hood  of  Biliu  in Bohemia; and  in  Switzerland. It
   occurs also in China, and near Tripoli; in Syria, Egypt,
   Persia, and India.  Il frequently oozes out of walls and
   crystallizes on their surface.  Like potassa, it is pro-
   cured by lixiviationfrom tbe ashes of burnt plante, but
   only from those which grow upon the sea-shores.   The
   variety  of plants employed for this purpose is very
   considerable.  In Spain, soda is procured from different
   species of the Salsola and Salicomia, and the  Balis
  I 7»aririi»a.  The ZosUra mariuma is burnt in some
   places on the borders of the Baltic.  In tWs^ountry 
SOD                                              SOD
we bum the various species of fuci; and in France
they burn the Chenopodium maritimum.   See  Soda
impura.
  The alkali thus procured to more or less  pure, ac-
cording to the nature of the particular plant from which
it  is obtained.  The greotest part, however,  is a sub-
rarbonalc of soda
  " To procure pure soda, we must boil a solution of
the pun; carbonate with half its weight of quicklime,
and after subsidence decant the clear ley, ond  eve|>o-
rote in a clean iron or silver vessel, till the liquid flows
quietly like oil.   It must then be poured out on a po-
lished iron plate.  It concretes into a hard white cake,
which is to be immediately broken iu pieces, and put
up, while still  hot, in a phial, which must be well
corked.   If the  carbonate  of soda be somewhat im-
pure, then,  after the oction of lime, and subsequent
concentration of the ley, alkohol must be digested on
it wliich will dissolve only the caustic pure soda, and
leave the heterogeneous salu.  By distilling of the al-
kohol in a silver alembic, the alkali  may then be ob-
tained pure.
  This white solid substance to, however, not absolute
soda, but o hydrate, consisting of about 100 soda -f- 23
water; or of nearly 77 -f- 23, in 100.  If o piece of this
soda be exposed to  the oir, it softens and becomes
pasty; but it never deliquesces into an oily looking li-
quid, as potassa does.  The soda in fact soon becomes
drier, because by absorption  of  carbonic acid  from
the air it passes inlo an efflorescent carbonole.  Soda
is  distinguishable from  potassa  by  sulphuric  acid,
wliich forms a very soluble salt with the former, and a
sparingly soluble one with the latter; by muriate of
platina and tartaric acid, which occasions precipitates
with potassa salts, but not with those of sods.
  The basis of soda  is o peculiar metal, colled sodium,
discovered by Sir If. Davy  in 1807, n few days after he
discovered potassium.  It may be procured in exactly
the some manner as potassium, by electrical or chemi-
cal decomposition of the pure hydrate.  A rather higher
degree of heat, ond greater voltaic power, arc required
to decompose soda than potassa.  Sodium  resembles
potassium in many of ils characters.   It is as white as
silver, possesses great lustre, and  to a good conductor
of electricity. It enters into fusion ot obout280° Fahr.,
and rises iu vapour  at a strong red heal.  Iu sp. gr. to,
according to Gay Lussac and Thenard, 0.972, at the
temperature of 59°  Fahr.  In the cold, it  exercises
scarcely any action  on dry air, or oxygen.  Bui when
heated strongly in oxygen or chlorine, it burns with
great brilliancy.  When thrown upon water, it effer-
vesces violently, but does not inflame, swims on. the
surface, gradually diminishes with great agitation, and
renders  the  water a solution of soda.  It acts  upon
most substances in a manner similar to potassium, but
with less energy.  It tarnishes in the air,  but  more
slowly; and, like potassium, it is best preserved under
naphtha.
  Sodium forms two distinct combinations with oxy-
gen ; one is pure soda, whose hydrate is  above de-
scribed ;  the other to the orange oxide of sodium, ob-
served, like the preceding oxide, first by Sir H. Davy in
1807, but of which the true nature was pointed out, in
1810, by Gay Lussac and Thenard.
   Pure sodo moy be formed  by  burning sodium ia a
 quantity of  air, containing no  more oxygen thon to
 sufficient for iu conversion  into  this alkali; i. e. the
 metal must be in excess: a strong degree of heat must
 be employed.
   Pure soda is of a gray colour, it is a non-conductor of
 electricity, of a vitreous fracture, and requires a strong
 red heat for its fusion.   When a  little woter to added
 to it, there to a  violent action between the two bodies;
 the soda becomes white, crystalline in iu appearance,
 and much more fusible and volatile.  It is then the
 substance commonly colled pure or caustic soda; but
 properly styled the hydrate.
   The other oxide or peroxideof sodium may be formed
 by burning sodium in oxygen, in excess.  It is of adeep
 orange  colour,  very fusible, and o non-conductor of
 electricity.  When  acted  on by water, it gives off
 oxygen, and the water becomes a solution of soda.  It
 deflagrates  when  strongly heated with combustible
 bodies
   The proportions of oxygen In sodo, ond in the orange
 peroxide of sodium, are easily learned by the action of
 sodium on water and on oxygen.   If  a given weight of
      2"4
radium, in  a little glass tube, be thrown by means «t
the finger under n graduated inverted  lor filled with
woter, llie quantity of hydrogen evolved will indicate
the quantity of oxygen combined with Ihe metal io
form soda;' and  when  sodium is slowly burned In a
ray of  platina  (lined  with  dry common salt),  In
oxygen in great exce-s, from llie quantity of oxygen ab
sorbed the composition of the peroxide may be learned.
From Sir H. Davy's experimenu, compared with those
of Cay Lussac and Thenard, il appears thot tlie primo
equivalent of sodium is 3.0, and  that of dry soda, or
protoxide of sodium, 4.0; while the orange oxide or
deutoxide is 5.0.  The numbersgiven by Thenard are,
for the first, 100  metal -+■ 33.995 oxygen; and for the
second, 100 metal + 67.990 oxygen.
  Another  oxide is described containing less oxygen
than soda;  it is therefore a sub-oxide.  When sodium
is kept for some time ui a small  quantity of moist air,
or when sodium  in ercess is heated with hydrate of
soda, a dark grayish substance to formed, more in flam-
mable than sodium, and which affords hydrogen by iu
action upon water.
  Only  one combination of sodium  and chlorine to
known.  This is the importantsubstance,common salt.
It may be formed directly by combustion, or by decom-
posing any compound of chlorine by sodium.  Sodium
has a much stronger attraction  for chlorine than  for
oxygen: and soda,or iu hydrate, is decomposed  by
chlorine, oxygen being expelled from  the first, anil
oxygen and water from the second.
  Potassium has a stronger attraction for chlorine than
sodium  has;  undone mode of procuring sodium easily,
is by heating together to redness common soil and  po-
tassium.  The chloride of sodium, improperly colled
tbe muriate, consisu of  4.5 chlorine + 3.0  sodium.
There is no known action betweeu sodium and hydro-
gen or azote.
  Sodium  combines readily  with sulphur and with
phosphorus,  presenting similar phenomena  to those
presented by potassium.  The  sulphurets and phos-
phurets of sodium agree in their general properties
with those of potassium, except thot they ore rather
less inflammable.  They form,  by burning, acidulous
compounds of sulphuric and phosphoric acid and soda.
  Potassium  and sodium combine wilh great facility,
ond form peculior compounds,  which differ  in their
properties,  according to the proportions of the constitu-
ents.  By a  small quantity  of sodium, potassium is
rendered fluid at common temperatures, and iu sp. gr.
to considerably diminished.  Eight parte of potassium,
and one of sodium,  form a compound that swims in
naphtho, and that is fluid at  the common temperature
of the air.  Three parts of sodium, and one of potas-
sium, make  a compound fluid at common tempera-
tures.   A little  potassium destroys the ductility of so-
dium, and renders it very brittle and  soft.  Since  the
prime of potassium  to to that of sodium  as 5 to 3, it
will require the former quantity of potassium to elimi-
nate the latter quantity of sodium from the chloride.
The attractions of potassium, for all substances that
have been examined, are stronger than those of  so-
dium.
  Soda is  the  basis of  common salt, of plate and
crown-glass, and of all hard soaps."
  The compounds of soda used  in medicine are the
following:
1. Soda; acetas.
2. ----boras.
3. ----carbonas.
4.----subcarbonas.
5.----------------e:
 6. Sodae murias.
 7.---- phosphas
 8. ----sulphas.
 9.----tartras.
10. Soda tartarizata.
11. Sapo durus.
      sicca ta.
  Soda acetata.  A neutral salt formed of a combi-
nation of acetic acid wilh tile mineral alkali.   Iu vir-
tues are similar to those of the acetate of potassa.
  Soda boraxata.  See Borax.
  Soda, carbonate of.  See Soda carbonas.
  Soda hispanica.  See Soda impura.
  Soda  hispanica purificata.   See  Soda  subcar-
bonas.
  Soda impura.  Impure soda.  Soda ; Barilla;  Ba-
riglia;  Barillor; Anatron; Natron; Anaton;  Ni-
trum antiquorum ; Aphronitrum; Baurach ; Sal alka-
linus fixus fossilus; Carbonas  soda impurus ;  Sub-
carbonas soda  impura.   Soda.  Barilla is the  term
given, in commerce, to the impure  mineral alkali, or
imperfect carbonate of soda, imported from Spain and 
SOD
SOD
tbe Levant   It to made by burning to asheB different
planu that grow on the sea-shore, chiefly of the genus
Salsola.   Many have referred it to the Salsola kali, of
Linnaeus; but  various other planU, on being burned,
ore found to afford this alkoli, and some in a greater
proportion than this: these are,
  1. The Salsola sativa, of Linnaeus.  Salsola sonda,
of Luffing.  Kali hispanicum supinum annuum sedt-
foliis brtvibus.   Kali d'alicante.  Thto grows abun-
dantly on that part of the Spanish  coast  which to
washed by the Mediterranean sea.  This plant is de-
servedly first enumerated by Professor  Murray, as it
supplies all the best soda consumed iu Europe, which
by  us  is called Spanish or Alicont soda,  and by the
Spanish merchants Barilla de Alicante.
  2. Salsola soda, of Linnxus.   Kali majus cochleato
semiiie; I^e Salicor.  This species, which grows on
the French Mediterranean coast, to much used in Lan-
guedoc for the preparation of this salt, which to usually
exported to Sicily and Italy.
  3. Salsola tragus, of Linnaeus, affords an ordinary
kind of soda, with  which the French frequently  mix
that made in   Languedoc.  This adulteration is  also
practised by the Sicilians, who distinguish the plant by
the term salvaggia.
  4. Salicornia herbaceo, of Linmeus, to common in
salt marshes,  ond on the sco-shore  ail over Europe.
Linneus  prefers tbe sodo obtained from this plant to
that of all the others;  but though the quantity of al-
kali which  it yields is  very considerable, it is mixed
with much common salt.
  5. Salicornia arabica, of Linnsus, and also the Me-
sembryanlhemum nodiftorum, and Plantago squarrosa.
 All these, according to Alpinus, afford this alkali. It
 has also been procured from several of the fuci, espe-
cially  F.  vesicolosus, and  distinguished  here by the
name kelp.  Various other marine plante might  also
be  noticed as yielding an impure soda by combustion;
but the principal are confined to the genus salsola, and
that of salicornia.  The salsola kali, on the authority
of Rawolf, is the species from which the salt is usually
obtained .in eastern countries; which is brought to us
in  hard porous masses, of a speckled brown colour.
Kelp, a still more impure alkali,  made in thto country by
burning various sea-weeds, is sometimes called British
barilla. The marine plants, collected for the purpose of
procuring barilla in thto country, are tlie Salsola kali,
 Salicornia europa, Zostera maritima, Triglochen ma-
ritimum,  Chenopodium maritimum, Atriplex portula-
 coides el littoralis, Plantago maritima, Tamarix gal-
 lica, Eryngium maritimum, Sedum tdephium, Dipsa-
 cus fullonum, Sec. Sec.
   It is to be regretted, that the different kinds of  soda
 which are brought to European markeu have not been
 sufficiently analyzed to enable us to ascertain with tole-
 rable  certainty the respective value  of each; ond, in
 deed,  while the practice of adulterating this salt con-
 tinues, any attempu of this kind are likely to prove
 fruitless.  The best information on this subject is to be
 hod from Jessico, Mascorelle, Cadet, Bolarc, and Ses-
 tini.   In  those places where the preparation of soda
 forms a  considerable branch  of commerce, as on the
 coast of the Mediterranean, seeds of the salsola are re-
 gularly sown  in a proper situation near the sea, which
 usually shoot above ground in the course of a fortnight
 About the time the seeds become ripe, the planu are
 pulled up by the roots, and exposed In a suitable place
 to dry,  where their seeds are collected;  this  being
 done, the plants are tied up in  bundles, and burned in
 an oven constructed for the purpose, where the ashes
 are then, while hot, continually stirred with long poles.
 The saline matter, on becoming cold, forms a  hard
 ■olid  mass, which is broken in pieces of a convenient
 Size for exportation.
    According to chemical analysis, the impure sodas of
 commerce generally contain a portion of vegetable al-
 kali, and neutral salu, as muriate of soda and sulphate
 of potassa, and not unfrequently some portion of iron
 to  contained in the mass;  they are, therefore, to be
 considered as more or less a compound, and their good-
 ness to be estimated  accordingly.  The Spanish sodo,
 of tbe best sort is in dork-coloured masses, of a bluish
 tinge, very  ponderous, sonorous, dry to the touch, and
 externally abounding with small cavities, without any
 offensive smell, and very salt to the taste;  if long ex-
 posed to  the air, it undergoes a degree of spontaneous
 calcination. The best French  soda to also dry, sono-
rous, brittle, and of a deep blue colour, approaching to
black.   The soda which to mixed with small stones,
which gives out a fcetid smell ou solution, and to white
soft, and deliquescent, is of the worst kind.
  Soda muriata.  See Soda murias.
  Soda muriatica.  See Soda murias.
  Soda phosphorata.  Phosphorated soda.  Alkal*
mineralc phosphoratum,  of Bergman.  This prepara-
tion is a compound of phosphoric acid and soda.  It is
cathartic in the dose of half an ounce to an ounce;
dissolved in gruel it is not unpleasant, and it is said to
be  useful  in scrofula, bronchocele, rachitis, and gout,
iu small doses.
  Soda, subcarbonate of'.   See Soda subcarbonas.
  Soda, subcarbonate of,  dried.  See Soda subcarbo-
nas exsiccata.
  Soda, sulphate of.   See Soda sulphas.
  Soda  tartarizata.  Tartarized soda,  formerly
known  by the names of sal rupellensis, sal polychres-
tum Seignetti, and  lately  by that of natron tartari-
zatum.   Take of subcarbonate of soda twenty ounces;
supertartrate of potassa, powdered,  two pounds; boil-
ing water ten pinu.  Dissolve the subcarbonate of soda
in  the wa'er, and add gradually the supertartrate of po-
tassa ; filter the solution through paper, and evaporate
it until  a pellicle forms upon the surface; then  set it
by that crystals may form. Uoving poured away the
water,  dry these crystals  upon bibulous paper.  This
salt consisu of tartaric acid, soda, and potassa, the soda
only combining with the  superabundant acid of the
super salt; it to therefore a triple salt, and it has been
 judged by the London College more convenient to ex-
 press this  difference by the adjective tartarizata, than
 to  introduce the three words necessary to iu descrip-
 tion.  Il possesses mildly cathartic, diuretic, and deob
 struent wrtues, and is administered in doses from one
 drachm to an ounce,  as a cathartic, and in the dose of
 twenty to thirty grains  in abdominal physconia, and
 torpidity of the kidneys.
    Soda tartarized.   See Soda tartariiata.
    Sod/E boras.  See Borax.
    Sonm  carbonas.   Carbonate of soda.  Take of
 subcarbonate of soda, a pound; subcarbonate of am-
 monia, three  ounces; distilled water, a pint.   Having
 previously dissolve) the soda in water, add Ihe ammo-
 nia,  then  by mea»  of a  sand bath apply a heat of
 180° for three hoti s, or until the ammonia be driven
 off.  Lastly, set the solution by to crystallize.  The re
 ■naining solutioi. may be evaporated and set by  in the
 same manner, that crystals may again form. This salt,
 which is called also aerated soda, and natron, bears to
 the subcarbonate of sodo the same relation that the car
 bonote of potassa does to  it* subcarbonate.   It  is pre-
 pared in the same way, possesses the same compara-
 tive advantages, and contains, in like manner, double
 the quantity of carbonic acid.
    Sod/e murias.  Muriate of soda.  Alkali minerals
 salinum ; Sal communis;  Salculinaris ; Salfontium,
 Sal gemma; Sal marinus; Natron muriatum; Soda
 muriata.  Common  culinary salt.  This salt to more
 abundant in nature thon any other.  It is found in pro-
 digious mosses in the internal part of the earth, in Ca-
 labria, in Hungary, in Muscovy, and  more especially
 Weilicska, in Poland, near Mount Capax, where the
 mines  are very large, and afford immense quantities of
 salt  It to also obtained  by several artificial means
 from sea-water.  It possesses antiseptic, diuretic, and
 resolvent qualities, and to frequently employed in form
 of clyster, fomentation, lotion, pediluvium, and bath,
 in obstipation, against  worms,  gangrene, scrofulous
 tumours, herpetic eruptions, orthritis, «fcc.
    Soda: subjjoras.  See Borax.
    Boom,  subcarbonas.   Subcorbonate of soda, for-
 merly called natron praparatum and sal soda.   Take
 of impure soda, powdered, a pound;  boiling distilled
 water, half a gallon.  Boil the soda in the water for
 half an hour, and strain the solution; let the solution
 evaporate to two pints, and be set by, that crystals may
 form.  Throw away the remaining solution.   Tha
 pure crystals, thus  formed of Alicant barilla, ore co-
 lourless,  transparent, lamellated,  of  a  rhomboidal
 figure- and one  hundred  parts are found  to contain
 twenty of alkali, sixteen of aCriol Bcid, and sixty-four
 of water; but upon keeping the crystals for  a length
 of time, if the air be not excluded, the water evapo-
 rates, and they assume the form of a  white  powder.
I According to Islin, one ounce of water, at the tempo- 
SOL
SOL
  rature 62" of Fahr. dissolves five drachms and fifteen
  groins of the crystals.  Thto salt consisu of sodo im-
  perfectly saturated with carbonic acid,  and is there-
  fore called soda subcarbonas. Il to given in doses of
  from ten grains to half a drachm os an attention! and
  antacid; and joined with bark ond  aromatics,  it is
  highly praised by some iu the cure of scrofula.  It to
  likewise a powerful  solvent of mucus,  o deobstruent
  ond diuretic;  and has been thought an antidote against
  oxide of arsenic ond  corrosive sublimate.  The other
  diseases in wliich it  is  administered  are those orising
  from on abundance of mucus in the prima; via:,.calcu-
  lous complaints, gout, some affections of  the skin,
  rickets, tinea capitis, crusta lactea, and worms.  Exter-
  nally it is recommended by some in the form of lotion,
  to be applied to scrofulous ulcers.
   Sod* subcarbonas exsiccata.  Dried subcarbon-
  ate of soda.  Take of subcarbonate of soda, a pound.
  Apply a boiling heat to the soda in a clean iron  vessel,
  until  it becomes perfectly dry, and constantly stir it
  with an iron rod.  Lastly, reduce it into powder.  Its
  virtnes are similar to  those ofthe subcarbonate.
   Sodje sulphas.  Sulphate of soda, commonly known
 by the name of natron vitriolatum, and formerly sal
 catharticus glauberi.  Take of the salt which remains
 after the distillation of muriatic ocid, two pounds.  Boil-
 ing woter, two pints  and  a half. Dissolve the salt in
 the water, then odd gradually as much  subcarbonate
 of soda as may be required to saturate the acid ; boil
 the solution away until  a  pellicle forms upon the sur-
 face, and, after having strained it, set  it  by, thot crys-
 tals may form.  Having poured oway the water, dry
 these crystals upon bibulous paper. It possesses cathar-
 tic and diuretic qualities, and is in high esteem as a mild
 cathartic.  It  is found in the mineral kingdom formed
 by nature,  but that which  to used medicinally is  pre-
 pared by art. The dose is from one drachm to one ounce.
   SODALITE.  A green-coloured mineral discovered
 in a bed of mica slate in West Greenland.
   SODIUM.  See Soda.
   SOL.  The sun.  Gold was so called by the older
 chemists.
   SOLA'MEN.   (From solor, to comfort)   Anise-
 seed to named solnmen intestinoram, from the comfort
 it affords in disorders of the intestines.
   SOLANO'IDES.  (From solanum, night-shade, and
 eiooc, likeness.)  Bastard night-shade.
   SOLA'NUM.   (From solor, to comfort, because it
 gives ease by Iu stupifying qualities.)   1.  The name
 of a genus of plants  in the L inure an system. Class,
 Pentandria: Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the solanum nigrum.
  Solanum dulcamara.  The systematic  name of
 the  bitter-sweet  Dulcamara ;  Solanum scandens;
 Glycypicros, sive  amaradulcis; Solanum  lignosum.
 'S.rpmxvos of Theophrastus.  Woody nightshade.  So-
 lanum—caule inermi frutescente flexuosa ; foliis svpe-
 rinribus hastatis; racemis cymosis, of Linmeus.  The
 roots and stalks of this night-shade, upon being chewed,
 first cause a sensation  of bitterness, which is soon fol-
 lowed by a considerable  degree of sweetness;  and
 hence the plant obtained the name of bitter-sweet.  The
 berries have not yet been applied to medical use; they
 seem to act powerfully upon the prims  vis, exciting
 violent vomiting and  purging. Thirty of them were
 given to a dog, which  soon became  mad, and died in
 the space of three hours; and, upon  opening hto sto-
 mach, the berries were discovered to have undergone
 no change by the powers of digestion; there can, there-
 fore, be little doubt of the deleterious  effecte of these
 berries ; and, os they are very common in the hedges,
 and may be easily mistaken, by children, for red cur-
 rants, which they somewhat resemble, thiscircumstance
 to the more worthy of notice.  The stipites, or younger
 branches, are directed  for use in the Pharm., and they
 may be employed either fresh or dried, making a pro-
 portionate allowance in the dose of the latter for some
 diminution of its powers by drying.  In autumn, when
 the leaves are fallen, the sensible quolities of the  plant
 are soid lo be  the strongest;  and, on  tbis account, it
 should be gathered in autumn rather than spring.  Dul-
 camara does not manifest those strong  narcotic quali-
ties which are common to many of the night-shades; it
to, however, very generally admitted to be a medicine
of considerable efficacy.  Murray says  it promotes all
the secretions;  Haller observes, that it partakes of the
milder powers of the nightshade joined to a resolvent
  and saponaceous quality ; and  the opinion of Berglua
  seems to coincide wilh thot of Murray:—" Virtus : pel-
  lens urinam, sudoruui. menses,  lochia, sputa ;  mundifi-
  cans."  The diseases in which we find it recommended
  by different authors, ore extremely various ;  but Iler-
  gius confines its use to rheuinutisms, retenlio mensium,
  et lochiorum.  Dulcamara appears, also, by the experi-
  ments of Rozoux  and others, to hove been used wilh
  advantoge in some obstinate cutaneous affections. Dr.
  Cullen says, " We have employed only the stipites, or
  slender twigs of this shrub; but, as we have collected
  them, they come  out very unequal, some parcels of
  them being very mild and inert,  and others of them con-
  siderably acrid.  In the latter state, we have employed
  a decoction of them in the cure of rheumatism, some-
  times wilh advantoge, but at other  times wilhout any
  effect.  Though the dulcamara  to here inserted iu the
  catalogue  of diuretics, it has never appeared to us as
  powerful in thto way ; for, in all the trials made here,
  it has hardly ever been observed to be iu any njrasure
  diuretic."   This plant to generally given in decoction,
  or inflision, and, In prevent its exciting nausea, it is
  ordered to be diluted with milk, and to begin with small
  doses, as large doses have been  found to produce very
  dangerous symptoms.  Razoux directs the following:
  ft. Slipitum dulcam.  rec. drac. ss in aquas font unc.
  16 coquater ad unc. 8.  This was token in the dose of
  three or four drachms, diluted with an equal quantity
  of  milk,  every  four  hours.   Linneus direcu  two
  drachms, or half  an ounce of  the dried stipites, to be
  infused  half an hour in boiling water, and then to be
  boiled ten  minutes; and of thto decoction he gives two
  teacups full morning and evening.  For the formula of
  a decoction of this plant, according  to the  London
  Pharm.  See Decoctum dulcamara.
   Solanum fcttidum.  The thorn-apple plant.   See
  Datura stramonium.
   Solanum lethale.  See Atropa belladonna.
   Solanum lignosum.   See Solanum dulcamara.
   Solanum  lycopersicum.   The  love-apple plant
 The fruit of this, colled Tomato and love-apple,  to so
 mnch esteemed by the Portuguese and  Ihe Spaniards,
 lhat it is an ingredient in almost all their soups ond
 souces, and is by them considered as cooling and nu-
 tritive.
   Solanum melonoena.  The  systematic name ofthe
 mad-apple plant.   Iu  oblong egg-shaped fruit to often
 boiled in their native places, in  soups and sauces, the
 same as  the love-apple; is accounted very nutritive,
 and is much sought after by the  votaries of Venus.
   Solanum nigrum.   The  systematic  name of the
 garden night-shade, which is highly deleterious.
   Solanum sanctum.  The systematic name of the
 Palestine night-shade.  The fruit of which is globular,
 and in Egypt much eoton by the inhabitants.
   Solanum tuberosum.   Batatas;  Solanum escn-
 lentum ;  Kippa; Kelengu ; Papas Americanus ; Pap-
 pus Americanus; Convolvulus  Indicus.  The  potato
 plant, a native of  Peru, first brought into Europe by
 Sir Francis Drake, 1486, and planted in London.  See
 Potato.
  Solanum vesicarium.  The  winter-cherry plant is
 so called by Caspar Bauhin.  See Physalis alkekengi.
  SOLDANELLA.  (A solidando; from its  uses in
 healing fresh wounds.)   The sea convolvulus.  See
 Convolvulus soldanella.
  SO'LEN.  "ZtaXnv.  A  tube or channel.  A cradle
 for a broken limb.
  SOLENA'RIUM.  (Diminutive of otaXnv, a tube.l
 A catheter.
  SO'LEUS.  (From solea, a  sole: from  its shape
 being like the sole-fish.)  See Gastrocnemius internus.
  SOLIDA'GO.  (From solido, to moke firm: so called
 from its uses in consolidating wounds.)  The name of
 a genus of plants In the Linnaean system.  Class, Syn
genesia; Order,  Polygamia  superflua.   The  herb
comfrey.
  Solidaoo viroaurea.  The systematic nemeof the
golden rod.   Virga aurra; Herba dorea; Conyza coma
aurea; Symphytum ; Petraum ;  Elichrysvm ;  Conso-
lida saracenica nnd aurea.  Golden  rod.  The leaves
ond flowers of this plant ore recommended os aperients
ond corroborants in urinary obstructions, ulcerations
of the kidneys and bladder, ond it to soid  by some to be
particularly useful in stopping internal hemorrhages.
  SOLIDS.  In  anatomy, are the bones, ligaments,
membranes, muscles, neives,and vesiels. 
SOM
SOP
  SOLITAR.IUS.  Solitary.  Applied to worms in the
body, and to leaves, stems, fooUtalk, Ax. when eitnei
single on a plant, or only one in the same place.
  SOLIUM.  (From *o/ii«, alone: socalled because it
infesu the body singly) The tape-worm,  fee rania,
  Solomon's seal.   See Convallaria polygonatum.
  SOLSE ftUIUM.  (From sol, the sun, and sequor.
to follow: so called because il turns iu flowers toward
the sun.)  Marigold or turnsole.  See Heliotropium.
  SOLVENT.  See Menstruum.
  SOLUTION   Solutio.  An intimate  eommixture
of solid  bodies with fluids, into one seemingly homoge-
neous liquor.  The dissolving fluid is called a men-
struum or solvent
  SOLIJTI'VA.   (From sdvo, to loosen.)  Loxotive
medicines, gentle purgotives.
  SO M M ITE.  See Nepheline.
  SOMNAMBULISM.  See Oneirodynia.
  SOMNI'FEROUS.   (Somniferus;  from somnus,
sleep, ond/ero, to bring.) Hoving the power of inducing

  [Somnium.  Thto  is  a term  introduced by Dr.
MitchiU, to designate the state between sleeping and
waking, in which persons perform acts of which they
are unconscious.  It includes all  those states of the
system  in which persons  walk, talk, sing, dream, Sec.
during  which they are neither perfectly  asleep ner
awake.  Thto state of Somnium may be divided into
Symptomatic, and Idiopathic,
             /.  Symptomatic Somnium.
   1. Somnium, from indigestion (a dyspepsia), when
from loo much food, or too feeble a  condition of the
stomach, there to a fermentation with acidity, eructa-
tions, and pain or uneasiness, followed by troublesome
dreams.                          , , .   .  ,
  2. Somnium from the nightmare (ab incuho), sup-
posed to arise from some impediment to the free circu-
lation ofthe blood through the heart and lungs; al woys
unpleasant  ond sometimes  frightful.   The  memory
here is  active, but the will to suspended, ond ihe efforts
to exert it fails.  Persons are supposed to have died in
tils of incubus.                      .          , .
   3  Somnium from effusions of water in the chest (ab
hvdrothorar.e), believed to proceed from anxiety about
 the vital parts, caused by lymph in the pericardium or
 thorax.  Terrifying dreams rousing the potientsuddenly
 are the common consequences of  this disorder.  This
 and the preceding are  the Oneirodynia of Nosologisls.
   4  Somnium from  a feverish state of the body (o
 febre),  coused by on undue and irregulor excitement of
 the brain.   This is known by the name of high deliri-
 um, or sometimes furor.              «,._.„■,  ,„»w>«>
   5. Somnium from debility (cum debilitate), where
 there is not  excitement enough to  embody ideas in
 iteadv  trains.  Memory and imagination aa in a con-
 fused and irregular monner.  Low delirium.
   6. Somnium from fainting (cum asphyxia), where,
 thoueh there to  an exhaustion of vito power, and the
 Kauai  appears to be dead, there  is life enough ,..
 the body to prevent putrefaction. The animal func-
 tions do not seem to be so much depressed as the vital;
 for, on recovery, the individual relates what he; witness-
 ed during  the trance in which he lay, while in the
 very lowest ebb of life.         .
    7. Somnium from fresh and vivid occurrences (a re-
 ceutibus), as when dreams can be troced to some con-
 versation or occurrence ofthe day, or to some actual
 condition of the body.  Common dreaming.
    8 Somnium from old and forgotten occurrences (ab
  Obsoletis),  when long-lost images are renewed to the
  memory, and dead friends are brought before us.
    9 Somnium  from an overloaded brain (a plethora),
  with symptoms bordering on epilepsy, apoplexy, and
  catalepsy-   Sometimes called typhomanto.
    10  Somnium of a prospective character (a prophe-
  tia), when the dreamer to engaged in seeing funeral pro-
  ceiions,  and foretelling events by a sort of second
  mMtm it is called.  This disease is symptomatic of a
  £cuha? stole'of body, running in families like gout,

  C°llU^Pmniumf fromnvlvid impressions on the inter-
  nal oreonof sight (a visione), where visual images are
  »«3g,  tha the dreamers are  colled Seer*, because
  Key We so much, and their sighu ore termed Visions,
  ■nalmhchaiTtheeyes are so peculiarly concerned.
     a^ontrdum from the condition, of other corporeal
  organs (a fi*wu velpruritu), causing dreams.
  13. Somnium (a respiratione) from inhaling nitrous
oxide gas, depriving  the person of consciousness and
will, and inspiring delightful sensations.
  14. Somnium (o toxico) from doses of opium, hyos-
cyamus datura, and  other narcotic planU, taken into
the stomach, disturbing the win and exciting strange
fancies.                           ....      j
  15. Somnium from drunkenness (ab ebnetate),caused
by drinking spirituous liquors, overcoming conscious-
ness and spontaneity.
             //. Idiophalhic Somnium.
  1. Somnium, from abstraction, where the internal
senses are so engaged that there is no knowledge, or an
imperfect one, of ihe passing evenu, conBiituting what
in termed Reverie; where fanciful trains of the thought
ore indulged ot considerable length.
  2 Somnium, wilh partiol or universal lunacy (cum
insanitote), vitiating the  mind with some fundamental
error on a particular subject, or disturbing and con-
foundine all the operations of the animal mind.  1 his
characterizes some forms of madness and melancholy.
  3. Somnium, with talking (cum sermone),  where
the ideas of the mind are uttered in audible words, os
in o wokefulstote: called frequently, Sommloquisin, or
sleep talking  on ordinary subjecu.
   4 Somnium, with wolking  (cum  ambulatione),
where the person rises from hed, walks about, fre-
quently goes abroad, without the smallest recollection
tiiat any volition had been exerted on the occasion:
the whole affair is forgotten, and not a trace left in tne
memory: this is called somnambulism.
   5. Somnium, with invention (cum niventione), as
when unbidden ideas rise in the mind in a methodical
series, and form o poetical sonnet, different from any-
thing known before, and unattainable by the waking
powers. These ore sometimes reduced to writing- at
the time and found afterward, though the act of com-
mitting them to paper is generally forgotten.  On other
occasions the memory preserves the particulars of such

 ' 1? Somnium, (cum hallucinatione) with mistaken
 impressions of sight, and sometimes  of hearing, so
strong os to enforce o conviction of their reality.  Many
visions, conversations, ond  mistaken  representations
gain currency in this way.  The patienu being unwit-
tingly  deceived themselves, propagate with an honest
 zeal their delusions, ond labour to gain the assent of
 their friends and acquaintances.                   .
   7. Somnium, with singing (cum musica), wherein
 the person, though unable to raise a note when awake,
 becomes capable in the somnial condition  of uttering
 sounds in most melodious occenu.
   8. Somnium, with ability to pray and preach (cum re-
 ligione), or to address the  Supreme Being and human
 auditors in an instructive and eloquent manner, with-
 out any recollection of having been so employed, ond
 with utter incompetency to  perform such exercises of
 devotion ond instruction when owoke.
   See  these  stotes  of Somnium,  illustrated by cases,
  published in New-York, in 1815, under the title of
  » Devotional Somnium," Sec. containing the account
 of Rachel Baker, Sec.  Notes from Dr. M.'s lectures

  ""sONCHl'TES."  (From ooyx°S, the sow-thistle: so
  named from iu resemblance to  the  soncbus.)   The
  herb howkweed.                     __   _s»i«_
   SONCHUS. (ITapa ro ntaov, x«iv; from iU whole-
  some juice.)   The  name of a genus of planu in the
  Linnaean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Polyga-
  mia aqualis.  The sow-thistle.
   Sonchus  oleraceus.  The systemafic name of the
  sow-thistle.   Most  of  the species of sonchus  abound
  with  a milky juice, which  to very bitter, and said to
  possess diuretic virtues.  This is sometimes employed
  with  that intention.  Boiled it moy be eaten as a sub
  stitute for cabbage.
    SOOT. See Fuligo.      .                  ,
    SOPHIA.  (Prom otxbos, wise: so named from its
  great virtues in stopping fluxes.)  FUx-weedor flux-
  weed.  See  Sisymbrium.
    Sophia chiruroorum.  See sisymbrium sophta.
    SOPHISTICATION.  A term employed in  phar-
  macy to signify the counterfeiting or odidterating any
  meoictoe  "This practice ""^^tL0 to'carrted  oT£
  dealers in drugs. Ac;  and the cheat is carnea  on so
  artlficTally by many as to prevent.a discovery even by
  persons of the most discerning faculties.    ^ 
SOR
SPA
   SOPHO'RA.  (A name of most whimsical origin.
 Sophera to, according lo Prosper Alpinus, the Egyptian
 denomination of a species of cassia,  the  Cu.-sia so-
 phera of Linnaeus, nearly related to this genus.  Lin-
 naeus, spelling it sophora, calls It a genus  sophorum,
 or of wise men ; as teaching that separate stamens, in
 the papilionaceous family, if ever the limits of that
 family can be determined, afford so decisive o mark of
 discrimination, as almost to exclude the plants furnish-
 ed with such, from the same natural  class, or order,
 with  those the filaments of which are combined.) The
 name of a genus of plants.  Class, Decandria; Order,
 Monogynia.
  Sophora heptaphvlla. The systematic name of
 the shrub, the root and seeds of which are  sometimes
 called anticholerica ; they are  both intensely  bitter,
 and said to be useful in cholera, colic, and dysury.
  SOPHRONISTE'RES.  (From otatppovitta, to be-
 come wise:  so called because they do not appear till
 after  puberty.)  The last of tlie grinding-teeth.
  SOPIE'NTIA.   (From topio, to make sleep.)   Me-
 dicines wliich procure sleep.
  SO'POR.   Profound sleep.
  SOPORIFEROUS.    (Soporiferus;  from sopor,
 sleep, and fero,  to hear.)   A term given to whatever
 induces sleep. See Anodyne.
  So'ra.  (Arabian.)   The nettle-rash.
  Sorbastre'lla.   (From sorbeo,  to suck  up; be-
 cause it slops hasmorrhages.)   The herb burnet.  See
 Pimpinella saxifraga.
  SORBATE.  A compound of sorbic or malic acid,
 wilh the salifiable basis.
  SORBIC ACID.  (Acidum sorbicum; from sorbus,
 the mountain ash, from the berries of which it  is ob-
 tained.)  "The acid  of apples called  malic, moy be
 obtoinea most conveniently and in greatest purity from
 the berries of the mountain ash, called sorbus, or pyrus
 aucuparia, and hence the present name, sorbic  ocid.
 This was  supposed to be o new and peculiar acid by
 Donovan and Vauquelin,  who  wrote  good disserta-
 tions upon it.   But it now appears that the sorbic and
pure malic acids are identical.
  Bruise the ripe berries in a mortar, and then squeeze
 them  in a linen bag.  They  yield nearly  half  their
 weight of juice, of ihe specific gravity of 1.077. Thto vis-
 cid juice, by remaining for about a fortnight  in a warm
 temperature, experiences tlie vinous fermentation, and
 would yield a portion of alkohol. By this change, it
 has become bright,  clear, ond passes easily through the
 filter,  while the sorbic  act \ iuelf is not altered.  Mix
 the clear juice with filterea solution of acetate of lead.
 Separate the  precipitate on a filter, and wash it with
 cold water.  A large quantity of boiling water is then
 to be poured upon  the filter, and allowed to drain into
 glass jars.  At the end of some hours, the solution de-
 posites crystals of great lustre and beauty. Wash these
 with cold water, di;-solve them in boiling water, filter,
 and crystallize.  Collect the  new crystals, and  boil
 them  for half an hour in 2.3 times their weight of sul-
 phuric acid, specific gravity 1.000, supplying water as
 fast as it evaporates, and stirring the mixture diligently
 with a gloss rod.  The cleor liquor is  io be decanted
 into a toll norrow gloss jor, and while still hot, a stream
 of sulphuretted hydrogen is to be passed through it
 When ihe lead has been all thrown down in a sulphu-
 ret, the  liquor to to be filtered, and ihen boiled iu an
 open  vessel to dissipote the adhering sulphuretted hy-
 drogen.  It to now  a solution of sorbic acid.
  When it is evaporated to the consistence of o syrup,
 it forms mammelated masses of a crystalline structure.
 It still contains a considerable quantity of woter, and
 deliquesces when  exposed to the air.   Its  solution is
 transparent, colourless, void of smell,  but powerfully
 acid to tbe taste.  Lime and barytes waters are not
 precipitated by solution ofthe sorbic ocid, olthough the
 sorbate of lime is  nearly insoluble.  One of the most
 characteristic properties of this ocid, to the  precipitate
 which it gives wilh tbe acetate of lead,  wliich is at first
 white ond flocculent but afterword assumes a bril
 liant crystalline appearance.  With potassa, soda, and
 ammonia, it forms crystallizable salts containing an
 excess of  acid."
   SO'RBUS.  (From sorbeo, to suck up; because iu
 fruit stops fluxes.)  The name of a genus of plants in
 the Linna-on system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Tri-
 gynia.  The service-tree.
   Sorbus aucuparia.  Tbe  wild service-tree.  The
      998
berries of this plant  are adstringent, and, It is said.
have been  found serviceable  in allaying the pain or
calculous affections in the kidneys.
  SO RDES.   When the matter discharged from ul-
cers is rather viscid, glutinous, of a brownish-red co-
lour, somewhat resembling the grounds of coffee, or
grumous  blood mixed wilh water, it is thus named.
Sordes, Sames, and frAor, are all of them  much more
fiptid than purulent matter, and none of thoni are alto-
gether free from acrimony; but that which is generally
termed Ichor, to by much the most acrid of them, being
frequently so sharp and corrosive as  to  destroy large
quantities of the neighbouring parU.
  Sore, bey.  A disease whicli Dr. Mosely considers as
a true cancer, commencing  with an ulcer.  It to ende-
mic at the Bay of  Honduras.
  SORE-THROAT.  See Cynanehe.
  SORREL.   See Rumex acetosa.
  Sorrel, French.  See Rumex scutatus.
  Sorrel, round-leaved.  See Rumex scutatus.
  Sorrel, wood.  See Oxalis acetosella.
  SOUND.  1. An instrument which  surgeons intro-
duce through the  urethra into  the bladder, to discover
whether there is a stone in  this viscus or not
  2.  See Hearing.
  SOUR DOCK.  See Rumex acdosa.
  SOUTHERNWOOD.  See Artemisia  abrotanum.
  SOW-BREAD.  See Cyclamen.
  SPA.  A town  in France, in the department of the
Ourte, famous for its mineral  water, which appears to
be a very  strongly acidulous chalybeate, containing
more iron and carbonic acid than  any  other mineral
spring.  What applies to the  use of chalybeates will
apply to this woter.
  SP ADIX.  A n elongated receptacle or flower-bearing
column, which emerges, mostly, from a spothe or sheath,
as it does in Arum maculatum, Calla  athiopica, and
palustris ;  but the Acorus calamus has a spadix with-
out any sheath.
  The inflorescence of palms,  and  some other plants,
is o branched spadix; as the Chamarops humilis, Mu-
sa, Sec
  Spain,pellitory of.   See  Anthemis pyrethrum.
  Spanish fly. See Cantharis.
  Spanish liquorice.  See Glycyrrhiza.
  Spar,fluor.  See Fluor.
  Spar, ponderous.  See Heavy-spar, and Barytes.
  Spar, tabular.  See Tabular spar.
  SPARGANO'SIS.   (From ottapyata,  to  swell.)  A
mil k abscess.
  Sparry anhydrite.  A sulphate of lime.   See Anhy-
drite.
  SPARRY IRON.  A carbonate of  iron, of a pale
yellowish  gray colour, found in  limestone in  Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland, and in lorge quantities in
Hessia.
  SPARSU3.  Dispersed, irregularly scattered.  Fre-
quently used in medicine, anatomy, and  botany, to
eruptions, glands,  leaves, flower-stalks.
  SPA'RTIUM.   (Xjrapoiov of Dioscorides: so called
from cmapln,  a rope; because of the use of the long,
slender, tough branches, or bark, in making cordage.)
The name of a genus of planu in the Linnajan system.
Class, Diadelphia; Order,  Decandria.
  Spartium scoparium.   The systematic name ofthe
common  broom.  Gemtta. The tops and  leaves of
this indigenous plant, Spartium—foliis ternalis solita-
riisque, ramis inermibus  angulatis, of Linnaeus, are
the paru that are  employed medicinally; they have a
bitter taste, and are recommended for their purgative
and diuretic qualities, iu hydropic cases.
  SPASM1   Spasmodic diseases.  The third order of
tbe Class Neuroses,  of Cullen; characterized  by a
morbid contraction or motion of muscular fibres.
  SPASMODIC.  Spasmoaicus.  Belonging to a spasm,
or convulsion.
  Spasmodic colic. See Colica.
  SPASMOLOGY.   (Spasmologia ; from enraopos, a
spasm, ond Xoyos, a discourse.) A treatise on convul-
sions.
  SPASMUS.  (Spasmus; from eitaia, to draw.)  A
cramp, spasm, or convulsion. An  involuntary con-
traction of the muscular fibres, or tbat state of tiie con-
traction of muscles  which is not  spontaneously dis-
posed to alternate with relaxation, to properly termed
spasm.  When the contractions alternate with relax-
ation, and are frequently and preternaturally repeated, 
SPE
srH
they are called convulsions. Spasms are distinguished
by  authors  into clonic and tonic spasms.  In clonic
spasms, whicli are the true convulsions, the contrac
tions and relaxations are alternate, as in epilepsy ;  but
in tonic spasms  the member  remains rigid, as in
locked jaw.  See Convulsion, Tonic spasm, and  Te-
tanus.
  Spasmus cynicus.   Sardonic  laugh.   A convulsive
affection of the  muscles of the face  and lipa on both
sides, wliich involuntarily  forces the muscles of those
parts into a species of grinning distortion.  If one side
only be affected, the disorder is nominated tortura oris.
When the  masseter.  buccinator, temporal, nasal, and
labial muscles, ore involuntarily excited to  action, or
contorted by contraction  or relaxation, they form  a
species of malignant sneer.  It sometimes arises from
eating hemlock, or other acrid poisons, or succeeds to
an apoplectic stroke.
  SPATHA.  (From oiraBn, a slice, or ladle.) A bota
nical term.   A sheath, or  covering  of  an  immature
flower which bursts longitudinally, aud is  more or less
remote  from the flower.   From the number of mem-
branes, which  are  called  valves, and of the flowers,
and their duration, it is named,
  1. Spatha univalvis, having only one membranous
leaf; os in Arum maculatum, and Crocus sativus.
  2. Bivatvis, in Stratiates alioides.
  3. Dimidiata, or lacera, there being only one valve,
 and that covering the flower only partially;  as in  Ixia
 unifiora, and africana.
  4. Vaga, the common sheath enclosing several  par-
tial ones ; as in Iris germanica, and helonica.
  5. Unifiora, containing only one flower; as the JVar-
eissus  poeticus,  Pseudo-narcissus, and  Amaryllis
formosissima.
  6. Biflora, with two; as in Alpina racemosa, and
 Moraa vegeta.
  7. Maltiflora; as  in Allium, Narcissus jonquilla,
 and Pancreatium carabeum.
  8. Spatha persistens, remaining with tbe fruit; as
in Hdiconia bibai.
  9. Marcescens, withering before or soon after the
flowering;  as in Allia and Leucojum vcrnum.
  SPATHOME'LE.    (From oirnBn,  a  sword,  and
siijXij, a probe.)  An  edged probe.
  SPA'TULA.  (Diminutive of spatha, a broad in-
 strument)  An instrument for spreading solve.  Also ]
 a nome of the herb spurgewort, from its brood leaves.
  SPATULATUS.  SpatUlate: applied to leaves,Sec. I
 of  a roundish figure, tapering into an oblong base;  as
 in  Silene otites.
  SPEARMINT.  See Mentha viridis.
  Spearwort, water.  See Ranunculus flammula.
  SPECIFIC.   Specificus. A remedy that  has an in-
 fallible efficacy  in tbe cure of disorders.   The exist-
 Ince of such remedies is doubted.
   Specific gravity.  See Gravity, specific.
   SPECTLLUM.   (From specio, to  examine.)   A
 probe.
   SPE'CULUM.  (From  specio, to view.)  An instru-
 ment for opening or obtaining a view of parts within
 each other-, as Speculum  oculi, Speculum oris, Specu-
 lum ani, Sec.
   Speculum ani.   An instrument  for distending the
 anus, while an operation  to performed upon the parts
 within.
   Speculum  matricis.   An instrument to assist in
 any manual operation belonging to the womb.
   Speculum  oculi. An instrument used  by oculists
 to keep the eyelids open and the eye fixed.
   Speculum oris.   An  instrument to force open the
 mouth.
    Speculum veneris.  See Achillea millefolium.
    SPEECH.  See Voice.
    SPEEDWELL.  See Veronica.
    Speedwell, female.  See Antirrhinum elatine.)
    Speedwell, mountain.   See Veronica.
    SPERMA-CETI.  (From oirtppa, seed, and cete, or
 cetus, the  whale.)   See Physeter macrocephalus.
    SPERM A'TIC.  (Spermaticus ; from oirtppa, seed.)
  Belonging  to the testicle and  ovary; as the sperma-
  tic artery, chord, and veins.
    SPERMATOCELE.    (From enrtppa,  seed, and
  iojXi;, a tumour.)  Epididymis distensa.  A swelling
  of the testicle or epididymis from an accumulation of
  semen. It to known by a swelling of those organs,
  pain extending to the loins without inflammation.
  Spkrmatopoe'tica.   (Froiri oirtppa, and irouta, to
make.)  Medicines wliich increase the generation of
seed.
  SPERMORRHCE'A.   (From  oirtppa,  semen, and
ptia, fiuo.)  The name of a genus of diseases in Good's
Nosology.  Class, Gendica; Order, Cenotica.  Semi
nal flux.  It has  two species, viz.  Spcrmorrhaa ento
nica. and atonica.
  SPHACELl'SMUS.   (From  otbaxtXilta,  to gan-
grene.)  1.  A gangrene.
  •2. A phreniiis.
  SPHACELUS.   (From otpaxta, to destroy.)   A
mortification of any part.  See Gangrene.
  SPHENOIDES.  See Sphenoides.
  SPH-rERI'TIS.   (From otpaipa,  a globe: so called
from its round head.) Spharocephalia elatior.  Spha-
rocephalus.  The globe-thistle.
  SPHA^ROCE'PHALUS.  See Spharitis.
  S PH JE RO' M A.  (From a^aipa, a globe.)  A fleshy,
globular protuberance.
  SPH-rERULITE.  A brown and gray-coloured mi-
neral, found in imbedded roundish balls and grains,
in pearlstone and pitchstone porphyries, near Schem-
nitz.
  SPHE'NO.  Names compounded of this word  be-
long to the sphenoid bone.
  Spheno-maxillaris.  An artery, and a fissure of
the orbit of the eye, is so called.
  Spheno-salpingo-staphylinus. See Circumflexus.
  Spheno-staphylinus.  See Levator palati.
  SPHENOIDAL.  Sphenoidalis.   Belonging  to  the
sphenoid bone.
  Sphenoidal suture.  Sutura sphenoidalis. The
sphenoidal  and  ethmoidal  sutures are  those which
surround the many  irregular processes of these two
bones, and join them to each other and to the rest
  SPHENOI'DES OS.  (From otbnv, a wedge, and
tiSos, a likeness; because it to fixed  in  the cranium
like a wedge.)  Os cuneiforme; Os multiforme;  Os
azygos;  Papillare os ;  Basilare os ; Os polymorphos.
Pterygoid bone.  Tbe os sphenoides, or cuneiforme, as
it is called from iu wedge-like situation amidst  the
other bones of the head, is of a more irregular figure
than any other bone.  It has been compared to a bat
with iu wings extended.   This resemblance is  but
faint, but it would be difficult perhaps to find any thing
it resembles more.
   We distinguish,  in this bone, iu body or middle part,
and its wings or sides, which are much more extensive
than its body.
   Each of  iu wings or lateral processes is divided into
 two poru.  Of these, the uppermost and most consi
derabte portion, helping to form the deepest port of the
 temporal fossa on each side, is called the temporal pro-
 cess.  The other portion makes a part of the orbit, and
 is therefore named ihe orbitar process.   The back
 port of each wing, from iu  running out sharp  to meet
 the os petrosum, has been colled tlie spinous process ;
 and Ihe two processes, which stand out almost perpen-
 dicular to the basis of the skull, have been named pte-
 rygoid or alifomi  processes, though they may be said
 rather to resemble the legs thon the wings of  the bat
 Each of these processes has two  plates and a  middle
 fosso facing backwards; of these plates, the external
 one is the broadest, and the internal one  tbe longest.
 The lower end of the  internal plate  forms a kind of
 hook, over which  passes the round tendon of the miii-
 culus  circumflexus palati.  Besides these, we  observe
 a sharp middle ridge, which stands out from the mid-
 dle of the  bone.   The forepart of it, where it joins tbe
 nasal  lamella of  the  ethmoidal  bone,  is  thin  and
 straight; the lower port of it is  thicker,  and is re
 ceived into the vomer.
   The cavities, observable on the external surface or
 the  bone,  are where it helps to  form the temporal,
 nasal, and orbitar  fossa.                .
   It has likewise two fossaj in iu  pterygoid processes.
 Behind the edge, which separates  these two fossa;, we
 observe a small groove, made by a branch of the supe-
 rior maxillary nerve,  in its passage to  the temporal
 muscle. Besides these, it has other depressions, which
 serve chiefly for ihe origin of the muscles.
   Its foramina ore four on each side.  The three first
 serve for the passage of the optic, superior maxillary,
 and inferior maxillary nerves; the fourth iransmite
 the lorgest artery of the dura mater.  On each side we
 observe a  considerable fissure, which, from^u aituir 
SP1
SPI
 don,  may be  called  the superior  orbltor  fissure.
 Through it pass the third and fourth pair of nerves, a
 branch  of ihe  fifth, and likewise  the  sixth  pair.
 Lastly, at the basis of eoch pterygoid process, we ob-
 serve a foramen  which is named pterygoulean, and
 sometimes ftdian, from Vidius, who first described it.
 Through it posses a branch of the external carotid, lo
 be distributed to the nose.
  The os sphenoides, on  Ite internal  surface, affords
 three foss-e.  Two of these are considerable ones;
 they are  formed by the lateral  processes,  and moke
 part of the lesser fossw of the basis of the skull.  The
 third, which is  smaller, is on the top of the body of
 the bone, and is called sella turcica, from iu lesem-
 blance to a Turkish saddle. In this the pituitary gland
 is placed.  At each  of iu four angles is o process.
 They ore  called  the dinoid processes, ond are distin-
 guished by their situation  into anterior  and posterior
 processes. The two loiter are frequently united into one.
  Within the substance of the  os sphenoides, imme-
 diately under the sella turcica, we  find two cavities,
 separated  by a thin bony lamella. These are tlie sphe-
 noidal sinuses.   They are lined  with  tlie pituitary
 membrane, and, like the  frontal sinuses, separate  a
 mucus which passes into  the nostrils.  In some sub-
jecu, there is only one cavity; in others, though more
 rarely, we find three.
  In infants, tiie os sphenoides  to composed of three
 pieces, one of whicli forms the body of the bone and
 iu pterygoid processes, and llie other two its lateral
 processes.   The clinoid processes may even  then be
  erceived  in a cartilaginous state, though some writers
  ave asserted the contrary; but we observe no appear-
 ance of any sinus.
  This bone is  connected  with all the bones of the
 cranium, and likewise with  the ossa  maxillaria, ossa
 malar urn,  ossa palati, and vomer.  Its  uses may be
 collected from the description we have given of il.
  SPHINCTER.   (From  otpiylm, to shut up.)  The
 name of several muscles, the office of which is to shut
 or close the aperture around which they are placed.
  Sphincter ani.  Sphincter externus, of Albinus ond
 Douglas.   Sphincter cutaneus, of Winslow ; and coc-
 djfio-cutant-sphincter, of  Dumas.  A single  muscle
 ot the anus, which shuts tbe passage through the  anus
 into the  rectum, and  pulls down tha bulb of the ure-
 thra, by which  it  assists  in ejecting the urine and
semen.  It arises from the skin and fat that surrounds
 the verge of the anus on both sides, nearly as far as the
 tuberosity of the ischium;  the fibres are gradually col-
lected into an oval  form, and surround the exttemity
of the rectum.   It is  inserted by a narrow point into
the perineum, acceleratores urina:, and transversi pe-
rinet; and behind into the extremity of the os coccygis,
by as acute termination.
  Spoincter ani cutaneus. See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter ani externus. See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter ani internus.   Albinus and Douglas
call the  circular  fibres of  the muscular coat  of the
rectum, which surround its extremity, by this name.
  Sphincter cutaneus.   See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter externus.  See Sphincter ani.
  Sphincter ovlx.  The muscle  which  contracts
the top of the throat
  Sphincter laoiorum.   See Orbicularis oris.
  Sphincter oris.  See Orbicularis oris.
  Sphincter vagin.e.  Constrictor cunni, of Albinus.
 Second muscle of the clitoris, of Douglas; and anulo-
eyndesmo-ditoridien,  of Dumas.  This muscle arises
from tbe sphincter ani and from tbe posterior side of
the vagina, near the perineum; from thence it runs up
the side ofthe vagina near  ite external orifice, opposite
 to the nymphae, covers the  corpus cavernosum, and to
inserted into tbe crus and  body, or union ofthe crura
clitoridis. Iu use to to contract the mouth of the vagina.
  Sphinqo'nta.  (From otbtyjia, to bind.)  Astringent
 medicines.
  SPHONDY'LIUM.   (From  oirovSvXos,  vertebra;
 named from the shape of iu root, or probably because
 it was used agoinst the bite of o serpent called oirovSv-
Aic.)  This is supposed to be the brancknrsine.  See
 Acanthus ■mollis.
  SPH R AGIDE.  A species of Lemnion earth.
  6PHRONGIDIUM.  Sec Columnula.
  BPPCA.  A spike.   L A  species  of inflorescence,
consisting of one common stalk bearing numerous flow-
en, all rassged along it without any, or having  very
      300
small partial stalks, as the flower-stalk  of the greater
plantain.  From it* figure, ihe situation  of the flowers,
and iu vesture, it is called,
  1.  Cylmdrica; as in Plantago media, and albicans.
  2.  Ocuta, in Sanguisorba officinalis.
  •I.  Articulata, with joints; as in Salicornta herba-
ceo, and Polygonum arlicttlatum.
  4.  Conjiigaia, two spikes going from the summit of
the peduncle ; as in Hdwtropium europaum and par-
v\fiorum.
  5.  Ramosa, divided into branches; as in Chenopo
dium bonus henricus, and Osmunda.
  ti.  Imbricata; as in Salvia hispanica.
  7.  Secunda, the flowers leaning all to one side; as In
Anchusa officinalis.
  8.  Interrupta, in separate groupes; as in Betonica
officinalis, and OompArena interrupta.
  9.  Disticha, two series of spikes; as in Gladiolue
alopecuroides.
  10. Tcrminalis; as in Lavendula.
  11. Axillares ; as in Justitia spinosa.
  12. Fuliosa, leafleU between the flowers; as in Agri-
monia eupatoria.
  13. Comosa, having a leafy bundle at the apex; as in
Lavendula stachas, and Bromelia ananas.
  14. Ciliata, hairs between tbe flowers; as in Nardus
oiliaris.
  II. An ear of corn.
  III. A bandage resembling an ear of corn.
  Spica brevis.  The Alopecuris pratensis
  Spica celtica.  See Valeriana celtica.
  Spica famina.  Common lavender.
  Spica indica.  See Nardus indica.
  Spica inguinalis.  A bandage for ruptures In tbe
groin.
  Spica  inouinalis duplex.   Double bandage  for
ruptures.
  Spica mas.   Broad-leaved'avender.
  Spica nardi.  See Nardus indica.
  Spica simplex. A common roller or bandage.
  SPICULA.  Aspikelet  A  term applied exclusively
to grasses that  have  many  floreu on one calyx, such
floreu ranged on a little stalk, constituting the splkelet,
which is therefore a part of the flower  itself, and not
of the efflorescence; as in Briza minor, and Poa aqua-
tica.  Locusta means the same as spicula.
  SPIGE'LIA.  (So called  by Linnaeus in commemo-
ration of on old botanist, Adrian Spigelius, who wrote
Isagoge in rem  herbariam, in 1G06.)  I.  The name of
a genus of planu in the Linnaean system.  Class, Pen-
tandria; Order, Monogynia.
  ft.  The name in some, pharmacopoeias for the Spi-
gelia marilandica.
  Spigelia anthelmia.  Tbe systematic name of the
spigelia of some pharmacopoeias.   K is  directed as an
anthelmintic; iu  virtues  are  very  similar to those of
the Indian pink.  See Spige liamarilandica.
  Spigelia lonicera.  See Spigelia marilandica.
  Spigelia  marilandica.    Spigelia lonicera.  Pe>
rcnnial worm-grass, or Indian pink.  Spigelia—caule
letragono, foliis omnibus, oppositis, ot Linnaeus. The
whole of this plant, but most commonly the root, is em •
ployed as an anthelmintic by the Indians, and inhabit
ants  of America.  Dr. Hope has written in favour of
thto plant, in continued and remitting low worm fevers.
Besides iu  properly of destroying  the worms  in the
prima: via;, it acu as a purgative.
  Spigelion lobe.  See Liver.
  SPIGELIUS, Adrian, was born at Brussels, in 1578.
He  studied  at  Louvain, and afterward at  Padua,
where he took  his degree.    He became thoroughly
skilled in every branch of his profession, particularly
in anatomy and surgery; and after travelling some
time to the different schools  in Germany, he  settled In
Moravia, where he was soon appouited shysiclan to
the States of the Province.  In 1616 he was invited lo
occupy the principal professorship in anatomy and sur-
gery  at Padua, where lie acquitted himself with  so
much success, that he was created  a knight of St.
Mark, and presented with a collar of gold.  He died in
1625. His writings evince him to have possessed very
extensive medical knowledge.  The  first,  which  he
published, contains some  interesting information con-
cerning the virtues of plants, respecting  wbich be ap-
pears to have learned much from the Italian peasantry
He wrote also concerning some diseases and other mat-
ters.  But the most valuable ef his works are those
/ 
SPI                                               SPI
 oomposed on anatomical subjects, published after his
 death, by his son-in-low, Crenia.
   SPIGNEL.  See JEthusa meum.
   SPIKELET.  See Spicula.
   SPIKENARD. See Nardus indica.
   SPILA'NTHUS.   (From ottiAoc, a spot, ond avBos,
 a flower; because of Its dotted or speckled flowers.)
 The name of a genus of plants.   Class, Syngenesia;
 Order, Polygamia aqualis.
   Spilanthus acmella. Achmella. Achamella.  The
 systematic nome of the bohn-leaved spilanthus, which
 possesses a glutinous  bitter taste, and a fragrant smell.
 The herb and  seed are said to be diuretic and emme-
 nagogue, and useful  in dropsies, jaundice, fluor albus,
 and calculous complaints,given in infusion.
   SPI'NA.   (Quasi spiculina, diminutive  of spica.)
 A thorn.
  A. The back-bone: so colled from the  thorn-like
 processes ofthe vertebras.  See Vertebra, and Spine.
  B. The shin-bone.
  C. A thorn of a plant. A prickly nrmoture of plants,
 lot eosily removed by the finger, and proceeding from
 Ihe woody part ofthe plant It is either,
  1. Culine;  os in Prunus spinosa.
  2. Terminal, at the end of a branch; as in Rhamnus
 catharticus.
  3. Foliar, on the surface of the leaf; as in Carduus
 morion us.
  4. Marginal, on the margin of the  leaf;  as in Ilex
 aquifolium.
  5. Axillary, going  from the  axilla of the  leaf; as in
 Gleditschia triacanthos.
  6. Calycine, on the calyx; as in Carduus marianus.
  7. Pericarpial, on the pod ; osin Doturo stromonium.
  8. Stipular, on the stipule;  as in Mimosa nilotico,
 and horrido.
  9. Straight; as in Mimosa nigra.
  10. Recurve; as in Costus nobilis.
  11. Decussate; as in Genista lucitanica.
  12. Setaceous ;  as in Cactus opuntia.
  13. Subulate; as in Cactus tuna.
  14. Inerm, covered with soft  and  not prickly spines,
 ■too called muricate; as in Convolvulus muricatus, and
 Mimosa muricata.
  15. Simple, when not divided; as Genista  anglica.
  16.  Germinal; as in Limonia trifoliata.
  17. Ternate; as in Zanthium spinosum.
  18. Ramose; as in Gleditschia horrida.
  Spina  acida.  See Berberis.
  Spina  acuta.  The hawthorn.
  Spina  ./egyftiac*..  The  Egyptian thorn or sloe-tree.
See Acacia vera.
  Spina  alba.  The whitethorn tree.
  Spina  arabica. The chardon, or Arabian thistle.
  Spina  bifida.  Hydrops  medulla spinalis;  Hydro-
cele spinalis ; Hydrorachytis spinosa.  A tuniour upon
the spine of new-born children, immediately about tlie
lower vertebra? of the loins, and upper parts of the
sacrum ;  at first, it to of a dark blue colour; but in pro-
portion as it increases in size, approaches nearer  and
nearer to the colour of tiie skin, becoming perfectly
diaphanous.
  From the surface of this tumour a pellucid watery
fluid sometimes exudes, and  this circumstance has been
noticed by different authors.   It is always attended
with a weakness, or  more  properly speaking, a para-
lysis of  the  lower extremities  The opening  of it
rashly has proved quickly fatal to the child.  Tulpius,
therefore, strongly dissuades us from ottempting  this
operation.  Acrel mentions a cose where o nurse rashly
opened a tumour, which, os  he described  it, wos o
blood bag on the bock of the  child ot the time of its
birth, in bigness equal to n hen's egg, in two hours offer
which, the child died.  From the dissection it  Ap-
peared, that  the  bladder lay in the middle  of the os
sacrum, and consisted of a coot, and some strong mem-
brane,  which  proceeded  from  a long  fissure  of the
bones.  Tbe  extremity of the spinal marrow lay bare,
and the spinal duct, in the os sacrum, was uncommon-
ly wide,  and  distended by the pressure of the waters.
Upon trocing it to the head,  the brain was found nearly
in iu natural state,  but the ventricles contained so
much water,  that the infumlibulum was  quite  dis-
tended with it, and the passage between the third and
 fourth ventricle waB greatly enlarged.
  He likewise takes notice of another case, where a
 child lived about eight years labouring under this com
 plaint, during which time it seemed to enjoy tolerable
 health, though pole.  Nothing seemed amiss in him,
 but such n degree of debility as rendered him incapable
 to stand ou his legs.
  The turnout, as  in the former case, was in the mid-
 dle of the os sacrum, of the  bigness of a man's fist,
 with little discolouring;  and  upon pressing it become
 less.  When opened it was found full of water, and the
 coau were the same as In the former, but the separa-
 tion of the bones was very considerable.  The spinal
 marrow, under  the tumour, wos as small as a pack-
 thread, and rigid ;  but there  were no morbid appear-
 ances in the brain.
  Spina  buroiii monspeliensis.  Evergreen privet.
  Spina  cervina.   (So  called from its thorns resem-
 bling those of the stag.)   See Rhamnus catharticus.
  Spina  hirci.  The goat's-thorn of France, yielding
 gum-tragacanth.
  Spina  infectoria. See Rhamnus catharticus.
  Spina  purgatrix.  The purging thorn.
  Spina  solstitialis.   The calcitrapa  officinalis
 Barnohy's thistle.
  Spina ventosa.   (The term of spina seems to hove
 been applied by the Arabians to this disorder, because
 it occasions a prickling in the flesh like the puncture of
 thorns; and the epithet ventosa is added, because,
 upon 'touching  the tumour, it seems to be filled with
 wind,  though this  is not the cause of the distention.)
 Spina ventositas; Teredo ;  Fungus articuli ;  Ar
 throcace: sideratio ossis ; Cancer ossis ; Gangrana
 ossis,  and some  Fiench authors term  It exostosis.
 When children are the subjects of this disease, Seve-
 rinus colls it Padarthrocacc.  A tumour orising from
 on internal caries of a bone.  It most frequently occurs
 in the  carpus and tarsus, and  is known by a continual
 pain in the bone, and a red swelling of the skin, which
 has a spongy feel.
  Spina'chia.   See Spinacia.
  SPINA'CIA.  (From  Ioiravia, Spain, wlience it ori-
 ginally came; or from iu spinous seed.)  The name of
 a genus of plants.  Closs, Diacia; Order, Pentandria.
 Spinoge
  Spinacia oleracea.  The systematic name of the
 Spinachia.  Spinach.  Spinage.  This plant is some-
 times directed for  medicinal  purposes  in  Ihe cure of
 phthisical complaints; made into a poultice, by boiling
 the leaves and adding some oil, it forms an excellent
 emollient  As an  article of food it may be considered
 as similar to cabbage and other oleraceous planu.  See
 Brassica capitata,
  SPIN*  crates.  The spine ofthe back.
  Spin*  vkniositas.  A caries, or decay of a bone.
 See Spina ventosa,
  SPINAL. Spinalis.   Belonging to the spine of the
 back.
  Spinal-marrow.  See Medulla spinalis.
  SPINA'LIS.  See Spinal.
  Spinalis cervicis.  Thto muscle, which is situated
 close to ihe vertebrae at the posterior  port of the neck
 ond upper port of the bock, arises, by distinct tendons,
 from the transverse processes of the five or six upper-
 most vertebrae  of the bock, and ascending obliquely
 under the complexus, is inserted, by small tendons, into
 the  spinous processes of the  sixth, fifth, fourth, third,
 and second vertebra: of the neck.  Ite use to lo extend
 tlie neck obliquely backwards.
  Spinalis colli.  See Semi-spinalis colli.
  Spinalis dorsi.  Transversalis dorsi, of Winslow;
 and inter-tpineux, of Dunios.  This is Ihe name given
 by Albinus to o tendinous ond fleshy moss, which is
situated along the spinous processes of the back ond the
inner side ofthe longissimus dorsi.
  It orises tendinous and fleshy from the spinous pro-
cesses of the uppermost vertebrae of the loins, ond the
lowermost ones of  the bock, ond to inserted into the
spinous processes of the nine uppermost vertebrae ofthe
back.
  Iu use is to extend the vertebrae, and  to assist in
raising the spine.
  Spinales lumborum.   Muscles of the  oins.
  SPINE.  (Spina; from spina, thorn; so colled from
 the  spine-like processes of the vertebras.)  1.  Spina
dorsi;  Columna spinalis ; Columna verlebralis.  A
 bony column or pillar extending in the posterior partof
the  trunk from the grent occipital foramen to the sa
crum.  It is composed of iweniy-four  bones called
 vertebra;.  See Vertebra. 
SPI
SPI
  2. An armature of planu.  See Spina.
  SPINEL.  A sub-species of octohedrol corundum, of
a red colour, amd equol value wilh a diamond.   It
comes from Pegu and Ceylon.
  SPINELLANE.  A  plumb,  blue-coloured  crystal-
lized mineral, found on  Ihe shores of the lake of Loach.
  SP1NESCENS.  Spinescent  Becoming thorny, ap-
plied to the leaf-stalk, when it hardens into a thorn,
and the leaf falls, os to the cose in Rhamnus catharti-
cus, and Robinia spinosa, ond to the slipulae ofthe Ro-
binio pseudococio, which also become thorns.
  Spi'nosa. See Spina bifidi.
  Spino'sum svriacum. The Syrian broom.
  SPINTHERE.  A greenish gray-coloured mineral,
believed lo be a variety of prismatic titanium ore.
  SPIRAL'A.  (From Spira, a pillar: so named from
its spiral  stalk.)   Meadow-sweet   The nome of o
genus of planu in the Linn.-ean system.  Class, Icosan-
dria; Order, Pentagynia.
  Spiraea africana.  African meadow-sweet.
  Spir.ea filipendula. The systematic name of the
officinal dropwort  Filipendula; Saxifraga  rubra.
Dropwort.  The root of this plant, Spiraa—foliis pen-
natis, foliolis uniformibus serratis ; caule herbaceo ;
floribus corymbosis, of Linneus, possesses adstringent,
and, il is said, lithontriptic virtues.  It is seldom used
in the practice of the present day.
  Spiraea ulmaria.   The systematic nome of the
meadow-sweet    Ulmaria;  Regina prati;  Barba
capra. Meadow-sweet Queen ofthe meadows. Thto
is a beautiful and fragrant plant.  The leaves ore re-
commended as mild adstringenu.  The flowers have a
strong smell, resembling lhat of May; they  are sup-
posed to possess antispasmodic and diaphoretic virtues,
and as they are very rarely  used in medicine, Linnaeus
suspecte that the neglect of them  has arisen from the
plant being supposed to be  possessed of some noxious
qualities, which it seemed  to betray by its being left
untouched  by cattle.  It may be  observed, however,
that the cattle also refuse the Angelica ond other herbs,
whose innocence is apparent from daily experience.
  [Spir/ea trifoliata.  See Gillenia. A.]
  SPI'RITUS.  (Spirilus,us. in.; spirit)  This name
was formerly given to all volatile substaaces collected
by distillation.  Three  principal  kinds were distin-
guished :  inflammable or  ardent  spirits, acid spirits,
and  alkaline spiriu.  The word spirit to now almost
exclusively confined to alkohol.
  Spiritus atheris nitrici.  Spiritus athcris ni-
trosi : Spiritus nitri dulcis.  Take of rectified spiriu,
two  pints;  nitric acid, by weight, three ounces; add
the  acid gradually to the spirit,  and mix them, taking
care thot the heat do not  exceed  120°; then with a
gentle heat distil twenty-four fluid ounces.  A febri-
fuge, diaphoretic,  and  diuretic  compound mostly ad-
ministered in asthenia, nervous affections, dysuria, and
calculous complaints.
  Spiritus atheris aromaticus.  Toke of cinnn-
mon-bork, bruised, three drachms; cardamom  seeds
powdered, a drachm and a half; long pepper  powder-
ed,  ginger-root sliced, each  a drachm; spirit  of sul-
phuric aether, a pint; macerate for fourteen days, in a
closed glass vessel, ond strain.   An  excellent stimu-
lating and stomachic compound, which is administered
in debility ofthe stomach and nervous affections.
  Spiritus .*tiieris sulphuric!.   Spiritus  vitrioli
dulcis ; Spiritus atheris vitriolici.  Take of sulphuric
sther, half a pint; rectified spirit, a pint:  mix them.
A diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and tonic preparotion,
mostly exhibited in nervous debility and weakness of
the primae viae.
  Spiritus jetheris sulphurici compositus.  Take
of spirit of sulphuric Kther a pint; xtherial oil, two
fluid drachms; mix them.  A  stimuloting anodyne,
supposed to be similar to tbe celebroted liquor mine-
ralis anodynus, of Hoffmen.  It to exhibited in fevers,
nervous affections, hysteria, Sec.; ond in most cases of
fever where medicines  are rejected by the stomach,
this is of infinite service.
  Spiritus ammonis.   Spirit of ammonia. Formerly
called Spiritus salis ammoniaci dulcis ;  Spiritus salis
ammoniaci.  Takeof proof spirit, three pinu ; muriate
of ammonia, four ounces; subcarbonateof potassa, six
ounces; mix them, ond, with a gentle fire, let  o pint
and a half be distilled into a cooled receiver.  A stimu-
lating antispasmodic, occasionally exhibited in cases of
asphyxia, asthenia, and  in nprvous disease^, but mostly
      3ft}
used  as  an external stimulant against rheumatism,
sprains, and bruises.
  Si'iritus ammoni* aromaticus.  Aromatic spirit
of ammonia. Formerly known by the name of Spiritus
ammonia compositus : Spiritus volatilis aromaticus :
Spiritus  salis  volatilis oleosus.  Tuke of cinnamon-
bark bruised, cloves bruised, cochtwo drachms; lemon-
peel,  four ounces;  subcarbonate  of  potassa,  half a
pound; muriate of ammonia, five ounces; rectified
spirit, four pinte; water, a gallon ; mix and distil *ix
pinu.  A stimulating  antispasmodic and sudorific in
very general use, to smell at in faintings and lowin-ss
of spiriu.  It to exhibited  internally in nervous affec-
tions, hysteria, and weakness of  the stomach.  The
dose is from half a drachm to a drachm.
  Spiritus ammonia fojtidus.  Foetid spirit  of am-
monia.  Formerly called  spiritus volatilis fatiilus.
Take of spirit of ammonia, two pinu; asafoetida, two
ounces.  Macerate for twelve hours, then by a gentle
fire distil o pint and a half into a cooled receiver.  A
stimulating antispasmodic, often exhibited to children
against convulsions, and lo gouty and asthmatic per-
sons.  The dose is from half to a whole fluid drachm.
  Spiritus ammoni* succinatus. Succinated spirit
of ammonia.  Formerly known by the names of Eau
de luce ;  Spiritus salis ammoniaci succinatus ;  Liquor
cornu cervi  succinatus.   Take  of  mastich, three
drachms; rectified spirit, nine fluid drachms; oil of la-
vender, fourteen minims;  oil of amber, four minims ,
solution  of ammonia, ten fluid ounces.  Macerate the
mastich in the spirit that it may dissolve, and pour off
the clear tincture; lo this  add the remaining articles,
and shake them together.  This preparation is much
esteemed as a  stimulant and nervine medicine, and is
employed internally and  externally against spasms,
hysteria, syncope, vertigo, and the stings of  insects.
The dose to from ten minims to'half a fluid drachm.
  Spiritus anisi.  Spirit of aniseed.  Formerly called
Spiritus  anisi compositus ; Aqua scminum anisi com-
posita.  Take  of aniseed, bruised, half a pound  ; proof
spirit, a gallon ; water sufficientlopreventempyreunia.
Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil a gallon  by
a gentle fire.  A stimulating carminative and stomachic
calculated to relieve flatulency,  borborygmus, colic,
and spasmodic affections of the bowels.  The  dose is
from half to a  whole fluid drachm.
  Spiritus  armoracia:  compositus.   Compound
spirit of horse-radish, formerly called Spiritus raphani
compositus; Aqua raphani composita.   Take of horse-
radish root, fresh and sliced, dried orange-peel, of each
a pound; nutmegs,  bruised, half on ounce; proof
spirit, a gallon ; water sufficient to prevent empyreuma.
Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil a gallon by a
gentle fire.  A very  worm stimulating  compound,
given in gouty, rheumatic,  ond spasmodic affections of
the stomach, and  in scorbutic disorders.  The  dose is
from half a fluid drachm to half a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus  camphor*.   Spirit of camphor.  For-
merly known by the names of Spiritus camphoratus;
Spiritus  vinosus camphoratus ; Spiritus vini campho-
ratus. Takeof camphor, four ounces; rectified spirit,
two pints.  Mix, thot the camphor may be dissolved.
A stimulating medicine, used as an external application
against chilblains, rheumatism, palsy, numbness, and
gangrene.
  Spiritus  carui.   Spirit of caraway.   Formerly
called Aqua seminum carui.  Toke of caraway seed,
bruised,  a pound  and a half; proof spirit a  gallon ;
water sufficient to prevent empyreuma.  Macerate for
24 hours, and distil a gallon by a gentle fire.   The dote
is from a fluid drachm to half a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus cinnamomi.  Spirit of cinnamon. For'
merly called Aqua cinnamomi spirituosa ; Aqua cin-
namomi fortis. Take of  cinnamon-bark, bruised, u
pound ; proof spirit  a gallon ; water sufficient to pre
vent empyreuma.  Macerate for 34 hours, ond  distil u
gallon by a gentle fire.  Spirit of cinnamon is  mostly
used in conjunction  with other carminatives to give a
pleasant flavour;  it may be exhibited alone as a car-
minative and  stimulant.  The dose is from  a fluid
drachm to half a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus  cornu  cervi.   See Ammonia subcar
bonus.
  Spiritus juniperi compositus.  Compound spirit
of juniper.  Formerly called Aqua juniperi composita.
Take of juniper-berries, bruised, a pound; caraway-
i-'-ods, hruiped,  fennel seeds, bruised, of each  an ounce 
SPI
SPL
and a half; proof spirits, a gallon; water sufficient to
prevent empyreuma.   M acerate for 34 hours, and distil
a gallon by a gentle fire.
  Spiritus  lavendulje.   Spirit of lavender.  For-
merly called  Spiritus lavendula  simplex.  Take of
fresh lavender flowers, two pounds; rectified spirit, a
gallon; water sufficient to prevent empyreuma.  Ma-
cerate for 24 hours, and  distil a gallon by a gentle fire.
Though mostly used as a perfume, this spirit may be
given internally as a stimulating nervine and antispas-
modic.  The dose is from a fluid drachm to half a fluid
ounce.
  Spiritus  lavendulje  compositus.   Compound
spirit of lavender.   Formerly called Spiritus laven-
dula compositus matthia.  Toke of spirit of lavender,
three pinte; spirit of rosemary, a pint; cinnamon-bark,
bruised, nutmegs, bruised, of each half on ounce; red
Bounders wood, sliced, an ounce. Macerate for fourteen
days, and strain.  Au elegant and useful antispasmodic
and stimulant in very  general use against  nervous
diseases, lowness  of spirits, and weakness  of the
stomach, taken on a lump of sugar.
  Spiritus  lumbricorum.   The spirit obtained by
the distillation  of the earth-worm to similar to haru-
horn.
  Spiritus  menthje piperita.  Spirit of  pepper-
mint.  Formerly called  Spiritus  mentha piperilidis;
Aqua menthapiperitidis spirituosa.  Take of pepper-
mint dried, a pound and a half; proof spirit, o gollon;
woter sufficient to prevent empyrcuiua.  Macerate for
24 hours, ond distil a gallon bye gentle fire.  This pos-
sesses oil the properties of the peppermint, with  the
stimulating virtues of the spirit  The dose from one
fluid drachm to a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus  menth.« viridis.   Spirit of spearmint.
Formerly called Spiritus mentha sativa; Aqua mentha
vulgaris  spirituosa.    Take of  spearmint, dried, a
pound and a half; proof spirit, a gallon;  water suffi-
cient  to prevent empyreuma.   Macerate for 24 hours,
and distil a gallon.  Thto to most commonly added to
carminative or antispasmodic draughts, ond seldom
exhibited alone.  The dose from one fluid drachm to
a fluid ounce.
  Spiritus  millepedarum.   A volatile  alkali,  tiie
virtues of which ore similar to haruhorn.
  Spiritus mindereri. See Ammonia acdatis liquor.
   Spiritus myristice. Spirit of nutmeg.  Formerly
colled Aqua  nucis  moschata.   Take of  nutmegs,
bruised, two ounces;  proof spirit, a gallon; water suf-
ficient to prevent empyreuma.  Macerate for twen'v-
four  hours, and distil a gallon  by a sjentle  fire.  A
stimulating and agreeable spirit possessing the virtuts
of the nutmeg.  The dose from one fluid drachm to a
fluid ounce.                       .  .      ...
   Spiritus nitri dulcis.  See Spiritus  atheris ni-

   Spiritus nitri duplex.  The  nitrous acid.  See
Acidum nitrosum, and Nitric acid.
   Spiritus nitri  fumans.   See Acidum nitrosum,
 and JVitrt's acid.
   Spiritus nitri glauberi. See Acidum nitrosum,
 and Nitric acid.
   Spiritus nitri simplex.  The dilute nitrous acid.
 See Acidum nitricum dilutum.
   Spiritus nitri vulgaris. This is now called aci-
 dum nitricum dilutum.
   Spiritus pimknt.b.  Spirit of pimento.   Formerly
 called Spiritus pimento.  Take allspice, bruised, two
 ounces; proof spirit, a gallon; water sufficient to pre-
 vent empyreuma.  Macerate for 24 hours, and distil a
 gaXon by a gentle fire.   A stimulating aromatic tincture
 niost'v employed with  adstringent and carminative
 medicines.  The dose is from half a  fluid drachm to
 half a fluid ounce.          .
   Spiritus  pulegii.   Spirit of pennyroyal.   For-
 merly called Aqua pulegii spirituosa.  Take of penny-
 royal dried, a pound and a half; proof spirit, a gallon;
 water  sufficient  lo  prevent  empyreuma.   Macerate
 for 24  hours, and  distil  a  gallon  by a gentle  fire.
 This to in very general use as an emmenagogue among
 the lowerorders.  It possesses nervine and carminative
 virtues.  The dose is from hnlf a fluid drachm to half
  a fluid ounce.                       ,  ..    .
   Spiritus rector.   Boerhaave and other chemists
 rive thto name to a very attenuated principle, in wliich
 the •mell of  odotant bodies peculiarly reside.  It is
  BOW palled aroma.
  Spiritus rosmarini.   Spirit of rosemary.  Tata
of rosemary tops, fresh, two pounds; proof spirit, ■
gallon; water sufficient to prevent empyreuma.  Ma-
cerate for 24 hours, and distil a gallon by a gentle fire
A very fragrant spirit, mostly employed for external
purposes in conjunction with other resolvents.
  Spiritus salis  ammoniaci aquosus.  See Ammo-
nia subcarbonas.
  Spiritus salis ammoniaci dulcis.   See Spiritus
ammonia.
  Spiritus salis ammoniaci simplex.  See Ammo-
nia subcarbonas.
  Spiritus salis  glauberi.  See Muriatic acid.
  Spiritus salis marini.  See Muriatic acid.
  Spiritus vini rectificatus.  See Alkohol.  Rec-
tified spiritof wine is in general use to dissolve resinous
and other medicines. It is seldom exhibited internally.
though  it exists in the diluted state in  all vinous and
spirituous liquors.
  Spiritus vini  tenuior.   Proof spirit, which  to
about half the strength of rectified, is much employed
for  preparing  tinctures  of  resinous  juices, barks,
roots, &c.
  Spiritus vitrioli.  See Sulphuric acid.
   Spiritus vitrioli  dulcis.  See Spiritus  atheris
sulphurici.
   Spiritus volatilis  fojtidus.  See Spiritus am-
monia fatidus.
   SPISSAME'NTUM.   (From  spisso, to thicken.)
 A substance put into oils and ointments to make them
 thick.
   Spitting of blood.  See Hamatcmesis and Hamop-
 tysis.
   SPLANCHNIC. (Splanchnicus; from eitXayxvov,
 an entrail.)  Belonging to the viscero.
   Splanchnic nerve.   The greet intercostal nerve.
 See Intercostal nerve.
   Spla'nchmca.   (From  tnrXayxvov, an intestine.)
 Remedies for diseased bowels.
   SPLANCHNOLOGY. (Splanchnologia; from
 oirXayxvov, an entroil, and Xoyos, a discouise.)   The
 doctrine of the viscera.
   SPLEEN.  -ZirXirv.  Lien.  The spleen or milt is a
 spong  riscus of a livid colour, and so variable in form,
 situation, and magnitude, that il is hard to determine
 either.   Nevertheless, in a  healthy man it is always
 placed on the left side, in the left hypochondrium, be-
 tween the eleventh and twelfth false ribs.  Its circum-
 ference is oblong and round, resembling an oval figure.
 It  is larger, to speak generally, when the stomach is
 empty, and smaller when it is compressed, or evacuated
 by a full stomach.
   It should particularly be remembered of this viscus,
 that it is convex towards the ribs, and concave inter-
 nally :  also, that it has an excavation, into which ves-
 sels are inserted.
   It is connected with the following parts: 1.  With the
 stomach by a ligament and short vessels.  2.  With the
 omentum, and the left kidney.  3. With thedtophragm,
 by a portion of the peritonaeum. 4. With the  begin-
 ning of the pancreas, by vessels. 5. With a colon, by
 a ligament
   In man the spleen is covered with one simple, firm
  membrane, arising from the peritoneum, which ad-
 heres to the spleen, very firmly, by ihe intervention of
 cellular structure.
   The vessels of the spleen are, the splenic artery com-
  ing from the coeliac artery, which, considering the size
 of the spleen, is  much larger than is requisite for the
  mere nutrition of it.  This goes by serpentine  move-
  menU, out of its course, over the pancreas, and behind
  the stomach, and after having given off branches to the
  adjacent parU, it is inserted into the concave surfsce of
  the  spleen.    It  to afterword  divided  into smaller
  branches, which are again  divided  into other yet
  smaller, delivering iheir blood immediately to the veins,
  but emitting it nowhere else.   The veins, at length,
  come together into one, called  Ihe splenic  vein, and
  having  received  the larger  coronary vein of the sto-
  mach,  besides others, it constitutes the left principal
  branch of the veno porta;.
   The nerves of the spleen are  small; they surround
  the arteries with their branches; they come from o par-
  ticular plexus, wliich to formed of the posterior branches
  of the eighth pair, and the grca' intercostal nerve.
   Lymphatic vessels ore almost only seen cr*eping
  aioug the surface of the human spleen. 
8PL
SPO
   The use of the spleen has not hitherto been deter.
 mined: yet If the situation and fabric be regarded, one
 would imagine  In  use to consist chiefly in affording
 some assistance to tbe stomach during the progress of
 digestion.
   SPLEEN-WORT.   See Asplenium ceterach,  and
 Asplenium trichomanes.
   SPLENA'LGIA.   (From  oirXnv, the spleen,  and
 aXros, pain.;  A pain In the spleen or iu region.
   SPLENETIC.   (Splendicus;  from airXnv,  the
 spleen.)  Belonging to the spleen.
   SPLENITIS.  (FronKrirAfn/, the  spleen.)  Inflam-
 mation of the spleen.  A genus of disease in the Class
 Pyrexia, and Order Phlegmasia,  of Cullen ; charac-
 terized by pyrexia, tension, heat, tumour, and pain in
 the left hypochondrium, increased by pressure.  This
 disease, according to Juncker, comes  on with a re-
 markable shivering, succeeded by a most intense heat,
 ond very great thirst; o pain and tumour are perceived
 in the left hypochondrium, nnd the paroxysms  for the
 most port assume oquartan form; when the patients
 expose themselves for a little to the free air, their extre-
 mities immediately grow very cold   If a haemorrhagy
 happen, the blood flows out of the left nostril.   The
 other symptoms are  the same with those of the hepa-
 titis.  Like  the liver, the  spleen is also subject to a
 chronic inflammation, which often happens after agues,
 and to called the ague coke, though that name is also
 frequently given to a scirrhous tumour of the liver suc-
 ceeding intermittenU.  The cruises of thto disease  are
 in general the same with those of other inflammatory
 disorders; but those wliich determine the inflammation
 to thot particular port more than  another,  tire very
 much unknown.  It attacks persons of a very plethoric
 and sanguine habit of body rather than others.
  During the acute stage of splenitis, we must follow
 the antiphlogistic plan, by general and topical bleedings,
 by  purging frequently, and by ihe  application of blis-
 ters near tlie part  affected.   If it should terminate in
 suppuration, we mutt endeavour to discharge the pus
 externally, by fomentations or poultices.   When  the
organ to iu an enlarged scirrhous slate, mercury may be
 successful in preventing iu farther progress, or even
 producing a  diminution ofthe  part: but proper cau-
 tion to required in the use of it, lest the remedy do
 more harm than the disease.
  Sple'niu.m.   (From oirXriy, the spleen:  so called
 from iu efficacy in disorders'of the spleen.)  1. Spleen-
 wort.
  2. A compressed shape like the spleen.
  SPLE'NIUS.  (From oitXrrv, the  spleen: so named
from its resemblance  in shape to the spleen,or, accord-
ing to some, itderivesits nome from splenium, a ferula,
or splint, which surgeons apply to  the sides of a frac-
tured bone.)   Splenius  capilus, and splenius colli, of
Albinus; aud cervico-dorsi-mastoidien et dorso-trache-
lien, of Dumas.  The  splenius is  a flat, broad, and
oblong muscle, in part covered by the upper part ofthe
trapezius, and  obliquely situated between the back of
the ear, and the lower and posterior part ofthe neck.
  It arises tendinous from  the  four or five  superior
spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae; tendinous
and  fleshy from tiie  lost of the  neck, and  tendinous
from the ligamentum  colli, or rather the tendons of the
 two splenii  unite here  inseparably; but  about the
second or third vertebrae of the neck they recede from
each other,  so  that  part of the complexus may  be
seen.
  It is inserted, by two distinct tendons, into the trans-
verse processes of the two  first vertebra? of the neck,
sending off some few fibres to Ihe complexus and  le-
vator scapulx ; tendinous and fleshy into the upper and
posterior part of the mastoid process, and into a ridge
on  the occipital bone, where it  joins with tbe root  of
thot process.
  This muscle may easily he separated into two parts.
 Eustachius and Fallopius were aware of this;  Win-
slow has distinguished them into the superior and infe-
rior portions; and Albinus  has described them as two
distinct muscles, calling that port which is inserted into
the mostoid process and os occipitis, splenius capitis,
and that which to Inserted into the vertebra; of the
neck, splenius colli.   We have here followed Douglas,
and the generality of writers, in describing these two
portions as one muscle, especially as ihey aie intimately
united near their origin.
  Whan this muscle acu singly, ii draws the head and
      an
  upper vertebral  of the  neck obliquely backwards;
  when both  act, they pull tiie head  directly  back-
  wards.
   Si'lenius capitis.  See Splenius.
   Splenius colli.  See Splenius.
   SI*l.ENOCE'LE. (From anXnv,tbespleen,and 107X17,
  a tumour.)  A hernia of the spleen.
   SPLINT.  A  long piece of wood,  tin,  or  strong
  pasteboard employed for preventing theendsof broken
  bones from moving, so os to interrupt the process by
  which fractures unite.
   SPO'DIUM.   TaoSiov.  The spodium of Diosco-
  rides  and of Galen are  now not known in tbe shops.
  It is said to hove been  produced  by burning cadmia
  alone in the furnace;  for having thrown it in small
  pieces into the fire, near the nozzle of the bellows, they
  blow the most fine and subtle parts agoinst the roof of
  the furnace: and what was reflected from thence was
 colled spodium.  It differed from the pomjiholyx in not
  being so pure, and iu being more heavy.  Pliny distin-
 guishes several kinds of it, as  that of copper,  silver,
 gold, and lead.
   Spodium arabum.  Burnt ivory, or ivory  black.
 See Abaisir.
   Spodium grxcorum.  The white dung of dogs.
   SPODUMENE.  Prismatic triphane spar of  Mobs.
 A mineral of 0 greenish while colour, first found iii
 the island  of Uton, in Suderuiaiinland, and lately in
 the  vicinity of Dublin.   It  contains the new  alkali
 called lethia.
   Spolia'rium.  A private room at the baths.
   SPONDV'HU.M.  (From onovSvXos, a vertebra: so
 named from the shape of iu root, or probably because
 it was used against the bile of a serpent called orrov-
 ouAij.) See Heracleum spondylium.
   SPO'NDYLUS.  XaovSuXos-  Some have  thought
 fit to call  the spine or  backbone thus, from the shape
 and fitness of the vertebra:, to move every  way upon
 one another.
   SPONGE.  See Spongia.
   SPONGE-TENT.   See Spopgia pro-par ala,
   SPO'NGIA.  STroyyoc;  Xroyyia.   Sponge.   See
 Spongia officinalis.
  Spongia officinalis.  The systematic name of the
 sponge.  A sea-production : the habitations of  insects.
 A soil, light, very porous and  compressible substance,
 readily imbibing water, and distending  thereby.   It is
 found adhering to rocks, particularly in Ihe Mediterra
 neon sea. about the islands of the Archipelago.   It was
 formerly supposed to be a vegetable production,  but to
 now classed among the  zoophytes; and analyzed, it
 yields  the same principles with animal substances in
 general.  Burnt sponge is said to cure effectually the
 bronchocele, and to be of infinite utility in scrofulous
 complainU. Sponge tents are employed by surgeons to
 dilate fistulous ulcers, &c
  Spongia pkjeparata-   Prepared sponge.   Sponge
 tent  This is formed by dipping pieces of sponge In
 hot melted emplastrum cera; compositum, ond pressing
 them between two iion plates.   As soon as cold, the
 substance thus formed may be cut into pieces of any
 shape.  Iivvas formerly used  for dilating smoll open-
 ings, for wliich it was well adopted, as when the wax
 melted, the elasticity of the sponge made it expand and
 distend the opening,  in which it had been  put. Sir
 Ashley Cooper informs us that the  best modern sur-
 geons seldom employ it.
  Spongia usta.  Burnt sponge.  Cut the sponge into
 pieces, and beat it, that any extraneous matters may
 be separated; then burn it in a close iron vessel until it
 becomes black and friable; lastly, rub it to a very fine
 powder.  This preparation is  exhibited with  bark in
 the cure of  scrofulous complainU,  and forms the
 basis of a  lozenge, which bas  been known to cure the
 bronchocele in many instances.  The dose to  from a
 scruple to a drachm.
  Spongiosa ossa.  Ossa turbinata inferiora; Ossa
 convoluta.  These bones are situated in the under part
of the side of the  nose; they are of a triangular  form
 nnd spongy appearance, resembling the os spongiosum
superius; externally they lire  convex ; internally they
 are concove;  the convexity to placed towards the sep-
 tum  na.-i, oud the concavity outwards.  The under
edge of each bone is placed horizontally near the outer
 port of the nose, and  ending In  a sharp point behind.
At the upper part of the bone  are two  processes, the
anterior Of which ascends and forms part of the  lacliry 
STA
STA
Rial groove, and the posterior descends and forms a
 hook to make partof the maxillary sinus.
   The connexion of this bone is to the os maxillare, os
 paloti, and os unguis, by a distinct suture in the young
subject;  but in the adult, by o concretion of substance.
   1 he ossa spongiosa afford a large surface for extend-
ing the organ of smell by allowing the membrane ofthe
 nose to be expanded, on which the olfactory nerves are
dispersed.
   In the foetus, these bones are olmostcomplete.
   Spongiosum os.  1.  The ethmoid bone.
   2. See Spongiosa ossa.
   SPONGIO'SUS.  Spongy.
   SPONGOI'DES.   (ZaoyyoetSns; from oaoyyos,  a
sponge, and tiSos, forma, shape: so called because it to
hollow and porous, like a sponge or sieve.)  See Eth-
moid bone.
   SPORADIC. (Sporadieus;  from oirtipta,  to sow.)
An epithet for such  infectious and other diseases as
seize a few persons at anytime  or season.
   Spotted lung-wort.  See Pulmonaria.
  SPRAIN.   See Subluxatio.
  SPRAT.  The  Clupea sprattus, of  Linnajus.  A
small herring-like fish which comes to us between No-
vember and March, and are  eaten fried and pickled.
They are strong and hard of digestion.
   SPRONGIDIUM.  See Columnula.
  SPRUCE.  1. A particular species of fir.  See Pinu*
abies.
   2. A fermented liquor called spruce beer  prepared
from the spruce fir.  From the quantity of carbonic
acid it contains, it is found a useful antiscorbutic.
   Spurge flax.  See Daphne gnidium.
   Spurge laurel.  See Daphne  laureola.
   Spurge olive. See Daphne mezereum.
  [Spurge, large flowering.   See Euphorbia corollata.
   Spitrredrye.  See Pulvis parturiens.  A.l
  SPUTA'MEN.  See Sputum.
  SPU'TUM.  (From spuo, to spit.)  Sputamen.  Sa
liva.  Any kind of expectoration.
  Squama'ria.  (From squama,  a scale: so colled
from iu scaly rooU.)  The great tooth-wort,  or Plum-
bago europea.
  SUUAMATUS.  Scaly :  applied to the nectary of
the Ranunculus genus, Sec.   See Nectarium.
  SQUAMOSE.   (Squamosus; from squama, a scale,
because the  bones lie over  each  other like scales.)
Scaly.
  Squamose suture.  The  suture which unites the
squamose portion of the temporal bone with the pa-
rietal.
  SQUAMOSUS.   Squamose.  Scaled: applied  to
rooU which are covered with fleshy scales ; as in La-
thraa squamaria.
  SQUARROSUS.   (Fromsquarra; rough.) Squar-
rose.  Rough,  scabby, scaly. Applied to planu, Sec;
as Juncus squarrosus.
  SQUILL.  See Scilla.
  Squi'lla.   See Scilla.
  Squills, vinegar ef. See Acetum scilla.
  Squina'nthus.   (From squinanthia, the quinsy: so
named from iu uses in the quinsy.) See Andropogon
schananthus.
  STA'CHYS. (Sravvs, a spike : so named from its
spicated stalk and seed.)  1.  The name of a genus of
plants in the  Linnsan system.  Class, Didynamia;
Order, Gymnospermia.
  2. Some species of wild sage, and hoarhound, nettle,
&c. were formerly so called.
  Stachys fostida.  Yellow archangel.  Hedge-net-
tle, or Ballote nigra.
  Stachys palustris.  Clown's  woundwort or all-
heal.
  STA'CTE.  CZraKrn  from fagta, to  distil.)  This
term signifies that kind of myrrh which distils or falls
in drops from the trees.   It to also used by some writers
for a more liquid kind of amber than what is commonly
met with hi the shops; whence in Scribonius Largus,
Paulus ADgineta, and some others, we meet with a col-
lyrium, and several other forms, wherein this was tbe
the chief  ingredient, distinguished by  the  name of
atactica.
  Sta'cticon.  Instillation:  also an eye-water.
  Sta'gma.  (From sofa, to distil.)  1. Any distilled
liquor.
  2. The vitriolic acid.
  STAHL, Gkorob  Ernest, was bom at Anspach,
                                      Odd
in 1660.  He graduated at Jena, at the age of twenty
four, and immediately commenced a course of private
lecturesthere; and about three years oiler he was made
physician to the duke of Soxe-Weimar.  On  the esta-
blishment of the university of Halle, in  1694, he was
appointed to a niedical professorship, at the solicitation
of Hoffman: and he became the leader of a sect of
physicians, in opposition to the mechanical theorists,
in which he was followed  by many eminent  persons
as well in Germany as in other countries, notwith-
standing the very fanciful nature of tbe hypothesis, on
which hto system was founded. It hod been always ob-
served, that there is a certoin power in the animal body
of resisting injuries, and correcting some of its disor-
ders: and Van Helmont had  ascribed some degree of
intelligence to this power: but it was reserved for
Stahl to refer it entirely to the rational soul, wliich, he
affirmed, not only originally formed the body, but is
the sole  cause of oil iu motions, in Die constant ex
citement of which life consisu.  Whence  diseases
were generally regorded os salutary efforts of the pre-
siding soul, to avert the destruction of the body.  This
hypothesis, besides its visionary character, was justly
deprecated, as leading to an inert practice, and the ne-
glect of the collateral branches of medical science, even
of anatomical researches, which Stahl maintained, had
little or no reference to the art of healing.  And in fact
both he and his  followers,  trusting principally to the
operations of nature, zealously opposed the use of some
of the most efficacious  remedies, as opium, cinchono,
and mercury; and were extremely reserved in the em-
ployment of bleeding, vomiting, &c, although their
system led them to refer  most diseases to plethora
Thto hypothesis was maintained by Stahl with much
ingenuity in several publications,  particularly Iu his
" Theoria Medica vera," primed in 1708.  The merits
nf Stahl, as a chemical philosopher,  are of a much
higher character; and the school, which he founded in
tins science, has only been superseded of late by far-
ther discoveries.  He was  the  inventor of the cele-
brated theory of phlogiston, which appeared to account
for the phenomenon of combustion, and was  received
every where with high applause.  His chief chemical
work  was entitled  " Fundaments Chemise  dogmatics
et Experimentalis," first printed in 1729: but this had
been preceded  more than  thirty years, by others, in
which his doctrine was fully displayed.  Stahl was
elected a member  of the  Academy Nature  Curioso-
rum:  and he was colled, In 1716, to visit the king of
Prussia at Berlin, whither he went also on several sub-
sequent occasions, and  on one of these he wos attacked
with a disease, which proved  fatal, in the 74th year of
his age.
  STALACTITES.  The calcareous substances found
suspended from vaults, being  formed by the oozing of
water charged with calcareous particles gradually eva-
porating, and leaving these particles behind.
  STALAGMITIS.  (From  c-aXayuos, a dropping or
distillation, because the gum which it yields escapes in
that manner.)  The name of a genus of planU.  Class,
Polygamia; Order, Monacia.
  Stalaomitis cambooioides.  This is now ascer-
tained to be the tree  which  affords  gamboge.  This
drug, from iu supposed virtues, to also called gummi ad
podagram; gummi gutta;  and, by corruption, gotta;
gutta gamba ; gamon; germandra; catagemu; gam
boidea, Sec.; arid, from  iu gold colour, chrysopus; and,
from its  purgative quality, succus laxativus; succus
Indicus purgans; and scammonium orientals.  Gam-
boge is a concrete vegetable juice, which was supposed
to be the produce of two trees, both called by the Indians,
Caracnpulli, and by Linno-us, Gambogia gutta; but
Koenig ascertained iu true source.  It to  partly of a
gummy, and partly of a resinous nature.  It is brought
to us chiefly from Gambaja, in the East Indies, either
in form of orbicular masses, or of cylindrical rolls of
various sizes; and is of a dense, compact, and firm
texture and of a beautiful yellow colour.  In medi
cine it is chiefly used as a drastic purge;  it operates
powerfully  both  upwards  and downwards.   Some
condemn it as  acting with loo great violence, while
others ore of o contrary opinion.  The dose to from two
to four groins, as a cathartic;  from four to eight grains
it proves emetioaand purgative.  The roughness of its
operation is said to be diminished, by giving it in a
liquid form sufficiently diluted. Rubbed wilh almonds
from its want of taste, it is a good laxativ e for children 
STA                                              STA
  It has been given in dropsy, with cream of tartar, to
correct iu operation.  It hos also been recommended
by some, to the extent of fifteen grains, joined wilh an
equal quantity of vegetable alkali, lu destroy the tape-
worm.  This dose is ordered in the morning, and if llie
worm is not expelled in two or three hours, it is re-
pealed even to the third time, with safety and efficacy.
Il to asserted, thot it hos been given to thto extent even
in delicate habits.  This to said to be the remedy al-
luded to by Dr. Van Swieten, which  was employed by
Dr. Herenchwand, and with him proved so successful
in the removal of the lamia lata.   Ii is on ingredient,
and probably the  active one, iu most of the nostrums
for  expelling taeniae.
  Dr. Cullen says, that, on  account of the quick pas-
sage of gamboge through  the intestines, he was induced
to give it in small, and  frequently repeated doses, as
three  or four grains,  rubbed with a little sugar, every
three  hours; and thus found It operate without griping
or sickness, and, in three or four exhibitions, evacuate
a great quantity of water, both by stool and urine.
  STALA'GMUS.   (From s-aXa£ta, to distil.)   Distil-
lation.
  Sta'ltica.   (From j-eAXio, to contract.)  Healing
applications.
  STAMEN'.  The  mole  genitnl organ  of  plants,
found  generally within the corolla,  near  the  pistil.
Stamens were formerly  called chives.   They are va-
rious iu number in different flowers, from one to some
hundreds.  This organ is essential to a plant, no one
having yet been discovered, after the most careful re-
search, that to destitute of it, either in the same flower
with the pistils, or a separate one of  the same species.
  A stamen consists of three parte.
  1. The filamentum, or filament, tlie part which sup-
ports the anther.
  2. The anthera, placed on the filament, and the most
essential part of all.
  3. The pollen, or powder adhering  to the anther.
  Stanni pulvis. Tin  finely divided is exhibited in-
ternally os a vermifuge.  It acu mechanically, and the
fine filings are more effectual than the powder.
  STANNIC ACID.   A name which has been given
to the peroxide of tin, because it is soluble in alkalies.
  STA'NNUM.   See Tin.
  Stape'dis musculus.   See Stapedius.
  STAPE'DIUS.    (Stapedius, sc. musculus;  from
stapes, one of ihe bones of the ear.) Musculus stapes,
of Cowper; and pyramidal-stapedicn, of Dumas.  A
muscle of  the internal car, which draws  the  stapes
obliquely upwards towards the cavern, by which the
posterior part  of iu  base is moved  inwards, and the
anterior part outwards.
  STATES.  (In quo pes slat, a stirrup.)  A bone of
the internal ear, so called  from  its resemblance to a
stirrup.
  STAPHILI'NUS.   See Azygos uvula.
  Staphilinus externus.  See Circumflexus.
  STA'PHIS. Xratpis, is strictly a grape, or a  bunch
of grapes; whence, from their likeness thereunto, it is
applied to many other things, especially the glands of
the body, whether natural or diseased.
  STAPHISA'GRIA. Y.ra<bis aypca, wild vine ; from
the resemblance of iu leaves to those of the vine.) See
Delphinium.
  STAPHYLE.  (YratbvXrj.  A  grape or raisin: so
called from iu resemblance.)  The uvula.
  STAPHYLI'NUS.  (Staphylinus;   from  fatpvXv,
the uvula.)  See Azygos uvula.
  Stapuylinus externus. See Circumflexus.
  Staphylinus gr£corum.  Staphylinus sylvestris.
The wild carrot
  STAPHYLOMA.   (From c-aqn/Xv,  a  grape:  so
named from iu being thought lo resemble o  grape.)
Staphylosis.  A disease of the eyeball in which the
cornea loses iu natural transparency, rises above the
level of the eye, ond  successively even projects beyond
the eyelids, in the form of on elongated, whitish, or
pearl-coloured tumour, which is sometimes smooth,
Kiinctimes uneven, and to attended with a total loss of
shxht The proximate cause to an effusion of thick
humour between the lamelle of the cornea, so thot the
internal and  external superfices of tbe cornea, very
much protuberates.   The  remote causes are, an ha-
bitual ophthalmia, great contusion,  and frequently a
deposition  of the  variolous humour in the small-pox.
The specie) are:
       306
   1st. Staphyloma totals, which oecupies the whole
 transparent cornea; this is the most frequent speck"'
 The  symptoms  ore, Ihe opoque cornea proiuberaH-n,
 and if in the lorm of a cone, Increasing in magnitude
 It pushes out nnd inverts the lower eyelid ; ond some-
 times the morbid cornea to so elongated, as to lie on the
 cheek, causing friction and excoriulion.  The bulb of
 the eye  being exposed to the air, sordes generate, the
 inferior  palpebra  is  irritated by the cilia, and  very
 painful red and small papilla! are observable.
   2d. Staphyloma raecnwsum, to a staphyloma formed
 by carnous  tubercles, about the size of a small  pin's
 head.
   3d. Staphyloma parliale, wliich occupies some part
 of the cornea : it exhibits an opaque tumour prominent
 from the cornea, similar to a smoll bluish grope.
   4th. Staphyloma sclerotica is a bluish luinour at
 toched to some  part of the sclerotico, but arises from
 the tunica albuginea.
   5th. staphyloma pellucidum, in which the cornea ia
 not  thickened or incrassoted, but very much extended
 and pellucid.
   6th. Staphyloma complicatum, which is complicated
 with an  ulcer, ectropium,  caruncles, or any other dis
 order of the eye.
   7th. Staphyloma iridis.  For this species, see Ptosis
 iridis.
   Star thistle.   See Carlina  acaulis.
   STARCH.  Amylum.  A while,  insipid, combusti-
 ble  substance, insoluble in cold water, but forming a
 jelly with boiling water.  It exisu chiefly in the white
 and brittle parts of vegetables, particularly In tuberose
 roots, and the seeds of the gramineous plants.  It may
 be extracted by pounding these parts, and agitating
 them in  cold water; when the parenchyma, or fibrous
 parts, will first  subside; and these being removed, a
 fine,  white  powder, diffused through  the water, will
 gradually  subside, which  to  the  starch.   Or the
 pounded or grated substance, as the  roots of arum,
 potatoes, acoins, or horse-chesnuts, for instance, moy
 be put into a hair-sieve, and the starch washed through
 with cold water, leaving the grosser matters behind.
 Farinaceous seeds may be ground  and treated in a
 similar manner.  Oily seeds require to hove the oil ex-
 pressed from them before the farina is extracted.
   Starch is one of the constituent parts in all mealy
 farinaceous seeds,  fruiu,  roou, and other paru of
 plants.  Our common starch is made from wheat  It
 is not necessary that the grain be first bruised in mills.
 The entire corn, well cleansed, is soaked in cold water
 until the husks separate;  and the grains, having he-
 come quite soft, give  out, by pressure, a milky  fluid.
 The grains are then taken out of the water by means
 of a sieve,  put into a coarse linen sack, and transfer-
 red  into the treading tub;  where they  are trodden,
 after cold water has been poured upon them.
   By this operation the starchy part to  washed out,
 and, mingling with  the water, makes it milky.  The
 water is now drawn off, running through o sieve into
 the  settling-tub.  Fresh  water to agoin effused  upon
 the grains, and the same operation is continued till the
 woter in the treading-tub is no longer reodeied milky.
 The starch  here precipitates by repose from the water
 thai held it suspended; during which,  especially in  a
 warm season, the  mucilaginous saccharine matter of
 the  flour, that was dissolved by the water, goes 'Into
 the acetous fermentation.  From this cause the starch
 grows still  purer and whiter. The water is nest let
 off  from the starch, which  is several  times  more
 washed  with clear fresh water; the remaining partof
 which to suffered  to  drip through linen cloths, sup-
 ported by hurdles, upon which the wet starch is placed.
 When the starch has fully subsided, it is wrapped in,
 wrung between these cloths, or pressed, to extort still.
 more of tbe remaining liquid.
   It is afterward cut into pieces, which are laid in airy
 places, on slightly burnt bricks, to be completely dried,
 partly by the free currency of air, and partly by the
 bricks imbibing their moisture.  Lastly, the outer crust
 is  scraped  off, and   they are  broken into  smaller
 pieces.
   If starch be subjected to  distillation,  It gives out
 water impregnated wilh empyreumatic acetous acid, a
 little red or brown oil, a great deal  of carbonic acid,
 and carburetted hydrogen gas.  Its cool is bulky, easily
 burned,  and leaves a very small quantity nf  potassa
| and  phosphate of lime  If when diffused in water it 
STA
ST£
be exposed to a beat of 60° P., or upward, it will for- [
ment and turn sour; but much more so if it be not
freed from the gluten, extract, and colouring matter.
Thus, in starch-making, the forina fermenu ond be-
comes sour, but the storch that does  not undergo fer-
mentation is rendered the more pure by this process.
Some, water, already soured, is mixed with tiie  flour
and water, which regulates the fermentation, and pre-
venu the mixture from becoming  putrid ;  ond in thto
stole it is left obout ten days in summer, and fifteen in
winter,  before the scum is removed, and the water
 roured off. The starch to then washed out from the
 ran, and dried, first in the open air, and finally in an
oven.
  With boiling water, starch forms a nearly transpa-
rent  mucilage, emitting a peculiar smell, neither disa-
greeable nor very powerful.   This mucilage may be
dried, and will then be semitraii^parent, and  much
resembling gum, oil the products of which It affords.
When dissolved, it is much more easily digested and
nutritious  than before  it  has  undergone  this  ope-
ration.
  Both acids  and alkalies, combined  with water, dis-
solve it.  It separates the oxides of several metals from
their solutions, and  lakes oxygen from many of them.
It is  found naturally combined with all the immediate
principles of vegetables, and may easily be united with
most of ihem by art.
  When starch to triturated with iodine, it forms com-
binations of various colours.  When the proportion of
iodine is  small, these compounds ore violet;  when
somewhat greater, blue; aud, when still greater, black.
  We can alwoys obtain the finest blue colour, by
treating starch with on excess of iodine, dissolving the
compourd iu liquid potassa, and precipitating  by o
vegetable  acid.  The colour is manifested evcii at the
instant of pouring water of iodine into a liquid which
contains starch diffused through it  Hence iodine be-
comes an excellent test for detecting starch; and starch
for detecting iodine.   Besides these  combinations, it
appears that there  is another of a white  colour, in
which the iodine exisU in very small quantity.  All of
them possess  peculiar properties.
  Starch is not affected in the cold, by water, alkohol,
or ether.  But it dissolves readily,  when triturated
with potassa  water.
  Starch is convertible into sugar by dilute sulphuric
acid. To produce thto change we must take 2000 parts
of starch, diffuse them in  8000  parts of water,  con-
taining 40 paru of  strong oil of vitriol; and boil the
mixture for 36 hours in a basin of silver or lead, taking
care to stir the  materials with a wooden rod, during
the first hour of ebullition.  At  the end of this time,
Ihe mass having become liquid, does not require to be
stirred,  except at  intervals.  In  proportion as  the
water evaporates, it oueht  to be replaced.   When the
liquid has been sufficiently boiled, we must add to it
chalk and animal charcoal, then clarify with white of
egg, filter the mixture through a flock of wool, and
then concentrate the liquid till it has acquired a syrupy
consistence.   After  this, the  basin must  be removed
from the fire, in order that,  by cooling, Ihe greater part
of the sulphate of  lime may fall down.    The pure
syrnp is now to be decanted off, and evaporated to the
proper dryness.  The greater  the quantity of acid em-
ployed, the less ebullition  to required to convert the
Btarch into the saccharine matter.
  The discovery of the preceding process is due to
Kirchoff, of St. Petersburgh.          \
  The presence of sulphuric acid is not indispensable
for obtaining sugar  from starch.  It may also be ob-
tained by leaving the starch to itself, cither with or
without contact  of  air, or by mixing it with  dried
gluten.  At the same time, indeed, several other pro-
ducts are formed.  M. Theod. de Soussurc's interest-
ing observations  on this subject  are  published in the
Annates de Chemie et de Physique, xi. 370.  The starch,
brought to the state of a pulpy mass, must be left to
spontaneous decomposition.  The producte ore,  1st, a
sugar, like the sugar of grapes;  3d,  Gum, like thot
from roasted starch; 3d, Amidine, a  body whose pro-
perties are intermediate between those of starch and
gum: and 4th, on  insoluble  substance, like ligneous
matter.   Ia  these experiments, the mass on which he
operated was made by pouring 12 parts  of boiling
water on  1 of starch.   When it was fermented by
dried gluten, he obtained—
                           Without contact With coaUd
                              of sir.        of air.
Sugar.......................47.4        49.7
Gum..........................23.0         9.7
Aniadine......................  8.9         5.2
Amaloceous lignin.............10.3         9.2
Ligniu with  charcoal ........A trace        0.3
Undecomposed starch  .........  4.0         3.8
  Potato storch differs perceptibly  from that of wheat;
it is more friable; is composed of ovoid grains, about
twice the size of the other.
  As starch  forms the greatest part of flour, it cannot
be doubted but thot it is the principal alimentary sub-
stance contained in our bread.  In a  medical point of
view, it to to be considered as a demulcent;  and, ac-
cordingly, it forms the principal ingredient of on offi
cinol  lozenge in catarrhs, and a mucilage prepared
from it often produces excellent effects, both taken by
the mouth and in  the form of clyster, in dysenteries
nnd diarrhoea, from irritation of the  intestines. Milk
and starch, with the addition of suet finely shred,  and
incorporated by boiling, was the soup employed by Sir
John Pringle, in dysenteries, where the mucous mem-
brane of the intestines had been abraded.  Externally,
surgeons apply it as an absorbent in erysipelas.
  STATICE.  (From cvrt^/a, to stop: so named from
its  supposed property  of restraining  hemorrhages.)
The name of a genus of planU  in  the Liuntean  sys-
tem.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Pentagynia.  The
herb sea-thrift
  Statice: limonium.  The systematic name of the
sea-thrift.  Sea-lavender, or rod behen.   Behen ru-
brum; Limonium:  Limonium majus; Behen.  The
roots possess astringent and strengthening qualities,
but not in a very remarkable degree.
  Stationa'ria febris.  A stationary  fever.   So
Sydenham called  those fevers which happen when
there are certain general constitutions of the years,
which owe their origin neither to heat, cold, dryness,
nor moisture;  but  rather depend on a certain secret
and inexplicable alteration in the bowels of the earth,
whence the air becomes impregnated with such kinds
of  effluvia os subject the body to particular distempers,
so long as that kind of constitution prevails, which,
after a certain course of years, declines and gives way
to another.
  STAUROLITE.  Grenotite, or prismatic gamet
  STAUROTIDE. Grenau'te.   Prismatic garnet.  A
crystallized, dark, reddish-brown garnet, found in Scot-
laud, nnd Ireland.
  STAVESACRE.  See Delphinium staphisagria.
  STEARINE. See Fat.
  STEATITE. Soapstone.  A subspecies of rhom-
boidal mica.
  STEATOCE'LE. (From j-eap, suet, and 107X17, a
tumour.)  A collection  of a suety  substance in the
scrotum.
  STEATOMA.   (From s-tap, suet.)   An  encysted
tumour,  the contents of which are of a  suety  con-
sistence.
  STEEL.  Chalybs.  The best, hardest,  finest, and
closest grained iron, combined with carbon by a parti-
cular process.
  STEINHEILITE.  The blue quartz of Finland.
  STELOCHI'TES.  See Osteocolla.
  STELLA.   (From  j-eAXw,  to arise.)  A star.  A
bondage with many crossings, like a star.
  STELLA'RIA.   (From stella, a star: so named
from  the star-like appearance of ite flowers.)  Tbe
name  of a  genus of plants.  Class, Decandria; Or-
der, Trigynia.  Stitchwort
  STELLATUS.   (From  stella, a star.)   Stellate.
Starlike.  Applied to the nectary of the Stopelia, tec
  STELLATA3.   The name of an  order of plants  in
Linnteus's Fragments of a Natural Method, consisting
of such as have stellate leaves, and quodrified corolla
mostly tetrandrous; as Galium, Asperula, Rubea tine
torum,&c.
  STE'MA.  (From svpi, to stand.)  The penis.
  Stemless milkvetch.  See Astrgalue excapus.
  STENO,  Nicholas, was born at Copenhagen,  in
1638.   Having studied wilh great diligence, undei the
celebrated Bartholin, he passed several years in visiting
the best schools in different parts of Euro|ie.  Hto re-
putation  was then increased, so that about tbe age of
29 he was appointed Physician to Ferdinand II. Grand
Duke of  Tuscany, with a liberal  salary.  He  was 
8TE
STE
 afterward honoured with the esteem of Cosmo IU. who
 ■elected him as preceptor to his Jon.  He had been led,
 by the eloquence of Bossuet, to chonge from the Pro-
 testant to the  Roman  Cotholic  persuasion;  which
 proved an obstacle io his accepting tbe  invitation of
 Frederick III.  to return lo Copenhagen ; but the suc-
 ceeding King of Denmark, not imposing any religious
 restraint, he was induced about the year 1672 to go to
 his native city, where he was appointed  professor of
 anatomy.   But finding his situation less agreeable thao
 be had expected,  he resumed  the education of the
 young prince at Florence.  Some time  after this he
 embraced the ecclesiastical profession, was speedily ap-
 pointed a bishop, ond then vicar apostolical to all the
 states  uf the north,  in  which capacity he  become a
 zealous preacher in various puns of Germany, and
 died in the course of his labours in 1686.  The works
 extant by him relate principally to medieol subjects.
 He wos a diligent cultivator of anatomy, and made
 some discoveries relative to the minute structure of Ihe
 eye, and  other ports;  which are detailed  in papers
 communicated to the academy of Copenhogen, ond in
 some small works published by himself.
   Stenothora'ces. (From $-tvos, narrow, andBiapal,
 the chest) Those who have narrow chests are so culled.
   STERILITY.  Sterilitas.  Barrenness.  In Women
 thto sometimes happens from a miscarriage, or violent
 labour, injuring some of the genital parts; but one of
 the most frequent causes is the suppression ofthe men-
 strual flux.  There are other causes, however, arising
 from various diseases incident to those parts; by which
 the uterus may'be unfit to receive or retoin the  mole
 seed;—from the tube Fallopianse being  too short, or
 having lost  their erective power; in  either of which
 cases no conception  can take place;—from universal
 debility and  relaxation;  or a local  debility of the ge-
 nital system ;  by which means the paru having losl
 tbeir tone, or contractile power, the semen to thrown
 off immediately post coitum;—from imperforation of
 the vagina,  of the uterus, or tube, or from diseased
 ova, Sec.
  STERNO.  Names compounded of thto word be-
 long to muscles which ore attached to the sternum; as,
  Sterno-cleido-hyoideus.  See Stemo-hyoideus.
  Sterno-clkido mastoideus.   Sterno-mastoideus,
 and  cleido-mastoideus,  of Albinus.   Mastoideus, of
 Douglas and Cowper;  and  sterno-clavio-mastoidien,
 of Dumas.   A muscle, on the anterior and lateral part
 of the  neck, which turns the head to one  side, and
 bends it forward.  It arises by two distinct origins; the
 anterior tendinous and fleshy, from the top of the ster-
 num near  iu junction wilh the clavicle;  the posterior
 fleshy,  from the upper and anterior part ofthe clavicle.
 Both unite a little above the anterior articulation ofthe
 clavicle, to form one muscle, which  runs obliquely up-
 wards  and outwards to be inserted, by a  thick strong
 tendon, into the mastoid process of the temporal bone,
 which  it surrounds;  and gradually becoming thinner,
 is inserted as for back as the lambdoidal suture.
  Sterno-costales.  Vesalius considered these as
 forming a single muscle on each side of a triangular
 shape;  hence  we  find  the  name of  triangularis
 adopted by Douglos and  Albinus; but Verbeyen, who
 first taught that they ought to be described as four or
 five distinct muscles, gave them the  name  of stern
 costalcs; ond in this he is very properly followed by
 Winslow,  Holler, and Lieutoud.
  These muscles are situated at each side of the under
 surface ofthe sternum, upon the cartilages of the third,
 fourth, fifth, and sixth  ribs.   Their number varies in
 different subjecu;  very often there are  only three,
 sometimes five, and even six, but most usually we find
 only four.
  The lowermost ofthe sterno-costales, or whaFwould
 be called the inferior portion of the triangularis, arises
 tendinous  and fleshy  from the edge and inner surface
 of the lower part of the cartilago ensiformis, where iu
 fibres intermix with those of tbe diaphragm and trans-
 versolis abdominis.   Iu fibres run nearly in a trans-
 verse direction, and are inserted, by a broad thm ten-
don,  into the inner surface of the cartilage of the sixth
 rib, and lower edge of thot of the fifth.
  The second and largest of the sterno-costales, arises
tendinous from the cartilago ensiformis and lower port
ofthe sternum, laterally, and, running a little obliquely
outwards,  to inserted into the lower edge of the car-
 tilage of the fifth, and sometimes of the fourth rib.
     306
   The third arises tendinous from  die sides of Qm
 middle part of the sternum, near the cartilages of the
 fourth and filth ribs, and ascending obliquely outwards,
 to inserted inlo Iho cartilage of llie Hiiro) rib.
   The fourth and uppermost, which to  the most  fre-
 quently wanting, arises  tendinous from the beginning
 of the cartilage of the third  riband the  adjacent port
 of tiie sternum,  and running almost perpendicularly
 upwards,  is inserted by o thin tendon  (which covers a
 part of the second internal  intercostal,) into ihe cor
 liloge and beginning of tbe  bony part of the second
 rib.
   All these muscles are more or less intermixed  with
 one  another  at  their origin,  and this probably occa-
 sioned them  to  be considered as one muscle. Fallo-
 pius informs us, that the plate Vesalius  litis given uf
 them was token  from a dog, in which animal they are
 much larger than in man.   Douglas has endeavoured
 lo account for this difference, but his explanation is far
 from being satisfactory.
   Sterno-hyoideus.  As this muscle arises from tiie
 clavicle, as well  as from  the sternum, Winslow calls it
 sterno-cleido-hyoideus.  It  to u long, flat, ond thin mus-
 cle,  situated  obliquely between the  sternum and os
 hyoides, behind the lower part of the mastoideus, and
 covering the sterno-thyroideus ond the hyo-thyroideus.
 It orises, by very short tendinous fibres, from the car-
 tilaginous part of the first rib, from the upper and inner
 part of the sternum, from  the capsular ligament that
 connects that bone with the clavicle, and commonly
 from a small  part of the clavicle  iuelf;  from thence,
 ascending along the  anterior and lateral part of the
 neck, we see it united to its fellow, opposite to the in-
 ferior part of the larynx,  by means of a thin mem-
 brane, which forms u kind of linea  alba.   After  this
 the two muscles separate again, and each passing over
 the side of the thyroid cartilage, is inserted  into tho
 basis of the os hyoides, immediately behind  the inter
 tion  of the last described muscle.
   Iu use is to draw the os hyoides downwards.
 £ Sterno-mastoideus.  See Sterno-deido-mastoideus.
   Sterno-thyroideus.   Sterno-thyroidien,  of  Du-
 mas.  This is flat and thin, like the  stemo-hyoideus,
 but longer and broader.  It to situated at the forepart
 of the neck, between the sternum and thyroid carti
 lage, and behind tbe sterno-hyoideus.  It arises broad
 and  fleshy from the upper and inner  part of the ster-
 num, between the cartilages of the  first and  second
 ribs, from  each of which it receives some few fibres,
 as well  as from the  clavicle, where it joins wilh the
 sternum.  From thence, growing somewhat narrower,
 it ascends, and,  passing over the thyroid gland and the
 cricoid cartilage,  is inserted  tendinous into the lower
 and posterior edge of the rough line of the thyroid car-
 tilage, immediately under  the insertion of the stemo-
 hyoideus.   Now and then a  few of its fibres  pass on
 to the os hyoides.  Its use is to draw the thyroid car-
 tilage, and consequently the larynx, downwards.
   STERNUM.  Pectoris os.   The breasl-bone.  The
 sternum, os  pectoris,  or breast-bone, is  the oblong,
 flat bone,  placed at the  forepart of the thorax.  The
 ossification of this hone in the foetus begins from many
 different poinu at the same time,  we find it, in young
 subjecu, composed of several bones  united by carti-
 lages; but as we advance  in life, most of these  car-
 tilages ossify, and the sternum, iu tbe adult state, is
 found to consist of three, and sometimes only of two
pieces, the two lower portions being united  into one;
and very often, in old subjecu, the whole is formed into
one bone.   But,  even in the latter case, we may still
observe  the marks of iu former divisions; so that,  in
describing the bone,  we may very properly divide it
 into its upper, middle, and  inferior portions.
  The upper portion forms an irregular square, which,
without much reason, has, bv many writers, been com-
pared to the figure of a heart as it is painted on cards.
It is  of considerable thickness, especially at ils upper
part  Its anterior surface is irregular,  and slightly con-
vex ;  posteriorly, it is somewhat  concave.  Iu upper
middle part is hollowed, to make way for the trachea.
On each side, superiorly, we observe an oblong articu-
lating surface, covered with cartilage in the recent sub-
 ject, for receiving the ends  of the clavicles.  Imme-
diately below thto, on each side, the bone  becomes
thinner, and we observe  a  rough surface for  receiving
the cartilage of the first rib, and, almost clo(e to the in-
ferior edge of thto, we find  the half of such  anothei 
STI
STI
■wtaee, which, combined with a similar surface in the
middle portion of the sternum, serves for the articula-
tion of the cartilage of the second rib.
  The middle portion is much longer, narrower, and
thinner than the former; but to somewhat broader and
thinner below than above, where It Is connected with
the upper portion.  The whole of iu anterior surface
is slightly convex, and within it is slightly concave.  Iu
edge, ou  each side, affords four articulating surfaces,
for the third,  fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs; and paru of
articulating surfaces at Its upper and lower parte  for
the second and seventh ribs.  About the middle of this
portion of the sternum we sometimes find a consider-
able hole, large enough in some subjects  to admit the
end of the little finger.  Sylvius seems to hove been
the first who  described it  Riolanus and some  others
after him have, without reason, supposed it to be more
frequent  in women than in men.  In the recent subject
it to closed by a cartilaginous  substance;  and, as it
does not seem destined for the transmission of vessels,
as some writers have asserted, we may,  perhaps very
properly, with Hunould, consider it as an accidental
circumstance, occasioned by an interruption of the os-
sification, before the whole of this part of the bone to
completely ossified.
  The third and inferior portion of the sternum is sepa-
rated from the former by a line, which to seldom alto-
gether obliterated, even in the oldest subjecu.  It is
smaller than the other parts of the bone,  and descends
between the  ribs, so as to hove been considered as on
appendix to the rest of the sternum. From iu shape,
and iu being  constantly in a state of cartilage in young
subjects, it has been commonly named  cartilago xi-
phoides,  ensiformis, or  sword-like cartilage; though
many of the ancienU gave the name of xiphoides to tiie
whole sternum; comparing the first two bones to the
handle, and this appendix to the blade  of the  sword.
The shape of this appendix varies in different subjects;
in some it is longer and more pointed, in others shorter
and more obtuse.   Veslingius has seen It reaching as
low as the navel, and incommoding  the  motion ot  the
trunk forwards.  In general it terminates obtusely, or
in a single point;  sometimes, however, it is bifurcated,
and Eustachius and Haller have seen it trifid.  Very
often  we find it  perforated,  for the transmission of
branches of the mammary artery.   In the  adult it to
usually ossified and tipped with cartilage, but it very
ofteu continues cartilaginous through life, and Haller
once found it in this stale in a woman who died in her
hundredth year.
  The substance of the sternum, internally,  to of a
light, spongy  texture, covered externally with a thin
bony  plate;  hence  it happens  that this bone is easily
fractured.  From ihe description we have given of it,
iu uses  may be easily understood.  We have  seen it
serving for the articulation of seven true ribs on each
side, and hence we shall  find it of considerable use in
respiration.  We likewise observed, that it to  articu-
lated with each of the clavicles.  It serves for the origin
and insertion of several muscles; it supports the medi-
astinum ; and lastly, defends the heart and lungs;  and
it to observable, that we find a similar bone in almost
all animals that  have lungs, and even in such as have
  no ribs, of which  latter we have  an instance in the

    EFrEMrrjTAMENTO ria.  So called because the pow-
  dered flowers and roots have the property of exciting
  sneezing-  See Achillea ptarmica.
    STE'KTOR.  A noisy kind of respiration, as is ob-
  served In apoplexy.  A snoring or snorting.
    STHE'NIA.  A term employed by the followers of
  Dr. Brown,  to denote that state of the body which dis-
  poses to inflammatory diseases, in opposition  to those
  of debility, Which arise from asthenia.
    STIBIA'LIS.   (From stibium, antimony.)  An anti-
  monial  or medicine, the  chief ingredient of which to
  antimony.                         .      „      ..
    STIBIC ACID.  Berzelius's name ofthe yellow oxide
  Of antimony.
    Stibu essentia.  Antimonial wine.
    STIBIOUS ACID.  So Berzelius calls the white
  Oxide of antimony.
    STI'BIUM.  (SnStov: from fiXoio, to shine.)   An
  ancient name of antimony.  See Antimony.
    STI'GMA.  (Trtypa:  from j-^io, lo  inflict blows.)
  L A small red speck in the skin, occasioning no eleva-
  tion of the cuticle.  Stigmata are generally distinct, or
apart from each other.  They sometimes assume a livid
colour, and are then termed petechia.
  II. A natural mark or spot on the skin.  See Navus
mat emus.
  III. That port  of the female organ of a plant which
to placed at the summit of the style.  It to an indispen-
sable part of tbe fructification, ond consisu nf a vast
number of absorbing papilla:, rarely observable by the
naked eye, but best seen in the Mirabilis jalapa.   Bo-
tanists distinguish llie following differences in the form
of stigmas:
  1.  Globose; as in Trachclium.
  2.  Capitate, round, but flat below;  as in Sorbus  and
Vinca.
  3.  Acute, ending in a point;  as in Pisddia.
  4.  Obtuse; as inNigrina.
  5.  Clubbed; as in Genipi.
  6.  Emarginate, cut; as in Dentaria.
  7.  Peltate; as  in Garcinia.
  8.  Uncinate, acute and reflected; as in Lantana.
  9.  Triangular ;  as in Lilium candidum.
  10. Trilobed; as in  Tuiipa gesneriana.
  11. Petaliform; as in Iris germanica.
  12. Convolute; as in Crocus.
  13. Revolute;  as in  Leontodon.
  14. Pennicilliform,  resembling a pencil-brush; as in
Milium paspalium.
  15. Perforatum; os in Sloanea
  16. Concave; os in Viola.
  17. Bifid;  as in Menyanthes.
  18. Trifid; as in Amaryllis.
   19. Multifid;  as in  Castus.
  20. Striate; as in Papaver.
  21. Plumose, on  each side, like a hairy pen; as In
  22. Four-sided; as in Amyris.
  23. Pubescent, covered with hair;  as in Vicia:
  24. Simple, not differing from the stile at iU summit;
as in Galanthus and Hippuris.
  25 Sessile, on the germen; there being no stile.
  The stigma is always more or less  moist with a pecu-
liar ' :scid fluid, which in some plants to so conspicu-
ous as to form a large drop, though never big enough td
fall to the ground.  This moisture is designed for the
reception of the pollen, which explodes on meeting with
it; and hence the seeds are rendered capable of ripen-
ing, which, though in many planu  fully formed, they
would not otherwise be.
  STILBITE.  See Zeolite.
  STILBO'MA. (From  j-tXrju, to polish.) A cosmetic
  STILLICI'DIUM.  (From slillo, to drop, and cado,
to fall.)  A strangury, or discharge of the  urine drop
by drop.  Also the pumping upon a port.
  STILPNOSIDERITE.  A brownish block-coloured
mineral, said  to contain phosphoric  acid.   It occurs
along with brown iron in Saxony and Bavaria.
  STI'MMI.   Trippt-  Antimony.
  STIMULANT.   (Stimulans; from slimulo, to stir
up.)  That which possesses a power of exciting Ilia
animal energy.  Stimulants are divided into,
  1. Stimulantia tonica; as sinapi,  cantharides, hy-
drargyri praparaliones.
  2. Stimulantia diffusibilia; as alkali  volatile, dec
tricity,  heat, Sec
  3. Stimulantia cardiaca ; as cinnamomum, nux mo*-
chala, wine, tec
  STI'MULUS.  (Stim»il«*,».m.;  from stiyuos, stig-
mulu*, per sync, stimulus, a sting or spur.) That which
rouses the action or energy of a  part.
   Stinking lettuce.  See Lactuca virosa.
   STINKSTONE.  Swinestone.   A variety of com-
pact lucullite, a subspecies of limestone.
   STIPES.  (Stipes, His. m.; from the Greek, $-viroc.)
 A stipe, or stem of a fungus, fern, or palm.
   STIPULA.  A leafy appendage to Ihe proper leaves,
or  to their footstalks.  In  some instances they are so
 like unto leaves, that they  are  believed to be so, and
 can only be distinguished from leaves by their situation
 on the fooutalk.  Stipulae are,
   1. Solitary; as in Astragalus onobrychis.
   2. In pairs; as in Lathyrus annuus.
   3. Lateral,  on the side of the fooutalk; as in Lotus
 letraphyllus.
   4. Oppositifoliar, in the side of the opposite leaves;
 as in Trifolium pratense.
   5. Extrafoliaceous, external with tesnect to the leat
 or fooutalk; as in Astragalus oMvffrti*. 
STO                                            STR
   6. Iatrafoliaceous, internal; as in Morns nigra and
 alba.
   7. Caducous, falling off before  the  leaves are ex-
 panded ; as in Prunus avium.
   8. Persistent, remaining after the fall ofthe leaf; as
 In Trifolium pratense.
   9. Deciduous, falling with the  leaves;  as in many
 stipulated plants.
   10. Spinescent, becomes thorns ;  as In Robiniapseu-
 dacacia.
   11. Sessile ; as in Pisum sativum.
   12. Adnate; as in Rosa canina,
   13. Decurrent; as in Crotullaria sagittalis.
   14. Sheathed ;  as in Hedysum vaginale.
   15. Lanceolate; as in Cistus helianthemum,
   16. Subulate;  as in Cassiaglandulosa,
   17. Sagittate ; as iu Pisum maritimum.
   IS. Lunate ; as in Lathyrus tingitanus.
   19. Ovate ; in Ononis repens.
   90. Cordate ; in Ocymum sanctum.
   21. Filiform; in Ononis mauritanica,
   22. Foliaceous ; in Sambucus ebulus.
   23. .Entire ; in Fi'eia cracca.
   24. Serrate ; in Pisum sativum.
   25. Ciliate ; in Passiflora fatida.
  26. Toothed; in Orobus lathyroides.
  27. Pinnatifid ; ia  Viola tricolor.
   STIPULARIS. Stipular: belonging to  the stipula
of planu; as the s/>t'na stipularis ofthe Mimosa nilotica
and horrida.
   BTIZOLO'BIUM.  The cowage.  See Dolichos.
   STOECHAS. (From ^oi%aSts, the Islands on which
It grew.)  See Lavendula stachas.
   Stoechas arabica.  See Lavendula stachas.
   Stoechas citrina. See Gnaphalium stachas.
   STOLO.  (Stolo, onis. m.; a shoot, branch, or twig.)
A sucker or scyon.   A runner which proceeds from the
roots of some planU, and takes root in the earth.  It is
distinguished  into a  supratcrraneovs,  which runs on
the surface above ground; as in Fagaria vesca, and
Potentilla reptans;   and  subterraneous, which runs
under the surface, as in Triticum repens, the stolos of
which are erroneously taken for the roots.
   STOMACA'CE.    (Stomacace, es. f.;  from  i?opa,
the mouth, and kokos, evil.) Canker.   A fetor in the
mouth, with a bloody discharge from the gums.   It to
generally a symptom of the scurvy. It is also a name
for the scurvy.
   STOMACH.   (Stomaehus, chi. m.;  from %-oua, the
mouth, and j^eu, to  pour.)  Ventriculus; called also
Anocalia;  Gaster;  Nedys.  A  membraneous recep-
tacle, situated in the epigastric region, which receives
the food from the oesophagus; iu figure is somewhat
oblong ond round: it to  largest  on the left  side, and
gradually diminishes towards iu lower orifice, where
it to the least.  Iu superior orifice, where the oesopha-
gus terminates, is called the cardia: the inferior orifice,
where the intestine begins, the pylorus. The anterior
surface is turned  towards the  abdominal muscles, and
the posterior opposite the lumbar vertebra?.  It has two
curvatures: the first is called the great curvature of the
stomach, and extends downwards from one  orifice to
tbe other,  having the omentum  adhering to it; tiie
second te the small curvature, which is also between
both orifices, but superiorly and posteriorly.   The sto-
mach, like the intestinal  canal, is  composed of three
coats, or membranes: 1. The outermost, which is very
firm,  and  from the  peritonaeum.  2.  The muscular,
which to very thick, ond composed of various muscular
fibres; and, 3. The  innermost, or  villous coat, which
is covered with exhaling and inhaling vessels, and mu-
cus.   These coa's are connected together by cellular
membrane   The glands of the  stomach which sepa-
rate  the mucus are  situated  between the villous and
muscular coat, in the cellular structure.  The arteries
of the stomach come chiefly  from the cceliac artery,
and are distinguished into the coronary, gastro-epiploic,
and  short  arteries;  they  are accompanied by  veins
which have similar names, and which terminate in the
vena porta;.  The nerves of the stomach are very nu-
merous, and come from the eighth pair and intercostal
nerves.  The lymphatic vessels ore distributed through-
out the whole substance, ond proceed immediately to
the thoracic duct The use of the stomach is to excite
hunger and partly thirst, to receive  the  food from the
oesophagus, and to retain  it, till, by the motion of the
ttomarh, the admixture of various fluids  and many
      310    '
 ether changes, It is rendered 111 to past the right arlfic*
 ofthe stomach, and afford chyle to the intestine*
   Stomach, inflammation of.   See Gastritis.
   [Stomach fumf. Thto to en  instrument Introduced
 of late lor the purpose of emptying tiie stomach of iu
 contents, when poison hos been b» allowed.  It to a
 long catheter mode of gum elastic, winch being Intro-
 duced into the mouth, to passed into the a-sopliagus and
 pressed forwards,  until Ihe point reaches the  stomach
 A syringe adapted to the upper end to then applied, and
 the stomach is emptied of iu  fluid contenu.  If poisou
 be swallowed In a liquid stale, it may thus be moBt ef-
 fectually removed, and rendered harmless.  A,\
   STOMACHIC.   (Stomachicus; from fopaxos, the
 stomach.)  That  which excites and  strengthens Ihe
 action of the stomach.
   Stoma'i-hica fassio. A  disorder in  which there
 is an aversion to food; even the thought of it begeU a
 nausea, anxiety, cardialgia, and effusion of saliva, and
 often a vomiting.  Fasting is more  tolerable tbau eat-
 ing ; If obliged to eat, a pain follows that to worse than
 hunger itself.
   STO'MACHUS.  See Stomach.'
   STONE.  See Calculus.
   STONE-CROP.  See Sedum acre.
   STO'RAX.   Sto/wI;.  See Styrax.
   Storax, liquid.   See Liquidambra.
   Storax  liquida.  See Liquidambra.
   Storax rubra officinalis.  Cascarilla  bark was
 so called.
   Storax, white.  See Myroxylon peruiferum.
   STORCK, Anthony, a medical professor of con-
 siderable note  at  Vienna, who succeeded  the cele-
 brated Von  Swieten as president and  director of the
 faculty of medicine in  that  university, and  was also
 honoured with the appointment of principal consulting
 physician to the Empress Maria Theresa. He distin-
 guished himself chiefly by a long and assiduous course
 of experimenu, with  various narcotic vegetables, as
 hemlock, henbane,  stramonium, aconite, colchicum,
 Sec; of which, though he  appears to hove overrated
 the efficacy, yet certainly he had  the merit of colling
 the attention of practitioners to a class of active reme-
 dies, which may often  be highly  useful  under prudent
 management.  Hto various  tracU on  these subjects
 were printed between 1760 and 1771, and they have
 since passed through several editions and  translations.
 He was also author of a collection of cases, which oc-
 curred under hto observation  in the hospital at Vienna;
 and  thto work was afterward continued  by bis suc-
 cessor, Dr. Collin.
   STRABALI'SMUS.  See Strabismus.
   STRABI'SMUS.  (From s-aafii{o, to squint.)  Stra
 balismus: Strabositas.  Squinting.  An  affection of
 the eye by which a person sees objecu in an oblique
 manner, from the  axis  of vision  being distorted.  Cul-
 len arranges this diseose in  the Class Locales, and
 Order Dyscinesia.  He distinguishes three species :—
   1.  Strabismus habitualis, when from a custom of
 using only one eye.
  2.  Strabismus commodis, when one eye in comparison
 with the other, from greater weakness,  or  mobility,
 cannot accommodate iuelf to the other.
  3.  Strabismus necessarius, when some change takes
 place in  tbe situation or figure of the eye,  or a part
 ot it.
  BTRABO'SITAS.  See Strabismus.
  STRAHLSTEIN.  See ^cfjnolite.
  Stra'men camelorcm.  Camel's hay.  See Andro-
pogon schananthus.
  Strammo'nium.  See Stramonium.
  STRAMO'NIUM.  (From  atraisen, straw: so called
 from iU fibrous roou.)   See Datura stramonium.
  Stramonium officinale.  See Datura stramonium.
  Stramonium sfinosum.  See Datura stramonium.
  Stra'noalis.   (From s"payytvia, to  torment)   A
 hard, painful tumour in the breast, from milk.
  STRANGURIA.  See Strangury.
  STRA'NGURY.  (Stranguria,  a. f.; from rpay\,
 o  drop,  and ovpov, urine.)   A  difficulty in making
 water, attended with pain ond dripping. See Ischuria.
  STRATIO'TES  (From c-palot, an army  so named
 from iu virtues in healing fresh  wounds, and iu use-
fulness to soldiers.)  See Achillea millefolium.
  Stratio'ticum.  See Achillea millefolium.
  STRAWBERRY.  See Fragaria.
  STREATHAM.   A  village in Surrey, where is a 
STR
STR
weak purging water, drunklo the omount of one, two,
or more pinu in o morning.
  STRE'MMA. CZrptppa: from rpttpta, to turn.)  A
strain or sprain of the paru about a joint
  STRIATUS. Striate.  Applied to stems, seeds, tec;
as the stem of the OEnanthe  istula, ond seeds of the
Conium maculatum.
  STRICTURE.   Stridura.   A diminution,  or con-
tracted state of some tube, or  duct, ofthe body, as tlie
oesophagus, intestines, urethra, vagina, &x.   They are
either organic or spasmodic.
  STRICTUS. In botanical language it means straight,
as Caulis strictus.
  STRIDOR.  A noise of crashing.
  Stridor dentium.   Grinding ofthe teeth.
  STRIGA.  A speciesof pubescence of plante, white,
bristle-like, with broad bases mostly decumbent; as in
Borago offidnalis.
  Stri'oil.  Strigilis.  An instrument to scrape off
the sweat during  the gymnastic exercises  of the
ancients, OHd  in their  baths:  strigils were made of
metal,  horn, or ivory, and were curved.  Some were
made of linen.
  Strio.mk'ntum.   The strigment,  filth,  or  sordes,
scraped from the skin, in baths and places of exercises.
  STROBILUS.  A cone. A species of pericarpium,
or seed-vessel.  A catkin hardened and enlarged into a
seed-vessel; an example of which  is in the pinus, or
fir.  It is  either conic, cylindric, ovate, globose, squa-
mose, or spurious, consisting of membraneous and not
woody scales;  as in Origanum marjorana.
  STRONTIA. (So called because it was first found
in a lead mine at  Strontian, in Scotland.)   A grayish
white-coloured earth, found in combination with car-
bonic acid in the mineral called Strontionite.
  Pure strontia to of a grayish-white colour; a pungent,
acrid taste;  and when powdered in a mortar,  the dust
that rises irritates the  lungs and nostrils.  Iu specific
gravity approaches that of barytes.  It requires rather
more than 160 ports of water  at 60° to dissolve it; but
of boiling  water much less. On cooling, it crystallizes
In thin, transparent,  quodrongulor plates, generally
parallelograms, seldom exceeding a quarter of  an inch
in length, and frequently adhering together.  The edges
are most  frequently bevelled  frem each side.   Some-
times they assume a cubic form.  These crystols con-
tain oboul .68 of water; ore soluble in 51.4 times their
weight of woter at  60°, ond in little more  than twice
their weight of boiling water.  They give a blood-red
colour to  the flame of burning alkohol.  The  solution
of strontia changes vegetable blues to a green.  Stron-
tia combines with sulphur either in the wet  or dry way,
and ite sulphuret is soluble in  water.
  In its properties,  strontia bos a considerable affinity
to barytes.  It differs from it chiefly in being infusible,
much  less soluble, of a different form,  weaker in ils
affinities,  and not  poisonous.    Iu saline  compounds
afford  differences more marked.
  The basis of strontia to strontium,  a metal first pro-
cured  by  Sir H. Davy, in 1803, precisely in the same
manner as barium, to which  it is very analogous, but
has less lustre.  It appeored  fixed, difficultly fusible,
and not volatile.  It became converted into strontia by
exposure  to air, and when thrown into water, decom-
posed  ii with great violence,  producing hydrogen gas,
and making the water a solution of strontia.  By ig-
niting the mineral strontionite  intensely with charcoal
powder, strontia Is cheaply procured.
   Strontionite.  See Heavy spar.
  STRONTIUM.   The metallic base of strotnia.  See
Strontia.                           .  .
   STROPHIOLUM  A little curved gland-like part
near the scar or base of some seeds; as that of Asurum,
but especially in several .papilionaceous  genera,  os
 Ulex,  Spartium, Sec.                        . .     .
  Stro fhos.  (From c-pctpta,  to turn.)  A twisting of
the intestines.
   STROPHULUS. A populous eruption peculiar to
infante, and exhibiting a variety of forms, which  ore
described by Dr. Willan, under the titles of interline-
tus, albidus, confertus, volaticus, and candidus.
   1. Strophulus inlertmdus,  usually  called  the  red
gum, and, by tlie French, Effloresce ce bemgne-  The
papula characterizing thto affection, rise sensibly above
the level of the cuticle, are of a vivid red colour, and
commonly distinct  from  each other.   Their  number
and extent vary much in different cases.   Tbey  ap-
 pear most constantly on the cheeks, forearm, and back
 ofthe hand, but are sometimes diffused over the whole
 body. The papula; arc, in  many places, intermixed
 with stigmata, and often with red patches of a larger
 size, whicli do not, however, occasion any elevation of
 the cuticle.   A child's skin thus variegated, somewhat
 resembles a piece of red printed linen; and hence this
 eruption was formerly called the red gown, a term
 which is still retained in several counties of  England,
 and moy lie found in old dictionaries.  Medical writers
 have changed the original word for one of o similar
 sound, but not more significant  The strophulus inttr-
 tinctus bas not, in general, ony tendency to become pus
 tutor; a few small pustules, containinga straw-coloured
 watery fluid, occasionally appear on  the back of the
 hand, but scarcely merit attention, as the fluid is al-
 ways reabsorbed in a short time, without breaking the
 cuticle.  The eruption usually terminates in scurf, or
 exfoliation of the cuticle; lu duration, however, is very
 uncertain; the papule and spots sometimes remain for
 a length of time without  an  obvious alteration; some-
 times disappear and come out again daily; but, for the
 most port, one eruption  of them succeeds another, at
 longer intervals, and wilh more regularity.  This com-
 plaint occurs chiefly within the first  two months of
 lactation.  Il is not always accompanied with, or pre-
 ceded by any disorders ofthe constitution, but appears
 occasionally in the strongest and most healthy children.
 Some authors connect it with  aphthous ulcerations
 common  in children, supposing the latter to be a pari
 of the same disease diffused along the internal surfaces
 of the mouth and intestines.  The fact, however, seems
 to  be, that the two  affections  alternate with each
 other: for those infants who have the populous erup-
 tion  oil the skin ore less liable to aphtha;; and when
 the aphthae take place to a considerable degree, the
 skin is generally pole ond free from eruption.  The
 strophulus  intertinctus is, by most  writers, said  to
 originate from an acidity, or acrimonious quality of
 the milk taken into a child's stomach, communicated
 afterward to tlie blood, and stimulating  the cutaneous
 excretories.  This opinion might, without difficulty, be
 proved to hove little foundolion.  The  predisposition
 to the complaint moy be deduced from the delicate and
 tender state of the skin, and from the strong determi-
 nation of blood to the surface, which evidently takes
 place in infants.  The papulous eruption is, in many
 cases, connected with a weak, irritable state of the
 alimentary canal, and consequent indigestion.  For if
 it be by any means suddenly repelled from tbe surface,
 diarrhoea, vomiting, spasmodic affections of the bowels,
 ond often generol  disturbance of the constitution suc-
 ceed ; but os soon os it reoppears, those internal com-
 plaints ore  wholly suspended.   Dr.  Armstrong  and
 others have particularly noted this reciprocation, which
 makes the red gum, at times, o disease of some import-
 once, though in iu usual form it is not thought to be in
 any respect dangerous.   On iheir remarks a necessary
 caution to founded, not to expose infanU to a stream
 of very cold air, nor to plunge them unseasonably in. a
 cold  bath.  The most violent, and even fotal symp-
 toms, hove often been the consequence of such impru-
 dent conduct
   2.  The Strophulus  albidus,  by some termed the
 white gum, to merely  a variety of strophulus intertinc-
 tus, but deserves some notice on account of the differ
 ent appearance of ite papula;.   In place of those de
 scribed as characterizing the red gum, there is a num-
 ber of minute  whitish  specks,  a  little  elevated,  and
 sometimes, though not constantly, surrounded by  a
 slight redness.  These papule,  when their tops are
 removed, do not discharge ony fluid; it to, however,
 probable, thot they are originally formed by the depo-
 sition of a fluid, which afterward concretes under the
 cuticle.  They appear chiefly on the face, neck,  and
 breast, and are more permanent thun the papule of the
 red gum.   In other respects, they have the same nature
 and tendency, and require a similar plan of treatment.
 Although a distinctive name has been  applied to this
 eruption, when occurring alone, yet it is proper to ob-
 serve, thot, in a great number of cases, there are red
 papule ond spots  intermixed with it,  which prove its
 connexion witli the strophulus intertinctus.
|   3.  The Strophulus confertus.  An eruption of nu-
 merous papule, varying in  their size, appears on dif
 ferent paru of the  body in  InfanU, during  dentition,
; and has thence been  denominated the tjotf-ra**.  It
                                         311 
                      STR

1* '-sMnetlntes also termed the rank red gum.  About
the fourth or fifth  month after  birth, nn  eruption of
thto kind usually takes place on Die cheeks and side*
of the nose, extending sometimes  to the forehead and
arms, but rarely to ihe trunk or body.  The papule n»
the face are smaller, and set more closely together than
in the red gum ; their  colour is  not so vivid, but they
are generally  more permanent  They terminate at
length with slight exfoliations of the cuticle, and often
appear again in the same places, a short  time after-
word.  The papule which, in this complaint, occasion-
ally appear ou the back or loins, are much larger, and
somewhat more distant from each other, than those on
tiie face.   They  are often surrounded by on extensive
circle of inflammation, and  a few of them contain a
semi-pellucid watery fluid, which  is reabsorbed when
the  inflammation subsides.  In the seventh or eighth
month, the strophulus confertus assumes a somewhat
different form ; one or two large Irregular patches ap-
pear on the arms, shoulder, or neck; In which the pa-
pule ore hard, of a considerable size, and  set so close
together, that the whole  surface is of a high red co-
lour.   Most commonly the forearm is the seat of this
eruption, the papule rising  first on the back  of the
hand, and gradually extending upwards  along the arm.
Sometimes, however, the eruption commences at tlie
elbow, and proceeds a little upwards and downwards
on the  outside of the arm.  It arrives at its height in
about a fortnight; the papule then begin to fade, and
become flat at the top; afterward the cuticle exfo-
liates from the part affected, which remains  disco-
loured, rough, and irregular, for a week or two longer.
  An obstinate and very  painful modification of this
disease takes place, though not often,  on the lower
extremities. The  papule spread  from the calves of
the  legs to the thighs, nates, loins, and round the body,
as high as the navel: being very numerous and close
together, they produce a continuous redness over all
these parts.
  The cuticle, presently, however, shrivelled, cracks in
various places, and finally  separates from the skin in
large pieces.  During thto process a new cuticle  is
formed, notwithstanding  which the complaint recurs
in s short time, and goes  through  the same course as
before. In this manner successive eruptions toke place,
during the course of three or four months, and perhaps
do not cease till the child  to one  year old, or somewhat
more.   Children necessarily suffer great  uneasiness
from the heat and irritation occasioned by so extensive
an eruption, yet  while they are affected with it,  they
often remain free from  any internal or febrile com-
plaint.  Thto appearance should be distinguished from
the  intertrigo of infanU, which exhibits  a  uniform,
red, smooth, shining surface,  without papulae; and
which affecu only the lower part of the nates and in-
side of the thigliB, being produced  by the stimulus of
the urine, Sec with which the child's  clothes are al-
most constantly  wetted.  The strophulus confertus,
where the child is otherwise healthy,  to generally as-
cribed to  o state of indigestion, or some feverish com-
plaint of the mother or nurse.  Dr. Willan, however,
asserts, lhat he hos more frequently seen the eruption
when  no such couse was evident.   It may, with more
probability, be considered as one of the numerous symp-
toms of  irritation, arising from the inflamed and pain-
ful slate of the gums in dentition; since it always oc-
curs during that process, and disappears soon after the
first teeih have cut the gums.
  4. The Strophulus volatieus  is characterized by an
 appearance of small circular patches,  or  clusters of
 papule,  arising successively on different poru of the
 body.  The number of papule in each  cluster is  from
 six to twelve.  Both the papule and their interstices
 aw of a high red colour. These potches continue red,
 with a little heat, or itching, for about four days, when
 they turn brown, and begin to exfoliate.  As one patch
 declines, another appears at a small distance from it;
 and in thto manner the complaint often spreads gra-
 dually over the face, body,  and  limbs, not terminating
 in  less than three or four weeks.  During that time the
 child hos sometimes a quick pulse, a white tongue, and
 seems uneasy  and fretful.  In  many cases, however,
 the eruption takes place  without any symptoms of in-
 ternal disorder.  Tbe above complaint has been by
 some writers denominated  ignis volatieus infantum ;
 under this title Astruc and Lowry have described one
 of the form* ef  crusta lactea, in which a successive
       31*
                      STR

eruption of pustules takes place on the tame spot gene*
rally about the mouth or eyes, in children of different
ages, and sometimes in adulu.  The macula volalica
infantum  mentioned by Willlchius,  Beunertu*,  and
S. bizeus, agree in some respects wilh the strophulus
volatieus; but they are described by other German au-
thors ns a species of erysipelas, or as irregular efflores-
cences affecting the genitals of infants, and offon prov-
ing fatal.   The strophulus  volatieus to a complaint by
no mean* frequent.  In most coses whicli hove come
under Dr. Willon's observation,  it  appeared between
the third and sixth month; in one instance, however.
it occurred about ten days after birth, and continued
three weeks, being gradually diffused front the cheeks
and forehead to the scalp, afterword to the trunk ofthe
body and to the extremities; when the patches exfoli-
ated, a red surface was left, with a slight border of de-
tached cuticle.
  5. Strophulus candidus.   In this form of strophulus,
the papule are larger than In any of the foregoing spe-
cies. They have no inflainiuot inn round Iheir base ;
their surface is very smooth and shining, whence they
appear to be of a lighter colour than the adjoining cuti-
cle. They are diffused, at o considerable distance from
each other, over the loins, shoulders, and upper part of
the arms ; in any other situation they are seldom found.
  This eruption affects infants about o year old, and
most commonly succeeds some of the acute diseases
to which they are liable.   Dr. Willan has observed il
on their recovery from a catatrhol fever, and after in-
flammation of the bowels, or lungs.  The papule con-
tinue hard and elevated  for about a week, then gra-
dually subside and disappear.
  STRU'MA.  (Struma, a. f.; from  *truo, to heap
up, or a struendo, because they grow insensibly.)  This
term to generally applied to scrofula, and by  some
to bronchocele, or an  induration of the thyroid gland.
  Stru'mkn.  (From  struma,  a scrofulous tumour.)
An herb so called from its uses in healing strumous
tumours.
  STRUMOUS. (Stmmosus; from struma, a wen or
scrofula.)   Of the nature of scrofula.
  Strumus.  An  obsolete name of the  berry bearing
chickweed, which was supposed to be efficacious in
the cure of scrofula.  See Cucubalus bacciferus.
  STRU'THIUM.   (From $-pvBos,  a  sparrow:  so
named from the resemblance of its flowers  to an un-
fledged sparrow.)  The master-wort.  See Imperatoria
ostruthium.
  STRYCHNIA.  Strychnine.  An alkaline substance
nbtained from the bean of the strychnos ignatia by the
following process:  The  bean  was rasped down  as
small os possible.  It  was then exposed to the action
of nitric  ether in a Fapin's digester.  The  residue,
thus deprived of a  quantity of fatty matter,  was di-
gested in alkohol as long as lhat reagent was  capable
of dissolving any thing. The alkohoiic solutions were
evaporated to dryness, and the residue  redissolved in
water.  Caustic potassa being dropped  into the solu-
tion, a  white crystalline  precipitate  fell, which  was
strychnia.  It was purified by washing it in cold water,
dissolving it in alkohol, and crystallizing it.  Strychnia
wos obtained likewise  from the bean of the strychnos
ignatia, by boiling the  infusion of the bean with mag-
nesia, in  the  same  manner as Robiquet bad obtained
morphia from the infusion of opium.
  The  properties of strychnia, when  in  a state of pu
rity, are as follows:
  It Is crystallized in very small four-sided prisms, ter-
minated by four-sided  low pyramids.  It lias a white
colour; iu taste to intolerably  bittert leaving a metal-
lic impression in the mouth.  It is destitute of smell.
It is not altered by exposure to  the oir.  It is neither
fusible nor volatile, except at temperatures at which it
undergoes decomposition.   It to charred at the tempe-
rature at which oil enters into ebullition (about 580°).
When strongly heated, it swells up, blackens, gives out
empyreumatic oil, a little water, and acetic  acid;  car-
bonic acid and carburetted hydrogen gases are disen-
gaged, and a bulky charcoal, remains  behind,   When
heated wilh peroxide  of copper, it gives out only car
bonic acid gas and water.  It is Very little  soluble in
cold water, 100,000 parts of that liquor dissolving  only
15 parte of strychnia;  but it dissolves in 2,500 times Ita
weight of boiling water.  A coltf solution of strychnin
in woter may be diluted with  100 limes its volume of
that liquid, without losing its bitter taste. 
STR
STR
When strychnia is introduced into the stomach, it t of Cauiram cucurbitlfera malabariensis, of Plukenet,
acu with prodigious energy.  A locked jaw is induced
In a very slwrt lime, and the animal to speedily destroy-
ed.   Half a gram of strychnia blown into tiie throat
of a rabbit proved fatal in five minutes, and brought on
locked jaw in two minutes.
  Sulphate of strychnia to a salt which crystelhzes in
transparent cubes, soluble in less than  ten times its
weight of cold water.   Its taste is intensely bitter, and
the strychnia is precipitated from it by all the soluble
salifiable bases. It is not altered by exposure to the air.
  Muriate of  strychnia  crystallizes in very small
needles, which are grouped together, and before the
microscope exhibit the form of quadrangular prisms.
When exposed to tbe air it  becomes opaque.   It to
more soluble in water than the sulphate, has a similar
taste, and acu with the same violence upon the auiiual
economy as oil the other salts of strychnia.
  Phosphate  ef strychnia crystallizes in four-sided
prisms.  It con only be obtained neutral by double de-
composition.
  JVi«rateo/*trj/c*tn'acan be obtained only by dissolv-
ing strychnia in nilric acid, diluted with a great deal
of water.  The saturated solution, when cautiously
evaporated, yields crystols of neutral nitrate in pearly
needles.  This salt is much  more soluble in hot than
in cold water.  Iu taste  is exceedingly bitter, and  it
acu with more violence upon the animal economy Ihan
pure strychnia.  It seems capable of uniting with an
excess of acid.  When heated, it becomes yellow, and
undergoes decomposition. It is slightly soluble in alko-
hol. but is insoluble in ether.
   When  concentrated nitric acid is  poured  upon
strychnia, it immediately strikes an amaranthine co-
lour, followed by a shade similar to that of blood. To
this colour succeeds a tint of yellow, which  passes
afterward into green.  By this  action tlie  strychnia
seems to be altered  in iu properties, and to be con-
verted  into a substance still capable of uniting with
acids.
   Carbonate of strychnia to obtained in tbe form of
White flocks, Uttie soluble in water, but soluble in car-
bonic acid.
  Acetic, oxalic, and tartaric acids form with strychnia
neutral salu, wliich  are very soluble in water, and
more  or  less capable of crystallizing.  They crystal-
lize best  when Ihey  contain on  excess of acid.  The
now called Strychnos nux vomica.
  To tins  genus also, but upon evidence less conclu-
sive, he likewise justly referred the colubriuum.  But
the  fabi sancti Ignatii lie merely conjectured might
belong to  this family, as appears by the query, An
Slrychni species ? which subsequent discoveries have
enabled us lo decide iu the negative;  for in the Supp.
Plant  it constitutes  the  new genus  Ignatia, which
Loureiro  has lately  confirmed, changing tiie specific
name amara to thot of philippinica.   The strychnos
and ignatia ore, however, nearly allied, and both rank
under the  Order Sulanacca.
  Dr. Woodville has  inquired thus for into the botani-
cal origin of these productions, from finding that, by
medical writers, they ore generally treated  of under
the same heod, and in a very confused and indiscrimi-
nate manner. The seed of Ihe fruit, or berry of this
tree, Strychnos nux vomica, to the officinal  nux vomi-
ca:  it  is flat, round,  about an inch broad, and near a
quarter of an inch  thick, with a prominence in  the
middle on bpth sides, of a gray colour, covered with a
kind of woolly matter;  and internally hard and tough
 like horn. To the taste it is extremely bluer, but lias
no remarkable smell.  It consists chiefly of  a gummy
 matter, which is moderately bitter; the resinous part
 is very inconsiderable in quantity, but intensely bitter;
 hence rectified spirit has been considered as iu best
 menstruum.
   Nux vomica  is reckoned among the most powerful
 poisons of the narcotic kind, especially  to  brute ani-
 mals ;  nor are  instances wonting of its deleterious
 effects upon the human species   It proves fatal to dogs
 in a very  short time, as appears by various authorities.
 Hillefield and others found that it also poisoned hures,
 foxes, wolves, cats,  rabbits, and even some birds, as
 crows  and ducks; and  Loureiro relates,that ahorse
 died in four hours after taking a drachm of the seed in
 a half-roasted state.
   The effecu of thto baneful drug upon different ani-
 mals, and even upon tho*e of the same species, appear
 to be rather uncertain, and not always in proportion to
 the quantity of the poison given.   With some animals
, it  produces  iu effecu almost instantaneously;  wiin
 othere, not  till  after several  hours,  when laborious-
 respiration,  followed by totpor, tremblings, coma, and
 convulsions, usually precede the  fatal spasms, or teta-
lize Deal wueil l*icy lAjinam ai.  ».<.» ... u^n..  .. ....  w... UK..v..w, —--j ,------—       .,    . .
neutral  aceiate is very soluble, and crystallizes with \ nus, with which tins drug commonly exlinguisnes me.
                                                     From  four cases  related of iU mortal effecu upon
                                                   human subjecu, we  find the symptoms corresponded
                                                   nearly with those which we bave here mentioned of
difficulty.
  Hydrocyanic acid dissolves  strychnia, and forms
with it a crystallizable salt
  Strychnia combines neither wilh sulphur nor carbon.
When boiled wilh iodine, a solution takes place, and
iodate and hydriodate of strychnia are formed. Chlo-
rine acU upon it precisely in the same way.
  Strychnia, when dissolved in alkohol, has the pro-
perty of precipitating the greater number of metallic
oxides from their acid solutions.  It is precipitated by
tlie alkalies and alkaline earths; but the effect of the
earths proper has not been tried.
  STRYCHNINE.  See Strychnia.
  STBYCHNOMANIA.  (From ^pvxvos,nighUhade,
and uavio, madness.)  So tlie ancienu called tbe dis-
order produced by eating the deadly nighUhade.
  STRY'CHNOS.   (Strychnos,  i.  m.;  an ancient
name which occurs in  Pliny and Dioscorides derived
from orptavvvpi, to overthrow, and applied most pro-
bably from the overpowering narcotic quality of the
plant to which it was assigned, otovxvos of the Greeks
being a  kind of nightshade.  Linneus  adopted this
name for the present genus, on account of the analogy
of iu narcotic properties with the plant of the ancients.
Some derive it from j-puxu, t0 torment: from its pro-
perties of producing insanity.)  The name of a genus
of  planis in the Linnean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Strychnos nux vomica.  The systematic name of
 the tree  the seed of which is called the poison-nut
 Nux vomica; Nux metella.  The nux vomica, lignum
 solubrinum,  and faba sancti Ignatii, bave been long
 known in the Materia Medica  as  narcotic poisons,
 brought from the  East Indies, while the vegetables
 which  produced them  were unknown, or at least not
 botanically ascertained.
   By the judicious discrimination of Linnaus, the nux
 vtaatea was found to be the fruit of tbe tree described
 and figured in tbe Hortus malabaricus, undei the name
brutes; and these, as well as ihe dissections of dogs
killed by this poison, not showing any injury done to
the stomach or intestines, prove that the mix vomica
acts immediately upon the  nervous system,  and de-
stroys life by the virulence of ite narcotic influence.
  The quantity of the seed necessary lo produce  this
efffect upon a strong dog, as appears  by experimenu,
need not to be  more than  a scruple; a  rabbit wos
killed by five, and a cat by four, grains: and of the
four persons to whom we have alluded, and who un-
fortunately perished by this deleterious drug,  one was
a girl ten years of oge, to whom  fifteen grams  were
exhibited ut twice for the cure of on ague.  Loss, how-
ever, tells us, that be took  one or two grains of it in
substance, without discovering any bad effect;  and
that a friend of hto  swallowed a whole seed without
injury.                                 .      ..
  In Britain, where physicians seem to observe the
rule Saltern non  nocere, more strictly than in  many
other countries, the  nux  vomica has been rarely, if
ever,  employed  as  a medicine.   On  the Continent,
however, and especially in Germany, they have cer
tainly been guided more by the axiom, " What te inca-
pable of doing much harm, is equally unable to do
much good."  The truth of this remark was very folly
exemplified  by the  practice of Boron Stilrck, and is.
farther illustrated by tbe medicinal character  given of
nux vomica, which, from tlie time of Gcsner till that
of a modern date, has been  recommended by a «««»-
sion of authors as an antidote lo tlie plague, as a  febri-
fuge, as a vermifuge, and as a remedy in nuinia, hypo-
chondriasis, hysteria, rheumatism, gout, and canine
madness. In  Sweden, il has of late years been suc-
cessfully used in dysentery; but  Berguis, who tried
iu effecu in this disease, says, that it suppressed the
flux  for twelve hours, wbich  afterward  returned 
STY
STY
 again.  A woman  who took  a scruple of this drug
 night and morning, two successive days, is soid to have
 been  seized with convulsion* and vertigo,  notwith-
 standing which the  dysenteric symptoms returned, and
 the disorder was cured by other medicines; but a pain
 in ibe stomach, the  effect of the nux vomica, continued
 afterward for a long lime.
   Bergius, therefore, thinks it should only be adminis-
 tered in the character of a ionic and anodyne, in small
 doses (from live to ten groins), and not till after proper
 laxa'ives bave  been employed.   Loureiro recommends
 it as a valuable internal medicine in fluor  albus ;  for
 which  purpose he  roosu it till it becomes  perfectly
 black and friable,  which renders iu medicinal use safe,
 wilhout impairing iu efficacy,   il to said to hove been
 used  successfully in the cure  of agues, and  hos also
 been  reckoned  a specific in pyrosis, or water-brash.
   Strychnos  volubili*.  The systematic nome of
 the tree wldch was supposed to afford the Jesuit's
 bean.   See  Ignatia amara.
   STUPEFACIENT.  (Stnpefadens ; from  stupefa-
 do, to stupify.)  Of a stupifying quality.
   STU'PHA. (From svtpio, to  bind.)  Stupa; Stuppa.
 A stupe, or  fomentation.
   STU'POR.   (From Stupeo, to be senseless.)  Insen-
 sibility.
   Stu'pfa.  See Stupha.
   STYE. See  Hordeolum
   Sty'gia.  (From  Styx, a name given by the poeu to
 one of the rivers in  hell.)  A water mode from subli-
 mate, and directed in old dispensatories, was so called
 from a supposition of iu poisonous qualities.  A name
 at* tbe Aqua regia also, from iu corrosive qualities.
  STYLIFORM.  (Stylifermis; from stylus, a bodkin,
 and forma, a  likeness.)   Shaped like  a  bodkin,  or
 style.
  Styliscus.   (From cvXos, a bodkin.)  A tent made
 in tlie form of a bodkin.
  STYLO.  Names compounded of this word belong
 to muscles which are attached to tbe styloid  process of
 die temporal bone; as,
  Stylo-cerato-hyoideus. See Stylchyoideus.
  Stylo-cbondro-hyoidkus.   See Stylo-'hyoideus.
  Stylo-olossus.  Stylo-glosse, of Dumas.  A mus-
 cle situated between the  lower jaw and os hyoides
 laterally, which draws the tongue  aside  and  back-
 wards.  It arises tendinous and fleshy from the styloid
 process, and from the ligament which connects that
 process to Die angle of tbe  lower jaw, and is inserted
 Into the root of  the tongue, runs along ils sides, and is
 insensibly lost neariu tip.
  Stylo-hyoideus.   Stylo-hyoidien, of Dumas.   A
 muscle situated  between ihe lower jow, and os hyoides
 laterally, which pulls the  os hyoides to one side and a
 little upwards.  Il is a small, ihin, fleshy muscle, situ-
 ated between ihe styloid process and os hyoides, under
 the posterior belly and middle tendon of the digastri-
cus, near the upper edge of that muscle.  It arises by a
long thin tendon, from the basis and posterior edge of
 the styloid process, and, descending in an oblique direc-
tion, to inserted  into the lateral and anterior part of the
os hyoides,  near  ite horn. The fleshy belly of thto
muscle  to usually  perforated on one or both sides, for
 tlte passage  of  the middle tendon of tbe digastricus.
Sometimes, though not always, we find another smaller
muscle placed before the stylo-hyoideus, which, from
its having nearly  the same origin and insertion, and
tbe same use, is called stylo-hyoideus-aUer.  It seems
to have been first known to Eustachius:  so that Doug-
las wos not aware of this circumstance when he placed
it  among the muscles discovered by himself.   It arises
from the apex of Ibe styloid process, and sometimes by
a broad ond ihin aponeurosis, from the inner and  poste-
rior part of the  angle of the lower jaw, and to inserted
into the appendix, or little horn, of the os hyoides.
The use of these muscles  is to pull the  os hyoides to
one side, and a little upwards.
  Stylo-hyoideus-alter.  See Stylo-hyoideus.
  Stylo-Mastoid foramen.  Foramen  stylo-mastoi-
deum.  A hole betwepn the styloid  and mastoid pro-
cess of the temporal bone, through' which the portio
dura of the auditory nerve passes to the temples.
   Stylo-puarynoeus.    Stylo-thyro-pharyngien,  of
Dumas.  A muscle situated between tbe lower jaw and
os hyoides laterally,  which dilates and raises tbe pha-
rynx and thyroid cartilage  upwards.   It arises fleshy
from the root of the styloid process, and is inserted into
      914
 tin side of the pharynx and back part of the thyroid
 cartilage.
   STYLUS.  The style  of a  flower to the column
 which proceeds from llie germen, and bean the stigma
 Ills,
   I. Filiform, in Jasminum, and Zea mays.
   2. Linear, in Orobus.
   3. Subulate, thicker below than towards apex; as la
 Geranium.
   4. Cluvate, thicker at its summit than towards iu
 base; as in Leucojum vernuin.
   5. Triangular, in Pisum.
   6. Bifid, iii Polygonum persicaria.
   7. Trifid, in Bryonia and Momordica.
   8. Dichotomoue, divided  inlo two, which again bl-  "
 furcate;  as in Cnrdia.
   9. Long, much  more so than the stamina; as in
 Campanula and Dianthus.
   10. Persistent, not going off after the fecundation of
 the germen; as Synapis.
   STYMATO SIS.  (From fvu, to hove a priapism.)
 A violent erection ofthe penis, with a bloody discharge.
   Styptk'ria.   (From ;-v0<o, to bind: so called from
 ite astringent properties.)   Alum.
   STYPTIC.  (Slypticus;  from ^-vtbta, to adstringe.)
 A term given to those substances whioh posse & the
 power of stopping hemorrhages such as turpentine,
 alum, Sec.
   Styraci'flua.   (From styrax, storax, and fiuo, to
 flow.)  See Liquidambra.
   STYRAX.  (Styrax, ads. m. and f.; from rvpaj,
 a  reed in which it was used to be preserved.)  1. The
 name of a genus of plants in  ihe  Linnean system.
 Class, Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The  pharmacopoeial  name of  the Styrax  ca-
 lamita.
   Styrax alba.  See Myroxylon peruiferum.
   Styrax benzoin.  The systemotic name ofthe tree
 which affords the gum benzoin.  Benzol!; Benjoinum;
 Assa dulcis; Assa odorata; Liquor cyreniacus; Bal-
 zoinum;  Benzoin; Benjui;  Benjuin.  Gum-benja
 min.  This substonce is dossed, by modern chemists,
 among the balsams. There are two kinds of benzoin;
 benzoe  amygdaloulcs, which is formed of white tears.
 resembling "almonds, uniled together by a brown mat-
 ter; and common benzoin, which to brown and wilhout
 tears.  The tree which affords this  balsam, formerly
 called Laurus bcnioin; Benzoifera; Arbor bcnici, is
 Ihe Styrax—foliis oblongis  acuminatis, subtus tomen-
 tosis, racemis compositis  lungitudtne foliorum,  of
 Dryandcr, from which it to obtained by incisions.  The
 benzoin of the shops is usually in very large brittle
 masses.  When chewed it imports very little toste, ex-
 cept thot it impresses on the palate a slight sweetness;
 its smell, especially when  rubbed  or heated, is ex-
 tremely flagrant and agreeable.   Gum-benjamin was
 analyzed by Brande. The products obtained by distil-
 lation were, from 100 grains, benzoic ocid,  9 grains;
 acidulated water, 5.5; butyraceous and empyreumatic
 oil, 60; brittle coal, 22;  and a mixture of carburetted
 hydrogen and carbonic acid  gas, computed ot 3.5.   On
 treating the empyreumatic oil with water, however, 5
 groins more of acid were extracted, making 14 in  the
 whole.
  From 1500 grains of benzoin, Bucholz obtained 1250
of resin;  187 benzoic ocid; 25 of a substance similar
to  balsam of Peru;  8 of an atomotic p;ibsiance soluble
in  water and alkohol; and 30 of woody fibres and im-
purities.
  A2lher, sulphuric and acetic acids, dissolve benzoin;
so  do solutions of potassa and soda.  Nitric  acid acu
 violently  on it, and a  portion of artificial  tannin to
formed.   Ammonia dissolves  it sparingly.  It  br-s
 rarely been used medicinally in a simple state, but iu
 preparations are much esteemed against  inveterate
coughs and  phthisical complainU,  unattended with
 much fever; it has also been used as a cosmetic, and ia
the way of fumigation, for the resolution of indolent
tumours.   The acid of benzoin  is employed to the
tinctura camphora composita, and a tincture to directed
to  be made of the balsam.
 Styrax calamita.  Storax in the cane, because It
 was foi merly brought to us in reeds, or canes.  See
 Styrax officinalis.
  Styrax colata.  Strained storax.
 Styrax  LiqviDA.   Liquid  storax.  See Liquid
ambra. 
SUB
SUB
  StyvUX omciKALis.  The systematic name of the
tree which  affords the solid  storax.   Officinal storax.
Styrax—foliis ovatis, subtus villosis, racemis stmpli-
ribus folio  brevioribus, ot Linntcus.  There  are two
kinds of storax to be found in the shops;  the one is
usually in irregular compact masses, free from impuri-
ties, of a reddish-brown appearance,  ond interspersed
with whitish tears, somewhat like gum ammoniac, or
benzoin; it is extremely fragrant, and upon the appli-
cation  of heat readily  melts.  This  has been  called
storax  in lump,  red storax, and, when in  separate
teors, storax in tears.  The other kind, which is called
the common storax, is in lorge masses, very light, and
bears no external resemblance whatever lo the former
storax, as  it seems almost wholly composed of dirty
sow-dust, caked  together by resinous matter.  Storax
was formerly used in  catarrhal complainU, coughs,
asthmas, obstructions, &c.   In the present practice it
is almost totally disregarded, notwithstanding it  is an
efficacious remedy in nervous diseases.
   Styrax rubra.  Red storax, or storax in the tear.
   SUB. 1. In anatomy, it is applied to parts which
lie under the other word  or name, which  sub pre
cedes; as subscopularis, under the scapula, &c.
   2. In pathology, it is used to express an imperfect
disease, or a feeble state of  a disease; as subluxation,
subacute, &c.
   3. In botany, when  shape, or any other character,
 cannot be precisely defined,  sub is prefixed to the term
 used;   as  subrotundus, roundish;  subsessiles,  not
 quite destitute of a fooutalk, &c.
   4. In chemistry, this  term is applied, when a salifi-
 able base is predominant in  a compound, there being a
 deficiency  of the acid;  as subcarbonate  of potassa,
 subcarbonate of  soda.
   Suback'tas cupri.   See  Verdigris.
   SUBACETATE.  Subacetas.  An imperfect ace-
 tate.
   Subacctate of copper.  See Verdigris.
   Subala'ris vena.   The  vein  of  the  axilla or
arm-pit
  Subcarbo'nas potass je.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Subcarbonas riRRt  See Ferri subcarbonas.
  Subcarbonas plumbi.  See Plumbi subcarbonas.
  SUBCARBONATE.  Subcarbonas.  An imperfect
carbonate.                              .,  .
   SUBCAETILAGI'NOUS.    (Subcarltlagtnosus ;
from sub, under,  and cartilago, a  cartilage.)  Of a
structure approaching to that of cartilage.
  SUBCLAVIAN.   (Subdavieulus; from  sub,  be-
neath, and clauieula, the clavicle.)  That which is, or
passes, under the clavicle.            . .  .
  Subclavian artery.  The right  subclavian arises
from the arteria innominoto, and proceeds under the
clavicle to the axilla.   The left subclavian arises from
the arch ofthe aorta, and  ascends under the left  cla-
vicle to  the  axilla.  The subclavians in their course
give'off the internal mammary, the  cervical, the ver-
tebral, and the superior intercostal arteries.
   Subclavian vein.  Thto receives the blood from the
 veins of the arm, ond runs into the vena cava superior.
   SUBCLA'VIUS.   (From sub, under, and clavtculo,
 the channel bone: as being situated under the clavicle,
 or channel bone.)  Subclavianus.  Coslo-clavtculeire,
 of Dumas.   A muscle, situated on the anterior part of
 the thorax,  which pulls the clavicle downwards  and
 forwards.  It orises tendinous  from  the cartilage  that
 joins the first  rib to the sternum, is inserted after be-
 coming fleshy into the  inferior part of the clavicle,
 which it occupies from within half an inch of the ster-
 num as far outwards as to iu connexion, by a ligament,
 With Ihe coracoid process of the scapula.
   SUBCRURA^'US.  A name of two little muscular
 slips sometimes found under the crureus; they are in-
 serted into the capsular ligament which they pull up.
   SUBCUTANEOUS.  (Subcutaneus;  from sub, un-
 der,  and  cutis, the  skin.)  Under  the skin; a name
 given to some nerves, vessels, glands, &c. which ore

 ^wnSma glaiws. . Glandula subcutanea.
  These are sebaceous glands lying under theskin, which
  they perforate by their excretory ducts.
    BUBCUTA'NEUS.  See Ptatysma myotdes.
    SUBER.   Cork.  See Quercut suber.
    SUBERIC  ACID. Addum subencum.  This acid
  was obtained by Brugnotelli from cork, and afterward
  more fully examined by Bouillon la Grange.  To pro-
cure it, pour on cork, grated to powder, six times Mi
weight of nitric acid, of the specific gravity of 1.26,
in a tubulated retort, and distil the mixture with a gen-
tle heat as long as any red fumes arise.  As the distil-
lation advances, a yellow matter, like wax, appears on
the surface of the liquid in the retort.  While iu con-
tenu continue hot, pour them into a glass vessel, placed
on a sand heat, and keep them conilniially stirring wilh
a glass rod; by which means the liquid will gradually
grow thicker.  As soon as while  penetrating vopours
appear, let it be removed from the sand heat, and kept
stirring till cold.  Thus an orange-coloured mass will
be  obtained, of tbe consistence of honey, of o strong
sharp smell while hot, and  o peculiar aromatic smell
when cold.  On this, pour twice iu weight of boiling
water, apply heat till il liquefies, and filter.  As the
filtered liquor cools, it deposites a powdery sediment,
and acquires a thin pellicle.   Separate the sediment by
filtration, and evaporote the fluid nearly to  dryness.
The mass thus  obtained to the  suberic acid, which
moy be  purified by soturoting with  an alkali,  and
precipitating by an acid, or by boiling it with charcoal
powder.
   Chevreuil obtained the suberic acid by mere digestion
 of the nitric acid on the grated cork, without distilla-
 tion, and purified it by washing with cold water.  12
 parts of cork may be made to yield one of acid.  When
 pure, it to white and pulverulent, having a feeble taste,
 and little action on litmus.  It is soluble in 80 parts of
  water at 55J° F. and in 38 parts at 140°. Ii is much
  more soluble in alkohol, from which water throws down
  a  portion of  the suberic acid.   It occasions a while
  precipitate when poured into acetate of lead, nitrates
  of lead, mercury, and silver, muriate of tin, and pro-
  tosulphate of iron.  It affords no precipitate with solu-
  tions of copper or  zinc.   The suberates of potassa,
  soda, and ammonia are very soluble.  The two latter
  may be readily crystallized.  Those of barytes, lime,
  magnesia, and alumina, are of sparing solubility.
    Sublimame'ntum. (From sublimo, to lift up.)  The
  pendulous substance which floau in the middle of the
  urine.
    SUBLIMATE.  See Hydrargyri oxymurias.
    Sublimate, corrosive.  See Hydrargyri oxymurias.
    SUBLIMATION.  (Sublimatio;  from sublimo, to
  raise or sublime.)   A process by which volatile sub-
  stances  are raised  by heat, and  again condensed in a
| solid form.  This chemical process differs from evapo-
  ration only in being confined to solid substances. It is
  usually  performed  either for the purpose of purifying
  certoin substances, and disengaging them from extra-
  neous matters; or else to reduce into vapour, and com
  bine, under  that form, principles which would have
  united  with greater difficulty if they  had not been
  brougnt to that state of extreme division.
    As all fluids are volatile by heat, and consequently
  capable of being separated, in most cases, from fixed
  matters, so various solid bodies are subjected to a simi-
  lar treatment.   Fluids are said to distil, and solids to
  sublime, though sometimes both ore obtained  in one
  and the same operation.   If the subliming matter con-
  cretes into a solid, hard mass, ii to commonly called a
  sublimate; if into a powdery form, flowers.
     The principal subjecu of this operation are, volatile
   alkaline salu; neutral salu, composed of volatile alkali
   and acids, as  sal ammoniac; the salt of  amber, and
   flowers of  benzoin, mercurial preparations, and sul-
   phur.   Bodies of themselves not volatile ore frequently
   made to sublime by the mixture of volatile ones; thus
   iron is carried over by sol ammoniac in llie preparation
   of the flores martioles, or ferrum ommoniotum.
     The fumes of solid bodies in close vessels rise but a
   Utile way, and odbere to that part of the vessel where
   they concrete.                   ....         j-
     SUBLI'MIS.  See  Flexor  brevis digitorum peats,
    and Flexor sublimis perforatus.
     SUBLINGUAL.  (Sublingualis;  from sub, under,
    and lingua, the tongue.)   A name given to paru im-
    mediately under the tongue.
     Sublingual glands.   Glandula •**<"*£**< ve»
    Bartholiniana, Vel Riviniana.   The glands which are
    suuated under the tongue, and secrete saliva.  Their
    excretory  ducu are called Riviman from their die-
    coverer.
     SUBLUXA'TIO.  A sprain
      SUBMERSION.   (Suomersio;  bom  sub, under,
  landmen, to sink.)  Drowning.  A variety^ the 
sue
SUF
apoplexia suffocate.  Sauvages terms it asphyxia im-
niersorum.
  SUBMKRSL'S.   Plunged under water: applied  to
leaves wliich are naturally under water, while others
of the planu are obove ; os in Ranunculus oquotilis.
  Sobmu'rias hydraroyri.  Sec Hydrargyri sub-
murias.
  SUBMURIATE.  Snomurio*.  An imperfect mu-
riate.
  Suborbita'rius.  The suborbitary nerve;  a branch
of the fifth pair.
  Subphosphuretted hydrogen.  See Phosphorus.
  SUBROTUNDUS.  Roundish: applied to several
paru of planu.  The leaf of the Pyrola is subrotund.
  S UBS ALT. A salt ha ving an excess of base beyond
what is requisite for saturating  the acid, as supersalt
is one with an excess of the acid.  The sulphate of
potassa to the neutral compound of sulphuric acid and
potassa; subsulphate of potassa, a compound of the
same Ingredients, in which there is an excess of base;
Bupersiilphate of potassa, a compound of the same
acid and the same base, in which there is an excess of
acid.
  SUBSCAPULARS.   (From  sub, under, and sca-
pula, the shoulder-blade.)   Sous-scapulo-trochinien,
of Dumas.  Infra-scapularis.  The name of this mus-
cle sufficiently indicates iu situation.  It is composed
of many fasciculi of tendinous  and fleshy fibres, the
marks of which we see imprinted on the under surface
of the scapula.  These fasciculi, which arise from all
the basins of lhat bone internally, and likewise from iu
superior, as well as from one-half of iu inferior costa,
unite to form a considerable flat tendon which adheres
to the capsular ligament, and to iuserted into the upper
 Eart  of the  less tuberosity at   tiie head of the  os
 uineri.
  The principal use of this muscle is to roll the arm
Inwards.  It likewise serves to  bring it close to tbe
ribs; and, from iu adhesion to the capsular ligament,
it prevenu lhat membrane from being pinched.
  SUBSU'LTUS.  (From  subsulto,  to leop.)  Su6-
sultus ttndinum.  Weak convulsive motions or twitch-
ing* of the tendons, mostly of the hands, generally ob-
served iu the extreme stages of putrid fever.
  SURU'BERES.   (From sub, under, and ubera, the
breasts.)   This term hath been  used by some writers
for those infanU who yet suck, in distinction from those
who ore weaned, and then ore called exuberes.
  SUBULATUS.   Subulate.  Awl-shaped:  applied
in botany to leaves, receptacles, tec. which ore tapering
from a thick base lo a point like an awl; as the leaf of
the Salsola kali, and receptacle of the Scabiosa atro-
purpurea.
  Succa'oo.  The rob of any fruit.
  BUCCEDA'NEUM.   A medicine substituted for
another.
  Succenturia'ti musculi.  The pyramidal muscles
of the belly.
  Succknturiati kenes.  Two glands lying above
the kidneys.
  Su'cci scorbutici.  Tbe juice of English scurvy-
grass, Sec.
  SUCCINATE.  Succinas.  A suit formed by the
combination of the acid of amber, or succinic acid,
with a salifiable base, succinate of potassa, succinate
ef copper, tec
  Succi'moens membrana.  Tbe diaphragm.
' SUCCINIC.  (Sucdnicus; from Succinum, amber.)
Of or belonging to amber.
  Succinic acid. Acidum succinicum.  Sal succini.
It has long been known that amber, when exposed  to
distillation, aC'ords a crystallized substance, which sub-
limes into the upper part of the vessel.  Before iu na-
ture was understood it was called salt of amber; but
it to now known to he a peculiar acid, as Boyle first
discovered.  The  crystals  are  at first contaminated
wilh a little oil, whicli gives them a browulsh colour;
but  they may be purified by solution and crystalliza-
tion   repeated as often as necessary, when tbey will
become transparent and shining.  Poa recommends to
put on the filter, through which the solution to passed,
a tittle  conon previously wetted with oil of amber.
Their figure is that of a triangular prism.  Their taste
to acid, and they redden the blue colour of litmus, but
not thot of violets.  They ore soluble in less than two
parts of lioiling alkohol, in two pari* of boiling water,
and in twenty-five of cold water.
      310
  Plonche,  of Porto, observes,  that  o  considerable
quontity might be collected in making amber varnish,
as it sublimes while tile amber is melting for this pur-
pose, ond is wasted.
  Several processes have been proposed for purifying
this acid: thot of Richter appears to be the beet.  The
acid being dissolved iu hot water, ond filtered, Is to be
saturated wilh potassa or soda, and boiled with char-
coal, which absorbs  the oily matter.  The solution
being filtered, nitrate of lead is added; whence results
an  insoluble succinate of lead, from  which, by diges-
tion in the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, pure
succinic acut is separated.  Nitrate or muriate of ba-
rytes wiU snow whether any sulphuric acid remains
mixed with the succinic solution; and if so, it may be
withdrawn  by digesting the liquid with a little more
succinate of lead.  Pure succinic acid  may be obtained
by evaporation, in white transporent prismatic crys
tals. Their taste is somewhot sharp,  and  ihey redden
powerfully  tincture of turnsole.  Heat melts, and par-
tially decomposes succinic acid.   Air has  no  effect
upon it  It is soluble in both water and alkohol, and
much more so when they are heated.
  SU'CCINUM.   (Sucanum, i.  n.; from succus,
juice: because il was thought to exude from a tree.)
See Amber.
  Succinum cinereum.   Ambergris is so called  by
some authors.  See Ambergris.
  Succinum  oriskum.   Ambergris  is sometimes io
called.   See Ambergris.
  Succinum oleum.  See Oleum sucdni.
  Succinum pkeparatum.  Prepared amber.   See
Amber.
  SUCCI'SA.  (From succido, to cut: so  named from
iu being indented, and, as it were, cut in pieces.)  Ap-
plied io a species of the genus Scabiosa.
  SUCCORY.  See Cichorium.
  Su'ccubus.  See Incubus.
  SUCCULENS. Succulent, juicy, rich.  Applied to
fruiu, pods, soils, &c.
  SUCCULENTS.  The name of an order of Lin
metis's Fragments of a Natural Method, containing
those which have fleshy and succulent leaves; a Csac-
tus, Sedum, Sempcrvivum, &c.
  SUCCULENTU8.  Juicy: fuU of juice. Applied
to pods, leaves, &.c.
  SUCCUS.  Juice.
  Succus cociiLEARte compositus.  A warm ape-
rient and diuretic, mostly exhibited In the cure of dis-
eases of the skin, arising from scurvy.
  Succus cyreniacus.  Juice of laserwort.
  Succus gastricus.  See Gastric juice,
  Succus iieliotropii.  See Croton tmeluriwn
  Succus indicus pvroanb.  .Gamboge.
  Succus LiQUORm*.  See Glycyrrhiza glabra.
  SUDA'MINA.  (Sudamen, iuis. n.; from  sudor,
sweat.)  Hi.   a.  Boa.  Vesicles  resembling  millet-
Bee ds, iu form and magnitude, which appear suddenly,
without fever, especially  in the summer-time, after
much labour and sweating.
  SUDA'TIO.  (From sudor, sweat) A sweating.
See F.phidrosis.
  SUDATO'IUUM.   (From sudo, to sweat.)  A stew
or sweating-bouse.
  SUDOR.   Sweat or perspiration.
  Sudor anqlicus.   Hydronosus; Gargeatie.  Tha
sweating sickness of England;  and  endemic  fever.
Dr. Cullen thinks it a species of typhus.  Thto elisor
der is  thus named from  iu first  appearing in ibis
island, ond  acquires the title of sudor, from Ihe patient
suddenly breaking out into a profuse sweat, wliich
forms the great character of the disease.
  SUDORIFIC.  (Sudorificua:  from «uoVr,  sweat,
and fvio, to make.) A synonyuie of diaphoretic. Sea
Diaphoretics.
  SUFFIME'NTUM.   (From suffimen, a perfume)
A perfume.
  SUFFl'TUS.  A perfume.
  SUFFOCA'TIO.  Suffocation.
  Sukfocatio stridula.   The croup.
  Suffrutices  plant*.   Under shrubby'plants)
Such lUmeous or somewhat woody vegetables that are
of  a nature, In some  degree, between  that  of Hie
shrubby, aud the herbaceous; as  thyme, sage, hys-
sop, &c.
  SUFFUMIGATION.   (Sufamigatio ;  from  sua,
under, and  fumige, to smoke.) Tin burning odorous 
SUL                                           SUL
•uostances to remove "an evil smell, or destroy mi-
asma.
  PUFFUSIO.  (From auffunae, to pour down: so
called  because tlie oncienu supposed the opacity pro-
ceeded  from something running under the crystalline
humour.),
  1. A cataract
  2. An extravasation of some humour, as the blood:
thus we say, a suffusion of blood in the eye, when it
is what is vulgarly called bloodshot.
  Surrusio auriginosa.  A jaundice.
  SUGAR.   See Sacchamm.
  Sugar of lead. See Plumbi acetas.
  Sugar of milk.  A substance produced from whey,
which,  if not  sour, contains a soline substance, to
which this name has been given.
  SUGILLATION.   (Sugillatio;  from  sugillo, to
slain.)   A bruise.  A spot or mark made by a leech or
cupping-glass.
  8ULCATUS. Furrowed: applied to stems, leaves,
seeds, &c. of plants; as the seeds of the Scandix odo-
rata, and australis.
  SULCUS.  A groove or furrow;  generally applied
to the bones.
  SU'LPHAS.   (Sulphas,  atis. m.;  from  sulphur,
brimstone.)   A sulphate or salt formed by the union
of the sulphuric acid with a salifiable base.
  Sulphas  aluminosus.  Alum. See Alumen.
  Sulphas ammonia.  Alkali volatile vitriolatum, ot
Bergman.   Sal ammoniacum  secretum,  of  Glauber.
Vitriolum  ammoniacale. This salt hos  been found
notive in the neighbourhood of some volcanoes.  - It is
esteemed diuretic  and deobstruent, and  exhibited iu
tbe same diseases as the muriate of ammonia.
  Sulphas  cupri.  See Cupri sulphas.
  Sulphas  ferri.  See Ferri sulphas.
  Sulphas  hydraroyri.   See Hydrargyrus vitrio-
latus.
  Sulphas  magnesia.  See Magnesia sulphas.
  Sulphas  potassa.  See Polassa sulphas.
  Sulphas  quinine.  See Cinchonina.
  Sulphas  sod.c   See Soda sulphas.
  S'"li*has zinci.  See  Zinci sulphas.
  S i: LPH ATE. See Sulphas.
  SU'LPHITE. Sulphis.  A salt formed by the com-
bination of a definite quantity of the sulphurous acid
with a salifiable base; as sulphite of potassa, ammo-
niacal  sulphite, tec.
  SULPHOVINIC  ACID.  Sulphovlnous acid.   The
name given  by Vogel to an acid, or a class of or 'ds,
which  may be obtained by digesting alkohol and sul-
phuric acid together by heat   It seems probable that
this acid to merely the hyposulphuric, combined with
a peculiar oily matter.— Ure's Chem. Diet.
  SU'LPHUR.  (Sulphur, uris. n.;  from sol or sul,
and nvp, fire: so named  from iu great combustibility.)
Abric;  Alcubrith;  Anpater;  Appebrioc;   Aquala;
Aquila;  Chibur;  Chybur;  Cibur.   Sulphur, which
is also known by the name of brimstone, is  the only
simple combustible substance which nature offers pure
and in abundance.  It was the first  known of all. Il
to found in  the earth, and exists externally in deposi-
tions, iu sublimed incrustations, and  on the surface of
certain waters, principally near burning volcanoes  It
to found combined wilh many metals.  It exists in ve-
getable  substances, aud  has lately been discovered in
the albumen of eggs.
  Sulphur, in the mineral kingdom, is either in a loose
powder, or compact; and then either detached  or iu
veins.   It is found in the greatest plenty in the neigh-
bourhood of volcanoes, or pseudo-volcanoes, whether
modern or extinct,  as at Solfatara,  Sec and to  depo-
sited as a crust on stones contiguous to  them, either
crystallized or  amorphous.   It  is frequently met with
in mineral waters, and  in caverns adjacent  to volca-
noes;  sometimes also in coal-mines.   It is found in
loinbination with most of the  metals.  When united
■o iron, it forms the mineral called martial pyrites, or
iron pyrites.  All  the  ores known by the  name of
fyrites, of which there are a vast variety, are combi-
nations of sulphur with different metals; and hence
the  names of copper, tin, arsenical, &c. pyrites. It
existe likewise in combination with alumine and  lime;
it then constitutes different kinds of schistus, or alum
ores.
   Method of obtaining Sulphur.—A prodigious quan-
tity of  sulphur is obtained from Solfatara,  In  Italy.
This volcanic country every where exhibiu marks «f
the agency of  subterraneous fires; almost  all  the
ground to bare and white;  and is every where sensi-
bly wanner than the atmosphere, in the greatest  heat
of summer;  so  that the feet of persons walking there
are burnt through their shoes.  Il to impossible not to
observe the sulphur, for a  sulphurous vapour wliich
rises through different apertures to every where percep-
tible, and gives  reason to believe that there is a subter-
raneous fire underneath, from which that vapour pro-
ceeds.
  From pyrites, sulphur is extracted in the lorge way
by the following process:
  Pyrites is broken into small pieces, and put into large
earthen tubes, which ore exposed to tiie heat of a fur-
nace.   A square vessel of cast iron, containing water,
is connected as o receiver with ihe tube iu the furnace.
The action of the fire proceeds, and the sulphur, being
thus melted, to gradually accumulated on the water in
the receiver.  It is  then removed from  this receiver,
and melted  in  large  iron ladies;  in consequence of
wliich, the earthy  paru with which it  was contami-
nated tire made to subside to the bottom of ihe ladle,
leaving the  purified sulphur above. It to then again
melted, and suffered to cool gradually, in order to free
it from the rest  of the impurities.  It to  then tolerably
pure, and constitutes the  sulphur we  meet wilh, in
large masses or  lumps, in the market
  In order to form  it into rolls, it to agoin melted, and
poured into cylindrical  wooden moulds; in these it
takes the form in  which  we usually see it  in  com-
merce, as roll sulphur.
  Flowers of sulphur, as they are called, are formed
by subliming purified sulphur with a gentle heof, in
close rooms, where the sublimed sulphur to collected,
though the orticle  met  with  in general,  under that
name, to nothing but sulphur finely powdered.
  Method of purifying sulphur.—Take one part of
flowers of sulphur, boil it in twenty parte of distilled
woter,  in a glass  vessel, for about a quarter of an
hour; let the sulphur subside, decant the water, and
then wash the  sulphur  repeatedly in distilled water.
Having done this,  pour over il three parts of  pure
nitro-muriatic acid, diluted with one part of distilled
water,  boil it again in a glass vessel for about a quar-
ter of an hour,  decant the acid, and wash  the sulphur
in distilled water till the fluid passes tasteless, or  till it
does not change the blue colour  of tincture of cab-
bage or litmus.   The sulphur, thus carefully treated,
is^ure sulphur, fit for philosophical experimenu.
  Physical properties.—" Sulphur  is a combustible,
dry, and exceedingly brittle body, of a pale lemon-yel-
low colour.  Iu specific gravity is 1,990.  It  to desti-
tute of odour, except when rubbed or heated.  It is of
a peculiar faint taste.  It frequently crystallizes in en-
tire or truncated octahedra, or in needles.   If a piece
of sulphur,  of  a considerable  size, be  very gently
heated, as, for example,  by holding it in  the hand and
squeezing it firmly, it breaks to pieces with a crackling
noise.  It is a non-conductor of  electricity, and hence
It becomes electric  by friction.   When heated, it first
softens before it melts,  and iu  fusion commences at
218° Fahr.; it is capable of subliming at a lower tem-
perature; and lakes fire  at 560°.  In the beginning of
fusion  it to very fluid,  but by continuing tlie heat it
grows  tough, ond  its colour  changes  to a reddish-
brown.  If, in this condition, it be poured into water,
it remains as soft as wax, and yields to ony impression.
In time, however, it hardens again, and recovers  iu
former consistence.
  When a roll of sulphur is suddenly seized in a worm
hand, it crackles, and sometimes falls in  pieces.  This
is owing to tbe unequal action of heat on a  body which
conducts that power slowly, and  which has little cohe-
sion.  If a mass of sulphur be melted in a crucible,
and offer the surface begins to concrete, if the liquid
matter  below be allowed to run out, fine acicular crys-
tals of sulphur will  he obtained.
  Sulphur is insoluble in water;  but iu small quantity
in alkohol and ether, and more largely in oil.
  Sulphur combines with oxygen in four definite  pro-
portions, constituting an interesting series of acids.
See Sulphuric acid.
  Sulphur combines readily with chlorine.  This com-
pound  was first made  by  Dr. Thomson, who passed
chlorine gas through flowers of xulphur.  It maybe-
made more expeditiously  bv  healing  sulphur in a
                                        317 
SUL
SUL
     retort containing chlorine.  The sulphur and chlorine
«    unite, and form a fluid substance, wliich to volatile be-
     low 200° F., and distils into the cold partof the retort
     Thto substance, seen by reflected  light, appears of a
     red colour, but is yellowish-green when seen  by trans-
     milted light  It smokes when exposed to oir, and has
     an odour  somewhat resembling that  of seaweed, but
     much stronger;  it affecu  the eyes like tbe smoke  of
     peat.   Iu taste is acid,  hot,  and bitter.  Iu sp.  gr
     ■ 1.7.
       It does not redden perfectly dry paper tinged with
     litmus;  when it to agitated in contact wilh water, the
     water becomes cloudy from the appearance of sulphur,
     and strongly  acid, and it is found to  contain oil  of
     vitriol.
       Iodide of sulphur to easily formed by mixing the two
     ingredienu in a glass tube, and exposing them to such
     a heat as melu the sulphur.   It is  grayish-block, and
     has a radiated structure like that of sulphuret of Anti-
     mony.   When distilled with water, iodine  is disen-
     gaged.
       Sulphur nnd hydrogen combine.  Their union  may
     be effected, by causing sulphur to sublime in dry hydro-
     gen in a retort •' There to  no change of volume; but
     only a part ofthe hydrogen con be united wilh the sul-
     phur in this mode of operating.
       The usual way of preparing sulphuretted hydrogen
     to to pour a dilute  sulphuric or muriatic acid on the
     block sulphuret of iron or antimony in a retort  For
     accurate experimenu it should  be collected over mer-
     cury.  It takes fire when a lighted  taper is brought  in
     contact with it, and  burns wilh a pole  blue flame, de-
     positing  sulphur.  IU smell is extremely foetid, resem-
     bling thot of rotten eggs.  Iu taste is sour.  It reddens
     vegetable blues.  It is absorbable by water, which takes
     up more than an equal volume of the gas.  Its sp. gr.,
     according to Gay Lussac and  Thenard, is to that of air
     as 1.1912 to 1.0.
       Of all the gases, sulphuretted hydrogen to perhaps the
     most deleterious to animal life.  A greenfinch, plunged
     into air, which contains only 1-1500(0 of its volume, pe-
\    rishes instantly.  A dog of middle size to destroyed  in
     air that contains I-8OO1I1; and a horse would fall a vic-
     tim to an atmosphere containing  l-250lh.
       Dr. Cbaussier proves, that to kill an animal, it is suf-
     ficient to make the sulphuretted hydrogen gas act on
     the surface of its body, when It is absorbed by the inha-
     lanu.  He took a bladder  having a stop-cock al one
     end, and at tbe other an opening, into which he inlro-
     d 1 iced the body of a rabbit, leaving iu head outside, ond
     securing ihe bladder air-tight  round the neck by adhe-
     sive plaster.  He then sucked the air out of the blad-
     der, and replaced it by sulphuretted hydrogen gas.  A
     young animal in these circumstances usually perishes
     in 15 or 20 minutes.  Old rabbiu resist tbe poison much
     longer.
       When potassium or sodium is  heated, merely  to
     fusion, in contact with sulphuretted hydrogen, it be-
     comes luminous, and burns with extrication of hydro-
     gen, while a metallic sulphuret remains, combined with
     sulphuretted hydrogen,  or a sulphuretted  hydrosul-
     phuret.
       Sulphuretted hydrogen combines with an equal vo-
     lume of ammonia; and unites to alkalies and oxides,
     so that it hos oil the characters of an acid.  These com-
     pounds arc called hydrosulphurets.
       All  ibe hydrosulphurets, soluble in  water, have  on
     acrid and bitter taste, ond, when in the liquid state, the
     odour of rotten eggs.   All those which ore insoluble
     are, on the contrary, insipid, and without smell. There
     are only two  coloured  hydrosulphurets, that of iron,
     wbich is black, and of antimony, which to cliestnut-
     brown.
       All the hydrosulphureu are decomposed by the action
     of fire.   That of magnesia  is  transformed inlo sulphu-
     retted hydrogen  and oxide of magnesium; those  of
     potassa and soda, into  sulphuretted hydrogen, hydro-
     gen, and sulphuretted  alkalies; those of manganese,
     zinc, iron, tin, and antimony, into woter and metallic
     sulphurets.
       When we put in contact with the oir, at the ordinory
     temperature, an aqueous solution 01 a hydrosulphuret,
     there resulu, in the space of some days, 1st, water, and
     a sulphuretted hydrosulphuret,  which is yellow and
     soluble; 2d, water, and o  colourless  hydrosulphite,
     which, if iu  base  be  potassa, soda, or ammonia, re-
     mains in solution ir. the water; but which  falls down
             31B
 in acicular crystals, if its bas* be barytas, strontia, 01
 lime.
  The acids in general combine with the base of the
 hydrosulphureu, and disengage sulphuretted hydrogen
 wilh a lively effervescence, without any deposition of
 sulphur, unless the acid  be in excess, and be capable,
 like the nitric ond nitrous acid, of yielding  a portion
 of iu oxygen to the hydrogen of tlie sulphuretted hy-
 drogen.
  The hydrosulphureu of potassa, soda, ammonia,
 lime, and magnesia, arc prepared directly, by transmit-
 ting an excess of sulphuretted hydrogen gas  through
 these bases, dissolved or diffused in water.
  The composition of the hydrosulphurets is such, that
 the  hydrogen of  the sulphuretted hydrogen  is to tlie
 oxygen of  the oxide  in  tlie same ratio  as in  water.
 Hence, when we calcine  the hydrosulphurets  of iron,
 tin, &c. we convert them into water and sulphureu.
  Hydrosulphuret pf potassa crystallizes in four-sided
 prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids.  Iu taste ia
 acrid and bitter.  Exposed to the air, it attracts hu-
 midity, absorbs oxygen, passes to tiie state of a sulphu-
 retted hydrosulphuret, aud finally to that of a hydro-
 sulphite. It is extremely soluble in water.  Its solution
 in this liquid occasions a perceptible refrigeration. Sub-
jected to heat, it evolves much sulphuretted hydrogen,
 and  the hydrosulphuret passes to the slate of a sub-
 hydrosulphuret.
  Hydrosulphuret of soda crystallizes with more diffi-
 culty than the preceding.
  Hydrosulphuret of ammonia is obtained by the direct
 union of the two gaseous constituente in a glass balloon.
 at a  low temperature.   As soon as the gases  mingle,
 transparent wiiite  or  yellowish crystals are formed.
 When o mere solution of thto hydrosulphuret is wished
 for medicine or analysis, we pass a current of  sulphu-
 retted hydrogen through  aqueous  ammonia  till satu-
 ration.
  The  pure hydrosulphuret to white, transparent, and
 crystallized in needles or fine  plates.  It  is very vola-
 tile.   Hence, at ordinary temperatures,  it gradually
 sublimes into the upper part ofthe phials in which we
 preserve it.  We may also by the same means separate
 it from  the yellow  sulphuretted hydrosulphuret, with
 which it is occasionally mixed.  When exposed to the
 air,  it absorbs oxygen, passes  to the state of a sulphu-
 retted hydrosulphuret, and becomes yellow.  When it
contains an excess of ammonia, it dissolves speedily in
 water, with the production nf a very considerable cold.
  Sub-hydrosulphuret of barytes is prepared by dissolv-
 ing, in five or six paru of boiling  water, the sulphuret
 of the  earth  obtained  by igniting the sulphate wilh
 charcoal.  The solution being filtered while hot,1 will
 deposite, on cooling, a multitude of crystals, which must
 be drained, and speedily dried by pressure between the
 folds of blotting-paper.  It crystallizes in white scaly
 plates.   It is  much  more soluble in  hot than  in cold
 woter.   Iu solution to colourless, and capable of ab-
 sorbing, at the ordinary temperature, a very large quan-
 tity of sulphuretted hydrogen.
  Sub-hydrosulphuret  of strontites crystallizes in the
 same mariner as the preceding.  The crystals obtained
 in the same way must be dissolved in water; ond the
 solution being exposed to o stream of sulphuretted  hy-
 drogen, and then concentrated  by evaporation  in a re-
 tort, will afford, on cooling, crystals of pure sub-hydro-
 sulphuret
  Hydrosulphureu of lime and  magnesia have been
 obtained only in aqueous solutions.  The metallic hy-
 drosulphureu of any practical importance are treated
 of under their respective metals.
  When we expose  sulphur 10 the action of a solution
 of a  hydrosulphuret, saturated with sulphuretted hydro
 gen, as much more sulphuretted hydrogen to evolved as
 the temperature to more elevated.   But when Ihe solu-
 tion of hydrosulphuret, instead of being saturated, has
 a sufficient excess of alkali, it evolves no peroeptible
 quantity of sulphuretted hydrouen, even at a boiling
 heat; although it dissolves as much sulphur as in its
 state of saturation.  It hence follows, jst, That sulphu-
 retted  hydrogen,  sulphur, ond the alkalies,  have the
 property of forming very variable triple combinations,
 2d,  That all these combinations contain less sulphuret-
 ted hydrogen  than the hydrosulphureu; ond, 3d, Thot
 the quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen to  inversely as
 the  sulphur they contain,  and  reciprocally.   These
 compounds have been called,  in general,  sulphuretted 
SUL
SUL
hydrosulphurets; but the name of hydrogenated sulphu-
rate to more particularly given to those combinations
whicli are saturated with sulphur at a high tempera-
ture, because, by treating them with acids, we precipi-
tate o peculiar compound of sulphur and hydrogen, of
which we shall now treat   "
  This compound of hydrogen and sulphur,  the pro-
portions of the elements of which have not yet been
accurately ascertained, is also called hydruret of sul-
phur.  It  to formed by putting floweis of sulphur in
contact with nascent  sulphuretted hydrogen.  With
thto view, we take an  aqueous solution of the hydro-
genated sulphuret of potassa, ond pour it gradually into
liquid muriatic acid, which seizes the potassa, and forms
a soluble salt, while the sulphur ond sulphuretted hydro-
gen unite, loll down together, collecting by degrees ot
the bottom of the vessel, os a dense oil docs in woter.
To preserve this hydruret of sulphur, we must fill with
it a phial having a ground stopper, cork it, and keep it
inverted in a cool place.  We may consider this sub-
stance either as a combination of sulphur  and hydro-
gen, or of  sulphur anil sulphuretted hydrogen; but  ils
properties, and the mode of obtaining it, render the lat
ter the more probable opinion.  The proportion of the
coustituenu is not known.
  The most interesting ofthe hydrogenated sulphureU,
to that of ammonia.  It was discovered  by the Hon
Robert Boyle, and called his fuming liquor.   To pre-
pare it, we take one part of muriate of ammonia and
of pulverized quicklime, and half a part of flowers of
sulphui.   After mixing them intimately, we introduce
the mixture into an earthen or glass retort, taking care
that none of it remains in the neck.  A dry cooled re-
ceiver is connected to  the retort  by means of a long
adopter-tube.  The heat must be urged slowly almost
to redness.  A yellowish liquor condenses in the re-
ceiver, which is lo be put  into a phial with its own
weight of flowers of sulphur, and agitated with it seven
or eight minutes.  The greater part of the sulphur is
dissolved, the colour of the mixture deepens remarka-
bly, and becomes thick, constituting the hydrogenated
sulphuret.
  The distilled liquor diffuses, for a long  time, dense
vapour in a  jar full of oxygen or common air, but
scarcely any in azote or hydrogen ; and the dryness or
humidity ofthe gases makes no difference iu the effects,
It to probably owing to the oxygen converting the liquor
into o hydrogenated sulphuret, or  perhaps to the state
of sulphite, that tiv vapours appear.
  Hydrogenated sulphurets  are frequently called hy-
droguretted sulphurets.
  Sulphur combines with carbon, forming  an interest-
ing compound, to  which the name of sulphuret of car-
bon to sometimes given."
  Sulphur has been long on  esteemed article of the
Materia Medica; it stimulates the system, loosens tiie
belly, and  promotes the insensible perspiration.  It
pervades the whole habit, and manifestly tronspires
through the pores of the skin, as appears from the sul-
phurous smell of persons who have taken  it, and from
silver  being stained in their pockets of  a  blackish
colour. In the stomach it to probably combined with
hydrogen.  It is a celebrated remedy against cutaneous
diseases, particularly psora, both given internally and
applied externally. It has likewise been recommended
in rheumatic pains,  flying  gout, rickets,  atrophy,
coughs, asthmas, and other disorders of the breast and
lungs,  and particularly catarrhs of the chronic kind,
also in solica pictonum, worm coses, and to lessen
salivation.
  In hemorrhoidal affections it is almost specific; but
in most of these cases it is advantageously combined
with some cooling purgative, especially supertartrate
of potassa.
  The preparations of sulphur directed to be used  by
the London and Edinburgh Colleges, are ihe Sulphur
lotuin, Sulphur precipilatum, and Sulphur suhlimatum.
  Sulphur  antimonii pracipitatum.  Sulphur uu-
ratum antimonii.   This preparation of antimony ap-
pears to have  rendered that called  kermes mineral
unnecessary.  It is a yellow hydrosulphuret of anti-
mony, and therefore called hydro-sulphuretum  stibii
luteum.  As an alterative and sudorific it is in high es-
timation, and given in diseases ofthe skin  and glands;
and joined with calomel, it is one of the most power-
ful  and  penetrating alteratives  we  ore iu  posses-
sion of.
  Sulphur auratum antimonii.  See Sulphur anti
monii pracipitatum.
  Sulphur lotum.  Washed  sulphur;  Flores  sul-
phuris  loti.  Toke  of  sublimed  sulphur, o pound
Pour on boiling water so  that the acid, if there be any
moy be entirely washed away; then dry it.  The dose
to from half a drachm to two drachms.
  Sulphur pracipitatum.  Lac  sulphuris.  Take
of sublimed sulphur, a pound; fresh lime, two pounds;
water, four gallons: boil the sulphur and lime together
in the  woter, then strain the solution through paper,
and drop in it as much muriatic acid as may be neces-
sary to precipilate the sulphur; lastly, wash this by
repeated  effusions of water until il is tasteless.  This
preparation is mostly preferred to  the flowers of sul-
phur, in  consequence of its being freed from iu im-
purities.  The dose is from half a drachm to  three
drachms.
  Sulphur, precipitated.  See Sulphur pracipitatum.
  Sulphur  sublimatum.  Sublimed sulphur.  See
Sulphur.
  Sulphur vivum.   Native sulphur.
  Sulphur, washed.   See Sulphur lotum.
  SULPHURWORT.  See Peucedanum.
  Sulphurated hydrogen gas.   See Hydrogen gas
sulphuretted.
  SULPH URE.   See Sulphuret.
  Sulphureous add.   See Sulphurous add.
  Sulphuretted chyazic  acid.   See  Sulphuroprusstt
acid.
  SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. See Hydrogen,
sulphuretted.
  SULPHURETUM. Sulphuret  Sulplwre.  A com
bination of sulphur with  an alkali,  earth, or metal.
  Sulphuretum  ammoni.e.  Hepar  sulphuris vola
tile.  Boyle's or  Beguine's  fuming spirit.  Sulphuret
of ammonia to obtained in the form of a yellow fuming
liquor,  by the ammonia and sulphur uniting while in a
state of gas during distillation.  It excites the action of
the absorbent system, and diminishes arterial action,
and is giveu internally in diseases arising from the use
of mercury, phthisis,  diseases  of the skin, and phleg-
masia : externally it  is prescribed  in the form of bath
in paralysis, contractura, psora, and other cutaneous
diseases.
  Sulphuretum antimonii pr/ecipitatum. See An
timonii sulphuretum pracipitatum.
  Sui.ruuRETUM  calcis.   Hepar calcis.  Sulphuret
of lime.  It is principally used as o both in various dis-
eases of the skin.
  Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum.  See Hydrar-
gyri sulphuretum nigrum.
  Sulphuretum  hydrargyri  rubrum.  See Hy-
drargyri sulphuretum rubrum.
  Sulphuretum  potass*.  See  Potassa sulphure-
tum.
  Sulphuretum  sod*.  A combination of soda and
sulphur.
  Sulphuretum stibii nativum.  Sulphuretum stibii
nigrum;  Antimonium crudum.  Native sulphuret  of
antimony.  It is from  this ore that oil our preparations
of antimony ore made.  See Antimony.
  SULPHURIC.  Sulphuricus.  Belonging to sulphur.
  Sulphuric acid.   Acidum sulphuricum.   Oil  of
vitriol.   Vitriolic acid.  " When sulphur is heated to
180° or 190° in an open vessel, it melts, and soon after-
ward emits a bluish flame, visible  in the dark, but
which, in open  daylight,  has the appearance of a
while fume.  This flame has a suffocating smell, and
has so little heat that  it will not set fire to flax, ox even
gunpowder, so that in this way the sulphur may be en-
tirely consumed out of it.  If the heat be still augmented
the sulphur boils, and suddenly bursu into a much
more luminous flame, the same suffocating vapour still
continuing to be emitted.
  The  suffocating vapour  of sulphur to imbibed by
water, with  wliich it forms the fluid formerly called
volatile vitriolic, now sulphurous acid. If thto fluid be
exposed for a time to the air, it loses the sulphurous
smell it had at first, and  the acid becomes more  fixed.
It to then tlie fluid which was formerly called the spirit
of vitriol.  Much of  the water may be driven off by
heat, and ihe dense acid which remains Is the sulphuric
acid commonly culled ml of vitriol; a nome which
was probably given to it. from the little noise it makes
when poured out, and the unctuous feel it has  when
rubbed between the fingers, produced by iu corroding
                                        510 
                       SUL

 and destroying the skin, with which it forms a soapy
 compound.
   The stone or mineral called martial pyrites, which
 consists for the most part of sulphur and iron, is found
 to be converted into tiie salt vulgarly called green vi-
 triol, but more properly sulphate of iron, by exposure lo
 air and moisture.  In this natural process the pyrites
 breaks ond falls in  pieces; and  if the change takes
 place  rapidly, a considerable  increase of temperature
 follows, which  is sometimes sufficient to set the moss
 on tire.  By conducting this operation in an accurate
 way, it to found that oxygen to absorbed.  The sul-
 phate is obtained by solution iu water ond subsequent
 evaporation; by which the crystals of  the salt are
 separated from tbe earthy impurities, which were not
 suspended in the water.
   The sulphuric acid was formerly obtained in this
 country by  distillation from sulphate of iron, as it still
 to in many paru abroad: the common green vitriol is
 made use of for this purpose, as it  is io be met with at
 a low price, and the acid is most easily to be extracted
 from it.   With  respect to the operation iuelf, the fol-
 lowing particulars should be attended to: First, the
 vitriol must  be  calcined iu an iron or earthen vessel,
 till it appears of a yellowish-red colour: by this opera-
 tion it will lose  half iu weight.  This is done in  order
 to deprive it of the greater part of the woter which it
 has attracted into iu crystals during tlie crystallization,
 and  which would otherwise, in tlie ensuing distilliza-
 tion, greatly weaken the acid.  Assoon as the calcina-
 tion is finished, tlie  vitriol is  to be put immediately,
 while it is warm, into a coated earthen retort, which
 to to be filled two-thirds with It, so that the ingredients
 may have sufficient room upon being distended by the
 heat, aud thus the bursting of  the  retort be prevented.
 It will he most advisable to have the retort immediately
 enclosed in brick-work in a reverberatory furnace, and
 to stop up the neck of it till tlie distillation begins, in
order to  prevent the  materials from  attracting  fresh
 humidity from llie air.  At the beginning of the distil-
 lation  the retort must be opened,  and a moderate fire
 to to be applied to it,  in order lo expel from the vitriol
 oil that part of the phlegm whicli does not taste strongly
 of the acid,  and which may be received in  an  open
 vessel placed under the retort.  But as soon  as  there
appear any  acid drops, a receiver is to be added, into
 which has' been previously poured a quantity of the
acidulous  fluid which hos come over, in the proportion
of half a pound  of it  to twelve pounds of the calcined
vitriol; when the receiver is  to  be  secured wilh  a
proper luting.  The fire is now to be raised by little ond
little to the  most intense degree of heat, and the re-
ceiver carefully covered  with wet  cloths,  and,  in
winter time, wilh snow or  ice,  as the acid  rises in
the form of  a thick white  vapour,  which towards the
end of the operation  becomes hot, and heats the re-
ceiver to a great degree.  The  fire must be continued
at this high pitch for several days, till no vapour issues
 from the retort, nor any drops ore seen trickling down
iu sides.  In the case of  a great quantity of vitriol
being distilled, Bernhardt has observed it to continue
emitting vapours in  this manner for the space of ten
 days.  When the vessels are quite cold, the receiver
 must be opened carefully,  so  that none of the luting
 may fall into it; after which the fluid contained in it to
 to  be poured in a bottle, and the air carefully excluded.
 The fluid that is thus obtained to the German sulphuric
 acid, of which Bernhardt got sixty-four pounds  from
 six hundredweight of  vitriol; and,  on the other hand,
 when no  water had  been previously poured into the
 receiver, fifty-two pounds only of a dry concrete acid.
 This acid wos  formerly called glacial oil of vitriol,
 ond its consistence to owing to a mixture of sulphurous
 acid, wliich occasions it to become  solid at a moderate
 temperature.
  It  has  been lately  stated by Vogcl, thot when this
 fuminc ocid  is put into a glass retort, and distilled by a
 moderate heat into a  receiver  cooled with ice, the fu-
 miiii! portion comes over first, and  moy be obtained in
 a solid state by stopping the distillation in time.   This
 has  been  supposed to constitute  absolute sulphuric
 acid, or acid entirely void of water,  it is in silky fila-
 ments, lough, difficult  to cut, and somewhat like asbes-
 tos.  Exposed to ihe air, it fumes strongly, and gradu-
 ally evajioraies.   It does not act on the skin so rapidly
 as concentrated oil of vitriol.  Up to 60° it continues
 solid, but at temperatures above  this it  becomes  a
       320
                      6UL

 colourless vapour, which whitens on contact with air.
 Dropped Into woter in small quantities, it excites a his-
 sing noise, os it it were ted hot iron; in larger quan-
 tities it produces a species of explosion.  It ia said u>
 be convertible into ordinary sulphuric acid, by the
 addition of a fifth of water.  It dissolves sulphur, ond
 assumes a blue, green, or brown  colour, according to
 the proportion of sulphur  dissolved.   The specific
 gravity of the black fuming sulphuric acid, prepared
 in large quantities  from  copperas, at Nordlmusen,  to
 1.896.  Its constitution is not well ascertained.
   The  sulphuric acid mode in Great Britoin to  pro-
 duced by tiie combustion of sulphur.  There ore three
 conditions requisite in this operation.  Oxygen must
 be present to maintain ihe combustion; the vessel must
 be so close os to prevent the escape of the volatile mut-
 ter which rises, and water must be present lo imbibe it
 For these purposes, a mixture of eight parts of sulphur
 with one of nitre is ploced in a proper vessel enclosed
 witliin  o chamber of considerable size, lined on all
 sides with lead, ond  covered  at bottom wilh a shallow
 stratum of water.  The mixture being set on fire, will
 burn for a considerable time by virtue  of the supply
 of oxygen which nitre gives out when heated, and the
 water imbibing the sulphurous vapours, becomes gra-
 dually/more and more acid after repeated combustions,
 and the acid  is afterward concentrated by distillation.
   Such wos  the account  usually given of this opera-
 tion, till Clement and  Desormes  showed, in a very
 interesting memoir, iu total inadequacy to account for
 the result.  100 paru of  nitre, judiciously managed,
 will produce, with ihe requisite  quantity of sulphur,
 2000 parts of concentrated sulphuric ocid.  Now these
 contain 1200  parts of oxygen, while the hundred poru
 of nitre contain only 39£ of oxygen ; being not 1-30th
 partof what to afterward found in tlie resulting  sul-
 phuric ocid.  But after the combustion of the sulphur,
 tiie nitre is converted into sulphate and bisulphate of
 potassa, which mingled residuary salts contain nearly
 as much oxygen as the nitre originally did.  Hence the
 origin of the  1200 parts of the oxygen in the sulphuric
 acid to still to be sought for.   The following ingenious
 theory was  first given by  Clement  and  Desormes.
 The burning sulphur or sulphurous acid, taking  from
 the  nitre a portion  of its oxygen, forms  sulphuric
 acid, which  unites with the  potassa,  and displaces a
 little nitrous and nitric acids in vapour.  These vapours
 are decomposed by the sulphurous acid, into  nitrous
 gas, or  deutoxide of azote.   This gas, naturally lit-
 tle denser than air,  and now expanded  by the heat,
 suddenly rises to the  roof of the chamber: and might
 be expected to escape at ibe aperture there, which ma-
 nufacturers were always  obliged to leave open, other-
 wise they found the  acidification would not proceed.
 But the  instant that nitrous gas comes in contact with
 atmospherical oxygen, nitrous acid vapour to formed,
 which being a very heavy  aeriform body,  immedi-
 ately precipitates on the sulphurous flame, and conveiU
 it  into sulphuric acid;  while  iuelf resuming the state
 of nitrous gas,  reascends for a new charge of oxygen,
 again to  redescend, and transfer it  to the flaming sul-
 phur.  Thus we see, lhat a  smoll volume of nitrous
 vapour, by iu alternate metamorphoses into the stoles
of oxfde and acid,  and ite consequent interchanges,
may be  capoble  of acidifying a great  quantity  of
sulphur.
  This beautiful theory received a modification  from
Sir H. Davy.   He found that nitrous gas had no action
on sulphurous  gas, to  convert it into sulphuric acid,
unless woter be present.  With a small proportion of
woter, four volumes of sulphurous  ocid gos, and  three
of nitrous gas, ore condensed into crystalline solid,
which to instantly decomposed by abundance  of wa-
le:.-; oil of vitriol to formed, ond nitrous gas given off;
which with contact of air becomes nitrous acid eon, as
above described.  The process continues, according to
the same principle of combination and decomposition,
till tbe water at the bottom of the chamber to become
strongly acid.   It to first concentrated in large leaden
pons, ond afterward  in glass retorts heated in a sand-
bath.  Platinum alembics, placed within pott  of cast-
iron of a corresponding shape and capacity, have  been
lately substituted in many manufactories for glass, and
have been found to save fuel, and quicken the process
of concentration.
  The pioper mode  of burning the sulphur with the
nitre, so as to produce the greatest quantity of  oil' 
BUL
SUL
ot  vitriol, is a problem, concerning which chemisu
hold a  variety of opinions.   Thenard describes the
following os the  best.  Neor one ofthe sides ofthe
leoden chamber, about a foot above iu bottom, an iron
plate, furnished with an upright border, to p'iccd hori-
zontally over a furnace, whose chimney passes across,
under the bottom of the chamber, without having any
connexion with it.  On  thto plate, which to enclosed in
a little  chamber,  the mixture of sulphur ond nitre to
laid.  The whole being  shut up, and the bottom ofthe
large  chamber covered with water, a gentle fire to
kindled in the furnace.  The sulphur soon takes fire,
and gives birth to the  producu described.  When  the
combustion is finished, which is seen through a little
pane  adapted to the trap-door of the chamber, this is
opened, the sulphate of  potassa to withdrawn, and is
replaced by o mixture of sulphur and nitre.  The air
in tlie great chamber to meanwhile renewed by opening
its lateral door, and a valve in its opposite side.  Then,
after closing these  openings, the  furnace  is lighted
anew.   Successive mixtures are thus burned till the
acid acquires a specific  gravity of about 1.390, taking
care never to put  at once  on the plate more sulphur
than the air of the chamber can acidify. The acid is
then withdrawn by stop-cocks, and concentrated.
  The following details are extracted from a paper on
sulphuric acid, which Dr. Ure published in the fourth
volume of the Journal of Science and the Arts.
  " The best commercial sulphuric acid that I have
been able to meet with," says he, " contains from one-
half to three quarters of  a port in the hundred, of solid
saline matter, foreign to iu nature.  These fractional
parU  consist of sulphate of potassa and lead, in the
proportion of four of the  former to one of the lotter.
It to, I believe, difficult to monufocture it directly, by the
usuol methods, of a purer quality.   The ordinary acid
sold in  the shops  contains often three or four per cent.
of saline matter.   Even more to occasionally introduced,
by the employment of nitre, to remove the brown  co-
lour given to the  acid by carbonaceous  matter.  The
amount of these  adulterations, whether accidental or
fraudulent, may be readily determined by evaporating,
in a small capsule of porcelain, or rather platinum, a
definite weight of tlie acid. The platinum cup placed
on the  red cinders of o common  fire,  will  give on
exact result in five minutes.  If more than five groins
of matter remain from five hundred of acid, we may
pronounce it sophisticated.
  Distillation is tbe mode by which pure oil of vitriol
<s obtained.   This process is described in  chemical
treatises as both difficult  and hazardous; but since
adopting the following plan, I have found it perfectly
safe and convenient.  I  take a plain glass retort, capa-
ble of holding from two to four quarts of water, and
put into it about a pint-measure of the sulphuric acid,
(and a  few fragments of glass,) connecting the retort
with a  large globular receiver, by means of a glass
tube four  feet long,  and from one to two inches in
diameter.  The  tube fiu  very loosely at both ends.
The retort is placed over a charcoal fire, and the flame
is made to ploy gently on iu bottom.  When  the ocid
begins to boil  smortly, sudden explosions of dense
vapour  rush forth from time to time, which would in-
fallibly  break small  vessels.   Here, however, these
expansions are safely permitted, by tbe  large capacity
of the retort and  receiver, as well as by the  easy com-
munication with  the  air at both ends  of the adopter
tube.   Should the retort, indeed, be exposed to o greot
intensity of flame, the vapour will no doubt  be gene-
ric ed with incoercible rapidity, and break the apporatus.
But thto Occident  can proceed only from gross impru-
dence.  It resembles  in suddenness, the explosion of
gunpowder, and  illustrates admirably Dr. Block's  ob-
servation, that but for the great latent heat of steam,
a mass of water,  powerfully heated, would explode on
reaching the boiling temperature.  I have ascertained,
that the specific  caloric of the vapour of sulphuric
acid to very small, and hence the danger to which rash
Operators  may be exposed  during  its distillation.
Hence, also, it is unnecessary to surround the receiver
with  cold water, as  when alkohol and most other
liquids are distilled.  Indeed, the application of cold to
the bottom of the receiver generally causes it, in the
Sresent operation, to crack.  By the above method, I
  ave made the concentrated oil of vitriol flow over in
a  continuous  slender stream, without  the globe  be-
coming sensibly hot
                                       Eee
  I have frequently boiled the distilled acid till only
one-half remain in the retort; yet at the  temperature
of 60° Fahrenheit,  I  have never found  the specific
gravity of ocid  so concentrated, to exceed 1.8455.  It
is, I believe, more exoctly 1.8452.   The number 1.850,
which it has been the fashion to assign for the density
of pure  oil of vitriol,  is undoubtedly very erroneous,
ond ought to be corrected.  Genuine commercial ocid
should never surpass 1.8485; when it is denser we may
infer  sophistication, or negligence, in the manufac-
ture."
  The sulphuric acid strongly attracts water, which if
takes  from the atmosphere very rapidly, and  in larger
quantities, if suffered to remain in an open vessel, im-
bibing one-third of ite weight in twenty-four hours,
and more than six times ite weight in a twelvemonth.
If four paru by weight be mixed with one  of water
at 50°,  they produce an  instantaneous heat of 300O
F.; and four  parts  raise one of ice  to 212°: on the
contrary,  four paru of ice, mixed with one of acid,
sink the thermometer to 4 below 0.  When pure it is
colourless, and  emits  no fumes.  It  reqnires a great
degree of cold to freeze it; and if diluted with half a
part or more  of water, unless the dilution be carried
very far, it becomes more and more difficult to congeal;
yet at the specific gravity of 1.78, or a few hundredths
above or below this, it may be frozen by surrounding
it with melting  snow.  Iu  congelation forms regular
prismatic crystals with six sides.  Iu boiling point,
according  to  Bergman, is  540°;  according to Dalton,
590°.
  Pure sulphuric acid is without smell nnd colour, and
of an oily consistence.   Its action  ou  litmus to  so
strong, that a single drop  of acid will give to an im-
mense quantity of water the power of reddening.   It
is a most violent caustic; and has sometimes  been ad-
ministered  with the most criminal purposes.   The
person who unfortunately swallows  it, speedily  dies
in dreadful agonies and convulsions.   Chalk, or com-
mon  carbonate of magnesia, is the best  antidote for
this, as well as for the strong nitric and muriatic acids
  When transmitted through an ignited porcelain tube
of one fifth of an inch diameter, it to resolved into two
parte  of sulphurous acid gas, and one of  oxygen gas,
with water.  Voltaic electricity causes an evolution of
sulphur  at the negative pole; while a sulphate of the
metallic wire is  formed at the positive.  Sulphuric acid
has no action on oxygen gas or air.  It merely abstracts
their aqueous vapour.
  If the oxygenized muriatic acid of Thenard be put
in contact with  the  sulphate of  silver, there is imme-
diately formed insoluble chloride of  silver, and oxy-
genized  sulphuric acid.  To obtain sulphuric acid  in
the highest degree of oxygenation, it is merely neces-
sary to pour barytes water into the above oxygenized
acid, so  as to precipitate only a part of it,  leaving the
rest in  union with the whole of the oxygen.  Oxy-
genized  sulphuric acid partially reduces the  oxide of
silver, occasioning a strong effervescence.
  All  the simple combustibles  decompose  sulphuric
acid, with the assistance of heat.  About 400° Fahr.
sulphur  converts sulphuric into sulphurous acid.  Se-
veral  metals  at  an elevated temperature decompose
this acid,  with  evolutions of sulphuric acid  gas,  oxi-
dizement of the metal, and combination of the oxide
with the undecomposed portion of ihe acid.
  The sulphuric acid to of very extensive use in the ort
of chemistry, as well as  in metallurgy, bleaching, and
some  of the  processes for dying ; iu  medicine, il  is
given  as a tonic and stimulant, and is sometimes used
externally  as a caustic.
  The combinations of this acid with the various bases
are called sulphates, and most of them have long been
known by various names.   With barytes it  is found
native and nearly pure in various  forms, in coarse
powder, rounded masses, stalactites, and regular crys-
tallizations, which  are in  some lamellar, in others
needly, in others prismotic or pyramidal.
  This salt, if at all deleterious, is less so than the car-
bonate of barytes, and is more economical for preparing
the muriate for medicinal purposes.  It requires43,000
parts of water to dissolve it at 603.
  Sulphate of strontian bas a considerable resemblance
to that of barytes in its properties.  It is found native
in considerable quantities at Aust Passage and other
places in tiie  neighbourhood of  Bristol.  It  require*
3840 parts of  boiling water to dissolve it.
                                        321 
SUL
SUL
   Its composition to 5 acid + 6.5 base.                 I
   The sulphate of potassa,.vitriolotcd kali, formerly
vitriolotcd tartar, sal de duobus, and arcanum duplica- I
tttm, crystallizes in hexahedrai prisms, terminated by
hexagonal pyramids, but susceptible of variations.  Its
crystallization by quick cooling to confused.  Iu taste
is bitter, acrid, and a little saline.  It to soluble in 5
paru of boiling water, and 16 parts at  60°.  In the lire
it decrepitates, and is fusible by a strong heat.  It is de-
composable by charcoal at a high temperature.  It may
be prepared by direct mixture of its component  parts;
but tlie usual and cheapest mode is to neutralize the
acidulous sulphate left after distilling nitric acid, the
sal enixen of the old chemists, by the  addition of car-
bonate of potassa.  The  sal polychrest of old dispen-
satories, made by deflagrating sulphur and nitre in a
crucible, was a compound of the sulphate and sulphite
of potassa.  The acidulous sulphate to sometimes em-
ployed as  a flux, ond likewise in  the  manufacture of
alum.  In medicine, the neutral salt to sometimes used
as a deobstruent, and in large doses ns a mild cathartic;
dissolved in a considerable portion of water, and taken
doily in such quantity as  to be gently aperient,  it has
been  found serviceable in cutaneous affections, and is
sold in London for this purpose as a nostrum; and cer-
tainly it desefTes to be distinguished from the generality
of quack  medicines, very few  indeed of which can be
taken without imminent hazard.
  It consisu of 5 ocid -f- 6 base;  but  there is a com-
pound of the  same constituents, iu  the  proportion of
10 acid + 6 polassa, called the bisulphate.
  The sulphate of soda is the vitriolated natron  ofthe
college, the well known Glauber's salt, or sal mirabile.
It to commonly prepared from the residuum left after
distilling muriatic acid, the superfluous acid of which
may be saturated by the  addition of soda, or precipi-
tated by lime;  and is likewise obtained  Iu the manu-
facture of the muriate of ammonia.  Schcrer mentions
another mode by Funcke, which to, making 8 parts of
calcined sulphate of lime, 5 of clay, and 5 of common
Bait, into a paste with water;  burning this in a kiln;
nnd  then powdering, lixiviating, and crystallizing.  It
exisu in large quantities under the  surface of the earth
in some countries, as Persia, Bohemia,  and  Switzer-
land; to found mixed with oilier substances in mineral
springs and sea-water; and sometimes effloresces on
walls. Sulphate of soda to bitter ond saline to the taste.
It to soluble in 2.85 parte of cold water, and 0.8 at a boil-
ing heat   It crystallizes in hexagonal prisms bevelled at
tiie extremities, sometimes grooved longitudinally, and
of very large  size, when tile quantity is great.  These
effloresce completely into a white powder if exposed to
adry air, or even if kept wrapped up in a paper in a dry
place, yet  they retain sufficient water of crystallization
to undergo the aqueous fusion on exposure to heat, but
by urging  tne fire, melt.  Barytes and strontian take
iu acid from it entirely, and potassa partially; the nitric
and muriatic acids, though they have a weaker affinity
for its base, combine with a part of it when digested on
it.  Heated with charcoal, iu acid is decomposed.  As
a  purgative, iu use to very general; and it has been
employed  to  furnish sodo.  Pojot  des  Chormes  hos
made some experimenu on it in fabricating glass; with
sand alone it would not sueceed, but equal paru of car-
bonate of  lime, sand, and dried sulphate of soda, pro-
duced a clear, solid, pale yellow glass.
   It is composed of 5 acid -j- 4 base -f- 11.25 water in
crystals;  when dry, the former iwo primes are iu con-
stituents.
   Sulphate of soda and sulphate of ammonia form to-
gether a triple salt.
   Sulphate ef lime, stUnite, gypsum, plaster of Paris,
or sometimes alabaster, forms extensive strata in vari-
ous mountains.  The .-peculur gypsum, orglacies Ma-
ria, is a  species of  this salt, and  affirmed by some
French travellers to  he employed in Russia, where it
abounds,  as a substitute for glass  in windows.  Iu
specific gravity to from 1.872 to 2,311.   It requires 500
paru of cold water, and 450 of hot, to dissolve it. When
calcined, it decrepitates, becomes very friable and white,
and beau a little with water, with which  it forms a
solid  mass. In this process h loses iu water of crys-
tallization.  In this state it is found native in Tyrol,
crystallized in rectangular parallelepipeds, or oclahe-
dial or hexahedrai prisms, and to called anhydrous sul-
phate of lime.  Both tlie natural and artificial  anhy-
drous sulphate consists of 56\3 lime, and 43.6 acid, ac-
[ cording to Chenevix.  The calcined sulphate js mod'
 employed for making costs of  anatomical  *r  orn.v
I mental figures as one of  the bases of stucco; as a line
 cement for making close and strong joints between stone;
 and joining rims or tops of nietnlto glass; for milking
 moulds  for the Staffordshire potteries;  for  cornices,
 mouldings, ond other ornaments in building.   For these
 purposes, ond for being wrought into  columns, chlni-
 ney-pieces, and various ornaments, about eight hundred
 tons are raised annually in Derbyshire, where it is called
 alabaster.  In America, it is laid on grass land as a
 manure.
   [Sulphate of lime, gypsum,  or plastir of Paris, is
 extensively and beneficially employed in some parU of
 the United States as a manure.  It is reduced to a fine
 powder, and applied by the spoonful lo a hill of Indian
 corn  (maize), or it  to thinly scattered over grass land,
 and it has a most powerful and fertilizing effect.  The
 gypsum of Nova Scotia afforded  llie principal supply
 for thto  and other  purposes some time since, but tlie
 states of New-York  and  Pennsylvania now furnish
 large quantities, ond of an excellent quality, from their
 own quarries.  Gypsum, as a manure, will not answer
 on the sea-coast, or witliin the influence of a  saline
 atmosphere.   It begins  to produce fertilizing effects
 about 40 or 50 miles from the sea-shore. A.J
   Ordinary crystallized gypsum consists of 5 sulphuric
 acid •+• 3.5 lime -j- 2.25 water;  the anhydrous variety
 wanU of course the last ingredient.
   Sulphate  of magnesia, the vitriolated magnesia of
 the late, and sal catharticus amarus of former London
 Pharmacopoeias, is  commonly known by the name of
 Epsom salt, as it was furnished in considerable quan-
 tity by the mineral  woter at that place, mixed however
 with  a considerable portion of sulphate of soda.  It is
 afforded, however, in greater  abundance and more
 pure  from the bittern left after the extraction of salt
 from  sea-water.  It has likewise been found efflores-
 cing on brick walls, both old and recently erected, and
 in small quantity in the ashes of cools.  The capillary
 salt of Idria, found in  silvery crystals mixed wilh the
 aluminous schist  in  the  mines of that place, and
 hitherto considered as a feathery alum, has been ascer-
 tained by Klaproth to consist of sulphate of magnesia,
 mixed with a small portion  of sulphate of iron.  When
 pure, it crystallizes in  small quadrangular prisms, ter-
 minated by quadrangular pyramids or dihedral summits,
 Iu taste  is cool and bitter.   It is very soluble, requiring
 only an equal weight of cold water, and three-fourths ite
 weight of hot.  It  effloresces  in the air, though but
 slowly.  If it attract moisture it contains muriate of mag-
 nesia, or of lime.  Exposed to heat it dissolves in iu own
 water of ciyr.tallization, and dries, but to not decom-
 posed nor fused, but with  extreme difficulty. It con-
 sisu,  according to  Bergman,  of 33 arid, 19 magnesia,
 48 water.  A very pure sulphate is said to be  prepared
 in the neighbourhood of Genoa, by roasting  a pyrites
 found there; exposing  it to the oir in a covered place
 for six  months;  watering it occasionally,  and then
 lixiviating.
  Sulphate  of magnesia is one of our most valuable
 purgatives; for which purpose  only it is used, and for
 furnishing the carbonate of magnesia.
   It is composed of 5 acid -4- 2.5 magnesia -f- 7.875
 water, in the state of crystals.
   Sulphate  of ammonia crystallizes in slender, flat-
 tened, hexahedrai  prisms, term i noted by hexagonal
 pyramids; it attracts a little moisture from very damp
 air, particularly if the acid be in excess; it dissolves  in
 two paru of cold and one  of boiling water.   It is not
 used, though Glauber, who called  it his secret ammo-
 niacal salt, vaunted iu excellence in assaying.
  It consisu of 5 acid + 2.125 ammonia -f. 1.125 watei
 in its most desiccated state; and in its crystalline state
 of 5 acid -f- 2.125 ammonia -+■ 3.375 water.
  If sulphate  of ammonia  and sulphate of magnesia
 be  added together  in  solution, they combine  into a
 triple salt of an octahedral figure, but varying much;
 less soluble than either of its component parte;  unal-
 terable in the  air; undergoing on  the fire the watery
 fusion; after which it  to decomposed, part of the am-
 monia flying off, and the  remainder subliming with an
 excess of acid.  It contains, according lo Fourcroy, 68
 sulphate of magnesia, and 32 sulphate of ammonia.
   Sulphate  of glurina crystallizes with difficulty, ite
 solution readily acquiring and containing a syrupy com.
 stotencei Us taste u sweet, and slightly astringent; il 
SUL
SUP
Is not alterable in the air; a strong heat expels iu acid,
and leaves the earth  pure; heated with charcoal, it
forms a sulphuret; infusion of galls forms o yellowish-
white precipitate with iu solution.
 .  Tltria is readily dissolved by sulphuric ocid ; ond os
the solution goes on, the sulphate crystallizes in small
brilliant grains, which have a sweetish taste, but less
so  than sulphate of glucina,  and are of a light  ame-
thyst-red colour.  They require 30 parts of cold water
io dissolve them, and to give up  their acid when  ex-
Posed to a high temperature. They are decomposed
oy oxalic  acid, prussiate of potassa, infusion of galls,
and phosphate of soda.
  Sulphate of alumina in iu pure state is but recently
known, and it was first attentively examined by Vau-
quelin.  It may be made by dissolving pure alumina in
pure sulphuric acid, heating them for some time, eva-
porating the solution to dryness, drying the residuum
with a pretty strong heat, redtosolving it, ond crystal-
lizing.   Iu crystals are soft,  foliaceous, shining, and
pearly;  but these are not easily obtained without cau-
tious evaporation and refrigeration.   They have an
astringent taste; are  little alterable  in  the  air;  are
pretty soluble,  particularly in hot water;  give out their
acid on  exposure to a  high temperature: are decom-
posable  by combustible substances, though not readily;
and do not form a pyrophorus like alum.
  If the evaporation and desiccation directed above be
omitted, the alumina will remain supersaturated with
acid, as may be known by iu  taste, and by iu redden-
ing vegetable blue.  This is still more difficult to crys-
tallize  thau the neutral salt, and frequently thickens
into a gelatinous mass.
  A compound of acidulous sulphate of alumina, with
potassa or ammonia, has long been known by the name
of alum.
  Sulphate of zircon may be prepared by adding sul-
phuric acid to  the earth recently precipitated, and  not
yet dry.  It is sometimes in small needles, butcommonly
pulverulent; very friable; insipid; insoluble iu water,
unless it contain some acid; and easily decomposed by
heat."—Ure's Giem. Did.
  Sulphuric acid to a  powerful antiseptic and tonic :
it is given, properly diluted, in the dose of from one to
three drops with cinchona and other medicines in  the
cure of fevers  and debilities, and it to often applied  ex-
ternally, when very much  diluted, against psora  and
some chronic affections of the skin.
  Sulphuris flores.   See Sulphur sublimatum.
  SULPHUROPRUSSIC ACID.  The sulphuretted
chyazic  acid of Porrett
  Dissolve in water one part of sulphuret of potassa,
nnd  boil it for a considerable time with three or four
paru of powdered Prussian blue  added at  intervals.
Sulphuret of iron is  formed,  ond a colourless liquid
containing the new acid combined with potassa, mixed
with hyposulphate and sulphate of potassa. Render
thto  liquid sensibly sour, by the addition of sulphuric
acid.  Continue the boiling for  a little, and when it
cools, add a little peroxide of manganese in fine powder,
wliich will give the liquor a fine crimson colour.   To
the filtered liquid add a solution containing persulphate
of copper, and protosulphate of iron, in the proportion
Of two of the  former  salt to  three of the latter, until
the  crimson  colour disappears.  Sulphuroprussiate of
copper falls.   Boil this with a  solution- of potassa,
which will  separate the  copper.  Distil the  liquid
mixed with sulphuric  acid  in a glass  retort, and the
peculiar acid will come over.  By saturation with car-
bonate of  barytes, and then throwing down this by the
equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, the  sulphuro-
prussic acid is  obtained pure.
  It is a transparent and colourless liquid, possessing a
strong colour, somewhat resembling ocetic  ocid.   Iu
specific grovity to only 1.033.  It dissolves a little sul-
phur at a boiling lieat.  It then blackeris nitrate of  sil-
ver ; but the pure acid throws down the silver while.
By repeated distillations sulphur is separated and the
acid to decomposed.
  SULPHUROUS. ACID.  " Sulphur burned at a low
temperature absorbs less oxygen than it does when  ex-
posed to greater heat, and is consequently acidified in a
slighter degree, so as to form sulphurous acid. This in
the ordinary state of the atmosphere to a gas; but on
reducing iu temperature very low by artificial  cold,
and  exposing  it to strong compression, it becomes a
liquid.   To obtain it in the  liquid state,  however,  for
practical purposes, it is received into water, by which
it is absorbed.
  As the acid obtained by burning sulphur in this way
to commonly mixed with more or less sulphuric acid,
when sulphurous acid  to wanted it to commonly made
by abstracting part of the oxygen from sulphuric acid
by means of some combustible substance.  Mercury
or tin is usually preferred.  For the purposes of manu-
factures, however, chopped  straw or saw-dust may be
employed.   If one part of mercury and two ot concen
trated sulphuric acid be put inlo  a glass  retort with a
long neck, and beat applied till an effervescence is pro-
duced, the sulphurous  acid will arise in  the form  of
gas, and may be collected over quicksilver, or received
into water, which, at the temperature of 61°, will absorb
thirty-three  times iu bulk, or nearly an eleventh'of its
weight
  Water thus saturated to  intensely acid to the taste,
and has the smell of sulphur burning slowly.  It de-
stroys most vegetable colours, but the blues are reddened
by  it previous to their being discharged.  A pleasing
instance of its effect on colours may  be  exhibited  by
holding a red rose over the blue flame  of a common
match, by which the colour will be discharged where ver
the  sulphurous  acid  comes into contact with it,  so
as to render  it beautifully variegated, qr entirely white.
If it be then dipped into water, the redness after a time
will be restored.
  Sulphurous acid is used in bleaching, particularly for
silks.  It likewise discharges vegetable stains, andiron-
moulds  from linen.
  In combination  with the salifiable bases, it forms
sulphites whicli differ from the sulphates in their pro-
perties.   The alkaline sulphites are more soluble than
the sulphates, the earthy  less.  They are  converted
into sulphates  by an  addition of oxygen, which they
acquire even by exposure to the  air."
  Sultanflower. The Centaurea moschata, of Linnreus.
  SUMACH.   (Su7nai;  from samak, to be  red; so
called from  its red berry.)  See Rhus coriaria.
  Sumach, elm-leaved.  See Rhus coriaria.
  Su'mbn.  (Arabian.) The lower or fat part of the
bellv.
  SUN-DEW.  See Drosera rotundifolia.
  SUPER.  1. This term is applied, in chemistry and
pharmacy, to several saline substancesT.in which there
is an excess  of one of its  constituenu beyond  what is
necessary to form the ordinary compound ; as super-
sulphate of potassa, supercarbonate of soda, &c.
  2. In anatomy, it regards situation; as superscapula-
ris, supergenualis.
  3. In  physiology, it means' an additional; as super-
foetation.
  4. In medicine, it means excess;  as superpurgation.
  Supkrace'tas plumbi.   See Plumbi acetas.
  Superarck'nias potassjb.  Superarseiiiate of po-
tassa.  A compound of potassa' with excess of arsenic
acid,  It was  called Macquer's Arsenical Salt, from
its discoverer; and has been sometimes given in medi
cine, possessing simitar properties to those of the white
oxide qf arsenic.
  SUPE'RBUS.  See Rectus superior oculi.
  SUPERCi'LIUM.   See Eyebrow,           ,   ,,
  Supkrcilium veneris.  The milfoil.   See Achillea
millefolium,  .
  SUPERFO3TATI0N.  (Superfatdtio; from super,
above or upon, and fatus, a foetus.)  The impregna*
tion of a woman already pregnant.
  Superoemina'lis.  (From super, above, and gemini,
the testicles.)  The epididymis, or body above the tes-
ticles.
  SUPERGENUA'LIS.  (From  super, above, and
genu, the knee.)  The patella, or knee-pan.
  SUPERlMPREGNA'TIO.  (Superimpregna
tie; from super, above, and  impregnatio, a concep-
tion.)  Superfostation.
  SUPE'RIOR.  Some muscles were so named from
their relative situation.
  Superior auris.  See.^fttoHen* aurem.
  SUPERLI'GULA.  (Prom super, above, and ligulu,
a little tongue, the glottis.)   The epiglottis.
  SUPERPURGA'TIO.  (From super, beyond, and
purgo, to purge.)   An excessive evacuation by stool.
  SUPERSALT.  See Subsal't.
  SUPERSCAPULA'RIS.  (From super, upon, and
scapula, the  shoulder-blade.)  A muscle  seated upen
the scapula;                              _•. 
SUP
SWA
  SUPERUS.   Above: applied to the perlanthium of
flowers when placed above  the germen; as in roees,
and the genus Pyrus.
  SUPINATION.  (Supinatio; from supinua, placed
upward.)  The act of turning the palm  of the hand
upwards, by rotating the radius upon the ulna.
  SUPINATOR. (From supinua, upwards.)  A name
given to those muscles whicli turn the hand upwards.
  Supinator brevis.  See Supinator radii brevis.
  Supinator lonods.  See Supinator radii longus.
  Supinator radii brevis. A supinator muscle of
the hand, situated on the forearm. Supinator brevis,
sive  minor,  of  Winslow;  and epicondylo-radial, of
Dumas.   This small muscle, which is tendinous exter-
nally, is  situated at the  upper part of the  forearm
under the supinator longus, the extensor carpi radialis
brevis, the extensor carpi ulnaris,  the extensor digito-
rum communis, and the extensor minimi digiti.
  It arises tendinous from the lower and anterior part
of the outer  condyle of the os humeri, and tendinous
and fleshy from the outer edge  and posterior surface
of the ulna, adhering firmly  to the ligament that joins
the radius to that bone.  From  these origins iu fibres
descend  forwards and inwards, and are inserted into
the upper, inner, and anterior port of tiie radius around
the cartilaginous surface, upon which slides the  ten-
don of the biceps, and likewise into  a ridge that  runs
downwards  and outwards below this surface. It as-
stou in the supination of the hand by rolling the radius
outwards.
  Supinator radii lonous.  Supinator  longus, of
Albinus.  Supinator longus stive major, of Winslow ;
and humerosus radial, of Dumas.   A long flat muscle,
covered by a very thin tendinous  fascia, and situated
immediately under the integuments along the outer
convex surface of the radius,  it  arises, by very short
tendinous fibres, from the  anterior surface  and outer
ridge  of the os  humeri, about two or three inches
above its external condyle, between the brachialis in-
ternus and the triceps brachii; and likewise from the
anterior surface of tbe external intermuscular mem-
brane, or ligament, as  it is  called.  About the middle
of the radius, iu fleshy fibres terminate in a flat tendon,
which isinserted into the inner side of the inferior extre-
mity of the radius, near the root of iu styloid process.
  This muscle  not only assisU in rolling the radius
outwards, and turning the palm of the hand upwards,
on which account Riolanus first  gave it the  name of
supinator, but it likewise assisU in pronation, and in
bending the forearm.
  SUPPOSITO'RIUM. (From sub, under, and pono,
to put.)  A suppository, i. e. a substance to put into the
rectum, there to remain and dissolve gradually.
  Suppressed menses.  See Amenorrhaa.
  SUPPURATIUN.   (Suppnratio;  from  suppuro, to
suppurate.)   That morbid  action by which pus is
deposited in inflammatory tumours.  See Pus.
  SUPRA.  Above.  This  word  before  any  other
name, implies  iu Amotion  being  above  it; as supra
spinatus, above the spine of the scapula. Sec.
   Supra-costales.    A  portion  of toe intercostal
muscles.  See Intercostal muscles.
   Supra-decompositus.  See Decompositus.
   Supra-spina'tus.   Supra-spinatus  seu super-sca-
pularis, of Cowper; and sous-spino-scapulo-trochile-
rien,  of Dumas. A muscle of the arm first so named
by Riolanus, from its  situation.  It is of considerable
thickness, wider behind than before, and fills the whole
of the cavity or fossa  that  is above the  spine of the
scapula.  It arises fleshy from  the whole of the base
of file scapula that is above its spine, and  likewise
from the spine itself, and from the superior costa.  Op-
posite to tiie basis of the coracoid process, it is found
beginning to degeuerate into a tendon, which is at first
covered by  fleshy fibres, and then passing under the
acromion, adheres to  the capsular ligament of the os
humeri, and is  inserted into tlie upper part of the  large
tuberosity at the head of the os humeri.  This muscle
is covered by a thin fascia, which adheres to tbe upper
edge ond superior part of the  basis, as well as to the
 upper edge of the spine of the scapula. The principal
 use of the supra spinatus seems to be to assist in rais-
 ing the  arm upwards; at the same time, by drawing
 the capsular ligament upwards, It  prevents it  from
 being pinched between the heed of the os humeri and
 that  of the  scapula.   It may likewise serve to move
 the scapula upon the humerus.
       FA
  BURA. (An Arabiun Word.) 1. The calfof ihe leg.
  2. The fibula.
  SURCULUS.  A term applied by botanists to the
stem of mosses, or  that part which bears the leaves*,
It is simple, In Polytricum; branched, in Minium an-
drogynum ; With branches turned de»Hward,it\ Sphag-
num polustre ; decumbent, creeping, or erect.
  SURDITAS. Deafness.  See Paracusis.
  SURFEIT.  The consequence  of excess in eating
or drinking, or of something unwholesome or improper
in the food.  It consists in a heavy load or oppression
of the  stomach, with nauseo, sickness, impeded per-
spiration, and at times eruptions on the skin.
  SURGERY.  Chimrgia.   A branch of the healing
art, having for its object the cure of external diseases.
  SURTURBRAND.  Fibrous brown coal or bitumi-
nous wood, is so called in Iceland, wlitre It occurs in
great quantities.
  SUS.  The  name of a genus  of animals.  Class,
Mammalia; Order, Bellua.  The hog.  The  flesh
called pork is  considered  a great delicacy,  especially
the young  and well fed, and is  much used  in  most
countries.  Sotted,  it affords a harder food, still  very
nutritious to hard-working people, whose digestion is
good.
  Sus scrofa.  The systematic name of the hog, the
fot of which is called lard.
  Suspended animation.  See Resuscitation.
  SUSPENSO'RIUM.   (From suspendeo,  to hang.)
A suspensory; a bag, or bandage,  to suspend any  part.
  Suspbnsorium bepatis.  The broad ligament ofthe
liver.
  Suspensorius testis.   The cremasler muscle of
the testicle.
  SUSU'RRUS. (From susurro, to murmur.)   An
imaginary sound in the ear.
  SUTURE.   (Sutura; from svo, to join  together.)
1. In surgery, this term signifies the uniting the lips of
a wound by sewing.  Clavata commissura.   A num-
ber of different kinds of sutures have been recom-
mended by writers on surgery, but all of them arc now
reduced to two; namely, the  twisted, and  the inter-
rupted, called also  the knotted suture.  The twisted'
suture  to  made in  the following manner:  having
brought the divided ports nearly into contact, a pin is
to be introduced from the outside inwards, nnd carried
out through the opposite side to the same distance
from the edge that  it entered at on the former side ; a
firm wax ligature is then to be passed around it,making
the figure of 8, by which the wounded parts are drown
gently into contact. The number of pins to to be de-
termined by the extent of the wound ; half an inch, or
at most three quarters, is Ihe proper distance between
two pins.   The interrupted suture is practised where a
number of stitches  is required, and tne interruption is
the only distance between the stitches.
  2. In anatomy, the word suture is applied to the union
of bones by means of  dentiform  margins,  as in the
bones of the cranium.  See Temporal, sphenoidal, zy-
gomatic, transverse, coronal, lambdoidal, and sagittal
sutures.
  3. In botany, it to applied to that part of a  capsule,
which  to a kind of furrow on the external surface in
which the valves are united.  See Capsula.
  SWALLOW-WORT.  See Asclepias vincctoxicum.
  SWAMMERDAM, John, was  born  at Amsterdam,
in 1637, and displayed an early predilection for natural
history, particularly entomology.  At  Leyden, where
he studied physic, be was distinguished by his skill and
assiduity in anatomical experiments and the art of
making preparations; and on taking his degree there,
in 1667, he published a thesis on Respiration.   At thto
time he becau to practise his invention of injecting the
vessels with ceraceous matter, from which anatomy
has derived very important advantages.  In the dtosec
tion of insecu, he was singularly dexterous by the aid
of instruments of  his  own  mvention.  The Grand
Duke of Tuscany  invited him  about this period to
Florence on very liberal terms, but he declined the offer
from aversion to a court-life, and to any religious re-
straints.  In 1669 be published in bis native language
" A General History of InsecU," afterword reprinted
and translated inlo French and Latin, the latter with
splendid  figures. In 1672 another work appeared, en-
titled " Miroculum Naturae," detailing the structure of
the uterus;  of which there  were many subsequent
editions.  By intense application he became hypochor. 
SYD
SYL
driacal and infatuated mysticism, so as to abandon all
his scientific  pursuiu; and his constitution was worn
out by hto mortifications, so that he  died in 1680.  Se-
veral of his  papers, which came long after into the
hands of Boerhaave, were published under the title of
" Biblia Nature ;" iu which the history of bees to par-
ticularly esteemed.
  SWEAT.  See Perspiration.
  Sweet flag.   See Acorus calamus.
  Sweet marjoram.  See Origanum  marjorana.
  Sweet navew.   See Brassica rapa.
  Sweet rush.  See Andropogon scananthus, and Aco-
rus calamus-
  Sweet sultan.  The Centaurea moschata.
  Sweet willow.  See Myrica gale.
  SWIETEN, Gerard Van, was bom at Leyden, in
1700.   From the loss of both his parents, his early edu-
cation to said to have been somewhat  neglected;  but
being sent at  sixteen to the university of Louvain,  he
soon distinguished himself by his superior attainmenu.
He then returned  to his native place, and became a fa-
vourite pupil of the illustrious Boerhaave; and after
studying  seven years,  took  the degree of doctor  in
1725;  and so much  hod he* profited  by  the instruction
of thot great  master, as well as by hto own unweoried
reseorches, thot be was immediately appointed to a
medical professorship,  which he occupied for many
years with great reputation.   At length, however, his
success excited envy, and there being a law, whicli pro-
hibited those not professing the religion of the State
from  holding any public appointment, Van Swieten,
being a Roman  Catholic, was obliged to resign his
chair.  He devoted the leisure thus acquired to the
composition of hto excellent Commentaries on  the
Aphorisms of Boerhaave: and while engaged in this
work, he was invited by the Empress Maria Theresa
to settle at Vienna, which he accepted  in  the year
1745,  after stipulating, that he should  be allowed to
follow hto  usual  mode of life, which  was not  well
adapted for a court.  The intellectual and  moral  en-
dowments of this physician  qualified  him  in every
respect for conducting the medical school  at Vienna;
and that science in Germany was ultimately essentially
benefitted by his exertions.  He executed, during eight
years, the office of professor with singular zeal; and
having obtained  the full confidence of his royal mis-
tress, he was enabled to reform mony abuses, and pro-
cure great advantages for the study of medicine in that
city.  His extensive erudition gained him the farther
honour of being intrusted wilh the interesu of learn-
ing in general in the Austrian dominions;  he was  ap-
pointed Imperial  Librarian, President of the Censor-
ship of Books, &c.; and also created a Baron of the
Empire.  He was likewise voluntarily enrolled in  the
list of almost all the distinguished literary societies of
Europe.  The inflexibility of hto character led him to
maintain a long  opposition  to small-pox inoculation.
He died in 1772, and a statue was erected lo  his me-
mory  by the  Empress at Vienna.  Hto commentaries
will always maintain  their  reputation, from the im-
mense number of  facte, well selected and well arranged,
and the judicious summary  of ancient and  modern
medical knowledge which tney contain.  He also pub-
lished  another useful work on the Diseases which pre-
vail in Armies.
  SWIETE'NIA.  (Named after Van Swieten.) The
name of a genus of planu.  Class, Decandria; Order,
Monogynia.
  Swietenia mahaooni. The systematic name ofthe
mahogany-tree.   The bark of the wood of this tree is
of a red colour  internally;  has an astringent  bitter
taste;  and yields iu active matter  to  water.  It has
been prepared as a substitute for Peruvian bark, and
has been used as  such with advantage.  Dose, half a
drachm.
  SWINE-POX.   See Varicella.
  SWINESTONE.  A variety of compact lucullite, a
subspecies of limestone.
  SWINGING.  See^ora.
  Sword-shaped.  See Lanceolatus.
  SYCO'MA.  (From ovxn, a fig.)   Sycosis.  A wart
or excrescence resembling a fig on the eyelid, about the
anus, or any other part.
  SYDENHAM,  Thomas, was bom at Winford-Ea-
gle, in Dorseuhire, about the  year 1624.  He was en-
tered at Oxford ; but during  the civil war, when that
city was occupied  by the  royal party, he retired to
London.  On this occasion, the illness of his brotner
brought him acquainted wilh Dr. Coxe, an eminent
physician, who, finding Sydenham undecided as to tlie
choice of his profession, persuaded him to study medi-
cine on his return to Oxford.  Accordingly, in 1648,
he took the degree of bachelor of physic, and about the
same period obtained a fellowship; then pursuing hto
studies a few years longer,  he  procured  a doctor's
degree from Cambridge, and settled as a physician in
Westminster.  The extensive practice which he to said
to have enjoyed from 1660 to 1670, must be chiefly as-
cribed to tiie superior success of the means  employed
by him, which, being so different from those previously
in use,  became more readily a matter of notoriety;
for, after the Restoration, his connexions could bave
contributed little to his advancement.  He appears to
have paid  little attention to the prevailing medical
doctrines, being early persuaded that the only mode of
acq uiring a correct knowledge of his art was to observe
diligently the progress of diseases, whence the natural
indications of cure might be derived; in which opinion
he had the sanction of the celebrated  JVIr. Locke. It
was to  febrile diseases  that he first applied this in-
ductive method, and it cost him several years of anx-
ious attention to satisfy himself as to the  proper mode
of treating them:  the result of which  he published in
1666, under the title of "Methodus curandi Febres,"
and again, nine years after, with additional remarks,
suggested by subsequent experience. His writings are
not altogether  free from hypothesis; but he seems to
have been little influenced by these in his practice; and
by closely observing the operations of nature, and the
effects of remedies,  he was enabled to  introduce very
essential improveinenU.  In small-pox especially, by
checking the eruptive fever by means of cool air, and
other antiphlogistic  means,  he ascertained  that llie
eruption  and  consequent danger were greatly dimi-
nished ; which plan applies likewise to other eruptive
and febrile diseases, as has been since determined by ge-
neral experience.  His sagacity was also manifested in
the correct histories which he has left of some diseases, as
particularly small-pox, measles, gout, and hysteria. He
was likewise very attentive to the varieties occurring,
especially in febrile disorders at different seasons, or in
different years; and was led to suppose these connected
with a particular constitution of the air.  He had been
subject, for  above thirty  years, to gout, and stone in
the kidney,  which  impaired his  constitution, and at
last terminated his life  in 1689.   After  hto death, a
manual of practice, composed for  his son,  was pub-
lished under the title of " Processus Integri in Morbis
fere  omnibus curandis."  Sydenham ever maintained
the character  of a generous and public-spirited man;
he conducted  himself without that arrogance which
too often accompanies original talent; and he has been
universally acknowledged the first physician of hisage.
The numerous editions of his works,  both singly and
collectively, in almost every  country  of Europe, the
deference paid to his authority, and the commendations
bestowed upon him by almost all practical  writers
since, amply prove the solidity of his  title to the high
reputation attached to hto name.  The  college of phy-
sicians,  though he  was only late in  life admitted a
licentiate, have subsequently placed his bust in their
hall, near that of Harvey.
  Sy'lphium.  Assafcetida is so termed by some wri-
ters.  See Ferula asiafatida.
  SYLVAN1TE.   Native tellurium.
  Sylvius, digestive salt of.  The muriate of potassa.
  SY'LVIUS, Francis as  le Boe, was born at Ha-
nau, in 1614.  He took his degree  at Basle,  and then
visited, for improvement, some of the chief universi-
ties in France and  Germany.  He  settled first at hto
native place, but removed to Amsterdam, where he en-
joyed a high reputation for several years, till he was
called to Leyden, in 1658, to assume the office of first
professor of medicine.  He soon drew together,  by hto
genius and eloquence, a numerous audience from all
parte of Europe.  He was one of the earliest advocates
for Harvey's doctrine of the circulation of the blood,
and chiefly effected its reception into that school.  But,
on the other hand, he materially retarded the progres*
of medicine by a fanciful hypothesis, which attracted
much notice, referring oil diseases to chemical changes,
producing an excess of acid,  or of alkali.  His works
were chiefly controversial tracts, in which he defended
his pecuUar notions.  He died in 1672. 
SYM
SYM
  Sylvius James du Bois, was bom at Amiens, in
I47t>.   Having chosen the profession of physic, he
studied diligently the writings of the sncienu,  espe-
cially Hippocrates and Galen, and  was no less assi-
duous in  the  pursuit of other branches of medicine,
particularly  anatomy, pharmacy, and botany.  Before
taking a dcgiee, he undertook a private course of lec-
tures at Paris, in wliich he so distinguished himself,
that in two years he collected a crowd of pupils from
various  parts of Europe; but the jealousy Of the Pa-
risian physicians obliged him  to  go  to Montpelier, in
1520, for the purpose of graduation.  His extreme par-
Bimony, however, would not permit the necessary ex-
penses ;  and he was at last successful in compromising
his differences with the Parisian  faculty.  He subse-
quently continued his lectures with very great success;
and in 1550 he was appointed professor of medicine at
Ihe royal  college; but his death occurred  five  years
afterward.  His works were popular during the reign
of the old school, but are now obsolete.   As an anato-
mist, he merits great praise, having made various dis-
jcoveries, notwithstanding the few opportunities he had
pf human dissection.  He wrote with great violence
against Vesalius, his pupil, because he had presumed
to correct  Galen.
  SYMBLE'PHARUM. (From evv, with, and ffXtiba-
pov, the  eyelid.)  A concretion  of  the  eyelid to the
globe of the eye.  This chiefly happens in the  supe-
rior, but  very  rarely in the inferior palpebra.   The
causes of  this  concretion are  a bad conformation of
the parts,  or from ulcers of the cornea, the membrana
conjunctiva, or internal superficies of the palpebral, or
imprudent scarifications, or burns, especially if the eye
remains long closed.  There are two species, the par-
tial, or total; in the former, the adhesion is partial, in
ihe letter, the membrana conjunctiva and cornea are
concreted  to the eyelid together.
  Sy'mbole.  (From ovp6aXXta, to knit together.)  It
is said either of the fitness of ports with one another,
or of the consent between them by the intermediation
of nerves, and the like.
  SYMBOLO'GIA.   (From  evpfivXov,  a sign, and
Xoyoc, a discourse.)   The doctrine  of the signs and
symptoms of disease.
  SYMMETRY. The exact and beautiful proportion
pf poru to one another.
  SYMPATHETIC.  Sympatheticus.
  1. Relating to sympathy.
  8. See Intercostal nerve.
  'Sympathetic nerve.  See Intercostal nerve,
  SYMPATHY.  (Sympathia;  from avp.itaex.ta, to
puffer together,'to sympathize.)  All  the  body to sym-
pathetically  connected together,  and dependent, the
bne part upon the rest,'constituting a general sympathy.
But sometimes ive find particular poru more intimately
dependent upon each other  than upon the rest of the
body, constituting a particular sympathy.   Action can-
not be greatly increased in any one organ, without be-
ing diminished in some other; but certain paru are
more apt to be affected by the derangement of particu-
lar  organs than others; and it was the observance of
this fact which gave  foundation  to ihe  old and well
known doctrine of sympathy,  which was said to pro-
ceed " tum ob  communionem et similitudinem generis,
turn ob viciniam."  It may be thought that thto posi-
tion of. action being diminished jn one organ, by its
increase, either  in the rest or in some other part, is
contradicted by the existence of general diseases or
actions affecting the whole system.  But in them we
find, in the first place, that tlfere  is always some part
more  affected than the rest.  This  local affection  is
sometimes the first symptom, and affects the constitu-
tion in a secondary way, either by the irritation which
H produces, or by an extension of the specific action.
At  other times the local affection is coeval with the
general  disease, and to colled sympathetic.  It to ob-
served^ in the second place, thot os there to some port
which is always more affected than the rest, so also is
there some organ which has ite oction, in consequence
of this, diminished lower than thot of the rest of the
system,  and most commonly lower than iu  natural
standard.  From the extensive  sympathy of the sto-
mach with almost every part of the body, we find that
this most  frequently suffers, and has its action  dimi-
nished in every disease, whether general or local, pro-
vided that tbe diseased action arises to any consider-
able degree.  There are also other organs which may,
     336
in Hke manner, suffer from their association or con-
nexion with others which become diseased.  Thus, for
instance, we sec, in the general diseose called puerpe-
ral fever,  that ihe action of the breasts to diminished
by the increased inflammatory action of the uterus.
  In consequence of this balance of  oction, or general
connexion of tlie system, a sudden pain, consequent to
violent oction of any particular port, will so weaken
the rest as to produce fainting, and occasionally death.
But  this dependence appears more evidently in what
may be called the smaller systems of the body, or those
ports wliich seem to be more intimately connected with
each other than they are with the general system.  Of
this  kind is the connexion of the breasts with the ute-
rus of the female; of the urethra with the testicles of
the male ; of the stomach wilh the  liver; and of the
intestines wilh the stomach, nnd of this again with the
brain; of the one extremity of the bone with the other;
and  of the body of the muscle wilh its insertion; of
the skin with the paru below it.
  These smaller systems, or circles, shall be treated
regularly; but first it may be  proper to observe, that
these are  not only intimately  connected with them-
selves, but also with the  general system,  a universal
sympathy being thus established.
  That there to a very intimate connexion  between the
breasUand uterus has been long known ; but it has not
been very satisfactorily explained.  Fallopius, and all
the other  authors, declare  plainly that the sympathy
to produced by an anastomosis of vessels;  Bartholin
adding lhat the child being bom, the blood no longer
goes to the uterus, but to directed to the  breasts and
changed into milk.  But none of all those who talk of
this derivation, assign any reasonable cause which may
produce it.
  In pregnancy, and at the menstrual periods, the ute-
rus is active; but, when the child is delivered, the ac-
tion of the uterus subsides, while the breaste in their
turn become active, and secrete milk.
  If, at this time, we should again produce action in
the uterus, we diminish that of the breaste. and destroy
the secretion  of milk, us is well illustrated by the case
of inflammation of the uterus, which is incident to
lying-in women.  When the uterus,  at the cessation of
the menses, ceases to be active, or to secrete, we often
find  that the breasts have on action  excited  in them,
becoming  slowly inflamed, and assuming a cancerous
disposition.   The uterus  and breasts seem to be a set
of glands  balancing each other in the system, one only
being naturally active, or secreting properly, at a time;
and  accordingly we seldom, if ever, find that when the
uterus yields the menstrual discharge, the milk to se-
creted in perfection, during the  continuance of thto dis-
charge, nor do we ever find them both inflamed at the
same time.
  The uterus has not only this connexion  with  the
breasts, but it has also o very particular sympathy with
the stomach,  which again sympathizes with the brain;
ond  thus we  see how a disorder of the  uterus may in-
duce an extensive series of affections, each dependent
on the other.
  The oreans of generation in the male form likewise
a little system, in which all the parte exhibit this sym
pathy with each other.  They  likewise give us a very
good instance of the association of  action, or sympa
thy,  in the common acceptation of that word.
  Sympathy  to divided  into, first, the sympathy of
equilibrium, iu which one part to weakened by the in
creased action of another;' and, secondly, the sympa-
thy of association, in which two parts act together al
tlie same time.
  The sympathy of association is produced suddenly,
and for a short time. The sympathy of equilibrium to
produced more slowly, and continues  to operate tor a
much longer time.
  It  is curious enough, that most, or  at least many, of
those orgons, which seem to be connected by the sym-
pathy of equilibrium, exhibit likewise  more or less of
the sympathy of association, when under  the circum-
stances in which this can take place.
  The sympathy of equilibrium to seen in the effecte
of inflammation of the end of the urethra on the tes-
ticle; which often diminishes ite action, and produces
a very disagreeable sensation of dnlness, or, if this in
flammaiion be suddenly diminished, the action of the
testicle is  as suddenly increased, and  swelling takes
place.  The  same  to t-een in  the connexion of tha 
SYM
SYM
urethra with the bladder and prostate gland, as is men-
tioned In all the  dissertations on gonorrhoea.  These
parts likewise affect the stomach greatly, increased ac-
tion in them weakening that organ much.  Thto  is
seen in the effecu of swelled  testicle, or excessive ve-
nery, or inflsmed bladder, and in a stone; all which
weaken  the  siomacli, and produce dyspepsia.  The
same remark applies to the kidney; vomiting and flatu-
lence being produced by nephritis.
  The sympathy of association, or an instance of sym-
pathy in tlie common acceptation of the word, is like-
wise seen in the connexion between the glans and tes-
ticles in coition; but for this purpose, the action in the
glans must be sudden, and  of short duration; for, if
continued long, weakness of the testicles, or diminished
action, to  induced.  In those parts which exhibit  this
natural association of action, if the action of one  part
be suddenly and for a short time increased, the action
nf the sympathizing part will likewise be increased;
as we see in the instance already given of coition, and
likewise in paroxysms of the stone, in which the glans
penis, after making water, becomes very painful.
  But if the action be more slowly induced,  and  con-
tinued for a long time,  then this association is set
aside, by a stronger and more general principle of the
equilibrium of action, and  the sympathizing  part  is
weakened.  Hence violent inflammation of the end of
the urethra produces a weakness and irritability of the
bladder, dulness of the testicle, &x.
  There to also an  evident sympathy of equilibrium
between the  stomach and lower tract of intestines;
which two portions may be said in general to balance
each  other in the abdomen.  When the action of the
intestines to increased in diarrhoea, the stomach is often
weakened, ond the  patient tormented with  nausea.
This  will be cured, not so  easily by medicines taken
into the stomach, as by anodyne clysters, which will
abate the action  of the intestines.  When the intes-
tines ore inflamed, as in strangulated hernia, vomiting
is a never-failing attendant
  When again the stomach to inflamed, the intestines
are affected,  and obstinate costiveness takes place;
even  in hysterical affections of the stomach, the intes-
tines are often deranged.  Injections of cold water fre-
quently relieve these affections of the stomach, by their
action on the intestines.
  The liver and stomach are  also connected  with one
another.  When the liver is inflamed, or has iu action
increased, the stomach  to  weakened,  and dyspeptic
symptoms take place.  When the stomach  is weak-
ened, as, for instance, by intoxication, then the action
of the liver to increased, and a  greater quantity  than
usual of bile is secreted.   The same  takes place  in
warm climates, where tlie stomach is much debilitated.
  If the liver has  iu action  thus  frequently increased,
it assumes a  species  of inflammation, or  becomes,  as
it is called, scirrhous.  This is exemplified in the ha-
bitual dram-drinkers, and in  those who  stay long  in
warm countries, and  use freedoms with the stomach.
The liver likewise sympathizes with the brain; for
when thto organ  is injured, and iu action much im-
paired, as in  compression, inflammation and  suppura-
tion have been often known to take place in the liver.
  Besides this connexion of the stomach with  tlie liver,
it to also very intimately dependent on the brain, being
weakened when the oction of the brain is increased;
as we sec in  an  inflammation  of that organ.  The
broin again is affected with pain when the stomach is
weakened by intoxication  or other couses; ond thto
pain will  be often relieved  by slowly renewing the ac-
tion of the stomach by such stimuli as are natural  to
it, such as small quantities of soup frequently repeated.
A slight increase of action in the stomach, at least  if
not of a morbid kind, attecte the brain so as to produce
sleep, diminishing iu action.   This  we see in the
effecu of a full meal, and even of a draught  of warm
water.  The stomach likewise sympathizes with the
throat, squeamtohness and  anorexia being often  pro-
duced by inflammation of the tonsils.  This  inflam-
mation is frequently aboted by restoring or increasing
the action of the stomach.  Hence the throat, in slight
inflammation, is frequently easier after dinner; hence,
likewise, the effects of emetics in cynanehe.
   The extremities of bones and muscles also sympa-
thize In the same manner.  When one end of a  bone
is inflamed,  the action of the other is lessened, and
pain  is produced; for a painful  sensation may result
both from increased and diminished action.  When
the tendon of a muscle to inflamed, the body of that
muscle often is pained, and vice versa.
  Lastly, the external skin sympathizes with tbe parU
below it'  If it be inflamed, as in erysipelas, the poite
immediately beneath are weakened, or have their na-
tural action diminished.  If this  inflammation  affect
the face, or scalp, then the brain is injured;  and head-
ache, stupor, or delirium supervene.  If it  attack
the skin of the abdomen, then the  abdominal viscera
are affected, and we have vomiting and purging, or ob-
stinate costiveness, according to circumstances.  This
is illustrated by tlie disease of children, which is called
by the women the bowel-hive, in which the  skin is in-
flamed, as they suppose, from some morbid  matter
within.
  If the internal parts be inflamed, the action of tho
surface is diminished, and, by increasing this  action,
we can lessen or remove the disease below; as we see
daily proved by the good effects of blisters.  When
the stomach, intestines, or kidney have been very irri-
table, a sinapism has been known to act like a charm;
and in the deep-seated inflammations of the breasts,
bowels, or joints, no better remedy is known, after tlie
use of the lancet, than blisters.
  The utility of issues  in diseases of the  lungs, the
liver, and the joinu, is lo be  explained on the same
principle.  In these cases we find that issues do little
good unless they be somewhat  painful, or be in the
state of healthy ulcers.  An indolent flabby sore, how-
ever large the discharge (whicli is always thin, and
accompanied with little action), does no good, but only
adds to the misery of the patient.  We may, however,
err on the other hand, by making the issues too poinful,
or by keeping them active too long;  for  after they
have  removed the inflammatory disease below, they
will still operate  on these parts, lessening their action
and preventing the healing process from going on pro-
perly.  This is seen in cases of curvature of the spine,
where, at first, the inflammation of the vertebra is di
minished by the issues ; but if they be kept long open
ofter this is removed, they do harm.  We often see the
patient recover rapidly after his surgeon has healed the
issue in despair, judging that it could do  no  faiths:
service, but only increase the weakness of his patient.
  It to a well-established fact, that  when any particu-
lar action disappears suddenly from a part, il will often
speedily affect  that organ  which  sympathizes  most
with  the part that  was  originally diseased.  This  ia
best seen in  the inflammatory action, wliich, as practi-
cal writers have well observed, occasionally disappears
quickly from the part first affected, and then shows
iuelf in some other.
  From the united testimony of all  these facts, Mr.
Burns,  of Glasgow, maintains the doctrine just deli-
vered, and proposes to introduce il into pathological
reasonings.  In the whole of the animal economy, we
discover marks of the wisdom of the Creator, hut  per-
haps in no part of it more than in this, of Che existence
of the sympothy of equilibrium; for, if a large  part
of the system were to have its action much increased,
and all the other parts to continue  acting in the same
proportionate degree as formerly, the whole must be
soon exhausted;  (for increased action would  require
for iu support on increased quantity of energy.)
  But  upon this  principle, when  action is much in-
creased in one part, rt is to a certain degree  diminished
in some other, the general sum or degree of action  in
the body is thus less than it otherwise would  be, and
consequently the system suffers less.
  SY'MPHYSIS.  (Fioin cvv, together, and cbvio,  to
grow.)  Mediate  connexion.   A  genus of the con-
nexion of bones, in which  ihey are united by means
of an intervening body.   It comprehends four species,
viz. synchondrosis, syssarcosis, syneurosis, and syn-
desmosis.
  SY'MPIIYTUM.   (From ovptbvta, to  unite:  so
called  because it is supposed to unite and close the lips
of wounds together.)
   1. The name of a genus of planu in the Linurean
system.  Class, Pentandria;  Order, Monogynia.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the coinfrey.  See
Symphytum officinale.
  Symphytum maculosum.   See Pulmonaria offici-
nalis.
   Symphytum  minus.  See Prunella.
   Symphytum  officinale.  The systematic name of
                                         327 
SYN                                              SYW
the comfrey.  Consolida major.  This plant, Sympny
tum—foliis-oratis lanceolatis dccurrentibus, Is admi-
nistered where the althaea cannot be obtained, iu roou
abounding with a viscid glutinous juice, whose virtues
are similar to those of the althsa.
  Symphytum petrmm.   See Coris monspeliensis.
  Syna'nche.  Sec Cunanche.
  Syna'nchica.   (From avvayxv, the  quinsey:  so
called from iu uses in that disease.)  Quinseywort
  SYNARTHRO SIS. (Fromovv,together,andapflpov,
a joint)   Immoveable connexion.  A genus of con-
nexion of bones, in which they are united together by
an immoveable union.  It has three species, viz. suture,
harmony, and gomphosis.
  SYNASTOMO'SIS.  This is used in the same sense
as Anastomosis.                              ,
  SYNCHONDROSIS. (Fromotjv,with.ondxovtpos,
a cartilage.)  A species of symphysis, in which one
bone is united with  another by means of an interven-
ing cartilage; as the vertebra  and the bones of the
pubes.
  SYNCHONDROTO'MIA.  (From o-ui/xovopu>o-ic,the
symphysis of the pubes, ond rtpvta, to cut) The opera-
tion of dividing  the symphysis ofthe pubes.
  SY'NCHYSUS.  (From  ovyxvia, to confound.)   A
solution of the vitreous humour into  a fine attenuated
aqueous fluid.  In Cullen's Nosology, it is a  variety of
his species caligo pupilla.
  Svnci'pitis ossa.  See Paridal bones.
  SY'NCIPUT.    (Synciput vel  sinciput, itts.  n.)
The forepart  ofthe head or cranium.
  SYNCOPE.   (From ovv, with, and xoirlta,  to cut,
Or strike  down.)   Animi  ddiquium; Leipothymia;
Defectio animi; Dissolutio ;  Exanimatio; Asphyxia;
Virium lapsus;  Apopsychia;  Apsychia;  Ecchysis.
Fainting or swooning.  A genus of disease in iheClass
JVeuro*e*, and Order Adynamia, of Cullen, in whicli
the respirotion ond oction of the heart either cease, or
become much weaker than usual, with paleness and
coldness, arising from diminished energy of  the brain,
or from  organic  affections of the  heart. Species: 1.
Syncope cardiaca, the cardiac syncope, arising without
a visible cause, and  with  violent palpitation of the
heart, during the intervals,  and depending generally on
some organic affection of  the  heart  or neighbouring
vessels.
   2. Syncope occasionalis, the exciting cause being
manifest.
   The disease is sometimes preceded  by anxiety about
 the prscordia,  a sense of fulness ascending from the
stomach towards the head, vertigo or confusion of idess,
dimness of sight, and coldness of the extremities.  The
attacks are frequently attended with,  or end in, vomit-
 ing, and sometimes in epileptic or other convulsions.
 The  causes  are sudden and violent  emotions of the
 mind, pungent or disagreeable odours, derangement of
 the prime vise, debility from preceding disorders, loss
 of blood spontaneous or artificial, the operation of para-
 centesis, &.c.  During the paroxysm  the nostrils are to
 be stimulated with some of the preparations of ammo-
 nia, or these may be exhibited internally, if the patient
 is capable of swallowing; but when the disease has
 originated from large loss of blood, such stimulants must
 be used cautiously.  "When it is connected  wilh a dis-
 ordered state ofthe stomach, if an emetic can be given,
 or vomiting  excited by irritating the fauces, it will pro-
 bably afford  relief.  Sometimes sprinkling the face wilh
 cold water  will recover the patient   And wiien there
 is reason for  supposing an accumulation  about  tbe
 heart, the disease not having arisen from debilitating
 causes, a moderate abstraction of blood may be made
 with propriety.  Between tbe fits we should endeavour
 to strengthen  the constitution, where debility appears
 concerned in producing them, and the several exciting
 causes must be carefully  guarded   against.   When
 organic affections  of the  heart, and poru connected
 with it, exist, all that can be done  is, to palliate  the
 attacks of fainting; unless the primary disease can be
  removed, which is extremely rare.
   Syncope  ansinosa. See Angina pectoris.
    SYNDESMOLO'GIA.  (From ovvStopos, aligament,
  and Xoyos, a discourse.) The doctrine of the ligamenU.
    Syndesmo-pharynoeus.  See  Constrictor  pharyn-
 gis medlus.
    SYNDESMOSIS.  (From  ovvStopos, a ligament)
  That species  of symphysis or mediate connexion of
        128
bones in which  they are  united l>y  ligament, oi tin
radius with the ulna.
  SYNDE'SMUS.  (From ovvStta, to bind together.)
A ligament
  SYNECHIA.  Stvcx'a.  A concretion of the iris
with the cornea, or wilh ihe capsule of the crystalline
lens.  The proximate cause is adhesion of these parts,
the consequefrce of inflammation.  The remote causes
are, a collapse of the cornea, a prolapse of the iris, u
swelling or tumefied cataract, hypopium, or original
formation.  The species of this disorder are,
  1. Synechia anterior totalis, or a concretion of the
iris with the cornea.  This specie9  is known by in-
specting the parts.  The pupil in this species is dilated
or coarctoted, or it is found  concreted; from whence
various lesions of vision.
  2. Synechia anterior partialis, when only some part
ofthe iris is accreted.  This concretion is observed in
one or many places; from hence the pupil to variously
disfigured, and an inordinate motion of the pupil is per-
ceived.
  3. Synechia anterior composita,  when not only the
 whole iris, but also  a prolapse of the crystalline lens,
 unites with the cornea.
  4. Synechia posterior totalis, or a concretion of the
-whole uvea, with the ciliary processes and the capsule
 ofthe crystalline lens.
  5. Synechia posterior partialis, when only some part
 ofthe capsule of the crystalline lens Is concreted With
 the uvea and cornea. This accretion is simplex, du-
 plex, triplex, or in many places.
  6. Synechia complicata, with an amaurosis, cataract,
 mydriasis, myosis, or synizesis.
   SYNEURO'SIS.   (From ovv, with, and vtvpov, a
 nerve, because the ancienu included membranes, liga-
 menU, and tendons under the head of nerves.)   A spe-
 cies of symphysis, in which one bone to united to an-
 other by means of an intervening membrane.
   SYNGENESIA.   (From ovv, together, and ysvtots,
 generation.)  The  name of a class of plante, in the
 sexual system of Limucus, consisting of plants in which
 the anthers are united into a tube, the filaments ou which
 they are supported  being  mostly separate and  distinct.
 The flowers are compound.
   SYNIZE'SIS. A perfect concretion and coarctation
 of the pupil.  It to  known by the absence of the pupil,
 and a total loss of vision.   The species are,
   1. Synizesis nativa, with whicli infants are some-
 times born.  In this case, by  an error of the first con-
 formation of the pupil,  there to no perforation; it is
 very rarely found.
   2.  Synizesis accidentalis, a concretion of the pupil,
 from an inflammation or exulceration of the  uvea or
 iris, or  from a  defect of the  aqueous or vitreous hu-
 mour.
    3.  Synizesis,  from a secession of the iris or cornea.
 From whatever cause it may happen, the effect is cer-
 tain, for the pupil .contracu  iu  diameter; the longitu-
 dinal fibres, separated from the circle of the cornea,
 cannot resist the orbicular fibres: from hence the pupil
 is  wholly or partially contracted.
    4.  Synizesis complicata, or that which is complicated
 with an amaurosis, synechia, or other occular disease.
 The amaurosis, or gutta serena, is known by  the total
 absence of light to  the retina.  We can distinguish this
 not only by the pupil being closed, but likewise the eye-
 lids ;  for  whether  the eyelids be  open or shut,  all to
 darkness to the patient   The other complicated cases
 are known by viewing  tlie eye,  and considering th*>
 ports anatomically.
    5. Synizesis spuria, is  a closing of the pupil by mu
 cus, pus, or grumous blood.
    SY'NOCHA.  (From ovvtxja,  to continue.) Febris
 synocha.  Inflammatory  fever.  A species of continued
  fever, characterized by increased heat; pulse frequent,
  strong, hard; urine high-coloured; senses not impaired.
  This fever is so named from its being attended  with
  symptoms denoting general inflammation in the system,
  by which we shall always be able  readily to distinguish
  it from either the nervous or putrid. It makes its at-
  tack at all seasons ofthe year, but is most prevalent in
  tbe spring ; and it seizes persons of oil ages and habits,
  but more particularly those in tbe vigour of life, with
  strong elastic fibres, and of a plethoric constitution.  It
  to a species of fever almost peculiar to cold and tempo
  rate climates, being rarely,  if ever, met with in very 
SYN
SYN
«rarra ones, except among Europeans lately arrived;
and even then, the inflammatory stege is of very short
duration, os it very soon assumes either the nervous or
putrid type.
  The exciting causes are sudden transitions from heat
to cold, swallowing cold liquors, when the body is much
heated by exercise, too free a use of vinous and spirit-
uous liquors, great intemperance, violent passions ofthe
mind, the sudden suppression of habitual evacuations,
and the sudden repulsion of eruptions. It may be doubt-
ed if this fever ever originates from personal infection;
but it is possible for it to appear as an epidemic among
such as are of a robust habit, from a peculiar state of
the atmosphere.  It comes on with a sense of lassitude
and inactivity, succeeded  by vertigo, rigors, and pains
over the  whole body, but more particularly in tiie head
and back; wliich symptoms are  shortly followed by
redness ofthe  fac« and eyes, great restlessness, intense
Seat,  and unquenchable thirst, oppression of breathing,
md nausea.  The skin to dry and parched; the tongue
is of a scarlet colour at the sides, and furred with white
in the centre;  the urine is red and scanty; the body  is
costive; and  there is it quickness, with a fulness  and
hardness in the pulse, not much  affected by any pres-
sure made on the artery.  If the  febrile symptoms run
very high, and proper means are not used at an early
 eriod, stupor and delirium come on, the imagination
 ecomes  much disturbed and hurried, and  the patient
raves violently.  The disease  usually  goes through its
course in about fourteen days, and terminates in a crisis,
either by diaphoresis, diarrhoea, haemorrhage from the
nose, or the deposite of a copious sediment in the urine;
which crisis is usually preceded by some variation in
the pulse.
  Our judgment as to the  termination of the disease
must  be  formed from the violence of the  attack,  and
the nature ofthe symptoms. If the fever runs high, or
continues many days with stupor or delirium, the event
may be doubtful; but if to these are added, picking at
the bed-clothes, startings of the tendons,  involuntary
discharges by stool and urine, and hiccups, it will then
certainly be fatal.  On the contrary, if the febrile heat
abates, the other symptoms moderate, and there  to a
tendency to a crisis, wc may then expect a  recovery.
In a few instances, thto fever has been  known to ter-
minate in mania.
  On  opening  those who die of an inflammatory fever,
an effusion is often perceived within the cranium, and
now and then, topical affections of some ofthe viscera
are to be observed.
  The chief indication in synocha is to lessen the ex-
tessive vascular action by evacuations, and the anti-
phlogistic regimen.   Ofthe former, by far the most im-
portant is blood-letting, which should be  freely prac-
tised  in  this disease, making  a large orifice into the
vein,  and taking from ten to twenty-four ounces of
blood, according to the violence of the symptoms, and
the strength of the patient.  The disorder may some-
times be  cut short at once by thto active treatment  in
the beginning; but if it should continue urgent, and the
strength of the pulse keep up, the repetition of it within
more moderate limits will be from time to time advisa-
ble.  Purging is next in efficacy, especially with those
articles which produce copious serous discharges, and
thoroughly clear out the intestines, as the saline cathar-
tics, with infusion of senna, jalap with supertartrate of
potassa,  &c.   As the disease advances, however, we
must act less on this  part, and attempt to promote the
other  discharges, particularly that by tlie  skin: for
which purpose calomel, antimonials,  and the saline
diaphoretics are to be exhibited.  The antiphlogistic
regimen  consists  in obviating stimuli of every kind, so
far as this can be  done safely; impressions on the
senses, particularly  the sight and hearing, bodily and
mental exertion, &c. must be guarded against as much
as  possible.  The diet should be of the most sparing
kind; barley-water, or Other mild liquid, with some
acid, perhaps, added, or a little nitrate of potassa dis-
solved in it, taken in small quantities from time  to
time, chiefly to quench  the thirst, and cool the body,
will be  the most proper;  6trictly interdicting animal
food, fermented liquors, and the like.  The stimulus of
heat  must be especially obviated by light clothing,  or
 even exposing the body to the air, ventilating the apart-
 ment, sprinkling the floor with vinegar and water, Sec
 When the head is much affected, besides the general
 treatment, it will be proper to take blood locally, have
 the head shaved and cooled by some evaporating lotion,
 apply a blister to the neck, and, perhaps, stimulate tbe
 lower extremities.   In like manner, ony other orgap
 being particularly pressed upon, may require additional
 means, which will be sufficiently understood by advert-
 ing to the several phlegmasia;.
   SY'NOCHUS.   (From ovv*x«i to  continue.)  A
 mixed fever.   A species of continued  fever,  com-
 mencing with symptoms of synocha, and terminating in
 typhus; so that synocha and typhus, blended together
 in a  slight degree, seem  to constitute thto species of
 fever, the former being apt to preponderate at its com-
 mencement, and tbe latter towards iu termination.
j   Every thing which has a tendency  lo enervate tbe
[ body, may be looked upon as a remote cause of this
: fever; and accordingly we find it often arising  from
; great bodily fatigue, too great an indulgence in sensual
 pleasures,  violent exertion, intemperance in drinking,
 and errors in diet, and  now and then likewise from the
 suppression of some long-accustomed discharge.   Cer-
 tain passions  of the mind (such as grief, fear, anxiety,
 and Joy,) have  been enumerated among tbe causes of
 fever, and in a few instances, it to probable, they moy
 have given rise to it; but the concurrence of  some
 other powers seems generally necessary to produce this
 effect.  The  most  usual  and universal cause of this
 fever is the application of cold to the body; and its
 morbid effect  sseem to depend partly upon certain cir-
 cumstances of the cold iuelf, and partly upon certain
 circumstances ofthe person to whom it is applied.
   The circumstances which seem to give the applica-
 tion of cold due effect, are iu degree of intensity, the
 length of time which  it is  applied; its being applied
 generally,  or only in a current of air, its having a degree
 of moisture accompanying it, and its being a consider-
 able  or sudden change from heatto cold.  The circum-
 stances of persons rendering them more liable  to be
 affected by cold, seem to be debility, induced  either by
 great fatigue, or violent exertions, by long fasting, by
 the want  of  natural rest, by severe evacuations, by
 preceding  disease,  by  errors in diet, by intemperance
 in drinking, by  great sensuality, by too close an appli-
 cation to study, or giving way to grief, fear, or  great
 anxiety, by depriving the body of part of iu accustomed
 clothing, by exposing  any one  particular part of it,
 while the rest is kept of its usual warmth, or by ex-
 posing it generally or  suddenly to cold when heated
 much beyond its usual temperature;  these we  may,
 therefore, look upon as so many causes giving an  effect
 to cold which it otherwise might not have produced.
 Another frequent cause of fever seems to be breothing
 air conlaminated by tiie vapours arising either directly
 or originally from the body of a person labouring under
 the disease.   A peculiar matter to supposed to generate
 in the body of a person  affected with fever, and this
 floating in the  atmosphere, and being applied to one
 in health, will no doubt often cause fever to take ploce
 in him, which hos induced many to suppose, thot thto
 infectious matter is produced in all fevers whatever,
 ond  thot they are all, more or less, contagious.
   The effluvia  arising from the human body, if long
 confined to one place without being diffused in the
 atmosphere, will, it is  well known, acquire a singulai
 virulence, and  will, if applied  to the  bodies of men
 become the cause of fever.  Exhalations, arising from
 animal or vegetable substances in a state of putrefac-
 tion, have been looked upon as another general cause
 of fever: marshy or moist grounds, acted upon by heat
 for any length of time, usually  send forth exhalations
 which prove  a  never-faffing source of fever, but more
 particularly  in  warm  climates.  Various  hypotheses
 have been maintained, witb respect to the proximate
 cause of  fever; some supposing it to be a  lentor or
 viscidity prevailing in the mass of blood, and stagnating
 in the extreme vessels; others, thai it is a noxious mat-
 ter introduced into, or generated in, the body, and that
 the  increased action  of the heart and arteries is an
 effort of nature to expel the morbific  matter; others.
 that it consisted in an  increased secretion of bile; and
 others again, thot it is to be attributed to a spasmodic
 constriction of the extreme vessels on the surface  of the
 I body; which last was the doctrine taught by the late
 Dr. Cullen.
    An attack  of this fever is generally marked by the
 patient's being seized  with a  considerable degree of
 languor, or sense of debility, together with a sluggish-
 ness in motion, and frequent yawning and stretching; 
SYN
SYP
 the lace nnd extremities at tiie same time become pale,
 and the akin over tbe whole surface of the body ap-
 pears constricted;  he then  perceives a sensation  of
 cold  in  hto back, passing from thence over hto whole
 frame; and this sense of cold continuing to increase,
 tremors  in the limbs and rigors of the body succeed.
   With  these there is a loss of appetite, want of taste
 in the mouth, slight pains in the head, back, and loins,
 small  and frequent  respirations.  The  sense of cold
 and its effects after a little time becomes less violent,
 and are  alternated with flushings, and at lost going off
 altogether, they ore succeeded by greot  heat diffused
 generally over the whole body; the face  looks flushed,
 the skin  is dry, as likewise the tongue; universal rest-
 lessness  prevails, with a violent pain in the head, op-
 pression at  the chest, sickness at tiie stomach, and an
 inclination to vomit.  [There is likewise  a  great thirst
 and costiveness, ond the pulse  to full and frequent,
 beating,  perhaps, 90 or 100 strokes in n minute.  When
 the symptoms run very high, ond there is o consider-
 able determinotion of blood to  the head, a delirium
 will arise.  In this fever, as well os most others, there
 to generally an increase of symptoms towards evening.
   If the  disease to likely to prove fetal, either  by iu
 continuing a long time, or by the severity of iu symp-
 toms, then a starting of the tendons, picking at the bed-
 clothes, involuntary  discharges  by urine  and  stool,
 coldness  of  the  extremities,  and hiccoughs, will be
 observed; where no such appearances take place, the
 disease will go through ite course.
   As a fever once produced will go on, although its
 cause  be entirely removed,  and as the  continued or
 fresh application of a cause of fever neither will in-
 crease that which is already produced, nor occasion a
 new one, there can be no certainty as to the duration
 of fever; and it to only by attending to certain appear-
 ances  or changes, which usually take  place on the
 approach of a crisis, that we can form ony opinion or
 decision.  The symptoms pointing out  the approach
 of o crisis are, the pulse becoming soft, moderate, and
 near iu  natural speed; the tongue losing its fur and
 becoming clean,  with an abatement of thirst; the skin
 being covered with a gentle moisture, and  feeling soft
 to the touch;  the secretory organs performing  their
 several offices; and the urine depositing flaky crystals
 of a dirty red colour, ond becoming turbid on being
 allowed to stand any time.
   Many physicians hove been of opinion, thot  there
 is something in the noture of oil acute diseases, except
 those of a putrid kind, which usually determines them
 to be of a certain duration, and, therefore,  that these
 terminations, when salutary, happen at certain periods
 of the disease rather than ot others, unless disturbed in
 their progress  by an  improper mode of treatment, or
 the arising of some accidental circumstance.  These
 periods are known by the appellation of critical days;
 and from the tlm«5 of Hippocrates down to the present,
 have  been pretty generally  admitted. The truth of
 them,  Dr. Thomas thinks,  can  hardly  be disputed,
 however they may be interrupted by various causes.
 A great number of phenomena show us, that both In
 the sound state and the diseased, nature  has a ten-
 dency  to  observe certain periods;  for instance, the
 vicissitudes of sleeping and watching occurring  with
 such regularity to every one; tlie accurate periods that
 the menstrual flux observes, and the exact time  of
 pregnancy in all viviparous animals, and many other
such instances that might be adduced, all  prove this
 law.
   With respect  to  diseases, every ono must  have
observed   the definite periods wbich  tako place  in
 regular intermittents, as well ihose universal as topical;
 in the course of true inflammation, which  at the fourth,
or at the  farthest the seventh day, is resolved, or after
thto period changes into either abscess, gangrene, or
scirrhus; in exanthematous eruptions, which, if they
are favourable and regular,  appear on a certain and
definite day;  for example, tbe  small-pox about the
fourth day.  All  these appear to be  founded on im-
mutable  laws, according to which the motions of the
body in health and in disease are governed.
  The days on which it is supposed the termination of
continued fevers principally happens, are the third,
fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth,
and twentieth.
  A simple  continued fever terminates  always by a
regular crisis in the manner before mentioned, or from
      300
 the febrile matter falling on some particular parte, It
 excites inflammation, abscess, eruption, or destroys the
 patient
   Great anxiety, loss of strength, intense heat, stupor,
 delirium, irregularity in the pulse, twitching* In the
 fingers and hands, picking at the bed-clothes, starting*
 of tbe tendoas, hiccoughs, involuntary evacuations
 by urine and stool, and such like symptoms, point out
 the certain approach of death.
   On the contrary, when the senses remain clear and
 distinct, the febrile heat abates, the skin  to soft and
 moist, the  pulse becomes moderate and is regular, and
 the urine deposites flaky crystals, we may then expect
 a speedy and happy termination of the disease.
   The usual appearances which are to be observed on
 dissection of those who die of this fever, are an effusion
 within the cranium,  and topical  affections perhaps of
 some viscera.
   This disease being of a mixed nature, the treatment
 must be modified accordingly.   In the beginning, the
 same plan is to be pursued as in synocha,  except that
 we must be more sparing in the use of the lancet, in
 proportion as there to less power in the system, to main-
 tain the increased action of the heart and arteries;
 although if any important part should be  much af-
 fected, we must act  more  vigorously,  to  prevent iu
 disorganization, and  the consequent destruction of life.
 When the  character of the disease is changed, the
 means proper will be such as are pointed out under the
 head of Typhus.
  SYNO'VIA.  (A term of  no radical  meaning,
 coined  by Paracelsus.)   An unctuous fluid secreted
 from certain glands in the joint in which it to contained.
 Its use is to lubricate the cartilaginous surfaces of the
 articulatory bones, and to facilitate their motions.
  SYNOVIAL.  Synovialis.  Of or belonging lo the
 synovia, or fluid of the joinu.
  Synovial  glands.  Glandula synoviales.   The
 assemblage of a fatty fimbriated structure within the
 cavities of some joinu.
  SYNTENO'SIS.   (From aw, with, and  rtvtav, a
 tendon.)  A species of articulation where the bones
 are connected together by tendons.
  Syntb'xis.  (From ovvrrrxta, to dissolve.)  A ma-
 rasmus or wasting of the body.
  SY'NTIIESIS.  (From  awTiOnut,  to  compose.)
 Combination.   See Analysis.
  Syntheti'smus.  (From ovvBtia, to concur.)  The
 reduction of a fracture.
  Synulo'tica.  (From owovXota, to cicatrize.)  Me-
 dicines which heal wounds.
  SY'PIIILIS.   (The name of a shepherd, who fed
 the flocks of king Alcithous, who, proud of their num-
 ber and beauty, insulted the sun; as a punishment for
 which,  fable relates,  that this disease wos sent on
 earth ;  or from oicfiXos, filthy.)  Lues venerea ; Morbus
gallicus;   Aphrodisius morbus;   Morbus  indicus;
 Morbus neapolitanus ; Patursa.   A genus of disease
in the  Class Cachexia, and Order  Impetigines, of
 Cullen. Towards the close of the memorable fifteenth
century, about the year 1494 or 1495, ihe inhabitants
of Europe were greatly alarmed  by the sudden ap-
 pearance of this disease.  The novelty of its symptoms,
and the wonderful rapidity with which il was  propa-
gated throughout every part of the known world, soon
mode it an important object of medical inquiry.
  In common language, it is said a person has syphilis
or to poxed, when the venereal poison has been re-
ceived into, or is diffused through the system, and there
produces iu peculiar effecu, as ulcers of the mouth or
fauces, spots, tetters, and  ulcers of the skin,  poins,
swelling, ond cories of the bones, &c.  But as long as
the effecu of the  poison are local and confined to or
 near the genitals, the disorder is not colled syphilis,
lues venerea, nor pox; but distinguished  by some  par-
 ticular  name, according to its different seat or appear-
 ance ; such as gonorrhoea venerea, chancre, or bubo.
  The venereal  disease is always produced by a poison.
 Concerning the nature of  this poison, we know no
 more than we do about thot of the small-pox or any
 other contagion; we know only that it produces pecu-
 liar effecu.  The smallest particle of thto poison  is
 sufficient to bring on  the most violent disorder over the
 whole  body.  It seems to spread  end  diffuse itself by
 o kind of fermentation and assimilation of matter;  and,
 like other  contagions, it requires some time after being
 applied to ihe  human body, before it produces  lhat. 
                      SYP

effect.  It is not known whether it has different de-
grees of acrimony and volatility, or  whether it  is
always the same in its nature, varying only with regard
to the particular part  to which it to applied, or ac-
cording to the different habit and constitution or par-
ticular idiosyncrasy of the person who receives the
infection. We know that mercury possesses a certain
and  specific power of destroying the venereal virus;
but we are quite uncertain whether it acte by a sedative,
adstringent,  or evacuant quality; or, which  is not un-
likely, by a chemical elective  attraction whereby both
substances uniting with one another are changed to a
third, which is no  more hurtful, but has some new
properties entirely distinct from those which any of
them had hefore they were  united.  The variolous
miasma, we  know, produces its effecu in about twenty
or twenty-four days after the infection to received from
the atmosphere, and eight or ten days if by inoculation,
but  the venereal virus  seems to keep no  particular
period.   At some times, and, perhaps, in  particular
persons, Dr. Swediaur has seen chancres arise in the
space of twelve hours, nay, in a still shorter  time,
indeed he mentions  in a few minutes, after an impure
coition; whereas in most cases, they make their ap-
pearance only in so many  days.   The generality of
men feel the  first symptoms of a clap between the
second and fifth days after an  impure coitus; but there
are instances where they do not appear till after as many
weeks or months.  Dr. S. was  consulted by a young
man, who was seized with a violent discharge from the
glans along with a phimosis, but without any chancres,
four weeks after coition ; and during all the interval,
he felt not the least symptom of the  disease.  Some
years ago, a gentleman went out  from London,  in
seemingly perfect health, to the East Indies; but on
hto arrival in that hot climate, after a voyage of four
months, a violent clap broke out before he went on
shore, though he could have  received no infection
during the voyage, as there was not a woman on board.
There are instances whicli render it probable that the
virus may lie four, five, or six weeks, and perhaps longer,
on the surface of the genitals  before it is  absorbed ;
and  were it  not then to produce a chancre, might pro-
bably not he absorbed at all.  We see daily examples,
where common women communicate the infection  to
different men in the space of several weeks, while they
themselves  have not the  least symptom of syphilis
local or universal, the poison lying  all  that time in the
vagina harmless, and generally without being absorbed.
How long the venereal virus may lurk in the body iuelf,
after it has been absorbed  into  the mass of blood,
before it produces any sensible  effect, is a matter  of
equal uncertainty.   There is scarcely a practitioner
who has not observed instances of iu remaining harm-
less  for weeks or even months in the body.  Dr. Swe-
diaur had a  case, where, after lying dormant for half a
year, it broke out with unequivocal symptoms.  But
the following instance, if it be depended upon, is still
more extraordinary:
   Some  years ago, says the above writer, I was con-
sulted by a gentleman about a sore throat, which I
declared to  be venereal.  My patient was astonished ;
and  assured me thot for nine years past he had not had
the  least venereal complaint, nor had he any reason to
believe he had since received any Infection; but that
he had been in the East Indies, where he was  affected
with a violent clap. On his return to Europe, being
to appearance in good health, he married, and conti-
nued perfectly free  of any such complaint ever since.
By  a  mercurial course, however, the complaint for
which  he applied  to me  was completely removed.
With regard to its effects, the venereal poison follows no
constant rule; for though, in  general, it affects first tlie
throat, where it produces  ulcerations,  in others  it
exerts ite virulence on the skin or bones.  While the
greatest part  of mankind are thus easily affected  by
this  poison,  there  are some  few who seem  to  be
altogether unsusceptible of the infection : as happens
equally with  the variolous contagion, though they go
into infected places, and expose themselves to inocula-
tion or every  hazard by which the disease is generally
 Communicated.
   Some persons are more liable than others to be  in-
 fected who are seemingly of  the same habit; nay, the
 rery same person seems to be more liable to be infected
 at one time than another, and those who  have  ber-n
once infected seem  to be more liable to catch the inlec
                     SYP

tion a second time, than those who never were infected
before with the  disease.   The  climate,  season, age,
state of health, idiosyncrasy, are, perhaps, as in other
diseases, the necessary predisposing  causes.   The
some difference is observable in the progress made by
the disease after the patient is infected.  In some the
progress is slow, and the disease appears scarcely to gain
any  ground ;  while in others it advances with the
utmost rapidity,  and speedily produces the most ter-
rible symptoms.  Whether the venereal poison can be
abso.bed into the system, wilhout a previous excoria-
tion, or ulceration of the genitals, or some other parts    (
of the surface of the body, is still a matter of doubt.
Several cases, however, have occurred which render it
highly probable, if not certain, thot the poison really is
now ond then absorbed, without any previous excori
ation or ulceration whatsoever, and thus produces
buboes and other venereal symptoms in the body.
  It  has been asserted by the earliest and even by some
late writers, that it may be caught by lying in the same
bed or living in the same room"witir or after an in-
fected person.  What may have been the case at the
commencement of the disease, cannot be said, but the
most accurate  observations and experimenu which
have been  made upon the  subject, do not confirm
this to be the case in our  times. Nor are nurses in-
fected iu the Lock-Hospital, where they live night and
day with patienu in all stages of the distemper.   The
fact  seems to be, that patienu in our times are apt to
impose upon themselves, or upon physicians and sur-
geons, with regard to thto  matter;  and  the  above
opinion easily gains ground among the vulgar,  espe-
cially in countries where people are  more influenced
by prejudices, superstition, servile situation in life, or
other circumstances.  Hence, we sometimes hear the
most ridiculous  accounu given  in those countries by
friars and common soldiers, of the manner by which
they came to this disorder; such as piles, gravel, colics,
contusions, fevers,  little-houses, lying in  suspected
beds, or lying in bed with a suspected person, retention
of the semen, coition with a woman in menstruation,
the use of cider, bad wine, or beer, Sec.
  Another question undecided is, whether the vene-
real  poison ever  infects any fluid of our  body, besides
those of the mucous and lymphatic system.  Does the
venereal poison in an  infected woman evet affect the
milk, and consequently can the infection be conveyed
to the infant by the milk alone, without  any venereal
ulcer on or about the nipples 1  It is equally a matter
of uncertainty whether the venereal disease is  ever
conveyed from an infected father or mother, by coition,.
to the fcetus, provided  their genitals are sound ; or
whether a child  is ever affected with venereal  symp-
toms in the uterus of an infected  mother.  Such in-
fected infants as came  under the observation of Dr.
Swediaur, or of his friends,  whose practice afforded
them frequent opportunities of seeing new-bom infanU,.
seemed rather to militate against the opinion. Neither
he nor ony of them, hove ever been able to observe
ulcerations or other symptoms of a venereal kind upon
newborn children ; and such as make iheir appearance
four, six, or eight,  or more days  afterword, on the
genitals, anus,  lips, mouth, &x, may rather be sup
posed to arise by infection during the passage from
ulcers in the vagina  of the mother, the skin of the
infant being then nearly in a3 tender a state as the glans
penis, or the labia;  and this perhaps at the time when
an absorption of the venereal poison might more easily
take place without a previous excoriotion, or ulceration
of the skin.  All the ways, therefore, by which we
see,  in our days, the venereal poison communicated
from an unhealthy to a healthy person, may be reduced
to the following heads:
   1. By the coition of a healthy person with another
who is infected with venereal disease of the genitals.
  2. By the coition of a healthy person with another,
apparently healthy, in whose genitals the poison lies'
concealed, without having  yet  produced  any bad
symptom. Thus, a woman who has perhaps received
the infection from a man two or three days before, may
during that time infect, and often does infect, the man
or men who hove to  do with her afterward, without
having any symptoms of the disease visible upon her-
self; and vice versd, a man may infect a woman in the
same manner.   Such instances occur in practice every
 day.
   3. By sucking ; in this  case the nipples of the we» 
SYP
SYP
 nurse may be Infected by venereal ulcers in the mouth
 of the child: or, tne* versd, the nipples of the nurse
 being infected, will occasion venereal ulcers in the
 child's nose, mouth, or lips.  It is uncertain, as men-
 tioned above, whether the  venereal poison  was ever
 propagated by means ofthe milk from  tlie breast
   4.  By exposing to the contact of venereal poison any
 part of the surface of the body, by kissing, touching,
 tec especially if the paru so exposed have been previ-
 ously excoriated, wounded, or ulcerated by any cause
 whatever.  In this manner we frequently see venereal
 ulcers arise in the  scrotum and  Hughs; and there are
 some well-attested instances where the infection look
 place in the fingers of midwives or surgeons.  Several
 instances are recorded of venereal ulcers in the nos-
 trils, eyelids, and lips of persons who had touched their
 o.wn genitals, or those of others, affected at the time
 with  local venereal complainU, and then rubbed their
 nostrito, etc. with the fingers, without previously wash-
 i ug the hands.  There was, o few years, ago i n London,
 a  melancholy exomplsjpof a young lady, who,  after
 having drawn a decayed tooth, and replaced it with
 one taken immediately from a  young woman appa-
rently in  perfect health, was soon after affected with
 an ulcer in the mouth.  The sore manifested symptoms
of o venereal nature; but such was iu obstinacy, that
it  resisted the most powerful mercurial remedies, ter-
 minating at last in a caries of the maxilla, with a most
shocking erosion of the mouth and face, by wliich the
 unhappy patient was destroyed.   During all this, how-
ever, we  are informed thai  not  the smallest venereal
symptom was perceived in the woman  from whom the
sound tooth was procured.
  5. By wounding  any part of the bbdy with a lancet
or knife infected with tlie venereal virus.  In this in-
stance there to a similarity between the  venereal poison
and that of the small-pox.  There are several exom-
 files  of the latter befog produced by bleeding with a
 ancet which had  been  previously employed  for the
purpose of inoculation, or of opening variolous pustules,
Without being properly cleaned afterward.   In  Mo-
ravia, in  the year 1S77, a number of persons who as-
sembled in a house  for bathing, had  themselves, ac-
cording to the custom of that time, scarified by the
 barber, were all of them Infected with the venereal
disease, and treated accordingly.  Krato, the physi-
cian,  and Jordan, who gave a description of this dis-
temper, are boih of opinion that  it was communicated
by means of the  scarifying instrument  And  Van
Swieten relates several instances where  the lues was
communicated by  a similar carelessness in cleaning
the instrument used in bleeding or scarification.
  The venereal poison applied to the urethra and va-
gina produce a clap.  See Gonorrhaa. Coining into
contact with other parts, It produces a chancre or bubo
and constitutional symptoms.  Chancre is the primary
and immediate consequence of inoculation with true
venereal  motter in  any of the ways which have been
mentioned, and may arise in any part  of the human
body: but it generally shows iuelf in the  pudenda,
because the infecting medium to there first taken up in
the one sex, and communicated by contact to the other.
It to not, however, peculiar to these paru, for whenever
the same kind of fluid to applied lo a scratch on the
hand, finger, lip, or nipple, the some consequence will
follow.  There con be no doubt but that the slightest
abrasion possible, or breach of the cuticle, is sufficient
to  give a  speedy admission to this destructive poison.
A  chancre mokes iu appearance with a slight inflam-
mation wbich afterward  ulcerates, or there arises a
■mall pimple or pustule filled with a transparent fluid,
which soon breaks and forms into a spreading ulcer.
The period at wbich it makes iu appearance after in-
fection to very various, being most commonly in five or
six days, but in some cases not till after the expiration
of as  many weeks.   There is both a local and general
predisposition to chancres: Jews and Mahommedans,
from the constant exposure of tbe glans and loss of the
prepuce, have the cuticle of the glans  penis  of much
firmer texture than those who have not been circum-
cised ; and they are, from thto circumstance, much less
subject to chancres  than the rest of mankind.   For the
same  reason they who, from the shortness of the pre-
puce,  generally keep the glans uncovered, are not so
liable to the diseases as those who have long narrow
prepotia; for persons thus formed constantly keep the
surface of the glans and prepuce moist and tender.
      339
 and almost at every cohabitation arc liable to abrasions
 and to excoriations.
   There is an intermediate stole  of the venereal dis-
 eose between a local and constitutional affection, which
 arises from the absorption of  venereal  matter from
 some surface to which il hos been applied.  The glonds
 situated nearest the ports thus affected are opl to tm
 come swelled  and Inflamed, so as to give rise to what
 is termed bubo; ond  the parte of generation  usually
 coming first in contact wilh the matter, so the glonds
 in the groin generally afford this particular symptom.
 In most cases  the venereal virus  is absorbed  from a
 chancre or an ulcer In the urethra; but instances have
 occurred where a bubo bas arisen without either go
 norrhcea or any kind of ulceration, and where the mat-
 ter appears to have been absorbed, without any erosion
 of the skin or mucous membrane.
   A bubo comes on with pain in  the  groin accompa-
 nied with some degree of hardness aud swelling, and
 is at first about the size of a kidney bean, but continu-
 ing to increase, it at length becomes as large as an egg,
 occasions the person  to experience some difficulty in
 walking, and is attended wilh a pulsation and throb-
 bing in the  tumour, and a great redness of the skin.
 Iu some coses the suppuration is quickly completed, in
 others it goes on very slow, and in others again the in-
 flammatory appearances go off without uny formation
 of pus.  Ln a few instances the glans have been known
 to become  scirrhous.  The following  are the charac-
 teristics of a venereal bubo.  The  swelling is usually
 confined to one gland, the colour of the skin where in
 flammation prevails is of a florid red, the pain is very
 acute, the progress from inflammation to  suppuration
 and ulceration is generally very rapid, the suppu ration to
 large in proportion to the size ot the gland, and there
 is only one abscess.
   A bubo is never attended with danger, where the in-
 flamed gland proceeds on regularly to suppuration, but
 in particular cases it acquires an indolence after coming
 to a certain length, arising from a scrofulous taint, or
 by being combined with erysipelas it terminates in
 gangrene, and  occasions a great  loss of substance.
 This termination to, however, more frequently met with
 in hospitals than in private practice, and may partly be
 attributed to the contaminated state of the air of tbe
 wards wherein venereal patients are lodged.
  A constitutional  taint is the third form under which
 it has been mentioned, that the venereal poison is apt
 to show iuelf, ond which always arises in consequence
 of the matter being absorbed and carried into the circu-
 lating mass of fluids.  The absorption  of it may, how-
 ever, take place in three ways:
  1st, It may be carried into the circulation, without
 producing any evident local effect on the port to which
 it was first applied.
  2dly, It may take place in consequence of some local
 affection, such as either gonorrhoea, chancre, or bubo.
 And,
  3dly, It may ensue from an application of tbe matter
 toacommon sore or wound, similar to what happens in
 inoculating for the small-pox.
  The most general way, however, in wbich a consti-
 tutional taint to produced, is by an absorption  of the
matter, either from a chancre or a bubo.
  When venereal matter gets  into the system, some
symptoms of it moy often be observed in the course of
six or eight weeks,  or probobly sooner; but in some
coses, it will continue in the circulating moss of fluids
for many months before any visible signs of iu effects
 are produced.  The system being completely contami-
nated, it then occasions many local effecu in different
parte of tbe body, and shows itself  under a variety of
forms, many of which put on the appearance of a dis-
tinct disease.  We may presume that thto variety de-
pends wholly on the  difference of constitution, the
different kind of pans affected, and tlie different state
these paru were in at the time the matter or poison was
 applied.
  The first symptoms usually show themselves on the
skin and in  the  mouth or throat  When  on die skin,
reddish and brownish spoU appear here and there on
the surface, and eruptions of a copper  colour are dis-
persed over different paru of the body, on the top of
wbich there soon forms a thick scurf or scale.  This
scurf falls off after a short time, and is succeeded by
another, and the same happening several times, and at
length casting off deep scabs, an ulcer is formed which 
SYR
SYR
discharges an acrid fcetid matter.  When the matter is
secreted in the glands of the throat and mouth, the
tongue will often be affected so  as to occasion a thick-
ness of speech, and the  tonsils, palate, and uvula will
become ulcerated so as to produce a soreness and diffi-
culty of swallowing, and likewise a hoarseness in the
voice.  In a venereal ulcer of the tonsil, a portion of it
seems as if it was  dug out; it is, moreover, very foul,
and has a thick, white matter adhering to it, which
cannot be washed off.   By these characteristic marks
it may, in generol, readily be distinguished from any
other species of ulceration in these paru.
   If the disease affects the eyes, obstinate inflamma-
tion, and sometimes ulceration, will also attack these
organs.
   The matter sometimes falls on deep-seated parU,
such as the tendons, ligamenU, and periosteum, and
occasions  hard, painful  swellings  to arise, known by
the name  of nodes.
   When the disease is suffered to take its own course,
and not counteracted by  proper remedies, the patient
will, in the  course of time, be  afflicted with severe
pains, but more particularly In the  night-time; his
countenance will become sallow, his hair will fall off,
he will lose his appetite, strength, and flesh, his rest
will be much disturbed by night, and a small fever of
the hectic  kind will arise. The ulcers in the mouth and
throat being  likewise suffered to spread, and to occa-
sion a caries of the bones of the palate, an opening will
be mode from the mouth of the nose; ond the carti-
lages and bones of the  nose being at  length corroded
away, this will  sink on  a  level with the face.  Some
constitutions will  bear up for a  considerable time
against the disease, while others again will soon sink
under a general weakness and  irritation produced by
it  If the disorder is recent, and  the  constitution not
impaired by other  diseases, a perfect cure  may easily
be affected; but where it  is  of long standing, and ac-
companied with the symptoms of irritation which have
been mentioned, the cure will prove  tedious, and in
many cases uncertain, as the constitution and strength
of the patient may not  admit of his going through a
couise of  medicine sufficient to destroy the poison ; or
his health may be in such  a state,  as that only a very
small quantity of mercury can be administered even at
considerable intervals.
  The general appearances to be observed on dissec-
tion of those who die of lues, are,  caries of the bones,
but more particularly those of the cranium, often com-
municating ulceration to the broin iuelf, together with
enlorgemenU and indurations of the lymphatic glands,
scirrhus of  several of  the  organs, particularly  the
liver and lungs, and exostoses of many of the hardest
bones.
  Syphilis indica. The yaws.
  Syphilis polonica.   A variety of venereal disease.
  Syri* oleum.   A  fragrant essential oil, obtained
by distilling the canary;balsam-plant, or moldavica.
  Syrian herb mastich.   See  Teucrium marum.
  SYRI'GMUS.  See Paracusis.
  SYRl'NGA.  (From ovptyl, a pipe: so called be-
cause from  iu branches  pipes were  made after the
removal of the pith.)   The pipe-tree.
  SYRI'NGMOS.  See Paracusis.
  Syringo'tomum.  (From  ovpiyl,  a  fistula, and
rtpvia, to cut)  An instrument to cut fistulas.
  SY'RINX. (A Hebrew word.)  A pipe.  A syringe.
A fistula.
  Syrmai'smus.  (From ovppatt/to, to evacuate.)  A
gentle evacuation by vomit or stool.
  SYRUP.  See Sympus.
  Syrup of ginger.  See Syrupus zingiberis^
  Syrup of lemon.  See Syrupus limonum.
  Syrup of marsh-mallows.  See Syrupus allhea.
  Syrup of mulberry.   See Syrupus mori.
  Syrup of orange.  See Syrupus aurantii.
  Syrup of poppy.  See Syrupus papaveris.
  Syrup of red poppy.   See Syrupus rhaados.
  Syrup of roses.  See Syrupus rosa.
  Syrup of saffron.  See Syrupus croci.
  Syrup of senna.  See Syrupus senna.
  Syrup of Tolu.   See Syrupus lolutanus.
  SYRUPUS. (Serai, a potion, Arabian.)  The name
syrup is given to sugar dissolved in water; and in the
present pharmacopoeia thto is termed simple syrup. See
Syrupus simplex.
  Syrups are generally made with the juice of vegeta-
bles or fruits, or by adding vegetable extracts or otbet
substances.  To keep syrups without fermenting, It il
necessary that  their  temperature should be attended
to, and kept as near 55° os possible.   A good cellar will
answer this  purpose, for there  ore  few summers in
which the temperature of such a place rises to 60°.
  Syrupus ackti.   Sugar and vinegar.  A refrige-
rating syrup. See Oxymel.
  Syrupus althkje.  Syrup of marsh-mallow.   Sy-
rupus  ex  althaa.   Syrupus de  althaa.  Take of tlie
fresh  root of  marsh-mallow, bruised, half a pound;
refined sugar, two pounds; water, a gallon. Boil down
the water with the  marsh-mallow-root  to half, and
press out the liquor when cold.   Set it by for 24 hours,
that the feculencies moy subside;  then  pour off the
liquor, ond having added the sugor, boil il down to a
proper consistence.  An emollient  and  demulcent;
mostly given to alloy tickling coughs, hoarseness, &c.
in conjunction with other remedies.
  Syrupus aurantii.   Syrup of orange.  Syrupus
cortids aurantii.   Syrupus e corticibus aurantiorum.
Syrupus de cortice aurantiorum. Takeof fresh orange-
peel, two ounces; boiling water, a pint;  refined sugar,
three pounds.   Macerate the orange-peel in the water
for 12 hours in a covered vessel; then pour off the
liquor, and add tlie sugar.  A pleasant bitter and sto-
machic.
  Syrupus caryophylli rubri.  A warm  and sti-
mulating syrup.
  Syrupus  colchici.   An acrid and  diuretic com-
pound given in dropsies.
  Syrupus  corticis aurantii.  See  Syrupus  au-
rantii.
  Syrupus  croci.  Syrup of saffron.  Take of saf-
fron, an ounce; boiling water, a pound; refined sugar,
two pounds and a half  Macerate the saffron in tbe
water for 12 hours in a covered vessel, then strain the
liquor, and add the sugar.  Thto imparts a  beautiful
colour to liquids, and is sometimes employed as a cor-
dial." Among the vulgar, syrup of saffron to in  high
esteem in measles, small-pox, &c.
  Syrupus  limonum.   Syrup  of lemon.  Syrupus
sued limonis.  Syrupus e succo limonum. Syrupus e
succo citrorum.  Take of lemon-juice, strained, a pint;
refined sugar, two pounds.  Dissolve the sugar in tbe
lemon-juice in the manner directed  for  simple syrup.
A very pleasant, cooling, and<acid syrup which may be
exhibited with advantage, in febrile  and bilious affec-
tions.
  Syrupus  mori.   Syrup of  mulberry.   Syrupus
mororum.   Takeof mulberry-juice,strained, a  pint;
refined sugar, two pounds.  Dissolve the sugor in the
mulberry-juice  in tbe   manner directed  for simple
syrup.  Syrup of  mulberries is very  grateful and ape-
rient, and may be given with such  intentions to chil-
dren,
  Syrupus papavkris.  Syrupus papaveris albi.  Sy-
rupus e mcconio.  Syrupus de meconio, sivediacodium.
Take of capsules  of white poppy, dried ond  bruised,
the seeds being separated, 14 ounces;  refined sugar,
two pounds; boiling  water,  two gallons  and a  half.
Macerate  the capsules in the water for 24 hours, then
boil it down by means of a  water-bath to one gallon,
and press out the liquor strongly.  Boil down the liquor
again, after  being strained, to two pints, and strain it
while hot.  Set it by for 12 hours, that the feculencies-
may subside: then boil  down the clear liquor to a pint,
and add the sugar in the manner directed for simple
syrup.  It should  be kept in stone botlles, and in a cel-
lar.  A useful  anodyne  preparation, which  may  be
added  with advantage  to a vast variety of medicines
against diseases of the bowels, coughs, &c.
  Syrupus papaveris  brratici.  See  Syrupus  rhor-
ados.
  Syrupus rbamni.  Syrup of  buckthorn.  Take of
the fresh juice of buckthorn-berries, four pints; ginger-
root, sliced, allspice, powdered, of each half an ounce;
refined sugor, three  pounds ond a half.  Set by the
juice for three days, that the feculencies may subside,
and strain.  To a  pint of the clear juice add the ginger
and allspice; then macerate in a gentle heat four hours,
and strain; boil dow n what remains  to one pint and a*
half, mix  the liquors  and add the sugar in the manner
directed for simple syrup.
  This preparation, in doses of three  or four spoonfuls,
operates as a brisk cathartic.  The principal inconve-
nience attending  it to, that it is very unpleasant, and 
TAB                                            fAL
occasions a thirst and dryness of the mouth and fauces,
and sometimes violent gripes.  These effecu may be
prevented by drinking liberally of water-gruel, or other
worm liquids, during tbe operation.
  Syrupus rikeados.   Syrupus papaveris erratid.
Syrupus de papavere erralico.   Syrup of red-poppy.
Take of red-poppy  petals, fresh, a pound; boiling
Water, o pint ond two fluid ounces; refined sugar, two
pounds  ond a half.  Having heated  the water in o
water-bath, add  gradually the red-poppy petals, fre-
quently  stirring them ; then hoving removed the vessel,
macerate for twelve  hours; next press out the liquor,
and set it by to settle; lastly, add the sugor as directed
for simple syrup.  Thto is a very  mild  anodyne, ond
used more for the colour, thon for ite medical pro-
perties.
  Syrupus ribis  nigri.   Syrup  of black  currants.
Aperient and diuretic qualities are attributed to thto
preparation.
  Syrupus ros.f. Syrup of roses. Syrupus rosarum
solutivus. Syrupus erosissiccis. Take of damask-rose
petals, dried, seven ounces ; refined sugar,six pounds;
boiling water, four pints. Macerate the rose-pelals in the
water for twelve hours, and strain ; then evaporate the
strained liquor, by means of a water-bath, to two pinu
and a half; then add  the sugar in the manner described
for simple syrup.  A  useful laxative  for children.
From 3j. to Jss.
  Syrupus rubi id*i.  Syrup of raspberry.  A plea-
sant aperient syrup for children.
  Syrupus scilliticus.   Expectorant and diuretic.
See Oxymel scilla.
  Syrupus sennj;.   Syrupof senna.  Take of senna-
leaves, two ounces; fennel-seed, bruised, an ounce;
manna, three ounces; refined sugar, a pound ; water,
boiling, a pint  Macerate the senna-leaves and fennel-
seeds  in the water  for an hour, wilh a gentle  heat;
strain the liquor, and  mix with  it the  manna and su-
gar ; then boil to  the proper consistence.   A useful
purgative for children.
  Syrupus simplex.  Syrupus.  Simple syrup.  Take
of refined sugar, two pounds and a half;  water, a pint.
Dissolve the sugar in the water in a water-bath, then
set ii aside for twenty-four hours;  take off the scum ;
and if  there be any  feculencies, pour off the clttvt
liquor from them.
  Syrupus toluntanus.  Syrup of Tolu.  Take of
balsam of Tolu, an ounce; water, boiling, a pint;  re-
fined sugar, two pounds.  Boil ihe balsam in the woter
half an  hour in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring
it;  strain the liquor when it  to cold,  nnd then add the
sugar in the manner directed for simple syrup.  A use-
ful  balsamic syrup, calculated to alloy tickling coughs
ond hoarsenesses.
  Syrupus viols?.   A pleasant laxative for young
children.
  Syrupus zinsIbbris.  Syrup of  ginger.  Take of
ginger-root, sliced, two ounces ; water, boiling, a pint;
refined sugar, two pounds.   Macerate the ginger-root
in the water  for twenty-four hours, ond strain; then
odd the sugar in the manner directed for simple syrup.
A carminative and stomachic syrup.  Dose from one
Co three  drachms.
  SYSPASIA.   (From ovorraia, contraho, convello.)
The name of a genus of diseases In Good's Nosology.
Class, Neurotica; Order,  Systatica.  Comatose spasm.
It has three species, viz. Syspasia convulsio, hysteria,
epilepsia.
  SYSSARCO'SIS.  (From  ovv, and aapl,  flesh.)  A
species of union of bones, in which one bone is united
to another by means  of  an  intervening muscle.   In
this manner the os hyoides is connected with the ster-
num and other parts.
  SYSTATICA.  (From ovvtornpt, congrcdior, con-
socio.)   The  name  of an order  of diseases in Class
Neurotica, of Good's  Nosology.  Diseases affecting
several,  or all the sensorial powers simultaneously.   Iu
genera  are, Agrypnia, Dysphonia, Antipathia,  Ce-
phalaa,  Dinus, Syncope, Syspasia, Caries.
  System, absorbent.  See Absorbents and Lymphatics
  System, genital.  The parU of generation.
  System, nervous.  See Nerve.
  System of plants.  See Plants.
  System, vascular.  The arteries and veins.
  SYSTOLE.  (From evs-eXXto, to contract)  The
contraction of the heart.
  SYSTREMMA.   (From  ovtrrpttbta, contorqueo, to
wind about, or twist.)   The cramp.
T
rji-BANDAGE.   A  bandage  so named  from ite
 •*• figure. It is principally used for supporting the dress-
ings, after the operation for fistula in ano,  in diseases
of the perineum, and those of the groins, onus, &c.
  TABA'CUM.   (From  Tobago,  the island from
whence it wos first brought.)  Tobacco.  See Nico-
tiana.
  TABASHEER.  The silica found  in  the  hollow
stem of the bamboo cane is so called.   Iu optical pro-
perties ore peculiar.
  TABE'LLA.  (Diminutive of tabula, a table.)  A
lozenge.
  TA'BES.  (Tabes, is, f.; from tabesco,  to consume
or pine away.)  A wasting of the body. A genus of
disease in tbe Class, Cachexia; and Order, Marcores,
of Cullen; characterized by emaciation and weakness,
altended with hectic fever, but without any cough  or
spitting, which last  symptoms  distinguish it from
phthisis.  It  has three species:  1. Tabes purulenta,
from an ulcerous discharge:  2.  Tabes  scrofulosa,
from a scrofulous habit:  3. Tabes venenata, from
poison.  See Atrophy.
  Tabes coxaria.  A wasting of the thigh and leg
from an abscess, or other cause' in the hip.
  Tabes dorsalis.  Lordosis.   A wasting  of the
body, attended at first With pain in the back or loins,
and afterward also in the neck and head, caused by a
too early or a too  frequent use of venery.  Dr. Cullen
makes it 8 variety of atrophia inanitorum. Hippocrates
calls it tabes ossis.
  Tabes ossis sacri.  See Tabes dorsalis.
  Tabes pulmonalis.  See Phthisis.
  Tabes renalis. A wasting away ofthe body from
an abscess of the kidney.
  TABULAR  SPAR.   Table spar.   Schaalstein of
      334
Werner.  Prismatic augite of Jartteeon.  A mineral
of a grayish white colour, found in primitive rocks at
Orawicza.
  TACAMAHACCA.   (Indian.)  See Fagara oc
tandra.
  TA'CTUS.  See Touch.
  TjE'DA.   (AaiSa;  from Sato, to burn ) A torch.  A
species of pine wliich burns like a torch   A medicated1
torch for fumigations.
  TAS'NIA.  (Tatvta, a Hebrew word, signifying a
fillet:  the name of a worm, from its  resemblance to a
fillet or tope.)  The tope-worm.   A genus of intestinal
worms; characterized by a long, flat; and jointed body.
See Worms.
  TAIL.  See Cauda.
  TALC.   See Talcum.
  TA'LCUM.  (From talk, German.)  Talc.  Of this
mineral, which is Jameson's sixth subspecies of rhom-'
boidal mica, there are two kinds.  1.  Common talc, of
a greenish-white colour, greasy feel, breaks into curved
plates or leaves, occurs in beds of mica slate, and clay
slate, in several  paru of Scotland. 2. Indurated talc,
or talc slate, of a greenish-gray colour, found'in Scot-
land, and abundantly on the Continent  It is used  by
carpenters,  tailors, hat makers, and glaziers for draw-
ing lines.
  Talc is composed of pure magnesia mixed with near
twice  iu weight of silex and  less than  iu weight of
olumine.  The greenish foliaceous Venice tolc was for-
merly used  medicinally, as possessing antacid and ape-
rient qualities.
  Tallow.  See Fat.
  TA'LPA.  (From  ru^Aoc,  blind.)    Tulparia.  A
mole.  Also, a tumour resembling a mole in eating, and!
creeping under the skin. 
TAN
TAR
  fA'LUS.  See Astragalus
  TALCITE.  Nacrite of Jameson.  Earthly talc of
Werner.  A  greenish-white, scaly mineral found in
the mining district of Freyberg.
  Tamalapa'tra.  The Indian leaf is so termed by
some authors.  See Laurus cassia.
  TAMARIND.  See Tamarindus.
  TAMARI'NDUS. (Tamarindus, i, m.;  fromtamar,
or tamarindi, which is, in the Arabion language, a sy-
nonyme of tiie dactylus or dote.)  1. The name of a
genus of plants.  Class, Monadelphia; Order, Trian-
dria.  The tamarind-tree.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the tamarind.  See
Tamarindus indica.
  Tamarindus indica.  The systematic name of the
tamarind-tree.  Oxyphanicon;  Siliqua arabica„• Ba-
lampulli; Tamaraa zecla; oxyphanicia; Acacia in-
dica.  The pulp of the tamarind, with the seeds, con-
nected together by  numerous  tough strings or fibres,
are brought to us freed from the outer shell, and com-
monly preserved in syrup.  According to Long, tama-
rinds are prepared  for exportation at Jamaica, in the
following manner: "The fruit or pods are gathered in
June, July, and August, when full ripe, which to known
by their fragility or easy breaking on small pressure
between the finger and thumb.  The  fruit taken out of
tlie pod, and cleared from the shelly fragmenu,  to
placed in layers in a cask, and boiling syrup, just before
it begins to granulate, is poured  in, till the cask to filled:
the syrup pervades  every part quite down to the bot-
tom, and, when cool, the cask is headed for sale." The
tamarind to employed as a laxative, and for abating
thirst or heat  in various inflammatory complainU, and
for correcting putrid disorders especially of a bilious kind,
in which the cathartic, antiseptic, and refrigerant qua-
'ities ofthe fruit have been found equally useful.  When
intended merely as a laxative, it may be of advantage
(Dr. Woodville observes,}  to join it with manna or
purgatives of a sweet kind, by which ite use to rendered
safer and more effectual.  Three drachms of the pulp
are usually sufficient to open the body, but to prove mo-
derately cathartic, one or two ounces are required.   It
is an ingredient in the confectio cassia, and confectio
senna.
  TAMARI'SCUS.   See Tamarix gallica.
  TA'MARIX.   (Tamarix,  icis,t.\  from  Tamarik,
abstersion, Heb.: named from its properties of cleans-
ing and purifying the blood.)   The name of a genus
of planu. Class, Pentandria;  Order, Digynia.  The
tamarisk-tree.
  Tamarix gallica.   The  systematic name  of the
tamarisk-tree.  Tamariscus.  Tamarisk.   The bark,
wood, and leaves of this tree, were formerly employed
medicinally, though seldom used at present   The for-
mer for ite aperient and corroborant virtues in obstruc-
tions of the liver;  the latter in icterus, haemoptysis,
and some affections of the skin.
  TAME-POISON.  See Asclepias vincetoxicum.
  TANACE'TUM.  (Tanacetum, i, n.; corrupted from
tanasia, athanasia, the old name for tansy.)  1. The
name  of a genus of planu in the Linnrean system.
Class,   Syngenesia ;  Order,   Polygamia  superflua.
Tansy.
  2.  The pharmacopoeial name  of the tansy.  See Ta-
nacetum vulgare.
  Tanacetum balsamita.  The systematic name of
i he officinal alecost  Balsamita mas; Balsamita ma-
jor;  Tanacetum  hortense; Costus  hortorum.  Cost-
mary, or alecost.  The plant which bears thto name in
the pharmacopoeias, is the  Tanacetum  balsamita;
foliis  ovatis, integris, serratis, of Linnams.  A fra-
grant smelling herb, somewhat like that of mint; for-
merly  esteemed as a corroborant, carminative, and
emmenagogue.
  Tanacetum hortense.   See Balsamita ma*.
  Tanacetum vulgare.  The systematic  name of
the common  tansy.  Tanasia; Athanasia; Parthe-
nium mas.  Tanacetum—foliis bipinnatis incicis ser-
ratis, of Linnasus.  The leaves and  flowers  of tansy
have a strong, not very disagreeable smell, and a bitter
somewhat aromatic taste. The virtues of tansy are tonic,
stomachic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, and resolvent.
It has been much used as a vermifuge; and testimo-
nies of its efficacy are given by many respectoble phy-
sicians. Not only the leaves, but the seeds have been
employed wilh this intention, aud substituted for those
of santonicum.  We are told  by  Dr. Clark, that in
Scotland tansy was found to be of great service In
various cases of gout; and Dr. Cullen. who afterward
was informed of the effect it had produced upon those
who had used the herb for this purpose, says, "I have
known several who have  taken it without any advan-
tage, and some others who reported that they had been
relieved from the frequency of their gout." Tansy is
also recommended  iu  the hysteria,  especially when
this disease is supposed to proceed from menstrual ob-
structions.
  This plant may be given in powder to the quantity
of a drachm or more for a dose; but  it has been more
commonly taken in infusion, or drank in tea.
  TANA'SIA.  See Tanacetum.
  TANNIN.  This, which to one of the immediate
principles of vegetables, was first distinguished by Se-
guin from the gallic acid, wilh which  it had been con-
founded under the  name  of the astringent principle.
He  gave it the  name of tannin, from its use in the tan
ning of leather; which it effecu by  its characteristic
property, that of forming with gelatin a tough insoluble
matter.
  It may be obtained from vegetables by macerating
them in cold water; and precipitated from thto solution,
which  contains likewise gallic acid and extractive mat-
ter, by  hyperoxygenized muriate of tin.  From thto pre-
cipitate, immediately diffused in a large quantity of
water, the oxide of tin moy be separated by sulphuret"
ted hydrogen gas, leaving the tannin in solution.
  Professor Proust has since recommended another me-
thod, the precipitation of a decoction  of galls by pow-
dered carbonate of potassa, washing well the greenish-
gray flakes that fall down with cold water, and drying
them in a stove.  The precipitate grows brown in the
oir, becomes brittle and  shining like a resin, and yet
remains soluble in hot water.  The tannin in this state,
he says, is very pure.
  Sir H. Davy, after making several experiments on
different methods of ascertaining the quantity of tannin
in astringent infusions, prefers for thto purpose the com-
mon process of precipitating the tannin by gelatin;  but
he  remarks, that   tiie tannin of different vegetables
requires different proportions of gelatin for its satura-
tion ; and that the quantity of precipitate obtained is
influenced by the degree in which the solutions are con
centroted.
  Chenevix observed, that coffee-berries  acquired by
roasting  the property of precipitating gelatin; and
Hatchett has made a number of experiments, which
show that an artificial tannin, or substance having iu
chief property, may be formed, by treating with nitric
acid matters containing charcoal.  It is remarkable that
this tannin, when prepared from vegetable substances,
as dry  charcoal of  wood, yields, on combustion, pro-
ducte analagous to those of animal matters. From his
experimenu it would seem, that tannin to, in reality,
carbonaceous matter combined with  oxygen;  and  the
difference in the proportion of oxygen moy occasion the
differences  in the tannin procured from different sub-
stances, that from catechu appearing to contain most.
  Bouillon Lagrange asserts, that tannin, by absorbing
oxygen, to converted into gallic acid.
  It is not an unfrequent practice, to administer medi-
cines containing tannin in cases of debility, and at the
same time  to prescribe  gelatinous food ob nutritious.
But this  is  evidently improper, as the tannin, from
iu chemical properties, must render  the  gelatin indi-
gestible.
  TANSY.  See Tanacetum.
  Tansy, wild.  See Potentilla.
  TANTALUM.   The metal, on account of which to
given under the article columbic acid.  See Columbia
acid and Columbium.
  TAPE-WORM.  See Tania.
  TAPIOCA.  See Jatropha manihot.
  TAPPING.  See Paracentesis.
  Ta'psus barbatus.   See Verbascum.
  TAR.  See Pinus sylvestris.
  Tar, Barbadoes.  See Petroleum barbadense.
  Tar-water.  A once celebrated remedy, but now
neglected more than it deserves.  It is made by infusing
tar  in water, stirring it  from time to time, and lastly
pouring off the clear liquor now impregnated with tbe
colour  and  virtues  of the tar.   It is drunk in many
chronic affections, particularly ofthe lungs.
  TARANTI'SMUS.  (From tarantula, the animal,
the  bite of which is supposed to be cured only by music.) 
TAR
TAR
 The desire of dancing which is produced by the bite of
 the tarantula.
  TARANTULA.  (From Toronto, a city In Naples
 where they abound.) A kind of venomous spider, whose
 bite is said to be cured by music.
  TARA'X ACUM.  (From rapaeem, to alter or change:
 because  it alters the state of the blood.)  See Leon-
 todon.
  TARA'XIS.  (From rapaoota, to disturb.)   A slight
 inflammation ofthe eye.
  Ta'rchon sylvestris.  See Achillea ptarmica.
  TARE.  See Ervum,
  TARRAS.  Terras.  A volcanic earth, used  as  a
 cement
  Tarsi extensor  minor.  See Plantaris.
  TARSUS.  Tapo-oc.  1.  The instep, or that part of
 the foot which is between the leg and metatarsus: it is
 composed of seven bones, viz. the astragalus, os calcis,
 os naviculare, os cuboides, and three osso cuneiformio.
  2. The thin cartilage situated at the edges of the eye-
 lids to preserve their firmness and shape.
  TARTAR.  See Tartarum.
  Tartar cream of.   The popular  name of the pulve-
 rized supertartrate of potassa.
  Tartar, emetic.  See Antimonium tartarizatum.
  Tartar, oil of.  See Potassa subcarbonatis liquor.
  Tartar, regenerated.  See Potassa acetas.
  Tartar, salt of.  See Potassa subcarbonas.
  Tartar, soluble.  See Potassa tartras.
  Tartar, spirit of.  If the crystals of tartar be dis-
tilled by  a strong heat, without any additional body,
they furnish an empyreumatic acid, called the pyrotar-
tareous acid, or spirit of tartar, and a very fcetid empy-
reumatic on.
  Tartar, vitriolated. See Potassa sulphas.
  TARTARIC ACID. Acidum tartaricum; Sal essen-
 tiale tartari ; Acidum tartari essentiale.   Tartareous
acid.  " The  casks in which some kinds of wine are
 kept become incrusted with a  hard  substance, tinged
with the  colouring matter of the wine, and otherwise
 impure, which has long been  known by the name of
 argal. or tartar, ond distinguished into  red and white
 according to Us colour. This being purified  by solution,
 filtration, and crystallization, was termed cream, or crys-
 tals of tartar.  It was afterward discovered, that it con-
 sisted of o peculiar acid combined with potassa; and the
supposition thot it was formed during the fomentotion of
 the wine, wos disproved by Boerhaave, Neuman, ond
 others, who showed that it existed ready formed in the
juice of the grape.  It has likewise been found in other
fruits, particularly before they are  too ripe ; and in the
 tamarind, sumac, balm, carduus  benedictus,  and the
 roou of restharrow, germander, and sage.   The sepa-
 ration of tartaric acid from this acidulous salt, is the
 first discovery of Scheele that to known.  He saturated
 the superfluous acid, by adding chalk to o solution of
 the supertartrate in boiling water ob long as any effer-
 vescence ensued, and expelled tbe acid from the pre-
 cipitated tartrate  of lime by means  of  the sulphuric.
 Or four  parts of tartar may be boiled in tweuty or
 twenty-four of water, and one part of sulphuric  acid
 added gradually.  By continuing the boiling,  the sul-
 phate of potassa will fall down.  When the liquor to
 reduced to one-half, it is to be filtered; and  if any more
 sulphate  be deposited by continuing the boiling, the fil-
 tering must  be  repeated.  When  no more to thrown
 down, the liquor is to be evaporated to the consistence
 of a syrup; and thus crystals of tartaric acid,  equal to
 half the  weight of the  tartar employed,  will be ob-
 tained.
  The tartaric acid may be procured in needly or lami-
 nated crystals, by evaporating a solution of it.  Iu taste
 to very ocid and  agreeable, so  that it may supply the
 place of lemon-juice. It is very soluble in water. Burnt
 in an open fire, it leaves a coaly residuum; in close
 vessels it gives out carbonic acid and carburetted hy-
 drogen gas.   By distilling nitric acid off the crystals,
 they may be converted into oxolic ocid, and the nitric
 acid passes to tbe stale of nitrous.
  To  extract the whole acid from tartar, Thenard re-
 commends, after saturating the redundant acid  with
 chalk, to odd muriate of lime to the supernatant neutral
 tartrate,  by which means it to completely decomposed.
 The insoluble tartrate of lime being washed with abun-
 dance of water,  to then to be treated with three-fifths
 of iu weight of strong sulphuric acid, diluted previously
 with five paru of water.  But Fourcroy's process, as
      33d
 improved  by Vauquelin, serins still better.  Tartar Is
 treated with quicklime  and boiling water in the pro
 portion, by the theory of equivalents, of 10U of tartar to
 30 of dry lime, or 40 of the slaked.  A caustic magma
 to obtained, whicli must be evaporated to dryness, and
 gently heated.  On digesting this in woter, a solution
 of caustic  potassa  is obtained, while tartrate  of lime
 remains; from which the acid may be separated by Uie
 equivalent quantity of oil of vitriol.
  According to  Berzelius, tartaric acid to a compound
 of 3.807 hydrogen +  35.980 carbon + 80.213 oxygen
 = 100; to  wliich result he shows that of Gay Lussac
 and  Thenard to correspond, when ollowonce to made
 for a certain portion of water, wliich they had omitted
 to estimate.  The anolysto of tartrate of lead,  gives
 8.384 tor the acid prime  equivalent; and it may be
 made up of 3 hydrogen = 0.37S     4.48
            4 carbon   = 3.000    35.82
            5 oxygen   = 5.000    59.70

                         8.375   100.00

 The crystallized acid  is a compound of 8.375 acid +
 1.125 water = 9.5;  or, in 100 paru, 88.15-ecid +11.85
 water.
  The tartrates, in their decomposition by fire, comport
 themselves like  oil the other vegetable salts, except
 that  those with excess of acid  yield the smell of  cara-
 mel  when  heated, ond afford a certain quantity of the
 pyrotartoric acid.   All the soluble  neutral  tartrates
 form, with  tartaric acid, bitortrates of sparing solubili-
 ty ; while all the insoluble tartrates may be dissolved
 in an excessof their acid.  Hence, by pouring gradually
 an excess of acid into barytes, strontites, and  lime wa-
 ters,  the precipitates formed at first cannot fail to dis-
 appear ; while those obtained by an excess ofthe  same
 scid, added to concentrated solutions of potassa,  soda,
 or ammonia, and the neutral tartrates of these bases, as
 well  asof magnesia and copper, must be permanent The
 first  are always flocculent; the second always crystal-
 line ; that of copper alone is in a greenish-white  pow-
 der.  It likewise follows, that  the greater number of
 acids ought to disturb the solutions of the alkaline neu-
tral  tartrates, because they transform these salts into
bitartrates; and, on the contrary, ihey ought to affect
the solution of the neutral insoluble tartrates, wliich
 indeed  always happens, unless the acid cannot dissolve
 the base of the tartrate.  The order of apparent affini-
 ties of tartaric acid are, lime, barytes, strontites, potassa,
 soda, ammonia, and magnesia.
  The  tartrates  of potassa, soda, and ammonia are
 not  only susceptible of combining together, but also
 with the other tartrates, so as to form double, or triple
 salts.  We may thus easily conceive why the tartrates
 of potassa, soda, and  ammonia do not disturb the so-
 lutions  of  iron and manganese; and, on the other
 hand, disturb the solutions of the salts of barytes,
 strontites, lime, and lead.   In the first cose, double salts
 ore formed, however smoll a quantity of tartrate shall
 have been  employed;  in the second, no double salt is
 formed, unless the  tartrate be added in  very  great
 excess.
  The  tartrates of lime and barytes are white, pulve-
 rulent, and insoluble.
  Tartrate of strontian, formed by the double decom-
 position of muriate of strontian and tartrate of po-
 lassa, according to Vauquelin, is soluble, crystalliza-
 ble,  and consisu of 52.88 strontian, and 47.12 acid.
  That of  magnesia  forms a gelatinous  or  gummy
 mass.
  Tartrate of potassa, tartarized kali, and vegetable
 salt, of some, formerly called  soluble tartar,  because
 much  more so than the supertartrate, crystallizes in
 oblong squares,  bevelled at the extremities.  It has a
 bitterish taste, and is  decomposed by heat,  as iu  solu-
 tion  is even  by standing some time.  It is used as a
 mild purgative.
  The supertartrate of potassa is much used as a cool
 ing and gently opening medicine, as well as In several
 chemical and pharmaceutical preparations.  Dissolved
 in water, with  the addition  of a little sugar, and  a
 slice or two of lemon-peel, it forms an agreeable cool-
 ing drink, by the name of imperial: and if an infusion
 of green balm be used, instead of water, it makes one
 of.the  pleasantest liquors of the kind with which we
 are acquainted.   Mixed with an equal weight of nitre,
 and  projected into a red-hot crucible, it detonates, and 
TAR                                            TAS
forms tlie white flux; treated in the same way, with . hs acid base.)  A tartrate, or salt, formed by the com-
half its weight of nitre, it forms the black flux; aud
simply mixed  with  nitre in  various  proportions, it is
called raw flux.  It to likewise used in dying, in hat-
making, in gilding, and in other arts.
  The blanching of the crude tartar is aided by boiling
iu solution with one-twentieth of pipe-clay.
  According to the analysts of Berzelius, it consists of
70.45 acid -+- 24.8 potassa + 4.75 water = 100; or,
        2 primes acid,    = 16.75    70.30
        1        potassa, = 5.95    24.95
        1        water,  =  1.125    4.75

                            23.825  100.00

60 parts of water dissolve 4 of bitartrate, at a boiling
heal; and only 1 at  60°Fahr.  It is quite insoluble in
alkohol.
  By saturating the superfluous acid, in this supertar-
trate, with soda, a triple salt is formed, which crystal-
lizes in larger  regular prisms of eight nearly  equal
tides, of a bitter taste,  efflorescent, and soluble in
about five parte of water.  It  consists, according to
Vauquelin, of 54 paru tartrate of potassa and 46  tar-
trate of soda;  and was once in much repute  as a pur-
gative, by the name of Rochdle salt, or Sel de Seignette.
  The tartrate of soda to much less  soluble than this
triple salt, and crystallizes in slender needles or thin
plates.
  The tartrate of ammonia is  a very soluble,  bitter
Salt, arid crystallizes easily. IU solution is sponta-
neously decomposable.
  This too  forms, with tartrate of  potassa, a triple
salt, the solution of which yields, by cooling, fine pyra-
midal or prismatic efflorescent crystals.  Though both
the neutral salu that compose it are bitter, this  is not,
but  has a cooling taste.
  Take of the supertartrate of potassa, two pounds
and a half; three gallons of boiling-hot water;  one
pound of prepared chalk; one pound of sulphuric acid.
Boil the creom of tartar in  two gallons of the water,
and gradually throw in the chalk, until all efferves-
cence ceases; set the liquor aside, that the tartrate of
Ume may subside;  pour off the liquor, and  wash the
tartrate of lime repeatedly with distilled water, until it
to tasteless.   The  pour On it  the sulphuric acid, di-
luted with the remaining gallon of boiling water, and
set the whole aside for twenty-four hours,  stirring it
Well now and then.  Strain the liquor, and  evaporate
in  a water-bath until crystals form.  The virtues of
this acid are antiseptic, refrigerant, and diuretic.  It is
used in acute fevers, scurvy, and haemorrhage."— Ure's
Chem. Did.
  TARTARINE.  The name given by Kirwan to the
vegetable alkali.
  TA'RTARUM.  (Tartarum, i, n.; from rap/apos,
infernal: because it is the sediment or dregs.) Tartar.
1. The concretion which fixes to the inside of hogs-
heads containing wine. It is alloyed with  much ex-
tractive and colouring matter, from which it  is purified
by decoction with argillaceous  earths and subsequent
crystal!izotion.  By  this means it becomes  perfectly
white; and shoots out crystals of tartar, consisting of a
 peculiar  acid  called acid of tartar, imperfectly satu-
 rated with  potossa;  it to therefore  a supertartrate of
 that alkali, which, when powdered, to the cream of
 tartar of the shops.   Iu virtues are eccoprotic, diuretic,
 and refrigerant, and  it is exhibited in abdominal phys-
 conia, dropsy, inflammatory and bilious fevers, dyspep-
 sia from roncid or fat substances, bilious diarrhoea
 and colic, haemorrhoids and obstipation.
   2. A nome heretofore given to mony officinal prepa-
 rations,  containing the acid of tartar; but m conse-
 quence of recent changes in the chemical  nomencla-
 ture,  superseded by appellations more expressive of
 the respective compositions.
   3. The name of the concretion which so  frequently
 mcrusto the  teeth, and which is apparently phosphate
 Of lime.
   Ta'rtarum kmbtRum.  See Antimonium tartari-
 tatum.
   Tartarum  reqekeratum.   See Potassa  acetas.
   Tartarum solubilb.  See Potassa taikras.
   Tartarus  ammoni*.  See Tartras ammonia.
   Tartarus chalybbatus.   See Ferrum tartari-
 latum.
   TARTRAS.  (lartras, alls, m ; the tartaric being
                                        F f  f
binalion of tartaric acid with salifiable bases;  as tar-
trate of soda, potassa, Sec.
  Tartras ammoni.t:.  Alkali volatile tartarizatum,
of Bergman.  Sal ammoniacum tariareum;  Tartarus
ammonia.  A salt composed of tartaric acid and am-
monia ; its virtues are diaphoretic, diuretic, and deob-
struent  It is prescribed  in  fevers,  atonic exanthe-
mata, catarrh, arthritic and rheumatic  arthrodynia,
hysteric spasms, &c.
  TVrtras  potass*.  See Potassa tartras.
  Tartras  potass*  acibulus.  Cream of tartar.
See Potassa supertartras.
  Tartras  potass* acidulus ferratuS.  Globuli
martiales;  Tartarus chalybeatus ; Mars solubilis;
Ferrum potabile.  Iu virtues are  adstringent  It  is
principally used externally in the form  of  fomen-
tations or  bath  in  contusions,  distortions, ond lux
alions.
  Tartras potass* acidulus  stibiatus. See An-
timonium tartarizatum.
  Tartras sod*.   See Soda tartarizatd.
  TASTE.   Gustus.  " Savours are only the impres-
sion of certain bodies upon the organ of taste.  Bodies
Which produce it are colled sapid.
  It has been supposed that the degree of sapidity of a
body could be determined by that of its solubility; but
certain bodies, wliich are insoluble, have a  very strong
taste, while  other bodies  very soluble have scarcely
ony.  The sapidity appears to bear relation to the che-
mical nature of bodies, and to the  peculiar efforts
which they produce upon the animal ecohomy.
  Tastes are very numerous, and very variable. There
have been numerous endeavours made to class them,
though without complete success; they are better un-
derstood, however, than the odours, no doubtowing to
the  impressions received by the sense of taste being
less fugitive than those received by the smell.  Thus'
 we  ore  sufficiently understood, when we speak of a
 body having a taste that is bitter, add, sour, sweet, Sec
   There is a distinction of tastes which is sufficiently
established, it being founded on the organizotion: that
of agreeable  and disagreeable.  Animals establish it
 instinctively. This is  the most important distinction;
 for those things whicli  have an  agreeable teste  ore
 generally useful for nutrition, while  those whose  sa-
 vour is disagreeable, are, for the most part, hurtful.
   Apparatus of taste.—The tongue to the principal
 organ of taste;  however, the lips, the internal surface
 of the cheeks, the palate, the teeth, the velum pendu-
 lum  palati, the pharynx, asophagus,  and even  the
 stomach, are susceptible  of receiving impressions  by
 the contact of sapid bodies.
   The salivary  glands, of which the excretory ducts
 open into the mouth;  the follicles Which  pour into it
 the mucus, which they secrete, have a powerful effect
 in forming the taste.  Independently of  the mucous
 follicles that the superior surface of tiie tongue pre-
 sents, and which form upon it fungous papilla, there
 are also little inequalities seen, one sort of whicli, very
 numerous, are called villous papilla; the others, less
 numerous, and  disposed  on two rows on the sides of
 tbe tongue, are called conical papilla:
'   All the nerves with which those parts are provided
 that are intended to receive the impressions of sapid
 bodies may be considered os belonging to the apparatus
 of taste.  Thus the inferior maxillary  nerves, many
 branches of the superior, among which it is necessary
 to notice the threads which proceed from the spheno-
 palatine ganglion, particularly the naso-palatine nerve
 of Scarpo,  the nerve of the ninth pair, glosso pharyn-
 geus, appear to be  employed in the exercise of taste.
   The lingual nerve of the fifth pair is that which ana-
 tomists consider the principal nerve of taste; and as a'
 reason they say that its threads are continued into the
 villous and conical papilla of the tongue.
   Mechanism of taste.—-For the full exercise of taste.
 the  mucous membrane which covers  the organs of
 it must be perfectly uninjured; it must be covered with
 mucous fluid, and  the saliva must flow freely in  the
 mouth.   When the mouth becomes dry, the powera of
 taste cannot be excited.
   It to also necessary that these liquids undergo no;
 change: for if tlie  mucous become thick,  yellow, and;
 the saliva acid, bitter, See, the taste will be exerted but
 very imperfectly.
   Some authors have assured us that the papilla ot 
TEA
T££
 the tongue became really erect during the time that the
 laste is exerted.  Thto assertion 1 beuevc to be entirely
 without foundation.
   It is quite enough that a body be in contact with the
 organs of taste, for us to appreciate iu savour immedi-
 ately ; but if it is solid, in most cases it is necessary to
 dissolve in the saliva to be lasted; this condition is not
 accessory for liquids and goses.
   There appears to be  a certain chemical action of
 sapid bodies upon the epidermis of the mucous mem-
 brane of the  mouth;  it is seen evidently ot least in
 some, as vinegar, the mineral acids, a great number of
 salu, tec  In  these different cases the colour  of the
 epidermis is changed,  and becomes white, yellow, &c.
 By tbe same causes, like effects  are produced upon
 dead bodies.   Perhaps to this sort of combination may
 be attributed tiie different kinds of impressions made
 by sapid bodies, as well os  the variable duration of
 those impressions.
   Hitherto no  one has accounted for the faculty pos-
 sessed by the teeth of being strongly influenced by cer-
 tain sapid  bodies.  According  to the  reseorches of
 Miel, a distinguished dentist of Porto, thto effect ought
 to be attributed to imbibition.  The researches of Miel
 prove thot the teeth imbibe very quickly liquids with
 which they are placed  in  contact  Different parts of
 the mouth appear to possess different  degrees of sensi-
 bility for sapid bodies;  for they act sometimes on the
 tongue, on the gums, on the teeth ; at other times they
 have on exclusive oction on the palate, on the pharynx,
 (ec  Some bodies leave  their laste a long time in the
 mouth; these  are  particularly  the aromatic bodies.
 Thto after-taste is sometimes felt in the whole mouth,
 sometimes only in one part  of it.  Bitter  bodies, for
 example, leave an impression in the pharynx: acids
 upon the lips and teeth: peppermint leaves an impres-
 sion which exists both in the  mouth and pharynx.
  Tostes, to l>e completely known, ought  to remain
 some lime in the inouih ; when they traverse it rapidly,
 they leave scarcely any impression; for this reason we
 swallow quickly those  bodies whicli  are disagreeable
 to us; on the contrary, we allow those that have an
 agreeable savour to remain a  long time in the mouth.
  When we taste a body which  has a very strong and
 pertinacious taste, such as a vegetable acid, we become
 insensible to others which are feeble.  This observation
 has been found valuable in medicine,  in administering
 disagreeable drugs to the sick.  We are capable of
 distinguishing  o number of tastes  at  the same  time,
 as also their different degrees of intensity ; this is used
 by chemists, tasters of  wine, Sec.  By this  meons we
 orrive sometimes at a tolerably exact knowledge ofthe
 chemical nature of bodies; but such  delicacy of taste
 to not acquired until after long practice.
  Is the lingual nerve that which is essential to taste 1
 Nothing to known which  con moke us  attribute  this
 property entirely to it.
  The choice of food  depends entirely  on the  taste ;
joined  to smell, it enables us to distinguish between
 substances that are hurtful and  those that are useful.
 It is thto sense  which gives us the most correct know-
 ledge of the composition of chemical bodies."
  TA'XIS.  An operation, by which those ports which
 hove quitted their natural situation are replaced by the
 hand without  the assistance of instrumenu,  as in re-
 ducing hernia, &c.
  TEA.  See  TAea.
  TEAR.  Lathryma   Tbe limpid fluid secreted by
 the lachrymal  glands, and flowing on the  surface of
 the eyes.
  Tlie organ which secretes this liquid to the lachrymal
 gland, one of which to situated in the external canthus
 of each orbit, and emiu six or seven excretory ducu,
 which open on the internal surface of the upper eyelid
 above iu tarsus, and pour forth the tears.  The tears
 have  mixed with them  an  arterious roscid vapour,
 wliich exhales  from the internal surface of the eyelids,
 and external of tbe tunica conjunctiva, into  the  eye.
 Perhaps tlie aqueous humour also transudes  through
 tbe pores of the cornea on the surface of the  eye.  A
 certain part of thto aqueous fluid  to dissipated in the
 air; but  the greatest part, after having performed its
 office, to  propelled by  the orbicular muscle, wbich so
 closely cunstringes tbe  eyelid to the ball of the eye as
 to leave no space between, unless in the internal  angle,
 where the tears are  collected.  From this collection
 the tears are  absorbed by tbe orifices of the puncta
      338
 lachrymalia;  from thence they are propelled throng?*
 the lachrymal canals, into the lachrymal sac, and flow
 through the ductus nasalis inlo the cavity of the nos-
 trils, under the  inferior concha nasalis.  The lachry-
 mal  sac appears  to  be  formed  of  longitudinal and
 transverse muscular fibres; and its  three orifice* fur-
 nished with small sphincters, as the spasmodic contric-
 tion  of the puncta lachrymalia proves,  If examined
 with a probe.
   The tears bave no smell but a saltish taste, ns people
 who  cry perceive.  They  are of a transparent colour
 ond aqueous consistence.
   The quantity, in its natural state, Is just sufficient to
 moisten  the surface of the eye ond eyelids; but from
 sorrow, or ony kind of stimulus opplied to lliesurlaco
 of the eye,  so great to tbe quantity of teurs secreteil
 that the puncta lachrymalia ore unable to absorb them
 Thus  the greatest part runs  down from  the internal'
 angle of tbe eyelids, in the form of great and copious
 drops  upon the cheeks.   A  great quantity also de-
 scends, through the lachrymal passages, into the nos-
 trils;  hence those who ery have an increased discharge
 from the nose.
   Use of tlie tears.—1. They  continually moisten  the
 surface of the eye  and  eyelids, to prevent the pellucid1
 cornea from drying and becoming opaque, or the eye
 from  concreting with  the  eyelids.  2. They prevent
 that pain, which would otherwise arise from the fric-
 tion of the eyelids against the bulb  of the eye from
 continually winking.  3. They wash  and clean away
 the dust of the atmosphere, or any thing acrid that has
 fallen  into the eye. 4. Crying unloads the head of
 congestions.
   TECTUS.  Covered: applied as opposed toit*rfu»r
 or naked ; as to the seeds of the angiosperm plants.
   TEETH.  (Dens, a tooth; quasi edens, from edo,
 to eat.)  Small bones fixed in the alveoli of the upper
 and under jaw.  In early  infancy  Nature design us
 for the softest  aliment, so tbat the gums alone are then
 sufficient for the  purpose of manducation; but as  we
 advance in life, and require a different food, she wisely
 provides us with teeth.  These  are  the hardest and
 whitest of our bones, and, at full maturity, we usually
 find thirty-two in both jaws; viz. sixteen above, and
 as many below.  Their number  varies indeed in dif-
 ferent subjects; but it is seldom seen  to exceed thirty-
 two, and it will very rarely be found to be less than
 twenty «igtit
  Each tooth may  be divided into two parts; viz. its>
 body, or thot part which appears above the gums; and;
 iu fangs or root,  which is fixed into the socket.  The
 boundary between these two, close lo the edge of the
 gum, where there to usually a small circular depression,
 to called the neck of the tooth. The teelh of each jaw
 are commonly divided  into three classes; but before
 each of these to treated of in particular, it will be right
 to  soy something of their general structure.
  Every tooth  is  composed  of  its cortex or enamel, and
 iu internal bony substances.  The enamel, or, as it is
sometimes called, the vitreous part of the tooth, is a
 very hard and compact substance, of a white colour,
and peculiar to  the teeth. It is found only upon the
body of the tooth, covering the ouuide of the bony or
internal substance.  When broken  it  appears fibrous
or  striated ; and  all the striee are directed from the cir-
cumference to the centre of the tooth.  Thto enamel
is  thickest on the grinding surface, and on the cutting
edges or poinu  ofthe teeth, becoming gradually thinner
os  it approaches the neck, where it terminates insen-
sibly.   Some writers hove described it as being vascu-
lar ; but it to certain that no injection will ever reach
this substance, that it receives no tinge from madder,
and thot it affords no appearance of  a circulation  of
fluids. The bony partof a tooth resembles other bones
in  iu structure, but is much harder than the most com-
pact part of bones in general.   It composes  the inner
 part of the body and neck, and tbe whole of the root
of  the tooth.   This part of a  tooth, when completely
formed, does not, like the other bones, receive a tinge
from madder, nor do the minutest injections penetrate
into its substance, although many writers have asserted
the contrary.  Mr.Hunter hos been,therefore, induced
to  deny ite being  vascular, although he to  aware that
the teeth, like  other bones, are liable to swellings, and
thot they are found anchylosed with their sockeu. He
supposes, however, that both these may  be original
formations; and, as tbe most convincing proof of tlieu 
TEE
TEE
Hut being-vascular, hj reasons from the analogy be-
tween them  and other bones.   He observes, for in-
stance* that in a young animal that has been fed with
madder, the ports of the teeth whicli were formed be-
fore it wis put on  madder diet will appear of their
natural rok aur, but that such parts as were formed
while the animal  was taking the madder, wBl be of a
red colour; whereas, in other bones, the hardest paru
are susceptible of the dye,  though more slowly than
the parts which are growing.   Again he tells us, that
if you leave off feeding the animal with madder a con-
siderable time before you kill it, you will find the above
appearances still subsisting, with this addition, that all
tlie paru of the teeth which were formed after leaving
off the madder will be white.  This experiment proves
lhat a tooth  once  tinged  does  not  lose ite eolour;
whereas other bones do (though very slowly) return
again to their natural appearance:  and, as- tlie dye in
this case must be taken into the habit by absorbents,
he  is led to suspect that tbe teeth are without absor-
bents as well as other vessels.   These argumente are
very ingenious, but  they ore for from being satisfac-
tory.  The focts  adduced by Mr. Hunter are capable
of a different explanation  from that which he has
given them; and  when other focts  ore added relative
to the same subject, it will appear that this  bony part
of a tooth has a circulation through iu substance, and
even lymphatics, although, from the  hardness of iu
structure, we  are unable to demonstrate iu vessels.
The facts which may be adduced are, 1st, We find that
a tooth recently drawn and transplanted into another
socket, becomes as firmly fixed  after  a certain time,
and preserves the same colour  as  the rest of the set;
whereas a tooth that has been long drawn before it to
transplanted,  will never become fixed.   Mr. Hunter,
indeed, is aware of thto objection, and refers the suc-
cess of the transplantation, in the first instance, lo the
living principle possessed by the tooth, and which he
thinks may  exist independent of a circulation.  But
however  applicable such a doctrine may  be to zoo-
phytes, it to suspected that it will not hold good in man,
and others of the more perfect animals: and there does
not appear to be  any doubt but that, in the case of a
transplanted tooth, there is a real union by vessels.
2dly, The swellings of tbe  fangs of a tooth, which in
many instances are known to be the effecu of disease,
and which are analogous to the swelling of other bones,
are a clear proof of a similarity of structure, especially
as we find them invested with a periosteum. 3dly,  It
to a curious fact, though as  yet  perhaps not generally
known, that, in cases of phthisis pulmonalis, the teeth
become  of it milky whiteness, and,  in some degree,
transparent.   Does not this prove them to have absor-
benu?
   Baeh tooth has an inner  cavity, which, beginning by
a small opening at the point ofthe fang, becomes larger
and terminates in the body of the tooih.  This cavity
is supplied with  blood-vessels  and nerves, which pass
through the small hole in the root.  In old people this
hole sometimes closes, and  the tooth  becomes then in-
sensible.
   The teeth are  invested with periosteum  from  theft-
fangs to a little beyond their bony sockets, where it  is
 attached to the gums.   This  membrane seems  to be
common to the tooth which it encloses, and to the sockeu
which it lines.  The teeth are likewise secured In their
sockets  by a red substance called the gums, Which
 every where covers the alveolar processes,  and bas as
 many perforations  as there are teeth.  The gums are
exceedingly  vascular, and  hove something like carti-
 laginous "hardness and elasticity, but  do  not seem to
 hove  much sensibility.  The gums of infanU, which
 perform the offices of teeth, have o herd ridge extend-
 ing through their whole length; but in old people, who
 have lost iheir teelh, this ridge to wonting.  The three
 classes into whieh the teeth are commonly divided are,
 inctsores, canini, and molares or grinders.
   The incisores  are the four teeth in the forepart of
 each jaw; they derive their name from their nse in di-
 viding and cutting the food In the manner of a wedge,
 and have each of them two surfaces, which meet in a
 sharp edge.  Of these surfaces, the anterior one is con-
 vex, ond the posterior one somewhat concave. In the
 upper jow they are usually broader and thicker, espe-
 cially the two middle ones, thon  those of the under
 jaw, over which they generally fall by being placed a
 little obliquely
  The canini ot cuspidati arc the longest of all tbe
teeth, deriving their name from their resemblance to a
dog's tusk.  There is one of these teelh on each side of
the incisores, so that there are two in each jaw.  They
are the longest of all the teeth.  Their fangs differ from
that of the incisores only in being much larger, and
their shape moy be easily described to be that of an in-
cisor with iu edge worn off, so as to end  in a narrow
point  insteod of a thin edge.  The canini not being
calculated for dividing like the incisores, or for grinding,
seem to be intended for laying hold of substances.  Mr.
Hunter remarks of  these teeth, thot we may trace In
them a similarity in  shape, situation, and use, from the
most imperfect carnivorous animal, which we believe
to be the human species, to the lion, which is the most
perfectly carnivorous.
  The molares or grinders, of which there are ten n
each  jaw, are so called, because  from their size and
figure they are calculated for grinding the food.  The
canini and incisores have only one fang, but the last
three grinders in the under jaw have constantly two
fangs, and the same teeth in the upper jaw three fangs'.
Sometimes these fangs are divided into two points near
their base, and each of these points has, perhaps, been
sometimes considered as a distinct fang.  The grinders
likewise differ from each oilier in their appearance.
The first two on each side, which Mr. Hunter appears
to hove distinguished very properly by the name of bi-
cuspides, seem to be of a middle nature between the
incisores and grinders; they have in general  only one
root, and the  body of the tooth terminates in two points,
of which the anterior one is the highest, so thai tha
tooth has in  some measure the appearance of one of
the conini.  The two grinders beyond these, on each
side,  are much larger.   Their body forme  almost a
squore with rounded angles; and their grinding surface
has commonly five poinu  or  protuberances, two of
which ore on the inner, and three on the outer part of
the tooth.  The last grinder to shorter and smaller than
the rest, and, from  iueoining through the gums later
than  the rest, and sometimes not appearing till late in
life, is called dens  sapientia.   The voriotion in  the
number of teeth usually depends on these dentes sapi-
entire.
   Having thus described the appearance of the teeth
in the adult;  the manner of their formation and growth
in the fretus  is next to be considered.  We  shall find
that the alveolar process, which begins to be formed at
 a very early period, appears about the fourth month
 only  as o shallow longitudinal groove, divided by sligh
 ridges into  a  number  of intermediate depressions
 which are to be the future alveoli or sockets.  These de
 prcs6ions are at first filled with small pulpy substances
 included in  a  vascular membrane;  and these  pulpy
 substances are the rudiments  of the teeth.  As these
 advance in their growth, the alveolarproeesses become
 gradually more completely formed.  The surface of the
 pulp  first begins to  harden: the ossification proceeding
 from one or more poinu, according to the kind of tooth
 thot is to be formed.  Thus in the incisores and canini,
 it begins from one point; in the' bjCuspides, from two
 poinu, corresponding  witb the  future shape of those
 teeth; and in the molares from four or five points.  As
 the ossification advances, the whole of the pulp is gra-
 dually covered with bone, excepting Iu under surface,
 and then the fang begins to be formed.  Soon after the
 formation of this  bony part,  tlie tooth  begins to be
 incrusted with its enamel; but In what manner  thto to
 deposited we areas yet unable to explain.—Perhaps the
 vascular membrane which encloses the pulp, may serve
 to secrete it.   It gradually crystallizes upon the surface
 of the bony part, and continues to increase in  thick-
 ness, especially at tbe poinu and basis of the tooth, till
 some time before the tooth begins to'pass through tbe
 gum ; and when this happens, the enamel seems to be
 as hard as it is afterward, so that the air does not ap-
 pear to have the least effect In hardening it, as has been
 sometimes supposed.  While the enamel u thus form-
 ing, the lower part  of the pulp is gradually lengthened
 out and ossified, so  as to form the fang.  In those teeth
 which are to have more than one fang, the ossification
 begins at different  parte of the pulp at one and tbe
 same time.   In this manner are formed  the  incisores,
 the canini, ond two molares on each side, making in the
 whole twenty teeth, in both jaw's, which are sufficient
 for the purposes of mandncation early *n life  As the
 fangs of the teeth are formed, their upper part is grada 
TEE
TEL
  ally pushed upwards, till at length, about the seventh,
 eighth, or ninth month after birth, the incisores, which
 are the first formed, begin to pass through  the gum.
 The first that appeals  to generally in the lower jaw.
 The canini and molares not being formed so soon as the
 incisores, do not appear  till about the twentieth  or
 twenty-fourth month.  Sometimes one of the canini,
 but more frequently one of the molares, appeors first
   The danger to which children are exposed, during  the
 time of dentition, arises from the pressure of the teeth
 in the gum, so as to irritate it, and excite  pain and in-
 flammation. The effect of thto irritation to, that  the
 gum wastes, and  becomes gradually thinner at this
 part, till at length the tooth protrudes.  In such cases,
 therefore, wc may, with great propriety, assist nature
 by cutting the  gum.  These  twenty teeth ore colled
 temporary or milk teeth, because they are all  shed  be-
 tween the age of seven and fourteen, and are supplied
 by others of a firmer texture, with large  fangs which
 remain till tbey become affected by disease, or fall out
 in old age, and ore therefore  called tbe permanent  or
 adult teeth.   The rudimenU of these  adult teeth begin
 to be formed at different periods.  The pulp of the first
 adult Incisor, and of the first adult  grinder, may be
 perceived in a fcetus of seven  or eight months, and the
 ossification begins in them about six months after birth.
 Soon after birth the  second incisor, and canine tooth
 on each side, begin to be formed.  About the fifth or
 sixth year the first bicuspis, and about the seventh the
 second bicuspi begin  to ossify.  These bicuspides arc
 destined to replace the temporary grinders.  All these
 permanent teeth are formed in o distinct set of alveoli;
 so that  it is not by  the growing of  one  tooth under
 another in tbe same socket, thot the uppermost tooth is
 gradually pushed out, as is commonly imagined; but
 the temporary teeth, and  those  which are to succeed
 them, being placed in separate alveoli, the upper sockeu
 gradually disappear, as the under ones increase in size,
 till at length the teeth they contain, having no longer
 any  support, consequently fall out.  But, besides these
 twenty teeth, which succeed the temporary ones, there
 are twelve others to be added to make up the number
 thirty-two.  These twelve are three grinders  on  each
 side  in both  jaws;  and in order to make room for this
 addition, we find the jaws grow as the teeth  grow, so
 that they appear as completely filled with twenty teeth,
 as they are afterword with  thirty-two.   Hence, in
 children the face to flatter and rounder than in adults.
 The first adult grinder usually passes  through the gum
 about the twelfth year; the second, whicli begins to be
 formed in the sixth or seventh year, cuu the gum about
 the seventeenth or eighteenth; and tiie third, or dens
 sapiential, which begins to be formed about tbe twelfth
 year, passes through the gum between the age of twenty
 and  thirty.  The dentes sapiential  have,  in some  in-
 stances,  been cut at  the age  of forty, fifty, sixty, and
 even eighty  years; and it sometimes happens, that they
 do not appear at all.  Sometimes likewise it  happens
 that a third set of teeth appear about the  age of sixty
 or seventy.  Diemerbroek tells us that  he himself, at the
 age  of fifty-six, had a fresh canine tooth in the place
 of one  he had  lost several years before;  JVI. du Fay
 saw two incisores and wo canini cut the gum  in a man
 aged eighty-four; Mr. Hunter has seen two foreteeth
 shoot up in the lower jaw of a very old person; and an
 account was lately published of a man who had a com-
 plete set of teeth at the age of sixty.  Other instances
 of the same kind are to be met with in authors.  The
 circumstance is curious, ond  from  the  time of life at
 which it takes place, and the  return of the catamenia,
 'which sometimes happens to  women  at the same age,
-.it has been very ingeniously supposed, that there is
 some effort in nature to renew the body at that period.
   The teeth are subject  to  a  variety of accidents.
 Sometimes the gums become so-affected as to  occasion
 them to fall out, and the teeth themselves are frequently
 rendered carious by causes which bave  not hitherto
 been satisfactorily explained.  The disease usually be-
 gins on that side of the  tooth which  is not exposed to
 pressure, and gradually advances  till  an opening is
 made into the cavity: as soon as the cavity is exposed,
 the tooth becomes liable to considerable pain,  from the
 air coming into contact with the nerve.  Besides these
 accidental means by wbich Ihe teeth  are occasionally
 affected, old age seldom fails to bring with it sure and
 natural causes for their removal. The alveoli fill up,
 and the teeth consequently faH out.  Tbe gums then
      140
 no longer meet in the fotrport of the month, the chfl
 projects forwards, and the fhee being rendered much
 shorter, the whole physiognomy appears considerably
 altered.  Having thus described the formation, struc-
 ture, growth, and decay of the teeth, it rermiins io speak
 of their uses; the chief of which we know to be  in
 mastication.  And here we cannot help observing the
 great variety in the structure of the human teeth, whicli
 fiu us for such a variety of food,  and which, when com-
 pared with the teeth given to other animals, may  in
 some measure enable us to explain the nature of the
 aliment for which man is intended by Nature.  Thus,
 in ruminating animals, we find incisores only in the
 lower Jaw, fur cutting the grass,  and molares for grind-
 ing it; in graminivorous animals, we see molares alone;
 and in carnivorous animals, canine teeth for catching
 at their prey, and incisores and molares tot cutting and
 dividing it.  But, as man Is not designed to catch and
 kill his prey with his teeth, we observe that our canini
 ore shaped differently from the fangs of beasts of prey,
 in whom we find them either longer than the rest of
 the teeth,  or  curved.  The  incisores likewise  are
 shorper in those animals than  In man.  Nor are the
 molares in the human subject similar to the molares of
 carnivorous animals; they are flatter in man than  in
 these animals; and, in the latter, we likewise find them
 sharper at the  edges, more calculated to cut and tear
 the food, ond  by their greater  strength,  capable of
 breaking  the bones of animals.   From these circum-
stances, therefore, we may consider man as partaking
ofthe nature of tiicse different classes; as approaching
 more to the carnivorous thon to the herbivorous tribe
 of animals; but  upon the whole, formed  for a mixed
 aliment, and fitted equally to live upon flesh ond upon
 vegetables.  Those philosophers, therefore, who would
confine a man wholly to vegetable food, do not seem
 to have studied nature.  As the molares are the last
 teeth thot ore formed, so they are usually the first that
 fall out; this would seem to prove} that we require the
some kind of aliment in old age as in infancy.  Besides
 the use of the teeth in mastication, they likewise serve
 a secondary purpose, by assisting in the articulation ot
the voice.
  TEETHING.  See Dentition and Teeth.
  Tij'oula hibernica.  See Lapis hibcrnicus.
  TEGUMENTS.   Under the term common integu |
menu, anatomists comprehended the cuticle, rete mu-
cosum, skin,  and adipose membrane,  as being  the
covering to every part of the body except the naila.
See Skin.                                         >
  TE'LA.  A  web of cloth.  The cellular membrane
is so called from iu  likeness to  a fine web.   See Cd-
 lular membrane.
  Tela cellulosa. See Cellular membrane.
  TELEPHIUM.   (Because  it  heals old ulcers,such
 as that of Telephus, made by Ulysses.)  Bee Sedum
 telephium.
  TELESIA.  Sapphire.
  TELLU RETTED HYDROGEN.  A combination
of tellurium and hydrogen.  To  make this compound,
 hydrate of potassa and oxide of tellurium are ignited
 with charcoal,  and the mixture acted on by dilute sul-
 phuric acid, in a retort connected wilh a mercurial
 pneumatic  apparatus. An elastic fluid to generated,
consisting of hydrogen holding tellurium in solution.
 It to  possessed of very singular properties.  It is so-
 luble in water, and forms a claret-coloured solution.
 It combines with tbe alkalies.  It burns with a bluish
 flame, depositing oxide of tellurium.   Its smell is very
strong and peculiar, not nnlike that of sulphuretted'
 hydrogen.  This elastic fluid was discovered by Sir
 H. Davy, in 1809.
  TELLURIC ACID.   Acidum telluricum.   The
 oxide of tellurium combines with many of the metallic
oxides, acting the partof an acid, and producing a class
of compounds  which have been  called tellurates.
  TELLU'RIUM   The name  given by Klaproth to-
 a metal extracted from several Transylvanion ores.
  Pure tellurium  to of a tin-white  colour, verging to
 lead-gray, with a high metallic lustre; of a foliated
 fracture; and very brittle, so as to be easily pulverized.
 Its sp. gr. to 6.M5.  It melts before ignition, requiring
little higher heat than lead, and less than antimony;
 and,  according to Gmelin, is as volatile as  arsenic.
 When cooled without agitation,  iu surface has a cry*.
 tallized appearance.  Before the blowpipe on charcoal,
 it burns with a vivid blue light, greenish on tha edges 
TEM
and is dissipated in grayish-white vapours, of a pun-
gent smell, which condense into a white oade.  I nis
oxide heated on charcoal is  reduced with a kind or
explosion, and soon again volatilized.   Heated in a
glass retort, it fuses into a straw-coloured striated mass.
U appears to contain about 16 per cent, of oxygen.
  Tellurium is oxidized and dissolved by the principal
acids.  To sulphuric acid it gives a deep purple colour.
Water separates il in black flocculi, and heat  throws
it down in a white precipitate.
  With nitric  acid it forms a colourless solution, which
remains so when diluted, and affords slender denditric
crystals by evaporation.               .
  The muriatic acid with a  small portion  of nitric,
forms a transparent solution, from which water throws
down a white submuriate.  This may be redissolved
almost wholly by repeated  affusions of water.   Alko-
hol likewise precipitates it
  Sulphuric acid, diluted with two or three parte of
water, to which a little nitric acid has been added,
dissolves a to*ge portion of the metal, and the solution
to not decomposed by water.
  The alkalies throw down from its solutions a white
precipitate,  which is soluble in all the acids, and by an
excess of the alkalies or their carbonates.   They are
not precipitated by prussiate of  potassa.  Tincture of
galls gives a yellow flocculent precipilate with them.
Tellurium to precipitated from them to a metallic state
 by zinc, iron,  tin, and antimony.
   Tellurium fused with an equal weight of sulphur, in
 a gentle heat, forms a lead-coloured striated sulphuret
 Alkaline sulphurate precipitate it from iu solutions of
 a brown or black  colour.  In this  precipitate, either
 tbe metal or ite oxide to combined with sulphur.  Each
 of these sulphurate burns with a pale blue flame, and
 white smoke. Heated in a retort, part of the sulphur
 to sublimated, carrying up a little of the metal with it
 It does not easily amalgamate with quicksilver.
   TEMPERAME'NTUM.   (From Umpero, to  mix
 together.)  The peculiar constitution of the humours.
 TemperamenU have been variously distinguished: the
 division most generally received is into the sanguineous,
 phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholic,
   TEMPERATURE.  A definite  degree  of  sensible
 heat  as measured by the thermometer.  Thus we say,
 a lush temperature, and a low temperature, to denote
 a manifest intensity of heat or  cold; the temperature
 of boiling water, or 212° Fahr.; and a range of tem-
 perature, to designate the intermediate poinu of heat
 between two distant terms of thermometric indication.
   TEMPLE.  (Tempora, urn, n.;  and temp us, oris, n.)
 The lateral and flat parts of the head above the ears.
   TEMPORAL.  (Temporalis;  from tempus.)  Be-
  longing to the temple.
   Temporal artery.  Arteria temporalis. A branch
  of the external carotid, which runs on the temples, and
  eives off the frontal artery.
  9 Temporal bone.  Os temporis. Two bones si u-
  ated one on each side of the head, of a very irregular
  Lure.   They are usually divided  into two parts, one
  of which, from the manner of its connexion with the
  neighbouring bones, is called os squamosum, and the
  other a* petrosiun, fromiu irregularity and hardness.
    In both these parts there are processes and cavities
  to be described.  Externally there are three processes;
  one  anterior,  called zygomatic  process, which is
  stretched forwards to join wilh the os mate,  and thus
  forms the bony jugum under which the temporal mus-
  cle nasses; one posterior, called the mastoid or mamil-
  laruTnrocess, from its resemblance to a nipple; and one
  taferior, called the styloid process,  from its shape,
  which to said to  resemble  that of the ancient stylus
  7eriptorius.  In young subjects  this process is united
  £££ the  bone by  an intermediate cartilage, which
  sometimes,  even in  adulte, to  not  completely ossified.
  Threemuscles have their origin from this process, and
  borrow half of their names from it, viz. stylo-glossus,
  BtXhWideue, and stylo-pharyngeus.  Round the root
  of thto  process there is  a particular  rising  of theos
  iLrWim, which some writers describe as a process
  and from iu appearance with the styloid, hove nomer*
  Vaginalis.  Others describe the semicircular ridge
  of tite meatus auditorius externus as a fifth process, to
  which  *cy give  the name of auditory.  The depres-
   sTons andCities are. 1. A large fossa, which serves
   for the^rtteulation o? the lower  jaw ;  it is situated
   totween the zygomatic,auditory aud vaginal piocesscs,
                     TEM

I and to separated in ite middle by a fissure, into wliich
the ligament that secures the articulation of the lower
jaw  with thto bone  is fixed.   The forepart of this
cavity,  which  receives the condyle of the jaw, is
covered with cartilage; the  back part  only with the
periosteum.  2. A long fossa behind the mastoid pro-
cess, where the digastric muscle has iu origin.   3. The
meatus  auditorius externus, the name given to a large
funnel-like conal  thot leads to the organ of hearing.
4. The  stylo-mastoid hole, so called from ite situation
between  the  styloid and mastoid  processes.   It is
likewise called the aqueduct of Fallopius, and affords
a passage to the portio dura of the auditory, or seventh
pair of nerves.  5. Below and on the forepart of the
last foramen, we observe part of the jugular fossa, a
thimble-like cavity,  in which  the beginning of the
internal jugular vein is lodged.  6. Before  and a little
above this fossa is the orifice  of a foramen, through
which pass the internal  carotid artery and two fila-
menu of the intercostal  nerve.  This conduit  runs
first upward  and then forward, forming  a kind of
elbow, and terminates at the end of the os petrosuin.
7. At this part of the ossa temporum we observe the
orifice of a canal which runs outwards and backwards
 in a horizontal direction,  till it terminates in a cavity
of the ear called  tympanum.   This canal, whicli in
 the  recent  subject is continued from  the ear to the
 mouth, is called the Eustachian tube.  8. A small hole
 behind the mastoid process, which serves for the trans
 mission of a  vein to the  lateral sinus.  But this, like
 other foramina in the skull that serves only for tbe
 transmission of vessels, is neither uniform in ite situa-
 tion, nor to be met with in every subject The internal
 surface of these bones may easily be divided into three
 parts.  The first, uppermost, and largest to the squa-
 mous part, which is slightly concave from the impres-
 sion of the brain.  Iu semicircular edge is sloping, so
 that the external lamella  of the bone advances farther
  than the internal, and thus rests more securely on the
  parietal bones.  The second and middlemost, which to
  the petrous part of  the bone, forms a hard, craggy pro-
  tuberance,  nearly of a triangular shape.  On its pos-
  terior side we observe a large foramen, which to the
  meatus auditorius  internus;  it  receives the  double
  nerve  of the seventh pair, viz. the portio dura and
  portio  mollis  of that pair. About the middle of iu
  anterior surface to a small foramen, which opens into
  the aqueduot of Fallopius, and receives a twig of the
  portio  dura of the seventh pair of nerves.  Thto for*.
  men having been first described by Fallopius, and by
  him named hiatus,  is sometimes called hiatus Fallopit.
  Besides these, we observe other smaller holes for the
  transmission of blood-vessels and nerves.   Below this
  craggy protuberance is the third part, which, from  ita
  shape  and connexion with the os occipitis  by means of
  the lambdoidal suture, may be called the lambdoidal
  angle  of the temporal bone.  It is concave from the
  impression of the brain;  it helps to form the posterior
  and inferior fossae of the skull, and has a considerable
  furrow  in wbich  is  lodged part of the lateral sinus.
  The temporal bones differ a  little in their structure
  from the other bones of  the cranium.   At their upper
  parts they are very thin, and almost  without  diploe",
  but below they have great strength  and thickness.   In
  the fcetus, the thin upper part, and the lower craggy
  part, are separated  by a cartilaginous substance; there
  is no appearance either of the mastoid or styloid pro-
  cesses, and, instead of a long funnel-like meatus audi-
  torius externus, there is only a smooth bony ring
  within  which the membrana tympani to  fastened
  Within the petrous part of these bones there are several
  cavities, processes,  and bones, which belong altogether
  to the ear, do not enter into the formation of the cra-
  nium, and are described under the article Ear.  The
  ossa temporum  are  connected by suture with  the
  ossa parietalia, the os occipitis, the ossa malarutn, and
  the os sphenoides, and  are articulated with the lower

    TEMPORA'LIS.  (From tempus,  the temple.)  1
  See Temporal.                          .
    2. A muscle of the lower jaw, situated in the tem-
  ple.  Arcardi-temporo-maxillaire,  of  Dumas.   Crota-
  phites, of  Winslow.  It  arises fleshy  from the lower,
  lateral, and anterior part of the parietal bone; from all
   the squamous portion of the  temporal bone; from ihe
  lower ond lateral port of the os frontis; from the pos-
  terior surface of the os raalai; from all the temporal pro-
                                          341 
TLR                                             TER
 tern ot the sphenoid bone; and sometimes from a ridge
 at the lower part of thto process.  Thto latter portion,
 however, is often common to thto muscle  and the
 pterygoideus externus.  Ii is of a semicircular shape,
 and iu radiated fibres converge, so as to form a strong
 middle tendon, which passes under the juguni, and is
 inserted into the coronoid process of the lower jaw, to
 Which it adheres on every side, but more particularly
 at iu forepart, where the Insertion to continued down
 to the body ofthe bone.  Thto muscle is covered by a
 pretty strong fascia,  wbich some  writers have  erro-
 neously described as a partof the aponeurosis of the
 occipito-frontolis.  This fascia adheres to the bones,
 round the whole circumference of the origin of the
 muscle, and, descending over it, to fixed  below to the
 ridge where the zygomatic process begins, just above
 the meatus auditorius, to the upper edge of the zygo-
 matic process itself,  and anteriorly  to the os male.
 This  fascia serves as a defence to the muscles, and
 likewise gives origin to some of iu fleshy fibres.  The
 firincipal use of tiie  temporal muscle to  to draw the
 ower jaw upwards, as in the action of biting; and as
 it passes a little forwards to iu insertion, it may at tlie
 some lime pull the condyle a little backwards, though
 not so much as it would have done if iu fibres hod
 passed in a direct line from their origin to their inser-
 tion, because the posterior and lower port of the muscle
 passes over the root of tbe zygomatic process, as over
 B pulley.
  TENDO.  See Muscle.
  Tendo achillis.  See Achillis  tendo.
  TENDON.  (From tendo,  to stretch.)  The white
and glistening extremity of a muscle.  See Muscle.
  TENDRIL.  See Cirrus.
  TENESMUS.   (From rtivia,  to  constringe: so
called from the perception of a continual constriction
or bound state ofthe part.)  A continual inclination to
go to  stool, without a discharge.
  TENNANTITE.   A  variety of gray copper ore
found  in Cornwall, in copper veins,  that intersect
granite and clay slate, associated with copper  pyrites.
It to of a lead-gray or iron black colour,  and  consisu
of copper, sulphur, arsenic, iron, and silica.
  TE'NSOR.  (From tendo,  to stretch.)  A  muscle,
the office of which to to extend  the part to wbich it to
fixed.
  Tensor palati.  See Circumflexus.
  Tensor tympani.   Internus auris, of Douglas and
Cowper.  Internus mallei, of Winslow; and salpingo-
malleen, of Dumas.  A muscle of the ear, which pulls
the malleus and the membrane of the tympanum to-
wards tlie petrous portion of the temporal bone, by
which the membrana tympani is made more concave
and tense.
  Tensor vagin* femoris.   Fascialis.  Membra-
nosus, of Douglas.  Mcmbranus vel fascia lata, of
Cowper; and Ilio  aponeurosi-femoral,  of  Duma3.
Musculus aponeurosis, vel fascia  lata, of Winslow.
A muscle situated on the outside of the thigh, which
stretches the membranous fascia of the thigh, assists in
the abduction of the thigh, and somewhat in  iu rota-
tion inwards.  It arises by a narrow, tendinous, and
fleshy beginning from the external part ofthe anterior,
superior, spinous process of the ilium, and is  inserted
a little below the great trochanter into the membranous
fascia.
  TENT.  A roll of lint for dilating openings,  sinuses,
tec   See Spongia praparata.
  TENTO'RIUM-  A process of the dura  mater,
separating tiie cerebrum from the cerebellum.   It ex-
tends from tire internal horizontal spine ofthe occipital
^one, directly forwards to the sella turcica of the sphe-
noid bone.
  Terebe'lla.  (Diminutive of terebra,  a piercer or
gimlet)  A  trepan or instrument for sawing out cir-
cular portions of the skull.  A trephine.
  TEREBI'NTHINA.  (From  rtptSivBos, the  turpen-
tine-tree.)  Turpentine, the produce of pine-trees.  See
 Turpentine.
  Terebintrina argentoratensis.  Strasburg tur-
pentine. ' This species is generally more transparent
and less  tenacious than either tbe Venice or Chio tur-
pentines,  ft to of a yellowish-brown colour, and of a
more  agreeable smell than any of the turpentines, ex-
cept the Cbio.  It is extracted in several parts  of Ger-
many, from the red  and silver tir, by  cutting out
successively narrow  strips  of the bark.  In some
      34?
| places  a resinous juice to coUected  from under torn
 bark, called Lachryma abiegna, and Oleum abietinum.
   Tkrebinthina canadensis.   Canada turpentine.
 See Pinus balsamea.
   Tkrebinthina chia.  The resin obtained from the
 Pistacia terebinthus.                  '
   Tkrebinthina communis.  Common turpentine.
 Sec Pinus sylvestris.
   Tkrebinthina  cvpria.  Cyprus turpentine.   See
 Pistacia terebinthus.
   Tkrebinthina  vensta.   Venice  turpentkie:  so
 called because we are supplied with it from ths Vena-
 tions.  See Pinus larix.
   Tkrebinthina  vulgaris.   Common  turpentine.
 The liquid resin of the Pinus sylvestris.   See Tur-
pentine.
   Tbrebinthinje  oleum.  The oil distilled from tha
liquid resin of the Pinus sylvestris.
   TE'RES.  Round, cylindrical.
   1. The name of some muscles and ligamenU.
   2. The  name of the ascaris lumbrjcoides, or round
 worm, which infesU the intestines.  See Worms.
   3.  Applied  to  roots,  stems,  leaves,  leafstalks,
seeds, &c.
   Teres  lioamentum.  The ligament at the bottom
of the socket of the hip-joint
   Teres  major.  Riolanus, who  was the  first  that
distinguished this and the other muscles ofthe scapula
by particular appellations, gave the name of teres to
this and the following muscle, on account of their long
and round shape.  Anguli-scapulo-humeral, of Dumas
This muscle, which to longer and thicker than the teres
minor, is situated along the  inferior  costa of  the
scapula, and to in part covered by the deltoides.
   It arises fleshy from the outer surface of the inferior
angle ofthe scapula, (where it covers some part ofthe
infra-spinatus and teres minor, with both which Its
fibres intermix,)  and likewise from the lower and pos-*
lerior half of the inferior costa of the scapula.  As-
cending obliquely  towards the os  humeri^  it passes
under the  long head of the triceps brachii, and then
becomes thinner  and flatter to form a thin tendon of
about on  inch in breodth, and somewhat more in
length, which  runs immediately behind that of the
latissimus dorsi,  and is inserted along with it into the
ridge at  the inner side of the groove that lodges the
long head of the biceps.  These two  tendons are in^
eluded in the common  capsula, besides which Ihe ten-
don of this muscle adheres to the os humeri by two
other capsule which we find placed one above the
other.
  This muscle assists in the rotatory muscle of the arm,
and  likewise in drawing it downwards  aud back-
wards; so lhat we may consider it as the congener of
the latissimus dorsi.
  Teres  minor.  Marginisus-scapulo-trochiterien^
of Dumas. This muscle seems to have been first de-
scribed by Fallopius.  The teres minor to a thin fleshy
muscle, situated  along the  inferior edge of the infra-
spinatus, and is  in part covered by the posterioi part
of the deltoides.
  It arises fleshy from all the convex edge ofthe inferior
ensto of the scapula; from thence it ascends obliquely
upwards and forwards, and terminates  in a flat tendon,
which adheres to the lower and posterior part of the
capsular ligament ofthe joint,  and  is Inserted into the
lower part of the great tuberosity of the os humeri, a
little below Ihe termination ofthe infra-spinatus.
  The tendinous  membrane, which  to  continued from
the infra-spinatus, end spread over the teres minor,
likewise forms a thin  septum between the two mus-
cles.  In  some subjects, however, they are  so closely
united, as to be  with  difficulty separated  from each
other.  Some of the fibres of the teres  minor are inter-
mixed with those of the teres major and subscopularis.
  Tbe uses of this muscle are similar to those of the
infra-spinatus.
  TE'RETRUM.  (From rtptta, to pierce.)  The tre-
pan.
  TERMINALIS. Terminal: applied to flower-rtalk
when it terminates a stem or branch;  as in Centaurea
scabiosa,
  TERMI'NTHUS.  (From rtpptvBos, the turpentine
tree : so called from their resemblance to the ftuil of
the turpentine-tree.) Albatis.   Black  and ardent pus-
tules, mostly attacking  tlie legs of females.
  TERNARY.  Consisting ot tbe number threa. whicli 
TF.S
TET
 some chemical and mystical writers hivemadeMranga
 work with • km tlie most remarkable distinction of this
 kind, and the only one worth notice, is that of Hippo-
 crates, who divides the ports of a human body Into con-
 tinentes, contenta, and impetum facientes, though the
 latter to resolvable into the mechanism  of the two for-
 mer, rather than any thing distinct in iuelf.
   TERNATUS.  Ternate:  applied in botany to a leaf
 Wliich consisu of three leafleu, as that of the trefoil.
   TERNUS.  Ternote:  applied to leaves, when there
 are three together; as in many of the  plants of Chili
 and Peru, which seem particularly disposed to thto ar-
 rangement, and in Verbena triphylla.
   TERRA.  See Earth.
 ' Terra cariosa.  Rotten  stone, a species of non-
 effervescent chalk, of a brown colour.
   Terra catechu. See Acada catechu.
   Terra damnata.  See Caput mortuum.
   Terra koliata tartari.   The acetate of potassa.
   Terra japonica. Japan earth.  See Acacia catechu.
   Terra lemnia.   See Bole.
   Terra livonica. See Bole.
   Terra marita.   The curcuma, or turmeric-root, is
 sometimes so called.
   Terra mortua.  See Caput mortuum.
   Terra ponderosa.  The heavy spar.
   Terra ponderosa salita.  See Murias baryta.
   Terra sienna.  A brown ochre found at Sienna, in
 Italy, used in painting, both raw and  burnt.
   Terra sioillata.  See Bole.
   Terra verte.   An ore  used in  painting,  which
 contains iron iu some unknown state mixed with clay,
 and sometimes with chalk and pyrites.
   Terr* oleum.   See Pdrolcum.
   Terrea absorbentta.  Absorbent earths,  distin-
 guishable from other earthy  and  stony substances by
 their solubility in acids; as chalk, crabs' claws, oyster-
 snells, egg-shells, pearl, coral,  &c.
   TERRENUS.  Terrene, earthy: applied to plants
 which grow in  the  earth only, in opposition to those
 which live only in water.
   Tb'rthra.  (From rtpBpov, a crane.)  The middle
 and lateral parts of the neck.
 -  TERTIAN.  A third-day ague.  See Febris inter-
 mittens.
   Tertian ague.  See Febris intermittens.
   TERTLVNA. See Febris intermittens.
   Tertiana  duplex.   A tertian fever that  returns
 everyday; but the paroxysms are unequal, every other
 fit being alike.
   Tertiana duplicata.  A tertian fever returning
 every other day; but there are two paroxysms in one
 day.
   Tertiana febris. See Fein* intermittens.
   Tertiana triplex.  A tertian fever returning every
.day, every other day there are two  paroxysms, and but
 one in the intermediate one.
   TERTIAN A'RIA.  (From tertiana,  a species of in-
 termittent fever, which is said to be cured by this plant.)
 See Scutellaria galericulata.
   Ter'tium  sal. (From tertius, third.) A neutral salt,
 as being the product of an acid and an alkali, making
 a  third body different from either.
   Tk'ssera.  (From rtooapa, four.)   A four square
 bone. The cuboid bone.
   TEST.  Any reagent which; added  to a substance,
 teaches us to discover its chemical nature or composi-
 tion.  See Reagent.
   TE'STA.   (Qua*i  tosta; from torreo, to  bum.)
 1. A shell.  The oyster-shell.
   2. In botany, it is the  name of the skin which con-
 tains all  the paru of a seed,  as the embryo, the lobes,
 the vitellus, and albumen, and which  gives shape  to
 the seed, for the skin is perfectly formed while they are
 but a homogeneous liquid.  The testa differs in thick-
 ness and  texture in  different  plants.  It to sometimes
 single, but more frequently lined with a finer and very
 delicate film, called by Gertner membrana, as may be
 seen in a walnut, and the kernel of a peach, almond, or
 plum. —Smith-
   Testa probatrix.  A cupel or test.  A pot for sepa-
 rating baser metals from  gold and silver.
   TESTA'DO.   (From  testa,  a  shell: because it to
 covered with a shell.)
   1.  A tortoise, also a snail.
   2. An  ulcer, which, like a snail, creeps under the
 skin.
  Test.e preparat*. Prepared oyster-shells. Wash
the shells, previously cleared of dirt, with boiling water,
then prepare them as to directed with cholk.
  Testes cerebri.  See Tubercula quadrigemina.
  TESTICLE.  See Testis.
  Testicle, swelled.   See Orchitis.
  TESTI'CULUS.  (Te*tictt!u*, diminutive of testis.)
1. A small testicle.
  2. The orchis plant: so named from the resemblance
of iu roots to a testicle.
  Testiculus caninus.  See Orchis mascula.
  TE'STIS.   (Testis,  is, m.; a witness, the testes
being tbe witnesses of our manhood.)   The testicle.
Orchis.  They are also called didymi, and by some
perin.  Two little ovol bodies situated within the scro-
tum, ond covered by  a strong, white, and dense coat,
called tunica albuginea.  Each testicle is composed of
smoll  vessels,  bent in a serpentine direction, arising
from the spermatic artery, and convoluted into little
heaps, separated from one another by cellular partitions.
In each partition there is a duct receiving semen from
the  small vessels; and all the ducu constitute a  net
which  is attached to  the tunica albuginea.  From thto
net-work twenty or more vessels arise, all of which are
variously contorted, and, being reflected, ascend to the
posterior margin of the testis, where they unite into one
common duct, bent into serpentine windings, and form-
ing o hard body called the epididymis.  The spermatic
arteries ore branches of the aorta. The spermatic veins
empty  themselves into the  veno cava and  emulgent
vein.  The nerves of the testicle are branches of the
lumbar and  great intercostal nerve.  The use of the
testicle to to secrete the semen.
  TETANIC.   Tetanicus.   Appertaining to tetanus
or cramp.
  Tetano'mata.  (From rtravoia, to smooth.}  Teta-
nolhra.  Medicines which smooth the skin, and remove
wrinkles.
  TE'TAN US. (Tetanus, t, m.; from rtivta, to stretch.)
Spasm with rigidity.  Convulsio indica ; Holotonicos;
Rigor nervosus.  A genus of disease in the Class Neu
roses, and Order Spasmi, of Cullen; characterized by
a spasmodic  rigidity of almost the whole body.  The
varieties  of tetanus are, 1.  Opisthotonos, where  the
body to thrown back by sposmodic contractions of the
muscles.   2.  Emprosthotonos, the body being bent for-
wards.  3. Trismus,.the locked jaw.  Tetanus is often
symptomatic of syphilis and  worms.
  These affections arise more frequently  in warm cli-
mates than in cold ones, ond ore very apt to occur when
much rain or moisture quickly succeeds excessively dry
and sultry weather.  They attack persons of all ages,
sexes, temperaments, ond complexions, but the male
sex  more frequently than the  female,  and tijose of a
robust  and vigorous constitution than those of a weak
habit.  An idea is entertained by many,'Dr. Thomas
observes, that negroes are more predisposed to attacks
of tetanus than white people; they certainly are more
frequently affected with it, but thto circumstance does
not  arise from  any constitutional  predisposition, but
from their being more  exposed to punctures and wounds
in the feet, by nails, splinters of wood, pieces of broken
gloss, etc. from usually going bore-footed.
  Tetanic affections ore occasioned either by exposure
to cold, or by some irritation of the  nerves, in conse-
quence of local injury by puncture, incision, or lacera-
tion.  Lacerated wounds of  tendinous parts  prove, in
warm climates, a never-failing source of these com-
plainU.   In  cold climates, as well  as in warm, the
locked jaw frequently arises  in consequence of the
amputation of a limb.
  When the disease  has arisen  in  consequence of a
puncture, or  any other external injury, the symptonu
show themselves generally about the eighth day; bu
when it proceeds from exposure to cold, they generally
make their appearance much sooner.
  In some instances it comes  on suddenly, and with
great violence; but it more usually makes its attack in
a gradual  manner; in which cose, a slight stiffness is
at first perceived in the back part of the neck, which,
after a short time, becomes considerably increased, and
at length renders the motion of the head both difficult
and painful.
  With the rigidity of the head there is  likewise on
uneasy sensation at the root of the tongue, together with
some difficulty in swallowing, and a great tightness is
perceived about the chest, witb a pain at the extremity 
TET
TEU
 0/the sternum, shooting into the back.  A stiffness also
 rakes place in the jaws, which soon Increases to such
 a height, that  the teeth become so closely set together.
 as not to admit of the smallest opening.  Thto to what
 to termed tlie locked jaw, or trismus
  In  some cases, the  spasmodic affection extends no
 further.  In others the spasms at thto stage of the dis-
 ease, returning with great frequency become likewise
 more general, and now affect ngt only the muscles of
 the neck  and  jaws,  but likewise  those of the whole
 spine, so as to  bend the trunk of the body very forcibly
 backwards, and  this is what to named opisthotonos.
 Where the body  to bent forwards the diseose is colled
 eraprosthotoiiog.
  During the whole course of tbe disorder, the abdomi-
 nal muscles are  violently affected  with spasm, so that
 the belly to strongly retracted, and feels very hard, mqst
.obstinate costiveness prevails, and  both the flexor and
extensor muscles of the lower extremities are commonly
nffected at the  some lime so  as to keep the limbs rigidly
extended.
  The flexors of  the bead and trunk become at length
so strongly affected, as to balance the action of the ex-
tensor, and to keep the head and  trunk so rigidly ex-
pended and straight, as to render it incapable  of being
moved in any direction.  The arms, which were little
affected before, are now Ukewise rigidly extended, the
jtongue a'so  becomes  affected with spasm, and, being
convulsively darted out, to often much injured by the
teeth at tbat moment snapping together.  It is to this
state  of the disease that the term tetanus has  been
strictly applied.
  The disorder continuing to advance, every organ of
voluntary motion becomes affected; the eyes ore rigid
and  immoveable, the countenance is  hideously  dis-
torted, and expresses great distress; the strength is ex-
hausted, and the  pulse becomes irregular, and one uni-
versal spasm puts a period to a most miserable state of
existence.
  Attacks of  tetanus are seldom attended with  any
fever, but always with violent pain, and the spasms do
not continue for a constancy, but the muscles admit of
some remission in their contraction, which is frequently
renewed, especially  if the  patient makes  the  least
attempt to speak, drink, or alter his position.
  When tetanic  affections arise in consequence of a
 wound, puncture, or laceration, in warm climates, Dr.
Thomas observes, they are almost sure to prove fatal.
 The  locked jaw in consequence  of an amputation,
 likewise proves usually fatal.   When these affections
are produced by an exposure to cold, they may in most
cases be removed by a timely use of proper remedies,
although a considerable space will  probably elapse be-
fore the patient  will be  able  to  recover hto former
Strength.
  On dissectjons of this disease, slight effusions within
the cranium have  been observed in  a few instances:
but in by far the  greater number, nothing has been dis-
 covered, either in the brain,  or any other organ.
  The general indications are, 1. To remove any local
 Irritation, which  may appear to have excited  the dis-
 ieose; 2. To lessen the general irritability, and spas-
 ?iodic tendency; 3. To restore the tone of the system.
  f a thorn, or other extraneous substance, be lodged in
 any part,  it must  be extracted; any spicula  of bone,
 which may have brought on the disease after amputa-
 tion, should be removed; a punctured wound ought to
 be  dilated, tec   Some bave proposed dividing the
 fierve going to  the part, or even amputating this, to cut
 pff the irritation;  others  paralyzing  the  nerves by
 powerful  sedatives,  or destroying them  by caustics;
 Others again exciting a new action in tbe part by active
 stimulants;  but the efficacy, and even propriety of such
 measures, to doubtful.  To fulfil the second indication,
 various means have been proposed.  The abstraction
 of blood,  recommended by Dr. Rush,  might perhaps
 appear advisable in  a vigorous plethoric habit in the
 beginning of the disease, but it has generally proved of
 little utility, or even hurtful, and is rather contra-indi-
 cated by the state of the blood. Purging is a less ques-
 tionable measure, aa costiveness generally attends the
 disease, and in many cases  it has appeared very bene-
 ficial, especially when calomel was employed. It has
 been found also, that a salivation, induced by mercury,
 has sometimes  greatly relieved the disorder; but in
 other instances it  has failed altogether. The remedy
 which has been oftenest employed, and with the most
derided advantage, to opium, and sometimes prodigious
quantities of it hove  hern exhibited;  indeed, mmli
doses are useless.-nnd even large ones hove only a tem-
porary effect, so lhat they must be repealed, as Uie vio-
lence ofthe symptoms  is renewed;  ond where tiie
patient cannot swallow, It  may be tried in glyster, or
freely rubbed into the  skin.  Other sedative and anti-
spasmodic remedies, have been occasionally resorted
to, as hemlock, tobacco, musk, camphor Sec but for
the most part wilh less satisfactory results.  The warm-
bath has sometimes proved a  useful auxiliary in cold
climates; but the cold-bath to much more relied upon,
especially in the West Indies, usually in conjunction
with the  liberal use of opium. In Germany, alkaline
baths, and the internal use of the same remedies, are
stated  to have  been decidedly serviceable.  Othets
have advised the large use of bark and wine, which
seem, however, rather calculated to be preventives, or
to fulfil the third indication; yet wine may be employed
rather as nourishment, since |n severe cases of the dis
ease little else can be taken.  Electricity seems too
hazardous a remedy to be tried in a general  affection,
especially in the  muscles of  respiration;  but if con-
fined to tiie jaw, it may  be useful in a mild form. Al
the period of convalescence the strength must be re-
stored  by suitable diet and medicines, tbe cold-bath,
regular exercise, Sec.; and removing the patient from
the West Indies to a colder climate, till the health is
fully established, would be a very proper precaution.
  Tetartje'us. (Teropraioc, fourth.)  A quartan fever.
  TETRADVNAMIA.   (From rtooapts,  four,  and
Spvapis, power.)  The name of a class of plants in the
sexual  system of Linneus, containing hermaphrodite
flowers, with six stamens, four of which are long, and
two short.
  TETRAGONUS.  Quadrangular, square: applied
to several parts of plants, as Caulis tetragonus, in that
of the Lamium album, and a  multitude of planu; Fo-
lium tetragonium, with four edges, or prominent angles,
as that of Iris tuberosa.
  TETRAGYNIA. (From rtotraptt, four,  and  ywr).
a wife.)  The name of an order of planu in several
of the  classes of the sexual system of Limneus, con-
sisting  of plants which, to the  classic character, what-
ever it is, add the circumstance of having four pistils.
  Tetramy'rum.  (From rtrpas, four, and  pvpov, an
ointment)  An ointment of four ingredienu.
  TETRANDRIA.  (From rtooapts, four,  and  avnp,
a husband.)  The  name of a class of plants in the
sexual system of Linnxus.  To it belong those which
hove hermaphrodite flowers with four stamina of equal
length.
  Tetrangu'ria. (From rerpac four, and ayyos, a cup;
so called  because iu fruit resembles a cup divided into
four paru.)  The citrul.
  TETRAPETALOUS.   Four-petalled: applied to
the flower that consists of four single petals or leaves
placed  around the pistil.
  TETRAPHA'RMACUM.   (From Ttrpas,  four, and
cbappaxov, a drug.)  A medicine composed of four in-
gredienu.
  TETRAPHYLLU8. (From rerpac, four, andan/AAoy,
a leaf.)  Four-leaved.
  TETTER. See Herpes.
  TEU'CRIUM.   (Teucrium, ii, n.; from Teucer,
who discovered it.) The  name of a  genus of planu
in the  Linnrean system.  Class, Didynamia; Order,
Gymnospermia.  The herb speedwell.
  Teucrium  capitatum.  The systematic  name  of
tbe polcy mountain of Montpellier.  Polium znonta-
num.  This plant bears the winter of our cll.nate, and
is generally substituted for the candy-species.
  Teucrium chamedrys. The  systematic name ol
the common germander.  Chamadrys; Chamadrye
minor  repens,  vulgaris; Quercula calamandnna;
Trissago; Chamadrops, of Paulus ASgineta, and Ori
basius.  This plant, called creeping germander, smal
germander, and English treacle; Teucrium—foliis cu-
neiformi-ovatis, incisis,  crenatis, petiolatis ; floribus
ternis; caulibus procumbentibus, subpilosis, of Lin
mens, hos a moderately bitter and somewhat aromatic
teste.  It wos in high repute among the ancients in in
terruittent fevers,  rheumatism, ant gout; and where
an aromatic bitter is wanting, germander may be ad-
ministered with success.   The best time for  gathering
this  herb is when tiie seeds are formed, and the lops
are then preferable to the leaves.  When dry, the dose 
                      THA

 Is from  3 ss. to  3 j.  Either water or spirit will extract
 tfceir virtue;  but the watery infusion to more  bitter.
 This  plant to an ingredient in the once celebrated
 powder  called from  the Duke of Portland, Portland
 powder.
   Trucriotc champ«vitys.  The systematic name of
 the ground-pine. Chamapitys; Arthetica; Arlhfdica;
 •Ajuga;  Abiga; boa arthritica; Holocyron; Ionia;
 Sideritis.  Common ground-pine.  This low hairy
 plant, Teucrium—foliis trifidis, linearibus, intcgerri-
 mis ; floribus  scssilibus, lateralibus, solitariis ; caule
 diffuso, of Linnams,  has a moderately bitter taste, and
 a resinous, not disagreeable smell, somewhat like that
 of the pine.  The tops of leaves are recommended as
 aperients and  corroborants of the nervous system, and
 said to be particularly serviceable in female obstruc-
 tions and paralytic disorders.
   Teucrium creticum.  The systematic name of the
 poley  mountain of Candy.   Polium creticum.  The
 tops and whole herb enter the antiquated compounds
 mithridate  and rften'aea.  The plant is obtained from
 the island of Candy;  has a moderately aromatic smell,
 and a nauseous bitter taste.  It to placed among the
 aperients and corroborants.
  Teucrium  iva.  Chamapitys moschata;  Iva mos-
 chata monspeliensium; Chamapitys anthyllus. French
 ground-pine.   It is weaker, but of similar virtues to
 Chamapitys.
  Teucrium  marum.  The  systematic name of the
 Marum  syriacum; Marum creticum; Majorana sy-
 riaca; Marum verum;  Marum cortusi;  Chamedrys
 incana maritima;  Marum germander, or Syrian herb
 mastich. Thto shrub to the Teucrium—foliis integer-
 rimis ovatis acutis petiolatis, subtus tomentosis ; flori-
 bus racemosis secundis, of Linnaeus. It grows plenti-
 fully in Greece, Egypt, Crete, and Syria.  The leaves
 and younger  branches, when recent, on being rubbed
 between  the  fingers, emit a volatile aromatic smell,
 which readily excites sneezing;  to the taste they are
 bitterish, accompanied with  a sensation of heat and
 acrimony.  Judging from these sensible qualities of the
 plant, it may be supposed to possess very active powers.
 It is recommended as a stimulant aromatic, and deob-
 struent;  and Linnatus, Rosenstein, and Bergius, speak
 highly of iu utility.  Dose, ten grains to half a drachm
of the powdered leaves, given in wine.  At  present,
however, marum is chiefly used as an errhine.
  Teucrium montahum.  The systematic name ofthe
common  poley mountain.
  Teucrium polium.  The systematic  name of the
golden poley mountain.
  Teucrium sconmiTM.  The systematic name of the
Scordium.  Trissago palustris;  Chamadrys palus-
tris:  Allium redolent. Water germander.  The leaves
of this plant have o smell somewhat of the garlic kind,
from  which circumstance it to supposed  to take its
name. to the taste they are bitterish ond slightly pun-
gent.  The  plont wos formerly in high estimotion, but
is now justly fallen into disuse, although recommended
by some in  antiseptic cataplasms aud fomentations.
  TEU'THRUM.  TtvBpov.  The herb polium.  See
 Teucrium polium,
  THA'LAMUS.  (9aXa«oc; Thalamus, i, m. a bed.)
A bed: the term applied to what to supposed to be the
origin of the optic nerve, and to the receptacle of parte
of fructification of plants.  See Receptaculum.
  Thalamus nervi omct.  Two bodies which form
in part the optic nerve, placed near to each other, in
appearance while, protruding at the base of the lateral
ventricles, and running in their direction inwards, a
                    THE

 little downwards, and upwards,  are called tbe Tka-
 lami nervorum opticorum.
  Thalasso'meli.  (From BaXaooa, the sea, and ptXi,
 honey.; A medicine composed of sea-water and honey.
  THALrCTRUM.  ( Thalictrum, ri, n.; from OaXXta,
 to flourish.)   1. The name of a genus of plants in the
 Linmeau system.  Class, Polyandria; Order, Poly-
 gynia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name  of the poor  man's
 rhubarb.  See Thalictrum flavum.
  Thalictrum  flavum.  The systematic name of
 the poor man's rhubarb.  The root of this plant is
 said to  be aperient and  stomachic, and to come very
 near in its virtues lo  rhubarb.  It is a common plant
 in this country, but seldom used medicinally.
  THALLITE.  Epidote, or Pistacite.
  THALLUS.  (From SaXXos, an olive bud, or green
 bough;  from SaMu), to be verdant,  to shoot forth, or
 spread abroad.  A term  applied by Acharius, for the
 frond or foliage of a lichen, whether lhat part be  of a
 leafy, fibrous, scaly, or crustaceous nature.
  THA'PSIA.  (From Thapsus,  tbe island where it
 was found.)  The  name of a genus of planu in the
 Linnaean system.  Class,  Pentandria; Order,Digynia
  Thapsia. asclepias.   The deadly carrot.  The root
 operates violently both upwards and downwards, and
 is not used in the present practice.
  THAPSUS.  (From  the  island  Thapsus.)   The
 great white mullein, or cows' lungwort.
  THE'A.   Tea.  The dried leaves of the tea-tree, of
 which there are two species, viz.  1.  The Thea nigra,
 bohea, or black tea; ond  2. The viridis, or green  tea;
 both of which ore notives of Chino or Japan, where
 they attain the height of  five or six feet.
  Great pains are taken in collecting the leaves singly,
 at three different times, viz. about the middle of Feb-
 ruary, in the beginning of March, and  in April.  Al-
 though some writers assert, that they are first exposed
 to the steam of boiling water,  and then dried on copper
 plates; yet it to now understood that such leaves are
simply dried on iron plotes, suspended over a fire, till
they become dry ond  shrivelled ; when cool, they are
packed in tin boxes to exemde the air, and in that state
exported to Europe.
  Teas are divided in Britain into three kinds of green,
and five of bohea.  The former class includes,
  1.  Imperial or bloom tea, having a targe leaf, a faint
smell, and being of a light green colour.
  2.  Hyson,  which has small curled leaves, of a green
shade inclining to blue.
  3.  Singlo tea, thus  termed from the place where it
is cultivated.
  The boheas comprehend,
  1.  Souchong, which, on infusion, imparts a yellowish
green colour.
  2.  Camho,  a fine tea, emitting a fragrant violet smell,
and  yielding a pale shade; it receives iu name from
the province  where it is reared.
  3. Pekoe tea to known by the small white flowers that
are mixed with it.
  4.  Congo has a laTger leaf than the preceding variety,
and yields a deeper tint to water;  and,
  5.  Common  bohea,  the leaves  of which are of a
uniform green colour. There are besides other kinds
of tea, sold under the names of gunpowder tea,  Sec
which differ from the preceding only in the minuteness
of their  leaves, and being dried with additional care.
  The following  interesting results of experimenu on
tea  by Brande, have been published by him in  his
Journal.
One hundred parts of Tea.
Green Hyson,..........14s.perlb.
Ditto,.................  12s.
Ditto,.................10s.
Ditto,.................  8s.
Ditto,.................  7s.
Black Souchong,.......  12s.
Ditto,.................  10s.
Ditto,.................  8s.
Ditto,.................  7s.
Ditto,.................  6s
Soluble
 Soluble
   in
Alkohol.
44
43
43
42
41
36
37
35
35
31
Precipit
 with
 Jelly.
  Inert
Residue 
THE
THI
   Much has been said and written on the medicinal
 properties of tea; in ite natural slate it is a narcotic
 plant on which account the Chinese refrain from iu
 use till it has been divested of this property by keeping
 it at least for twelve months.   If, however, good tea be
 drunk in moderate quantities,  with sufficient milk and
 sugar, it invigorates  the system, and produces a tempo-
 rary exhilaration; but when token too copiously, it is
 apt to occasion weakness, tremor, palsies, and various
 other symptoms arising from  narcotic planu, while it
 contributes to aggravate hysterical and hypochondriacal
 complainu.  Tea has also been supposed to  posses
 considerable diuretic  and sudorific virtues, which,
 however, depend more on the quantity of warm water
 employed as a  vehicle, than the quantity of  tea iuelf.
 Lastly, as  infusions of these leaves are the safest
 refreshment after undergoing  great bodily fatigue or
 mentol exertion,  they afford an ogreeable beverage to
 those who are  exposed to cold weather; at  the same
 time tending  to support  and  promote perspiration,
 which is otherwise liable to be impeded.
   Thea germanica.   Fluellin or  male speedwell.
 See Veronica officinalis.
   THEBA'IOA.   (A  Thebaide  regione,  from  the
 country about  the ancient  city of Thebes  in Egypt,
 where it flourished )   The Egyptian poppy.
   Thebbsii foramina.  The orifices of veins in the
 cavities of the  heart.
   THE'CA.  (110m rtBnpi, to place.)  A case, sheath,
 or box.  1. The canal of the vertebral column.
   2. The capsule or  dry fructification adhering to the
 apex of a frondose stem.
   Theca  vertebralis. The vertebral canal.   See
 Spine.
   THELY'PTERIS.   (From   6tyUtc,  female,   and
 xrepic, fern.) The female fern.
   THEN Aft   See Flexor brevis pollicis manus.
   THEOBRO MA.   (Theobroma, a, f.; from Btot, the
 gods, and Pptapa, food: so called from the deliciousness
 of iu fruit)  The name of a genus of planu.  Class,
 Polyadelphia; Order, jDeeandria.
   Theobroma  cacao.  The systematic name of the
 tree wbich affords cocoa and chocolate.
   Theodo'ricum.  (From dtoi, the gods, and Siapov, a
 gift.)  The pompous name of some antidotes.
   THERAPEI'A.  (From Btpairtvia,  to heal.)  The-
 rapia.  The art of healing diseoses.   See Thera-
 peutica.
   THERAPEUTICA.   (From Scpaxtvta,  to cure.)
 Therapia.  Methodus medendi.   Therapeutics.  Thot
 branch of medicine which treats of the operation of
 tbe different means employed for curing diseases, and
 of the application of these means.
   THERI'ACA.  (From Sijp,  a viper, or venomous
 Wild beast)   1.  Treacle, or molasses.
   2. A medicine appropriated to the cure of  the bites
 of venomous animals, or to resist poisons.
   Theriaca andromachi.  The Venice or Mithridate
 treacle; a composition of sixty-one ingredienu,  pre-
 pared, pulverized, and with honey  formed  into  an
 electuary.
   Theriaca collestis. Liquid laudanum.
  Theriaca communis.  Common  treacle, or  mo-
 lasses.
   Theriaca damocratis.  The same preparation as
 mithridate.   See Mithridatium.
   Theriaca  eoinensis.  Edinburgh theriaca.  The
 Confectio opii.
  Theriaca germanorum.  A rob  of Jnniper-ber-
 ries.
  Theriaca londinensis.  A cataplasm of cummin-
seed,  bay-berries,  germander, snake-root, cloves,  and
 honey.
  Theriaca rusticoruu.  The roots of the common
garlic werj so called.  See Allium sativum.
  THERIO'MA.  (From Bnpitxa, to rage like a wild
beast) A malignant  ulcer.
  THE'RMA.   A warm-bath or spring.  See JBinero'
teater*, and Bath.
  THERMOMETER.  ( Thermometmm ; from Btppv,
heat, and ptrpov, a measure.)  An instrument  for mea-
suring the degrees of heot  A thermometer to a hollow
tube of gloss,  hermetically sealed, and blown at  one
end in the shape  of a  boHow globe.   The bulb  and
part of the tube are filled with mercury, which to the
only fluid that expands equally.   When we immerse the
fculb of the thermometer in a hot body, the  mercury
      346
  expands, and of course rises in the tube;  but WDM
  we plunge it Into a cold body, tha mercury contracu,
  and of course falls in the tube.
   The rising of the mercury  -ndicates, therefore, an
  Increase  of beat;  iu falling, a  diminution of il; and
  the quantity which it rises or falls, denotes the propor-
  tion of increase or diminution.  To facilitate observa-
  tion, the tube is divided into a number of equal  paru,
  called degrees.
   Further, if we plunge a thermometer ever so often
  into melting snow or ice, it will always stand at the
  same point.  Hence we learn that snow or ice always
  begins to melt at the same temperature.
   If we plunge a  thermometer repeatedly into water
  kept boiling, we find that the  mercury rises up lo a
  certain point.  This is therefore  the  point at which
  woter always boils, provided the pressure or the atmos-
  phere be the same.
   There ore four di (ferent thermometers used at present
  in Europe, differing from each other in the number of
  degrees into which the space between the freezing and
  boiling poinu  to  divided.   These  are Fahrenheit's
  Reaumur's, Celsius's, and Delisle's.
   The thermometer uniformly used in Britain, is Fah-
 renheit's ; in this the freezing point to fixed at 32°—the
  boiling point, at 212° above 0°-^or the part  at which
 both the ascending and descending series of numbers
 commence.
   l/i the thermometer which was first constructed by
 Reaumur, the scale to divided into a smaller number of
 degrees upon the same length, and contains  not  more
 than 80° between the freezing and the boiling pointe.
 The freezing point is fixed in  this thermometer pre-
 cisely at 0°, the  term between tbe ascending and the
 descending series of numbers.   Again, 100 to the num-
 ber  of the degrees between the freezing and the boiling
 poinu in  the scale of Celsius;  which has been intro-
 duced into  France,  since the  revolution, under the
 name of the Centigrade thermometer ; and the freez-
 ing  point to in this, as in the thermometer of Reaumur,
 fixed at 0°.  One degree on  the scale of Fahrenheit
 appears, from this  account, to be equal to 4-9ths of a
 degree on that of Reaumur, and to 5-9ths of a degree
 on that of Celsius.
   The space in Delisle's  thermometer between the
 freezing and boiling points is divided into 150°, but the
 graduation begins  at the boiling point, and  increases
 towards the freezing  point.  The  boiling  point is
 marked 0, the freezing point 150. Hence 180 F. = 150
 D., or 6 F. = 5 D.  To reduce the degree* of Delisle's
 thermometer under the boiling point to those of Fah-
 renheit, we have F. = 212 —• 6-5 D.; to reduce those
 above the boiling, point F. = 212 ■+• 6-5 D.  Upon the
 knowledge of this  proportion it  is easy for the student
 to reduce tbe degrees of any of these thermometers into
 the degrees of any other of tiiem.
   Thieves-vinegar. See Acetum aromaticum.
   THIGH.  See Femur
   THIGH-BONE.  See Femur.
   THIRST.  Sitis. The sensation by wbich we ex-
 perience a desire to drink.  It is variable according to
 individuals, and  it  is rarely uniform  in the same per-
 son.  Generally speaking, it consisu of a feeling of
 dryness, of heat, and  constriction, which reigns in the
 back part of the  mouth, the pharynx, oesophagus, and
 sometimes the stomach.  Though thirst continue but
 for a short time, these paru swell and become red, the
 mucous secretion ceases almost  entirely; that of the
 follicles changes, becomes thick and tenacious;  ihe
 flowing of the saliva  diminishes, and iu viscosity is
 Bensibly augmented.
  These phenomena are accompanied by a vague in-
 quietude, by a general heat; the eyes become red, the
 mind is troubled, the motion of the blood is accelerated,
 the respiration becomes laborious, the mouth  is fre-
 quently opened wide, in order to  bring the external air
 into contact with the irritated paru, and thus to pro-
 duce a momentary ease.
  For the  most part, the inclination to drink to de-
 veloped, when by some oause, for  example, heat and
dryness of the atmosphere, tbe body has lost a great
deal  of fluid;  but it appears under a great many differ-
ent circumstances, such as having spoken long, having
 eaten certain soru of food, or swallowed a substance
 which  remains in the oesophagus, tec  The vicious
habit of frequently drinking, and the desire of tasting
some liquids, such as brandy, wine, tec, cause tha 
THU
THR
developement {of a feeling  which  has the greatest
analogy with thirst                       .  ^ .
  There  are people who never felt thirst, who drink
from  a sort of sympathy, but who could live a long
time witliout thinking of it or without suffering from
the want of it; there are other persons in whom thirst
to often  renewed, and becomes so stiong as to make
them drink from fortyto sixty pints of liquid in twenty-
four hours;  in this respect, great individual  differ-
ences are remarked.
  Thirst to an internal sensation, on instinctive feel-
ing ; it belongs essentially to  the organization, and ad-
miu of no explanation.
  THISTLE.   See Carduus.
   Thistle, carline.  See Carlina acaulis.
   Thistle, holy.  See Centaurea benedicta.
   Thistle, pine.  See Carlina gummifera.
  THLA'SPI.  (Thlaspi, n.; indeclinable: from BXata,
to break; becouse iu seed appears as if it were broken
or bruised.)  1. The name of a genus of planU in the
LimiEeon system.  Class,  Tetradynamia; Order, Sili-
culosa.
  2. The pharmaceutical name ofthe herb penny-cress.
Two species  of thlaspi are directed in some phar-
macopoeias for medicinal  use:—the Thlaspi arvense,
of Liniueus, or treacle mustard; and Thlaspi campes-
tre, of Linneus, or mithridate mustard.  The seeds
of both have an acrid biting taste, approaching to that
of common mustard, with which they agree nearly in
their pharmaceutic qualities.  They have also an un-
pleasant flavour, somewhat of the garlic or onion
Kind.
   Thlaspi irvknse.   The systematic name of the
treacle musurd.  See Thlaspi.
   Thlaspi campestre.  Th • systematic name ofthe
mithridate mustard.  See Thlaspi.
   THORACIC. < Thoracicus; from fAoraz, the chest)
 Belonging to the thorax, or chest.
   Thoracic  nuc-r.   Ductus thoracicus.   Ductus
 Pecquettii.  The trunk ofthe absorbenu; of a serpen-
 tine form, and about tho diameter of a crow-quill.   It
lies upon  the dorsal  vertebre, between the aorta and
 vena azygos, and extends from the posterior opening
 ofthe diaphragm, to the angle formed by the union of
 the left subclavian and jugular veins, into which it
 opens and evacuates iu contenu.  In this course, the
 thoracic duct receives the  absorbent vessels from al-
 most every partof the  body.
   THORAX.  (Thorax, ads, f; from Sopcw, to leap:
 because in it the heart leaps.)  The chest  That part
 of the body situated between the neck and the abdo-
 men.  The external paru of the thorax are, the com-
 mon integuments, the breasu, various  muscles, and
 the bones ofthe thorax.  (See if one, and Respiration.)
 The  parts within the cavity of  llie thorax are,  the
 pleura  and  iu productions, the  lungs, heart, thymus
 gland,  oesophagus, thoracic duct, arch  of the aorta,
 part of the vena cava, the vena azygos, the eighth pair
 of nerves, and part of the great intercostal nerve.
    THORINA.  An,»earth  discovered in 1816 by Ber-
 zelius.  He found it in small q uontities in the godolinite
  of Korarvet, and two new  minerals which he calls the
 -deutofluate of cerium,  and  the double fluate of cerium
  and yttria.  It resembles zirconia.
    To obtain it from those  minerals that contain prot-
  oxide of cerium and  yttria, we must first separate the
  oxide of iron  by succinate of ammonia.  The new
  earth, indeed, may, when alone, be precipitated by the
  succinates; but in the analytical experimenu in which
  iie has obtained  it, it  precipitated in so small a quan-
  tity along with iron, thot he could not separate it from
  Chat oxide.   The deutoxide of cerium to then precipi-
  tated by the sulphate of potassa; after which the yttria
  and the new earth are precipitated together by caustic
  ammonia  Dissolve them in muriatic acid.  Evapo-
  rate the solution to dryness, and pour boiling water on
  the residue, which will dissolve the greatest part of
  the yttria; but the undissolved residue still contains a
  portion of it   Dissolve it in muriatic or nitric acid,
  and evaporate it till  it becomes as exactly neutral as
  possible.  Then pour woter upon it, and boil it for on
  instant.  The new earth to precipitated, and the liquid
  contains disengaged ocid.  By saturating thto  liquid,
  and boiling it a second time, we obtain a new precipi-
  tate of tbe new earth.      ,..._...
    This earth, when separated by the filter, has the ap-
   pearance of a gelatinous, semitransparent mass.  When
washed and dried, it becomes white, absorbs carbonic
acid, and dissolves with effervescence in acids.  Though
calcined, it retains iu white colour; and  when the
heal to which it has been exposed was only moderate,»
dissolves readily in muriatic acid;  but if the heat has
been violent, it will not dissolve till it be digested in
strong muriatic acid.   This solution has a yellowish
colour; but it  becomes colourless  when diluted witb
water, as is the case with glucina, yttria, ond alumina.
If it be mixed with yttria, it dissolves more readily after
having been exposed to heat.  The neutral solutions
of this earth have a purely astringent taste,  which to
neither sweet, nor saline, nor bitter, nor metallic.  In
this property it differs from oil other species of earths,
except zirconia.
  When dissolved in  sulphuric acid with  a slight
excess of acid, and subjected to evaporotion, it yields
transporent crystals, which are not altered by exposure
to the air, and which have a strong styptic  taste.
  This earth dissolves very easily in nitric acid; but
after being heated to redness, it does not dissolve in it
except by  long boiling.  The solution does  not crystal-
lize,  but forms a mucilaginous mass, which becomes
more liquid by exposure to the air, and which, when
evaporated by a moderate heat, leaves a white, opaque
mass, similar to enamel, in a great measure insoluble
in water.
   It dissolves in muriatic acid, in  the same manner as
in nitric acid.  The solution does not crystallize. When
evaporated by a moderate heat, it is converted  into a
syrupy mass, which does not deliquesce in the air, but
dries, becomes white like enamel, and afterward dis-
solves only in very small quantity in water, leaving  a
 subsalt undissolved;  so lhat by spontaneous evapora-
 tion  it leu the portion of muriatic  acid escape to which
 it owed iu solubility.
   This earth  combines with  avidity  with  carbonic
 acid. The precipitates produced  by caustic ammonia,
 or by boiling the neutral solutions ofthe earth in acids,
 absorb carbonic ocid from tlie air in drying. The al-
 kaline carbonates precipitate the earth  combmed with
 tbe whole of their carbonic acid.
   The ferruginous prussiate of-potassa poured into a
 solution of this earth, throws  down a white precipi-
 tate, which  to completely  redissolved  by muriatic
 acid.                        .   ,
   Caustic potassa and ammonia have no  action on
 thto earth newly precipitated, not even  at  a boiling
 temperature.                                .
    The solution of carbonate of potassa, or  carbonate
 of ammonio, dissolves a small quantity of it, which
 precipitates again when  the  liquid is supersaturated
 with an  acid, and  then neutralized  by  caustic am-
 monia ; but this  earth is much  less soluble m the  al-
 kaline carbonates than any  of  the earths formerly
 known that dissolve in them.             ,u r „
    Thorina differs from the other  earths by Ihe follow
 ing properties:—From alumina, by its insolubility in
  hydrate of potassa; from glucina, by llie same property:
  from yttria, by iu purely astringent taste,  without any
 sweetness, and by the property whicli its solutions pos-
 sess of being precipitated by boiling when they do not
  conteln too greot an excess of acid.  It differs from zir-
  conia by the following properties:—1. After being heated
  to redness, it is still capable of being dissolved m acids
  2. Sulphate of polassa does not  precipitote it from iu
  solutions, while it precipitates zirconia from solutions
  containing even a considerable excess of acid.  3. It is
  oreciDitsted  by oxolate of ammonio, which is not the
  cose with zirconia.  4.  Sulphate of  thorina crysia
  lizes readily, while  sulphate of  zirconia, supposing it
  free from alkali, forms, when dried, a gelatinous, trans
  parent mass, without ony trace of crystallization.
    THORINUM.   The supposed metallic  basis of tho
  rina, not hitherto extracted.
    THORN.   See Prunus spinosa.
     Thorn, JEgyptian.  See Acacia vera.
    THORN-APPLE.  See Datura stramonium.
    [THOROUGHWORT.  See  Eupatorium perfeha

  '"THROMBOSIS.  (Thrombosis, is, f.; from BpopSoe i
  The same os thrombus.
    THROMBUS. (Thrombus, i, m.; from Spotia, to dis
  turb I  A smoll tumour which sometimes  arises after
  bleeding, from the  blood escaping from the vein into
  the cellular structure surrounding it
    THRUSH  See Aphtha. 
THY                                           TIB
   Thrt'ptica.  (From Bpmma, to break.)  Medicines
 which are soid to have the power of destroying none*
 in the bladder.
   THULITE. A bard, peach-blossom coloured mineral,
 found at Souland, in Tellemark, in Norway.
   THUMERSTONE.  See Axinite.
   Thu'ris  cortex.   The  cascarilla and  clutheria
 barks were so called.  See Croton cascarilla.
   THUS.  (From Sum, to sacrifice: so called from ite
 great use in sacrifices.)   See Juniperus lyda, and
 Flint* abies.
   Thus judjeorum.   See Toymiama.
   Thus masculum.  See Juniperus lycia.
   THUYA.  (From dvov, odour: so named from its
 fragrant smell.) Thuja. The name of a genus of plante.
 Class, Monacia,-  Order, Monadelphia.
   Thuya occidentals.  The systematic name of the
 tree of life.   Arbor vita.   Thuya—strobilis lavibus ;
 squamis  obtusis,  of Linnteus.  The leaves and wood
 were formerly in high estimation as resolvenu, sudo-
 rifics, and expectorants, and were given in  phthisical
 affections, intermittent fevers, and dropsies.
  Thylaci'tis.   (From  SuXaxoc,  a  seed-vessel: so
 called from its large head.)  The white garden poppy.
  THY'MBR A.   (A name borrowed from Dioscorides,
 Whose real BvpSpa, however, is a species of Saturda.)
 1. The name of a genus of plante. Class, Didynamia;
 Order, Gymnospermia.
  2. See Satureia hortensis.
  Thymbra hispanica. The name given by Tourne-
 fort to the common herb mastich.  See Thymus mas-

  THYME.   See Thymus.
   Thyme, lemon.  See Thymus  serpyUum.
  Thyme, mother of.  See Thymus serpyUum.
  Thymelos'a.   (From Bvuos,  thyme, and tXaia, an
 olive; tbe first alluding to the  leaf, aad the latter to
 the shape and oiliness of the  fruit)   See Daphne
gnidium.
  THYMIA'MA.  (From  Bvpa,  an odour:  so called
 from iu odoriferous smell.)  Muskwood.   Thus juda-
 orum.  A bark in small brownish  gray pieces, inter-
 mixed with bits of leaves, seeming as if the bark and
 leaves had been bruised and pressed together; brought
 from Syria, Cilicia, tec and supposed to be the produce
 of the liquid storax-tree.  This bark has an agreeable
 balsamic smell, approaching to that of liquid storax, and
 a sub-acrid  bitterish taste, accompanied with some
 slight adstringency.
  Thy'mium.  (From Bvpos, thyme;  because it is of the
 colour of thyme.)   A small wart upon the skin.
  Thymoxa' lmk.  (From Bvpos, thyme, ofys, acid, and
 oXc, salt.) A composition of thyme,  vinegar, and salt.
  THY'MUS.   (Thymus, i, m.  Airo rou Svpta,  be-
 cause it was used in faintings; or from $vpa, an odour,
 because of ite fragrant smell.)  1. The name of a genus
 of planu in the Linnean system.  Class, Didynamia;
 Order, Gymnespermia.  Thyme.
   2. The pharmacopoeial name of the common thyme.
 See Thymus vulgaris.
   3. A small  indolent carnous tubercle  like a wart
 arising about the anus, or the pudenda, resembling  the
 flowers of thyme, from whence it takes iu name.
   Thymus citratus.  See Thymus serpyUum.
   Thym-US creticus.  See Satureia capitata.
   Thymus  gland. Bvpos-  A gland of considerable
 size in the  fcetus, situated in the anterior duplicature
 or space of the mediostinum, under the superior port
 of the sternum.   An excretory duct has not yet been
 detected, but lymphatic vessels have been seen going
 from it to the thoracic duct.  Its use to unknown.
   Thymus mastichina.  The systematic name of the
 common herb mastich.  Marum vulgare; Sampsu-
 chus; dinopodium mastichina gallorum;  Thymbra
 hyspanica; Jaca indica. A low shrubby plant, a native
 of Spain, which is employed as  an crrhine. It has a
 strong agreeable smell, like  mastich. Iu virtues are
 similar to those  of  the  Marum syriacum, but  less
 powerful.
   Thymus  skrpyllum.  The systematic name of the
 SerpyUum;  Serpillum; Gilarum ;  SerpyUum vulgare
 jninus.  VVild or mother of thyme.  Thymus-ifleribua
 capilatis, caulibus repentibus, foliis planis obtusis
 basi ciliatis, of Linneus.  This plant has the same
 sensible qualities as those ofthe garden thyme, but has
 a milder ond rather more grateful flavour. Lemon
 thyme, the SerpyUum citratam, is merely a variety of
this plant.  It is wry pungent, and has a particularly
grateful odour, approaching to that of lemona.
  Thymus vuloaris.  The systematic name of tha
common thyme.  This herb, Ihe Thymus—erectue/oliie
revolutis ovalis, floribus verticillalo spicatis, of Lin-
neus, has an agreeable aromatic smell,  ami a warm
pungent taste.  Ite virtues ote said to be resolvent, em
menogogue, tonic, and stomachic ; yet there to no dis-
eose mentioned in which iu use to particularly recom-
mended by any writer on the materia medica.
  THYRO.   Nome* compounded with thto word be-
long to muscles which are attached to the thyroid car
tilage; as,
  Thyro arytanoideus.  A muscle  situated about
the glottis, which pulls the arytenoid cartilage forward
nearer to the middle of tlie thyroid, and consequently
shortens and relaxes the ligament ofthe larynx.
  Thybo-byoidbus. , A muscle situated  between tha
os hyoides and trunk, which pulls the os hyoides down-
wards, and the thyroid cartilage upwards.
  Thyro-pharynoeus.  See Constrictor pharyngis
inferior.
  Thyro-pharynoo-btaphilinus.  See Palate pha-
ryngeus.
  Thyro-staphilinus.  Bee Palate pharyngeus.
  THYROID.  (Thyroideus; from Svpeos, a shield,
andeidoc, resemblance; from iU supposed resemblance
to a shield.)  Resembling a shield.
  Thyroid cartilaoe.  Cartilago thyroidea; Gdrti
lago scutiformus. Scutifonn cartilage. Thecartilaga
which is placed perpendicular to the cricoid cartilages
of the larynx, constituting the anterior, superior, and
largest part of the larynx.  It is  harder aid more pro-
minent in men than in womeu, in whom  it forms tha
pomum adami.
  Thyroid gland.   Glandula  thyrtidea.   A large
gland situated upon  the cricoid cartilage, trachea, and
horns of the thyroid cartilage.  It is uncertain whether
it be conglobate or  conglomerate.,  Iu excretory duct
has never been detected, and iu use to not yet known.
  THYRSUS.  (Thyrsus, i, m., a young sprout.) In
botany, a bunch, or dense and <:lose pannicle, more oi
less of an ovate form. It to oblong in Tussilago hybnda,
and ovate in Tussilago petasites.
  TI'BIA.  (Tibia,  the hautboy; qu. tubia, from tuba,
a tube: so called from its pipe-like shape.)   Focile
majus;  Arundo major; Fosilvs; and, from iU resem-
blance to an  old musical instrument, Canna major;
Canna-domestica cruris.  The largest bone of the leg.
It is of a long, thick, and triangular shape, and Is situ-
ated on the internal port of the leg. Iu upper extremity
is large, and flattened al iu summit, where we observe
two articulating surfaces, a little concave, and sepa-
rated from each other by an intermediate irregular
protuberance.  Of these two cavities, the internal one
to deepest, and of an oblong shape, while the external
one  is rounded, and more superficial.  Each of these,
in the recent subject, is covered by  a cartilage, which
extends to the intermediate protuberance, where it ter-
minates.  These two little cavities receive the condyles
of the os femoris, and the eminence between them to
admitted into the cavity which to seen between the two
condyles of that bone; so that thto articulation affords
a specimen of the complete ginglymus.  Behind the in-
termediate protuberance, or tubercle, is a preuy  deep
depression, which serves for the attachment of a liga-
ment, aad likewise  to separate  the two cavities  from
each other. Under the edge of the external cavity ia a
circular flat  surface,  covered with cartilage, which
serves for the articulation of the fibula; and at tbe fore-
part of tbe bone is a considerable tuberosity of an inch
and a half in  length, to which the strong  ligament of
the rotula is fixed.
  The body of the tibia is smaller than iu extremities,
and, being of a triangular shape, affords three surfaces.
Of these,  the  external one to broad, and slightly hoi-
lowed by muscles above and  below; the internal sur-
face is broad and flat, and the posterior surface is nar-
rower than the other two, and nearly.cylindrical  This
last has a slight ridge running obliquely across it, from
tbe outer side of the upper end of tbe bone to about
one-third of its length downwards.  A Bttto) below this
we observe a passage for the medullary vessels, which
is pretty considerable, and slanu obliquely downwards.
Of the three  angles  which separate these surfaces, the
anterior one,  from its sharpness, to called  the  spine or
shin.  This ridge to  not straight, but describes a figure 
TIL
TIN
like an Italic /, turning first Inwards, then outwards,
nnd lastly inwards agoin.  The external  angle is more
rounded, and serves for the attachment of the interos-
seous ligament; and the internal one to more rounded
still by the pressure of muscles.
  The tibia enlarges again at iu  lower extremity, and
terminates in a pretty deep cavity, by which it is arti-
culated with the uppermost bone of the foot.  Thto
cavity, in the recent subject, is  lined with cartilage.
IU  internal side is formed into a considerable process,
called malleolus inlerntt*, which, in iu situation, resem-
bles the styloid process of «ne radius.  Thto process is
broad,  and of considerable thickness, and from its liga-
menU  are extended to the foot.  At its  back part  we
find a groove, lined vvith a thin layer of cartilage, in
which  slide  tho  teijdons  of the flexor  digitorum
longus, and of the tibialis posticus; and a little behind
this to a smaller groove, for the  tendon of tbe flexor
longus  pollicis.  On the side opposite to the malleolus
internus, the cavity to interrupted, ond immediately
above it is a rough triangular depression, which is fur-
nished  with cartilage, and receives the lower end ofthe
fibula.
  The  whole of thto lower extremity of the bone seems
to be turned somewhat outwards, so that the malleolus
interims to situated more forwards than the inner bor-
der ofthe  upper extremity ofthe bone.
  In Ihe fcetus, both ends of the tibia are cartilaginous,
and become afterward epiphyses.
  TIBIAL.   (Tibialis; from tibia, the bone Of the  leg,
so colled.)  Belonging to the tibia-
  Tim al  artery.  Arteriatibialis. The two princi-
pal branches of the popliteal artery: the one proceeds
forwards, ond is called  the  anterior tibial; the other
backwards, and is called the posterior tibial; of which
 he external tibial, the fibular, the external and internal
plantar, and the plantal arch, are branches.
  TIBIALIS. See Tibial.
  Tibialis  anticus.   Tibio-sus-metatarsien, of Du-
mas.   A flexor muscle of the foot, situated on the  leg,
which  bends the foot by drawing it upwards, and at the
same time turns the toes inwards.
  Tibialis gracilis   See Plantaris.
' Tibialis posticus.   Tibio-tarsien, Of Dumas.   A
flexor muscle of the foot, situated on the leg, which ex-
tends the foot, and turns the toes inwards.
  TIC DOULOUREUX.    A painful affection of  a
nerve, so called from  ite sudden and momentary excru-
ciating stroke. The  more  appropriate  name is neu-
ralgia.  It  mostly attacks the face, particularly that
branch of the fifth pair, which comes out of the infrs-
orbitary foramen.
  Ti'olia grana. See Croton tiglium.
  TILBURY.  A small town in Essex, celebrated for
lufort.  A mineral water is found ot West Tilbury.  It
is on aperient and chalybeate now seldom used medici-
nally.
  TILE ORE.  A species of octahedral red copper  ore.
  TI'LIA.  (Tilia, a, f.; XV]tXea, ulmus, the elm-tree.)
 1.  The name of o genus of planu in the Linnean  sys-
 tem.   Closs, Polyandria; Order, Monogynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the lime, or linden-
 tree.  See Telia europaa.
  Tilia europjea  The systematic name ofthe lime-
 tree.  The flftwers of this tree are supposed to possess
 anodyne and antispasmodic virtues.  They ha ve a mo-
 derately strong smell, in which  their virtue seems  to
 consist, and abound with a strong mucilage.  They are
 in  high esteem in France.  See Tilia.
   Tilli grawa.   See Croton tiglium.
   TI'LMUS. (From nXXia, to pluck.)   Floccitatio, or
 picking of bed-clothes, observable in the last stages  of
 some disorders.
    [TILTON, James, M.D. was born in the county of
 Kent, in the state of Delaware, in June, 1745.  His
 father, dying when he was very young, left him to the
 eare of his mother, with very  slender means.  Not-
 withstanding thto, be found means to study a profession,
 and obtained his degree  of doctor in medicine from
 the University of Pennsylvania.  He then commenced
 practice  in  his  native State, and was successful  in
 establishing himself, but the troubles of the revolution
 soon commenced, and in 1776 he joined the  army of
 the United States as a surgeon,  and was afterward
 promoted «p the  grade of hospital surgeon.  After the
 successful  termination of  the  revolutionary contest,
  when Dr.Tilton  saw his country free and independent,
he once more retired to bis native state, and recom-
menced the practice of his profession, which he con-
tinued for many years with distinguished reputation
and abilities.   In 1812, he had retired to hto country-
seat in the neighbourhood of Wilmington,  when he
wos agoin called to toke an active part  in a new
contest with our old enemy.  After the declaration of
war against Great Britain, Dr. Tilton was  appointed
Physician and Surgeon General of the United Stales
Army, and continued to. act in that capacity during the
three years of the war.
  As a physician Dr. Tilton was bold and decided; he
never temporized with disease.   Hto remedies were
few in number, but generally  of an active kind.  He
died in May, 1822, nearly 77 years old.  His  publica-
tions were few, but valuable  aud useful.  Hto friend,
Dr. McLane, in a  eulogy to  hto  memory, gives the
following summary of his character:
  " In whatever view we may consider the character
of Dr. Tilton, we shall find many trails to distinguish
him from other men.  He was in many respects an
original; wholly  unlike most other men in person,
countenance, manners,  speech, gesture, and habits.
His height was about six feet and a half, and his struc-
ture slender.   Whether he walked or sat still;  whether
in conversation or mute ; whether he ate, drank, or
smoked; whether in a grave mood or indulging in his
loud laugh, all was in a style peculiar to himself, and
most remarkable.  For honesty and frankness he was
proverbial;  in these important poinu he  had few
equals, certainly no superiors.   His whole life afforded
a luminous example of the effecu of deep-rooted prin-
ciples and moral rectitude upon the conduct of men;
and we have the  fullest assurance to believe that he
has reached those realms of peace and happiness, from
which he can never be separated;  and has become the
'just man made perfect'"—Thach. Med. Biog.   A.]
  Timac.  The gome of a root imported from the East
Indies, which ierSaid to possess diuretic virtues, and
therefore exhibited in dropsies.  It is not known from
whot plant it is obtained.
  TIN.  Stannum.  Jupiter of the alchemists.  It has
been much doubted whether this metal is found native.
In the opinion of Kirwan, there are sufficient authori
ties to determine the question in the affirmative. The
native oxide  ef tin, or  tin stone, occurs both massive
and crystallized.  Iucolour to a dark brown, sometimes
yellowish-gray.   When  crystallized, it is somewhat
transparent.  The 10000" tin ore is a variety of the na-
tive oxide, termed  so from its  fibrous texture.  This
variety has hitherto been found  only in Cornwall.  It
occurs in fragmenU which are generally round, and its
colour is brown, sometimes inclining to yellow.  Tin is
also found mineralized by sulphur, associated always
with a portion of copper, and  often of iron.   This ore
to called tin pnrites.  Its colour to yellowish-gray.  It
has a metallic' lustre, and a fibrous or lamellated tex-
ture ; sometimes it exhibits prismatic colours.  Tin is
comparatively a rare metal, as it to not found in great
quantity any where but  in Cornwall or Devonshire;
though it to likewise met with  in the mines of Bohemia,
Saxony, the  island of Banca,  the peninsula of Ma-
lacca, and in tho East Indies.
   Tin is a metal of a yellowish-white colour, consi-
derably harder than lead, scarcely  at all sonorous, very
malleable, though not very tenacious.  Under the ham-
mer it is extended into leaves, called tin-foil, which are
about one thousandth of an inch thick, and might easily
be beaten to less  than half that thickness, if the pur-
poses of trade required it.  Iu specific gravity to 7.29.
It melu at about the 442° of Fahrenheit's thermometer;
and by a continuance of the heat it to slowly converted-
into a white powder by oxidation.  Like lead, it is-
brittle when  heated almost to fusion, and exhibits a
grained or fibrous texture if broken by the  blow of a
hammer.   It may also be granulated  by  agitation  at
the time  of its transition from the fluid to the solid
state.  The oxide of tin resists fusion more strongly than
that of any other  metal; from which property it is
useful to form an opaque white enamel when mixed'
with pure gloss in fusion. The brightness of its surface,
when scraped, soon goes off by exposuretothe oir; but
it is not subject to rust or corrosion by exposure to the
 weather.                        ,,._,..,.
   To obtain pure tin, the metal should be boiled in nitno
 acid, and the oxide which falls down reduced by heat1
in contact with charcoal, 1» a covered crucible. 
TIN                                             TIN
     There are two definite  combinations of tin and
   oxygen.  The first or protoxide is gray: the second or
   peroxide, to white.  The first is formed by heating tin in
   the air, or by dissolving tin in muriatic acid, ond adding
   water of potassa to the solution  while recent nnd
   before it has been  exposed to  air.  The precipitate,
   after  being heated to whiteness to expel  the water of
   the hydrate,  is the  pure protoxide.  It to convertible
   into the peroxide by being boiled with dilute nitric acid,
   dried and ignited.
     There are  also two  chlorides  of tin.  When tin to
   burned in chlorine, a very volatile clear liquor is formed,
   a non-conductor of electricity, and which, when mixed
   with  a little  woter, becomes a solid crystalline sub-
   stance, a true muriate of tin, containing  the peroxide
   of the metal.  This, which has been called the liquor
   of Libavius, may be also procured by heating together
   tin-filings and corrosive sublimate, or an  amalgam of
   tin and corrosive sublimate.  Tbe other compound of
   tin and chlorine is a gray seniitransporent crystalline
   solid.   It may be procured by  heating together an
   amalgam of tin ond calomel.  It dissolves in water,
   and forms a solution, wbich rapidly absorbs oxygen
   from the air, with deposition of peroxide of tin.
     There are two sulphurets of tin.  One moy be made
   by fusing tin  and  sulphur together.  It is of a bluish
   colour, and lamellated texture.  It consisu of 7.35 tin
   -(- 2 sulphur.   The other sulphuret, or the bisulphuret,
   is made by heating  together the  peroxide of tin and
   sulphur.  It to of a beautiful gold colour, and appears
   iu fine flakes.
     The salu of tin are characterized by tbe following
   general properties:—
     1. Ferro-prussiote of potassa gives a white precipi-
   late.
     2. Hydrosulphuret of potassa, a brownish black with
   the protoxide; and a golden yellow with the peroxide.
     3. Galls do  not affect the solutions of these sails.
     4. Corrosive sublimate occasions  eiDlack precipitate
   wilh the protoxide salu; a white with the peroxide.
     5. A plate of lead  frequently throws down metallic
   tin, or iu oxide, from tbe saline solutions.
     6. Muriate of gold gives, with the protoxide solutions,
   the purple precipitate of Cassius.
     7. Muriate of platinum occasions an orange preci-
   pitate with tiie protoxide salts.
     Concentrated sulphuric acid, assisted by heat, dis-
   solves half ite weight of tin, at the same time that sul-
   phurous gas escapes in great plenty.
     Nitric acid and tin combine together  very rapidly
   without the assistance of heat
     The muriatic acid dissolves tin very readily, at the
   same time that it becomes of a darker colour, and ceases
   lo iemit fumes.
     Aqua regia, consisting of two  parte nitric and one
   muriatic  acid, combines wilh tin wilh effervescence,
   and the developement of much heat.
     The acetic acid scarcely acts upon tin.  The opera-
   tion of other  acids upon thto metal bas been little in-
   quired into.  Phosphate, fluate, and borate of tin  have
   been formed by precipitating the muriate with tbe re-
^   spective neutral salts.
     If the crystals of  the saline combination of copper
   with the nitric acid be grossly powdered, moistened,
    nd rolled up in tinfoil, the salt deliquesces,  nitrous
   fumes are emitted, the mass becomes hot, nnd suddenly
   takes fire.   In thto experiment, the rapid transition of
   the nitric acid to the tin to supposed to produce or de-
   velope heat enough to set fire to the nitric salu; but by
   what  particular changes of capacity, has not  been
   shown.
     If small pieces of phosphorus  be thrown on tin in
   fusion, it will  lake up from 15 to 20 per cent, and form
   a silvery while phosphuret of a foliated  texture, and
   soft enough to be cut with a knife, though but little
   malleable.  This phosphuret may be  formed likewise
   by fusing tin filings with concrete  phosphoric acid.
     Tin  unites with  bismuth by fusion, and becomes
   harder and more brittle in proportion to the quantity of
   that metal added.  With nickel it forms  a white bril-
   liant moss.   It cannot cosily be united in the direct
   way with arsenic, on account of the volatility of this
   metal; but by heating it with the combination of the
   arsenical acid and potassa, the salt is partly decom-
   posed; and the tin combining with  tbe acid, becomes
   converted into a brilliant brittle compound, of a plaited
   textu re.  It has been said, thai all tin contains arsenic:
         350
 and that the crackling noise which is heard upon bemf
 ing pieces of tin, is produced by this  impurity; put
 from the experiment of Bayen, this appeors not to be
 the foct.  Cobalt unites with tin by fusion, and forms
 a grained mixture of acolour slightly inclining to violet
 Zinc unites very well wilh tin, Increasing iu hardness
 ond diminishing iu ductility, in proportion as the quan-
 tity of zinc Is greater.
  This to oneof the principal additions used In making
 pewter, which consisu for the most pnrt of tin.
  Antimony forms a very brittle, hard mixture with tin.
 Tungsten fused with twice its weight of tin, affords a
 brown spongy mass, which is somewhat ductile.
  The uses of tin are very numerous, and so well
 known, thot  they scorcely need bo pointed out.  The
 tinning of iron and copper, the silvering of looking-
 glasses, and the fabrication of a great variety of ves-
 sels and utensils for domestic and other uses, arc among
 the advantages derived from this metal.
  TI'NCA.  (TVnca, a, f.; quasi tinda: so colled, be
 cause it appears as if it were dyed.)  The name of a
 genus of fishes.   The tench.
  Tince  os.  The mouth of the uterus to so called by
 some writers from ite resemblance to a tenche's mouth.
  TINCAL.   Crude borax, as it is Imported from the
 East Indies in yellow greasy crystals.  See  Borax.
  TINCTORIUS.  (From tingo, to dye.)   An epithet
 of  a species  of broom used by dyers.   The  genista
 tinctona of Linnsus.
  TINCTU'RA.   (From  tin^o, to  dye.)  A tincture.
 A solution of any substance in  spirit of wine.   Recti-
 fied spirit of wine is the direct menstruum of the  re-
 sins, and essential oils of vegetables, and totally extracts
 these active principles from sundry vegetable matters,
 which yield them to water not at all, or  only in part.
 It dissolves likewise the sweet saccharine matter of
 vegetables, and generally those parts of animal bodies
 in which their peculiar smell and taste reside.
  The virtues of many vegetables ore extracted almost
 equally by water and rectified spirit; but in the watery
 and spirituous tinctures of them  there  is this differ-
 ence, that the active paru in  the watery extractions
 ore blended with a  large proportion of inert gummy
 matter, on which their solubility in this menstruum in
 o greet measure depends, while  rectified spirit extracts
 them almost  pure from gum.  Hence, when the spirit-
 uous tinctures are mixed with watery liquors, a part of
 what the spirit had taken up from the subject generally
 separates and subsides, on account of iu having been
 freed from that matter, which, being blended with it in
 the original vegetable, made it soluble in water. This,
 however,  is not universal, for the active parts of some:
 vegetables, when extracted by rectified spiriu, are not
 precipitated by water,  being almost soluble in  both
 menstrua. -
  Rectified spirit may  be tinged  by vegetables of all
 colours, except blue.   The leaves of planu, in general,
 will give  out little of their natural colour  to watery
liquors, but communicate to spirit the whole of their
 green tincture, which for the most part proves elegant,
 though not very durable.
  Fixed alkaline  salts deepen the colour of spirituoiu
 tinctures; and hence they have been supposed to pro-
 mote the  dissolving  power of the menstruum, though
 this does not  appear  from experience.  In the trials
 which have been made, no more wos found to be taken
 up in the deep-coloured tinctures than in the paler ones,
and often not so much.  If the  alkali  be added offer
the extraction of the  tincture, it will heighten the co*
lour as much as when  mixed with  the ingredienu at
first  The addition of these salu  in making tinctures
to not only, needless but  prejudicial, as they generally
injure the flavour of aromatics, and superadd a qua-
lity  sometimes contrary to the  intention of the medi-
cine.
  Volatile alkaline salts, in many coses, promote the
action of the spirits.   Acids generally weaken it; un
less when the ocid hos been previously combined with
 the  vinous spirit  into a compound of new qualities,
called dulcified spirit.
  Tinctura  aloes.   Tincture of aloes.  Takeof the
extract of spike aloe, powdered, half on ounce; ex-
tractof liquorice, an  ounce and a half; water, a pint;
rectified spirit, four fluid ounces.  Macerate  in a sand-
 bath until  the extrocu ore dissolved, and then strain
 This preparation possesses stomachic and  purgative
qualities, but should uever be given where there to a 
TIN
TIN
tendency  to  hemorrhoids.   In chlorotic  cases and
amenorrhea, it to preferred to other purges.  The dose
is from half to a whole fluid ounce.
   Tinctura aloes composita.  Compound tincture
of aloes, formerly called Elixir aloes; Elixir propri-
etatis.  Take of extract of  spiked  aloe,  powdered
saffron, of each three  ounces; tincture of myrrh, two
pinu.  Macerate for fourteen days, nnd strain.  A more
stimulating compound than the former.  It is a useful
application 10 old  indolent ulcers.  The dose to from
half a fluid drachm to two.
   Tinctura aloes vitriolata.  With the bitter in-
fusion, a drachm or two of  this elegant tincture is ex-
tremely serviceable against gouty and rheumatic affec-
tions of  tbe  stomach and  bowels, and also in  the
weaknesses of those organs which frequently attend old
age.
   Tinctura  assaf(etid*.   Tincture of ossafretida,
formerly  known by  the nome  of tinctura fatida.
Toke of assafcetida, four ounces; rectified spirit, two
pinu.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  Diluted
with water, thto is mostly given in all kinds of fiu, by
the vulgar.  It is a useful preparation  as an antispas-
modic, especially in  conjunction with  sulphate of
zinc.  The dose to from half a fluid drachm to two.
   Tinctura  aurantii.   Tincture of  orange-peel,
formerly  tinctura corticis aurantii.  Take of fresh
orange-peel, three  ounces; proof  spirit,  two pinu.
Macerate for fourteen  days, and strain.  A mild and
pleasant stomachic bitter.
   Tinctura  benzoini composita.   Compound tinc-
ture of benzoin, formerly known  by the  names of
tinctura benzoes composita, and balsamum traumati-
sm.  Takeof benzoin,  three ounces; thorax balsam,
strained, two ounces;  balsam of Tolu, an ounce; ex-
tract of spiked alOe,  half an ounce; rectified spirit,
two  pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.
This tincture is more generally applied externally to
ulcers and wounds than  given  internally, though pos-
sessing expectorant,  antispasmodic,  and stimulating
powers.  Against coughs, spasmodic affections of the
stomach and bowels,  and diarrhoea,  produced by ul-
cerations of those parte, it to  a very excellent medi-
cine.  The dose, when given internally, to from half a
fluid drachm to two.
   Tinctura  calumba.   Tincture of calumba, for-
merly called  tinctura  columba.  Take of columbo-
root, sliced, two ounces and a half; proof  spirit, two
pinu.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain. This
tincture contains  the  active part of the root, and to
generally given with the infusion of it, as a stomachic
and adstringent.
   Tinctura   camphor*;   composita.    Compound
tincture of camphor, formerly called tinctura opii cam-
phorata, and elixir paregoricum.  Take of camphor,
two scruples; opium, dried and powdered, benzoic
acid, of each a drachm; proof spirit,  two pints.  Ma-
cerate for fourteen days,  and strain.   The London col-
lege has changed tbe name of this preparation, because
it was occasionally the source of mistakes under iu
old one, and tincture of opium was sometimes substi-
tuted for it  It differs  also from the former preparation
In the omission of the oil of aniseed, which was often
complained of as disagreeable to tbe palate, and to
which, as  an addition, no increase of power could be
affixed. The dose is from half a fluid drachm to half a
fluid ounce.
   Tinctura  cantharidis.  Tincture of blistering fly.
Formerly  colled Tinctura lytta; Tinctura canlhari-
dum.  Take of blistering flies, bruised, three drachms;
proof spirit, two pinte.  Macerate for fourteen days,
and strain.  In the last edition of the London Pharma-
copoeia, the colouring matter of the  former prepara-
tion to omitted as useless, and the proportion of the fly
increased.  It is a very acrid, diuretic, and stimulating
preparation, which should always be administered with
great caution from ite known action on the parts of
generation.   In  chronic eruptions on the skin, and
dropsical diseases of  the aged, it is often very useful
when other medicines have been inert.  The dose to
from half a fluid drachm to two.
   Tinctura  capsici.  Tincture of capsicum.  Take
of capsicum-berries, an ounce; proof spirit, two pinu.
Macerate for fourteen days,  and strain.
   Tinctura  cardamomi.   Tincture of cardamom.
Take of cardamom-seeds, bruised, three ounces ; proof
spirit, two pinte.   Macerate for  fourteen  days, and
strain.   A powerful stimulating  carminative*,   f-
sposm of the stomach, on ounce, with some other1 dl
luted stimulant, to given with advantage.  The dose
may vary according  to  circumstances, from  half a
drachm to an ounce and upwards.
  Tinctura cardamomi composita.  Compound tinc-
ture of cardamom, formerly called tinctura stomachica.
Take nf cardamom-seeds, carroway-seeds, cochineal,
of :each, powdered, two drachms;  cinnamon-bark,
bruised, half an ounce;  raisins, stoned, four ounces;
proof spirit, two pinte.  Macerate jfor fourteen dayst
and strain. A  useful and elegant carminative ana
cordial.   The dose from half a fluid drachm to half a
fluid ounce and upwards.
  Tinctura cascarilla:.   Tincture of  cascarilla.
Take of coscorillo-bork, powdered, four ounces; proof
spirit, two pints.  Macerate  for fourteen  days, and)
strain.   A stimulating aromatic tonic, thai may  be ex-
hibited in debility of the bowels and stomach, and in
those cases of fever in which the Peruvian bark proves
purgative.  The dose from  half a  drachm lo two-
drachms.
  Tinctura castorei.  Tincture of castor.  Take
of castor, powdered, two ounces; rectified spirit, two
pinu. Macerate for seven days, and strain.  A power-
ful stimulant and antispasmodic, mostly exhibited in
hysterical affections in a dilute form.  The dose is
from half a fluid drachm to two.
  Tinctura catechu.  Tincture of catechu,  for-
merly known by the name tinctura japonica.  Take
of extract of catechu, three ounces; cinnamon-bark,
bruised, two ounces; proof spirit, two pints.  Macerate
for fourteen days, and strain.  An aromatic adstrin-
gent, mostly given in  protracted diarrhoea.  The dose
is from half a fluid drachm to two.
  Tinctura cinchon*. Tincture of cinchona. For-
merly known by the name of  tinctura corticis peruvi-
ani simplex.   Take  of lance-leaved cinchona-bark,
powdered, seven ounces; proof spirit, two pints. Ma-
cerate for fourteen days, and strain.  The dose is from
a fluid  drachm to half a fluid ounce.  For ite virtues,
see Cinchona.
  Tinctura  cinchona ammoniata.  Ammoniated
tincture of cinchona.  Volatile tincture of bark.   Take
of lance-leaved cinchona-bark, powdered, four ounces;
aromatic spirit  of ammonia, two pinu; macerate for
ten days, and strain.
  Tinctura cinchon.e composita.  Compound tinc-
ture of cinchona.   Take of  lance-leaved  cinchona-
bark, powdered, two ounces; orange peel, dried, an
ounce  and a  half;  serpentary-root, bruised,  three
drachms; saffron, a drachm; cochineal, powdered, two
scruples; proof spirit, twenty fluid ounces.  Macerate
for fourteen days, and strain.  The dose to from one
fluid drachm to  half a fluid ounce.  For iu virtues, see
Cinchona.
  Tinctura  cinnamomi.   Tincture of  cinnamon
Formerly called aqua cinnamomi fortis. Toke of cin-
namon-bark, bruised, three ounces; proof spirit, two
pints.  Mocerotc for  fourteen doys, ond strain. The
dose is from a fluid drachm to three or more.
  Tinctura cinnamomi composita.  Compound tinc-
ture of cinnamon. Formerly colled tinctura aromatica.
Take of cinnamon-bark, bruised, six drachms;  carda-
mom-seeds,, bruised, three drachms; long pepper, pow
dercd, ginger-root, sliced, of each two drachms; firoo.
spirit, two pinte.  Macerate  for  fourteen days, and
strain.   The dose is from half a fluid drachm to two
or more.
  Tinctura digitalis.  Tincture of fox-glove.  Take
of fox-glove leaves, dried, four ounces; proof spirit,
two pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and  strain
This tincture is introduced in the London Pharmaco-
poeia as possessing the properties of the plant in a con
venient, uniform, and permanent form; it is a saturated
tincture, and in  the same proportions has been long
used in general practice.  The dose is from ten to forty
minims.  For its virtues, see Digitalis.
  Tinctura ferri acetatis.  This preparation  is
directed in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, with acetate of
potassa, two ounces; sulphate of iron, one ounce; and
rectified spirit, two pints.
  Tinctura ferri ammoniati.  Tincture of ammo-
niated iron, formerly called tinctura ferri ammoniaca-
lis; tinctura fiorum martialium ; tinctura martis myn-
sichti.  Take of ammoniated iron, four ounces; prool
spirit, a  pint.    Digest and strain.  This  is a mosi 
TIN
TIN
 eacelleMehaiybeate in all atonic affections, and any be
 given with cinchona in the cure of dropsical and oilier
 cachectic diseases.  The dose is  from half a fluid
 drachm to two.
   Tinctura ferri muriatis.  Tincture of muriate
 of iron  Formerly called tinctura martis  in spiritu
 salis; tinctura martis cum spiritu salis;  and lately
 known by the name of tinctura ferri muriati.  Take
 of aubcaroonate of iron, half a pound; muriatic acid, o
 pint; rectified spirit, three pints. Pour the acid upon
 the subcarbonate of iron in a glass vessel, and shake it
 occasionally for three days. Set it by that the faxes, if
 there be any, may subside; then pour off the solution,
 and add the spirit  Cline strongly recommends this in
 ischuria and many diseases of tlie kidneys and urinary
 passages,  The dose is from ten  to twenty drops. It to
 a good chalybeate, and serviceable against most dis-
 eases of debility wilhout fever.
   Tinctura gentian* composita. Compound tinc-
 ture of gentian.   Formerly  called tinctura  amara.
 Take of gentian-root, sliced, two ounces; orange-peel,
 dried,  an ounce;  cordomom-seeds, bruised,  half  an
 ounce; proof spirittwo pints.   Macerate for fourteen
 days, with a gentle heat, and strain.  The dose is from
 one fluid drachm to two.   For its virtues, see Gentiana.
   Tinctura guaiaci.   Tincture of guaiacum.  Take
 of guaiacum  resin, powdered, half  a pound;  rectified
 spirit,  two pinu.  Macerate for fourteen  days, ond
 strain. Thto  tincture, which  possesses all  the  active
 paru of this  peculiar vegetable matter, to now first
 introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia.  Tlie dose
 to from one fluid drachm to two. For  iu virtues, see
 Guaiacum.
  Tinctura guaiaci ammoniata.   Ammoniated tinc-
 ture of guaiacum.   Formerly called tinctura guniacina
 volatilis.  Take of guaiacum  resin, powdered, four
 ounces; aromatic spirit of ammonia, a pint and a half.
 Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  The dose is
 from one fluid drachm to two.
  Tinctura hellebori  nigra.  Tincture of black
 hellebore.    Formerly  called  tinctura  mdampodii.
 " Take of block hellebore-root, sliced, four  ounces;
 proof spirit, two pints.  Macerate  for  fourteen days,
 and  strain."  The dose is from  half to a whole fluid
 drachm.  For its virtues, consult Helleborus niger.
  Tinctura humuli.   Tincture of hop.   Take  of
 hops, five ounces;  proof spirit,  two pinte.  Macerate
 for fourteen days, and strain.   Various modifications
 of the preparations of this bitter  have lately been
strongly recommended by Freke (Observations on Hu-
mulus Lupulus), nnd employed by many practitioners,
who believe that it unites sedative and tonic  powers,
ond  thus forms a useful  combination.  The dose is
from holf to a whole fluid drachm.   See Humulus.
  Tinctura  hyoscyami.   Tincture  of  henbane.
Take of  henbane-leaves,  dried, four  ounces;  proof
spirit, two pinte.   Macerate for fourteen days, and
strain.  That the henbane itself is narcotic is abun-
dantly proved, that the same power to also found in its
tincture to also certain, but to produce the same effecu
requires a much larger dose.   In  some of the state-
menu made to the College of Physicians of London, a
different opinion has been given, and twenty-five drops
have been considered as equivalent to twenty of tinc-
ture of opium: it does not  produce costiveness, or the
subsequent confusion of head which follows the use of
opium, and will therefore be, even if  its powers be
weaker, of considerable use.  The dose is from ten
minims to one fluid drachm.
  Tinctura jalap.e.   Tincture of jalap, formerly
called tinctura jalapii.   Take of jalap-root, powdered,
 eight ounces;  proof spirit, two pinu.   Macerate for
 fourteen days, with a  gentle heat,  and strain. The
dose is from one fluid drachm to half  a fluid ounce.
For ite virtues, see Convolvulus jalapa.
  Tinctura kino.  Tincture of kino.  Take of kino,
 powdered, three ounces; proof spirit, two plntt. Ma-
cerate for fourteen days,  and  strain.  All the astrin-
 Sency of kino is included in  thto preparation. The
 ose to from half a fluid drachm to two.   See .Kino.
  Tinctura lytt*.  See Tinctura cantharidis.
  Tinctura myrrh*.  Tincture of myrrh.  Take of
myrrh, bruised, four ounces; rectified spirit, two pints;
water, a pint  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.
The dose to from half to a whole fluid drachm.  For iu
 virtues, see Myrrha.
  Twctora opii.   Tincture of opium  Take of hard
     :»2
 opium, powdered, two ounces and a half; proof spirit,
 two pints.  Macerate  for  fourteen daya and strain.
 The dose is from ten minims, or twenty drops, to half a
 fluid drachm.  Fot ite virtues, see Opium.
   Tinctura rhbi.  Tinclure  of  rhubarb.  Formerly
 known by the names of Tinctura  rhabarbari, and
 Tinctura rhabarbari spirituosa.   Take of  rhubarb-
 root sliced, two ounces; cardamom-seeds, bruised, half
 on ounce;  saffron,  two drachms; proof spirit, two
 pinu  Macerate for fourteen days, with a gentle heat,
 and strain.  The dose is from half a fluid ounce to one
 and a half.  For iu virtues, see Rheum.
   Tinctura rhei composita.   Compound tincture o\
 rhubarb.  Formerly  called  Tinctura  rhabarbari com-
 posita.  Take of rhubarb-root, sliced,  two ounces;
 liquorice-root, bruised, half an ounce; ginger-root,
 sliced, saffron, of each two drachms;  proof spirit, a
 pint; water, twelve fluid ounces.   Macerate for four-
 teen days, with a gentle heat, and strain.  This to a
 mild stomachic aperient.  The dose is from half a fluid
 ounce  to one and a half.
   Tinctura scilla.  Tinclure of  squill.  Take  of
 squill-root, fresh dried,  four ounces; proof spirit, two
 pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  The
 virtues of this squill (see Scilla) reside in the tincture,
 which to administered in dosesof from twenty drops to
 a fluid drachm.
   Tinctura senn*. Tincture of senna.  Formerly
 called  Elixir  salutis.  Take  of  senna-leaves,  three
 ounces;  carrowoy-seeds, bruised, three  drachms; car*
 damom-seeds, bruised, a draehm; raisins, stoned, four
 ounces; proof spirit, two pinu.  Macerate for fourteen
 days, with a gentle heat, and strain.  A carminative,-
 aperient,  and  purgative, in  doses  from  two fluid
 drachms to n fluid ounce.  See Cassia senna.
   Tinctura serpentari*.  Tincture  of serpentary;
 Formerly called  Tinctura  serpentaria virginiana.
 Take of serpentary-root, three ounces; proof spirit, two*
 pinu.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain.  This
 tincture  possesses, in addition to  the  virtues of the
 spirit, those of the serpentaria.  The  dose is from half
 a fluid drachm to two.  See Aristolochia serpentaria^
   Tinctura Valeriana.  Tincture of valerian.  For-
 merly  called Tinctura Valeriana  simplex.  Take  of
 valerian-root, four  ounces;  proof spirit,  two  pints.
 Macerate for fourteen days, aud  strain.  A  useful
 antispasmodic in conjunction with others.  The dose
 to from half a fluid drachm to two.  See Valeriana.
   Tinctura valerian* ammoniata.   Ammoniated
 tincture of valerian.  Formerly called Tinctura vale
 riana  volatilis.  Takeof valerian-root, four ounces}
 aromatic spirit of ammonia, two pints.   Macerate for
 fourteen days, and strain. A strong antispasmodic and
 stimulating tincture. The  dose to from half a fluid
 drachm to two.
   Tinctura veratri.   A very active  alterative,  re-
 commended in the cure of epilepsy and cutaneous erupy
 tions.  Its  administration requires great caution; tha
 White hellebore being a  powerful poison.
  Tinctura. zinoibrris.  Tincture of ginger*.  Take
 of ginger-root sliced, two ounces; proof spirit,  two
 pints.  Macerate for fourteen days, and strain. A sti-
 mulating carminative.   The  dose is  from a fluid?
 drachm to three.
   Tincture. See Tinctura,
   Tincture of assafatida.  See Tinctura assafatida.
   Tincture of black hellebore.  See Tinctura hellebori
 nigri.
   Tincture of blistering fly.  See Tinctura lytta
   Tincture of calumba.   See Tinctura calumba}.
   Tincture of capsicum.   See Tinctura  capsici.
   Tinclure of cardamom.  See Tinctura cardamomi
   Tincture of cascarilla.  See Tinctura cascarilla
   Tinclure of castor.  See Tinctura castord.
   Tincture of catechu.  See Tinctura catechu.
   Tincture of cinchona.  See Tinctura cinchona.
   Tincture of cinnamon.  See Tinctura dnnamomx.
   Tincture of fox-glove.  See Tinctura digitalis.
   Tincture of guaiacum.  See Tinctura guaiaci.
   Tincture pf guaiacum, ammoniated.  See TincUtr'm
guaiaci ammoniata.
   Tincture of ginger. See  Tinctura  zUgiberis.
   Tincture of henbane.  See Tinctura hyoscyami.
   Tincture of hops.   See Tinctura humuli.
   Tincture of jalap.  See Tinctura jalapa.
   Tinclure of kino.   See Tinctura kino.
   Tinctura of myrrh.  See Tinctura myrrhet. 
TIT                                             TIT
  Tincture of opium.  Bee Tinctura opii.            I
  TVaeture of orange-pod.  See Tinctura aurantii.
  Tincture of rhubarb.  See Tinctura rhei.          '
  Tincture of senna.  See Tinctura senna.
  Tincture of serpentary.  See Tinctura serpentaria.
  Tincture of squills.  See  Tinctura scilla.
  Tincture of valerian.   See Tindura Valeriana.
  Tinclure of valerian,  ammoniated.  See Tinctura
Valeriana ammoniata.
  Tincture, compound, of aloes.  See  Tinctura aloes
composita.
  Tincture, compound, ef benzoin.  See Tinctura ben-
zoini composita.
  Tincture, compound,  of  camphor.  See Tinctura
camphora composita.
  Tincture, compound, of cardamom.  See Tinctura
cardamomi composita.
  Tincture, compound,  of  cinchona.  See Tinctura
cinchona composita.
  Tincture, compound,  of cinnamon.  See Tinctura
cinnamomi composita.
  Tincture, compound, of gentian.  See Tindura gen-
tiana composita.
  Tincture, compound, of rhubarb.  See Tinctura rhd
composita.
  Tl'NEA.  (Tinea; from teneo, to hold.)  Tinea ca-
pitis.  The scold head. A genus of diseases in  the
Class Locales, and Order Dialyses, of Cullen; charac-
terized by small ulcers at the root of  the hairs of the
head, which produce a friable white crust
  Tin-glass.  See Bismuth,
'  TINNITUS.   (Tinnitus, ue, m.;  a  ringing.)   A
ringing or tingling noise.
  Tinnitus aurium.  A noise like ringing or tingling
in the ears.  A species of paracusis.  See Paracusis.
  TISSUE.  A term introduced by the French anato-
misu to express  the textures which compose the dif-
ferent organs of animals.  These  have chemical ond
physicol properties which it to important to study on
the dead subject and in the living animal.  We find in
them almost all the physical qualities which are ob-
served in inorganic bodies; different  degrees of con-
sistence  from extreme hordness to fluidity, elasticity,
transparency, refroctiveness, &c.; but we ore particu-
larly attracted by certain qualities which have been
nomed the properties of tissue.  These are the exten-
sibility and contractility of tissue; the contractility par
racornissement, from crtopation.   Independently of
these physical qualities, the tissues have been studied
in respect of their composition, and it has been found
that some aie principaUy composed of gelatine, others
of  albumen, others of phosphate of lime, others of
fibrine,  and  so on.   These various textures present
also, in  the  living animal, certain phenomena  which
nave not failed to attract the attention of physiologiste.
  TITANITES.  A  name given to  certain ores of
 titanium which contain that metal in a state of oxide.
   TITA'NIUM.  Thto to a lately discovered metal.  It
 was first noticed by Macgregor as existing in the state
 of an oxide mixed with iron, manganese, and silex, in
 a grayish-black sand found  in the vale of Menachan, in
 Cornwall, and thence named raenachanitef or oxide of
 titanium, combined with iron.  It has since been dis-
 covered by Klaproth, in an ore named  titanite, or oxide
 oi titanium, combined with lime and  silex.  This  ore
 Is generally met with crystallized in four-sided prisms,
 not longer than a quarter of an inch.  Iu colour to a
 yellowish-red, or blackish-brown;  it is opaque, ond of
 an imperfect lustre.   It breoks with a  foliated, uneven,
 or conchoidal fracture.  It existe also in an ore colled
 red schorl, of Hungary,  or red oxide of titnnium.  Thto
 ore, which is found generally crystallized in rectangu-
 lar prisms, is of  a brownish-red colour, of the specific
 gravity  4.2, and  iu texture foliated.  In ail these ores
 tiwmium exists in the state of an oxide.
   Properties of titanium.—Titanium has been only
 obtained in very small agglutinated grains.   It is of a
 red-yellow and  crystalline texture,  brittle, ond  ex-
 tremely refractory.   When broken  with a hammer,
 while yet hot from iu recent reduction, it shows a
 change  of colours of purple,  violet,  and blue.  In a
 very intense heat it is volatilized.  Most of tbe acids
 have a striking  action  on this metal:  though nitric
 acid has little effect upon it.  It is  very oxidable by
 tbe  muriatic acid.  It  is not nttocked by the alkalies.
 Nitro-muriatic acid converts  it into  a white powder.
 Sulphuric acid, when boiled upon it, is partly decom-
posed.  It to one ofthe most infusible metals.  It does
not combine with sulphur, but it maybe united to phos-
phorus.   It does not alloy with copper, lead, or arse-
nic, but combines with iron.
  Method of obtaining titanium.—It is extremely diffi
cult  to reduce the oxide of titanium to the metallic
Btate. However, the experimenu of Klaproth, Hecht,
and Vauquelin have proved its reducibility.  Accord
ing to the two latter, one  port of oxide of tetanium to
to be melted with six of potassa; the moss, when cold,
is to be dissolved in  water.  A white precipitate will
be formed which to carbonate of titanium.  This car-
bonate to then made into a paste with oil, and the mix-
ture is put into a crucible filled  with charcoal powder
and a little alumine.  The whole is then exposed for a
few  hours to the action of a strong heat. The metal-
lic titanium will be found in the form of a blackish
puffed-up substance, possessing  a  metallic appear-
ance.
  [A very curious ore of titanium, one  of the newly
discovered metals, has been  found to  exist  in New-
Jersey.   A specimen of considerable  size  had  been
presented,  several years  ago,  by Mr. Alber  to Dr.
MitchiU, os on ore of zinc.  But it  not appearing to
him to be an ore of zinc, and indeed, his mind remain-
ing rather uncertain as to what it truly was. he laid it
aside in his cabinet, and at length furnished Professor
Bruce with a port of it.  This able mineralogist hos
not only made it a subject of experiment himself, but
hos taken the opinion of some of his chemical corres-
pondents to Europe upon it; and  it is their united
opinion that it to composed chiefly of tbe oxide of tita-
nium, combined with  the other  form of  the metal,
which, from its having been found in the  valley of
Menachan, in  Cornwall, England,  has been  called
Menachanlte.
  A further  account of this remarkable substance is
contained  in a letter, from  Professor Woodhouse  to
Senator MitchiU.
  " The following experimenu were performed upon
the mineral  found in  New-Jersey, which  I received
from you in the year 1805, which was then supposed,
by the person who presented it to you, to be an ore of
zinc, and which Count Boumon has declared to  be
composed of iron and titanium.
   " The specific gravity of thto mineral is 5.28.  When
 viewed, it has the appearance of black spou, the size
of  duck  shot,  surrounded by a red substance; and
streaks of a white powder, (which is lithormarge,) are
dispersed through it.  Upon looking through a micro-
 scope, a crystal of titanium was  seen  adhering to it
 One  hundred grains of it, reduced to an impalpable
 powder, and exposed one hour to the intense  heat  ofi
 an air furnace, lost fifteen grains in weight, and from a
 brown was turned to a black colour.
   "  One hundred grains of it, submitted to heat in the
 same manner with charcoal, produced a great number
 of small  globules of pure iron.  This  metal can be
 separated from the powder by a magnet.
   " One hundred grains of it, boiled in aqua regia, was
 totally soluble in this agent, which  proves it contains
 no silex.
   " The  prussiate of  potash, added to thto solution,
 yielded a blue precipitate, which, when dried, weighed
 three hundred grains.  Now, if we divide this sum by
 six, we shall have the quantity of metallic  iron in the
 hundred grains of the ore, whicli is  fifty.
   " A portion of lime was thrown down from a solu-
 tion of tbe mineral in aqua regia, by the  oxalate of
 potash.   Carbonate of  ammonia,  and a solution of
 potash  produced a copious white and gelatinous pre-
 cipitate.
   " One hundred grains of It were  mixed with six
 hundred of potash, and submitted to intense heat one
 hour, in a blacklead crucible.   The part remaining in
 the  crucible was powdered, boiled  in water, and fil-
 tered.  Upon adding a small portion of muriatic acid
 to the water, a  white precipitate was thrown down,
 which was supposed to be  the titanium.   Upon col-
 lecting it, and mixing it with a small portion of sper-
 maceti oil and charcoal, it was exposed to the heat  of
 a blacksmith's forge, when nothing wos obtoined but a
 shining, heavy, black substance, of tbe appearance  of
 glass.
   " When the muriatic acid was added in excess to
 the  filtered  water obtained, by  boiling the  residue,
 which  remained in the crucible, in water, no precipi- 
TON                                         ,TOR
tote was produced, until a solution of potash was added
to neutralize the acid.
  " The solution of the mineral in nitric acid is as-
tringent to the laste.
'-"The ore appeors to be composed of iron, titanium,
lime, alumina, and no silictous earth."—Med. Repos.
  From the above it appears that the ores of titanium
nre of .very frequent  occurrence witliin the United
States. The  locality of the  specimens described, as
for os could be ascertained, tend to confirm the opinion
of Werner, as to titanium being one  of the oldest of
metals.  Should thto metal hereafter be  applied exten-
sively to the arts, it is presumed thot the United Stotes
will be enabled to  furnish any quantity required.—
Min. Jour.  AJ
  TITHY'MALUS.  (From  ntloc, a dug, and paXos,
tender: so called from iu smooth leaves ond milky
juice.)  Spurge.  Two plants ore  directed  for medi-
cinal purposes by thto name.  See Euphorbia paralias,
and Esula minor.
  Tithtmalus  cyparissius.  See Esula minor.
  Tithymalvs  paralios.  See Euphorbia paralias.
  Tithy.mkl.ea.  See I) aphne gnidium.
  Tit« llicum.   (From titille, to tickle:  so called
from iu being eosily tickled,)  The arm-pit
  TOAD-FLAX.   See Antirrhinum linaria.
  TODACCO.  See Nicotiana.
  Tobacco, English.  See Nicotiana rustica.
   Tobacco, Virginian.  See Nicotiana.
   TOE.  Digitus  pedis.   The toes  consist of three
distinct bones disposed in rows, caUed phalanges, or
rank of the toes.  The great toe has but two pholonges;
the others have three ranks of bones, which hove
nothing particular, only the joints are made round and
free, formed by a round head on one bone, and by a
pretty deep hollow for receiving it, in the one above it
  Toffania aqua.  (Toffana, or Tophania: the name
of an  infamous woman, who resided at Palermo,
and afterward at Naples,  who sold this poison.)  See
 (Iqvetta.
   Tolu balsam.  See Toluifera balsamum.
   TOLUIFERA.  (So called because  it produces the
balsam of Peru.)   The name of a genus of plants in
the Linnaean  system.   Class,  Decandria;  Order,
Monogynia.
   Toluifera balsamum. The systematic name of
the tree  which affords the Tolu balsam.  Balsamum
tolutanum.   Balsam of  Tolu.  It  grows in South
America, in the province  of Tolu, behind Carthat'ena,
whence we are supplied with the balsam, which is
brought to us in little gourd-shells.   The  balsam  to
obtained by making incisions into the bark ofthe tree,
and to collected into spoons, which  is made  of black
wax, from which it to poured into proper vessels.  It
thickens,  and  in time becomes concrete: it has a
fragrant colour, and a warm, sweetish taste.  It dis-
solves entirely in alkohol, and communicates its odour
and taste to water, by boiling.  It  contoins acid of
benzoin. This  to the mildest of all the balsams.  It has
been used as an expectorant; but its powers are very
inconsiderable,  and it is  at present  employed princi-
pally on  account of iu flavour, somewhat resembling
that of lemons.  It is directed, by the pharmacopoeias,
in the Syrupus solutanus,  Tinctura tolu tan a, and
Syrupus balsamicus.
   Tolutanum  balsamum.   See Toluifera balsamum.
   TOMATUM. Love apple.  See  Solanum  lycoper-
sievsn.
   TOMBAC.  A white alloy of copper with  arsenic.
   Tombki'um.  (From rtuvta, to cut.) An incision-
knife.
   Tomenti'tia. (From tomentum,a flock of wool: so
called from its soft coat)  Cotton-weed.
   TOMENTOSUS. Downy. Applied to stems, leaves,
Sec as the stem of the Geranium rotundifolium.
   TOME'NTUM.  (Tomcntum, i, n.; a flock of wool.)
 1. This term to used in anatomy to the small vessels of
 the brain, which appear like wool.
   2. In botany, a species of pubescence, very soft to
 the touch, of a white, or ferruginous colour, giving the
surface a downy appearance, and so  thick that ihey
 cannot be seen separately.
   Tomentum cerebri.  The small vessels that pene-
 trate the cortical substance of the brain from the pia
 mater, which, when separated from the brain, and ad
 tiering to the pia mater, give it a flocky appearance.
   TONGUE.  Lingua.   A soft,  fleshy viscus, very
       354
moveable' in every direction, situated Inferiorly In'018
cavity of the mouth, and constituting the  organ of
taste.  It is divided into a base, body, and back, an
Inferior surface, and two lateral parts. It is composed
of muscular  fibres, covered by a nervous membrane,
on which are a great number  of nervous papilla, par-
ticularly at the apex, and lateral poru, the rete  muco-
sum, and epidermis.  The arteries of the tongue are
branches of the ronlne and lobiol.  The veins  empty
themselves into the  greot Unguals, which proceed to
the external jugular.  The nerves  come  from  the
eighth, ninth, and fifth pair.  The use of this organ is
for chewing, swallowing, sucking, and tasting.  See
also Taste.                _ f
   Tongue-shaped.  See Lingulatus.
  TONIC.  (Tonicus, Tovikos; from reivia, to pull or
draw.)  1. A rigid contraction of the muscles, with-
out relaxation, as in trismus, tetanus, &c.  See Te-
tanus.
  2. (From  rovoai, to strengthen.")  Medicines  which
increase the tone  of tho" muscular fibre, such as vege-
table bitters; also stimulants,  adstringents, tec.
  TONSIL.  (Tonsilla,arum,f.)  Amygdala;  Tola;
Toles;  Tolles.  An oblong, suboval gland, situated on
each side ofthe fauces, and opening into the cavity of
the mouth by twelve or moro large excretory ducu
  TOOTH.  See TeetA.
  TOOTHACHE.   See Odontalgia.
   Tooth-shaped.  See Denlalus.
  TOPAZ.  According to Jameson this mineral species
contains three subspecies  common  topaz, schorlite,
and physolite.
  Common topaz is of a wine-yellow colour, in  granu-
lar crystallized concretions, harder thon emerald. It
comes  from the  Brazils, Siberia, Asia  Minor,  and
Saxony.  It forms  an  essential constituent of  the
topaz-rock.
  TOPAZOLITE.   A variety of precious garnet found
at Mussa, in Piedmont.
. TOPHUS.  (Toph,  Hebrew.)  A  toph.   Epipo-
roma, a soft swelling on a bone.)  The concretion on
the teeth or in the joints of gouty people. Also  gravel.
  TO'PICAL.  (From roiroc,  a place.)  Medicines
opplied to a particular place.
  Topina'ria. A species of tumour  in the skin of the
head.
  TO'RCULAR. (From torqueo, to twist.)  The tour
niquet:  a bandage to check hemorrhages after wounds
or amputations.
  Torcular herophili.  Lechenon; Lenos.  The
press of Herophilus. That place where the four si-
nuses of the dura mater meet together, first accurately
described by Herophilus, the anatomist.
   TORDYLIUM.    (Tordylium, ii, n.  Quasi lor-
tilium; from torqueo, to twist:  so named from  iu tor-
tuous branches, or from the neat orbicular figure of Iu
seed, which  seem as if  artificially wrought or turned.)
Che name of a genus of planu in the  Linnean system.
Tlass, Pentandria ;  Order, Digynia
   Tordylium officinale.  The systematic name of
the officinale seseli  creticum.  The seedB are said to be
diuretic.
   TORMENTIL.  See Tormentilla.
   TORMENTILLA.  (From  tegmentum,  pain; be-
cause it was supposed  to relieve pain in  the  teeth.)
1. The name  of a  genus  of plants  in the Linnsan
system.  Class, Icosandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the upright stepfoil.
See Tormentilla erecta.
   Tormentilla brbcta. The systematic name of
the upright stepfoil.   Heptaphyllum;  Consolida ru
bra; Tormentilla—caule erediusculo, foliis sessilibus,
of Linnipus.  The  root is the only  part of the plant
which to used medicinally;  it has  a strong  styptie
taste, but imparts no peculiar sapid flavour:  it  has
been long held in estimation as a powerful adstringent;
and, as a proof of iu efficacy in this  way, it has been
substituted for oak  bark  in the tanning of skins for
leather.  Tormentil to ordered in  the pulvis creta
compositus, of the London Pharmacopoeia.
   TORMINA.  Severe pains.
   TO'RPOR.  A numbness,  or deficient sensation.
   TORTICO'LLIS.  (From torqueo, to twist, and
collum, the neck.)   The wry neck.
   TORTULOSUS.  A little swelling out.  Applied
to the knotty pod of the Rhaphanus sativus.
   Tortu'ra ossis.  The locked jaw. 
TOU
TOU
  Tota boha.  See Chenopodium bonus henricus.
  TOUCH.  Tactus.  "By touch we arc enabled to
know tlie properties of bodies; and as it is less subject
to deception than the other senses, enabling us in cer-
tain cases to clear up errors into wliich ihi others have
led us, it has been considered the first and the most ex-
cellent of all the senses; but several of the advantages
which have been attributed to it by physiologists and
metaphysicians should be considerably limited.
  We ought to distinguish tact from touch.  7'act is,
with some  few exceptions,  generally diffused through
all our organs, nnd particularly over the cutaneous and
mucous surfaces. It exists in all animals;  while touch
is exerted evidently only by parts that are intended parti-
cularly for  this use.   It does not exist in  all  animals,
and it is nothing else but tact united to muscular con-
tractions directed by the will.
  In  the exercise of tact, we  may  be  considered as
passive, wliile we are essentially active in the exercise
of touch.
  Physical properties of bodies which  employ  the
action of touch.   Almost all the physical properties of
bodies are  susceptible of acting upon  the organs of
touch; form, dimensions, different degrees of consist-
ence, weight,  temperature, locomotion, vibration,  &c.
are all so many circumstances that are  exactly appre-
ciated by Uie touch.
  The organs destined to touch do not  alone exercise
this function ;  so that in this respect the touch differs
much from the other senses.  As in most cases it to the
skin which receives the tactile impressions produced by
the bodies  which surround us, ii to necessary to  say
something  of its structure.
  The skin forms the envelope of the body;  it is  lost
in the mucous membranes  at the entrance of oil the
cavities; but it is improper to say tbat these membranes
are a continuation of it.                  >
  The skin is formed principally by the cutis vera, a
fibrous layer of  various thickness, according to the
part which it covers; it adheres by a cellular tissue,
more or less firm, at other times by fibrous attach-
ments.  The cutis is almost always  separated from
the subjacent paru by a layer of a greater or less thick-
ness, which is of use in the exercise of touch.
  The external side of the cutis vera is covered by the
epidermis,  a solid matter secreted by the skin.  We
ought not to consider the epidermis as a membrane;  il
to a homogeneous layer, adherent by its internal face to
the chorion, and full of a great number of  holes, of
which the one sort are for the passage of  the hair,  and
the other for  that of  cutaneous perspiration ;  they
serve at the some time for the absorption which takes
place by the skin.  These last are called  the pores of
the skin.
  It to necessary to notice, with regard to the epidermis,
that it is void of feeling ; that it possesses none of the
properties of life; that it to not subject to putrefaction;
that it wears  and is renewed continually;  that its
thickness augmenu or lessens as it may be necessary:
it to even said to be proof to tbe action of the digestive
organs.
  The connexion of  the epidermis to the cutis vera  is
very close; and yet it cannot be doubted that there  is
a particular layer between these two parts, in which
certain particular phenomena take place.  The organi-
zation of  thto layer is yet little known.  Malpighi
believed it  to be  formed of a particular mucus, llie ex-
istence of which has been long admitted, and which
bore the  name of the corpus mucosum  of Malpighi.
Other authors have considered it, more justly, as a vas-
cular net-work.  Gall makes it  similar to the gray
matter which  is  seen in many parte of the brain.
  Gantier,  in  examining attentively the external sur-
face of the true skin, has noticed some smoll reddish
projections, disposed in poirs; they are easily perceived
when the skin to laid bare by a blister.  These little
bodies are  regularly disposed upon the  palm of  the
hand, and on the sole of the foot.  They are sensible,
and are  reproduced when tiey hove been torn out.
They appear to be essentiaUy vascular.  These bodies,
without being understood, have been long called  the
papilla of  tbe skin.  The epidermis is pierced by little
holes, opposite their  tops, through which  small drops
of sweat are  seen to issue, when the Akin to exposed
to an elevated temperature.  The skin contains a great
number of sebaceous  follicles; it receives a great
number of vessels and  nerves, particularly at  the
                                     Ggg3
points where the sense of touch is more immediately
exercised.  The mode in which the nerves are termi-
nated in the skin is totally unknown; all that has been
said of the cutaneous nervous papilla: to entirely hypo
thetical.
  The exercise of tact and of touch is facilitated by
the thinness of the cutis vera, by a gentle elevation of
temperature, by an abundant cutaneous perspiration,
os well as by  a certain thickness  and flexibility of
the epidermis;  when the contrary dispositions exist,
the tact and the touch are always  more or less im-
perfect.
  Mechanism of tact.—The mechanism of tact to ex-
tremely simple; it is sufficient that bodies be in contact
with  the skin to furnish us with  data, more or  less
exact, of  their tactile properties.  By  tact we judge
particularly of the temperature.  When bodies deprive
us of caloric, we call them cold; when they yield  it to
us, we say they are hot; and according to the quantity
of caloric which they give or take, we determine their
different degrees of heat or cold.  The notions that we
have of temperature are, nevertheless, far from being
exactly in relation to the quantity of caloric tbat bodies
yield to us, or take from us ; we join with it unawares
a comparison with the temperature of the atmosphere,
in such a manner that a body colder  than ours, but
hotter than  the  atmosphere, appears hot,  though it
really deprive us of caloric when we  touch it.  On thto
account, places which have a  uniform temperature,
such  as cellars or wells, appear cold in summer, and
hot in winter.  The capacity also  of bodies for caloric
has a great  influence upon us with regard to tempe-
rature ; as an example of this, we have only to notice
Ihe great difference of sensation produced by iron and
wood, though the temperature ot  both be the same.
  A body which is sufficiently hot to cause a chemicai
decomposition of our organs produces the  sensation of
burning.  A body whose temperature is so low as to
absorb quickly a great portion of the caloric of any
part,  produces  a sensation of the some sort nearly:
this may be proved in touching frozen mercury.
  The bodies which have a chemical action upon the
epidermis, those that  dissolve it,  as the cousiic alka-
lies, and concentrated acids, produce  an impression
which is easy to be recognised, and by which these
bodies may be known.
  Every part of the skin is not endowed with  the
same sensibility ;  so that the same body applied to dif-
ferent poinu of the skin in succession will produce a
series of different impressions.
  The mucous membranes  possess great delicacy of
tact.  Every one knows the great sensibility of the
lips, the tongue, of the conjunctiva, the pituitary mem-
brane, of the mucous membrane, of the trachea, of
tiie urethra, of  the vagina, &c.  The first contact of
bodies, which are not destined naturally to touch these
membranes, is painful at first, but  this soon wears off.
  Mechanism of touch.—In man, the hand to the prin-
cipal  organ of touch;  aU the most suitable  circum-
stances are  united  in  it.  The  epidermis  to thin,
smooth, flexible; the cutaneous perspiration abundant,
as well  as the oily secretion.  The vascular eminences
are more numerous there than any where else.  The
cutis  vera has but little thickness; it receives a great
number of vessels and nerves ; it adheres to the subja-
cent aponeuroses by fibrous  adhesions ; and it is sus-
tained by  a highly elastic cellular tissue.  The extre-
mities ofthe fingers possess all these properties in the
highest  degree: the motions of  tbe band are very
numerous, and performed with facility, and it may be
applied  with ease to any body of whauoever form.
  As  long as the hand remains  Immoveable at the
surface  of a body, it acu only as an organ  of tact.
To exercise touch, it must move, either by passing over
the surface,  to examine  form, dimensions, tec, or to
press it for the purpose of determining its consistence,
elasticity, See.
  We use the whole hana to touch a body of consider-
able dimensions;  if, on the contrary, a body is very
small, we employ only the points of the fingers. This
delicacy of touch in the fingers has given man a great
advantage over tbe animals.  Hto  touch is so delicate,
that it has been considered the source of his intelli-
gence.
  From the highest  antiquity the touch has been con-
sidered  of  more importance  than any of the other
senses:  if has  been supposed the cause of  human
                                        355 
TOU
TRA
 reason.  Thto idea has continued to oar times; it has i
 been  even remarkably extended in tbe writings of
 Condillac, of Buffon, and other modern physiologists.
 Buffon, in particular, gave such an importance to the
 touch, that he thought one man had little more ability
 than another, but only In so far as he had been in the
 habit of making use of hto  hands.  He said it would
 be well  to allow children the free use  of their hands
 from  the moment of their birth.
   The touch does not really possess any prerogative
 over the other senses; and if in certain cases it assisU
 the eye or the ear, it receives aid from them in others,
 and there is no reason to believe  that it excites ideas
 in the brain of a  higher order than those which are
 produced by the action of the other senses.
   Of internal sensations—AH the organs,  as well  as
 the skin, possess the faculty of transmitting impres-
 sions to the brain, when they are  touched by  exterior
 bodies, or when they are  compressed, bruised, &c.
 It may be  said,  that  they generally possess  tact.
 There must be  an exception made of the bones, the
 tendons, the aponeuroses, the ligamenU, Sec; which in
 a healthy state are insensible, and may be cut, burned,
 torn, without any thing being felt by the brain.
   This important fact was not known to the ancients;
 they considered all the white paru  as nervous, and
 attributed to them oil those properties which we now
 know belong only to the nerves.   These useful results,
 which have had a great influence upon the recent pro-
 gress of surgery, we owe to Haller and his disciples.
   All  the organs arc capable of transmitting sponta-
 neously  a  great number of impressions to the brain
 without the intervention of any external cause.  They
 are of three sorts.  The first kind take place when  it
 to necessary for the  organs to act; they  ore called
 want*, instinctive desires.  Such are  hunger, thirst,
 the  necessity of making woter,  of respiration, the
 venereal impulse, &c.   The second sort take place
 during the action of the organs; they ore  frequently
 obscure, sometimes very violent.  The impressions
 which accompany the different excretions, as of the
 *emen, the urine, are of this number.
   Such  are also the impressions  which inform us  of
 our motions, of the periods of digestion:—even thought
 seems to belong to this kind  of impression.
   The third  kind  of internal  sensations  are  deve-
 loped when the orgons have acted.  To this kind be-
 longs  the feeling of fatigue, which is variable in the
 different sorts of functions.
   The impressions which are felt in sickness ought to
 be added to these three sorts: these are much  more
 numerous  than the others.   The study of them  is
 absolutely necessary to the physician.
   All  those sensations which proceed from within, and
, which have no dependence upon the action  of exterior
 bodies, have been  collectively denominated  internal
 sensations, or feelings."—Magendie's Physiology.
   TOUCH-ME-NOT.  See JVoli  me tangere.
   TOUCHSTONE.   Lydian stone.   A  variety  of
 flinty  slate.
   TOUCHWOOD.  See Agaricus.
   TOURMALINE.  Rhomboidal tourmaline is divided
 Into two subspecies, schorl and tourmaline.  The latter
 mineral is of a green, brown, and red  colour, in pris-
 matic concretions, rolled pieces, but generally crystal-
 lized.  It occurs in gneiss, mica slate, talc slate, Sec.
   TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton de, was born at
 Aix, in  Provence, in 1656. He was destined for the
 chmch, but a taste for natural knowledge led him,  at
 his  father's  death, to change  for the profession of
 physic.  He  therefore qualified himself thoroughly in
 anatomy, chemistry,  and other branches  of medical
 study, and likewise distinguished himself as  an elegant
 writer and lecturer; but he displayed especially an
 ardent devotion to botany, which ever after made the
 chief  object  of his  life.  His zeal in thto pursuit led
 him to encounter considerable danger in exploring the
 Alps,  Pyrenees, &c. during several seasons, pacing the
 intermediate winters  at Montpellier; but be is said  to
 hove  graduated at Orange.  Hto  meriu as a botanist,
 Boon  became conspicuous at Paris, and the superin-
 tendence of the royal gorden was resigned  to him by
 Fogon.  In this school he soon drew together a crowd
 of students; but anxious for farther improvements, he
 travelled into the neighbouring  countries,  ond  thus
 greatly enriched hto collections.   He was admitted  a
 member of the  Academy of Sciences, and of the Me-
       358
dical Faculty at Paris; and was  likewise decorated
with the Order of St Michael,  lie published  about
the some period several botanical works, of which the
principal to  entitled, " Institutiones Rei  Herboritc."
In the year 1700, he set out under  royal patronage, on
a voyage to the Levant, wilh the view of Investigating
the plants of ancient writers, and  moking new disco-
veries; ond on hto return, after two years, he wrote n
very interesting and valuable account of the expedition
in French, wliich was not published, however, till after
his death. This took place  in ITIJ8, in consequence of
a hurt in the breast, which he received  from a car-
riage.  He left his collection of plants to the king, who
bestowed In return a pension of a thousand livres on
his nephew.  Besides the botanical works published
by him, he is said to have left several others in  manu
script.   One object, whicli had occupied  much of his
attention, was to determine the  medical virtues of
plants  by a chemical analysis; but the loss of these
labours is not to be regretted, as those of Geoffroy, on
the same plan, turned out to be without any solid ad-
vantage.  The elegance  and facility of Tournefort's
botanical method gained him many followers at first;
but it has since been superseded  by that of Linna-us,
which is much more systematic  and comprehensive.
Still, however, it must be acknowledged,  that the ge-
neric distinctions established by  the former botanist
ond  most occuratcly delineated, hove been  the principal
foundation of subsequent improvements.
  TOURNIOUET.  (French; from tonmer, to turn.)
An instrument used for stopping the flow of blood into
a limb.
  TOXICA'Rf A.  (Toxicaria, a, f.; from jo\ikov, a
poison:  so called from iu  poisonous quality.)  The
name of a plant.
  Toxicaria  macassariensis.   An  Indian  poison
obtained from a tree hitherto undescribed by any me-
dical botanist, known by the name of Boas-upas: it is
a native of Southern Asia.  Concerning this plant,
vorious  and  almost  incredible porticulars have been
related,  both in ancient and  modern times; some
of them true, others probably founded  on  superstition.
Rumphins testifies that he hod not met with any other
more dreadful product from ony  vegetable.  And he
adds, that this poison, of wliich the Indians boast, was
much more terrible to the Dutch than any warlike in-
strument  He likewise soys, it is his opinion, that it
is of the same naturol order, if not of the same genus,
as the cestrum.
  TOXICODE'NDRUM.   (From tc-Iikov, a poison,
and StvSpov,  a tree.)  The poison-tree,  which is  so
noxious that no insecu ever come near it. See Rhus
toxicodendron.
  TOXICOLOGY.   (Toxicologia;  from  ro\ov, an
arrow or bow; because the darts of the ancients were
usually  besmeared with some  poisonous substance;
and Xoyos, a discourse.)  A dissertation  on poisons
See  Poison,
  TO'XICUM.  (From  roi-ov, an arrow, which  was
sometimes poisoned.) A deadly poison. See Poison.
  Toxite'sia.  The artemisia or  mugwort.
  TRABE'CULA.   (Trabecula, a small beam.) This
word is mostly applied by onotomiste to the small me-
dullary fibres of the  brain, which constitute the com-
missures.
  TRA'CHEA.   (So called from ite roughness; from
rpaxvs, rough.)   The  windpipe.   The trachea  to a
cartilaginous and membranous  canal, through which
the  air passes  into the lungs.  Iu upper  part, which
is called the  larynx, is composed of five cartilages.
The uppermost and smallest of these cartilages  is
placed  over the glottis or mouth of the larynx,  and  is
called epiglottis, as closing  the passage to  the lungs in
the act of swallowing.    The sides of the larynx are
composed of the two arytenoid cartilages, which are
of a very complex figure, not easy to be described.
The anterior and larger part  of the larynx is made up
of two cartilages, one of which is called  thyroldes or
scutiformis, from its being shaped  like  a buckler:  and
the other cricoides or  annularis, from its resembling  a
ring.  Both these cartilages  may be felt immediately
under the skin, at the forepart of the thorax; and the
thyroides, by iu convexity,  forms  an eminence  called
the pomum adami, which to usuallymore considerable
in the male than in the female subject
  AU these cartilages are united to eachother by menus
of very elastic ligamentous fiu;es;  and  are enabled br 
TRA
TRA
the assistance of their several muscles, to dilate or
contract the passage of the larynx, and to perform that
variety of motion which seems to point out the larynx
as the principal organ of the voice;  for when the air
  asses through a wound in the trachea, it produces
  ttlc or no sound.
  These cartilages are moistened by a mucus, which
seems to  be secreted by minute glands situated near
them.  The upper part of the trachea, and the cricoid
and thyroid  cartilages, are in  some measure covered
anteriorly by a considerable body, which is supposed
to be of a glandular structure, and from its situation is
called the thyroid gland, though iu excretory duct has
not yet been discovered, or iu real use ascertained.
The glottis to entirely covered by  a very fine mem-
brane, wbich is moistened by a constant supply of
watery fluid. From  the  larynx  the  canal begins to
take the name "of trachea, or  aspera arteria, and ex-
tends from thence as far  down as the fourth or fifth
vertebre ofthe back, where it divides into two branches,
which are the right and left bronchial tube.  Each of
these bronchia  ramifies through  the substance of that
lobe of the lungs, to which it is distributed by an infi-
nite number  of branches, which are formed of car-
tilages separated  from each other  like those of the
trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligament-
ary substance.  Each of these cartilages to of an annu-
lar figure; and as they become gradually less and less
in their diameter, the lower ones are in some measure
received into those above them, when the lungs, after
being inflated,  gradually collapse  by the air being
pushed out from ihem in expiration.   As the branches
of the bronchia become more minute, their cartilages
become more and more annular and membranous, till
at length they become perfectly membranous, and at
last become invisible.  The trachea to furnished with
fleshy or muscular fibres,  some of which pass through
its  whole extent  longitudinally,  while the others are
carried round it in a circular direction,  so tbat by the
contraction or relaxation of these fibres, it is enabled
to shorten or lengthen iuelf, and likewise to dilate or
contract the diameter of iu passage.  The trachea and
its branches, in  all their  ramifications,  are furnished
with a great number of small glands wliich are lodged
in their cellular substance, and  discharge a mucous
fluid on the inner surface of these tubes.
  The cartilages of tbe trachea, by keeping it constantly
open, afford a free passage to the air which we are
obliged  to be incessantly respiring;  and iu membra-
nous part, by being capable of contraction or dilatation,
enables us to receive and expel the air in a greater or
less quantity, and with more or less velocity, as may
be required  in singing and declamation.  This mem-
branous structure of the trachea posteriorly, seems
likewise  to  assist in the  descent of the food, by pre-
venting that impediment to its passage down the oeso-
phagus, which might be expected, if the cartilages were
complete rings.  The trachea receives iu arteries from
the carotid and  subclavian arteries, and iu veins pass
into the jugulars.   Its nerves arise from the recurrent
branch ofthe eighth pair,  and from the cervical plexus.
  TRACHELA'GRA.    (Trachelagra, a, f.;  from
rpax>Aoc, the throat, and aypa, a seizure.)  The gout
in the neck.
  TRACHE'LIUM.  (Trachelium,  ii, n.;  from rpa-
XvXos, the throat: so called from its efficacy in diseases
of the throat)  The Campanula trachelium,  of Lin-
naeus, or herb throat-wort.
  TRACHELO.  (From rpaxijXoc, the neck.)   Names
compounded of this word  belong to muscles, etc. which
are attached to tbe neck;  as Trachelo-masloideus.
  TRACHELOCE'LE.   (From rpaxtta,  the wind-
pipe, and xnXn, a tumour).  A tumour upon the trachea.
A bronchocele.
  Trachelo-mastoideus.  A muscle situated on the
neck, which assists the complexus, but pulls the  head
more to one side.  It  is the complexus minor seu mas-
toideus lateralis, of Winslow. Trachelo-mastoidien, of
Dumas.  It arises from the transverse processes of the
five inferior cervical  vertebral, where it is connected
with the transversalis cervicis, and of the three  superior
dorsal, and il to inserted into the middle of thejjosterior
partof the mastoid process.
  TRACHELO'PHYMA. (From rpaxr/Xoc, the throat,
and <bvua, a tumour.) A swelling of the bronchial gland.
  TRACHE'LOS. (From rpaxvs, rough ; because of
tlie rough cartilages.)   The wind-pipe. See Trachea.
  TRACHEOTOMY.   (Tracheotome a,  f.; from
rpaxcia,  the trachea, and rtpvta, to cut.)  See Bron-
chotomy.
  TRACHO'MA.  (Trachoma, atis,n.; from rpavvs,
rough.)   An asperity in the internal superficies ofthe
eyelid.  The effects are a violent ophthalmia, and a
severe pain, as often as the eyelid moves.  The species
are,
  1. Trachoma sabulosum, from sand falling between
the eye aud the eyelid of persons travelling, blown by
a high wind ; thto happens chiefly in sabulous situa-
tions, and may be prevented by spectacles for the pur-
pose, or  by guarding against the flighu of sand by
covering the eyes.
  2. Trachoma carunculosum, which arises from carun-
cles, or fleshy verruca;,  growing in the internal super-
ficies of  the eyelid.  This species of the trachoma to
called morum palpebra; interna?, because the tubercu-
lous internal superficies appears of o livid red like a
mulberry.  Others coll  these caruncula} pladorotes.
  3. Trachoma herpeticum, which ore hard pustules in
the internal superficies of the eyelids. This  is also
called ficosis, and palpebra ficosa, from iu resemblance
to the granulated substances in a cut fig.   With the
Greeks, it. is denominated atomablepharon, or prop-
tons.
  TRACHYTE.  A rock of igneous origin, principally
composed of felspar.   It  has generally a porphyritic
structure.
  TRAGACANTH.  See Astragalus.
  TRAGACA'NTHA.   (Tragacantha, a,  f.; from
rpayos, a goat, and axavSa, a thorn: so caUed from iu
pods resembling a goat's beard.)   See Astragalus tra-
gacantha.
  TRA'GICUS. A proper muscle of the ear, which
pulls the point of the tragus a Utile forward.
  TRA'GIUM.  (From rpayoj, a goat:  so named from
its  filthy smell.) 1. The name of a genus of plants.
Class, Pentandria; Order, Digynia.
  2. The bastard dittany, or Dictamnus albus.       '
  TRAGO'CERUS.  (From rpayoc, a goat, and Ktpas,
a horn: so named from the supposed resemblance off
iu leaves to the horn of a goat.)  The aloe.
  TRAGOPOGON.   (Tragopogon,  onis,  m.; from
rpayos, a goat, and ituytav, a beard:  so colled because
iu downy seed, while enclosed in the calyx, resembles
a goat's beard.)  1. The name of a genus of planu in
the Linnsean system.  Class, Syngenesia; Order, Po-
lygamia.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the common goat's
beard.
  Tragopogon pratense.  The systematic name of
the common goal's beard.  The young stems  of this
plant are eaten like asparagus, and are a pleasant and
wholesome food.  Tiie  root is also excellent, and Was
formerly  used medicinally as a diuretic.
  TRAGOPY'RUM.  (Tragopyrum, i, n.; from rpayoc,
a goat, and irvpov, wheat:  so named from iu  beard.)
Buck-wheat
  TRAGO'RCHIS.  (Tragorchis, is, m.; from  rpayojj
a goat, and opxn, a testicle: so named from the sup-
posed resemblance of its roots to the testicles of a goat)
A species of orchis.
  TRAGORl'GANUM.  (Tragoriganum, i,  n.; from
rpayoc, a goat, and opiyavov, marjoram : so called be-
cause goate are fond of it.)  A species of wild mar-
joram.
  TRAGOSELI'NUM.    (Tragoselinum, i,  n.; from
rpayos, a goat,  and otXtvov,  parsley:  named from iu
hoiry coot like the beard of a goat.)  The burnet saxi-
frage.  See Pimpinella saxifraga.
  TRA'GUS.   (Tpayoc.  Tragus, i, m.; a  goat: so
called from ite having numerous little hairs, or from iu
being hairy like the goat.)  1. In  anatomy.  A small
cartilaginous eminence ofthe auricular or external ear,
placed anteriorly, and connected to the anterior extre-
mity of the helix. It is beset with numerous little hairs,
defending, in some measure, the entrance of the exter-
nal auditory passage.
  2. In botany.  This name has been variously ap-
plied, by Dioscorides, to meal or flour, and to a mari
time shrub.
  TRALLIAN.   Alexander, a  learned and inge-
nious physician, who  was  born at Tralles, in  Lydia,
and flourished  at Rome under the emperor Justinian,
about tbe middle of the sixth century.  Like Hippo
crates, he travelled over various countries to  improve
                                       357 
TRA
TRA
Ms knowledge.  Besides improving upon many of the
compositions then employed, he Invented severol others:
and particularly introduced the liberal use of the pre-
parations of iron.  He principally followed the practice
of  Hippocrates  and Galen, but not  Indiscriminately.
He appeals, however, to have had too great foith in
charms and oinuleu,which wos the common error ofthe
age in which he lived.
  TRA'MIS.  Tpaiuc.  The line  which divides  tiie
scrotum, and runs on to the anus.  Sec Raphe.
  TRANSFUSION.  (Transfusio; from transfundo,
to pour from one vessel  into another.)  The transmis-
sion of blood from one living  animal  to  another by
means of a canula.  " Harvey was thirty years before
he could get bis discovery admitted, though  the most
evident proofs of it were every where perceptible;  but
as soon as the circulation wos acknowledged, people's
minds were seized with  a sort of delirium: it was
thought that the means of curing all diseases was found,
and even of rendering man immortal.   The cause of
all  our evils was attributed to the blood; in order to
cure them, nothing more was necessary but to remove
tbe bod blood, and to replace it by pure blood, drawn
from a sound animal.
  The first attempu were made upon animals, and they
had complete success.  A dog having lost a great part
of iu blood, received, by transfusion, that of a sheep,
and it became well.  Another  dog, old and deaf, re-
gained, by this means, the use of hearing, and seemed
to recover iu youth.  A horse of twenty-six years hav-
ing received in his veins tlie blood of four lambs, he
recovered hto strength.
  Transfusion was soon attempted upon man.  Denys
and Emerez, the one a physician, the other a surgeon
of Paris, were the first who ventured to try it.  They
introduced into the veins of a young man, an idiot, the
blood of a calf, in greater quantity  than  that which
had been drawn from them, and he appeared lo recover
his reason.  A  leprous person,  and a quartan  ague,
were also cured by this means; and  several other trans-
fusions were made upon healthy persons without any
disagreeable result.
  However, some sad evenu  happened, to  calm  the
general enthusiasm caused by these repeated successes.
The young idiot we mentioned fell  into a state of mad-
ness a short time after  the experiment  He was sub-
mitted a second time to the transfusion, and he was
immediately seized with a hamaturia,  and died In  a
state of sleepiness and torpor.  A young prince of the
blood royal was also the victim of it.  The parliament
of Porto  prohibited transfusion. A short  time after,
G. Riva, having, in Italy, performed the  transfusion
upon two individuals, who died of it, the pope prohi-
bited it also.
  From  thto period, transfusion has  been regarded as
useless, and even dangerous."
.  TRANSPARENCY.   Diophoneity.   A quality in
certain bodies, by which they give passage to the rays
of light.  It is opposed to opacity; hence Cornea trans-
parens, and Cornea opace.
  TRANSPIRATION.   (Transpiratio; from trans,
through,  and »j»iro, to breathe.)   See Perspiration.
  TRANSUDATION.   Transudate.   The passing
through  the cells or pores of any thing.  The term
should be distinguished from perspiration, which  im-
plies a function, by which the perspired fluid is secreted
from  the blood, whereas, by transudation, the blood
or other fluid merely posses or oozes through unaltered.
  TRANBVERSA'LIS.   Transverse.
  Transversalis abdominis.  A muscle  situated on
the anterior part of the abdomen: so named from iu
direction.  It arises internally or posteriorly from  the
cartilages of the seven lower ribs, being there connected
with the intercostals and diaphragm, also from  the
transverse process of the last vertebra of tbe back, from
those of tbe four upper vertebra; of the loins, from the
inner edge ofthe crista ilii, and from part of Poupart's
ligament, and it is inserted into the inferior bone of the
sternum, and almost all the length of the  linea alba.
Iu  use is  to support  and compress the  abdominal
viscera.
  Transversalis anticus primus.  See Rectus capi-
tis  lateralis.
  Transversalis cervicu.  See  Longissimus dorsi.
  Transversalis colli.  A muscle, situated on  the
posterior part of the neck, which  turns the  neck  ob-
liquely backwards, and a little to one side.
      356
  Transversalis dorsi.  See Multifidus spina.
  Transversalis major colli.   Sse Lengissimire
dorsi.
  Transversalis pedis.  A muscle of the foot, which
it contracts, by bringing the grcal toe and the two outer-
most toes nearer each other.
  Transverse suture.  Sutura transversalis. This
suture runs across the  face, and sinks down into the
orbiu, joining the bones ofthe skull to the bones of tho
face; but with so many irregularities and interruptions,
that it can scarcely be recognised as a suture.
  Transverso-spinales.  See Multifidus spina.
  Transversus  auris. A muscle of the external ear,
which draws the upper part of the  concha towards the
helix.
  Transversus  perinxi.   (Jlfusculu*  transversus
perinai.)  A muscle of the organs of generation
which sustains  and keeps the perino-um in its proper
place.
  Transversus perin«i alter.   Prostaticus infe-
rior, of Winslow.  A small muscle occasionally found
accompanying the former.
  TRAP.  This  term  is derived  from  the Swedish
word trappa,  a stair.  It is applied in geology to rocks
principally characterized by the  presence  of horn-
blende nnd black iron clay.
  TRAPA.  (A term given by Linnaeus, whose idea is)
certainly  taken from the warlike instrument called cal-
trop, the  tribulus of the anciente,  which  consisted of
four iron  radioted spikes, so ploced, that one of them
must always  stand upwards,  in order to wound the
feet of the passengers.   Such is  the figure of the  sin-
gular fruit of  thto genus; hence named by Tournefort,
tribuloides.   Calcitrapa, an old  botanical term of si-
milar meaning to tribulus, is compounded, perhaps, of
calco, to  tread or kick,  and rptirta,  to turn, because the
caltrops are continually kicked over if they fail of their
Intended  mischief: here we have the immediate origin
of trapa.)  The name  of a genus of plants,  Class,
Tetrandria ;  Order, Monogynia.
  Trapa natans.  The systematic nome of the plant
which affords the nux aquatica.  Tribulus aquaticus.
Caltrops.  The  fruit is of a quadrangular and  some-
what oval shape, including a nut of a sweet  farina-
ceous flavour, somewhot  like that of  the chesnut,
whicli is apt to constipate the bowels, and produce dis-
ease; however, it is said to be nutritious and demul-
cent,  and to  be useful in  diarrhoeas from abraded
bowels, and against calculus.  Likewise a poultice of
these nuts to said to be efficacious in resolving hard and
indolent tumours.
  TRAPEZIUM.   (A four-sided figure: so  called
from iu shape.)   The first bone of the second row of
tiie carpus.
  TRAPE'ZIUS.  (From Tpajrtgioj,  four-square: so
named from its shape.)   Cucullaris.  A muscle situ-
ated immediately under the integumenu  of the poste-
rior part of the  neck and  back.   It arises by a thick,
round, and short tendon, from the lower part of a pro-
tuberance in  the  middle of the occipital bone  back-
wards, and from  the rough line that to extended from
thence towards the mastoid process of the os temporto,
and by a  thin membranous tendon, whicli covers part
of the complexus and splenius.  It then  runs down-
wards along the nape of the neck,  and rises tendinous
from the spinous processes of the two lowermost ver-
tebrae of the neck, and from the spinous  processes of
all the vertebra; of the back, being inseparably united
to its fellow, the whole  length of iu origin, by tendi-
nous fibres, which, in the nape of the neck, form what
is called ligamentum colli, or the cervical  ligament It
to inserted fleshy into tiie brood ond posterior half of
the clavicle, tendinous and  fleshy into  one-half of
the acromion, and into almost all the spine of the sca-
pula.
  This muscle serves to move the  scapula in different
directions.  Ite upper descending fibres pull it obliquely
upwards; iu  middle transverse ones pull it directly
backwards; iu inferior  fibres, which ascend obliquely
upwards, draw  it obliquely downwards and  back-
words.
  The upper  part of the muscle acts upon the neck
and head, the  latter of which it draws backwards, and
turns upon iu axis.  It likewise concurs with  other
muscles  in counteracting the flexion of the head for-

  TRAPEZOI'DES OS.  The second  bone of  tha 
TR1                                            TRI
second row of the carpus: so called from iu resemblance
to the trapezium, or quadrilateral geometrical figure.
  TRAUMATIC.  (From rpavpa,  a wound.)  Any
thing relating to a wound.
  TRAVELLER'S JOY.  See Clematis vitalba.
  TREACLE.  See Theriaca.
  Treacle, mustard.  See Thlaspi.
  TREFOIL.   (So called  because the leaf is formed
of three leaflets.)  See Trifolium.
  Trefoil marsh.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  TREMOLITE.   A subspecies of straight edged
augite.  There are three kinds, the asbestous, common,
and glassy.
  TRE'MOR.   An involuntary trembling.
  TREPAN. Trephine.  An instrument used by sur-
geons to remove o portion of bone from the skull.
  TREPHINE.  See Trepan.
  TREW, Christopher James, was born at Lauffen,
In Franconia, in 1695; and settled as a physician at
Nuremburg, where he gained so much reputation, os to
be made  director of the academy "Naturae  Curioso-
rum."  He also contributed much towards establishing
a society  under  the title of " Commercium Literarium
Noricuni," for the advancement of medical and natural
knowledge, which published some valuable memoirs.
To these societies he communicated several papers, and
he also published some splendid works in anatomy and
botany.   He died in 1769.
  TRIANGULARIS.   Trigonus.   Triangular:  a
term very generally used in the different departments
of science, to parts of animals, vegetables, minerals,
&c, from their form.  See Caulis, Folium, Sec
  TRI'BULUS. (Tpi/JoAoc; from  rpiSia, to tear or
injure: an instrument of war to be thrown in the way
to annoy the enemy's horse: hence the  name of an
herb from iu resemblance to this instrument.)
  1. The name  of a  genus of  planu.  Class, Decan-
dria ; Order, Monogynia.
  2. See  Trapa nutans.
  Tribulus aquaticus.  See  Trapa nutans.
  TRICA.   (Trica, a,f.; from Opi\, rpixos, a hair:
because  they seem composed of a horse hair rolled, or
partly folded, into a little, round, black heod.)  A  term
applied by Dr. Achorius to the  black filamenU, resem-
bling a curled horse hair, in the Gyrophora and Umbi-
licaria of Hoffman.
  TRICAUDA'LIS.   (From fre*, three, and cauda, a
tail.) A muscle with three tails.
  TRI'CEPS.   (From tres, three, and caput, a head.)
Three-headed.
  Triceps adductor femoris. Under this appella-
tion are comprehended three  distinct muscles.  See
 Adductor brevis, longus, and magnus femoris.
  Triceps acris.  See Retrahenles auris.
  Triceps  extensor  cubiti.  Thto muscle, which
occupies all the posterior part of the os humeri, is de-
scribed as  two distinct  muscles by  Douglas, and as
three by Winslow.   The upper part of its long head is
covered  by the deltoides: the rest of the muscle is situ-
ated immediately under the integuments.
  It arises, as iu name indicates, by three heads.  The
first, or long head, (the long head of the biceps exter-
nus, of Douglas; anconeus major, of Winslow, as it is
called,) springs, by a flat tendon of an inch in breadth,
from the anterior extremity of the inferior costa of the
scapula, near iu neck,  and below  the  origin of the
teres minor.  The second head, (the short head of the
 biceps externus, of Douglas;  anconeus  externus, of
 Winslow), arises by an acute, tendinous,  and fleshy
 beginning, from the upper and  outer part of the os hu-
 meri, at the bottom of its great tuberosity.  The third
 heod, (brachialis externus of  Douglas;  anconeus in-
 ternus,  of Winslow,) which  is the shortest of the
 three, originates by on acute fleshy beginning, from the
 back part of the os humeri, behind the flat tendon of
 the latU-uinus dorsi.   These three portions unite about
 the middle of the  arm,  so as to form one thick and
 powerful muscle, which adheres to the os humeri to
 within an inch of the elbow, where it begins to form a
 broad tendon,  which, after adhering  to the capsular
 ligament of the elbow, fa inserted  into the upper and
 outer part of the olecranon, and sends off a great num-
 ber of fibres,  which help to  form  the foscia on the
 outer port of the forearm.  The use of thto muscle  is
 to extend the forearm.        ....          , t
   TKICIIIA.   (From 0pj\, a hair.)  A disease of the
 hair.  See Trichoma.
  TRICHl'ASIS.  (From 8pi\, a hair.)   Trichosis
1. A disease of the eye-lashes, in which they are turned
in towards the bulb of the eye.
  2.  A dtoease of the hair.  See Trichoma.
  TRICHI'SMUS. (From Bpi\, a hair.)   Aspeciesol
fracture which appeors like a hair, and  is almost im-
perceptible.
  TRICHO'MA.  (From rpixsJi the hair.) The plaited
hair.  See Plica.
  TRICHOMANES.  (From rpixts, hair, and povos,
thto, lax: so called because ii resembles fine hair.)  See
Asplenium trichomanes.
  TRICHOSIS.  (Tpixwoic, pilare malum; from Bptl,
a hair.) Underthis name Good makes a genus of dis-
ease in the Class Eccritica,  Order  Acrotica, of hto
Nosology.   Morbid hair.  It has eight species,  viz.
Trichosis sdosa, plica, hirsutus, distrix.  See Plica.
  TRICHU'RIS.  (FromGpifc, a hair.) The long hair-
worm.  See Worms.
  TRICOCCUS.  (From rptts, three,  and kokkos, a
grain.)  Three-seeded.
  Tricocc*.  The name of an order  in Linnaeus's
Fragments  of a Natural Method, consisting of those
which hove a triangular capsule with three seeds.
  TRICUSPID.   (Tricuspis; from  tres, three, and
cuspis, a point: so called from their being three-point.
ed.)  Three-pointed.
  Tricuspid valve.  The name of the valve in tlie
right ventricle.
  Trifoil, water.  See Menyanthes trifoliata,
  TRIFO'LIUM. (From tres, three, and folium, a
leaf: so called because it  has three leaves on each
stalk.)  The  name of a genus of plants in  the Lin-
naean system.  Class, Pentandria; Order, Monogynia.
Trefoil.
  Trifolium acetosum.  The wood-sorrel was so
called.  See Oxalis acetosella.
  Trifolium aquaticum.   See .flfcnyanfAes  trifo-
liata.
  Trifolium arvense.  Hare's-foot trefoil.
  Trifolium  aureum.   Herb  trinity; noble  liver-
wort.
  Trifolium caballinum.   Melilotus.
  Trifolium cjkruleum.   Sweet trefoil.
  Trifolium falcatcm.  The Auricula muris.  See
Hieracium pilosella.
  Trifolium fibrinum.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  Trifolium hepaticum.  See Anemone hepatica.
  Trifolium melilotus  officinalis.  The syste-
matic name of the officinal melilot; Melilotus; Lotus
sylvestris ; Ser alula camp ana; Trifolium caballinum ;
Coroda regia; Trifolium odoratum.  This  plant has
been said to be  lesolvent, emollient, anodyne, and to
participate of the virtues of chamomile.  Its taste is
unpleasant, subacrid, subsaline, but not bitter; when
fresh it bas scarcely any smell; in drying, it acquires a
pretty strong one of the aromatic kind, but not agree-
able.  The principal use of niclilot has been in clys-
ters, fomentations, and other external applications.
  Trifolium odoratum.  See Trifolium  melilotus
officinalis.
  Trifolium paludosum.  See Menyanthes trifoliata.
  TRIGE'MINI. (Trigeminus, from tres, three, and
geminus, double; three-fold.)  Nervi innominati. The
fifth pair of nerves, which  arise from the crura ot
the  cerebellum, and are divided within the cavity oi
the cranium into three bronches, viz.  the orbital, supe-
rior, and inferior maxillary.  The  orbital branch is
 divided into the frontal, lachrymal, and nasal nerves;
 the superior maxillary into the spheno-palaline, poste-
 rior alveolar, and infra-orbitol nerves ; and the inferior
 maxillary into two branches, the internal lingual, and
 one more properly called the inferior maxillary.
  TRIGONELLA.  (A diminutive of trigona, three-
 sided, alluding to its little triangular  flower.)  The
 name of a genus of planu.   Class, Diadelphia; Order,
 Decandria.                       „,t
  Trioonella  fcenum gr«cum.   The systematic
 name of the frenugreek.  Fanum gracum;  Buceros ;
 JEgoeeras.  Trigonella—leguminibus sessilibus stric-
 tis  erectiusculis  subfalcatis acuminatis, caule  eredo,
 of Linneus.  A native of Montpellier.   The seeds ore
 brought to us from the  southern parts of Fronce ond
 Germany; they hove o strong disagreeable smell, and
 on  unctuous farinaceous taste, accompanied  with a
 a slteht bitterness.  They are esteemed as assisting the
 formation  of pus, in inflammatory  tumours ; and tits 
TRO
TRO
 ■eat, with that intention, is made into a poultice wilh
 milk.
   TRIGONUS.  See Triangularis.
 r  TRIHLLATjE.  (From tree, three, and hilum, the
 ■car or external mark on tbe seed.)  The name of a
 class of planU in Linnaeus's Fragmenta. of a Natural
 Method, consisting of planu, tbe seeds of which have
 Ibe soar well marked; the style has three stigmas.
   TRILOBUS.  Three-lobed.   Applied to  puns of
 animals and plants which are so shaped.
   TRINERVIS.  Three-nerved.  In botany, three-
 ribbed ; as applied to leaves, fee.
 k.  Trinita'tis herba.  See Anemone hepatica.
 i  TRINITY-HERB. See Anemone hepatica.
   ["TRIOSTBUM.  The triosteum perfoliatum is a
 native plant, the root of which is cathortic in the dose
 of thirty or thirty-five grains.  It sometimes  operates
 as an emetic in the some doses.  The strength is some-
 what impaired by keeping, so lhat the stock should be
 renewed every year."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  TRIPARTITUS.  Tripartite: divided into three.
  TriFa'strum apellidis.   Tripastrum archimedis.
 A surgical  instrument for extending fractured limbs;
so named because it resembled a machine invented by
Apellides or Archimedes, for the launching of ships,
and because It was worked with three cords.
  TRIPHANE.  See Spodumene.
  TR1PHYLLUS.  (From rpus, three, and cbvXXov, a
leaf.) Three-leaved.
  Triplinervis.  Triply-ribbed:  applied  to  a leaf,
which has a pair of large ribs branching  off from a
main one above the base, which to the case in every
species of sunflower, and the Blakea triplinervis.
  TRIPOLI.  Rottenstone. A grayish yellow-coloured
mineral used for polishing.
  TRIQUE'TRA.   (Triquetrus; from  tres, three.)
Ossicula wormiana. The  triangular-shaped bones,
which are found mostly in the course ofthe lambdoidal
suture of tbe skull.
  TRiaUETRUS.  Three-sided.  Applied to some
parts of plants;  as the stems, flowerstalk,  leaves,
seeds, fee.
  TRI'SMUS. (From rpiju, to gnash.)   Locked jaw.
Spastic  rigidity of  the  under jaw.  Capistrum, of
 Vogel.   Dr. Cullen makes two species.   1. Trismus
nasccntium, attacking  infants during the first two
weeks   from  their  birth.  2. Trismus  traumaticus,
attacking persons of all ages, and arising from cold or a
wound.  See  Tetanus.
  TRISSA'GO.  (Quasi tristago ; fromtristis, sad:
because it dispels sadness.)   The common germander
b sometimes so called.  See Teucrium chamadrys.
i Trissaoo pallustris.  The water-germander was
so called.  See Teucrium scordium.
  TRITiEO'PHYA. (From np7aioc, tertian, and 6vta,
Importing a like nature or original.)  Tritaus.  A (ever
much of a  nature with a tertian, and taking iu rise
from it  Some call it a continued tertian.  It is remit-
tent or intermittent
  Trit*ophya causus.  The fever called)causus by
Hippocrates.
  TRITATUS.  See'Trito-opAya.
  TRITICUM. (From tero, to thresh from the husk.)
The  name  of a genus of plants.  Class, Triandria;
Order, Digynia.  See Wheat.
  Triticum repens.   Gramen caninum; Gramen
 Dioscoridis;  Gramen repens; Loliaceum  radice re-
pent*.  Dog's grass; Couch grass.   A very common
grass, the roou of which are agreeably sweet, ond pos-
sess  aperient  properties.  The  expressed  juice  is
recommended to be given largely.
  TRITO'RIUM.   (From tritus, beat sm? /)  1. A
mortar.
  8.  A glass for separating the oil from the water in
distilling.
  TRITURATION.  (Trituratio; from tero, to rub
or grind.)   Trilura; Tritus.  The act of reducing a
solid body into a subtile powder; as woods, barks, fee.
It  is performed mostly by the rotary motion of a
pestle m metallic, glass, or Wedgewood mortars.
  TROCAR.  (Corrupted from un trois quart, French,
■ three-quarters; from  the  three sides  with which
the point to  made.)  The name of an instrument used
in tapping for the dropsy.
  TROCHA'NTER.  (From rprx<", to run: because
the muscles inserted into them perform  the office of
running.)  The name of two processes of the thigh-
 bone,  which are distinguished  into the greater and
 less.  See Femur.
   TROCHI'SCUS.  (Diminutive of rpo\os, a wheel.)
 A troch  or  round  tablet.  Troches and lozeum-s are
 composed of powders made  up with glutinous sub-
 stances into little  cokes, and afterward dried.  Thto
 form is principally used for the more commodious exhi-
 bition of certain medicines, by fitting them to dissolve
 slowly in the mouth, so as to pass by degrees into the
 stomach; and hence these preparations have generally
 a considerable portion of sugar  or other materials
 grateful to tbe palate.  Some powders have likewise
 been reduced into troches, with a view to their prepara-
 tion, though possibly for no very good reasons: for the
 moistening  them, and afterward drying them  in the
 air,  must on this account be of greater injury, than any
 advantage accruing from thto form can counterbalance.
   General rules for making troches:
   1. If the mass proves so glutinous as to stick to tha
 fingers in making up, the hands  may be   anointed
 with any sweet or aromatic oil;  or else sprinkled with
 starch, or liquorice powder, or with flour.
  2. In order to  thoroughly dry the troches, put them
 on an inverted sieve, in a shady, airy place, and fre-
 quently turn them.
  3. Troches are to be kept in glass vessels, or in
 earthen ones well glazed.
  TRO'CHLEA.  (TpoxXea, a pulley; from rpcx<a,to
 run.)  A kind of cartilaginous pulley, through which
 the tendon of one of Ihe muscles ofthe eye passes.
  TROCHLEA'RIS.  See Obliquus superior oculi.
   TROCHLEATO'RES.  The  fourth pair of nerves
 are so  called, because they are inserted into the mus-
 culus troclearis ofthe eye.  See  Pathetici.
  TROCHOI'DES.  (From rpoxoc, a wheel, and tiSos,
 resemblnoce.)  Axea commissura.  A  species of diar-
 throsis, or moveable connexion of bones, in which one
 bone rotates upon another; os the first cervical verte-
 bra upon the odontoid process of the second.
  TRONA.  The  African name for the native car-
 bonate of Boda found near Fezzan.
  [" The carbonate of soda, strictly so called, is found
 In the  province of Sukcna, two days' journey from
 Fezzan, in Africa.  It appears in crusts, composed of
 minute crystals, at the foot of o mountain.  It to there
 called  Trona, and  transported to Egypt, Tripoli, fee.
 This variety is also found near Buenos Ayres in con-
 siderable quantities, whence it hos been transported to
 England.  It there exisu in stratified masses from two
 to six  inches thick, resting on clay, which is strongly
 impregnated with  common salt. It has a light yel-
 lowish-gray colour, a granular texture, is easily broken,
 and does not effloresce in the air."—Cleav. Min.  A. ]
  TRONCH1N, Theodore, was born at Geneva, in
 1709, and went to study under Boerhaave, at Leyden,
 where  he graduated in 1730.  He then settled  at Am-
 sterdam, became a member of the CoUege of Phy-
 sicians, and an  inspector of hospitals; and  distin-
 guished himself as a zealous promoter of inoculation.
 In 1754, he returned to Geneva, and ranked among the
 most eminent practitioners in Europe;  a chair of me-
 dicine wos instituted in his favour, and the Society of
 Pastors admitted him into their body.  He was em-
 ployed by the Duke of Orleans,  and  other persons of
 rank at Paris, to inoculate their children; and per-
 formed the  same office  for the Duke of Parma.  In
 1766, he accepted the appointment of principal phy-
 sician  to the Duke of Orleans; though he had pre-
 viously declined  an invitation from the Empress of
 Russia. His practice appears to have been simple and
judicious, and his conduct marked by humanity and
 charity. He  had little time for writing; but besides his
 inaugural dissertation, he published a treatise on the
 Colica  Pictonum, in 1757, and contributed several arti-
 cles to  the Encyclopaedia, and  to the Memoirs of the
 Academy of Surgery: and to an edition of the works of
 Baillou he gave  a Preface on the State of Medicine.
 He had the  honour of being  a member of the chief
 medical and  scientific societies in Europe.  His death
 happened in  1781.
  TROPiE'OLUM.   (A diminutive  of tropaum,  or
 rptairatov, a  warlike  trophy.  Thto fanciful but  ele-
 gant name wos chosen by Linnaeus  for this singulor
 and  striking genus, because he conceived the shield-
 like leaves and the brilliant flowers, shaped like golden
 helmeU, pierced through and through, and stained with
 blood, might well justify such an allusion.) The nam* 
TRU
TUB
 •fa ftenus or prams.*. Class, Octandria; Order, Mono-
 gynia.  ^v
   Trop«olu*i majus.  The  systematic name of the
 Indian cress.  Nasturtium indicum; Acriviola; Flos
 sanguineus monardi; Nasturtium peruvianum ; Car-
 damindum minus.  Greater Indian cress, or Nastur-
 tium.   Thto plant to n  notive of Peru; it was first
 brought to France in 1684, and there called Lagrande
 capucine.  In  iu  recent state this plant, and more
 especially iu flowers, have a smell and taste resem-
 bling those of water-cress; and the leaves, on being
 bruised in a mortar, emit a pungent odour, somewhat
 like that of horse-radish.  By distillation with water,
 they impregnate the fluid in n considerable degree with
 the smell and  flavour of the  plant.  Hence the anti-
 scorbutic character of the nasturtium seems to be well
 founded, at least as far as we are able to judge from iu
 sensible qualities: therefore, in an  those cases where
 tbe warm and antiscorbutic vegetables are recom-
 mended, this plant  may  be occasionally adopted as a
 pleosant and effectual variety.   Patienu to whom the
 nouseotis teste  of scurvy-grass is intolerable, may find
 a grateful substitute in the nasturtium.  The flowers
 are frequently usihI in  salads, and the capsules are by
 many highly esteemed as a pickle.  The flowers, In the
 warm summer  months, about the time of sunset, have
 been observed to emit sparks like those of the electrical
 kind.    •
   Trophis  Americana.  Red fruited  bucepholon.
 The fruit of the plant is a rough red berry, which to
 eaten in Jamaica, though not very pleasant
  TRUFFLE.   See Lycoperdon tuber.
  TRUNCATUS.   Truncate.  Used in botany.  A
 truncate leaf to an abrupt one, which has the extremity
 cut off, as  it were, by a transverse  line;  as  in Lirio-
 dendrum tulipifera, and  the petals of Hura crepitans.
  TRUNCUS.   (Truncus, i, m.)  The trunk.
  1. In anatomy, applied to the body strictly so called.
 It is divided  into tbe thorax or chest, the abdomen or
 belly, and the pelvis.
  II. In botany, that part of  a plant which emerges
 from the root, and sustains all other paru. The genera
 •f trunks are,
  1. Truncus : applied to trees and shrubs, which are
*■ hick and woody
  2. Caulis: the stem of herns.
  3. Calmus: the stem of grasses.
  4. Stipes: the trunk of funguses, ferns, and palms.
  5. Scapus: which is not a trunk,  but a flower-stalk,
 emerging from  the root.
  [Truss.  This is an instrument employed bysur-
 geons  to retain the intestines  in their proper ploce,
 when they have been forced out of  their  natural posi-
 tion, forming the disease which to called a rupture or
 hernia.  A hernia is reducible or not  When not re-
 ducible, it becomes a strangulated hernia, requiring a
 surgical operation, before the intestines can be restored
 to their proper  position.  When not strangulated, rup-
 tures are liable to become so by accident, and hence
 trusses were invented to keep the  intestines in their
 place, and if possible to cure the disease, by cle-sing the
 opening through which the bowels protruded. Trusses
 have heretofore been considered as a palliative remedy,
 rather than the means of effecting a  radical cure. This
 has arisen from the manner of constructing them; and
 although they sometimes effected the desired object,
 yet they more generally foiled, becouse the pads of all the
 trusses heretofore applied, were made conrez.   The
 intention of this shape of the instrument was to press
 Into the opening through which the gut descended, and
 to keep it well  into its place; but while it hod this ef-
 fect, it tended to keep the opening from healing, and
 even to enlarge it.  This  evil wos not folly remedied
 until Dr. Amos G. Hull, of New-York, turned his at-
 tention to the subject, and by hto improvemente in the
 construction of trusses, has rendered it certain that all
 recent ruptures, and those of children, may be perma-
 nently cured, and those of old people  and of long stand-
 ing moy, in many coses,  also be remedied.   The pad
 of Dr.  Hull's truss is concave, and not convex; and
 hence'the raised circular margin, by  proper adaptation,
 presses upon the sides ofthe hernial opening, ond tends
 to close the aperture aud cure the hernio.
  The following particulars of this  invention, and its
 application to the cure of hemia,  we  take  from the
 New-York Medical and Physical Journal, vol. 4.
  "The quaUtios we have  united  in the  truss, are
 equally applicable to every species of hemia, and wo
 can say, without the fear of contradiction,  that the
 proportion of cures it bas effected is altogether unpa-
 ralleled.   It may, perhaps, be an interesting inquiry to
 some, how this instrument produces ils effects: and we
 think, after considering iu construction, thto question
 con be answered to the satisfaction of every rational
 mind.  It will be observed, that this truss presenU a
 concave surface to the rupture opening.  The conca-
 vity of the plate is occupied  by an elastic cushion, the
 resistance of which to sufficient to reduce the intruding
 intestine while it to prevented escaping to any consider-
 able  distance  by the pressure of the  metallic plate;
 which pressure being greatest at the circumference and
 diminishing towards the centre,  tends constantly to ap-
 proximate the hernial parietes, and afford Ihem rest
 and mechanical support.  It is  therefore obvious that
 nothing to suffered to intervene between the lips of the
 opening, as is the case when  the intestine protrudes, or
 a convex pad is  applied, but a fair opportunity is pre-
 sented for the fibres to recover their toue, or to heal,
 when any laceration has been produced by violence
 done to the paru.  It to a law of the animol economy,
 particularly noticed by  Dorsey, that all hollow paru
 of  the body have a tendency to adapt themselves to
 Iheir contents.
  " For the cur: of hernia, then, it is only necessary to
 remove every obstacle which counteracts this tendency
 Thto indication  is certainly very far from being an-
 swered by the convex pad, and we think it can only be
 fulfilled by me which shall  reduce the bowel without
 dilating the ring: with this view, we have  applied the
 concave pad, which has more than answered our ex-
 pectations in  preventing a descent of the gut, and in
 restoring the fibres, which  it undoubtedly greatly facili-
 tates by is constant and uniform pressure. But without
 lnvestigiting the modus operandi, it is sufficient for the
 patient and for all practical purposes, for tlie physician
 to know, that with thto instrument hernio may always
 be  secured. If applied in  cases  of umbilical or conge-
 nital iiernla in children, it will, in every instonce, re-
 move the necessity of an  operation.   In coses of con-
 genital hernia, it should  be applied before  adhesion
 takas place, but  not until  the testicle has made its de-
 scent If this particular period should be more care-
 fully observed by surgeons, and the application of the
 truss  (instead of being  abandoned   to mechanics)
 receive a  greater share of their attention, they might
 be instrumental in obviating much of tiie distress which
 has been entailed upon the world.
  "The distinctive merits of thto truss Dr. Hull sums up
 under the following heads:—
  " First.—The concave internal surface of the rup-
 ture pad, from iu pressure being greatest at the circum-
 ference, tends constantly  to approximate the hernial
 parietes, affording them rest and mechanical support
  " Secondly.—The combined hinge and pivot mode
 of connexion between  the spring and pad, by means
 of a tenon and mortice, so constructed  as to preserve a
 double hinge and limited joint,  acting in every direc-
 tion,  thereby securing the  uniform  pressure of tho
 spring on the pad, and sustaining the same nice coapta-
 tion of the pad and rupture opening, as well under the
 varied ordinary  desultory  muscular actions, as when
 the body to in a recumbent posture.
  " Thirdly.—The graduating power and fixture of tbe
 pad to the spring, rendering, as wUI be readily per-
 ceived, the condition of the pad perfectly controllable,
 even  to  nameless minuteness.   Also  resulting from
 thto mechanism,  is the advantoge of accommodating a
 large truss to a smaU person;  hence Ihe facility of sup-
plying,  without  disappointment, persons at a great
 distance
  " Fourthly.—The double inguinal truss, being simply
 the addition of another pad, attached to a short elastic
 metallic plate: thto plate with ite pad move on the main
 spring by the same power of adjustment and fixture
 as the first pad, the pressure of the pads being gradu-
 ated at pleasure by an intervening cork wedge."  A.]
  TU'BA. (From tubus: any hollow vessel.) 1. A tube.
  2. In botany, the inferior  part of a monopetalous
 corol.  It  is the  cylindrical part which is enclosed in
 the calyx ofthe primrose.  See Corolla.
  Tuba eustachiana.   Tuba aristotclica; Aquadu.
 cus; Aquteduclus fallopii; Meatus siccus; Palatinus
 ductus ; Ductus auris palatinus.  The auditory tube
 The Eustachian tube, so  called because it was  first
                                       v361 
TUN
TUN
described by Eustachius, arises in each ear from tlie
anterior extremity of the tympanum by means of a
bony scml-cariol; runs forwards and inwards, at the
some time becoming gradually smaller; and after per-
forating the petrous  portion of the temporal bone, ter-
minates in a passage, partly cartilaginous and partly
membranous, narrow at tlie  beginning, but becoming
gradually larger, and ending in a pouch behind the soft
palate.  It is through thto orifice that  the pituitary
membrane of the nose enters  the tympanum.  It  is
always open, and affords a free passage tor the air into
the tympanum; hence persons hear  better with thcir
moulh open.
  Tuba fallopian*..   The  Fallopian  tube first de-
scribed by Fallopius.  The  uterine tube.   A canal
included in two lamina) of the  peritonamm, which
arises  at each side of the fundus of the uterus, passes
transversely, and ends with iu extremity turned down-
wards at the ovarium.   Iu use is to grasp the ovum,
and convey tlie proUfic vapour toil and to conduct the
fertilized ovum into  the cavity of tie  uterus.
  TUBER.   (Tuber, eris, n.; froui  tumeo, to swell.)
An old name for an  excrescence.   *
  1. In anatomy, applied lo some  paru which are
rounded; as tuber annulare, tec
  2. Iu surgery, a knot or swelling in my part.
  3. In botany, applied to a kind of rotnd turgid root,
as a turnip; hence these are called tuberose roots.
  4. The name of a genus of planu in the  Linnaian
system.  Class, Cryptogamia,  Order, Ftngi.
  Tuber cibarum.   The common truffle See Lyco-
perdon tuber.
  Tubercula quadrioemina.  Corpora quadrigemi-
na ; Eminentia quadrigemina; Natula.  four white
oval tubercles of the brain, two of which ar> situated
on each side  over tlie posterior orifice ofthe third ven-
tricle and the aqueduct of Sylvius.  The ancients called
tbem nates and testes, from their supposed resemblance.
  TUBE'RCULUM.  (Tuberculum, i, n. diniuutive
of tuber.)   A tubercle.   In anatomy, applied to several
elevations, and in morbid anatomy to a diseased ;truc-
ture, which consisu of a solid (roundish substance;  as
tubercles of the lungs, liver, Sec.
  In botany,  it is applied to the hemispherical projec-
tions, as the fruit of the Lichen caninus.
  Tuberculum annulare.  The commencement of
the medulla oblongata.
  Tuberculum loweri.  An eminence in the right
auricle of the heart where the two vens cavse meet: so
called from Lower,  who first described it.
   TUBEROSUS.   Tuberose, knobbed: applied  to
parts of planu. The root so called  is of many kinds.
The most genuine consisu of fleshy knobs, various in
form, connected by common  stalks or fibres; as the po-
 tato, and Jerusalem artichoke.
   TUBULARIS.  Tubular. In Good's Nosology used
 to designate  a species of purging, diarrhaa lubularis,
in which membrane-like tubes poss with the motions.
   TUBULOSUS.   Tubulose.  A  leof to  so called
 which is hollow within, as that of the common onion.
   The florets of a compound flower are called tubulosi,
 tubular or cylindrical, to distinguish  them from such as
 ore ligulate, or riband-like.
   TU'BULUS. A small tube or duct.
   Tubuli lactiferi.  The ducts or tubes in the nip-
 ple, through which the milk  passes.
   TUFT. See Capitulum.
   TULP, Nicholas, was the son of an opulent mer-
 chant and born at Amsterdam, in  1593.   Having
 studied and  graduated  at Leyden, he settled in  his
 native city, and rose to a high  rank, not only in  his
 profession, but also os o citizen.  He was mode burgo-
 master in 1652, ond  in thot station resisted the invasion
 of Holland by Lewis XIV. twenty years after, and thus
 Baved his country; on  which occasion  a medal  was
 Btruck to his honour.  He died in 1674.  Hto three
 books of Medical Observations have  been several times
 reprinted, and contain many valuable physiological re-
 marks.  He is said to have  been  among the first who
 observed tiie lacteal vessels.
   TUMITE.  See  Thummeretone.
   TUMOUR.  (Tumor; from  tumeo,  to swell.)   A
 swelling.
   Tumo'res.  Tumours. An order in the Class, Lo-
 cales, of Cullen's  Nosology,  comprehend! ig partial
 swellings without inflammation.
   TUNBRIDGE.   Tunbridge wells is a populous vil-
       362
lage in the county of Kent, which contains many cha-
lybeate springs, all of which resemble each other very
closely in their chemical properties.  Two of these are
chiefly used, which yield about a gallon in a minute,
and therefore afford an abundant supply for the nume-
rous invalids who yearly resort thither.  The analysis
of Tunbridge spring proves it to be a very pure water,
us to tbe quantity of solid matter; and the saline con-
tenu (the iron excepted) are such as may be found in
almost any water that is used as common drink.  It is
only as  a chalybeate, and in the quantity of carbonic
acid, that it differs from common water.  Of this acid
it contains one twenty-second of iu bulk.  The general
operation of this chalybeate water  is to increase the
power of the secretory  system in a gradual, uniform
manner, and to  impart tone and strength to  all the
functions; hence it is asserted to  be of eminent  service
in irregular digestion, flatulency, in the incipient stages
of those chronic disorders which are attended with
great debility, in chlorosis, and  numerous other com-
plainU  incident  to  the  female  sex.  The prescribed
method of using the Tunbridge water, observes Dr.
Saunders, is judicious.  The whole of tiie quantity
daily  used,  is taken  at about two or three intervals,
beginning at eight o'clock in the morning, and finishing
about noon.   The dose at each time varies from about
one to three quarters of a  pint;  according to the age,
sex, and general constitution of  the patient, and espe-
cially the duration of the  course; for it is found that
these waters lose much of their effect by long habit.
   TUNGSTATE.   Tunstas.  A salt formed  by  the
combination ofthe tungstic acid, wilh salifiable bases;
as tungstate of lime, Sec.
   TUNGSTENUM.  (Tungsten,  Swed. ponderous
stone.)  A metal, never found but in combination, and
by no means common.  The substance known to mine-
ralogists, under the name of tungsten, was, after some
time, discovered to consist of lime, combined with  the
acid of this metal.  This ore is now called tungslate of
lime,  and  is exceedingly scarce.  It has been found in
Sweden and Germany, both in masses and crystallized,
of a yellowish-white or gray colour.  It has a  sparry
appearance, is shining, of a  lamellated texture, and
semitronsparent  The same metallic acid is likewise
found united to iron and manganese; it then forms  the
ore called Wolfram, or tungstate of iron and manga-
nese.   This ore occurs both massive and crystallized,
and is found in Cornwall, Germany,  France, and Spain.
 Iu colour is brownish-black, and ite texture foUated.
 It has a metallic lustre, and a lamellated texture; it to
 brittle and very heavy; it  is found  in solid masses, in
 the state  of layers  interspersed with  quartz.   These
 two substances are therefore ores of the same metal.
   Properties.—Tungstenum  appears of a steel-gray
 colour.  Iu specific gravity to  about 17.G.  It to one of
 the hardest metals, but it is exceedingly brittle; and it
 to said lo be almost es infusible  as platina. Heated in
 the air it becomes converted into a  yellow pulverulent
 oxide, which becomes blue by a strong heat, or when
 exposed to light.  Tungstenum combines with phos-
 phorus and sulphur, and with silver, copper, iron, lead,
 tin, antimony, and bismuth; but it does not unite with
 gold and platina. It to not attacked by sulphuric, nitric,
 or muriatic acids; nitro-muriatic acid acu upon it very
 slightly.  It to oxidizablc and acidifioblc by the nitrates
 and hyperoxymuriates.  It colours  the vitrified earths
 or the vitreous fluxes, of a blue or brown colour.  It is
 not known  what iu action may be on water and differ-
 ent oxides.  Its oction on  the alkalies is likewise un-
 known.  It is not employed  yet, but promises  real
 utility, on account of iu colouring property, as a basis
 for pigment, since tlie compounds it  to said to form with
 vegetable colouring matter, afford colours so  perma-
 nent, as not to be acted on by the most concentrated
 oxymuriatic acid, the great enemy of vegetable colours.
   Methods  of obtaining tungstenum.—The method of
 obtaining metallic tungstenum is a problem in chemistry
 Scheele, Bergman, and Gmelin did  not succeed in their
 nttempu to procure it.  Klaproth  tried to reduce  the
 yellow oxide of this metal with a variety of combusti-
 ble substances, but without  success.   Ruprecht and
 Tondy say  they have obtained this metal by using com-
 bustible substances  alone: and by a mixture of com-
 bustible and alkaline matter.
   Tbe following processis recommended by Richter, an
 ingenious German chemist.
   Let equal poru of tungstic acid  and dried blood be 
TUR
TYM
exposed for some time to a red heat In a crucible; press
the black powder which is formed into another smaller
crucible, and expose it again to a violent heat in a
forge, for at least half an hour.  Tungstenum will
then be found, according to thto chemist, in its metallic
state in the crucible.  There are two oxides of tung-
stenum, the brown and the yellow, or tungstic acid.
  TUNGSTIC  ACID has been found only in two mi-
nerals;  one of  which, formerly called tungsten, is a
tungstate of lime, and to very rare; the other, more
common, to composed of tungstic ocid, oxide of iron,
and  a little oxide of manganese.  The acid is  sepa-
rated from the latter in the following way:—The wol-
fram cleared from its silicious gangue, and pulverized,
is heated in a matrass with five or six times ite weight
of muriatic acid for half an hour.  The oxides of iron
and  manganese  being thus dissolved, we obtain  the
tungstic acid under the form of a yellow powder.  After
washing it repeatedly with water, it is then digested in
an excess of liquid ammonia,  heated, which dissolves
it completely.  The liquor to filtered and evaporated to
dryness in a capsule.  The dry residue being ignited,
the ammonia flies oft', and pure tungstic acid remains.
If the whole of the wolfram has not been decomposed
in this operation, it must be subjected to the muriatic
acid again.
  It is tasteless, and does not affect vegetable colours.
Tbe tungstatesof the alkalies and magnesia are soluble
and crystallizable, the other earthy ones are  insoluble,
as well as those of the metallic oxides.  The acid is
composed of 100 parte metallic tungsten, and 25 or 36.4
oxygen.
  TUNGSTOUS ACID.  What has been thus called
appears to be an oxide of tungsten.
   Tunic of a seed.  See Arillus.
  TU'NICA.  (A tuendo corpore, because it defends
the body.)  A membrane or covering; as the coate of
the eye, Sec
  Tunica aciniformis. The uvea, or posterior lamella
of the iris.
  Tunica albuginea oculi.  See Adnata tunica.
  Tunica albuginea testis.  See Albuginea  testis.
  Tunica arachnoidea.  See Arachnoid membrane.
  Tunica cellulosa rutschh.  The second coat of
tlie intestines.
  Tunica choroidea. See Choroid membrane.
  Tunica conjunctiva.  See Conjunctive membrane.
  Tunica cornea.  See  Cornea.
  Tunica filamentosa.   The falseorspongy chorion.
  Tunica retina.   See Retina.
   Tunica vaginalis testis.  A continuation  of the
peritoneum through the  inguinal ring, which loosely
invesU the testicle and spermatic cord.  See Testis.
  Tunica villosa.  The villous, or inner folding coat
of the intestines.
   Turbdh mineral.  See Hydrargyrus vitnolatus.
   Turbelh-root.  See Convolvulus turpelhum.
   TURBINATE.    (Turbinatus;  from  turbino, to
 sharpen at the top, shaped like a sugar-loaf.) Shaped
 like a sugar-loaf.
   Turbinated bones.  The superior spongy portion
 of the ethmoid bone, and the inferior spongy bones,aie
 so called by some writers. See Spongiosa ossa.
   TURBINA'TUM.  The pineal gland.
   TURBINATUS.   Turbinate,  or sugar-loaf form.
 Applied to the fig, Sec
   Turbith.  A cathartic eastern bark;  a species of
 cicely.
   Turkey stone.  See Whetslale.
   TURMERIC.  See Curcuma.
   TURNHOOF.  A vulgar name of the ground ivy.
 See Glecoma hederacea.
   TURNIP.  See Brassica rapa.
   Turnip, French.   See Brassica rapa,
   TURNSOLE.  See Heliotropium.
   TURPENTINE.   Terebinthina.   There arc many
 kinds of turpentine.  Those employed medicinally are,
   1. The  Chian or Cyprus turpentine.  See Pistacia
 terebinthus.                          ....
   2. The common turpentine.  See Terebtnthma com-
 munis.                      _   _.    ,   .
   3. The Venice turpentine.   See Pinus lanx.
   All these have been considered as hot, stimulating
 corroborants and detergents; qualities which they pos-
 sess in conunon.  They stimulate the prim.e via;, and
 prove  laxative;  when canied Into the  blood-vessels
 they excite the whole system, and thus prove service-
able in chronic rheumatism and paralysis.  Turpen
tine readily passes off by urine, which it  imbues with;
a peculiar odour;  also by perspiration and by exhala-
tion from the lungs;  and to these respective effecu are
ascribed the virtues it possesses in gravelly complainU,
scurvy, and pulmonic disorders.  Turpentine is much
used in gleeu, and fluor albus, and  in  general with
much success.  The  essential oil, in which the virtues
of turpentine reside, to not. only preferred for external
use. as a rubefacient, but also internally as a diuretic
ana styptic; the latter of which qualities it  possesses
in a very high degree. Formerly, turpentine was much
used as o digestive application to ulcers, Sec; but in the
modern practice of surgery, it is almost wholly exploded.
  Turpeth mineral.  See Hydrargyrus vitriolatus.
  TURPE'THUM.  (From Turpeth, Indian turbeth.)
See Convolvulus turpethum.
  Turpethum minerals.  See Hydrargyrus vibrio-
lotus.
  TUROUOIS.   Calaite.   A much-esteemed orna-
mental stone brought from Persia, of a smalt-blue and
apple-green colour.
  TURUNDA.  (A terendo, from iu being rolled up.)
A tent, or suppository.
  TUSSILA'GO.   (Tussilago, inis,f.; from tuesis,
a cough; bocause it  relieves coughs.)   1. The name of
a genus of plants in  the Linnrean system. Class, Syn-
genesia ; Order, Polygamia superflua.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the colufoot.  See
 Tussilago farfara.
  Tussilago farfara.  The systematic name of the
 Bechium;  Bechion; Calceum equinum; Chamaleuce;
 Filius antepatrem;  Farfarella; Farfara; Tussilago
vulgaris ; Farfara bechium; Ungula caballina. Colts-
foot.   Tussilago farfara—scapo unifloro  imbricato,
foliis subcordatis angulatis denticulatis.  The sensi-
ble qualities of this plant are very inconsiderable; it
 has  a  rough mucilaginous taste, but no remarkable
 smell.   The leaves have always been esteemed as pos-
 sessing demulcent and pectoral virtues; and hence
 they have  been exhibited in pulmonary consumptions,
 coughs, asthmas, and catarrhal affections.  It is  used
 as tea, or given in the way of infusion with liquorice-
 root or honey.
  Tussilago  petasites.   The systematic  name  of
 the hulter-bur. Petasites.   Pestilent-wort  Theroote
 of this plant are recommended as aperient and alexi-
 pharmic, and  promise, though now forgotten, to be of
 considerable activity. They have a strong  smell, and
 a bitterish acrid taste, of the aromatic  kind, but not
 agreeable.
   TU'SSIS.   A cough, a sonorous concussion of the
 breast, produced by the violent, and for  the most part
 involuntary motion  of the muscles of respiration.  It
 is symptomatic of many diseases.
   Tussis convulsiva.  See Pertussis.
   Tussis exanthematica.  A cough attendant on an
 eruption.
   Tussis ferina.  See Pertussis.
   TUTENAG.  1  The Indian name for zinc.
   2. A metallic compound brought from China.
   TU'TIA. (Persian.)  Pompholyx; Cadmia.  Tutty.
 A gray oxide of zinc; il is generally formed by fusing
 brass or copper, mixed with blende, when it is incrusted
 in the chimneys of the furnace.  Mixed with any com-
 mon cerate, it is applied to the eye, in debilitated states
 of the conjunctive membrane.
   Tutia preparata.  Prepared tutty is often put into
 collyria, to which it imparts an adstringent virtue.
   TUTTY.   See Tutia.
   TYLOSIS.  (From ruAoc, a callus.)   Tyloma.  An
 indurotion of  the margin of the eyelids.
   Ty'mpani membrana.   See Membrana tympani.
   TYMPANITES.  (From rvpieavov, a drum:  so
 called because the  belly is distended with wind, and
 sounds like o drum when struck.)  Tympany.  Drum-
 belly.   An elostic distention of the nbdomen, which
 sounds like a  drum when struck, with costiveness and
 otrophy, but no fluctuation.  Siiecies: 1. Tympanites
 intestinalis, a lodgment  of wind in the intestines,
 known by the discharge of wind giving  relief
   2. Tympanites abdominalis, when the wind to in the
 cavity of the abdomen.
   TY'MPANUM.  (Ti^ravov.  Adrum.)  The drum
 or barrel of the ear.  The hollow part of the ear in
 which are lodged the bones of the ear.   It begins be-
 hind tiie  membrane of the tympanum, which termi
                                       h.963 
TYP
TYP
 nates the external auditory passage, and is surrounded
 by the petrous portion ofthe temporal hone.  It termi-
 nates at the cochlea of the labyrinth, and has opening
 into it four foramina, viz. the orifices of the Eustachian
 tube and mastoid sinus, the fenestra ovalis, and ro-
 tunda.  It contains the four ossicula auditus.
   TY'PHA.  (From ntbos, a lake; becouse it grows
 In marshy places.)  The name of a genus of plante in
 the Linnamn system.  The cat's tail.
   Tvpha aromatica.  See Acorus calamus.
   Typha latifolia.  The broad-leaved cat's tail, or
 bull-rush.  The young shooU, cut before they reach the
 surface of the water, eat like asparagus when boiled.
   TYPHOMA'NIA.  (From ntpos, to bum, and pavta,
 delirium.)   A complication of phrensy and lethargy
 with fever.
   TY'PHUS.   (From rvcios, stupor.)  A  species of
 continued fever, characterized by great debility, a ten-
 dency in  the fluids to putrefaction and the  ordinary
 symptoms of fever.  It  is to be readily distinguished
 from the inflammatory by the smollness of the pulse,
 and the sudden and great debility which ensues on iu
 first attack; and, in its more advanced stage, by llie pe-
 techia?, or purple spots, which come out on various paru
 of the body, and the fcetid stools which are discharged;
 and it may be distinguished from a nervous fever by the
 great violence of ail Its symptoms on iu first coming on.
   The most general cause that gives rise to this disease,
 to contagion, applied either immediately from  the body
 of a person labouring under it, or conveyed in clothes,
 or merchandise, &c; but it moy be occasioned by the
 effluvia  arising  from either animal or vegetable sub-
stances  in a decayed or putrid stale: and  hence it to,
 that in low and  marshy countries it is apt to be preva-
 lent when intense and sultry heat quickly succeeds any
great inundation.   A want of proper cleanliness and
confined air are likewise causes of this fever; hence it
prevails in hospitals, jails, camps, and  on board of
ships, especially when such places are much crowded,
and the  strictest attention to not paid to a free ventila-
tion and due cleanliness.   A close state of the atmos-
phere, with damp weather, to likewise apt to  give rise
to putrid fever.  Those  of lax fibres,  and  who have
been  weakened  by any previous debilitating  cause,
such as poor diet, long fasting, hard labour, continued
wont of sleep, Sec. are most liable to it.
  On the first coming on of the disease, the person to
seized with languor, dejection of spirits, amazing de-
pression and loss of muscular strength, universal wea-
riness and soreness, pains in the head, back, and extre-
mities, and rigors; the eyes appear full, heavy, yellow-
ish, and often a little inflamed; the temporal arteries
throb violently, the tongue is dry and parched, respira-
tion to commonly laborious, and interrupted with deep
sighing; the breath  is  hot and offensive, the  urine is
crude and pale, the body is costive, and the pulse is
usually quick, small, and hard, and now ond then flut-
tering and unequal.  Sometimes a great heat, load, and
pain are felt at the pit of the stomach, and a vomiting
of bilious motter ensues.
  As the  disease advances, the  pulse  increases in
frequency (beating often from 100 to 130 in a minute);
there is  vast debUity, a great heat ond dryness in the
skin,  oppression at the breast, with anxiety, sighing,
 and  moaning;  the thirst is greatly increased;  the
tongue,  mouth, lips, and teeth are covered over with a
brown or block  tenacious fur; the speech is  inarticu-
 late, and  scarcely intelligible;  the patient  mutters
much, ond delirium ensues.  The fever continuing to
 increase still  more in violence, symptoms of putrefac-
 tion  show themselves;  the breath becomes  highly
 offensive'; the urine deposites a black and foetid seJi-
 ment;  the stools ore dork, offensive, and  pass off
 insensibly; hemorrhages issue from the gums, nostrils,
 mouth,  and other paru  of the body; livid  spots or
 petechia} appear on iu surface;  the pulse intermiu and
 sinks; the extremities grow cold; hiccoughs ensue;
 and death at last closes the tragic scene.
   When this fever does not terminate family, it gene-
 rally begins, in cold climates, to  diminish about the
 commencement of tbe third week, and goes off gradu-
 ally towards tiie end of the fourth, without any very'
 evident  crisis;  but in warm climates it seldom con-
 tinues above a week or ten days, if so long.
   Our opinion, as to the event, is to be formed  by the
 degree of violence in tbe symptoms, particularly after
 petechia; appear, although in some instances recoveries
 have been effected untie r the most unpromising- appear-
 ances.   An abatement of febrile heal and thirst  a
 gentle moisture diffused equally over  the whole sur
 face of  the body, loose stools, turbid urine, rising of
 the  pulse, and the absence of delirium and  stupor,
 may be regarded in a favourable light  On the con
 trary, petechia, with dark, offensive, and involuntary
 discharges by urine and stool, fcetid sweats, haemor-
 rhages, and hiccoughs, denote the almost certain dis-
 solution  of the patient.
  The appearances usually perceived on dissection, are
 inflammations of the brain and viscera, but more par-
 ticularly of the stomach and intestines, which are now
 and then found in a gangrenous state.  In the muscular
 fibres there seems likewise a strong tendency to gon
 grene.
  In the  very early period of typhus fever, it  is often
 possible, by active treatment, to  cut short tbe disease
 at once; but where it has established  iuelf more
 firmly, we con only employ  palliative measures to
 diminish iu violence, that  it may run  safely  through
 iu course.  Among the most likely means of accom-
 plishing the first object to an emetic ; where the fever
 runs high, we may give antimonials in divided doses
 at short  intervals till full vomiting to excited; or if
 there be  less strength in the system, ipecacuanha in  a
 full dose at once.   Attention should next be  paid to
 clear out the bowels by some sufficiently active form
 of medicine; and  as the dtoease proceeds, we must
 keep up  thto function, and attempt to restore  that of
 the skin, and the other secretions, as the best means of
 moderating the violence of vascular action.  Some of
 the preparations of mercury, or if there be tolerable
 strength, those of  antimony, assisted  by the soline
 compounds, moy be employed for this purpose.  The
 general antiphlogistic regimen is to be observed in the
 early part of the disease, as explained under synocha.
 In coses where the skin to uniformly very hot and dry,
 the abstraction of caloric may be more  actively made
 by means of the  cold  affusion, that is, throwing a
 quantity  of cold  water on the naked body  of the
 patient;  which measure has sometimes arrested the
 disease in iu  first stage; aud when the power of the
 system is less, sponging the body occasionally with
cold  water, medicated, perhaps, with a little salt or
 vinegar,  may be substituted as  a milder  proceeding.
 But where the evolution of heat  is even deficient, such
 means would be highly improper;  and it may be some-
 times advisable to employ the tepid bath, to promote
 the operation of the diaphoretic  medicines.  If under
 the use of the measures already detailed, calculated
to lessen the violence  of vascular action, the vital
 powers should appear materially falling off, recourse
 must then be had to a more nutritious diet, with a
 moderate quantity of wine, and cordial, or tonic medi-
cines.  There is  generally an aversion from  annual
 food, whence the  mucilaginous  vegetable substances,
 as orrow-root, Sec, rendered palatable by spice, or a
 little wine, or sometimes mixed with  milk, may be
 directed,  as nourishing  and easy of digestion.   If,
 however, there be no marked septic tendency, and the
 patient cloyed with these articles, the lighter  animal
 preparations, as calves-foot jelly, veal broth, etc., may
 be allowed.  The extent to which wine may be carried,
 must depend on  the urgency  of the case, and the
 previous  habiu of the individual; butit will commonly
 not be necessary  to exceed half a pint, or a  pint at
 most, in the twenty-four hours;  and it should be given
 in divided portions, properly diluted, made, perhaps,
 into  negus, whey,  &c, according to the liking of tbe
 patient.  The  preference should always be given to
 that  which is of the  soundest quality, if  agreea-
 ble :  but  where Wine cannot be afforded, good malt
 liquor, or mustard whey, may be substituted.  Some
 moderately stimulant medicines, as ammonia,  aro-
 matics, serpentaria,  &c,  may  often  be used with
 advantage, to assist in keeping up the circulation  :
 also  those  of a tonic quality, as  calumba,  cusparia,
cinchona, &e., occasionally in  their lighter  forms;
 but more especially the acids.  These are, in several
respecu,  useful;  by promoting the secretions of the
prima: vis, Sec, they quench thirst, remove irritation,
and manifestly coo! the body;  and in the worst forms
of typhus, where  the  putrescent tendency appears,
 they are  particularly indicated  from their antiseptic
 power; they are also decidedly tonic, and indeed those
 from the  mineral kingdom powerfully so.  These may 
ULM
ULM
be given freely as medicines, the carbonic add also in
the form  of brisk fermenting liquors;  and the native
vegetable  acids, as they exist in  ripe fruits, being
generally very grateful, may constitute a considerable
part  of the diet  In the mean time, to obviate  the
septic tendency, great  attention  should be paid to
cleanliness and ventilation, and keeping the bowels
regular by mild aperienu, or clysters of an emollient
or antiseptic nature: and where aphtha;appear, acidu-
lated gargles should  be directed.   If the  disease
inclines more to the nervous form, with much mental
anxiety, tremors, and other irregular affections of the
muscles, or organs of sense, the antispasmodic medi-
cines may be  employed with more advantage, as tether,
camphor,  musk, tec, but particularly opium;  which
should be given in a  full dose, sufficient to procure
sleep, provided there be no appearances of determina-
tion of blood to the head; and it may be useful to call
a greater portion of nervous  energy to the lower ex-
tremities by the pediluvium, or other mode of applying
warmth,  or occasionally  by  sinapisms, not allowing
these to produce vesication.  But if there should be
much increased  vascular action in the brain,  more
active means  will be required, even the local abstrac-
tion of blood, if the strength will permit; and  it will
be always right to have the bead shaved, and kept
cool by some evaporating lotion, and a blister applied
to the back of the neck.  In like manner, other im-
portant parts may occasionally require local means
of relief.  Urgent vomiting may, perhaps, be checked
by the effervescing mixture; a troublesome diarrhoea
by small doses of opium, assisted by aromatics, chalk,
and other astringents, or sometimes by small doses of
ipecacuanha; profuse perspirations  by  the  infusum
rose, a cooling regimen, &c.
  Typhus ssgyptiacus.  The plague of Egypt.
  Typhus carcerum.  The jail-fever.
  Typhus castrbksis.  The camp-fever.
  Typhus gravior.  The most malignant species of
typhus. See Typhus.
  Typhus icterodbs.   Typhus with symptoms of
jaundice.  See Typhus.
  Typhus mitior.  The low-fever.
  Typhus nervosus.  The nervous-fever. •
  Typhus petechialis. Typhus with purple spoU.
  TYRI'ASIS.   Tvpcaaic.  A species of leprosy in
which the skin may be easily withdrawn from tho
flesh.
  TYRO'SIS.  (From  rvpoia, to coagulate.) A dis-
order of the stomach from milk curdled in it.
U
■JTLCER.  (Ulcus, eris, n.; from tXxos, a sore.)  A
*J purulent solution of continuity of the soft parte of
an animal body.  Ulcers  may arise from a variety of
causes, as all  those that  produce inflammation, from
wounds,  specific  irritation of the absorbenu, from
scurvy, cancer, the venereal or scrofulous virus, &c.
The proximate or immediate  cause is an increased
action of the absorbenu, and a specific action of the
arteries, by which a fluid is separated from the  blood
upon the ulcerated  surface.   They are variously
denominated;  the following  is  the most  frequent
division:
  1. TAe simple ulcer, which takes place generally
from a superficial wound.
  2. The sinuous, that runs under  the integumenu,
and the orifice of which is narrow, but not callous.
  3. The fistulous ulcer, or fistula, a deep ulcer with
a narrow and callous orifice.
  4. The fungous  ulcer, the surface of which is
covered with fungous flesh.
  5. The gangrenous, which is livid, foetid, and gan-
grenous.
  6. The jcoriiitie, which depends on  a  scorbutic
acrimony.
  7. The venereal, arising from the venereal disease.
  8. The cancerous ulcer, or open cancer.  See Cancer.
  9. The carious ulcer, depending upon a carious bone.
  10. The inveterate ulcer, which is of long  continu-
ance, and resists the ordinary applications.
  11. The  scrofulous  ulcer,  known  by iu having
arisen from indolent tumours, ite discharging a viscid,
glairy matter, ond iu indolent nature.
  Ulcera serpentia oris.  See Aphtha.
   Ulcerated sore throat.  See Cynanehe.
  ULLA.   The common  diminutive tiHa, or ilia, is,
according to Dr. Good, most probably derived from the
Greek, 11X17,  ule or ile, materia, materies, ofthe matter,
make, or nature of; thus, papula or  papilla,  of the
matter or nature of pappus; lupula, of the matter or
nature of lupus; pustula, of the matter or nature of
nus - and so of many others.
  ULMA'RIA.   (From ulmus, the elm: so named be-
cause it has leaves like the elm.)  See Spiraa ulmaria.
  ULMIN.   Dr.  Thomson has given this temporary
name to a very singular substance lately examined by
Klaproth  It differs essentially from every other known
body, and must therefore constitute a new and peculiar
vegetable principle.  It exuded spontaneously from the
trunk of a species of elm, which Klaproth conjectures
to be the ulmus nigra, and was sent to him  from Pa-
lermo in 1802.
(* 1. In its  external characters it resembles gum.  It
was solid, hard, of a black colour, and had considerable
lustre.  IU powder was brown. It dissolved readily
in Uie mouth, and was insipid.
  2. It dissolved speedily iu a small quantity of water.
Tbe  solution was  transparent, of a  blackish-brown
colour, and, even when  very much concentrated by
evaporation, was not in the least mucilaginous or ropy;
nor did it answer os o paste.  In this respect ulmin dif-
fers essentially from gum.
  3. It was completely insoluble both in alkohol and
aether.  When alkohol wos poured into the aqueous
solution, the greater part of the ulmin precipitated  in
light brown flakes.   The remainder was obtained by
evaporation, and was not  sensibly soluble in alkohol.
The alkohol by this treatment acquired a sharpish taste.
  4. When 0 few drops of nitric ocid were added  to
the aqueous  solution, it  became gelatinous, lost iu
blackish-brown  colour, and o  light brown substance
precipitated.  The  whole solution  was slowly evapo-
rated to dryness, and the reddish-brown powder which
remoined  wos treated with alkohol.   The  alkohol
assumed  a golden  yellow colour; and, when evapo-
rated, left o light brown, bitter, and sharp resinous
substance.
  5. Oxymuriatic acid produced precisely the same
effects as nitric.  Thus it appears that ulmin, by the
addition of a little oxygen, is converted into a resinous
substance.  In thto  new state it is insoluble in water.
This property is very singular.  Hitherto  the volatile
oils were  tbe only substances known to assume the
form of resins.  That a  substance soluble in water
should assume the resinous form with such facility, is
very remarkable.
  6. Ulmin when burned emitted little smoke or flame,
and left a spongy but firm charcoal, wbich, when burned
in the open air, left only a little carbonate of potassa be-
hind.
  U'LMUS.  1. The name of a genus of plants in the
Linmeon system. Class, Pentandria ; Order, Digynia.
  2. The  pharmacopceial name of the common elm.
See Ulmus campestris.
  Ulmus campestris.  The  systematic name of the
common elm.  UZmu*—foliis duplicato-serratis, basi
inaqualibus, of LimiEUs.  The inner tough bork of this
tree, which is directed for use by the pharmacopoeias,
has  no remarkable smell, but a bitterish taste, and
abounds wilh a slimy juice, which has been recom-
mended  in nephritic cases, and externally as a useful
application to burns.  It is also highly  recommended
 in some cutaneous affections allied to herpes and lepra.
 It is mostly exhibited in the form of decoction, by boil
ing four ounces in  four pinu of water to two pinte; of
 which from four to eight ounces are given two or three.
 times a day.
                                        3o5 
ULN
UNG
  CUlmtjs  htlva.  The  Ulmus fulva, or slippery
elm, inbabiu the northern  and western parts of the
United  States, from Canada to Pennsylvania.  Tha
inner bark of thto tree is charged with a gummy sub-
stance in  great quantity, so that if a  small piece to
chewed in the mouth, it  almost instantly fills it  with a
thick, viscid mucilage.  Thto bark,  both in substance
and  decoction, is a valuable demulcent in dysentery,
and  in  strangury, either produced  by cantharides or
resulting from other causes.   Elm-bark has been used
as food, and been found capable of supporting life in
cases of emergency.  Externally, it  is employed as an
emollient  application, to promote suppuration,  and to
answer the different ends to which  common poultices
arc applicable.  For this purpose, either the green bork
should  be bruised, or the dried bork cut into shreds
and boiled.  Internally, it proves most palatable in the
infusion."—Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
  U'LNA.  (From wXsvn, the ulna, or cubit.) Cubitus.
The  larger bone  of the forearm.   It to smaller and
shorter than  the  os humeri, and becomes gradually
smaller as it descends to the wrist.   We may divide it
into  ite  upper and lower extremities, and  its body or
middle part   At iu upper extremity  are two considera-
ble processes, of which the posterior one and largest to
named olecranon,  and the smaller and interior one the
coronoid process.  Between these two processes, the
extremity of tbe bone is formed into a deep articulating
cavity, which, from iu  semicircular shape, is called
the greater sigmoid cavity, to distinguish it from an-
other, which has been named the le*« sigmoid  cavity.
The olecranon, called also the anconoid process, begins
by a considerable tuberosity, which is rough, and serves
for the insertion of muscles, and terminates in a kind
of hook, the concave surface of which moves upon the
pulley of the os humeri.  This process forms the point
of the elbow.  The coronoid process to shorper at iu
extremity than the olecranon, but is  much smaller, and
docs not reach so high. In bending the arm, it is received
into the fossa at the forepart of the pulley.   At the
external side  of the coronoid process is the less sig-
moid cavity, which is o small, semilunar articulating
surface, lined with cartilage, on which the round heod
of the radius plays.  At the forepart of the coronoid
process we observe a small  tuberosity, into which the
tendon of the brachialis internus  is inserted.   The
greater sigmoid cavity, the situation of which we just
now mentioned, is divided into four surfaces by a pro-
minent line which to intersected by a small sinuosity
that  serves for the lodgment of mucilaginous glands.
The  whole of thto  cavity is covered with cartilage.
Tbe body, or middle part ofthe ulna, to of a prismatic
or triangular  shape, so  as to afford  three surfaces and
as many angles.   The external and internal surfaces
are flat and broad, especially the externol one, and arc
separated by a sharp angle, which, from ils situation,
may be termed the internal angle.  This internal angle,
which is turned  towards the radius, serves for the
attachment of the  ligament that  connects the two
bones, and wbich is therefore caUed the interosseous
ligament.  The posterior surface is convex, and cor-
responds with the olecranon.  The  borders, or angles,
which separate it from the other two surfaces,  ore
somewhat rounded. At obout o third ofthe length of
thto bone  from  tbe top, in its forepart, we observe a
channel for the passage of vessels.  The lower extre-
mity to smaller as it descends, nearly cylindrical, and
slightly curved forwards and outwards.  Just before it
terminates, it contracu, so as to form a neck to the
small head with which it ends.  On the ouuide of this
little head, answering to the olecranon, a small pro-
cess, called the styloid process, stands out, from which
a strong ligament  to stretched to the wrist   The head
has a rounded articulating surface, on iu internal side,
which is covered with  cartilage, and received into a
semilunar cavity formed at the lower end of the radius.
Between it and tne os cuneiforme, a moveable cartilage
is interposed, which to continued  from the cartilage
that  covers the lower end of the radius, and to con-
nected by ligamentous fibres to the  styloid process of
the ulna.  The ulna is articulated above witb the lower
end of the os humeri  Thto articulation is of the spe-
cies called ginglymus; it to articulated also both above
and below to the radius, and to the carpus at its lowest
extremity.  Iu chief use seems to  be to support and
regulate the motions of the radius.   In children, both
extremities of thto bone are first cartilaginous, and after -
     366
ward epiphyses, before they are completely united to
tbe rest of the bone.
  ULNAR.  (Ulnaris; from ulna, the bone so named.)
Belonging to the ulna.
  Ulnar artery.  See Cubital artery.
  Ulnar nerve.  See Cubital nerve.
  Ulna'ru externus.  See Extensor carpi ulnaris.
  Ulna'ris internus.  See Flexor carpi ulnaris. ,
  ULTRAMARINE.  See Lani* lazuli.
  UMBELLA.   (Umbella, a, t; a little shade, or um
brella.)  An umbel; the rundle of some  authors.  A
species of inflorescence in which several flower stalks
of rays, nearly equal in length, spread from one com-
mon centre, their summiu forming a level, convex, or
even globose surface, more rarely a concave one.
  From the insertion of the umbel, it is distinguished
into pedunculate and sessile.  The former implies that
the roys or flower-stalks come from one ; and the latter,
thot  the rays or stalkleu come, not from a common
peduncle, but from the stem or branch of the plant; as
in Sium nediflorum, and Prunus avium.
  From the division of the umbel it is said to be simple.
when single-flowered; as in  Allium ursinum: and
compound, when each  ray or stalk bears an umbellula,
or partial umbel; as in the Anethum faniculum.
  The umbella involucrata to supplied with involucra.
  UMBELLULA.  A partial or little umbel.  See
Umbella.
  UMBER.   An ore of iron.
  UMBILI'CAL.  (Umbilicalis; from tunoilieu*, the
navel.)  Of or belonging to the navel.
  Umbilical cord.   Funis umbilicalis;  Funiculus
umbilicalis.   The navel-string.  A cord-like Bubstance
of an intestinal form, about half a yard in length,-that
proceeds from the navel of the foetus to the centre of
the placenta.  It is composed of a cutaneous sheath,
cellular substance, one umbilical vein, and two umbili-
cal arteries; the former conveys the blood to the child
from the placenta, and the latter return it from the child
to the placenta.
   Umbilical hernia. See Hernia umbilicalis.
  Umbilical reoion.  Regio  umbilicalis. The port
of the abdominal parietes about two inches all round
the navel.
  UMBILI'CUS.   The navel.
  Umbilicus marinus.   Coluleelon marina; Andro
sace; Acetabulum marinum;  Androsace mallhioli;
Fungus petraus marinus.  A submarine production
found ou rocks and the shells of fishes, about the coast
of Montpellier, Sec.  It is said to be, in the form  of
powder, a useful anthelmintic and diuretic.
  UMBO.  (The top of a buckler.)  The knob or more
prominent part in the centre of the hat  or pilus of the
fungus tribe.
  Unceola elastica. This plant affords a juice which
becomes an elastic gum.  Sec Caoutchouc.
  UNCIFORM.  (Unciformis; from uncus, e  hook,
and forma, a likeness.)  Hook-like: applied to bones, Sec.
  Unciform  bone.  The last bone of the second row
of the carpus or wrist: so named from iu hook-like
process, which projecu towards the palm of the  hand,
and gives origin to the great ligament by which the ten-
dons of the wrist are bound down.
  UNCINATUS.  (From uncus, a hook.)  Uncinate
or hooked:  applied to tbe stigma ofthe Lantana.
  UNDERSTANDING.  Intellectus   See Ideology.
  UNDULATUS.  Undulnted: opplied to a leaf when
the disk near the  margin to waved obtusely up and
down; as in Reseda lutea.
  Unbdo papyracea.   Sec Arbutus unedo.
  UNGUE'NTUM. (Unguentum, i, n.;  from  un^-o,
to anoint)  An ointment The usual  consistence of
ointmenu  is  about thot of butter.  The following ore
among the best formulae.
  Unguentum  apostoloruk.  Dodeca  pharmicum.
The apostles' ointment: so called becouse it has twelve
ingredienu in it exclusive of the oU and vinegar.  Not
used.
  Unguentum  cantharidis.    Unguentum  lytta.
Ointment of the blistering-fly.   Toke of the blistering-
fly, rubbed to a  very fine powder, two ounces; distilled
water, eight fluid ounces; resin cerate, eight ounces.
Boil  the woter with the blistering-fly to one-half, and
strain;  mix the cerate with the liquor, and then let it
evaporate to the proper  consistence.  This to some
times used to keep a blister open; but the savine cerate
is to  be nreferrod. 
UNG                                           URA
   Us'onENTrM  citaceu  Ointment of spermaceti,
 formerly  called linimentum album, and latterly, un-
 guentum spermaceti. Take of spermaceti, six drachms;
 wiiite wax, two drachms; olive oil, Ihree fluid ounces.
 Having melted  them together over a slow fire, con-
 stantly stir the  mixture until it  gets cold. A simple
 emollient ointment.
   Unguentum cicut*.  Hemlock ointment.  Take
 of the fresh leaves of hemlock, and prepared hog's
 lard, of each four ounces.  The  hemlock  is to be
 bruised in a marble mortar, after which the lard  is to
 be added, and the two ingredients thoroughly  incorpo-
 rated by beating.  They are then to be gently melted
 over the fire, and after being strained through a cloth,
 and the fibrous parts of the hemlock well pressed, the
 ointment to to be stirred till quite cold. To cancerous
 or scrofulous sores thto  ointment may be applied with
 a prospect of success.
  Unguentum elbmi compositum. Compound oint-
 ment of elemi, fonnerly called linimentum  arcai, and
 unguentum e gummi elemi.  Take of elemi, a pound;
 common turpentine,  ten ounces; prepared suet, two
 pounds; olive oil,  two fluid ounces.  Melt the elemi
 with the suet, then remove it from the fire, and imme-
 diately mix in the turpentine and oil, then strain the
 mixture through a linen cloth.   Indolent ulcers, chil-
 blains, chronic ulcers  after bums, and indolent  tumours
 are often removed by this ointment.
  Unguentum hydraroyri fortius.  Strong mer-
 curial ointment,  formerly called unguentum caruleum
 'ortius.  Take of  purified mercury, two pounds; pre-
 pared  lard, twenty-three ounces ; prepared suet, an
 ounce.  First rub the  mercury with the suet and a little
 of the lard, until the globules disoppear;  then add the
 remainder of the lard, and  mix.  In very general  use
 for mercurial frictions.  It may be employed in almost
 all case3 where mercury is indicated.
  Unguentum hydrargyri mitius.  Mild mercurial
ointment, formerly called unguentum caruleum mitius.
 Take  of  strong mercurial ointment,  a  pound; pre-
pared  lard, two pounds.   Mix.   Weaker than  tlie
former.
  Unguentum hydrargyri nitratis.  Unguentum
hydrargyri nitrati. Ointment of nitrate of mercury.
Take of purified mercury, an ounce ; nitric acid, ele-
ven fluid drachms; prepared lard, six ounces; olive
oil, four fluid ounces.  First dissolve the mercury in
the acid, then, while the liquor is hot, mix it with the
lard and oil melted together.  A stimulating and deter-
gent ointment.  Tinea  capitis, psorophthalmia, indo-
lent tumours on the margin of the eyelid, and ulcers in
the urethra, are cured by iu application.
  Unguentum hydrargyri nitratis mitius. Weak-
er only than the former.
  Unguentum  hydrargyri  nitrico-oxidi.   Oint-
ment of nitric oxide of mercury.   Take of nitric oxide
of mercury, an ounce; white wax, two ounces; pre-
pared lard, six ounces. Having  melted together the
wax and lard, add thereto the nitric oxide of mercury
in very fine powder, and mix.  A most excellent  sti-
mulating and escharotic ointment
  Unguentum hydraroyri pr*cipitati albi.  Oint-
ment of white precipitate of mercury, formerly called
unguentum e mcrcurio pracipitato albo, and latterly
unguentum calcis  hydrargyri alia.  Take of white
precipitate of mercury, a drachm; prepared lard, an
ounce and a half.  Having melted the lard over a slow
fire, odd the precipitated mercury  and mix.  A useful
ointment to destroy verminin the head, and to  assist in
the removal of scald head, venereal ulcers of children,
and cutaneous eruptions.
  Unoukntum lytt*:.  See Unguentum cantharidis.
  Unguentum ophthalmicum. Ophthalmic ointment
of Janin.  Take of prepared hog's-lard, half an ounce;
prepared tutty, Armenian bole, of each two drachms;
white precipitate one drachm.  Mix.  This celebrated
ointment may be used for the same diseases of Ihe eye
and eyelid as the ung. hydrtirg. nitratis.  It must be at
first weakened with about twice its quantity of hog's-
lard.
  Unguentum picis  arid*:.  Sec Unguentum resina
 nigra.
  Unguentum picis  liquid*.  Tar ointment, for-
 merly  colled  unguentum picis;  unguentum  e pice.
 Take of tar,  prepared suet, of each a pound   Melt
 them together, and strain the mixture through  a linen
 cloth   Thto to applicable to cases  of tinea capitis, and
 some eruptive complaints; also to some kinds of irrr>
 table sores.
  Unguentum resin* flav*.   Yellow basilicon is
 in general use as a stimulant and detersive; it is an
 elegant aud useful form of applying the resin.
  Unguentum  resin* nigra:.   Unguentum picis
 arida.   Pilch ointment,  formerly called unguentum
 basilicum nigrum, vel tetrapharmacum.  Take of pitch,
 yellow wax, yellow resin, of each nine ounces; olive
 oil, a pint.  Melt them together, and strain the mixture
 through a linen cloth.  This is useful for the same pur-
 poses as the tar ointment.
  Unguentum sambuci.   Elder ointment, formerly
 called unguentum sambucinum. Take of elder flowers,
 two pounds; prepared lard, two pounds.  Boil the
 elder flowers in the lard until they become crisp, then
 strain the ointment through  a linen cloth.  A cooling
 and emollient preparation.
  Unguentum sulphuris.   Sulphur ointment,  for-
 merly called unguentum e sulphurs. Take of sublimed
 sulphur,  three ounces; prepared lard,  half a pound.
 Mix.   The most effectual preparation to destroy the
 itch.  It  is also serviceable in the cure  of other cuta-
 neous eruptions.
  Unguentum sulphuris compositum. Compound
 sulphur ointment.  Take  of sublimed sulphur, half a
 pound; white hellebore-root, powdered, two ounces;
 nitrate of potassa, a drachm ; soft soap, half a pound;
 prepared lard, a pound and a half.  Mix.  This pre-
 paration is introduced into the last London Pharmaco-
 poeia as a more  efficacious remedy for itch than com-
 mon sulphur ointment.  In the army,  where it is gene-
 rally used, the sulphur vivum, or native admixture of
 sulphur with various heterogeneous  matters, is used
 instead of sublimed sulphur.                       ,
  Unguentum veratri.  White hellebore ointment,
 formerly called unguentum  hellebori albi.  Take of
 white hellebore-root, powdered, two ounces: prepared
 lard,  eight ounces: oil of  lemons, twenty  minims.
 Mix.
  Unguentum zinci.  Zinc ointment   Take of the
 oxide of zinc, an  ounce; prepared lard, six ounces.
 Mix.  A very useful application to chronic ophthalmia
 and relaxed ulcers.
  U'NGUIS. (Unguis, is,  m.;  from ovu?, a hook.)
 1. The nail.  The  nails are homy lamina' situated at
 the extremities of the fingers and toes ; composed of
 coagulated albumen, and a little phosphate of lime.
  2. An abscess  or collection of pus  between the la-
 mellae of the cornea transparens  of the eye; so called
 from ite resemblance to the lunated portion of the nail
 of the finger.
  3. The lachrymal bone is named os unguis, from its
 resemblance to a nail of the  finger.
  4. In botany, unguis, or the claw: applied to the thin
 part of the petal  of a polypetalous corolla.
  U'ngula caballina.  See Tussilago.
  UNIFLORUS.  Bearing one flower.
  UNIO.  (Unio,  pi. uniones;  from unus,  one':;so
 called because there is never more than one found in
 the same shell, or, according to others,  for that many
 being found in one shell, not any one of them is  like
 the other.)   The pearl. See Margarita.
  U'RACHUS.   (From ovpov, urine, and tyta, to con-
 tain.)  Urinaculum.  The ligamentous cordthat arises
 from the basis of the  urinary bladder, along which it
 runs,  and terminates  in the umbilical  cord.  In the
 foetuses of brute  animals, which  the  ancients mostly
 dissected, it to a hollow tube, and conveys the urine to
 the  allantoid membrane.
  Ura'qiijm.  (From ovpayos, the hinder part of an
 army.)  The apex or extreme point of the heart
  URANGLIMMER.  Green mica.  Chalcolite.  An
ore of uranium.
  Uranis'cus.   (From ovpavos, the firmament: so
called from its arch.)  The palate.
  URANITE.  See Uranium.
  URANIUM.   Uranite  This metal was discovered
 by Klaproth, in the year 1789.  It exists combined with
sulphur, and a portion of iron, lead, and silex, in the
 mineral termed  Pcchblende,  or  ozide of uranium.
 Combined with carbonic acid it  forms the chalcolite,
or green mica : and mixed wilh oxide of iron, it  con-
stitutes the uranitic ochre.   It is always found in the
state of an oxide wilh a greater or smaller portion of
 iron, or mineralized wilh sulphur and  copper.  The
ores of uranium are of a blackish colour, inclining tea 
URE
URI
dark Iron-gray, and of  a moderate splendour; they
ore of a  close texture,  and when broken present a
somewhat uneven, and in the smallest particles a
conchoidal surface. They are found in the mines of
Saxony.
  Properties of uranium.—Uranium exhibiu a mass
of small metallic  globules, agglutinated together.  Ms
colour to a deep gray on the ouuide, in the inside it is a
pale brown. It Is very porous, and is  so  soft,  that it
may be scraped with a knife   It has but little  lustre.
Ite  speclfto gravity Is between eight and nine.  It is
more difficult to be fused than even manganese.  When
intensely heated with phosphate of soda and ammonio,
or glocial  phosphoric  acid, it fuses with them  into a
grass-green glass.   With soda or borax it melu only
into a gray, opaque, scorioceous bead.  It is soluble in
sulphuric, nitric, ond muriatic acids.  It combines with
sulphur and phosphorus, and alloys with mercury.   It
bas not yet been combined  with other combustible
bodies.  It decomposes  the nitric acid and  becomes
converted into a yellow oxide.  The action of uranium
alone upon water, &c. is still unknown, probably on
account of its  extreme scarcity.
  Method of obtaining uranium.—In order  to  obtain
uranium,  the pechblende to first freed from sulphur by
beat, and  cleared from the adhering impurities as care-
fully as possible.  It is then digested in  nitric acid;  the
metallic matter that it contains is  thus completely dis-
solved, while part of the sulphur remains undissolved,
and part  of it is dissipated under the form of sulphu-
retted hydrogen gas.  The solution is then precipitated
by  a carbonated  alkali.   The precipitate has a  lemon-
yellow colour  when it to pure.  This yellow carbonote
is made into a paste with oil, and exposed to a  violent
heat, bedded in a crucible well lined with charcoal.
  Klaproth obtained a metallic globule 28  grains in
weight, by forming a ball of 50 grains of the  yellow
carbonate, with a little wax, and by exposing thto  ball
in  a crucible  lined with  charcoal to  a  heat equal to
170° of Wedgewood's pyrometer.  Richter obtained in
a single experiment  100 grains of this metal,  which
seemed to be free from all admixture.  There are pro-
bably two oxides of uranium, the protoxide, wliich is a
grayish black  ; and the peroxide, which is yeUow.
   URANOCHRE. An ore of uranium.
   URATE.   Uras. A compound of uric or lithic acid,
 with a salifiable basis.
   URCE'OLA.  (From ureeolu*, a small pitcher: so
 named from ite uses in scouring glazed vessels.)  The
 herb feverfew.
   UREA.  A constituent of urine.  The best process
 for preparing  it is to evaporate urine to the consistence
 of syrup, taking  care to regulate the heat towards the
 end of tlie evaporation; to add very gradually to the
 syrup hs  volume of nitric acid (24° Baume) of 1.20; to
 stir the  mixture, and immerse it  in a bath  of iced
 water, to harden the crystals of the acidulous nitrate of
 urea which precipitate ; to wash these crystals with
 ice-cold water, to drain them, ond press them between
 the folds of  blotting paper.  When we have thus
 separated the adhering heterogeneous matters, we re-
 dissofve the crystals  in water, and add to them a suf-
 ficient quantity of carbonate of potosso, to  neutralize
 the nitric acid.   We must  then evaporate the new
 liquor, ot a gentle heat, almost to  dryness, and treat
 tbe residuum with a very  pure alkohol, which dis-
 solves only the urea.  On concentrating the alkohoiic
 solution, the  urea crystallizes.
    The preceding is Thenard's process, which Dr. Prout
 bas improved.  He separates the nitrate of potassa by
 crystallization, mokes the liquid urea into a paste with
 animal charcoal, digests  thto with cold water, filters,
 concentrates, then dissolves the new colourless urea in
 alkohol,  and  lastly, crystallizes.
    Urea  crystallizes  in four-sided prisms, which are
  transparent and colourless, with a slight pearly lustre.
  It has a  peculiar, but not urinous odour; it does not
  affect litmus or turmeric papers; it undergoes no change
  from the atmosphere, except a slight  deliquescence in
  very damp weather.  In a strong heat it melu, ond to
  partly decomposed and  partly sublimed without change.
  The spec. grav. of the crystals is about 1.35.  It to very
post it  It unites with most of the metallic oxides.
and forms crystalUne compounds wilh the nitric and
oxalic acids.
  Urea has been recently analyzed by Dr. Prout and
Berard.   The following are iu constituenu :—
                    per c«nt  p"- rest
    Hydrogen.......10.80    6.66
    Carbon.......... »-40   10.99
    Oxygen..........26.40   26.613
    Azote...........43.40   46.60
    tier atom.]
 2 =  2.5
 1=  7.5
 1 = 10.0
. 1 = 17.5
100.00  100.00
37.5
  Uric, or lithic acid, is a substance quite distinct from
urea in its composition.  This fact, according to Dr.
Prout, explains, why an excess of urea generally ac-
companies the phosphoric diathesis, and not the lithic
He has  several times  seen  urea  as abundant in the
urine of a person where the phosphoric diathesis pre-
vailed, as to crystallize spontaneously on the addition
of nitric acid, without being concentrated by  evapo-
ration.
  As urea  and uric acid, says Berard, are the  most
azotized of all animal substances,  the secretion  of
urine appears to have for iu object the separation of
the excess of azote from the blood, as respiration sepa-
rates from it the excess of carbon.
  URE'DO.   (From uro, to burn.)  An itching or
burning  sensation of  the skin, which accompanies
many diseases. The nettle-rash is also so called.
  URET.  The  compounds of  simple inflammable
bodies with each other, and with metals, are commonly
designated by this word; ns sulphuret of  phosphorus,
carburet of iron,  Sec   The terms bisulphuret, bisul-
phate, Sec. applied to compounds, imply thot they con-
tain twice the quantity of sulphur, sulphuric acid, Sec.
existing in the respective sulphuret, sulphate, tec.
  URETER.  (Ureter, eris, m.; from ovoov, urine.)
The membranous canal which conveys the urine from
the kidneyto the urinary bladder.  Atiu superior part
it is considerably the largest, occupying  the greatest
portion  of the pelvis of the kidney ; it then contracu
to the size of a goose-quill, and descends over the psoas
magnus muscle  and  large crurol  vessels into the
pelvis, in which it perforates the  urinary bladder very
obliquely. Its internal surface is lubricoted with mucus
to defend it from the irritation of the urine in passing.
  URETERITIS.  (From oupirrijp, the ureter.)  An
inflammation of the ureter.
  URETHRA.   (From ovpov, the urine: because it
is the canal through which the urine passes.)  A mem-
branous canal running from the neck of the bladder
through the inferior part of the penis to the extremity
of  the glans  penis, in which it opens by a longitudinal
orifice, called meatus urinarius.  In this  course, it
first passes through  the prostate gland, which portion
is distinguished  by the name of the prostatical ure-
thra ;  it then becomes much dilated, and is known by
the name of the  bulbous part, in which  is situated a
cutaneous eminence called the caput gallinaginis ot
verumontanum, around which are ten or twelve orifices
of the excretory ducts iff the prostate gland, and two
of the spermatic vessels.   The remaining part of the
urethra contai ns a number of triangular mouths, whicli
ore the lacuna, or openings of the excretory ducts of
the mucous glands ofthe urethra.
   URETHRI'TIS.   (From ovpnBpa, the urethra.)  An
inflammation in the urethra.  See Gonorrhaa.
   Ure'tica.  (From ovpoy, urine.)  Medicines which
 promote a discharge of urine.
   U'RIAS.  (From oup-r, urine.)  The urethra
   URIC ACID.  See Lithic acid.
   URI'NA.   See Urine.
   Urina'culum.  See Urachus.
   Uri'ns? ardor.  See Dysuria.
   URINA'RIA.  (From urina, urine: sonamed from
 iu  diuretic qualities.)  The herb  dandelion   See
 Leontodon taraxacum.
   URINARY. (Urinarius; from urina, urine.) Ap-
 pertaining to urine.                  _   ^^
   Urinary  bladder.   Vesica urinaria. The blad-
 der is a membranous pouch, copoble of dilatation and
soluble in water.  Alkohol, at the temperature of the  contraction, situated in the lower pan of the abdomen,
atmosphere, dissolves about 20 per cent; and, when t immediately behind the symphysis pubis, and opposite
boiling, considerably more than iu own weight, from i to the beginning  of the rectum.  Iu figure is nearly
which the urea separates, on cooling, in iu crystalline  that of a short oval. It is broader on the fore and back
foim.  The fixed alkalies and alkaline earths decom-1 than on the lateral paru; rounder above than below
      388 
URI
URI
whan empty; and broader below than above, when
full,  it to divided into tlie. body, neck, and fundus, or
upper part; the neck is a portion of the lower part,
which ia contracted  by a  sphincter muscle.  This
organ is made up of several coats; the upper,  pos-
terior, and lateral parte are covered by a reflection of
tlie peritoneum, which to connected  by cellular  sub-
stance to the muscular coat  This  to composed of
several strata of fibres, the outermost of which  are
mostly longitudinal, tlie interior becoming gradually
more transverse, connected together by reticulor mem-
brane.  Under this to the cellular coat, which to nearly
of the same structure with  the tunica nervosa of the
stomach.  Winslow describes the internal or viUous
coat as somewhat granulated and glandular; but thto
has been disputed  by subsequent anatomists.  How-
ever, a mucous fluid is poured out continually from it,
which defends it from the acrimony of the  urine.
Sometimes the internal surface is found very irregulor,
and full of rugee, which appear to be occasioned merely
by the strong  contraction of the muscular fibres, and
may be removed by distending it.  The sphincter does
not seem to be a distinct muscle, but merely formed by
the transverse fibres being closely arranged about the
neck.  The urine is received from the ureters, which
enter the posterior part of the bladder obliquely; and
when a certain degree of distention has occurred, the
muscular fibres are voluntarily exerted to expel it.
  URINE.   (Urina,  a, f.  Ovpov; from opouia, to
rush out.)  The saline liquid, secreted in  the kidneys,
and  dropping down from them, guttatim, through the
ureters, into thecavily of the urinary bladder.   The
secretory organ to composed ofthe arterious vessels of
the cortical substance of the kidneys, from which the
urine passes through the uriniferous tubull and renal
papilla: into the renal pelvis ; whence it flows, drop by
drop, through the ureters, into the cavity ofthe urinary
bladder;  where it  to  detained some hours, and at
length, when abundant, eliminated through the urethra.
  "Few of the apparatus of secretion are so compli-
cated as  that of tlie urine;  it to composed of the two
kidneys, of tlie ureters, of tiie bladder, and the urethra ;
besides, the abdominal muscles contribute to the action
of these  different  parU, among  which  the kidneys
alone form urine; the others serve in iu transportation
and expulsion.
  Situated in the abdomen, upon the sides of the ver-
tebral column, before the last false ribs and the qua-
dratus lumborum, the kidneys are of small volume
relatively to the quantity of fluid they secrete.  They
are generally  surrounded  with a  great  deal of  fat.
Their parenchyma is composed of two substances; the
one exterior, vascular,  or cortical; the other tubular,
disposed  in a certain number of cones,  the base of
which corresponds  to  the surface of tho organ, and
their summiu unite in  the membranous cavity called
peZuis.  IU cones appear formed by a great number of
small hollow fibres, which are  excretory canals of a
particular kind, and which are generally filled with
urine.
  In respect of iu volume, no organ receives so much
blood as the kidney.  The  artery which is directed
there is large, short, and proceeds immediately from
the aorta; it has easy communication with the veins
and  ri>e tubulous substance, as may easily be ascer-
tained by means of tlie most coarse injections, which,
being thrown into the renal artery, pass into the veins
and into the pelvis, after having tilled tiie cortical sub-
Stance.                             .           .
  The filamenU of the great sympathetic alone are dta?
tributed  to  tlie kidneys.    The calices, pelvis, and
ureter form  together a canal which commences in the
kidneys, where it embraces the  top of .the mamillary
 firocesses, and, placed at the sides of the vertebral co-
 umn, it goes in the bottom of the pelvis to the bladder,
Where it  terminates.  This last organ is an extensible
and contractile sac, intended to  hold llie fluid secreted
by the kidneys, and which communicates with tlie ex-
terior by a canal of considerable  length in man, but
very short in woman, called urethra.
  The posterior extremity  of tlie urethra is, only in
man, surrounded by the prostate gland, wliich is con-
sidered by certain anatomtou as a collection of mucous
follicles.   Two small  glands placed  before the anus
pour a particular fluid into this  canal.  Two muscles,
which descend from the pubis towards the rectum, pass
upon the sides of the par; of the bladder wliich cuds in
llie urethra, approach one another behind, and form a
small arc wliich surrounds tiie neck of tlie bladder, and
carries it more or less upwards.
  If the pelvis is cut open in a living animal, the urine
is seen to pass out slowly by the summiu of the excre-
tory cones.  This liquid is deposited  in the pelvis of
tlie kidney, and then by little and little it enters into the
ureter, through the whole length of which it passes.   It
thus arrives at the bladder, into which it penetrates by
a constant exudation or dribbling.
  A  slight  compression upon the uriniferous cones
makes the urine pass out in considerable quantity: but
instead of being limpid, as when it passes out naturally,
it is muddy and thick.  It appears then to be filtered by
tbe hollow fibres of  the tubular substance.
  Neither the pelvis nor the ureter being contractile,
probably the power  which produces the motion of the
urine is, on the one hand, that by which it is poured into
the pelvis; and on  the other, the pressure of the ab-
dominal muscles, to which may be added,  when we
stand upright, the weight of the liquid.
  Under the influence of these causes, the urine passes
into  the bladder, and slowly distends thto organ, some-
times to a considerable degree; this accumulation being
permitted by the extensibility of different organs.
  How does the urine accumulate in the bladder 1 Why
does it not flow immediately by the urethral and why
does it not flow back into the ureter 1  The  answer ia
easy for the ureters.  These conduite  pass a considera-
ble distance into the sides of the bladder. In propor-
tion as the urine distends this organ, it flattens the ure-
ters, and shuts them so much more firmly as it is more
abundant.  This takes place  in the dead body as well
as iu the living; also, a  liquid, or even air, injected
into the bladder, by the urethra, never enters the ure-
ters.  It to, then, by  a mechanism analagous  to that of
certain valves, that the urine does not return towards
the kidneys.
  It is not so easy to explain why the urine does not
flow by the uretlira.  Several causes appear to contri-
bute to  this.  The sides of this canal, particularly to-
wards the bladder,  have a continual tendency to con
tract, and to  lessen  the cavity; but  this cause alone
would be insufficient to resist the efforU of the urine to
escape, when the bladder is full.   In the dead body, in
which the canal contracts nearly in the same manner,
it has but a very weak resistance, and does not prevent
the passage of the liquid outwards, though the bladder
may be very little compressed.
  The angle of the bladder with the urethra, when it is
strongly distended, may also present an obstacle to the
passage of the  urine; but the principal  cause, most
probably, is the contraction ofthe elevating muscles of
the anus, which, either by the disposition to contrac-
tion of  the muscular fibres, or by  their contraction
under tlie influence of the  brain, press the urethra
upwards, compress  iu sides with more or less force
against  each other, and thus shut iu posterior orifice.
  Excretion of  urine.—As soon as there is a certain
quantity of urine in the bladder, we feel an inclination
to discharge it.  The mechanism of this expulsion de-
serves particular attention, and has not always been
well understood.
  If the urine to not always expelled,  this ought not to
be attributed to the want of contraction in the bladder,
for this organ always tends to contract; but, by the in-
fluence of the causes that we have noticed, the internal
orifice of the urethra resisu wilh a force that the con-
traction  of tlie bladder cannot surmount.   The will
produces thto expulsion, 1st, by adding the contraction
of the abdominal muscles to that of the bladder; 2dly
by relaxing tiie levatorcs ani, which  shut the urethra.
The resistance of this canal being once overcome, the
contraction of tho bladder to sufficient for the complete
expulsion of  tiie urine it contained; but the action of
the abdominal muscles may be added, and then tha
urine passes  out with much greater  force.   We may
also stop tiie flowing of the urine all  at once, by con-
tracting the levators of the anus.
  The contraction  of the bladder is not voluntary,
though  by acting  ou tlie  abdominal muscles, and the
levators of the anus, we may cause it to contract when

  The urine that remains in the uretlira after the blad-
der is empty, is expelled by the contraction of the mus-
cles of the perinreum, and particularly by that  of ilia
accderalores urina. 
URI
URJ
   Though the quantity of urine is very copious, and
 though it contains several proximate principles which
 are not found in tiie blood, aud consequently a chemical
 action takes place in the kidneys, tiie secretion of the
 urine to nevertheless very rapid.
   The physical  properties of the urine arc subject to
 great variations.  If rhubarbor madder has been used,
 it becomes of a deep yellow, or blood red ; if  one hos
 breathed on  oir charged with vapours of oil or turpen-
 tine, or if a  little rosin has been swallowed, it takes a
 violet colour.  The disagreeable odour that it takes by
 the use of asparagus, is well known.
   Its chemical composition  is not less variable.  The
 more use that  is made of watery beverages, the more
 considerable the total quantity and proportion of water
 becomes.  If one drinks little, tiie contrary happens.
   The uric  acid becomes more abundant when the
 regimen is very  substantial, ond the exercise  trifling.
 This ocid diminishes, and may even disappear alto-
 gether, by the  constant and exclusive use of unazo-
 tized food, such as sugar, gum, butter, oil, etc.   Certain
 salts, carried into the stomach, even m small quantity,
 are found in  a short time in tlie urine.
   The extreme rapidity with which this  translation
 takes place,  bas made it be  supposed there is a direci
 communication between the stomach and  the bladder.
 Even now there ore considerable numbers of partisans
 in favour of  this opinion.
   It is not yet long since a direct canal from tiie stomach
 to the bladder was supposed to exist, but  this passage
 has no existence.   Others  have supposed, without
 giving any proof, that  the passage took place  by the
 cellular tissue, by the anastomoses of the lymphatic
 vessels, Sec.
  Darwin having given to a friend several grains of
 nitrate of potassa, in half an hour he let blood of him,
 and collected hto urine. The salt was found in the
 urine,  but not in the blood.   Brande made similar ob-
 servations with prussiate of potassa.  He concluded
 from it that the circulation is not the only means of
 communication between the stomach and  the urinary
 organs, but without  giving any explanation of  the ex-
 isting means.   Sir Ev-crard Home is also of this opinion.
  I hove mode experimenu in order to clear  up this
 important question, and I have found, 1st, That when-
 ever prussiate of polassa is  injected into the veins, or
 absolved in the intestinal canal, or by a serous mem-
 brane, it very soon passes into the bladder, where  it
 is easily recognised among  the urine.  2dly,  that if
 the quantity  of prussiate injected is considerable, the
 tesu can discover it in the blood; but if the quantity
 is small, iu presence cannot be recognised by Ihe usual
 means.  3dly,  That the same result takes place by
 mixing the prussiate and blood together in a vessel.
 4tbly,  That the same  salt is recognised in all propor-
 tions in the urine.  It is not extraordinary, then, that
 Darwin and Brande did not find in tlie blood the sub-
 Btance that they distinctly perceived in the urine.
  With regard  to the organs  that transport the  liquids
 of the stomach and intestines into the circulating sys-
 tem, it to evident, according to what we have said, in
speaking of the chyliferous vessels, and tbe absorption
 of the veins,  that these liquids are directly absorbed by
 tbe veins, and transported by them to the Uver and the
 heart; so that the direction which these liquids  follow,
 in order to reach tbe veins, is much shorter than to ge-
 nerally admitted, viz. by the lymphatic vessels, the me-
 senteric glands, and the thoracic duct"—Magendie's
 Physiology.
  The urine  of a healthy man to  divided  in general
 into,
 1 1. Crude, or that which is emitted one or two hours
 after eating.  Thto is for the most part aqueous, and
 often vitiated by some kinds of food.
  2. Coded, which is eliminated some hours after the
 digestion of the food, as that which is emitted in the
morning after sleeping. Thto is  generally in smaller
 quantity, thicker, more coloured,  more acrid than at
 any other time. Of such  cocted  urine, the colour to
 usually citrine,  and not unhandsome.
  The degree of heat sgrees with that of the blood.
Hence in atmospheric air it to vvormer, os is perceived
if the hand be washed with urine.  The specific gra-
vity is greater thon water,  and  that emitted  in  the
morning is always  heavier  than at any other time.
The smell of fresh  urine is not disagreeable.   The
taste is saltish and nauseous.   The consistence is some-
 what thicker than water.  The quantity depends on
 thai of ihe liquid drink, IU diuretic  nature, and the
 temperature of tlie oir.
   Changes of urine in the air.—Preserved In on open
 vessel, il remains pellucid for some lime, and nl length
 there is  perceived  ot Ihe bottom a nubecula, or little
 cloud, consolidated as it were from the gluten.  This
 nubecula increases by degrees, occupies all the urine.
 and renders it opaque.   The natural smell is changed
 into a putrid cadaverous one; and the surface is now
 uenerally covered with  a cuticle, composed of very
 minute crystals.   At length, the urine regains its trans-
 parency, and the  colour is changed from a yellow to a
 brown; the cadaverous smell passes into an alkaline;
 and a brown, grumous  sediment falls to tbe bottom,
 filled with white  particles, deliquescing in the air, and
 so conglutinated as to form, as it were, little soft calculi.
  Thus  tioo  sediments  are  distinguishable   in the
 urine; the one white and gelatinous, nnd separated in
 the beginning; the other browu and grumous, deposited
 by the urine when putrid.
  Spontaneous degeneration.—Of all the fluids of the
 body, llie urine first putrifies.  In summer, alter a few
 hours it becomes  turbid, and sordidly black;  then
 deposites a copious sediment, and exhales  a fetor like
 that of putrid  cancers, which at length becomes cada-
 verous.  Putrid urine effervesces with acids,  and,  if
 distilled, gives off, before water,  a urinous volatile
 spirit.
  The properties of healthy urine are,
  1. Urine  reddens paper stained with turnsole and
 with the juice of radishes, ond therefore contains ou
 acid.   This acid  has been generally considered as the
 phosphoric, but Thenard has shown that in reality it is
 the acetic.
  2. If a solution of ammonia be  poured into  fresh
 urine, a white powder precipitates, which has the pro-
 perties of phosphate of lime.
  3. If the phosphate of lime precipitated from  urine
 be  examined, o little magnesia  will be found  mixed
 with  it.   Fourcroy and Vauquelin have  ascertained
 that this  is owing to a little phosphate ef magnesia
 wliich urine contains,  and  wliich to decomposed by
 the alkali employed to precipitate the phosphate of lima
  4. Proust informs us that  carbonic acid exists in
 urine,  and  that  its separation occasions the  froth
 which appears during the evaporation of urine.
  5. Proust has observed, that urine kept in new casks
 deposites small crystals, which effloresce in the air, and
 fall to powder. These crystals possess the properties
 of the carbonate of lime.
  6. When fresh  urine cools, it often  leu fall a brick
 coloured precipitate, which Scheele first ascertained to
 be crystals of uric acid.  All urine  contains Ibis ncid,
 even when no sensible  precipitate appeors when  il
 cools.
  7. During intermitting fevers, and especially during
 diseases of the liver, a copious sediment of a brick-red
 colour to deposited from urine. This sediment contains
 the rosacic acid of Proust
  8. If fresh urine be evaporated to the consistence of
 a syrup, and muriatic acid be then poured  into it, a
 precipitate appears which possesses the properties of
 benzoic acid.
  9. When an infusion of tannin is dropped into urine,
a white precipitate appears, having the properties of
the combination of tannin mid albumen, or gelatine.
Their quantity in healthy urine to very small, often
indeed not sensible.  Cruickshanks found lhat the pre-
cipitate afforded by tannin in healthy urine amounted
to l-240th part of the weight of the urine.
  10. If urine be evaporated by a slow fire to the con-
sistence of a  thick syrup, it assumes  a deep brown
colour, and exhales a foetid ammoniacal odour.  When
allowed to cool, it  concretes into a mass of crystals,
composed of all the component parts of urina.   If four
times iu weight of alkohol be poured into tbiamess, at
intervals, and a slight heat be applied, the greaMStJ>art
is dissolved. The alkohol which has acqutran^brown
colour is to be decanted  oft, and distilled iiingttm in
a sand heat till the mixture has boiled fbr some time,
and acquired the consistence of a syrup.  By this time
the whole of the alkohol has passed off, and the mat-
ter, on cooling, crystallizes in quadrangular plates,
which intersect each other.  This subaUMire ia urea,
which  composes  9-20tbs of the urine, providct) the
watery part be excluded.  It Jt>th/gjur^ancq_vvhyb 
URI                                                 UTE
characterizes urine, and constitutes it what it is, and to
which the gmater part of tlie very singular phenomena
of urine are to be ascribed.
  11. According to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, the colour
of urine depends upon the  urea; the greoter the pro-
portion of urea the deeper the colour.  But Proust hos
detected o resinous matter in urine similar to the resin
of bile,  ond to this substance he ascribes the colour of
urine.
  12. If urine be slowly evaporated to the consistence
of a syrup, o number of crystals make their appearance
on iu surface; these possess the properties of the muri-
ate of soda
  13. The  saline residuum which remains after the
separation of urea from crystallized urine by meons of
alkohol, hos been long known by the noines of fusible
salt of urine, and microcosmic salt.  When these soils
are examined, they ore found to hove the properties of
phosphates.  The rhomboidal prisms consist of  phos-
phate of ammonia united to a little phosphate of  soda,
the  rectangular tables, on the contrary, ore phosphate
of soda united to a small quantity of phosphate of am-
monia;  urine then contains phosphate of soda, and
phosphate of ammonia.
i  14. When urine is cautiously evaporated  a few cubic
crystals are often deposited among  the other  salu;
these crystals have the properties of muriate of am-
monia.
  15. When  urine is  boiled  in  a  silver basin,  it
blackens the basin, and if the quantity of urine be  large,
small crusts  of sulphuret of silver may be detached.
Hence we see that urine contains sulphur.
  Urine then contains the following substances:
1. Water.                10. Albumen.
2. Acetic acid.           11. Urea.
3. Phosphate of lime.      12. Resin
4. Phosphate of magnesia. 13. Muriate of soda.
5. Carbonic acid.        14. Phosphate of soda.
6. Carbonate of lime.      15. Phosphate of ammonia.
7. Uric acid.             16. Muriate of ammonia.
8. Rosacic acid.          17. Sulphur.
9. Benzoic acid.
  According to  Berzelius, healthy human urine to
composed of, water 933, urea 30.10, sulphate of potassa
3.71, sulphate of soda 3.16, phosphate of soda 2.94, mu-
riate of sodo 4.45, phosphate of ammonia 1.65, muriate
of ammonia 1.50, free acetic ocid, with lactate of am-
monia, animal matter soluble in alkohol, urea adhering
to the preceding, altogether 17.14, earthy phosphates
with a trace of ffuoteof lime 1.0, uric ocid  1, mucus of
the  blodder 0.32, silica 0.03, in 1000.0
   No liquor in the human  body, however, is so vari-
able, in respect to quantity and quality, as the urine;
for it varies,                           .  .
   1. In respect  to age: in  the fatus it  is inodorous,
insipid, and almost aqueous; but as the in/ant grows,
 it becomes more acrid and  fcetid; and in old age more
 particularly so.
   2. In respect to drink: it is secreted in greater  quan-
 tity, and of a more pale colour, from cold  and copious
 draughts.  It becomes green from an infusion of Chi-
 nese tea.
   3. In respect to food: from eating the heads of aspa-
 ragus, or olives, it contracu a peculiar smell; from the
 fruit of the opuntia, il becomes red; and from fasting,
 turbid.                            ......
   4. In respect to medicines: from the exhibition of
 rbubarb-root, it becomes  yellow;  from  cassia-pulp,
 green; ond from turpentine it acquires a violet odour.
   5. In respect to the time  of the year: in the winter
 the  urine is  more copious and aqueous; but  in the
 summer, from the increased transpiration, it is more
 sparing, higher coloured, and so acrid that it sometimes
 occasions  strangury.  The climate induces the same
 difference.                ,       .     .  ,  .  .
   6. In respect  of the muscular motion of Vie  body:
 it   s secreted more sparingly, and concentrated  by
 mi)ion; and to more  copiously diluted, and rendered
 more crude by rest.                      ....
   7. In respect  of the affections of the  mind: thus
 fright makes the urine pole.
   Utt.__The urine is  on  excrementitious fluid,  like
 lixivium, by which the human body is not only liberated
 from the  superfluous  water, but also from the  super-
 fluous salts,  and animal earth; and  to defended from
 corruption.                                   ,.  .
   Lastly, the vis medicatrix nature sometimes ehrai-
        '                              Hhh2
nates many morbid and  acrid substances with tha
urine; as may be observed iu fevers, dropsies, Sec
  Uri.nk, retention ok.   A want of  the ordinary
secretion of urine.  In retention of urine there is none
secreted: in o suppression,  the urine is secreted but
cannot be avoided.
  Urine, suppression of.  See Ischuria.
  UROCRl'SIA.  (From ovpov, urine, and xpivta,  to
judge.  The judgment formed of diseases by the inspec ■
tion of urine.
  URORRHA? A.  (From ovpov, the urine, and ptta, to
flow.)  A discharge of the urine.
  UROSCO'PIA. (From ovpov, the urine, and cxorita,
to inspect.)  Inspection  of  urine, that a judgment of
diseases may be made from its appearance.
  Ursi'na radix.  The root of the plant caUed bald-
money.  See JEthusa meum.
  URSINE.  Ursinus.  Of or belonging to the bear.
  URSUS.  1. The bear.
  2. The name of a genus of animols.  Class, Mam-
malia ;  Order,  Fera.  It comprehends the  several
kinds of bears, the badger, and racoon.
  URTI'CA.  (Ab urendo;  because it excites an itch-
ing  and pustules like those produced by fire.)   1. The
name of a genus of planU in the Linntcan  system.
Closs, Moncccia ; Order, Tetrandria.  The nettle.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of the common nettle.
See Urtica dioica.
  Urtica dioica.  The systematic name of the com
mon stinging-nettle.  This  plant  is  well known, and
though generally despised  as  a  noxious weed, has
been long used for medical, culinary, and  economical
purposes. The young shoots in the spring  possess diu-
retic and antiscorbutic properties, and are witb these
intentions boiled and eaten instead of cabbage greens.
  Urtica mortua. See Lamium album.
  Urtica pilulifera.  The systematic name of the
pillbearing nettle.  Urtica  romana. The seed was
formerly given against diseases ofthe chest, but to now
deservedly forgotten.  To raise an irritation  in para-
lytic limbs, the fresh plant may be employed as pro-
ducing  a more permanent sting than the common
nettle.
  Urtica romana. See Urtica pilulifera.
  Urtica urkns.   The  systematic name of a  less
nettle than the dioico, ond possessing similar virtues.
  URTICA'RIA.  (From  urtica,  a nettle.)  Febris
urticata;  Uredo;  Purpura  urticata;   Scarlatina
urtica.   The nettle-rash. A species of exanthemotous
fever, known by pyrexio and  on eruption  on the skin
like that produced by the sting of the nettle. The little
elevations, called the nettle-rash, often appear instanta
neously, especially if the skin be rubbed or scratched,
and seldom stay many hours  in  the  same place, and
sometimes not many minutes.  No part of the body is
exempt from them; and where  many of them  rise
together, and continue an hour or two, the parts are
often considerably swelled, which particularly happens
in  the arms, face, and hands. These eruptions will
continue to infest the skin, sometimes in one place and
sometimes in another, for one or  two hours together,
two or three times a day, or perhaps for  the greatest
part of twenty-four hours.  In some constitutions they
last only a few days, in others many months.
  URTICA'TIO.   (From  urtica,  a nettle.')   The
whipping a paralytic or  benumbed limb with  nettles,
in order to restore its feeling.
  U'SNEA.  See Lichen saxatilis.
  Utbra'ria.  (From uterus, the womb.)   Medicines
 appropriated to diseases of the womb.
  UTERINE.   Uterinus. Appertaining to the uterus.
   Uterine fury.  See Nymphomania.
  U'TERUS.   Xortpa.   Matrix; Ager natura;
Hystera; Metro; Utricvlus.   The womb. A spongy
receptacle resembling a compressed pear, situated in
the cavity of the pelvis, above the vagina, and between
the urinary bladder and rectum.
  The form of the uterus resembles that of an oblong
pear flattened, with the depressed  sides placed towards
tbe ossa pubis and sacrum;  but, in the impregnated
state, it becomes more oval, according to the degree of
ite  distention.  For the convenience of  description,
and for some practical purposes, the uterus is distin-
guished into three parts.  The fundus, the body, and
the cervix; the upper part is called the  fundus, the
lower the cervix; the space between them, the  extent
of  which is undefined, the body.  The uterus is about
J
/' 
UTE
UTE
 three  inches in length, about two in breadth at the
 fundus, and one at the cervix.   Its  thickness to dif-
 ferent at the  fundus and cervix, being at the  former
 usually rather less than half on inch, and at the latter
 somewhat more;  and this  thickness  is  preserved
 throughout pregnancy, chiefly by the enlargement of
 the veins and lymphatics;  there being a smaller change
 in tlie size of the arteries.  But there is so great a
 variety in the  size ond dimensions of tlie uterus in
 different women, independent of the states of virginity,
 marriage, or pregnancy, as to  prevent  any very ac-
 curate mensuration.  The cavity of the uterus corres-
 ponds with the external form ; that of the cervix leads
 From the os uteri, where it is very smoll, in o straight
 direction, to the fundus, where  it is expanded into a
 triangular form, with two of the angles op|x>sed to the
 entrance into the Fallopian tubes; and at ihe place of
 junction between the cervix and  the body of the uterus,
 thecavity is smaller than it to in any other part.  There
 is a swell or fulness of all the parts towards the cavity,
 Which is sometimes distinguished by a prominent line
 running longitudinally through iu middle.  The villous
 coat of the vagina is reflected over the os uteri, and
 is continued into the membrane  which lines the cavity
 of the uterus.   The internal surface  of the uterus is
 corrugated in  a beautiful  manner, but llie  ruge, or
 wrinkles, which are longitudinnl, lessen as they ad-
 vance into the uterus, the fundus of which is smooth.
 In the intervals between  the rugce are smoll orifices,
 'ike those in the vagina,  which discharge  a mucus,
 serving, besides other purposes, that of closing the os
 uteri very curiously  and perfectly during pregnancy.
 The substance of the uterus, which  is very firm, is
 composed of arteries, veins, lymphatics, nerves, and
 muscular fibres, curiously interwoven nnd connected
 together by cellular membrane.  The  muscular fibres
 are of a  pale colour, nnd appear also in their texture
somewhat different from muscular fibres in other ports
of the body.  The arteriee of the uterus are the sper-
 matic and"hypogastric.   The spermatic arteries arise
 from the anterior part  of the aorta, a little below the
 emulgenu, and sometimes from the cmulgenu.  They
pass over the psose muscles behind the peritoneum, enter
 between  the two lamina or duplicatures of the peri-
tonaeum which form the brood ligamenU of the uterus,
 and  proceed to the uterus, near the fundus of which
they insinuate  themselves, giving branches  in their
passage to the ovaria and Fallopian tubes.  The hypo-
gastric arteries are on each side a considerable branch
of the internal iliacs.  They pass to the sides of the
body of the uterus, sending off  a number of smaller
branches, which dip Into iu substance.  Some branches
 also are reflected upwards to the fundus uteri, which
 anastomose with the spermatic arteries, and others are
 reflected  downwards, supplying the  vagina.   The
veins which reconduct  the blood from  the uterus are
very numerous, and their  size in the  unimpregnated
state is proportioned to thot of the arteries; but their
enlargement during pregnancy is  such, thot the orifices
of some  of them, when divided, will admit  even of
the end of a small finger.   The veins  anastomose  in
the manner of  the arteries which they occompony out
of the uterus, and then,  hoving  the same names witb
the arteries, spermatic and  hypogastric, the former
proceeds  to the vena cava on the right  side, and on the
left to the emulgent vein; and the latter to the internal
iliac.
  From the substance and  surfaces of the uterus an
infinite number of lymphatics arise, which follow th
 course of the hypogastric and spermatic blood-vessels.
 The first  pass into the gland ofthe internal iliac plexus,
 and tbe other into the glands which are situated near
the origin of the spermatic arteries.  Of these Nuck
first gave a delineation.
  The uterus to supplied with nerves from the lower
mesocolic plexus, and from two small flat circular gan-
glions, which are situated behind the rectum.  These
ganglions are joined by a number of small  branches
from the  third and fourth sacral  nerves.  The ovaria
derive their nerves from the renal plexus.   By the
great number of nerves, these paru are rendered very
irritable,  but it is by those branches which tbe uterus
 receives from the intercostal, that the intimate consent
 oetween it and various other parts to chiefly preserved.
Tbe muscular fibres of the uterus bave been described
 in a very different manner by  anatomists,  some of
 whom have asserted that its substance was chiefly
 muscular, with fibres running in transversa, orbicular,
 or reticuloted order, while others have contended that
 there were no muscular fibres whatever hi die uterus.
 In the unimpregnua-d uterus, when boiled for the par-
 pose of a more perfect examination, Ihe former seems
 to be  a true representation ; and  when the uterus la
 distended towards the latter  port of pregnancy, these
 fibres  ore very thinly scattered : but they may be dis-
 covered in a circular direction, at the junction between
 the body and the cervix of the uterus, end surrounding
 the entrance of each Fallopian tube in a similar order.
 Yet it does not seem reasonable lo attribute the time
 of labour to ite muscular fibres only, If we ore to judge
 of the power of a  muscle by the number of fibres of
 whicli it is composed, unless it is presumed thot those
 of the uterus are  stronger than in common muscles.
 With  respect to the  glands of the uterus, none are
 discoverable  dispersed through iu substance upon the
 Inner surface of the cervix;  between the rugie tliere
 are lacuna; which  secrete mucus, and there  are  small
 follicles  at the edge of the os uteri. These last are
 only observable in o slate of pregnancy, when  they are
 much enlorged.  From the angles at the fundus of the
 uterus, two processes of an irregular round form ori-
 ginate, called from the name of the first descubcr, the
 Fallopian tubes.   They are  obout  three inches in
 length, and, becoming smaller in their progress from
 the uterus, have an uneven,fringed termination, called
 the fimbria;.   The canal which passes through these
 tubes to extremely small at their origin, but it is gradually
 enlarged, and  terminates wilh a patulous orifice, the
 diameter of which is about one-third of an  inch, sot-
 rounded by the fimbria;.   It to also  lined by a very fine
 voscular membrane,  formed into serpentine plies.
 Through this cnnel tbe communication between the
 uterus and ovaria is preserved.   The Fallopian tubes
 ore wrapped in duplicatures of the peritonamm, which
 are called the broad  ligaments of the uterus; bat a
 portion of  their extremities,  thus  folded, hang loose
 on each side of the pelvis.  From each lateral angle of
 the uterus, a little before and  below the Fallopian
 tubes, the round ligaments arise, which are composed
 of arteries, veins,  lymphatics, nerves, and  a fibrous
 structure. These are connected together by  cellular
 membrane, and the whole is  much  enlarged during
 pregnancy.   They  receive their outward covering from
 the peritonaeum, and pass out of the pelvis through the
 ring  of the external oblique  muscle to the groin,
 where  the vessels subdivide into small branches, and
 terminate at  the mons veneris and contiguous parts.
 From the insertion of these ligamenU into the groin,
 the reason  appears why that  part generally suffers in
 ail the  diseases and affections of the Bterns, and why
 the inguinal glands are in women so often found in a
 morbid or enlarged state.   The duplicatures of the
 peritoneum, in which the  Fallopian tubes and ovaria
 are involved, ore  called the broad ligaments of the
 uterus.  These prevent the entanglement of the paru,
 and are conductors of the vessels and nerves, as the
 mesentery is of those of the intestines.  Both the round
 and broad ligaments alter their position during preg-
 nancy, appearing to rise lower and more forward than
 in the unimpregnated state. Their use to supposed to be
 that  of preventing the descent  of the uterus, and to
 regulate its  direction when it ascends into the cavity
 of the  abdomen; but  whether they answer these pur
 poses may be much doubted.   The use of the womb ia
 for menstruation, conception, nutrition of the fostu
 and parturition.  The uterus is liable to many diseases,
 ihe principal of which are retroversion and its foiling
 down, hydatids, dropsy of the uterus, moles, polypes,
 ulceration, cancer, dec.
   Utbrus,  retroversion of.  By the term retrover-
sion, such a change of the position of the  uterus is
 understood, that  the fundus is turned backwards and
 downwards upon iu cervix, between the vagina and
 rectum, and the os uteri  to turned forwards to the
 pabto, and upwards, in proportion to the descent of the
 fundus, so that by an examination per vaginem, it can-
 not be felt, or not without  difficulty, when tbe uterus
 is  retroverted.  By  the same  examination there  may
 also be perceived a large round tumour, occupying tiie
 inferior part of the cavity  of the pelvis, and pressing
 the vagina  towards the  pubes.   By an examination
per anum, the same tumour may be fcst, pressing the
 rectum to the hollow of the sacrum, and if both these
 examinations arc made at the same time, we way 
VAG
VAG
readily discover that the tumour is confined within the
vagina and rectum.  Besides the knowledge of the
retroversion wbich may be gained by these examina-
tions, it is  found to be accompanied with other very
distinguishing symptoms.  There  is in every case,
together with extreme pain, a suppression of urine;
and by the continuance of this distention of the blad-
der, the tumour  formed by it in the abdomen often
equals in size, and resembles in shape the uterus in
the sixth or seventh months of pregnancy; but it is
necessary to observe, that the suppression of urine is
frequently  absolute only before tbe retroversion of tbe
uterus, or during the time it is retroverted; for  when
the retroversion is completed, there is often a dischorge
of urine, so as to prevent an increase of the distention
of the bladder, though not in a sufficient quantity to
remove it.  There to also an obstinate constipation of
the bowels, produced by tbe pressure of the retroverted
uterus upon the rectum, wliich renders the injection
of a clyster very difficult, or even impossible.  But it
appears that all  the painful  symptoms are chiefly in
consequence of the suppression of urine; for none of
those  porU which ore opt to sympathize in affections
or diseases of the uterus are disturbed by iu retrover-
sion.   The retroversion  of the uterus has generally
occurred about  the third month  of pregnancy, and
sometimes after delivery it may likewise happen, where
the uterus  is, from any cause, enlarged to  the  size it
acquires about the third month of pregnancy, but not
with such faciUty as iu the pregnant state, because the
enlargement is  then chiefly at the fundus.   If the
Uterus is but little enlarged, or if it be enlarged beyond
a certain time, it cannot  well be retroverted ; for,  in
the first case, should the cause of a retroversion exist,
the weight at the fundus would be wanting to produce
it; and in the latter the uterus would be  raised  above
the projection of the sacrum, and supported by the
spine.
  Utrica'ria.  (From uter, a bottle: so called from
Its appendages at the end* of the leaves resembling bot-
   VA'CCA.  The cow.  SeeJIfilt.
    VACCA'RIA.  (From vacca, a cow; because it to
coveted by cows.)  The herb cow's-bosil.
  VACCINATION. The insertion of the matter  to
produce the cow-pox.  See Variola vaccina,
  VACCINIA.  See Variola vaccina.
  VACCI'NIUM.   (Quasi baccinium, from ite berry.)
Tlie name of a genus of  planu in the Linnean system.
Class, Octandria; Order, Monogynia.
  VACciNiuif hyrtillus.  The systematic name of
the myrtle-berry.  The  berries which are  directed  in
pharmacopoeias by the name of bacca myrtillorum, are
the fruit of this  plant.  Prepared with vinegar they
are esteemed as antiscorbutics,  and when  dry possess
astringent virtues.
  Vaccinium  oxycoccos.  The systematic name of
the cranberry plant.  Oxycoccos palustris ; Vaccinia
palustris; Vitisidaapalustris.  Moor-berry.  Cran-
berry.   These berries are inserted  in  some  pharmaco-
poeias.  They are about the size of our haws,  and are
pleasantly acid, and cooling, with which intention they
are used medicinally in Sweden. In thto country they
are mostly preserved and made into tarts.
  Vaccinium  vitis id/ea.  The systematic name of
the red whortleberry.  Vitis idaa.  The leoves of thto
plant, vacrinium vitis idaa, of Linneus, are so  adstrin-
gent as to be used in some places for tanning. They are
soid to mitigate the pain attendant on calculous diseases
when given internally in the form of decoction.   The
ripe berries abound with a grateful acid juice;  and arc
esteemed in Sweden as  aperient, antiseptic, and refri-
gerant, and often given in putrid diseases.
  VAGI'NA.   Vagina  uteri.  The canol which leods
from the external orifice of the female pudendum  to
.he uterus.  It to somewhat of a conical form, with the
aarrowest part downwards, and is described as being
Bve or six inches in length, and about two in diameter.
Bnt it would be more proper to say, that it is  capable
of being extended to those dimensions; for in its corn-
ties, to contain water.). A name of the nepenthes, ot
wonderful plant.
  UTRI'CULUS.   (Dim. of uter, a bottle: so called
from its shape.)  1. The womb.
  2. A little bladder.  Applied by botanisu to a species
of capsule, which varies in  thickness, never opens by
any valve, and falls off with tbe seed.  Sir J. Smith
believes it never contains more than one seed, of which
it to most  commodiously, in botanical language,/.-oiled
on external coal, rather than a capsule.  Gartner ap-
plies it to Chenopodium and Clematis: in the tormer
it seems to be pellicula; in the latter, testa.—Smith.
  U'VA.   (Uva, a, f.;  Quasi uvida, from iu juice.)
1.  An unripe grape.
  2. A tumour on the eye resembling a grape.
  Uva gruina.  Crane-berries.   The berries of the
Oxycoccos erythrocarpus. They are brought from New-
England, and are reckoned antiscorbutic.
  Uva passa major.  The raisin.  See Vitis vinifera
  Uva passa  minor.  The  dried currant.  See Vitis
corintliica.
  Uva ursi.  Bear's whortle-berry. See Arbutus uva
ursi.
  U*VEA. (From uva, an unripe grape: so called be->
cause, in beasts, which the  ancienu chiefly dissected,
it is like an unripe grape.)  The posterior lamina of tha
iris.  See  Choroid membrane.
  U'VULA.   (Dim. of uva, a grape.)   Columella;
Ot'on; Gargareon ;  Columna oris ;  Gurgvlio ; Inter-
septum.  The  small conical fleshy substance banging
in the middle  of the velum pendulum palati, over the
root of the tongue.  It is composed of the common
membrane of the mouth, and a small muscle resem-
bling a worm  which arises from the union  of the pala-
tine bone, and descends to the tip of the uvula.  It was
called Potato staphilinus, by Douglas, and Staphilinus
epistaphiUnus,  by Winslow.  By iu contraction, the
uvula is raised up.
  UVULA'RIA.  (From uvula; because it cured dis-
eases of the uvula.)   See Ruscus hypoglossum.
mon state, the os uteri to seldom found to be more than
three inches from the external orifice, and the vagina
is contracted as well os  shortened.  The vagina is
composed of two coats, the first or innermost of which
is villous, interspersed with many excretory ducu, ond
controcted into plicae, or small transverse folds,  parti-
cularly at the fore and back part, but, by child-bearing,
these are lessened or obliterated.  The second coat is
composed of a  firm  membrane,  in  which  muscular
fibres are not distinctly observable, but which are en-
dowed, to a certain  degree,  with contractile powers
like a muscle.  This to surrounded  by cellular  mem-
brane, which connects it to the neighbouring parts. ■ A
portion ofthe upper and posterior part ofthe  vagina is
also covered by  the peritoneum.   The entrance of the
vagina is constricted by  muscular  fibres, originating
from the  rami of the pubis, which run on each side of
the pudendum,  surrounding  the  posterior part, and
executing an equivalent office, though they cannot be
said to form a true sphincter.
  The upper part of the vagina is connected to the cir-
cumference of the os uteri, but not in a straight line,
so as to render the cavity of the uterus a continuation
of that ofthe vagina.  For the latter stretches beyond
the former, and, being joinedato the cervix, is reflected
over the os uteri, which by this mode of union, to sus-
pended with protuberant  lips in the vagina, and per-
mitted to change its position in various ways and  direc-
tions. When, therefore, these parts are distended and
unfolded  at the time of labour, they are continued into
each other, and there to no part which con be considered
os the precise beginning of the uterus or termination of
the vagina.
  The diseases  of the vagina ore, first, such on abbre-
viation and contraction as render it unfit for the uses
for which it wos designed: secondly, a cohesion  of the
sides in consequence of preceding ulceration: thirdly,
cicatrices after an ulceration of the parts;  fourthly, ex-
crescences ; fifthly, fluor albus.  This abbreviation and
V
.-7-3 
VAG                                            VAL
contraction of the vagina, which usually  accompany
each other, are produced  by original defective forma-
tion, and they are seldom discovered before the time of
marriage, the consummation of which they sometimes
prevent.  The curative intentions are to relax the parts
By the use of emollient apfilicotions, and to dilote them
to their proper size by sponge, or other tents, or, which
are more effectual, by bougies gradually enlarged. But
the circumstances which attend this disorder, are some-
times such as might lead us lo form an erroneous opinion
Of the disease.  A case of this kind, which was under
Dr. Dennion's care, from  the strangury, from  tiie hest
of the paru, and the profuse and inflammatory dis-
charge, was suspected to proceed from venereal  infec-
tion ;  and with that opinion the patient had been put
upon  a  course of medicine composed of  quicksilver,
for several  weeks, without relief.  When  she applied
to the Doctor, he prevailed upon her to submit to an
examination, and found the vagina rigid, so much con-
tracted os not to exceed half an inch in diameter, nor
more thon one inch and a half in length. The repeated,
though fruitless atu-mpu which had been made to com-
plete the act of coition, had occasioned a considerable
inflammation upon the parU, and all tiie suspicious
appearances before mentioned.  To remove the inflam-
mation she  was bled, took some gentle purgative medi-
cines, used  an emollient fomentation, and afterword
some  unctuous applications; she wos also advised to
live separate from her husband for some  time.  The
inflammation being gone, tenu of various sizes were
introduced into the vagina, by  which it was distended,
though not very omply.  She then returned to her hus-
band, and in  a  few  months  became pregnant  Her
labour, though slow, was not attended with any extra-
ordinary difficulty.  She was delivered of  a full-sized
child, and afterward suffered no inconvenience.  An-
other kind of constriction  of the external paru some-
times occurs, and wbich  seems to be a mere spasm.
By tbe violence or long continuance of a labour, by the
morbid state of the constitution, or by the negligent and
improper use of instrumenu,  an inflammation of tho
external ports, or vogina, is sometimes produced in such
a degree as to endanger  a mortification.  By careful
management thto consequence is usually  prevented ;
but in some coses, when the constitution of the potient
wos prone to disease, the external paru hove sloughed
away, and in others, equal injury has been done to the
vagina.   But the effect of the inflammation to usually
confined to the internal or villous coat, which to some-
times cast off wholly  or  partially.  An ulcerated sur-
face being thus left, when the disposition  to heal has
taken place, cicatrices have been  formed  of different
kinds, according to tbe depth and extent of the ulcera-
tion, and there being no counteraction to the  contrac-
tile stale ofthe poru, the dimensions of the vagina be-
come much reduced, or, if the  ulceration should not be
healed, and tlie contractibility of the parU continue to
operate, the ulcerated surfaces, being brought together,
may cohere, and the canal of  the vagina  be  perfectly
closed.
  Cicatrices in tbe vagina very seldom become an im-
pediment to the connexion between the sexes;  when
they do, the same kind of  assistance is required as was
recommended in  the natural contraction or abbrevia-
tion of the part;  they always give  way to the pressure
of the head ofthe child in  the time of labour, though in
many cases with  great  difficulty.   Sometimes the
appearances may mislead  the judgment; for tbe above
author was called to  a woman in labour, who was
thought to have become  pregnant, though the hymen
remained unbroken; but, on  making very particular
inquiry, he discovered thot this was her second labour,
and lhat the part, which,  from its  form and situation
was supposed  to be tlie hymen, with a small aperture,
was a cicatrice, or  unnoturol contraction of the en-
trance into the  vagina, consequent to an ulceration
of the part after her  former labour.  Fungous ex-
crescences  arising from  any  part of the vogino  or
uterus, hove been distinguished, though not very pro-
perly, by the general term polypus.  See Polypus.
  Vagina or nerves.  The outer covering of nerves.
By some it is said to be a production of tbe pia mater
only, and  by others  of  the dura mater, because it
agrees with it  in  tenacity, colour, and texture,
  Vaoina op tendons.   A loose membranous sheath,
formed  by cellular membrane, investing the  tendons,
and containing an unctuous juice, which is secreted by
the vessels of itt  internal  surface.  Ganglions are
nothing more than an accumulation of this juice.
  VAGINA'LIS TUNICA.   See Tunica vaginalis
testis.
  VAGINANS.  Sheathing: applied to parts of ani-
mals and plants, as the tunica vaginalis or testicle ; to
leaves which sheath the stem, or  each  other, as in
grasses; and to the  leafstalk of the Canna indica,
which surrounds the stem like a sheath; heucc^stiolus
vaginans.
  VAG1TUS.  The cry of young children; also the
distressing cry of persons under surgical operation.
  VAGUM, PAR.  See Par vagum
  VALERIAN.  See Valeriana.
  Valerian, celtic.  See Valeriana celtica.
  Valerian, garden.  See Valeriana major.
  Valerian, great.  See Valeriana major.
  Valerian, less.  See Valeriana.
  VALERIA'NA.   (From  Valerius, who first par-
ticularly  described it.)  1. The  name of a genus  of
planu in the Linnean system. Class, 'triandria; Or-
der, Monogynia.  Valerian.
  2. The pharmacopceial name of the  rvild valerian.
See Valeriana officinalis.
  Valeriana celtica.  The systematlsnameof the
Nardus  celtica.  Spica celtica  dioscoiidis.  Celtic
nard.   The root of this plant, o native of the Alps, has
been recommended as a stomachic, carminative, and
diuretic.  At present  it is only used in this country in
the theriaca and mithridate, though iu sensible qualities
promise some considerable medicinal powers.  It has
a moderately strong smell, and a warm, bitterish, sub-
acrid taste.
  Valeriana loccsta.  Album olus.   Corn salad.
Thto is cultivated in our  gardens for an  early salad.
It is a wholesome, esculent plant, generally aperient
and antiscorbutic.
  Valeriana major. See  Valeriana phu.
  Valeriana minor. See  Valeriana officinalis.
  Valeriana officinalis.   The systematic name of
the Valeriana minor.  Valeriana sylvestris; Leuco
lachanum.  Officinal  valerian ; Wild valerian.  Va-
leriana—floribus triandris, foliis omnibus pinnatis, of
Linmeus.  The root of this plant has been long extolled
as an efficacious remedy in epilepsy, which caused it
to be exhibited in a variety of other complainU termed
nervous,  in which it hos  been found highly service-
able.  It  is also in very general  use as an antispas-
modic, and is exhibited in  convulsive hysterical dis-
eases.  A simple and volatile tincture are directed in
the pharmacopoeias.
  Valeriana phv.  The systematic name of the gar-
den valerion.   Valeriana major.   The  root of this
plant to said to be efficacious in removing rheumatism,
especially sciatica; and also inveterate epilepsies.
 - Valeriana sylvestris.  See Valeriana officinalis.
  Va'llum.  (From vallus, a hedge stake: so called
from the regular trench-like disposition of the hairs.)
The eyebrows.
  VALSALVA, Anton. Maria, was born at Imola,
in 1666, and  ploced at a proper age under Malpighi, at
Bologna,  where he applied so closely as to impair hto
health.  He  took his degree at the age of twenty-one,
and connecting surgery with physic, acquired  high
reputation.  He simplified  the  instruments  in  use,
banished the practice of cauterizing the arteries  after
amputation, and employed manual operations in tiie
cure of deafness.  In 1697, he was chosen professor of
anatomy in  the university; and under his direction
the school acquired great celebrity, among other dis-
tinguished pupils of his, Morgagni must be reckoned,
whose chief work, "De Sedibus et Causis Morborum,"
contains  many  dissections by Valsalva.  As  he ad-
vanced in life he became corpulent and lethargic, and
in 1723 was carried off by an apoplectic stroke.  His
museum  was bequeathed to the institute of Bologna,
and hto surgical instruments to tbe Hospital  for In-
curables. The principal of his works is a treatise, "De
Aure Humana;" and after his death, three of his disser-
tations on anatomical subjects were printed by Morgagni.
  VALVA.   (Volva; from valvte, to fold uu.)  A
thin and transparent membrane situated  within cer-
tain vessels, as  arteries, veins,  und absorbenu, the
office of  which appears to  be to prevent the contents
ofthe vessel from flowing back.
   Valve of the colon.  See Intestine.
   Valve, semilunar.  Pee Semilunar valves. 
VAR
VAR
   Valve, tricuspid.  See Tricuspid valves.
   Valve, triglochin.  See Tricuspid valves.
   VALVULA.  (From valva, a valve, of which it is
 a diminutive.)   A little valve.
   1. Applied to the valves of tiie venal and lymphatic
 system of animals.
   2. In botany, to  the  parts or halves of a capsule,
 which split open when the seed is ripe.
   Valvula coli.  See Intestine.
   Valvula rostachii.  A membranous semilunar
 valve, which separates the right auricle from the in-
 ferior vena cava, first described by Eustachius.
   Valvula mitralis.  See Mitral valves.
   Valvula semilunaris.  See Semilunar valves.
   Valvula triolochinis.  See Tricuspid valves.
   Valvula tijlpii. See Intestine.
   Valvule conniventes. The semilunar folds formed
 of the villous coot ofthe intestinum duodenum, and
jejunum.  Their use appears to be to increase the in-
ternal surface of the intestines.
   Vanelloe.   See Epidendrum vanilla.
   VANILLA.  See Epidendrum vanilla.
   VAPORA'RIUM.  (From vapor, vapour.)   A va-
pour-bath.
   VAPRECUL/E.  The name of an order of planu in
Linneus's FragmenU of a Natural Method, consisting
of such as are,  and have a  monophylous calyx, like a
coloured corolla.
   Varec.  The French name for kelp.
   Va'ria.  (From varius,  changeable.) The  small-
pox ; also small red pimples in the face.
   VARICE'LLA.  (Dim. of varia, the small-pox: so
flailed from iu being changeable.) Variola lymphalica.
The chicken-pox.   A genus of  disease in the Class
Pyrexia, and Order Exanthemata, of Cullen,  known
by moderate synocha,  pimples  bearing some  resem-
blance to the  small-pox, quickly forming pustules,
which contain  a fluid matter, but scarcely purulent,
and after three or four days from their first appearance,
desquamate.
   VARICOCE'LE.  (From varix, a distended vein,
and xnXri, a tumour.)  A sweUing of the veins of tbe
scrotum, or  spermatic cord; hence it to divided into
the scrotal varicocele, which to known by the appear-
ance of Uvid and tumid  veins on  the scrotum; and
varicocele of the spermatic cord,  known  by feeling
hard vermiform vessels in the course of the spermatic
eord.   Varicocele mostly arises  from excessive walk-
ing, running, jumping, wearing of trusses, and the like,
producing at first a slight uneasiness in the part, which,
of not remedied, continues advancing towards the loins.
   VAR1EGATUS.  Variegated: applied to an inter-
 mixture of colours; as in the leaves of some planu,
 Mentha rotundifolia, Sec
   VAUl'OLA.   (From  varius, changing colour, be-
cause it disfigures the skin.)  The small-pox.  A genus
of disease in the Class  Pyrexia, and Order Exanthe-
mata, of Cullen, distinguished by synocha, eruption of
red pimples on  the third day, which on the eighth doy
contain pus, and afterward drying, foil off in crusU.
   It is o disease of a very contagious nature, supposed
to have been introduced into Europe from Arabia, and
 in which there  arises a fever, that is succeeded by a
number of little  inflammations  in the skin,  which
proceed to suppuration, the matter  formed thereby
being capable of producing the disorder in another per-
son.  It makes iu attack on people of aU ages, but the
young of both sexes are more Uable to it  than those
 who are much advanced in life; and it may prevail at
all seasons of the year, but is most  prevalent in the
spring and summer.
   Tbe small-pox is distinguished into tlie distinct and
confluent, implying that  in the former the eruptions
are perfectly separate from each other, and that in the
latter they run much into one another.
   Both species are produced either by breathing air
'mpregnated with the effluvia arising from  the  bodies
 of those who labour under the disease, or by the intro-
duction of a small quantity of the variolous matter
Into the habit of inoculation; and it  is probable, that
She difference ofthe smoll-pox is not owing to any dif-
 ference in the contagion, but depends on the state of
 the person to whom it is applied, or on certain circum-
stances concurring with the application of it
   A variety of opinions have been entertained respect-
ing the effect of the variolous infection on the foetus in
 utero; a sufficient number of instances, however* has
been recorded,  to ascertain that the disease may be
communicated from the mother to the child.  Iu some
cases, the body of the child,  at iu birth, has been
covered with pustules, and the nature of the dtoease
has been most satisfactorily ascertained by inoculating
with matter taken from the pustules.  In other cases,
there  has been no appearance of the  disease at the
birth, but an eruption and other symptoms of the  dto-
ease have appeared so early, as to ascertain that the
infection must  have  been received previously to the
removal of the child from the uterus.
  Four different states, or stages, are to be observed in
tiie small-pox:  first, the febrile; second, the eruptive;
third, the maturative; and fourth, that of the decline*-
tion or scabbing.  When the disease has arisen natu-
rally, and is of  the distinct kind, the eruption is com-
monly preceded by a redness in the eyes, soreness in
the throat, pains in the head, bock, ond loins, weari-
ness and faintness, alternate fiu of chilliness and heat,
thirst, nausea, inclination to vomit, and a quick pulse.
  In some instonces, these  symptoms prevail in a high
degree, and in others they are very moderate and tri-
fling.   In very  young children, stortings and convul-
sions ore opt to take place a short time previous to the
appearance of the eruption, always giving great alarm
to those not conversant with the frequency of the
occurrence.
  About the third or fourth day from the first seizure,
the eruption shows itself in little red spots on  the face
neck, and  breast, and these continue to increase in
number and size for three or four longer, at the end of
which time they are to  be observed dispersed over
several ports of the body.
  If the pustules are  not very numerous, the febrile
symptoms will  generally go off ou the appearance of
the eruption, or theii will become very moderate. It
sometimes happens, that a number of little spots of an
erysipelatous nature  are interspersed  among  the  pus-
tules; but these generally go in again, as soon as the
suppuration commences, which is usually about the
fifth or sixth day, at which period, a small vesicle,  con-
toining  on olmost colourless fluid, may be  observed
upon the top of each pimple.   Should the pustules be
perfectly distinct and separate from each other, the
suppuration will probably be completed about the eighth
or ninth day, and they will then be filled with a thick
yellow matter; but should they run  much into each
other, it will not be completed till some days later.
  When the pustules are very thick and numerous on
the face, it is apt about this  time to become much
swelled, and the eyelids to be closed up, previous to
which, there usually arises a hoarseness, and  difficulty
of swallowing,  accompanied with a considerable dia
charge of viscid saliva.  About the eleventh  day, the
swelling ofthe face usually subsides, together  with the
affection of tlie fauces, and to succeeded by the same in
the hands and feet, after which the pustules break, and
discharge their contenu: and then becoming diy, they
fall in crusts, leaving the skin which they covered of a
brown-red  colour, which  appearance continues for
many days.  In those cases where the  pustules are
large, and are late in becoming dry and falling off, they
are very apt to leave pits behind them; but where they
ore small, suppurate quickly, ond are few in  number,
they neither leave any marks behind them, nor do they
occasion much affection ofthe system.
  In the confluent small-pox, the fever which  precedes
the eruption is much more violent than in the distinct,
being attended usually with great anxiety, heat, thirst,
nausea, vomiting, and a frequent and contracted pulse,
and often with coma or delirium.  In infants, convul-
sive fits are apt to occur, which either prove fatal before
any eruption appears, or tbey usher in  a  malignant
species ofthe disease.
  The eruption usually makes its appearance about the
third day. being frequently preceded or attended with
a rosy efflorescence, similar to what takes place in the
measles; but the fever, although it suffers some slight
remission on the coming out of the eruption, does not
gooff as in the distinct kind; on the contrary, it be-
comes increased after the fifth or sixth day, and con-
tinues considerable throughout the remainder of tiie
disease.
  As the erupt/on advances,  the face, being thickly
beset with  pustules, becomes very much swelled,  the
eyelids are closed up, so os to deprive the  patient of
sight and a gentle salivation ensues, which  towards 
VAR
VAR
tne eleventh day, is so viscid aa to be spit up with great
difficulty.  In children, a diarrhoea usually attends this
stage ofthe disease instead of a salivation, which is to
be met with oidy in adulu.  The vesicles on the top of
tbe pimples are to be perceived sooner in the confluent
small-pox than in tbe distinct; but they never rise to an
eminence being  usually  flatted in; neither do they
arrive  to proper suppuration, as the fluid contained in
them,  instead of becoming  yellow, turns  to a brown
colour.
  About the tenth or eleventh day, the swelling of the
face usually  subsides,  and then the  hands and feet
begin to puff up and swell, and about the same time
tbe vesicles break, and pour out a liquor that forms into
brown or black crusu, which, upon frilling off, leave
deep piu behind them that continue for life; and where
Ibe pustules have run much into each other, they then
disfigure and scar the face very considerably.
  Sometimes it happens that a putrescency ofthe fluids
takes place at an early period of the dtoease, and shows
itself in livid spott interspersed among the pustules, and
by a discharge of blood by urine, stool, and from various
parts of the body.
  In the confluent smal!-pox, the fever which, perhaps,
bed suffered some slight remission from the time the
eruption made its appearance to that of maturation, is
often renewed with considerable violence at thto last-
mentioned period, which is what is colled the second-
ary fever, and thto is the most dangerous stage of the
disease.  It has been observed, even among tbe vulgar,
that the miaU-pox to apt to appear immediately before
or after the prevalence of the measles.  Another curi-
ous observation has been made relating to the symp-
toms of these complainU, namely, that if, while a
patient labours under tbe small-pox, he is seized with
tlie measles, the course ofthe former to retarded till the
eruption of the measles is finished.   The measles
api»ar, for instance, on tiie second day ofthe eruption
of small-pox; the progress of this ceases, till the mea-
sles terminate by desquamation, and then it goes on in
the usual way.  Several cases are, however, recorded
In the Medical and Physical Journal, os likewise in the
third volume  of tbe Medical Commentaries, in which
• concurrence of the small-pox and measles took place
without the progress of the former being retarded.  The
distinct small-pox to not attended with danger, except
when it attacks pregnant women, or approaches nearly
in iu nature  to that of the confluent;  but thto last is
■sways accompanied with considerable risk, the degree
of which is ever in proportion to the violence and per-
manence of the fever,  the number of pustules on the
face, and the disposition to putrescency wbich pre-
vails.
  When there to a great tendency this way, the disease
usually proves foul between the eighth and eleventh
day, but, in some cases, death to protracted to the four-
teenth or sixteenth.  The confluent small-pox, although
it may not prove immediately mortal, is very apt to
induce various morbid affections.
  Both kinds of small-pox leave behind them a predis-
position to inflammatory complaints,  particularly to
eutbalmio and visceral inflammations, but more espe-
cially of the thorax, and they not  unfrequently excite
scrofula into action which might otherwise have lain
dormant in the system.
  The regular swelling of the hands and feet upon that
of the  foce subsiding, and ite continuance for tbe due
time, may be regarded in a favourable light
  The  dissections which have been made of confluent
smoll-pox, hove  never discovered any pustules inter-
nally on the viscera.  From them  it also appears that
variolous pustules never attack the cavities of tlie body,
except those  to which the air bas free access, as the
nose, mouth,  trachea, the larger branches of the bron-
chia, and the outermost part of the meatus auditorius.
In cases of prolapsus  ani, they likewise frequently
attack  that part ofthe  gut which is exposed to the air.
They have usually shown the same morbid appear-
ances inwardly, as are met with in putrid fever, where
the disease has been of the malignant kind.  Where
the febrile symptoms have run high, ond the head has
been much affected with coma or delirium, the vessels
of the brain appear,  on removing the cranium and
dura mater,  more turgid, and filled  with  a darker
coloured blood than usual, and a greater quantity of
serous fluid Is found, particularly towards the base nf
Ihe brain   Under similar circumstances, the  lungs
have often a darker appearance, and their moisture is
more  copious  thon usual.  When no inflammatory
affection hos supervened, they are most usually sound.
  The treatment  of smallpox will differ  materially
according to the species of the diseose.  In the distinct,
ushered in by synochol pyrexia, it may be occasionally
proper, in  persons of a  middle age, good constitution,
and plethoric habit, to begin by taking away a  mode-
rate quantity of blood; the exhibition of on emetic wUI
be generally advisable, provided there be no material
tenderness of the  stomach;  the bowels must then be
cleared, antimonial  and other diaphoretics employed,
and the antiphlogistic regimen strictly enforced.  It is
particularly useful in this disease during the eruptive
fever to expose the patient freely to cold air, as  taught
by the celebrated Sydenham; and even the eoid affusion
may be pro(>er, wlwre there is much heat and redness
ofthe skin, unless the lungs be weak.   After the erup-
tion has come out, the symptoms are  usually so much
mitigated, that little medical interference to necessary.
But the confluent small-pox  requires more manage-
ment :  after evacuating the prima- vie, and employing
other means to moderate the fever in the beginning, the
several  remedies  adapted to support the strength and
counteroct the septic tendency, must be resorted to, as
the disease advances, such as have been enumerated
under typhus.  The chief points of difference are, that
bark may be more freely given to promote the process
of suppuration, ond opium to relieve the irritation in
the skin;  when the eruption  has come out, it will be
generally proper to direct a full dose of this remedy
every  night to procure rest, using proper precautions to
obviate its confining the bowels, or  determining to the
head.   Where alarming convulsions occur also,  opium
is the medicine chijfly to be relied  upon, taking  care
subsequently to remove  any source of irritation from
the prima? vie.   Sometimes the  tepid-bath may be
useful  under these circumstances, and favour the
appearance of tiie eruption, where the skin to pale and
cold, the pulse weak, &c.  Where at a more advanced
period  the pustules flatten, and  alarming  symptoms
follow, the most powerful cordial and antispasmodic
remedies must be tried, as  the confectio opii,  ether,
wine,  tec   For the relief of the brain, or other impor-
tant part,  particularly affected, local means may be
used, as in typhus.  To prevent the  eyes being Injured,
a cooling lotion may be applied, and blisters behind the
ears, or even leeches to the temples.
  Variola vaccina. Vaccinia.  The cow-pox.  Any
pustulous disease affecting the cow, may be called the
cow-pox:  whether it arises from an over-distention of
the udder, in consequence of a neglect in milking the
cow, or from the sting of an insect, or any other  cause.
But the species which claims our particular attention,
to that wliich was recommended to the world by Dr.
Jenner, in the year 17118, as a substitute for  the  small-
pox.   This, which originates  from the grease  in the
horse's  heel, is called the genuine  cow-pox; all other
kinds ore spurious.
  That the vaccine fluid, fraught with such u nspeakahle
benefits to mankind, derives its origin from this humble
source, however it may mortify human pride, or me-
dical vanity, is confirmed  by the observations and
experimenu of competent judges.  For proofs of this
assertion,  the reader may consult tbe works  of Dr.
Jenner; the Medical and Physical Journal;  and a
treatise on the subject by Dr. Loy, of which an ana-
lysis to given in tbe Annals of Medicine for the  year
1801;  and Mr. Ring's work on this dtoease, which con-
tains tbe whole mass of evidence that has appeared
concerning it.
  Tbe genuine  cow-pox  appears on the teats  of the
cow, in the form of vesicles, of a blue colour approach-
ing to livid.  These vesicles  are elevated ot the mar
gin, and depressed at the centre.  They are surrounded
with inflammation.  The fluid tbey contain is limpid
The animals ore indisposed; and the secretion of milk
is  lessened.  Solutions of the sulphates of zinc and
copper are a speedy remedy for these pustules;  other-
wise they  degenerate into ulcers, wliich are extremely
troublesome.   It  must, however, be recollected,  that
much of the obstinacy attending these cases is  owing
to the friction of the pustules, in consequence of milk-
ing.  It is probable, that a solution of the superacetate
of lead would be  preferable to irritating applications.
  Similar  effecu  are produced in  tbe hand* of the
milkers, attended .with febrile symptoms, and  some- 
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 times with tumours in the axilla.  Other parts, where
 the cuticle is abraded, or which are naturally destitute
 •f that defence, are also liable to the some affection,
 provided  active matter Is  applied.  It oven appears
 that, in some instances, pustules have  been produced
 by the application of vaccine  virus to the sound cu-
 ticle.   One case of this kind may be found in a letter
 from  Dr.  Fowler,  of Salisbury, to Dr. Pearson, pub-
 lished in the first work of Dr. Pearson on thto subject
   The spurious cow-pox is white; and another  crite-
 rion to, that both in the brute animal and in the human
 subject, when infected with the casual cow-pox, the
 sores occasioned by the genuine species are more diffi-
 cult to heal than those which are occasioned by the
 spurious kind.  It  to of the utmost importance to dis-
 tinguish the genuine from tlie  spurious sort, which  is
 also, in some degree, infectious; since a want of sueli
 discrimination would cause an  idea of security against
 the small-pox. which might prove delusive.
   Dr. Jenner has elucidated one point of the first im-
 portance, relative to the genuine cow-pox itself.   It
 had frequently been observed, that when this disorder
 prevailed in a farm, some of the persons who con-
 tracted it by milking were rendered insusceptible of the
 small-pox, while others continued liahle to  that infec-
 tion.   This is owing to  the different periods at which
 tbe disease was excited in the human subject;  one
 person, who caught the disease while the virus was in
 an active state, to rendered secure  from variolous con-
 tagion; while another,  who received the infection of
 the cow pox when  it had undergone  a decomposition,
 is still  susceptible of the small-pox. This uncertainty
 of the prevention,  the value of which to  beyond all
 calculation, is probably the  reason why  it was not
 before introduced into practice.
   From the violent opposition which vaccine inocu-
 lation has  met with, in consequence of certain appa-
 rent failures in the casual way, it may  be  doubted
 whether the public  would ever  have adopted the prac-
 tice, had not this fallacy been detected by Dr. Jenner.
 To him also we are indebted for another discovery of
 the first importance; namely, that the pustule excited
 in the human subject by vaccine matter, yields a fluid
 of a similar nature wilh that which was inserted.
 This experiment, so essential to the general propaga-
 tion  of the practice, and  so happy in  its result, was
 never before attempted.  It was reserved to crown the
 labours of  Dr. Jenner.
   A  considerable number of instances  are on record,
 to prove that farriers and others who receive infection
 from the heel  of a horse, are  either partly or totally
 deprived ofthe susceptibility of the small-pox.  When
 Dr. Jenner first published an account of his discove-
 ries, this point was enveloped in some degree of obscu-
 rity.  He then  conceived, that the matter of grease
 was an imperfect preservative  against  the  small-pox.
 This opinion  was  founded on the following  circum-
 stance : It had  been remarked,  that  farriers either
 wholly  escaped the small-pox, or had  that distemper
 in a milder manner than other people.  This, however,
 is essUy reconcileable to reason, if we only suppose,
 that in some coses the infection to communicated when
 the virus possesses all iu prophylactic virtue; and in
 others, when iu specific quality is in some measure
 lost
   This  variation in the effecu  produced by the virus
 of the horse, inclined Dr. Jenner to believe that it was
 modified,  and underwent some peculiar alteration in
 the tcau of the cow.  He now concludes, that it is
 perfect when it excites the genuine disease in the cow;
 yet a considerable advantage is  derived from iu being
 transferred to the latter  animal, the nippies of which
 furnish a more obvious and a more abundant source
 of this inestimable fluid, than ite original element the
 horse.
  This theory, that the  preservative against variolous
contagion is perfect when  it issues from the fountain-
head, and conies Immediately from the hands of Na-
ture, is consonant with reason, and consistent with
 analogy. Thus, one  obstacle more to  the universal
adoption of the practice to removed.
  Another point respecting vaccine inoculation, which
 hag been much controverted, is  the permanency of iu
effect   Instances have been known  where  persons
 have escaped the smallpox for a number of years, and
 yet have ultimately  proved not insusceptible of iu in-
fection.  When such persons had previously under-
 gone the vaccine disease, their apparent security wai
 erroneously ascribed te tbat cause;  but we hove not
 even a shadow of proof, that the cow-pox possesses in
 the least  degree the property of a temporary prophy-
 lactic, since it appears not even to retard the eruption
 of tbe smaU-pox,  where previous infection has been
 received.
   By this remark, it is not meant to be asserted, that
 it never supersedes or modifies the small-pox, for we
 have great reason to believe that such beneficial ef-
 fecu often flow from vaccination; but where on erup-
 tion ofthe small-pox actually takes place ofter voccine
 inoculation, tlie two diseases frequently co-exist, with-
 out retarding eaeh other in the smallest degree.  It is,
 therefore, contrary to all reason and analogy, to con-
 sider the  cow-pox as a mere temporary preservative:
 it is nothing less than a perfect and permauent security
 against that terrible dtoease.
   A number of cases ore recorded by Dr. Jenner, and
 other authors, who  have written on thto subject, in
 which  persons  who  have received  the cow-pox by
 casual infection, twenty, thirty,  forty, and fifty  years
 before, still continued insusceptible of variolous con-
 tagion, in whatever form it was applied.
   As the cow-pox destroys  the  susceptibility of the
 small-pox, so the smoll-pox destroys that of the cow-
 pox.  To thto generol rule, however, o few exceptions
 are soid to hove occurred.   Certain it is, that a pustule
 hos now and then been excited by the insertion of vac-
 cine virus, in those who have had the small-pox, aud
 that this pustule has been known to yield to tbe genu-
 ine virus; but it is not equally certain that the pustule
 has been  perfect in all respects.  Possibly, it may have
 been defective in point of size or  duration,  in respect
 to  its areola, or the limpidity of its contents.  That
 such a pustule has, in some instances, yielded effectual
 virus, is admitted; but this is no more than what  has
 often happened, in cases where persons who have had
 the small-pox are a second time submitted to that infec-
 tion in the same form.
  The artificial cow-pox in the human subject to much
 milder than the casual dtoease;  and incomparably
 milder than tbe small-pox, even under the form of
 inoculation. It neither requires medicine nor regimen;
 it may be practised  at any season of the  year; and,
 not being infectious by effluvia, one person may be
 inoculated without endangering the life of another.
  Thto  affection  produces no  pustulous  eruptions.
 When such attend vaccine inoculation, they are owing
 to  some adventitious cause, such as tbe small-pox,
 which it  to well known may co-exist with the cow-
 pox.  The vaccine vesicle is confined to the paru where
 matter is inserted; it is, therefore, entirely a local and
 an inoculated disease.  Nevertheless, it to certain, that
 eruptions  of other kinds,  iu some instances, attend
 vaccine inoculation; such as a nettle-rash, or an erup-
 tion resembling a tooth-rash, but rather larger than
 what is commonly colled by that name.
  Among other singularities attending the cow-pox, the
 mildness of the disease, under the  form of inoculation,
 has been urged as  an argument against the practice,
 tbe cause appearing to ordinary comprehensions, in-
 adequate  to the effect  This, it  must be allowed, to
 the best apology that can be offered for skepticism on
 that point; but it will weigh but  little when put into
 the scale  against  actual observation,  and incontro-
 vertible fact  The efficacy of the cow-pox as a safe-
 guard against the  small-pox, rests, perhaps, on  more
 extensive  evidence, and a more solid foundation, than
 any other axiom in tiie whole circle of medical science.
  That the cow-pox is not infectious  by effluvia, to
 naturally  concluded  from  iu never being communi-
 cated from one person to another in the doiries; where
 the diseose to casual, and appears under its worst form.
 The same inference may be drawn from  its never
 spreading  in a family, when only one person is inocu-
 lated  at a time.   To confirm this proposition more
 fully, the  vaccine  pustules hove been ruptured, and
 persons who have never had the disorder have been
 suffered to inhale the effluvia several times a day, but
 to no purpose.  Thto to no more  than might be ex-
pected, in an affection where the pustulous appearance
on the surface of the body to nearly local.
  As  to the constituttonal indisposition, it is seldom
considerable,  unless there is  a  complication of thto
with some other distemper; and whenever  any unfa
vourable symptoms appear, they  may in general  be 
VAR
VAR
  traced to some other cause.  We have indeed great
  reason to believe, that no ill consequence  ever arises
  from the  cow-pox iuelf,  unless from ignorance or
  neglect
    But notwithstanding the symptoms are so mild, they
  freqivently occur at a very early period.  A drowsiness,
  which to one of the most connnon attendanu of the
  dtoease, is often remarked by the porenu themselves,
  within forty-eight hours after  the matter is inserted.
  In a majority of coses," a slight increase of heat is per-
  ceptible, together with an acceleration ofthe pulse, and
  other signs of pyrexia; but not in such a degree as to
  alarm the most timorous mother.  Sometimes the pa-
  tient is restless at nights; and  now and then a case is
  met with, in which vomiting occurs, but in many cases,
  no constitutional indisposition can be perceived.  Even
  then, the cow-pox has never failed to prove an effec-
  tual preservative against the small-pox, provided the
  pustule has been perfect.
    This being the grand criterion of the security of the
  patient, too minute an attention cannot be paid to its
  rise, progress, ond decline.  The best mode of inocu-
  lating to by making a very  small oblique puncture  in
  the arm, near tbe insertion of the deltoid muscle, with
  the point of a lancet  charged  with fluid matter.  In
 order to render  infection more certain,  the instrument
 may be charged again, and wiped upon  the  puncture.
   In places where the patient is likely to be exposed to
 variolous contagion, it u advisable to inoculate in more
 places thon one, but unless there is danger of catching
 the small-pox, it is better not to make more than one
 puncture in each arm, lest too  much  inflammation
 should ensue.
   The vaccine  fluid  may be taken for inoculation as
 soon ns a vesicle appears; but if the vesicle is punc-
 tured ot a very early period, it is more apt to be injur-
 ed.  When virus is wanting for  inoculating a consi-
 derable number, it is better to let  the pustule  remain
 untouched, till about the eighth day, by which time It
 has in general acquired a reasonable magnitude.  After
 that day, if the  pustule has made  tbe usual progress,
 the matter begins to lose its virtue;  but It may, in
 general, be used with safety, though with less certainty
 of producing infection, till  the areola begins to be ex-
 tensive.
   The first sign of infection commonly appears on the
 third day.  A small red spot, rather elevated, maybe
 perceived at the  place where the puncture was made.
 Sometimes, however,  the mark  of infection having
 succeeded is not visible till s  much  later period.  It
 may be retarded, or even entirely  prevented, by any
 other disorder, such os dentition, or ony complaint at-
 tended wilh  fever, or by extreme cold.   Another fre-
 quent cause of a slow progress in the pustule, or a total
 failure of success, is debility. Sometimes it is impos-
 sible to discover any sign of infection for above a fort-
 night In this respect the  cow-pox is subject to the
 same lows, and  liable  to the same variation,  as the
 small-pox.
   When a considerable inflammation appears witliin
 two or three days after inoculation, there to reason to
 suspect that infection has not token piece; ond if sup-
 puration ensues, that suspicion ought, in general,  to
 Btand confirmed.  Now and then, however, it happens,
 thot after the spurious pustule, or more properly speak-
 ing, ihe phlegmon, has run its course, which to within
 a tew days, a vesicle begins to  appear, bearing every
 characteristic  of the  genuine  vaccine disease, and
 yielding o limpid ond efficient virus for  future inocu-
 lations.  In this cose the potient is as perfectly secured
 from oil danger of the small-pox, os if no festering of
 the puncture hod preceded.   The occurrence of such o
 cose, though rore, is worthy to  be recorded; because
 some practitioners hove concluded a spurious pustule to
 be o certoin proof of failure.
  The areola commonly begins  to be extensive on the
 ninth doy, and to decline about the eleventh or twelfth.
 At tins period also the  pustule begins to dry; the first
 sign of which is a brown s|»t in  the centre.  In pro-
 portion as this increases the  surrounding efflorescence
 decreases, till at lenph  nothing remains but o circular
scab, of a dork-brown mahogany colour, approaching
to block.   Sometimes il resembles the section of a
tamarind-stone;  and it often retains the  depression in
the centre, which characterizes  this disease before ex-
siccation takes place.
  Instances hove been known, where the vaccine pus-
  tule, though regular, and perfect in all other respects,
  has been totally destitute of areola; at least, where
  neither the medical practitioner, on visiting the patient
  nor the attendants, have remarked any appearance of
  that symptom.   In these cases, the patient has proved
  as insusceptible of variolous infection, as if the sur-
  rounding efflorescence had covered the whole arm.  It
  must, however, be confessed that we have no proof of
  the non-existence of an areola in these cases.  It might
  have been trivial; it might have been transient; yet it
  might have been effectual.  There is, however, greater
  reason  to believe, thot  the surrounding efflorescence,
  though usually a concomitant circumstance, is not an
  essential requisite to the vaccine disease.
    If by any accident the vesicle is ruptured, suppura-
  tion often ensues.  In this case, more  attention  than
  ordinary ought to be paid to the progress, and to all the
  phenomena of the local affection ;  both on account of
  the uncertainty of success  in the  pustule, as a  pro-
  phylactic, and the greater probabUity of tedious ulcer-
  ation.
    If there is room for the least doubt of the sufficiency
  of the first inoculation, a second ought to be performed
  without delay.  This, if unnecessary, is seldom attend-
  ed with inconvenience, and never with danger.  Either
  no effect is produced, or a slight festering, which termi-
  nates in a few days.   An exception occurs, but rarely,
  where  a spurious, or perhaps, even a genuine pustule,
  takes place, in those persons who are known to bave
  hod the cow-pox or  the smoll-pox already; but  this
  cannot  be the least couse of alarm to any  one  who
  knows the benign character of the distemper.
   Various  topical applications, both stimulant  nnd
  sedative, have been recommended, in order to allay the
  violence of inflammation.  If the operation for the in-
  sertion of matter is not  unnecessarily severe, nor the
  pustule irritated  by  friction, or pressure, or other vio-
  lence, no such applications are necessary.  Neverthe-
  less, if either the anxiety ol the professional man, or
  the importunity of a  tender parent, should demand a
 deviation from this general rule, any of the following
 remedies may be had recourse to.  The pustule may
 be touched with very diluted  sulphuric acid; which
 should be permitted to remain ou the part  half a mi-
 nute, and then be washed off  with  a sponge dipped in
 cold water.   This has  been  ignorantly,  or artfully,
 called an escharolic;  but any one who tries the appli-
 cation will soon discover, that iu operation  to mild and
 harmless.
   To avoid cavil and misrepresentation, it  to better to
 apply a saturnine lotion ; compresses, dipped  in such a
 lotion, may be applied at any time when inflammation
 runs high, and renewed as occasion requires.
   If the pustule should chance to be broken, a drop of
 the liquor plumbi acetatis, undiluted, may be applied as
 an exsiccant; but if ulceration threatens  to become
 obstinate, or extensive, a mild cataplasm  is the best
 resource.  In case  the ulceration is only superficial,
 and not attended  with  immoderate inflammation, a bit
 of any adhesive plaster, spread on linen, will prove the
 most convenient dressing, and seldom  fail of success.
 It will, in general, be unnecessary to renew it oftener
 than every other day.
   These minute observations no one will despise, un-
 less there benny person so ignorant as not to know that
 the core ofthe arm is almost the  whole duty of the
 medical  practitioner in vaccine inoculation;  and  that
 nothing disgusts the public so much against the prac-
 tice, as a sore arm, and the ill consequences which,
 from a neglect of thot symptom, too often ensue.
   When fluid virus cannot be procured, it to necessary
 to be cautious how it to preserved in s dry state.  The
 most improper mode is that of keeping it on a lancet;
 for the metal quickly rusu,  and the vaccine matter be-
 comes decomposed.   This method, however, to as
 likely to  succeed os any, when  the matter is not (o be
 kept above two or three  days.  If the virus be taken
 on glass, core must be token  not to dilute it much;
 otherwise it will probably fail.
  Cotton thread is a very commodious vehicle.   If it to
 intended to be sent to any considerable distance, itought
 to be repeatedly  dipped in the virus.  No  particular
caution is necessary with regard to the exclusion of
air; nevertheless, as it  can be done with so little trou-
ble, and is more satisfactory to those who receive the
matter, it is better to comply'with the practice.  On this
account- it may be enclosed in a glass tube, or in a 
VAR
VAS
tobacco-pipe sealed at each end, or between two square
biu of glass, which may, if necessary, be also charged
with the matter, and wrapped in gold-beoter's skin.
  Nothing is more destructive to the efficacy of cow-
pock matter than heat:  on thto account it must not be
dried near tbe  fire, nor  kept  in o  worm place.  The
advantage of inserting it in o fluid state is so great,
that it to to  be wished every practitioner would endea-
vour to keep a constant  supply for  his own use, by in-
oculating his patienu In succession, at such periods as
are most likely to answer that purpose.
  The rapidity with which this practice now spreads in
various parU of the globe, justifies our cherishing  o
hope, that it will ere long extinguish that most dreadful
pestilence,  and perpetual bane of  human felicity, the
small-pox.
  [Dr. Sylvanus Fansher, of Middletown, in Connecti-
cut, has devoted much time and attention to vaccina-
tion ; and, in the following letter to Dr. MitchiU, pro-
poses a method to hasten the progress of the vaccine

                " Middletown,  (Conn.) March, 1828.
" Dr. Mitchill,
  " Sir,—As you had the honour of announcing the
happy tidings of the mild substitute for the small-pox
In America, and as you once made  honourable mention
of my name relative to the art nf preserving the vaccine
virus, I therefore take the liberty  to trouble you with
the result of a series of experimenu to hasten the pro-
gressive stages of the vaccine vesicle, which, I am in-
 duced to believe, promises to the world additional ad-
 vantages from vaccination.
   " During the earlier  part  of my vaccine  practice,
 when persons came to me, with great concern, to know
 whether  it would  be too late  to  vaccinate a person,
 who hod been exposed to the smell-pox  a week  or
 more, and I have been  under the  painful necessity of
 expressing  my fears that it would  be too late; I  hove,
 from past experience, often felt their woes, and sighed
 for a power thot seemed to be denied  to vaccinators or
 inoculotors, which was, to be able  to force forward the
 vaccine process, so as to hasten the constitutional  affec-
 tion at an earlier period than the  well-known time for
 symptoms in either  inoculation or  vaccination.
   " Hoving been on eye-witness of the extreme anguish
 of two fine children in 1803 and 1804, who  applied too
 late for vaccination, I commenced  making experimenu
 to expedite vaccination, by vorious methods of insert-
 ing the virus.  At length I found, that by making  broad
 punctures on the body and shoulders, with  active vac-
 cine virus, I was able to produce an early pustule, and
 bring on the symptoms from 30 to 40 hours sooner than
 usual.  And I am now able to produce above forty suc-
 cessful experimenu to accelerate  the vaccine process,
 substantiated  by high  medical authority.  I write to
 you, Sir, becouse your sagacity and  discernment will
 be the first to discover the usefulness of this improve-
 ment, and the first to detect error.
                 "I have the honour to be, &c.
 j                          " Sylvanus Fansher."
    We may observe, from the above letter, that Dr. Fan-
 sher's method of hastening the vaccine process, by  in-
 serting the virus repeatedly by broad punctures on the
 body and  shoulders, wiU probably prove efficacious.
 The ordinary  mode of vaccination to, to introduce the
 smallest possible quantity of vaccine matter into the
 puncture;  and hence it  frequently  happens,  that the
 effect upon the constitution is so slight as to be hardly,
 or even not at aU, perceptible.  The consequence is,
 that cases  of  varioloid have sometimes occurred after
 vaccination, probably in cases in which it had not pro-
 duced iu proper influence on the system, or where that
 influence was insufficient.  Dr. F.'s method will, doubt-
 less, charge the system with the  genuine disease, and
 prevent  the after  occurrence  of  varioloid, or vanolus
 fsmall-pox).   He thinks, however, that it will do more,
 and force  the vaccine to outrun the  small-pox,  where
 exposure to infection  has taken  place,  lhat it may
 do so  or at least thot the effectual introduction  of the
 vaccine  may modify the small-pox, the followmg case,
 which a medical friend has reported to us, would seem

 10 AdliU exposed to the influence ofthe natural Pinall-
 pox  was vaccinated, and four  days after ^operation
 was repeated.  On the eighth  day from the first vacci-
 nation no  appearance was observed of the progress.of
 Ihe  kine-pock.  Further vaccination  was then con-
sidered unnecessary and too late, and the parents were
advised to have the child inoculated with the small-
pox, which was preferable to having it in the natural
way.   Matter was taken from  the  brother, who had
the small-pox very badly in the adjoining room, and
inserted in the arm, near where the vaccine matter had
been inserted.  The pock rose on the arm, and to the
surprise of the physician, the vaccine vesicle also rose,
and they  progressed  together,  modifying each  other.
The vaccine pock was smaller than usual, and went
through iu stages sooner than is common, (hough it
had previously  loid dormont,  ond  appeared  to have
been  put  into activity by the small-pox.  The small-
pox was also modified, the pock were few, the sickness
trifling, the confinement  nothing; and the child reco-
vered before his brother, who wos first taken.  A.]
  Va'rius.  (From varus, unequal: so called from the
irregularity of its shape.) The cuboid bone was for-
merly colled os vorium, from its irregular shape.
  VA'RIX.  (From varus, i. e. oblortus.)  A dilato
tion of a vein.   A genus of disease in the Class Lo-
cales, and Order Tumores, of Cullen ;  known by a soft
tumour on a vein which does not  pulsate.  Varicose
veins mostly become serpentine, and often form a
plexus of knoU, especially in the groins and scrotum.
  VAROLI, Costanzo, was born ot Bologna, in 1542,
and became a professor of physic and surgery in hto
native city. At thirty, he was invited by Pope Gregory
XIII. to settle at Rome as his first physician, ond pro-
fessor in the College of Sopienza.  He wos advancing
in  reputation by his anotomicol discoveries, os well as
 in hto practice, when a premature death cut him off in
 1573.  He was particularly distinguished in the Ana-
 tomy of the Brain, which he  described in his Work
 " De Nervis Opticis, &c.:" and among the parts disco-
 vered, or  more accurately demonstrated by him, was
 that formed by the union ofthe crura cerebri, ond cere-
 belli, which hos been since colled the Pons Varolii, ond
 which gives origin to  several nerves.   After his death,
 wos published " De Resolutione Corporis Humoni," an
 anotomicol compendium, chiefly occording to the an
 cients, but with several new observations.
   Va'rus.  See lonlhus.
   VAS.  (Vas, vasis,n.; fromvasum: hence in the
 plural, vasa, orum; a vescendo,  because  they con-
 vey  drink.)   A vessel: applied  to  arteries, veins,
 ducu,&c.
   Vas deferens.  A duct which arises from the epi-
 didymis,  and passes  through  the inguinal ring in the
 spermatic cord into the cavity  of the pelvis, and termi-
 nates in the vesicula  seminalis.  Its use to to convey
 the semen secreted in tbe testicle, and brought to it by
 the epididymis into the vesicula seminalis.
   Va'sa  brevia.  The arteries which come from the
 spleen, and run along the large arch of the stomach to
 the diaphragm.
   Vasa vorticosa.  The contorted vessels ofthe cho-
 roid  membrane of the eye.
    V A'STUS.  (So called from its size.)  A name given
 only to some muscles.
    Vastus externus.  A large, thick, and fleshy mus-
 cle, situated on the outer side of the thigh: it arises by
 a broad thick tendon, from the lower and anterior part
 of the great trochanter, and  upper  part of the linea
 aspera; it likewise adheres by fleshy fibres, to the whole
 outer edge of that rough line.  Ite fibres descend ob-
 liquely forwards, ond after it has run four or five inches
 downwards, we find it adhering to the anterior surface
 and  outer side of the crurssus, with which it continues
 to be connected to the lower part of the thigh, where
 we see it terminating in a broad tendon, wliich  is in-
 serted into the upper part of the patella laterally, and
 it sends off an aponeurosis that adheres to the head of
 the tibia, ond is continued down the leg.
    Vastus internus.  This muscle, which to less con
 siderable thon the vastus externus, is situated at the
 inner side of the thigh, being separated from the pre-
 ceding by the rectus.
    It arises tendinous and fleshy from between the fore
  part of the  os  femoris, and the root of the less tro-
 chanter,  below the insertion of the psoas magnus, and
  the iliacus internus ; and from all the inner side ofthe
  linea aspera.  Like the vastus externus it is connected
  with tne crurseus, but  it continues longer fleshy than
  that muscle.  A little above the knee we see iu outer
  edge uniting with the  inner  edge of the rectus, after
  which it is inserted tendinous into the upper part and 
VEG                                            VEG
  Inner side of the patella, sending off an aponeurosis
  which adheres to the upper part of the tibia.
    VEGETABLE  Vegelabilis. One of the three great
  divisions of nature.  The most obvious difference be-
  tween vegetables and animals is, that the latter ore, in
  general, capable of conveying themselves from place to
  place;  whereas  vegetables, being fixed  in  the  same
  place, absorb, by means of their roou and leaves, such
  support as to within their reach.
    The nutrition or support of planu appears to require
  water, earth, light, and oir.  There ore various experi-
  menu which have been instituted to show, that water
  to the only aliment which the root draws from the earth.
  Van Hehnont planted a willow, weighing fifty pounds,
  in a certain quantity of earth covered with sheet-lead  ;
  he watered it for five years with distilled water;  and
  at the end of that time the tree weighed  one hundred
  and sixty-nine pounds three  ounces, and the enrth in
  which it had vegetated was found to have suffered a
  loss of no more than three ounces.  Boyle repeated the
  same experiment upon a plant, which at the end of two
  years weighed fourteen pounds more, without the earth
  in which it had vegetated having lost any perceptible
  portion of its weight.
   Duhamel and Bonnet supported plante with moss,
  and  fed  them with mere water: they observed, that
  the vegetation was ofthe most vigorous kind; aud the
  naturalist of Geneva  observes, that  the flowers were
  more odoriferous, and the  fruit of a higher  flavour.
  Caie wos taken  to change the supports before they
  could suffer any alteration.  Tillet has likewise raised
  planu, more  especially of the gramineous kind, in a
  similar manner, with this difference only, that his sup-
  ports were pounded glass, or quartz in powder.  Hales
  has observed, that a plant, which weighed three pounds,
  gained three  ounces  after a heavy  dew.   Do we not
  every day observe hyacinths and other bulbous plante,
  as well as gramineous plants, raised in saucers or bot-
  tles containing mere water 7 And Braconnot has lately
  found mustard-seed to germinate, grow, and produce
  plants, that came to maturity,  flowered, and  ripened
 their seed, in litharge, flowers  of sulphur, and very
 small unglazed shot  The lost appeared least favoura-
 ble to the growth of the planu, apparently because their
 roou could not penetrate between it so easily.
   All planu do not demand the same quantity of water;
 and nature has varied  the organs of the several indi-
 viduals conformably to tbe necessity of their being sup-
 plied  with this food.   Planu which transpire little,
 such as tbe mosses and the lichens, have no need of o
 considerable quantity  of thto fluid; and  accordingly
 Ihey are fixed upon dry rocks, and have scarcely any
 roou; but plante which require a larger quantity, have
 roou which extend to a great  distance, and absorb
 humidity throughout their whole surface.
  The leaves of planu have likewise tbe property of
 absorbing water, and of extracting from the atmosphere
 the same  principle which  the  root  draws from  the
 earth.  But planu wliich live in the  water, and as it
 were swim in the element whicli serves them for food,
 have no need of roou;  they receive tbe  fluid at all
 their pores; and we accordingly find, that the fucus,
 the ulva, Sec have no roou whatever.
  The dung which is mixed with earths, and decom-
 posed, not only affords the alimentary principles  we
 have spoken of, but likewise favours the growth of the
 plant by that constant and steady heat which iu ul-
 terior  decomposition produces.  Thus it is that Fa-
 oroni affirms bis having observed the developement of
 leaves and flowers in that port of the tree only, which
 was in the vicinity of a heap of dung.
 i From the preceding  circumstances  it appears, that
 the influence of ibe earth in vegetation to almost totally
 confined lo the conveyance of  water, and probably
 the elastic producu from putrefying substances, to the
 plant
  Vegetables cannot live  without air.   From the ex-
 perimenu of Priestley, Ingenhousz, and Senncbier, it
 to ascertained, that planU absorb the azotic  part ofthe
 atmosphere; and this principle appeors to be the couse
 of the fertility whicli orises from  the use of putrefy in°
 matters in the form of manure.  The  carbonic acid to
likewise absorbed by vegetables, when iu quantity to
smalL  If in large quantity, it to fatal to them.
  Chaptal has observed, tbat carbonic acid predomi-
nates in the fungus, and  other subterraneous  planu.
But, by causing these vegetables, together with  the
   body upon which they were fixed, to pan, by Imper-
   ceptible gradations, from an almost absolute darkness,
   into the light, the acid  very nearly disappeared;  the
   vegetable fibres being proportionally increased, at  the
   same time that the resin and colouring principles were
   developed, which he ascribes to the oxygen of  the
   same acid.  Seunebier has observed, that  the planu
   which he watered with  water impregnated with car-
   bonic  acid,  transpired an extraordinary  quantity of
  oxygen, which likewise indicates a decomposition of
  the acid.
    Light is almost absolutely necessary to plants.  In
  the dark, they grow pale, languish, ami die.  The ten-
  dency of plants towards the light to remarkably seen in
  such vegetation as is effected in a chamber or place
  where the light to admitted on one side; for the plant
  never foils to grow in that direction.  Whether the
  matter of light be condensed into the substance  of
  planu, or whether it act merely as a stimulus or agent,
  without which the other requisite chemical processes
  cannot be effected, is uncertain.
    It te ascertained, that the  processes in plants serve,
  like  those in animals,  to  produce  a more equable
  temperature, whioh to for the most part above that of
  the atmosphere.   Dr. Hunter, quoted by Chaptal, ob-
  served, by keeping a thermometer plunged in a hole
  made in a sound  tree, that it constantly  indicated a
  temperature several degrees above that of the atmos-
  phere, when it was below the fifty-sixth  division  of
  Fahrenheit;   whereas the vegetable heat,  In hotter
  weather,  was always several degrees  below that of
  the atmosphere.  The same philosopher has likewise
  observed, that the sap which, out of the  tree, would
  freeze at 32°, did not freeze in tbe tree unless tiie cold
  were augmented 15° more.
    The vegetable heat may  increase or diminish by
  several cause*, of the nature of disease ; and it may
  even  become  perceptible to  the  touch in very  cold
  weother, according to Buffon.
    The principles of which vegetables are composed,
  If we pursue their  analysis as far as our means have
  hitherto allowed,  are chiefly carbon, hydrogen, and
  oxygen.  Nitrogen is a constituent principle of several,
  but for the most  part in small  quantity.  Potassa,
  soda,  lime, magnesia, silex,  alumina, sulphur, phos-
  phorus, iron,  manganese, and muriatic  acid,  have
 likewise been  reckoned in the number; but  some of
 these  occur only  occasionally, and  chiefly in very
 small  quantities; and are scarcely more entitled  to be
 considered  as  belonging to them than gold, or some
 other  substances, that have been occasionally pro-
 cured from their decomposition.
   The following are the principal products of vegeta-
 tion:—
   1. Sugar. Crystallizes. Soluble in water and alko-
 hol.  Taste sweet   Soluble  in  nitric acid, and yields
 oxalic acid.
   2. Sarcocol.  Does not crystallize.  Soluble in water
 and alkohol.  Taste bitter sweet.  Soluble  in nitric
 ocid, and yields oxalic acid.
   3. Asparagin.  Crystallizes. Taste cooling and nau-
 seous.  Soluble in  hot woter.  Insoluble in olkohol.
 Soluble in nitric acid, ond converted inlo bitter princi-
 ple and artificial tannin.
   4. Gum.  Does not crystallize.  Taste insipid.   So-
 luble  in water, and forms mucilage.  Insoluble  in
 alkohol. Precipitated by silicated potassa.  Soluble in
 nitric acid,  and forma mucous and oxalic acids.
   5. Ulmin.  Does not crystalUze.  Taste insipid
 Soluble in water, and does not form mucilage.  Pre-
 cipitated by nitric and oxymuriatic acids iu the state
 of resin.  Insoluble in alkohol.
  6. Inulin    A  white powder.  Insoluble in  cold
 water.  Soluble in boiling water; but  precipitates un-
 altered after the solution cools.  Insoluble in  alkohol
 Soluble in nitric acid, and yields oxalic acid.
  7. Starch.  A white powder.   Taste insipid.  Inso
 luble in cold water.   Soluble in hot  water; opaque
 ond glutinous.  Precipiuiled by an infusion of natgallB-
 precipitate  redissolved by  a heat of 120°.  Insoluble
in alkohol.   Soluble In dilute  nltrie acid, and precipi-
tated by olkohol.  With nitric acid yields oxalic acid
and a waxy matter.
  8. Indigo.  A blue powder. Taste  insipid.   Inso-
luble in water,  alkohol, ether.   Soluble in  sulphuric
acid.   Soluble in nitric acid, and converted  into bitter
principle and artificial tannin.- 
VEI
VEI
  9.  Gluten.  Forms a ductile elastic mass with water.
Partially soluble in water; precipitated by infusion of
nutgalls and oxygenized muriatic  acid.  Soluble in
acetic acid and muriatic acid.   Insoluble in alkohol.
By fermentation becomes  viscid and adhesive, and
then assumes the properties of cheese.  Soluble in
nitric acid, and yields oxalic  acid.
  10. Albumen.   Soluble in cold water.  Coagulated
by heat, and becomes insoluble.  Insoluble in alkohol.
Precipitated by infusiou of nutgalls.  Soluble in nitric
acid. Soon putrefies.
  11. Fibrin.   Tasteless.  Insoluble  in  water and
alkohol   Soluble iu diluted alkalies, and in nitric acid.
Soon putrefies.
  12  Gelatin.  Insipid.  Soluble in water.  Does not
coagulate when heated.  Precipitated by  infusion of
galls.
  13. Bitter principle.   Colour  yellow or  brown.
Taste bitter.  Equally soluble in water and alkohol.
Soluble in nitric acid.  Precipitated by nitrate of silver.
  14. Extractive.  Soluble in water and alkohol.   In-
soluble in aether.  Precipitated by oxygenized muriatic
acid, muriate of tin, and muriate of alumina; but not
by gelatin.  Dyes fawn colour.
  15. Tannin.  Taste astringent.   Soluble in water
and  in alkohol of 0.810.   Precipitated by gelatin, mu-
riate of alumina, and muriate of tin.
  16. Fixed oils. No smell.  Insoluble in water ond
alkohol.   Forms soaps with  alkalies.  Coagulated by
earthy and metallic salts.
  17. Wax.  Insoluble in water.  Soluble in alkohol,
ether, and oils.   Forms soap with alkalies.  Fusible.
  18. Volatile oil.  Strong smell.  Insoluble in water.
Soluble  in  alkohol.   Liquid.   Volatile.   Oily.   By
nitric acid inflamed, and converted into resinous sub-
stances.
i   19. Camphor.  Strong odour.  Crystallizes.  Very
little soluble in water.  Soluble in alkohol, oils, acids.
Insoluble in alkalies.  Burns with a clear flame, and
volatilizes before melting.
  20. Birdlime.  Viscid.  Taste insipid.  Insoluble in
woter.  Partially soluble in. olkohol.  Very soluble in
Ether.  Solution green.
  21. Resins.  SoUd.  Melt when  heated.  Insoluble
in water.   Soluble in alkohol, rether, and alkalies.
Soluble in acetic acid.  By nitric acid converted into
artificial tannin.
  .22. Guaiacum.  Possesses the characters of resins;
but dissolves in nitric acid, and yields oxalic acid and
no tannin.
  23. Balsams.  Possess the characters of tbe resins,
but  have a strong  smell;  when healed, benzoic acid
sublimes.  It sublimes also when they are dissolved in
sulphuric acid.   By nitric acid converted into artificial
tannin.
  24. Caoutchouc  Very elastic.   Insoluble in water
and alkohol.   When  steeped in aether, reduced  to a
pulp, which  adheres to  every  thing.   Fusible and
remains liquid.   Very combustible.
Ii 25. Gumresins.   Form milky solutions with water,
transparent with alkohol.  Soluble in alkalies. With
nitric acid converted into tannin.  Strong smell.  Brit-
tle, opaque, infusible
>t 26. Cotton,   Composed of fibres.  Tasteless.  Very
combustible.  Insoluble in water, alkohol, and aether.
Soluble in alkalies.  Yields oxalic acid to nitric acid.
f 27. Suber.  Burns bright, and swells. Converted by
nitric acid into suberic acid and wax.  PartiaUy soluble
in water and alkohol.
  28. Wood,  Composed  of fibres.  Tasteless.  Inso-
luble in water and alkohol.  Soluble in weak alkaline
lixivium.  Precipitated by acids.  Leaves much char-
coal when distilled in a red heat  Soluble in nitric
acid, and yields oxalic acid.
  To  the preceding  we may  add, emetin, fungin,
hematin, nicotin, pollen in; the new vegetable alkalies,
aconite,  atropia, brucia, cicuta, datura, delphia, hyoe-
ciatna, morphia, picrotoxia,  strychnia, veratria; and
the various vegetable acids.
   Veil of mosses.  See Calyptra.
   VEIN.  Vena. A long  membranous canal, which
continually becomes wider, does  not  pulsate,  and
returns the blood from the arteries to the heart.   All
veins originate from the extremities of arteries only,
by anastomosis, and terminate in the auricles of the
heart; a. g. the venae cava in the right, and the  pul-
monary veii.s in the left auricle.  They are comitosed
like arteries, of three tunics, or coau, which are mneli
more slender than in the arteries, and are supplied
internally with  semilunar membranes, or folds, called
valves.  Their use to to return the blood to the heart.
  The blood to  returned from every part of the body,
except the lungs, into the right  auricle, from three
sources:
  1.  The vena cava superior, which brings it from the
head, neck, thorax, and superior extremities.
  2.  Tbe vena cava inferior, from the abdomen  and
inferior extremities.
  3.  The coronary vdn receives it from the coronary
arteries of the heart
  1.  The vena cava superior.  Thto vein terminates
in the superior part of the right auricle, into which it
evacuates the blood, from the right and left subclavian
vein, and the vena  azyges. The right and left  sub-
clavian  veins  receive  the  blood  from  the  head and
upper extremities, in the following manner.  The veins
of the Angers, called digitals, receive tiie blood from
the digital arteries, and empty it into,
  The cephalic of the  thumb, which runs on the back
of the hand along the thumb, and evacuates iuelf into
the external radiol.
  The salvatdla, which  runs  along the  little finger,
unites with the former, and empties iu blood into tbe
internal and external cubital veins.  At  the  bend of
the  forearm are three veins, called the great cephalic,
the basilic, and the median.
  The great cephalic runs along the superior partof the
forearm, and receives the blood from the external radial.
  The basilic ascends on the under side, and receive*
the blood from the external and internal cubital veins,
and  some branches which accompany the oraclrial
artery, called vena satellites.
  The median is situated in the middle of the forearm,
and  arises from the union of several branches.  These
three veins aU unite above the  bend of the arm, ond
form,
  The brachial vein, which receives all  their blood,
and  is continued into the axilla, where it is called,
  The axillary vnn.  This  receives also the blood
from the scapula, ond superior and inferior parte  of
the chest, by the superior ond inferior thoradc  vein,
the vena muscularis, and the scapularis.
  The axillary vein  then  passes under  the clavicle,
where it to called the subclavian, which unites with
the  external and internal jugular veins, and the verte
bral vein whicli  brings the blood from the vertebol
sinuses;  it receives also the blood from the medias-
tinal, pericardiac,  diaphragmatic, thymic, internal
mammary, and laryngeal veins, and then unites  with
ite fellow, to form the vena cava superior, or, as it is
sometimes called, vena cava descendens.
  The blood from the external  and internal parts of
the  head and face to returned in the following manner
into the external and internal jugulars, which termi
note in the subclavians.
  The frontal, angular, temporal, auricular, sublin-
gual, ond occipital veins, receive the blood from the
ports after which they are named; these  all converge
to each side of the neck, and form a trunk, called the
external jugular veim
  The blood from the brain, cerebellum, medulla oblon
goto, and membranes of these paru, is received into the
lateral sinuses, or vein of tlie dura mater, one of wliich
empties its blood through the foramen lacerum in basi
cranii on each side into  the internal jugular, which
descends in the neck by the corotid  orteries, receives
the blood from  the thyroideal and internal maxillary
veins, and empties iuelf into  the subclavians within
the thorax.
  The vena  azygos receives the blood  from the  oron-
chial, superior asophageal, vertebral, and intercostal
veins, and empties it Into the superior cava.
  2.  Vena cava inferior.  The vena cava inferior is
the  trunk of all the abdominal veins and those of the
lower extremities,  from  which  parts  the blood is
returned in the following manner.  The veins of the
toes, called the digital veins,  receive the blood  from
tiie digital arteries, and form on the back of the foot
three branches, one on the great toe, called the cephalie,
another which runs along the little toe, called the vena
saphena, and a third on the back of the  foot,  vent
dorsalis pedis;  and those on the  sole of  the foot,
evacuate themselves  into the plantar vdns.
«.Thc three veins on tiie upper part of tlie foot coming 
VEN
VER
 together above the ankle, form the anterior HUal; and
 the plantar veins with a branch from the calf of the
 leg,called the jural vein,  from the posterior tibial;
 a branch also  ascends  in the direction of the fibula,
 called the peroneal vdn.  These three branches unite
 before the ham, into one branch, the subpopliteal vein,
 which ascends through the ham, carrying all the blood
 from the foot: it then proceeds upon the anterior part
 of the thigh, where it is  termed the crural or femoral
 ■edn, receives several muscular branches, and passes
 under Poupart's ligament into the cavity of tlie pelvis,
 where it to called the external iliac.
  The arteries which are distributed about the pelvis
 evacuate their blood into the external hamorrhoidal
 veins, tbe hypogastric veins, the internal pudendal, the
 vena magna ipsius  penis,  and obturatory veins, all of
 which unite in the pelvis, and form the internal iliac
 vein.
  The external iliac vein receives the blood from the
 external pudendal  veins,  and  then unites  with the
 internal iliac at the last vertebra  of the loins; after
 which it forms with iu fellow the  vena cava inferior I
 or ascendens, which ascends  on  the right side of the
 spine, receiving tbe blood from the sacral, lumbar,
 emulgent, right spermatic veins, and the vena cava
 hepatica; and  having arrived at  the diaphragm, it
 passes through the right  foramen, and enters the right
 auricle of the heart, into which it evacuates  aU the
 blood from the abdominal viscera and lower extremities.
  Vena cava hepatica.  This vein ramifies in the sub-
 stance of the  liver, and brings the blood Into the vena
 cava inferior from the branches of tbe vena porta, a
 great vein wbich carries the blood from the abdominal
 viscera into the substance of the liver.  The trunk of
 thto vein, about the  fissure of the liver in which it is
situated, is divided  into  the  hepatic  and  abdominal
 portions.  The abdominal portion  is composed of the
splenic,  meseraic, and internal hamorrhoidal vdns.
These three venous branches carry all the blood from
 the stomach, spleen, pancreas, omentum, mesentery,
gall-bladder, and  tbe small and large  intestines, into
the sinus of the vena porta;.  The hepatic portion of
the vena  ports enters the substance of  tbe liver,
divides into innumerable ramifications, which  secrete
 the bile, and the superfluous blood passes into corres-
 ponding branches of the vena cava hepatica.
  The action of the veins.  Veins do not pulsate; the
blood which  tbey receive from  the  arteries  flows
through them very slowly, and to conveyed to the right
auricle of the heart, by the contractility of their coaU,
the pressure of the blood from tlie  arteries, called the
vis a tergo, tbe contraction of tbe muscles, and respira-
tion ; and it ia prevented  from going backward in tiie
vein by the valves, of which there are a great number.
  Vdnless leaf.  See Avenius.
  Vdny leaf.  See Venoeus.
  Va jdca du  ouaco.  A plant which has the power of
curing and preventing the bite of venomous serpenu.
  Velame'ntuk  bombvcincm.   The interior  soft
membrane of the intestines.
  VE'LUM.  AveiL
  Velum pendulum palati.   Velum; Vdum palali-
num.  The soft  palate.  The  soft part of the  palate,
 which forms two arches,  affixed laterally to tbe tongue
 ond pharynx.
  Velum pupillx.  See Afemorana pupillaris.
  VENA.  (From venio, to come; because the blood
 comes through it)  A vein.  See Vein.
  Vknaazyoos.  See Azygos vena.
  Vena medinensis.  Bee Medinensis  vena.
  Vena ports.  (Kena porta, a portando ; because
 through  it things arc carried.)   Vena portarum.  The
 great  vein, situated at the entrance of the liver, which
 receives the blood from tbe  abdominal viscera, ond
carries it into  the substance of the liver.  It is distin-
 guished into the hepatic and abdominal portion; the
 former is ramified through  the substance of the liver,
 and carries the blood destined for the formation ofthe
 bile, wbich to returned by branches to the trunk of the
 vena  cava; the latter is  composed of three branches;
 viz. the splenic, mesenteric, and internal hemorrhoidal
 veins.  See Vein.
  Vena  lactec.  The lacteal absorbents were so
 called.  Set- Lacteals.
  VENEREAL.  (Venereus ; from Venus, because it
 belong?  to acts of venery.)  Of or belonging  to  the
 sexual intercourse.
   Venereal disease.  See Gonorrhaa and Syphilis,
   VENOSUS.  Veiny.  Applied by hotanisu to a leaf
 which has the vessels, by  which it is  nourished,
 branched,  subdivided, and more or less  prominent,
 forming a network over either or both its surfaces; as
 in Crataegus, Pyrolus terminalis, &c.
   VENTER.  A term formerly  applied to the larger
 circumscribed cavities of the body, us the abdomen and
 thorax.
   VENTRICLE.   (PentricuJus:  from venter.)   A
 term given by anatomists  to the cavities of tlie brain
 and heart  See Cerebrum, and Heart.
   Ventri'culus pulmonaris. The right ventricle oi*
 the heart.
  Ventricultjs snccENTURiATus.  That portion  of
 the duodenum, which to surrounded by the peritoneum,
 is sometimes so large as to resemble a second stomach,
 and is so called by some writers.
  VENTRILOaUI.SM.   Gastrilequism.  Fngastri-
 mythus.  The formation of the voice within the mouth
 in such a way,  as to imitate  other voices thou that
 which  is natural to the person, and so as not to be seen
 to move the lips.  Nothing is  more easy to man than
 to imitate the different sounds he hears: this in fact he
 performs  in many circumstances.  Many persons imi
 tate perfectly the voice and pionunciotion of  others,
 actors, for  example.  Hunters imitate the different
 cries of the game, and thus succeed in decoying it into
 their nets.
  Thto faculty  of imitating the different sounds, has
 given rise to the art  called ventriloquism; but the per-
 sons who exercise thto art, have  no organization dif-
 ferent  from that of other  men;  they require  only  to
 have the organs of  voice and speech very perfect,  in
 order thot  they moy  readily produce the  necessary
 sounds.
  The  basis of this art is easily understood.   We bave
 found  by experience,  instinctively, that sounds are
 changed  by many  causes: for  example,  that they
 become feeble, less distinct, and that their expression
 changes, according as they are more distant from us ;
 a man  who to at the bottom of a well wishes to speak
 to persons who are at  the top; but hto  voice will not
 reach their  ears until it has received certain modifica-
 tions, which depend upon the distance and the form of
 the tube through which it passes.
  If a  person remark these modifications  with care-,
 and endeavour to imitate them, he will produce acoustic
 illusions, which would be equally deceiving to  the ear
 as the observation  of objecu  through  a magnifying
 glass is to the eye.  The  error will be complete if he
 employ those deceptions which are  necessary to  dis-
 tract the attention.
  These illusions will be  numerous in proportion to
 Ihe talents ofthe performer; but we must not imagine
 that a ventriloquist produces vocal sounds, and articu-
 lates differently from other people. Hto voice to formed
 in the ordinary manner; only he is capable of modify.
 ing, according to his pleosure,  the volume, the  expres-
 sion, &.c.  of It; and with regard to the words that he
 pronounces without moving his lips, he lakes care to
 choose those into which no labial consonants enter,
 otherwise he would  be obliged to move his lips.  This
 art is, in certain respecU, for the  ear what painting ia
 for the eye.
  VE'NUS. Copper was  formerly so called by the
 chemisu.
  VERATRIA.  Veratrine.   A new vegetable  alkali,
 discovered  lately by Pelletier and Caventou,  iu  the
 veratrum sabalilla,  or cevadilla,  the veratrum album,
 or white  hellebore,  and  the colchicum autumnale, ot
meadow saffron.
  The  seeds of cevadilla,  after being  freed from  an
unctuous and acrid matter by ether, were digested hi
 boiling alkohol.  As this infusion cooled, a little wax
 was deposited; and  the liquid being evaporoted to an
 extract, redissolved  in water, and again concentrated
 by evaporation, parted  with  iu colouring matter.
Acetate of lead  was now poured into the solution, and
an abundant yellow precipitate fell, leaving the fluid
 nearly  colourless.   The excess of lead was thrown
down by sulphuretted hydrogen, and the filtered liquor
being concentrated by  evaporation, was treated wilh
magnesia, and  again filtered.  The precipitate, boiled
in alkohol, gave a solution, which, on evaporation, left
a pulverulent matter, extremely bitter, and with  de-
cidedly alkaline characters.  It was at first yellow, but 
VER
VER
  by solution in alkohol, and precipitation by water, was
  obtained in a fine white powder.
    The precipitate by the acetate of leod, gave, on exa-
  mination, gallic acid; and hence it is concluded, that
  the new alkali existed in the seed as a gallate.
    Veratria was found in the other plants above men-
  tioned.  It is white, pulverulent,  has no  odour, but
  excites violent sneezing.  It is very acrid, but not bitter.
  It produced violent vomiting in very small doses, and,
  according to some experiments, a few grains may cause
  death.  It  is very little soluble in cold water.   Boiling
  water dissolves about l-1000th part, and becomes acrid
  to the taste.   It is very soluble  in alkohol, and rather
  less soluble in ether.
    VERATRINE.   See Veratria.
    VERA'TRUM.   1. The name of a genus of plants
  in  the  Linnean system.   Class, Polygamia; Order,
  Monacia.
    2. The  pharmacopoeial name of white  hellebore.
  See Veratrum album.
    Veratrum album.  Hdleborus albus ; Elleborum
  album.  White hellebore, or veratrum.  Veratrum—
  racemo svpra-decomposito, corollis erectis, of Linneus.
  This plant is  a native of Italy, Switzerland, Austria,
  and Russia.  Every partof the plant is extremely acrid
  and poisonous. The dried root has no particular smell,
  but a durable, nauseous, and bitter taste, burning the
  mouth  and fauces: when powdered, and applied to
  issues,  or ulcers,  it produces griping and purging; if
  snuffed up  the nose, it proves a violent sternutatory.
  Gesner  made an infusion of half an ounce of thto root
  with  two  ounces of  water; of this  he  took two
  drachms, which produced great heat about the scapule
  and In the  face and bead, as well  as the tongue and
  throat,  followed by singultus,  which  continued till
  vomiting was  excited.  Bergius  also experienced very
  distressing  symptoms, upon tasting this infusion.  The
  root, taken  in large doses, discovers such acrimony, and
  operates by the stomach and rectum with  such vio-
  lence, that blood is  usually discharged; it likewise acts
  very powerfully upon the  nervous  system,  producing
  great anxiety, tremors, vertigo, syncope, aphonia, inter-
  rupted respiration, sinking of the  pulse, convulsions,
  spasms, and  death.  Upon opening those  who have
  died of the effecu of this poison, the stomach discovered
  marks of inflammation, with corrosions of iu internal
  coat.  The ancienu exhibited this active medicine in
  maniacal cases, and it to said with success.  The  ex-
  perience of Grading is somewhat  similar:   out of
  twenty-eight cases, in which  he exhibited the  bark of
  the root collected in the spring, five were cured.  In
 almost every case that he  relates, the medicine acted
 more  or less upon  all the excretions; vomiting and
 purging were very generally produced, and the matter
 thrown  off the stomach was constantly mixed with
 bile; a florid redness frequently appeared on the face,
 and various cutaneous efflorescences upon  the body;
 and,  in  some, pleuritic  symptoms, with fever, super-
 vened, so as to require bleeding; nor were  the more
 alarming affections of spasms and convulsions unfre-
 quent.   Critical evacuations were also very evident;
 many sweating profusely, in some the urine was con-
 siderably increased, in others the saliva and mucous
 discharges:  the uterine  obstructions, of long duration,
 were often removed by its use. Veratrum has likewise
 been  found useful in epilepsy, and other convulsive
 complaints:  but the diseases in which iu efficacy
 seems least equivocal, are those of the skin, as itch, and
 different prurient eruptions, herpes,  morbus  pediculo-
 suf>, lepra, scrofula, &c.; and in many of these it has
 been successfully employed both internally and  exter-
 nally.  As a powerful stimulant and  irritating  medi-
 cine, iu use has been resorted to in desperate cases
 only, and even then it ought first to be exhibited in very
 small doses, as  a grain, and in a diluted state, and to be
 gradually increa.scd, according to the effecu, which are
 generally of an alarming nature.  The active  ingre-
 dient of  this plant is an alkali  lately detected. See
 Veratria.
  Veratrum nigrum.   See Helleborus niger.
  Veratrum  sabadilla.   Cevadilla  hispanorum;
 Sevadilla; Sabadilla; Hordeum causticum; Canis in-
 tcrfedor. Indian caustic barley.  The plant  whose
 seeds are thus denominated, is a species of veratrum .-
 they are powerfully caustic, and are administered with
 very great success  as a vermifuge.   They  are also
diuretic and  emetic.  The dose to a child, from two to
 four years old, is two grains; from  hence to  eight,
 five grains;  from eight to twelve, ten grains. A new
 alkali has been detected in the seeds of thto plant See
 Veratria.
   [Veratrum viride.  See American hellebore- A.]
   VERBASCUM.  (Quasi barbascum, from iu hairy
 coat.)  1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 nean  system.   Class, Pentandria;   Order,  Mono-
 gynia.
   2. The pharmacopceial name of the yellow and black
 mullein.
   Verbascum nigrum.  The systematic name of the
 black mullein.   Candela regia;  Tapsus  barbatus;
 Candelaria; Lanaria. The Verbascum nigrum, and
 Verbascum thapsus appear to be ordered  indifferently
 by  this name in the  pharmacopoeias. The flowers,
 leaves, and  roots, are used occasionally  as mild ad-
 stringents. The leaves possess a roughish taste, and
 promise to be of service in diarrhoeas and other debili-
 tated states ofthe intestines.
   Verbascum thapsus.  The systematic  name of
 the yellow mullein.  See Verbascum nigrum.
   VERBE'NA.   (Quasi herbena; a name of distinc-
 tion for all herbs used in sacred rites.)  Vervain.  1.
 The name of a genus of plants in the Linnean system.
 Class, Decandria; Order, Monogynia.
   2. The  pharmacopoeial name of tbe vervain.  See
 Verbena officinalis.
   Verbena foemina.  The hedge mustard is some-
 times so called.   See Erysimum alliaria.
   Verbena officinalis.  The systematic  name of
 Verbenaca; Perislerium; Hierobotane ; Herba sacra;
 Vervain.   This plant is destitute  of odour, and to the
 taste manifesU but a slight degree of bitterness and ad-
 stringency.  In former times the verbena seems to have
 been held sacred, and was employed in celebrating the
 sacrificial  rites; and with a  view to  this, more than
 the natural powerof the plant, it was worn suspended
 about the neck as an  amulet.   This practice,  thus
 founded on superstition, was, however, in process of
 time, odopted in medicine; and, therefore, to obtain iu
 virtues more effectually, the vervain was  directed to
 be bruised before  it wos appended  to the neck; ond of
 iu good effects thus  used for inveterate  headaches,
 Forestus relates a remarkable instance.  In still later
 times it has been  employed in the way of cataplasm,
 by which we are told the most severe and obstinate
 cases of cephalalgia have been cured, for which we
 have the authorities of Etmuller, Harlman, and  more
 especially  De Hae)n.   Notwithstanding  these  testi-
 monies in  favour of the vervain, it has  deservedly
 fallen into disuse in Britain;  nor has the pamphlet of
 Mr. Morley, written professedly to recommend its use
 in scrofulous affections, hnd the effect  of restoring ite
 medical character. Thto gentleman directs the root
 of vervain to be tied with a yard of white satin riband
 round the neck, where it is to remain  till tbe patient
 recovers.   He also has recourse to infusions and oint-
 ments prepared  from  the leaves  of the plant,  and
 occasionally calls in aid the most  active medicines of
 the materia medica.
  VERDIGRIS.  JErngo.  An impure eubacetate of
 copper.  It is prepared by stratifying  copper plates
 with tbe husks of grapes, after the expression of their
 juice, and when  they have been  kept for some time
 imperfectly exposed to the air, iu an apartment warm
 but not too dry, so as to pass to a state of fermentation,
 whence a quantity of vinegar is formed. The copper
 plates are placed in jars in strata, with  the husks thus
 prepared, which are covered.  At the end  of twelve,
 fifteen, or  twenty days, these are  opened:  the plates
 have an efflorescence on their surface of a green colour
 and  silky lustre: they are repeotedly moistened  with
 woter; and at length a crust of verdigris  is formed,
 which to scraped off by a knife, is  put  into  bags, ana
 dried by exposure of these to the air and sun. It is of
 a green colour, with a slight tint of blue.
  In this preparation the copper is oxidized, probably
 by the atmospheric air, aided by the  affinity of the
 acetic acid; and a portion of this acid remains in com-
 bination with  the oxide, not sufficient, however, to
 produce its saturation.  When acted on by water, trie
 acid, with  such a portion of oxide as it can retain in
 solution, are dissolved, and the remaining oxide is left
 undissolved.  From this analysis of it by the action of
 woter, Proust inferred that it consisu of 43 of acetate
of copper, 27 of black oxide of copper, and 30 of water: 
VER
VER
  h s water not being accidental, but existing in it in
  ntlmate combination.
    Verdi»rto is used as a pigment in some of the pro-
  ce-«s of dying, and in surgery it is externally applied
  a< a mild detergent in cleansing foul ulcers, or other
  open wounds.  On account of iu virulent properties,
  it ought not to be used os a medicine without profes-
  sional advice;  and in case any portion of this  poison
  be accidentally swallowed, emetics should be first
  given,  and afterward cold  water,  gently alkalized,
  ought to be drunk in abundance.
   VERHEYEN, Philip, was born  in 1648 at Ves-
 bronck, in tbe county of Waes, and assumed the
 clerical profession; but  on inflammation of his leg
 having rendered amputation necessary, he wos deter-
 mined afterward to study medicine.  He accordingly
 graduated and settled at Louvain,  where he was
 nominated professor of  anatomy in 1689, and four
 years  after of surgery  also.  His  application was
 indefatigable, so  thot he attained distinguished emi-
 nence, and attached to his school a great number of
 disciples.  His  celebrity was principaUy the result of
 a work, entitled, " Anatomia Corporis Humani," which
 passed through many editions and improvements, and
 superseded the compendium of Bartholine.  He pub-
 lished also a Compendium of Medicine, a Treatise on
 Fevers, Sec.
  Verjuice.  An acid liquor prepared from grapes or
 apples, that are unfit to be converted into wine or
 cider.  It to also  made from crabs.  It to principally
 used in sauces and ragouts, though it sometimes forms
 an ingredient in medicinal compounds.
  VERMICULA'RIS.  (From veratis, a worm.) Ver-
 micular : shaped like, or  having the properties  of, a
 worm.  Applied very generally in natural history.
  VERMIFORM.   (Vermiformis;  from vermis, a
 worm, and forma, resemblance.)  Worm-like.
  Vermiform process.  Protuberantia vermiformis.
 The substance  which unites the two hemispheres of
 the cerebellum  like a ring, forming  a process.   It to
 called vermiform, from iu resemblance to the contor-
 tions of worms.
  VERMIFUGE.   (Vermifugus; from  vermis, a
 worm, and fugo, to drive away.)  See Anthelmintic.
  VERMILION.  See Cmnaoar.
  VE'RMIS. A worm.  See Worm.
  Vermis mordicans. Vermis repens.  A species of
 herpetic eruption on the skin.
  Vermis terrestris.   See Earth-worm.
  VERNATIO.  (From ver, the spring.)  This term
 Is applied, like foliatus, to the manner in which the
 leaves are folded or wrapped up, and expanded in the
 spring.  See Germ.
  VERNEY, GuicH.vnD-JosEPH du, was the son of a
 physician at Tours, and born in 1648.  After studying
 at Avignon, lie removed, at nineteen, to Paris, where
 he acquired high reputation as an anatomical lecturer.
 Me was admitted, nine years after, into the Academy
 of Sciences, whose memoirs he enriched  by his re-
 searches in notural history. In 1679 he wos nominated
 professor  of onatomy at  the Royal  Gardens.   His
 work on the Organ of Hearing appeared about  four
 years after, and was translated into various languages.
 He continued the pursuit of natural history with  great
 ardour, and even to the detriment of hto health, yet he
 was enabled, by a good  constitution, to  reach his
 eighty-second year.   He  bequeathed hto valuable
 anatomical preparations to the academy.  After his
 death, a treatise on the Diseases of the Bones was pub-
 lished from his manuscripu; and subsequently various
 other  papers, under tiie title of  "CEuvres  Anato-
 mique."
  VERONICA.  I. The  name of ogenus of planU in
 the Linnean system.  Class, Diandria; Order, Mono-
gynia.  Speedwell.
  2. The pharmacopoeial  name of the male veronica.
 See Veronica officinalis.
  Veronica beccabinga.  Beee.abunga;  Anagallis
 cquatica: Lover germanicum;  Veronica  aquatica;
 Cepaa.  Water-pimpernel and brooklime.  The plant
which  bears these names, is the Veronica—racemis
 lateralibus, foliis ovatis planis, caule repente, of Lin-
 neus.  It  was formerly considered of much  use in
several diseases, and was applied externally to wounds
 and ulcers: but if it have any peculiar efficacy, it to to
 be derived from iu  antiscorbutic virtue.  As a  mild
 •nfrigerant jukie, it to preferred where an acrimonious
  state of the fluids prevails, indicated by prurient erup
  tions upon the skin, or in what has been called the hot
  scurvy.  To derive much advantage from it the juice
  ought to be taken in large quantities, or the fresh plant
  eaten as food.
   Veronica officinalis.  The  systematic name of
  the plant which is called in the pharmacopoeias Vera
  nica mas ; Thea germanica ;  BetoniSa pauli;  Cha
  madrys spuria.  Veronica—spicis  lateralibus pedun-
  culatis; foliis oppositis;  caule procumbente, of Lin-
  neus, is not unfrequent on dry  barren grounds  and
  heath, as  that of Hampstead, flowering in June  and
  July.  This plant was  formerly used  as  a pectoral
  against coughs and asthmatic affections, but it is now
 justly forgotten.
   [Veronica virqinica.   This is a tall native plant,
 differing from the rest of its family in habit, and con-
 sidered by Nuttall and some other botanisu as a sepa-
 rate genus.  Ite root is very bitter, and somewhat nau-
 seous.  It sometimes operates as a cathartic, in the dose
 of a scruple; but in several trials which I have made
 with it, I have found it  uncertain in thto  respect
 Big. Mat. Med.  A.]
   Verricula'ris tunica.  The retina of the eye.
   VERRUCA.  1. A wart, or  thickening and  indu
 ration of the cuticle which is  raised up in different
 forms, mostly of the size of a lentil, or flat pea.
   2. In botany, applied to a small round prominence
 on the inferior surface of the funguses.
   Verruca'ria.  (From Verruca, a wart: because it
 was supposed to  destroy watu.)  The Heliotropium
 europaum, or turnsole.
   VERRUCOSUS.  Warty: applied to such appear-
 ances on vegetables, as on the stem of the Euonymus
 verrucosus;  and to the appearance on the gourd-seed
 vessel, as in the Cucurbita verrucosa.  See Pepo.
   VE'RTEBRA.   (Vertebra, a,  f.; from verto,  to
 turn.) The spine  is a long bony column, which ex-
 tends from the head to the lower part of the trunk, and is
 composed of irregular bones, which are called vertebre.
   The spine may be considered  as being composed
 of two irregular pyramids, which are united to each
 other in  that part of the loins where the last of the
 lumbar vertebre is united to the  os sacrum.
   The vertebre, which form the  upper and longest
 pyramid, are  called true  vertebre: and those which
 compose  the  lower pyramid, or the  os sacrum and
 coccyx, are termed false vertebre, because they do not
 in every thing  resemble the others, and particularly
 because,  in the  adult state, they become perfectly im-
 moveable, while tlie upper ones continue to be capable
 of motion.  For it is upon the bones of the spine that
 the body  turns, and their name has iu derivation from
 the Latin verb verto, to turn, as,observed above.
  The true vertebre, from their situations with respect
 to the neck,  back, and loins, are divided into three
 elasses, of cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebre.  We
 will first consider tiie general structure of all these, and
 then separately describe their different classes.
  In each of the vertebre, as in  other bone.s, we may
 remark the body of the bone, its process and cavities.
 The body may be compared to partof a cylinder cutoff
 transversely;  convex  before, and concave  behind,
 where it makes part ofthe cavity ofthe spine.
  Each vertebra has commonly seven processes.   The
 first of these to the spinous process, which is placed at
 the back  partof the vertebra, and gives the name of
spine to the whole of this bony canal.  Two others are
called transverse processes, from their situation with
respect to the  spine, and are placed on each side of the
spinous process.  The four others, which ore called
oblique processes,  are much smaller than  the  other
three.  There are two of these on the upper and two
on tiie lower partof each vertebra, rising from near tbe
basis ofthe transverse processes.  They are sometimes
called articular processes, because they are articulated
with each other; that is, the two superior processes of
one vertebra are articulated with the two Inferior pro-
cesses of  the  vertebra above it; and they are called
oblique processes, from their situation with respect  to
the processes with which they are articulated. These
oblique processes are articulated to each other  by o
species of ginglymus, and each process to covered at iu
articulation with cartilage.
  There  to in every  vertebra, between  its body  and
apophyses, a foramen, large enough to admit a linger.
These foramina correspond with each other through all 
VER
VER
 Ihe vertebre, and form a long bony conduit, for the
 lodgment of the spinal marrow.
    Besides this great hole, there are fournotcbeson each
 side of every vertebre, between the oblique processes
 and the body of the vertebra.  Two of these notches
 are at the upper, and two at the lower part of the bone.
 Each of the inferior notches, meeting with one of the
 superior notches or the vertebra below it, forms a fora-
 men ;  while the superior notches do the same with the
 inferior notches of the vertebra above it.  These four
 foramina form passages for blond-vessels, and for the
 nerves that pass out of the spine.
    The vertebre are united together by means of a sub-
 stance, compressible like cork, which forms a kind of
 partition between the several vertebre.   This interver-
 tebral substance seems, in the foetus, to approach nearly
 to the nature of ligaments; in the adult it has a great
 resemblance to cartilage. When cut horizontally, it
 appears to consist of concentrical curved fibres: exter-
 nally, it is firmest and hardest; internally, it becomes
 thinner and softer, till at length, in the centre, we find
 it in the form of a mucous substance, whicli facilitates
 tiie motion ofthe spine.
   Gcnga, an Italian anatomist, long ago observed, that
 the change which takes place in these  intervertebral
 cartilages,  (as they are usually called,)  in  advanced
 life, occasions the decrease in stature, and the stooping
 forwards, which are usually to be observed in old peo-
 ple.  The cartilages then  become shrivelled, and con-
 sequently lose, in a great measure, their elasticity.  But,
 besides this gradual effect of old age,  these cartilages
 are subject too temporary diminution, from the weight
 of the  body in  an erect posture,  so that people who
 have been  long standing, or who have carried a con-
 siderable weight,  are found  to be shorter than  when
 they have been long in bed.  Hence we are taller in the
 morning than at  night.  This fact, though seemingly
 Obvious, was not ascertained till of late years.   The
 difference in such cases depends on the age and size of
 the subject;  in tall, young people,  it will be nearly an
 inch; but  in older, or shorter persons, it will be less
 considerable.
  Besides the connexion of  the several vertebre,  by
 means  of these cartilages, there  are likewise  many
 strong ligaments,  which unite the bones of the spine
 to each other.  Some of these ligamenU are external,
 and others internal.  Among the  external Iigamenu,
 we observe one which is common to all the vertebre,
 extending, in a longitudinal direction, from the forepart
 of the body or the second vertebra of the neck, over all
 the other vertebre, and becoming broader as it descends
 towards the os sacrum, where it becomes thinner, and
 gradually disappears.  This external longitudinal liga-
 ment, if we may so call it,  is strengthened by other
 shorter  ligamentous fibres, which pass from one verte-
 bra to  another,  throughout  the whole  spine.   The
 internal ligament,  the fibres of which, like the external
 one, are spread in a longitudinal direction, is extended
 over tlie back'part ofthe bodies ofthe vertebre, where
 they help to form  the cavity of the spine, and reaches
 from  the foramen of  tlie occipital bone to the  os
 sacrum.
  We may venture to  remark,  that all  the  vertebre
 diminish in density and firmness of texture, in propor-
 tion as they increase in size, so that the lower verte-
 bre, though  larger, are not so heavy in proportion as
 those above them. In  consequence of this  mode of
 structure, the size of the vertebre to increased without
 adding to their weight; and this is an object of no little
 importance in a part of the body, which, besides flexi-
 bility and suppleness, seems to require lightness as one
 of its essential properties.
  In the foetus, at the ordinary time of birth, each ver-
 tebra is found to be composed of three bony pieces, con-
 nected by cartilages which afterward ossify.   One of
 these pieces is the body of the bone; the other two are
 the posterior and lateral portions, which form the fora-
 men for the  medulla spinalis. The oblique processes
 are at that time complete, and the transverse processes
 beginning to be formed, but the spinous processes are
 totally wanting.
  77ic cervical vertebra are  seven in  number;  their
bodies ore smaller and of a  firmer texture than the
other bones of the spine.  The transverse processes of
 these vertebre are short, and forked for the lodgment
of muscles; and, at the bottom of each of these  pro-
 cesses, there  is a foramen, foi the  passage of the.cer-1
  vlcal artery and vein.  The spinous process of each Of
  these vertebre is likewise shorter than the other verte-
  bre, and forked at iu extremity; by which  means it
  allows a more convenient insertion to the muscles of
  the neck.  Their oblique processes are more deserving
  of that name than either those of the dorsal or lumbar
  vertebre.  The  uppermost  of these processes  are
  slightly concave, and the lowermost slightly convex.
  This may suffice for a general description of these ver-
  tebre ; but the first, second, and seventh deserve to be
  spoken of more particularly.   The first, which is called
  Atlas, from iu supporting the head, differs from all the
  other vertebre of the spine.   It forms a kind of bony
  ring, which may be divided into iu anterior and  poste-
  rior arches, and its lateral portions.  Of these, the an ■
  terior arch is the smallest and flattest; at the middle of
  ite convex forepart we observe a small tubercle which
  is here what the body is in the other vertebre.  To this
  tubercle  a  ligament  is attached, which  helps  to
 strengthen  the articulation ofjthe  spine  with the  os
 occipitis.  The back part of this anterior portion to con-
 cave,  and covered with cartilage, where it receives the
, odontoid process of the second vertebra.  The posterior
 portion ofthe vertebra, or, more properly speaking, the
 posterior arch, is larger thon the anterior one.   Instead
 of a spinous process, we observe a rising, or tubercle,
 larger than that which we have just now described, on
 the forepart of the bone. The lateral portions of the
 vertebra  project, so as to form what  are called the
 transverse  processes, one on  each side, which are
 longer and  larger than the transverse processes of the
 other vertebre.  They terminate in a roundish tuber-
 cle, the end of which has a  slight  bend downwards.
 Like the other transverse processes, they are perforated
 at their basis, for  the passage of the cervical artery.
 But,  besides theso transverse  processes, we observe,
 both on the superior and inferior surface of these lateral
 portions of the first vertebra, an articulating  surface,
 covered with cartilage,  answering  to the oblique pro
 cesses in the other vertebre.  The  uppermost of  these
 are oblong, and  slightly concave,, and  their  external
 edges rise somewhat higher than their internal brims.
 They receive the  condyloid processes of the os occipitis,
 with which they  are articulated by a species of gingly-
 mus.  The lowermost articulating surfaces, or the infe-
 rior oblique processes,  as they are called, are  large,
 concave, and circular, and are formed for receiving the
 superior oblique processes of the second vertebra; so
 that the atlas differs from the rest of the cervical verte
 bre in receiving the bones, with which  it is articulated
 both above  and below.  In the foetus we find  this ver-
 tebra composed of five, instead of three pieces, as in the
 other vertebre.  One of these is the anterior arch; the
 other four are the posterior arch and the sides, each of
 the latter being composed of two pieces.  The trans-
 verse process, on each side, remains long in a state of
 epiphysis with respect to the rest ofthe bone.
   The second  vertebra is called dentatus, from the
 process on the upper part of ite body, which has been,
though perhaps improperly, compared to a tooth.  This
process, which is the most remarkable part of the ver-
tebra, to of a cylindrical shape, slightly flattened, how-
ever, behind and  before.  Anteriorly, it has a convex,
smooth, articulating surface,  where it  is received by
the atlas, as we observed in our description of that ver-
tebra.  It is by means of this articulation that th'e rota-
tory motion of the head is performed; the articulation
of the os occipitis with the superior oblique processes
of the  first vertebra, allowing only a certain degree of
motion backwards and forwards, so lhat when  we tum
the face either to the right or left, the atlas moves upon
this odontoid process of the second  vertebra.   But as
the face cannot turn a quarter of a circle, that to, to the
shoulder, upon this vertebra alone, without being liable
to injure the medulla spinalis, we find that oil the cer-
vical vertebre concur in thto rotary motion, when it
is in any considerable degree; and indeed we see many
strong  ligamentous fibres arising from the sides of tlie
odontoid process, and passing over the first vertebra, to
the os occipitis, which not only strengthen the  articu
lotion of these bones with each other, but serve to recti
late and limit their motion. It  is on this account thot
the name of moderators has sometimes been given to
these ligamenU.   The transverse processes of the ver-
tebra dentata are short, inclined downwards, and forked
at their extremities.  Its spinous process is short ant
thick.  Its superior oblique processes are slightly con 
VER
VES
 vox, and somewhat larger than the articulating sur-
 faces of the first vertebra, by which mechanism the
 motion of that bone upon this second vertebra is per-
 formed with greater safety.  IU inferior oblique pro-
 cesses have nothing singular in their structure.
   The seventh vertebra of the neck differs  from  the
 rest chiefly in hoving iu spino us process of a greater
 length, so lhat, upon thto account, it has been sometimes
 called vertebra prominens.
   The dorsal vertebra, which are twelve  in number,
 are of a  middle size, between the cervical and lumbar
 vertebre; the upper ones gradually losing their resem-
 blance to those of the neck, and tiie lower ones coming
 nearer to those of the loins.  The bodies of these ver-
 tebre ore more flattened at their sides,  more convex
 before, and more concave behind, than the other bones
 of the spine.  Their upper ond lower surfaces ore hori-
 zontal.   At their sides we observe two depressions,
 one at their upper, and the other at  their lower  edge,
 which, united with similar depressions in the vertebre
 above and below, form articulating surfaces, covered
 with cartilage, in  which tlie heads of the ribs are re-
 ceived.  These depressions, however, are not exactly
 alike in all the dorsal vertebre; for we find the head of
 the first rib articulated solely with the first of these ver-
 tebre, which hos therefore the whole,  of the superior
 articulating surface within itself, independent of  the
 vertebra  above it.  We may  likewise observe o simi-
 larity in this respect in the eleventh and twelfth of  the
 dorsal vertebre, with which the eleventh and twelfth
 ribs ore orticuloted separately.  Their spinous processes
 are long, flattened at the sides, divided at their upper
 arid bock part into  two  surfaces by a middle ridge,
 which is received by a smoll groove in the inner port
 of the spinous process immediately above it, and con-
 nected to it by a ligament. These  spinous processes
 nre terminated by  a kind of round tubercle, which
 slopes considerably downwards, except in the  three
 lowermost  vertebre, where they arc snorter and more
 erect  Their transverse processes are of considerable
 length and thickness, and are turned obliquelylback-
 words.   Anteriorly, they hove an articulating surface,
 for receiving the tuberosity of the  ribs, except in  the
 eleventh  and twelfth of the dorsal vertebre to which
 the ribs ore articulated by their headsonly.  In the last
 of these  vertebre the  transverse  processes are very
 short and thick, becouse otherwise they would be  apt
 to strike  against tbe lowermost ribs,  when we bend  the
 body to either side.
   The lumbar vertebra, the  lowest of *li? true ver-
 tebre, are five in number. They are largei  than  the
 dorsal vertebre.  Their bodies ore  extremely promi-
 nent, nnd nearly of a circular form ot their forepart;
 posteriorly they ore concave.  Their intermediate car-
 tilages ore of considerable thickness, especially anteri-
 orly, by which means the  curvature of the spine for-
 wards, towards the abdomen, in  this part, is greatly
 assisted.  Their spinous processes are short ond thick,
 of considerable breadth,  erect, and terminated  by a
 kind of tuberosity.   Their oblique  processes are  of
 considerable thickness; the superior ones are concave,
 and turned  inwards; the  inferior  ones convex, and
 turned outwards.  Their transverse  processes are thin
 and long, except in the first and last vertebra, where
 they ore  much shorter, thot the loterol motions of  the
 trunk might not be impeded.  The inferior surfoce of
 all these  vertebre is slightly oblique, so thot the fore-
  Sort of tbe body of each is somewhat thicker than its
  ind-part;  but this is more particularly observable in
 the lowermost vertebra, which is connected with  the
 os sacrum.   Many anatomists describe the os sacrum
 and the os coccygis when considering the bones of  the
 spine, while others regard  them as belonging more pro-
 perly to the pelvis.  These bones the reader may con-
 sult  It  now remains to notice the  uses of the spine.
 We find the spinal marrow lodged in this bony canal,
 secure from  external injury.   It defends the thoracic
 and abdominal viscera, and forms a pillar which sup-
 ports the head, and gives a  general firmness to  the
 Whole trunk.
  To give it o firm basis, we find the bodies of the ver-
 tebre gradually increasing in breadth as they descend;
 nnd to fit it for a variety of motion, it to composed of a
 great number of joinu, with an intermediate elastic
aubstance, so that to great firmness there is added a
 perfect flexibility.
   We hove  already observed, that the lowermost and
 largest vertebre are not so heavy in proportion as those
 above them; their bodies being more spongy, except-
 ing at their circumference, where they are more imme-
 diately exposed to pressure;  so that nature seems every
 where endeavouring  to  relieve  us of an unnecessary
 weight of bone. But behind, where the spinal marrow
 is more  exposed lo injury, we find tiie processes com-
 posed of very hard bone; and the spinous processes
 ore in general placed over each other in a slanting
 direction, so that a pointed  instrument cannot  easily
 get between them, excepting in the neck, where they
 are almost perpendicular, and leave a greater space be-
 tween them.  Hence,  in  some countries, it is usual to
 kill cattle by thrusting o pointed instrument between
 the occiput and the atlas, or between the atlas and the
 second vertebra.  Besides these uses of the vertebra- in
 defending the spinal marrow, and  in  articulating  the
 several vertebre, as to the case with the oblique pro-
 cesses, we  shall find that  they all serve to form  a
 greater  surface for the lodgment of muscles, and to
 enable the latter to  act more powerfully on the trunk,
 by affording them a lever of  considerable length.
  In the neck, we see the spine  projecting somewhat
 forward, to support the head,  which, without this
 assistance, would require a greater number of muscles.
 Through the whole length of the thorax it to carried in
 o curved direction backwards, ond thus adds consider-
 ably to the cavity of the chest, and consequently affords
 more  room to the lungs, heart, and large blood-vessels.
 In the loins, the spine again projects forwards, in a di-
 rection with the centre of gravity, by which means the
 body is easily kept in an  erect posture; for otherwise
 we should be liable to fall forwards.  But, at iu infe-
 rior part, il again recedes backwards, and helps to form
 a cavity called  the pelvis, in which the urinary blad
 der, intestinum rectum, and otiier viscera, are placed.
  In a part of the body that is composed of so great  a
 number of bones, and  constructed for such a variety of
 motion, as the spine is, luxation is more to be expected
 than fracture; and this is very wisely guarded against
 in every direction, by the many processes that are to be
 found in each vertebra, and by the cartilages, liga-
 menU, and  other means of connexion, which we have
 described as uniting them  together.
  VERTEBRAL.   Vertebralis.  Appertaining to the
 vertebre, or bones of the spine.
  Vertebral  artery.    Arteria vertebralis.  A
 branch of the subclavian, proceeding through the ver-
 tebre  to within the  cranium, where, wilh its fellow, it
 forms the basilary artery, the internal auditory, and the
 posterior artery of the dura mater.
  VE'RTEX.  (Vertex,  icis,m.; from verto.)  The
 crown of the head.   The os verticto  is the parietal
 bone.
  Verticalia  ossa.  See Paridal bones.
  VERTICALIS.  Vertical. Perpendicular.  Applied
 to leaves which hove both sides at right angles with the
 horizon;  ns in Lactuca scariola.
  VERT1CELLUS.   A  whorl.  The name of a spe
 cies of inflorescence, in whicli the flowers surround the
stem iu a sort of ring.
  From the insertion of the flowers, the vesture, and
 distance of the verticellus, it is called,
  I. Pedunculatus ; as in Milissa officinalis.
  2. Sessilis, in Mentha arvensis.
  3. Dimidiatus, going half round;  as  in Ballota dis-
 ticha.
  4. Nudes, without floral or other leaf; as in Salvia
verticeUata.
  5. Bracteatus, in Ballota nigra.
  6. Distans, in Salvia indica.
  7. Confertus, when  crowded together.
  Ve'rticis os.  See  Parietal bones.
  VERTIGO.  Giddiness.
  VERVAIN.  See Verbena officinalis.
  Vervain, female.  See Erysimum alliaria.
  VESA'LIUS, Andrew, was born at Brussels about
the year 1514.   After pursuing his studies at different
universities, and serving for  two years professionally
 with the imperial army, he settled at Padua, and taught
 anatomy with great  applause, which he subsequently
continued at some other schools in Italy.  In 1544, he
became physician to Charles  V., and resided chiefly at
the imperial court.  About  twenty years after, in the
 midst of hto professional  career, on extraordinary cir-
cumstance occurred, which wos the cause of hto ruin
 Being summoned to examine the body of a Spanish 
VIB
VIN
gentleman, and having begun the operation too preci-
pitately, the heart was observed to palpitate ; in conse-
quence of which, he was accused before the Inquisi-
tion: but the interposition of Philip II. procured him
to be merely enjoined to make a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land.  While at Jerusalem, he was invited to the ana-
tomical chair at Padua; but on his return, the ship was
wrecked on  the  coast of Zante, where he soon after
died.  Vesalius has been represented os the first person
who rescued anatomy from the slavery imposed upon
it by deference to ancient opinions, and led the way to
modern improvemente.  Hto first publicotion of note
wos o set of Anatomical Tables, which was soon fol-
lowed by his great work "De Corporis Humani Fabri-
ca," printed at Basil in 1543, and often since  In several
countries.  The earliest impressions of the plates are
most valued, but the explanations were mode, subse-
quently more correct.  In a treatise " De Radicis Chi-
ne Usu," he severely criticised  the errors  of Galen,
wliich engaged him in a controversy with Fallopius.
His medical and surgical writings are not held in much
estimation.
   VESA'NLE.  (The plural of vesania ; from vesa-
nas, a madman.)  The fourth order in the Class JVeu-
roses, of Cullen's nosological  arrangement; compre-
hending diseases in which the judgment to  impaired,
without either coma or pyrexia.
   VESI'CA.   (Diminutive  of vas,  a vessel.)   A
bladder.
   Vesica fellis. The gall-bladder. See Gall-bladder.
   Vesica urinaria.   The urinary  bladder.  See
 Urinary bladder.
   VESICATORY.   (Vesicatorius;  from vesica,  a
bladder: because it raises a bladder.)  See Epispastic.
   VESICLE.   (Vesicula; a diminutive of vesica,  a
bladder.)  An elevation of the cuticle, containing  a
transparent watery fluid.
   VESl'CULA.  See Vesicle.
  Vesicula fellis.  The gall-bladder.
  Vesicula  div/b barbarje.  The confluent small-
pox.
  Vesicula gingivarum.  The thrush.
  Vesicul* pulmonales.  The air-cells which com-
pose the greatest part of the lungs, aud are situated at
the termination of the bronchia.
  Vesiculss  seminales.   Two membranous recep-
tacles, situated on the back part of the bladder, above
iu neck.  The excretory ducu are called  ejaculatory
ducu. They proceed to the urethra, into which they
open by a peculiar orifice at the top  ofthe verumonta-
num.  They have vessels and nerves from the neigh-
bouring parts, and are well supplied with  absorbent
vessels, which proceed to the lymphatic glands about
the loins.  The use of the vesicula? seminales is to re-
ceive the semen brought into them by the vasa defe-
rentia, to retain, somewhat inspissate, and to excern
it sub coitu into the urethra, from whence  it is pro-
pelled into the vagina uteri.
   Vesicular fever. See Pemphigus-
  VESTI'BULUM.  A round  cavity of the internal
ear,  between  the cochlea and semicircular canals, in
wbich are an oval opening  communicating with the
cavity of the tympanum, and the orifices of  the semi-
iircular canals.   It is within this cavity and the semi-
circular canals, that the new Apparatus discovered by
the celebrated neurologist Scarpa,  lies.  He has demon-
strated membranous tubes,  collected loosely by cellular
texture, within the bony semicircular canals, each of
wliich to dilated in the cavity of the vestibule into an
ampulla; it is upon these  ampulle, which communi-
cate by means of an alveus communis, that branches of
the portio mollis are expanded.
  VESUVIAN.   Idocrase of Hauy.  A subspecies of
pyramidal gamet of a green or brown colour, found in
great abundance in unaltered ejected rocks in the vi-
cinity of Vesuvius. At Naples it is cut into ring stones.
  Veto'nica cordi.  See Betonica.
  VEXILLUM.  (Vexillum, i, n.; a banner  or stand-
ard.)   The standard, or large  uppermost petal at the
lack of a papilionaceous flower.
  VIA. A way or passage.  Used  in anatomy.  See
Prima via.
  VI'BEX.  (Vibex, icis,  plu. Vibices.)  The large
purple spot which appeals  under the skin in certain
malignant fevers.
  VfBRl'SSAS.  (Vibrissa; from vibro, to  quaver.)
Hairs growing in the nostrils. See Capillus.
                                     Iii 2
  Viburnum lantana. Libumum. The pliant mea.y
tree.  The berries are considered as adstringent.
  VICHY.  The name of a town in France, in  the
neighbourhood of which to a tepid mineral spring.  On
account of its chalybeate and alkaline ingredients, it is
token internally, being reputed to be of great service
in bilious colics, diarrhoeas, ond in  disorders of  the
stomach, especially such os arise from a relaxed or de-
bilitated state of that organ.
  These waters are likowise very useful when em-
ployed as a  tepid-bath,  particularly in rheumatism,
sciatica, gout, &c.  By combining tbe internal use with
tbe external application, they have often effected a cure
where other remedies had failed to afford relief.
  VI'CIA.  (Viscia, an old Latin name, derived by
some etymologists from Vincio, to bind together, as the
various species ofthis genus twine, with their tendrils,
round other plante)  The name of a genus of plants
in tho Linnean system.  Class, Diadelphia; Order,
Decandria.
  Vicia faba.  The systematic name of the common
bean-plant  It is a native of Egypt.  There are many
varieties.  Beans  are very wholesome and nutritious
lo those whose stomachs are strong, and accustomed
to the coarser modes of living.  In delicate stomachs
they produce flatulency, dyspepsia, cardialgia, &c. es-
pecially when old.  See Legumina.
  Victoria'lis longa.   See Allium vidorialis.
  VIEUSSENS, Raymond, was born  at a village in
Rovergne, graduated at Montpellier,  and in 1671 wos
chosen physicion to the hospital of St. Eloy.  The result
of his anatomical researches in this situation was pub-
lished  under the title of  Neurology, and gained him
great reputation.  His name became  known  at co'irt,
and Mad.  de Montpensier made him her physician.
After her death he returned  to Montpellier, and di-
rected hto attention to chemistry; and having found an
ocid in the caput mortuum of the blood, he made thto
the groundwork of  n now  medical  theory.  In  ad-
vanced life, his  writings were multiplied without aug-
menting his reputation. He died in 1726.
  VIGILANCE.  Pervigilium.   Vigilance, when  at-
tended by anxiety, pain in the head, loss of appetite,
and diminution of strength, is by Sauvages and Sagar
considered as a genus of disease, and to called Agrypnia.
  VILLOSUS.  Villous, shaggy: applied in anatomy
to a velvet-like arrangement of fibres or vessels, as the
villous coat  of  tbe  intestines: and in botany to  the
stem of the Cineraria integrifolia, and to  other ports
of plants; as the receptacle ofthe Artemisia absynthium.
  VILLUS.  A species of hairy pubescens of planu,
consisting of soft, slender, upright, short, and scarcely
conspicuous, and for the most part white hair-like fila-
ments.
  VI'NCA.   (From vincio, to bind: because of iu
usefulness in making bands.)  The name of a genus
of planU in the  Linnean system.  Class, Pentandria;
Order, Monogynia.
  Vinca minor.  The systematic name of the less
periwinkle.   Vinca pervinca; Clematis daphnoides
major.  It possesses bitter and adstringent virtues, and
to said to be efficacious in  stopping nasal hemorrhages
when bruised and put into the nose.  Boiled, it forms a
useful adstringent gargle in common sore throat, and it
is given by some in phthisical complaints.
  Vinca pervinca.  See Pinea minor.
  VINCETO'XICUM.  (From vineo, to overcome, and
toxicum, poison: so named from iu supposed virtue of
resisting and expelling poison.)  See Asclepias vince-
toxicum.
  VINE.  See Vitis.
  Vine, white.  See Bryonia alba
  Vine, wild. See Bryonia alba.
  VINEGAR.   See Acetum.
  Vinegar, aromatic.  See Acetum aromaticum
  Vinegar, distilled  See Acetum.
  Vinegar, spirits of.   See Acetum.
  Vinegar of squills.  See Acetum scilla.
  Vinegar, thieves'.  See Acetum aromaticum.
  VTNUM.  See Wine.
  Vinum aloes.  Wine of oloes.  Formerly known
by the nomes of Tinctura hiera, ond Tinctura sacra
Toke of extract of spiked  aloe, eight ounces; canella-
bork, two  ounces; wine, six pints; proof spirits, two
pinU.  Rub the aloes into powder with white  sand,
previously cleansed from any impurities; rub the  ca-
neUa-bark also into powder; and after having mixed 
VIO
VIS
these powders together, pour on the wine and spirit
Macerate for  fourteen days  occasionally shaking the
mixture, aud  afterward strain.  A stomachic purga-
tive, calculated for the aged and phlegmatic, who are
not troubled with the piles.  The dose to from a half to
a whole fluid  ounce.
  Vinum antimonii.   In small doses this proves al-
terative ond diaphoretic, and a large dose  emetic; in
which  last  intention it to the common emetic for chil-
dren.
  Vinum antimonii tartarizati.  See Antimonium
tartarizatum.
  Vinum ferri.  Wineof iron, formerly colled Vinum
chalybeatum.  Toke of iron filings, two ounces; wine,
two pints.   Mix, and set the mixture by for a month,
occasionally shaking  it;  then filter it through paper.
For ils virtues, see Ferrum tartarizatum.
  Vinum ipecacuanha:. Wine of ipecacuanha. Take
of ipecacuanha-root, bruised, two ounces; wine, two
pints.   Macerate for fourteen  days,  and strain.  The
dose, when used as an emetic, is from two fluid drachms
to half a fluid ounce.
  Visum opii.  Wine of opium, formerly known by
the names  of Laudanum liquidum  sydenhami,  and
Tinctura thebaica.   Take  of extract of opium, an
ounce; cinnamon-bark, bruised, cloves, bruised, of each
a drachm; wine, a pint  Macerate for eight days, and
strain.  J?ee Opium.
  Vinum veratri.  Wine of  white hellebore. Take
of white hellebore-root, sliced, eight ounces; wine,
two pinte and a half; macerate for fourteen days, and
strain.   See Veratrum.
  VI'OLA.  (From Iov; because it was first found in
Ionia.)  1. The name of a genus of plants  in the Lin-
nean system.   Class, Syngenesia ; Order, Monogynia.
The violet
  2. The pharmacopoeial  name of  the sweet violet.
See Viola odorata.
  Viola canina.  The dog-violeL  The root of this
 Elaut possesses the power of vomiting and purging the
 owels; with which  intention a scrapie of the dried
root must be exhibited. It appears, though neglected
to this country, worthy the attention of physicians.
  Viola ipecacuanha.  The  plant  which was sup-
posed to afford the ipecacuanha root
  Viola lutea.  See Chriranthus cheiri.
  Viola odohata.   The  systematic  name of the
sweet violet  Viola—acaulis,  foliis cordatis, stoloni-
bus repentibus, of Linneus.   The recent  flowers of
Jito plant are received into the catalogues of the ma-
teria medica.   They have an  agreeable sweet smell,
and a mucilaginous bitterish taste.  Their virtues ore
purgotive or  laxative, and  by some  they are said to
possess an anodyne and pectoral quality.  The officinal
preparation of this flower to a syrup, which, to young
children, answers the purpose of o purgotive; it is also
of considerable utility in many chemical inquiries, to
detect an acid or an alkali;  the former changing the
blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green.
   Viola palustris.   See Pinguicula.
  [Viola pkdata.   The violets are generally mucila-
ginous plants, and employed  as demulcente in catarrh
and strangury.   Some of them are allied to ipeca-
cuanha, and contain  emetin in their substance.  The
viola pedata,  a native  species  retained in the pharma-
copoeia, to considered  a useful expectorant and lubri-
cating medicine in pulmonary complainU, and to given
in syrup or  decoction.  Big.  Mat. Med.  A.]
  Viola tricolor.  Harts-ease. Pansies.  This well-
known beautiful little plant grows in corn-fields, waste
and cultivated  grounds,  flowering  oil the summer
months.  It varies much  by cultivation; and by the
vivid colouring of ite flowers often becomes extremely
beautiful in gardens, where it to distinguished by various
names.  To tbe taste, thto plant in  ite recent state to
extremely  glutinous,  or  mucilaginous,  accompanied
with the common herbaceous  flavour and roughness.
By distillation with water, according to Haase, it  af-
fords  a small quantity of odorous essential oil, of a
somewhat acrid  taste.  The dried herb yields about
half ite weight of watery extract, the fresh plant about
one-eighth.  Though  many of the old writers on the
materia medica represent thto  plant as a powerful me-
dicine in epilepsy, asthma, ulcers, scabies, and cutane-
ous complaints, yet the viola tricolor owes Iu present
character as a medicine to  the modem authorities of
Si arc k, Metzger, Haase, and  others, especially as a
remcrry  for the crusta lactea.  For  this purpose, •
handful  of the fresh herb, or half a drachm of it dried,
boiled two hours in milk, is to be strained and taken
night and morning.  Bread, with this decoction, ia also •
to be formed  into a poultice, and  applied to tbe part.
By  this treatment, it  has  been observed, that  the
eruption during  the  first eight days, increases, and
that the urine, when the medicine succeeds, has an
odour similar  to that of eau; but on continuing  tbe
use of the plant  a  sufficient time, this smell goes  off.
the scabs disappear, and the skin recovers its natural
purity.  Instances of the successful exhibition of this
medicine, as cited by these authors, are very numerous,
indeed  this remedy, under their management, seems
rarely, if ever, to have failed.  It appears, however,
tbat Mursiuna, Akermann, and  Henning  were less
fortunate in tlie employment of this plant: the last of
whom declares, that in the different cutaneous disor-
ders in  which he  used it, no benefit wos derived.
Haase, who administered this species  of violet in  va-
rious forms and large doses, extended iu  use to many
cluonic disorders; and from the great number of cases
in which it proved successful, we are desirous of re-
commending it to a farther trial in this country.
  It is remarkable that Berglus speaks of this plant as
a useful mucilaginous purgative, and  takes no notice
of iu efficacy in the crustea lactea,  or in any other
dtoease.
  VIOLA'RIA.  See Viola.
  VIOLET.  See Viola odorata.
  Violet, dog. See Viola canina.
  VIPER.  See Viper a,
  VIPER-GRASS.  See Scorzoner .
  VI'PERA.  (Quod vi pariat:  because it was
thought that iu young eat through the mother's bowels.)
The viper or odder. See Coluber berns.
  VIPERA'RIA.   See Aristolochia serpentaria,
  VIPERI'NA.   (From vipera,  a snake:  so called
from the serpentine appearance  of its roots.)  See
Aristolochia serpentaria.
  Vipkrina  virginiana.  See Aristolochia serpen-
taria.
  Vi'rga aurea.  See Solidago virga aurea.
  Virga'ta sutura.  The sagittal suture of the skull
  VIRGIN'S  BOWER. See Clemutis recta.
  Virgin's milk.  A solution of gum-benzoin.
  Virgina'le claustrum.   The hymen.
  Virginian snake-root.  See Aristolochia virginiana.
  Virginian tobacco.   See Nicotiana.
  VIRUS.  See Contagion.
  VIS.  Power.  In physiology, applied to vital power
and ils effects: hence vis vita, vis insita, vis irrita-
bilis, vis nervia, Sec.
  Vis conservatrix.  See Vis mcdicalrix natura.
  Vis elastica.   Elasticity.
  Vis inertisi.  The propensity to rest inherent in
nature.
  Vis insita. This property to defined  by Haller to
be  that  power by which a  muscle, when  wounded,
touched, or irritated, contracts, independent of the will
of tbe animal that to the object of the experiment, and
without iu feeling pain.  See Irritability.
  Vis medicatrix naturje.   Vis conservatrix.  A
term employed by physicians to express that healing
power in an animated body, by which, when diseased,
the body is enabled to regain iu healthy actions.
  Vis mortua.  That property by which a muscle,
after tbe death of tlie animal, or a muscle, immedi-
ately after having  been cut out from a living body,
contracu.
  Vis  nervosa.   This property to considered  by
Whytt to be another power of the muscles by which
they act when excited by the nerves.
  Vis plastica.  That facility of formation which
spontaneously operates in animals.
  Vis a teroo.  Any impulsive power.
  Vis vit«.  The natural power of the animal ma-
chine in preserving life.
  From the most remote antiquity, philosophers were
persuaded that a great partof the phenomena peculiar
to living bodies, did not follow the same course, nor
obey tbe same laws, as the phenomena proper to brute
matter.
  To these phenomena of living bodies, a  particular
cause lias been assigned, wbich has received different
denominations.  Hippocrates bestows  on it the appel-
lation of physis, or nature, Aristotle calls it the moving 
VIS                                             VIS
 or generating principle; Kaw Boerhaave, the impe-
 tum faciens ; Van Hehnont, archaa; Stahl, the soul;
 others, the vis insita, vis vita, vital force, Sec.
   VISCIDITY.   (Viddilas;  from viscus.)  Visco-
 sity: glutinous, sticky, like the bird-lime.
   VISCIDUS.  Viscid.  1. Of the nature of ropy pulp
 of the viscum, or missletoe.  In general use to imply
 viscidity in fluids, Sec
   2. See Lentor.
   VI'SCUM.  (Viscum, i, n.; and Viscus, i, m.  De-
 rived from the Greek, itys, altered by the jEolians into
 Pwkos.)   1. The fruit of the misletoe.   See Viscum
 album.
   2. The  name  of  a  genus of parasitical planu in
 the Linnean system.  Class Diacia;  Order, Tetran-
 dria.
   Viscum  album.   Viscus  guercinus.   Misletoe.
 Thto singular parasitical plant most commonly grows
 on  apple-trees, also  on the pear, hawthorn, service,
 oak, hazel, maple, ash, lime-tree, willow, elm, horn-
 bean, &c.  It is  supposed to  be propagated by birds,
 especially by the field-fare and thrush,  which feed
 upon iu berries,  the seeds of which pass  through the
 bowels unchanged;   and along with  the excrement
 adhere to the branches of trees where they vegetate.
   The misletoe of the oak has, from the times of the
 ancient Druids, been always preferred to that produced
 on other trees ; but it to now well known that the viscus
 quercus differs in no respect from others.
   This plant is the ilj of the Greeks, and was in former
 times thought to possess many medicinal virtues; how-
 ever, we  learn but little concerning iu efficacy from
 the  ancient writers on the Materia Medica, nor will it
 be deemed necessary to state the extraordinary powers
 ascribed to the misletoe by the crafty designs of Drui-
 dical knavery. Both the leaves and branches of the
 plant have very little smell, and a very weak taste of
 the  nauseous kind.   In distillation they  impregnate
 water with their faint  unpleasant smeU, but yield no
 essential oil.  ExtracU  made from them by water, are
 bitterish,  roughtoh,  and subsaline.   The spirituous
 extraet of the wood has the greatest austerity, and that
 of the leaves  the greatest bitterness.  The  berries
 abound with  an extremely tenacious and  most  un-
 grateful sweet mucilage.
   The viscus quercus obtained great reputation for the
 cure of epilepsy; and a case of thto dtoease, of a
 woman of quality, in which it proved remarkably suc-
 cessful, is mentioned by  Boyle.   Some years after-
 ward ite  use  was strongly recommended in various
 convulsive  disorders by  Colhach, who has related
 several instances of iu good effecu. He administered
 it in  substance  In  doses of half a  drachm, or a
 drachm, of the wood or leaves, or an infusion of an
 ounce.  This author was followed by others, who have
 not only given testimony of the efficacy of the misletoe
 in different convulsive affections,  but also In those
 complaints denominated nervous, in which it was sup-
 posed to act in the character of a tonic.  But all that
 has  been written in  favour of this remedy, which is
 certainly well deserving of notice, has not prevented
 it from falling into general neglect; and the colleges
 of London aud Edinburgh have, perhaps not without
 reason, expunged it  from  their  catalogues of the
 Materia Medica.
   VI'SCUS.  (Viscus, eris, n.; plural, viscera.)  1.
 Any organ or  part which has an appropriate use, as
 tlie viscera of the abdomen, &c.
   2. (Viscus, i, m.)  The  name of the misletoe.  Sec
 Viscum album.
   VISION.  (Visus, lis, m.)  The function  which
 enables us to perceive the magnitude, figure, colour,
 distance, &c. of bodies.  The organs which  compose
 the apparatus of vision enter into action under the
 influence of a particular excitant, or stimulus, caUed
 light.
   We perceive bodies, we  take  cognizance  of many
 of their properties, though they  are often at a great
 distance;—there must then be between them and our
 eye some  intermediate  agent; this intermediate sub-
 stance we denominate light.  Light is an excessively
 Bubtle fluid, which emanates from those bodies called
 luminous,  as the sun, the  fixed stars, bodies in a state
 of ignition, phosphorescence, &c.   Light is composed
 of atoms which move with a prodigious rapidity, since
 they pass  through about eighty thousand  leagues of
space in a  second.
   A series of atoms, or particles, which  succeed each
 other in a right line without interruption are denomi-
 nated a ray of  light.   The atoms which compose
 every ray of light are separated by intervals, that  are
 considerable in proportion to their mass; which  cir-
 cumstances permit a considerable  number of rays to
 cross each other in the same point, without their par-
 ticles coming in contact
   The light that proceeds from luminous bodies forms
 diverging cones, which would prolong themselves in
 definitely, did  they meet with no obstacles.  Philoso-
 phers have from thence concluded, that the intensity
 of light in any place, is always in an inverse ratio to
 the square of the distance  of the luminous bodies
 from which it proceeds.  The cones that are formed
 by the light in passing from  luminous bodies, are, in
 general, called pencils of light, or pencils of rays, and
 the bodies through which the light moves ore designated
 by the name of media.
   When light happens to come in contact with  cer—'u
 bodies that are called opaque, it is repulsed, and iu
 direction is modified according to the disposition of
 those bodies—The change thot  light  suffers in its
 course is, in this case, called reflection.   The study of
 reflection constitutes that part of physics, which is
 named catoptrics.
   Certain bodies allow the light to pass through them;
 for instance glass: they are said to be transparent.  In
 passing  through  these bodies, light suffers a  certain
 change which is called refraction.  As the mechanism
 of vision resu entirely upon the principle of  refrac-
 tion, the examination of these becomes, therefore, a
 matter of importance.
   The point where a ray of light enters into a medium
 is called  the point of immersion;  and that  where it
 goes out is called the point of  emergence.
   If the ray comes in contact with a medium in a line
 perpendicular to its surface, the ray then continues ita
 direction without any change; but  if its direction is
 oblique to the surface of the medium, the ray is then
 turned out of  iu  course, and appears broken at  the
 point of immersion.
   The angle of incidence is that which  the incident
 ray makes with a perpendicular  line drawn over  the
 point of immersion upon the  surface of the  medium,
 and the angle of refraction is that which the  broken
 ray makes with the perpendicular.
   If the ray of light pass from a rare medium into one
 more dense, it  inclines towards the perpendicular at
 the  point of contact; but it declines from it if it pass
 from a dense medium  into one that is rarer. The
 same phenomenon takes place, but in a contrary di-
 rection, when the ray enters into  the first medium;
 this takes place in such a manner, that if the two sur-
 faces of the medium traversed by the ray are parallel
 to each other, the ray in passing into the surrounding
 medium, will take a direction parallel to that of  the
 incident ray.
  Bodies  refract the light in proportion  to their den-
 sity  and combustibility.  Thus, of two bodies of equal
 density, one of which being  composed of more com-
 bustible  elemenu  than  the other,  the refractive
 power of the  first will be greater  than that of  the
 second.
  All transparent bodies refract at the same time that
 they reflect the light.   On account of this  property
 these bodies  are  capable of being used  as a sort  of
 mirror.  When their density is  very inconsiderable,
 such as that of the air, they are not visible unless their
 mass be considerable.
  The form of a refractive body has no influence upon
 ite refractive power; but it modifies the disposition of
 the refracted rays in respect to each other.  In fact, the
 perpendiculars to the surfaces of the body, approaching
 or receding according to the form of the body, the  re-
 fracting rays should at the same  time  approach or
 recede.
  When,  by the effort of a refractive body, the rays
 tend towards each other, the point where they unite is
 called tAe focus of the refractive  body.   Bodies of a
lenticular form are those which present principally this
phenomenon.
  A  refractive  body, with parallel  surfaces, does not
change the direction of the rays, but it inclines them
towards iu axis by a sort of transportation.  A refrac-
tive body of two convex sides does not possess a greater
refractive power than a body convex on one side, and
3*-. 
VIS
VIS
 plane on the other; but the point behind it in which
 the rays are united is much nearer.
  The discovery of the action of refractive bodies
 upon light has not been an object of simple curiosity;
 it has led to the construction of ingenious instruments,
 by  means of which the sphere of human vision has
 been extended to an extraordinary degree.
  Apparatus of vision.—The apparatus of vision is
 composed of three distinct paru.
  The first modifies the light
 ; The second receives tbe impression of that fluid.
  The third transmiu thto impression to the brain.
  The apparatus of vision to of an extremely  delicate
 texture, capable of being deranged by the least acci-
 dent  Nature has also placed before this apparatus a
 series of organs,  the use of which  is to protect and
 maintain it in those conditions necessary to tlie perfect
 exercise of iu functions.  Those protecting paru are
 the eyebrows, the eyelids,  and the secreting and  ex-
 creting apparatus of the tears.
  The eyebrows,  which  are   peculiar to man, are
 formed,
  1. By hair, of a variable colour.
  2. By the skin.
  3. By sebaceous follicles  placed at the root of every
 hair.
  4. By muscles  destined  for  their various motions,
 viz.  the  frontal portion of the occipito-frontalto, the
superior edge of the orbicularis palpebrarum, the su-
percilium.
  5. Numerous vessels.
  6.  Nerves.
  The  eye is composed of  parts which have very dif-
ferent uses in the production of vision.  They  may be
distinguished into refractive, ond noii-refroctive.
  The refractive paru are:
  A. The transparent  cornea, a refractive body, con-
vex and concave, which, in  iu transparency, iu form,
and iu insertion, pretty much resembles the glass that
is placed before the face of a watch.
  B. The aqueous humour  which fills the chambers of
the eye;  a liquid which is not  purely aqueous, as its
name indicates, but to essentially composed of water,
and of a little albumen.
  C. The crystalline  humour,  which  to  improperly
compared to a lens.  The comparison would be exact,
 were it merely for the form; but it is defective in  re-
 gard to structure.  The crystalline is composed of con-
centric layers,  the hardness of which increases from
the surface  to  tbe centre, and which probably pos-
sesses different refractive powers. The crystalline is,
besides, surrounded by a  membrane,  which  has a
great effect upon vision, as experience teaches us.   A
lens to  homogeneous in  all iu paru;  at iu surface, as
in every point  of iu substance; it possesses every
where the same refractive power. However, it is ne-
cessary to remark that the curve of the anterior sur-
face of tbe crystalline to very far from being similar to
tbat of the posterior aspect.  This  last belongs to a
sphere, of which the diameter is much less than that
of the  sphere to which the curve of the anterior sur-
 face belongs.  Until now it has been understood that
 the crystalline was composed mo6tly of albumen; but
 according to a new analysis of Berzelius,  it doe3 not
 contain any: it to fornie-i almost tntirely of water, and
 of a peculiar matter tbat  has a great analogy, in its
 chemical  properties, to the colouring  matter of the
 blood.
  D. Behind the crystalline is the vitreous humour, so
 called because of iu resemblance to melted gloss.
  Each of the  paru which we hove noticed is enve-
 loped by o very thin membrane, which is transparent
 ike the part that it covers: thus, before the cornea to
 lie  conjunctiva; behind ft to  the membrane of the
 aqueous humour, which lines aU the anterior chamber
 •f the eye; that is, the anterior surface of the iris, and
 the posterior surface of tbe cornea.
  The crystalline to surrounded by the crystalline cap-
 sule, which adheres by  iu circumference to the mem-
 brane tbat covers the vitreous humour.  This,  in pass-
 ing from toe circumference of the crystalline upon the
 anterior ami posterior surfaces  of this  part, leaves be-
 tween  au interval which  has  been caUed the canal
 goudronni.
  The vitreous humour to also surrounded by  a mem-
 brane called hyaloid.  This membrane does not alone
 contain this humour, it is sent down among it, and
separating, forms it into cells. The details of anatomy,
with  regard  to the disposition of the  cells, have not
hitherto added any thing to what is known of Uie use
of the vitreous humour.
  The eye is not  only  composed of parts that are re-
fractive, but  it is composed also of membranes which
have each a particular use; these aie :—
  A. The sclerotic, the exterior envelope of  the eye,
which is a membrane of a fibrous nature; it is thick
and resisting, and its use is evidently to protect the in-
terior paru of tbe organ; it serves besides as a point
of insertion for many muscles that move the eye.
  B. The  choroid, a vascular and nervous membrane,
formed by two distinct plates; it to impregnated with
a dark matter which is very important to vision.
  C. The  iris, which is seen behind the transparent
cornea, is  differently coloured in different  individuals;
it is pierced in the centre by an opening colled the pupil,
which dilates or contracu according to certain circum-
stances which we shall notice.  The iris adheres out-
wardly, and by iu circumference, to the  sclerotic, by
a cellular tissue of a particular nature, which  is called
the ciliary, or iridian ligament  There are, behind
the iris, a great number of white lines arranged in the
manner of rays, which would unite at the centre of
the iris, if they were  sufficiently prolonged: these are
the ciliary processes.                               ,
  Neither the use nor the structure of these bodies has
been properly determined: they are believed by some to
be nervous, by others to be muscular, while others think
them  glandular, or vascular.  The truth is, their real
structure Is not understood.
  The colour of the  iris depends  on iu structure,
which to variable,  and on that of tbe dork layer of ite
posterior surface, the colour of which  shines through
the iris.  For instance, the tissue of the iris is nearly
white iu blue eyes; in this cose  the dork colour behind
appears almost alone, and determines the colour of the
eyes.
  AnatomisU differ about the  nature of the tissue of!
the iris: some think it entirely like that ofthe  choroid,
essentially composed of vessels  and of nerves; others
hove imagined they saw a great many muscular' fibres
in it;   others consider this membrane a tissue sui ge-
neris; and others confound it with the erectile struc-
ture.  Edwards has shown that the iris is formed by
four layers very easy to be distinguished, two of which
arc a continuation of the lamine of the  choroid;  a
third belongs to the membrane of the aqueous humour;
and a fourth forms the proper tissue of the iris.
  Between the choroid and the  hyaloid there  exists  a
membrane essentially nervous. This membrane, known
by the name of the retina,  is almost transparent;   it
presenU a slight opacity, and a tint feebly inclining to
lilac;  it is composed of the expansion of the threads
which compose the optic nerve.
  The eye receives a  great number of vessels, the
ciliary arteries and  veins,  and  many  nerves, the
greater part of which come from the ophthalmic gan-
glion.
  The optic  nerve preserves the communication be-
tween the brain and the eye.
  Mechanism of vision.—In order the better to explain
the action of light in the eye, let  us suppose a luminous
cone commencing in a point placed in the prolongation
of the anterior-posterior axis of the eye.   We see
that only the  light  which falls upon the cornea can be
useful for vision; that which falls on the white of the
eye, the eyelids and eyelashes, contributes nothing; it
is reflected by those parte differently according  to their
colour.  The cornea itself does not receive the light on
iU whole extent;  for it to generally covered m part by
the border of the eyelids.
  The cornea having a fine polish on  iU  surface, aa
soon os the light reoches it, part of it is reflected, which
contributes to form the brilliancy of the eye.  The
some  reflected light forms  the images which one sees
behind the cornea. In  thto case the cornea acu as a
convex mirror.  The  form of the cornea indicates the
influence it should hove upon  the light which enters
the eye:  on  occount of iu thickness,  It only causes
the rays to converge a  little towards the axis of the
pencil; in  other words it increoses the intensity of the
light which penetrates into the anterior chamber.
  The rays, in traversing the cornea, pass froima more
rare to a denser medium; consequently  they ought to
converge from the perpendicular towards the point of 
VIS
VIS
  contact  If  on entering into the anterior chamber,
  they passed  out  again, they would diverge as much
  from the perpendicular as they had  converged before;
  and would, therefore, assume their former divergence;
  but as they enter into the aqueous humour, which is a
  medium more refractive than  air—they incline less
  from the perpendicular, and consequently diverge less
  than if they had passed back into the air.
    Of all the light transmitted to the  anterior chamber,
  only that wliich passes the pupil can be of use to vision;
  all thot which  foUs  upon the iris to  reflected, returns'
  through the cornea, and exhibits the colour of the iris.
    In traversing the posterior chamber tiie light under-
  goes no new modification, as it proceeds always in the
  same medium (the aqueous humour).
    It is in traversing the crystalline Uiat light undergoes
  the most important modification. Philosophers com-
  pare the action of this body to that of a lens, the use of
  which would  be to assemble all the rays of any cone of
  light upon a certain point of the retina.  But as the
  crystalline is very far from being like  a lens, we merely
  mention this  opinion, which to generally received, to
  remark that it merits  o fresh investigation.  Every
  thing positive which con be soid on the subject to, that
  the crystalline ought to increase the intensity of the
  light which is directed towards the bottom of the eye,
  with an energy proportionate to the convexity of its
  posterior surface.  It may be added, that the light
  which passes near the circumference  of the crystalline
  is probably reflected in a different monner from that
  which passes through the centre; and that therefore the
  contraction and dilatation ofthe pupil ought to possess
  an influence upon the mechanism of  vision, which de-
  serves the attention of philosophers.
    The whole of the light which arrives at the anterior
  surface of the crystalline, does not penetrate into the
  vitreous body; it is portly reflected.  One part of thto
  reflected light traverses the oqueous  humour and the
 cornea, and contributes to form  tlie brilliancy of the
 eye; another falls upon the posterior surface of the iris,
 and is absorbed by the dark matter found there.
   It to probable lhat something of thto sort happens at
 every one of the strata or layers which forms the  crys-
 talline.
   The vitreous body possesses a less  refractive power
 than the crystalline,  consequently the  rays  of  light
 which,  after  having passed  the crystalline, penetrate
 into the vitreous body, diverge from the perpendicular
 at the point of contact.   Its use then, with regard to the
 direction of the rays in the eye, to to increase their con-
 vergence.   It might be  said,  that in order to produce
 the same result, nature had only to render the crystal-
 line a little more refractive; but the  vitreous humour
 has another most essential  use, which is, to give a
 lorger extent to the retina, and thus to  increase the field
 of vision.
   What we said about a cone of light, commencing in
 a point placed in the prolongation of the anterio-poste-
 rior oxis of the eye, must be repeated for every lumi-
 nous cone commencing in other points, and directed
 towards the eye; with this difference, that, in the first
 cose, the light tends to unite ot the centre of the retina;
 while the light of the other cones tends to unite in dif-
 ferent points, according  to thot form which they com-
 mence.  Thus the luminous cones commencing  from
 below, unite at the upper part of the retina, whUe those
 that come from above, unite  at the lower part of this
 membrane.   The other rays follow a  direction analo-
 gous ; so that there will be formed at the bottom of the
 eye an exact representation of every body placed before
 it, with thto difference, that the images  will be inverted,
 or  in a  position contrary to  that of the objecu  they
 represent.
  This result is ascertained by different means.   For
 this purpose, eyes,  constructed  artificially of glass,
 which represent the transparent cornea, and the crys-
 talline; and of water, which represenu the aqueous
 and vitreous humours, have long been employed.
  Motions ofthe iris.—Some say that the pupil varies
 iu dimensions according to the distance of the object
 This  fact  has not  been sufficiently demonstrated;
 hitherto  the influence of the intensity of light is the
 only thing thot has been correctly observed.
  The choroid to of use  to vision, principally by  the
dark matter with which  it is  impregnated, and which
 absorbs the light immediately  after it has traversed the
retina.  One may consider, as a confirmation of  this 1
  opinion, what happens to some individuals in whom
  some parte of this membrone become varicose: tha
  dilated vessels throw off the darker  matter whicli
  covered them, and every time that the image of tbe
  object falls upon the point of the retina corresponding
  to these vessels, the object appears spotted with red.
    The state of vision in Albino men ond animals, in
  which the choroid and the iris are not coloured black,
  supporU still  more this assertion; vision is extremely
  imperfect in them: during the day, they can scarcely
  see  sufficiently to  go about.   Mariotte, Lecat, and
  others, hove allowed to the choroid the faculty of per-
  ceiving light.  This idea is completely without proof.
    We know  very little, thot is certain, of the ciliary
  processes.  They are generally supposed contractile;
  but some think that they are destined to the motions of
  the iris, while others imagine they are intended to bring
  forward the crystalline.
    The rays of light ha ve now reached the retina, whicli
  receives the impression of light when it to within cer-
  tain limits of  intensity.  A very feeble light is not felt
  by the retina; too strong a light hurls it, and renders it
  unfit for action.
    When the  retina receives too strong a light, the
  impression to  called dazzling;  the retina to  then inca-
  pable for some time of feeling the presence of the light
  This happens when one looks at the sun.  After having
  been long in the dark, even a very feeble light produces
  dazzling.—When tho light is  exceedingly weak, and
  the eye made to observe objecu  narrowly,  the retina
  becomes fatigued, there follows a painful feeling in the
  orbit, and also in the head.
    A light, of which the intensity is not very strong, but
  which acu for a certain time upon a determined point
  of the retina,  renders it at last insensible in this point.
  When we  look for some time at  a white spot upon a
  black ground,  and  afterward carry the eye to a white
  ground, we seem to perceive a black spot; this happens
  because the retina has become insensible in the point
  whicli was fonnerly fatigued by the white light  In
  the same manner, after the retina has been some time
  without acting in  one of its poinu while the others
  have acted, the point which has been in repose be-
  comes of an extreme sensibility, and on this  account
  objecu seem as if they were spotted.   In thto manner
  it is explained, why, after having looked a long time at
  a red spot, white bodies appear as if spotted with green:
  in thto case, the retina has become insensible to the red
  rays,  and  we  know thot  o ray of white light, from
  which the red  to subtracted, produces the sensation of
 green.
   The same sort of phenomena happens when we have
 looked long at a red body, or one  of any other colour,
 and afterward look at white,  or  differently coloured
 bodies.—We perceive with facility the direction ofthe
 light received by the retina.  We  believe instinctively
 that light proceeds in a right line,  and that this line is
 the prolongation of that according to whicli the light
 penetrated into the cornea.  Therefore, whenever the
 light  has been modified in its direction, before reaching
 the eye, the retina gives us nothing certain.  Optical
 illusions proceed principally from thto cause.
   The retina can receive at the  same time impressions
 in  every point of its extent, but the sensations wbich
 result from them ore then incorrect.  It may be affected
 by the image of one or two objecu only, though a much
 greater number be impressed on it; the vision  is then
 much more defined.
  The central partof the membrane nppears to possess
 much  more sensibility than the rest of its extent; we
 therefore make the image  fall on  this part when we
 wish to examine an object with attention.
  Does tho Ught act upon the retina by simple contact
 only,  or must it traverse thto membrane 1   The pre-
 sence of the choroid  in  the eye,  or rather  the dark
 matter which covers it, renders thto second opinion the
 most probable.
  Thot port of the retina which corresponds with the
 centre ofthe optic nerve, has been said to be insensible
 to the impression of light.  I know nothing which can
 directly prove this assertion.
  There is no doubt that the optic  nerve transmits to
 the brain, in an instant, the impression that the light
 makes on the retino; but by what mechanism we ore
 entirely ignorant. The manner in which the two optic
nerves are confounded upon the sphenoid bone, ought,
doubtless to have a considerable  Influence upon the
?«/ 
VIS
VIS
 transmission of the impressions received by the eyes;—
 but thto to also a point upon which it is difficult to form
 any probable conjecture.
   Notwithstanding  what  has been said at different
 periods, as well as the late efforts of Gall, to prove that
 we see with only one eye at a time, there seems suffi-
 cient proof not only that  the two eyes concur at tiie
 same time  in the production of vision, but that it to
 absolutely necessary this should be so, for certain most
 important operations of this function.  There are how-
 ever certain cases in which it is more convenient to
 employ only one eye; for instance, when it is necessary
 to understand perfectly the direction of tne light, or the
 situation of any body relative to us.  Thus we shut
 one eye to take aim with a gun, or to place a number
 or bodies upon a level in a right line.
  Another ease in which it is advantageous to employ
 only one eye to,  when the two organs are  unequal,
 either  in refractive power or insensibility.  For the
 same reason we  shut one eye when we employ a tele-
 scope.   But, except in these particular cases, it is of the
 utmost importance to employ both eyes at once.  The
 following experiment  proves that both eyes see the
 same object at the same time.
  Receive the image of the sun upon a plane in a dark
 chamber; put before your eyes too thick glasses, each
 of which presenU one of the prismatic colours.  If
 your eyes are good and both equally strong, the image
 of the sun  will appear of a dirty  white,  whatever
 be the colour of the glasses employed.  If  one of your
 eyes is much stronger thon the other, the image of the
 tun will be  seen of the same colour as the  glass whicli
 Is before the strongest eye.
  One object produces then  really two  impressions
 while the brain  perceives only one.  To produce this
 the motions of  the two eyes  must be in  unison.  If,
 after a disease, the movement ofthe eyes are no longer
 regular, we receive two  impressions from  the same
object, which  constitutes  strabismus, ot squinting.
 We may also, at pleasure, receive  two  impressions
from one body; for that purpose, it to only necessary to
derange the harmony of the two eyes.
  Estimation of the distance of objects.—Vision is pro-
duced essentially by the action of light upon the retina,
 ond yet we always consider the bodies from which light
 proceeds os being the cause of it, though they ore often
 placed  at a considerable distance.  This result can be
 produced only by on intellectual operation.
  We  judge differently of  the distance of bodies
 according to the degree of that distance; we judge cor-
 rectly when they are near us, but it is not the same
 when they are at a short distance; our judgment is then
 often incorrect:  but when they are at a great distance,
 we are constantly deceived.  The united action of the
 two eyes is absolutely necessary to determine exactly
 the distance, as the following experiment proves.
  Suspend a ring by a thread, and fix a hook to the end
of a long rod, of a size thot wiU easily pass the ring;
stand at a convenient distance, and try to introduce the
hook: in using both eyes, you may succeed with ease in
 every attempt you make; but if you shut one eye, and
 then endeavour to pass the hook through, you will not
 succeed any longer; the hook will go cither too far or
 else not far enough, and it will only be  after trying
 repeatedly that it will be got through.  Those persons
 whose eyes are very unequal in their power, are sure
 to fail in thto experiment, even when  they use them
 both.
  When a person loses an eye by accident, it is some-
 times a whole year before he can judge correctly of the
 distance of  a body placed near him.  Those who have
 only one eye, determine distance, for the most  part,
 very incorrectly.   Tbe size of the object, the intensity
of the light  tbat proceeds from it, the presence of inter-
 mediate bodies, &c.  have a great influence upon our
just estimation of distance.
  We judge most correctly of objecu that are placed
 upon a level with our bodies.  Thus, when we  look
from the top of a tower at the objecu  below,  they
 appear much less than they would if they were placed
 at tbe same distance, on the some plane with ourselves.
Hence the necessity of giving a considerable volume to
objecu that are intended to be placed on  the tops of
buUdings, and which are to be seen  from a distance.
The smaller the dimensions of an object are, the nearer
 it ougnt to be to the eye, in order to be distinctly seen.
 What is called tlie distinct point of viev< to also very i
 variable.  A horse is seen very distinctly at six yards,
 but a bird could not be distinctly seen at the same dis-
 tance.  If we wish to examine the hair or the feathers
 of those animals, the eye requires to be much nearer.
 However, the same object may be seen distinctly at dif-
 ferent distances; for example, it to quite  the same to
 many persons whether they place  the book that  they
 are reading at one or two feet of distance from the eye.
 The intensity of  the light which illuminates an object,
 has a considerable effect upon the distance at which it
 can be distinctly seen.
   Estimation of the size of bodies.—The manner in
 which we arrive at a just determination of the size of
 bodies, depends more upon knowledge and habit tnan
 upon the action of the apparatus of vision.  We form
 our judgment relative to the dimensions of bodies, from
 the size of the image which is formed in the eye, from
 the intensity of the light which proceeds from  the ob-
 ject, from the distance at which we think it  is  placed,
 and, above all, from  the habit of seeing such objecu.
 We therefore judge with difficulty of the size of a body
 that we sec for the first time, when we connot appre-
 ciate the distance.  A mountain which we see at o dis-
 tance for the first  time, appears generally much  less
 than it really is; we think it is near us when it to very
 far away.
   Beyond a distance somewhat considerable, we are so
 completely deceived, that judgment to unable to correct
 us.  Objecu appear to us infinitely less than they really
 are:  as-happens with the celestial bodies.
   Estimation of the motion of bodies.—We judge of the
 motion of a body by that of its image upon the retina,
 by the variotions of the size of this image, or, which is
 the same thing, by the  change of the direction of the
 light which arrives at the eye.
   In order that we moy be able to follow the motion of
 a body, it ought not to bo displaced too rapidly, for we
 could not then perceive it; this happens with bodies
 projected by the force of gunpowder, particularly when
 they pass near us.  When they move at a distance from
 us, the light comes from them to the eye  for a much
 longer space of time, because  the field of view is much
 greater, and we can see them with more facility.   We
 ought to be ourselves at rest, in order to judge correctly
 ofthe motions of" bodies.
   When bodies are at a considerable distance from us,
 we cannot easily  perceive their motions to or from us.
 In this cose, we judge of the motion of the body, only
 by the variation of the size of its  image.   Now this
 variation being infinitely small, because the body to at
 a  great distance, it  is very difficult, and  frequently
 impossible, for us to estimate iu motion.  Generally
 we perceive with great difficulty, sometimes we cannot
 perceive at all, the motion of a body which moves
 extremely slow; this may be  on  account of the slow-
 ness of iu own motion, ns in the case of the hand of a
 watch, or it maybe the result of the slow motion ofthe
 image, which happens with the stars, and objects very
 far from us.
   Of optical illusions.—After what we have just said,
 of the manner in  which we estimate the distance, the
 size, and the motion of bodies, we may easily see that
 we are often deceived by sight  These deceptions  are
 known in Physics, and in Physiology, by the name of
 optical illusions.  Generally we judge pretty well of
 bodies placed near us; but we are most commonly de-
 ceived with regard to those that are distant  Those
 illusions which happen to us  with regard to objects
 that are near us, are the result, sometimes of the
 reflection, sometimes of the refraction, of light before
 it reaches the eye; and sometimes of the law that we
 establish  instinctively;  namely, that light  proceeds
 always in right lines.
  We must refer to this cause those illusions occasioned
 by mirrors: objects  are seen  in plane mirrors  at  the
 same distance behind them, as the  mirrors are distant
 from the eye.  To this cause may be attributed also the
 apparent increase, or diminution of bodies seen through
 a glass.  If the glass make the rays converge, the body
 will appear greater;  if it  cause them to diverge,  the
 body  will  appear less.   These glasses produce still
 another illusion; objects  appear surrounded by  the
 colours of the  solor spectrum, because their surfaces
 not being parallel, they decompose light in the manner
 ofthe prism.
  We are constantly deceived by objects at a distance,
in  a manner that we cannot prevent, because those 
VIS                                              V1T
 deceptions result from certain laws which govern the
 animal economy.  An object seems near us in propor-
 tion as iu image occupies a greater space upon the
 retina; or in proportion to  the intensity of the light
 which proceeds from it.
   Of two objecu of a different volume, equaUy illu-
 minated aud placed at tbe same distance, the greatest
 will appear  the nearest, should circumstances be such
 as to admit of the distance being justly estimated.  Of
 two objecu of equal volume, placed at an equal dis-
 tance  from  the eye, but  unequally illuminated, the
 brightest will appear the nearest; it would be the same,
 if the objects were  at  unequal distances, as can be
 easily seen  in looking at a string of lamps: if there
 happen to be one of them brighter than the rest, it will
 appear the  nearest,  while that which  is really the
 nearest will appear the farthest, if it to the least bright
 An object seen without  any  intermedium, always ap-
 pears nearer than when  there happens to be between it
 and the eye, some  body that may have an influence
 upon tlie estimation that we make of its distance.
   When a bright object strikes  the eye, while all the
 objects around it are obscured, it appears much nearer
 than it really is; a  light in the  night produces thto
 effect.
   ObjecU appear always small in proportion as they
 are distant;  thus, the trees in a long  alley, appear so
 lunch smaller, and so much nearer together, in propor-
 tion  as  they are  farther  from us.   It is  by observing
 these illusions, and the  laws of the animal economy,
 upon which they are founded, that art has been en-
 abled to imitate them. The art of painting, in certain
 cases, merely transfers to the canvass those optical
 errors into which we most habitually fall.
   The construction  of  optical Instrumenu is also
 founded upon these principles: some of them augment
 the intensity of the light, which proceeds from the ob-
 jects observed ; others cause it to diverge, or converge,
 in order to  increase  or  diminish  their apparent vo-
 lume, Sec.
   By the constant exercise of the sense of sight, we are
 enabled to get over many optical illusions, as will  be
 proved by the curious  history  of the  blind youth,
 spoken of by Cheselden. This celebrated surgeon, by
 a  surgical operation, generally said to be that for cata-
 ract, but, more probably,  it was a division of the mem-
 brana pupillaris, procured sight to a very intelligent
 person who was born blind: and he observed the man-
 ner in which thto sense was  developed in this young
 man.  " When  he saw  the light for the  first time, he
 knew so little how to judge of distances, that he be-
 lieved the objecu wliich  he saw  touched  his eyes (and
 this  was his expression) as the  things which  he felt
 touched hto skin.  The objects which were most plea-
 Bant to him  were  those whose form was regular and
 smooth, though he had no idea of their form, nor could
 he tell why they  pleased him better than the others.
 During the time of his blindness he  had such an imper-
 fect  idea of colours,  that he was then  able to dis-
 tinguish, by a very strong light, that they had not left
 an impression sufficient by which he  could  again
 recognise them.   Indeed, when he saw them, he said
 the colours he then saw were not the same as those he
 hod seen formerly; he did  not know the form of ony
 object; nor  could he distinguish  one  object from
 another, however different their figure or size might be:
 when objecu were shown to him which he had known
 formerly by the touch, he looked at them with atten-
 tion,  and observed them carefully in order to know
 them again;  but as he had  too many objecu to retain
 at once, he forgot the greater part of them, and when
 lie first learned, os he said, to see and to know objecu,
 lie forgot a thousand for  one that  he recollected.  It
 was  two months  before he  discovered that pictures
 represent solid bodies; until that time he had con-
 sidered them as planes and surfaces differently coloured,
 and diversified by a variety of shades; but when he
 began to conceive that these pictures represented solid
 bodies, in touching the canvass of  a picture with hto
 hand  he expected to find in reality something solid upon
 it,  and he was much astonished when, upon touching
those parts which seemed round and unequal, he found
 them  flat, and smooth like  the rest; he asked, which
 wa3  the sense  that deceived  him,—the sight or the
touch 7  There was shown to him a  little portrait of his
fath< r, which was in the  case of his mother's watch
he said, tbat he knew very well it was the resemblance
 of his lather; but he asked, with great astonishment;
 hew it was possible for so large a visage to be kept in
 so smaU a space, as that appeared to him os impossible
 as that i bushel should be contained in a pint  He
 could not support much light at first, and every object
 seemed very large to him ; but after he had seen larger
 things he considered the first smaller: he thought there
 wos nothing beyond the. limits of his sight  The same
 operation was performed an the other eye about a year
 after the  first, and it succeeded equally well.   At first
 he saw objecu with his second eye much larger than
 wilh the other,, but not so large, however, as he bad
 seen them with the first eye; and when he looked at
 the same object with both eyes at once, he said that it
 appeared twice as large as with the  first eye; but he
 did not see double, at  least it could not be ascertained
 that he saw objecu double, after he had got the sight
 of the second eye."
   Thto observation to not singular;  there exists a num-
 ber of others, and they have all given resulu nearly
 alike.  The conclusion that may be drawn from it to,
 that the exact manner in which we determine the dis-
 tance, size, and form  of objecu, to the result of habit,
 or, which is  the some thing, of the education of the
 sense of sight.
   Vision, defective.  See Dysopia.
   VI'SUS   See Vision.
   Visus  dkfiguratis.  See Metamorphopsia.
   VITA.  (Vita, a, f.; a vivendo.)  See Life.
   Vits arbor.   See Arbor vita.
   Vit* lignum.  See Guaiacum.
   Vital actions.   See Vital functions.
   Vital air.  See  Oxygen.
   Vital force.  See Vis vita.
   Vital functions.  See Function.
   Vital principle.   See Life,
   VITALBA.  See Clematis reda.
   VITELLUS.  (Vitellus, i, m.;  from vita, life;  ber
 cause the life of the chick to in it)
   1. The yelk of an egg.
   2. In botany applied by Gertner to that part of a
 seed which  is very firmly and inseparably connected
 with the  embryo, yet never rising out of the integu-
 menu of the seed in germination, but absorbed, like
 the albumen, for the nourishment  of the embryo.  If
 the albumen be present, the vitellus to always situated
 between it and the embryo, and yet to constantly distinct
 from the former.   It is  esteemed  by  Gertner to com-
 pose tbe  bulk of the seed in the fusci, mosses, and
 ferns.   In the natural order  of grasses, tbe vitellus
 forms  a scale  betwen the embryo and the albumen.
 Sir J. Smith thinks the viteUus is nothing else than a
 subterraneous cotyledon.  See Albumen.
   VI'TEX.   (From vieo, to  bind.)  The name of a
 genus of plante in the Linnean system.  Class, Didy-
 namia ; Order, Angiospermia.
   Vitex  agnus castus.  The systematic name of the
 Agnus castus; Elaagnon.  The  chaste tree.  Vitex
 —foliis digitalis, serratis, spicis verticillatis, of Lin-
 neus.  The seeds are the medicinal part, which have,
 when fresh, a fragrant smell, and  an acrid aromatic
 taste.   Formerly  they  were celebrated as anaphro-
 disiacs; but experience does not discover in them any
 degree of such virtue, and some have described to them
 an opposite one.   They are now fallen into disuse.
   Vi'ti saltus.   See Chorea.
   VITILI'GO.  (Vitiligo, inis, f.; fromvitio, to infect.)
 See Alphus.
   VI'TIS. 1. The name of a genus of plants in the Lin-
 nean system.  Class, Pentandria;  Order, Monogynia.
   2. The  pharmacopceial name of the  grape.  See
 Vitis vinifera.
   Vitis alba.  See Bryonia alba.
  Vitis oorintbica.   The dried fruit of this tree to
the Uva passa minor;  Passa corinthiaca.  The vir
tues of the currant are similar to those of the raisin.
See Vitis vinifera.
  Vitis id^a.  See Vaccinium.
  Vitis sylvestris.   While bryony.
  Vitis vinifera. The systematic nome of the grape
tree.  Vitis—foliis lobatis sinuatis nudis, of Linneus.
Vine leaves and the tendrils have an adstringent taste,
and were  formerly used in diarrhoeas, hemorrhages,
and other disoiders requiring refrigerant and styptic
medicines. The juice or sap ofthe vine called lachry-
mo, has been recommended in calculous disorders: and
it is said to be an excellent application to weak eyes 
vol
VOI
 and specks of  the cornea.  The unripe fruit  has a
 harsh, rough, sour taste; iu expressed juice, called ver-
 juice, was formerly much esteemed, but is now super-
 seded by the juice of lemons; for external use, how-
 ever, particularly in bruises and pains, verjuice is still
 employed, and considered to be a very useful applica-
 tion.  The dried fruit is termed  r/oa passa major.
 Passula major, the raisin. Raisins are prepared  by
 Immersing the  fresh  fruit  into a solution of alkaline
 salt and soap-ley, made boiling hot, to which is added
 some olive oil, and a small quantity of common salt,
and afterward drying them in the shook.  They are
 used as agreeable, lubricating, acescent sweete in pec-
 toral decoctions, and  for obtunding the  acrimony in
 other medicines, and rendering them grateful to the
 palate and stomach.  They are directed in the decoc-
 tum hordei compositum, tinctura senna, and tinctura
 cardamomi composita.  See also Wine and Acetum.
  Vitra'ria.  The pellitory of the wall.
  VITREOUS.  (Vitreus; from vitrum, glass:  so
named from  its transparency.)   Glassy:  applied  to
parts of the body.
  Vitreous humour.  Humor vitreus. The pellucid
body wliich fills the whole bulb of the eye behind the
crystalline lens. The vitreous substance is composed
of small cells which communicate with each other, and
are distended with a transparent fluid.
  VITRIOL.  See  Vitriolum
  Vitriol, acid of.  See Sulphuric add.
  Vitriol, blue.  See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriol, green. See Ferri sulphas.
  Vitriol, Roman.  See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriol, sweet, spirit of.  See Spiritus atheris sul-
phurici.
  Vitriol, white. See Zinci sulphas.
  Vitriolated kali.  See Potassa sulphas.
  VITRIOLUM.   (From vitrum,  glass: so called
from iu likeness to glass.   Hollandus says this  word
Is fictitious, and composed from the initials of tbe fol-
lowing sentence: Vade in terram rimando,  invenies,
optimum  lapidem  veram medicinam.)  Calcadinum;
 Calcatar; Calcotar ;  Calcanthos;  Calcanthum;  Cal-
ritea.  Vitriol, or  sulphate  of iron.   See Ferri sul-
phas.
  Vitriolum album.  See Zinci sulphas.
  Vitriolum cceruleum.   See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriolum romanum.  See Cupri sulphas.
  Vitriolum viride.  See Ferri sulphas.
  Vl'TRUM.  (Vitrum, i, n.)   Glass.
  Vitrum antimonii.   Glass of ontimony.   Anti-
mony first calcined, then fused in a crucible.
  Vitrum antimonii ceratum.  A diaphoretic com-
 pound exhibited in the cure of dysenteries arising from
checked perspiration.
  Vitrum hypoclepticum. A funnel to separate oil
 from water.
  VIVERRA.  The nomeof a genus of onimals in the
 Order Fera, of the Linnean classification.
  Viverra civetta.   The systematic name of the
 ash-coloured weozel, which, with the following spe-
 cies, affords the perfume called civet
  Viverra zibetua.  The systematic name of the
 eivet-r.at  See  Civetta.
  VIVUM.  A  name variously applied:  to  mercury,
 becouse it moves obout os  if it were alive; hence ar-
 gentum vivum: to lime, because when moisture to
 added it cracks  and swells, as if alive.
  VOICE.   Vox.   By voice we understand the sound
 which is produced in the  larynx, at tiie instant when
 the air traverses thU organ, either to enter or go out of
 the trachea.
  In order to understand the mechanism by which tbe
 voice to produced and modified, we must soy some-
 thing of the  manner  in which sound is produced, iu
 which it to propagated and modified in wind instru-
 menu, particularly those that have most analogy with
 the organ of  voice.
  A wind instrument is generally formed of a  tube,
 either straight or bent, in which, by various processes,
 the air is made to vibrate.  -
   Wind  instrumenu are of two sorts: the one sort
 are called mouth instruments, the other sort reed instru-
 menu.
   In the mouth instrumenu (the horn, trumpet, trom-
 bone, flageolet, flute, organ,) the column of oir con-
 tained in the tutie to the sonorous body. The air must
 be caused to vibrate in it in order to produce sounds.
 For this purposn, the means employed are variable,
 according to the  sort of instrument.   The length, ths
 width, the form of the tube, the openings in iu sides, or
 iu  extremities, the  power  of the vibrations, and the
 manner in which they are excited, are the causes oi
 tlie various sounds of this sort of instrumenu.   The
 nature of the matter which forms the sounds has no
 influence but upon the tone.
  The reed instrumenu are the most necessary to be
 known, for the  organ  of the voice  is of thto  kind.
 Their theory to, unfortunately, much more  imperfect
 than that of the other sort.   In thto sort of i ustruments,
 (the clarionet, hautboy, bassoon, voice organ, tec ) we
 ought to distinguish between the reed, or anche, and the
 body of the tube.  Their mechanism is essentially dif-
 ferent
  A reed is always formed of one, and sometimes of
 two, thin  plates,  susceptible of a rapid motion, the
 alternate vibrations of which are intended to intercept
 and permit, by turns, the passage of a current of air.
 For this reason, the sounds which they produce do not
 follow the same laws as the sounds formed  by elastic
 plates, with one end fixed, and the other  free, which
 produce sonorous  undulations in the open air.  In the
reed instrumenu, the reed alone produces and modifies
 the sound.  If the plate is long, the  motions are long,
slow, and consequently the sounds are grave.  On the
contrary, a  short plate produces acute sounds, because
 the alternations of transmission and interception of the
 current of air are more rapid.
  When a number of different sounds are intended to
 be produced by a reed, it is necessary to vary the length
of the plate.  The bassoon and clarionet players do
thto when they wish to produce different sounds on the
same instrument.  We  add, as an  important circum-
stance, that the greater or less elevation of sound pro-
duced by the instrument, partly depends on the elasti-
city, the weight, and the form  of the little tongue, or
plate, and on the  force of the  current of air.  If all
these elemenU are not the same, the length being inva-
riable, the tone will be different.
  A reed is  never employed  alone; it is always fitted
to a tube through which the wind passes that has been
 blown into the reed, and which ought, on this account,
lo be open at the  two extremities.  The tube has  no
influence upon the tone of the music; it acts only upon
the intensity, the timbre, and upon the power of mak-
ing the reed speak.
  Apparatus  of  voice.—The larynx  ought  properly
to be considered as the organ of voice.
  The size of the  larynx varies according to  age and
sex.  It to  placed at tbe anterior  part of the  neck
 where a small projection is seen, between tlie tongue
and the trachea.  It  is small in children and women,
greater in young men, and still larger in adult oge.
  The larynx not only produces the voice, but it is also
the agent of iu principal modifications; on which ac-
count,  a perfect  knowledge of the anatomy of  this
organ is indispensably necessary to a perfect knowledge
of the mechanism of voice.  As we cannot enter here
 into all the details of the structure  of  the larynx, we
 will only touch upon such as are most necessary to be
 known, many of which ore not yet well understood.
  Four cartilages  and three fibro-cartilages enter into
 the composition ofthe larynx, and form the skeleton of
 it.  The cartiloges ore the cricoid, the thyroid, and the
 two orytanoid.  The thyroid joins with the cricoid by
 the  extremity of iu two inferior horns.  In  the living
 state, the thyroid is fixed with  respect to  the cricoid,
 which is contrary to what is generally supposed. Every
 orytanoid cartiloge is articulated with the cricoid by
 meons of a  surface, which to oblong, and concave in a
 transverse direction. The  cricoid presenU  a surface
 which  is similarly disposed to that of the arytannid,
 with this difference, that it is convex in the same direc-
 tion in which the  other is concave.  Round the articu-
 lation there is a synovial capsule, firm before and  be-
 hind, and moveable without and within.  Before the
 articulation to the thyro-arytanoid ligament; behind is
 a strong ligamentous band  that might  be called crice-
 arylanoid,  on account  of tbe  manner in which  it is
 fixed.
  Thus disposed, the articulation admits only of lateral
 movements of the orytanoid upon the cricoid cartilage.
 No movement forward  or  backward  con lake place,
 nor a certain movement up and down, mentioned in
 anatomical books which none ofthe muscles to so dia- 
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 posed as to produce.  This articulation ought to be con-
 sidered as a simple lateral ginglymus.  The fibro car-
 tilages of the larynx are the epiglottis, and two small
 Dodies that are found above the top of the orytanoid
 cartilages, and that have been  called by Santorini,
 capitula cartilaginum arytanoidearum.
   There are a great many muscles attached to the
 larynx. These muscles  are called external:  they are
 intended to move the whole organ, either in  carrying
 it up or down, backward or forward, &c.   The larynx
 has also other muscles, whose use is to give a move-
 ment to the different parts in respect of each other.
 These muscles have  been called internal.   They are,
   1st, The crico-thyroid, the use of which is not, as has
 hitherto been believed, to lower the thyroid  upon the
 cricoid  cartilage, but, on the contrary, to raise the cri-
 coid towards the thyroid cartilage, or in making it pass
 a little below iu inferior edge.
   2d,  The muscles crico-arytanoideus posterior, and
 the crico-arytanoideus lateralis, the use of whicli is to
 draw outwards the arytenoid  cartilages, in separating
 them from one another.
   3d, The orytanoid muscle, which draws the aryte-
 noid cartilages together.
   4th, The thyro-arytanoideus, a knowledge of which
 to more important than that of all the muscles of the
 larynx, because its vibrations produce the  vocal sound.
 This muscle forms the lips of the glottis, and the  infe-
 rior, superior, and lateral sides of the ventricles of the
 larynx.
   5th, Lastly, the muscles of the epiglottis, which are
 the thyro-epiglottideus, the arytano-epiglottideus, and
 some fibres that may  be considered as the vestige ofthe
 glosso-epiglottideus muscle that exisu in some animals,
 whose contraction has an influence upon the position
 ofthe epiglottis.
  The larynx is covered within by a mucous membrane.
 This membrane, in passing from  the  epiglottis to the
 arytenoid and thyroid cartilages, forms two folds, called
 'ateral ligaments of the epiglottis.  They concur in the
 "ormation of tlie superior and inferior ligamenU ofthe
 glottis.
  In the substance of the epiglottis, and behind it, are
 found  a great number of mucous follicles, and some
 mucous glands.  Within the mass of the ligamenU of
 the epiglottis, there exisU a collection of those bodies
 that  have been  very  improperly called orytanoid
 glands.
  Between the epiglottis  behind, and  the os hyoides
 and thyroid cartilage  before, there is seen  a considera-
 ble quantity  of the adipose cellular tissue, which is
 very elastic,  and similar to that which exists near cer-
 tain articulations.   There has  been no use assigned to
 thto body.  Dr. Magendie believes it serves to facilitate
 the frequent movements of the thyroid cartilage upon
 the posterior  face of the  os hyoides, and to keep the
 epiglottis separated from the upper part of this bone,
 while, at the same time, it provides  it with a  very
 elastic support, favourable to  the action of the fibro-
 cartilages in the production of the voice, or in deglu-
 tition.
  The  vessels fit  the larynx present nothing remarka-
 ble.   It  is not so with the nerves of this organ. Their
 distribution meriu a careful examination.  There are
 four of  these nerves, the superior laryngeal  and the
 inferior.
  The  recurrent nerve is distributed to the posterior
 crico-arytenoid, to the  lateral crico-arytenoid,  and
 thyro-arytenoid.  None  of the ramifications of this
 nerve go to the arytenoid, or to the crico-thyroid, mus-
 cles.  On the contrary, the superior nerve of the larynx
 goes to the arytenoid muscle, which it provides with a
 considerable branch;  and to the crico-thyroid, to which
 it gives a small filament, more remarkable for the dis-
 tance It proceeds than for iu size.  In certain cases this
 filament does not exist.  The external branch of the
 nerve of the larynx is then of a larger  size.  The re-
 mainder of the filaments of the laryngeol nerves are
 distributed to the epiglottis, and to the mucous mem-
 brane which  covers the entrance of the larynx.  This
 part possesses an extraordinary sensibility.
  The interval  which separates the thyro-arytenoid
 muscles, and the arytenoid cartilages, is called glottis.
 In the dead body, the glottis presents tlie  appearance
of a longitudinal slit  of about eight or ten lines long,
 and two or three wide; it is wider behind than before.
Here the two sides meet at the point of their insertion
 into the thyroid cartilage.  The posterior extremity of,
 the glottis is formed by the orytanoid muscles.
    If the arytenoid cartilages are brought together so as
 to touch on their internal faces, the glottis is diminished
 nearly a  third of iu length.  It  then presenU a slit
 which to from five to six lines long, and from half a line
 to a line long. The sides of thto slit are called the lips
 of yte glottis. They present a sharp edge turned up-
 ward and inward. They are essentially formed by the
 arytenoid muscle, and by  the ligament of the same
 name, which, as an aponeurosis, covers the muscle to
 which it  adheres strongly, and  which, being itself
 covered by the mucous membrane, forms the thinnest
 parts or edge of the lip.  These lips of the glottis vibrate
 in the production of  the voice; they might be called
 the human reed.   Above the inferoir ligaments of the
 glottis are the ventricles of the larynx, the cavity of
 which is larger than  it seems at first sight.   The supe-
 rior, inferior, and external sides of it are formed by tbe
 thyroarytenoid  muscle, turned upon itself. The ex-
 tremity, or anterior side, is formed by the thyroid carti
 lage.  By means of  these  ventricles,  the lips of the
 glottis are completely isolated upon their upper  side.
    Above the opening of the ventricles we see two bo-
 dies, which, in their manner of being disposed, have a
 great deal of analogy with the vocal chords, and which
 form a sort of second glottis above the first.   These
 bodies are called the  superior ligaments of the glottis.
 They are formed by the superior edge ofthe thyro ary
 tenoid muscle, a little adipose cellular tissue, and the
 mucous membrane of the larynx, which covers them
 before penetrating into the ventricles.  These observa-
 tions are easily made upon the larynx  of dead  bodies.
 The glottis of a living person has never been examined,
 at least there has been nothing written on this subject;
 but when those of animals,  as of dogs,  arc examined,
 they contract and enlarge alternately.  The arytenoid
 cartilages are directed outwards  when  the air pene-
 trates into the lungs ;  and  in the  instant when the air
 posses out, they come close  together.
   Mechanism  of the  Production of Voice.—If we take
 the trachea and the larynx of an  animal or of a man,
1 and blow air strongly into the trachea, directing it to
 wards the larynx, there is no sound produced, but only
 a slight noise, resulting from the pressure  of  the ail
 against the  sides of  the larynx.  If, in blowing  we
 bring together the arytenoid cartilages, so that they
 may touch upon their internal face, a sound  will  be
 produced, something  like the voice of tlie  animal to
 which the larynx used in the experiment belongs.
   The sound will be dull or sharp,  according as the car-
 tilages are pressed more or less forcibly together: iu
 intensity will be more or less, according to the intensity
 of the air.  It is easily seen, in thto experiment, that
 the sound is produced by the vibrations of the inferior
 ligament ofthe glottis.
   Both man and the animals are deprived of voice by
 making an  opening  below  the larynx.  The voice to
 reproduced if the opening is closed mechanically. Dr
 Magendie knows a person who has been  in this situa
 tion for four yeors.  He cannot speak without pressing
 a cravat strongly against a fistulous opening  in  the la-
 rynx.  The same thing takes place when the larynx is
 opened below the inferior ligaments ofthe glottis.
   But if a wound exists above the glottis, if the epi-
 glottis and iu muscles are affected, if the superior liga-
 ment of the glottis, even if the superior aspect of the
 orytanoid cartilages are injured, the voice continues.
   Lastly, the glottis of an animal being laid bare in the
 instant that it cries, shows very well that voice is pro-
 duced by the vibrations of the vocal chords,  or  lips of
 the glottis.  Thto is enough to prove, beyond all doubt
 that the voice to formed in the glottis by the motion of
 iU inferior ligamenU.
   This fact being established, is it possible, on physical
 principles, to account  for the formation of the  voice 1
 The following explanation appears the most probable.
   The air lieing pressed from the lungs,  proceeds in a
 pipe of considerable size.  This pipe very soon becomes
 contracted, and the air is forced to pass through a nar-
 row slit, the  two  sides of which are vibrating  plates,
 which permit and intercept the air, like the plates of
 reeds, and which ought, in the same manner, by these
 alternations,  to produce sonorous undulations iu the
 transmitted current of air.
   But, in blowing into the trachea of a dead body, why
 does it not produce a sound like that of the human 
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     vuice T  Why is the palsied state of the internal mus-
     cles of thto organ  followed  by  the  loss of the voice!
     Why, in a word, is an act of the will necessary to pro-
     duce the vocal sound 1  The answer to this is not diffi-
     cult  The ligamenu of the glottis have not the faculty
     of vibrating like plates of reeds, except the thyro-ary-
     urnoid muscles are contracted;  and, therefore, in every
     case in which the  muscles ore not contracted, the voice
•    will not be produced
       Experimenu performed on animals are perfectly in
     unison with thto doctrine.   Divide  the two recurrent
     nerves, and the voice will cease.  If only one is cut,
     the voice will be only half lost.
       Dr. Magendie, however, has seen a number of ani-
     mals, in which the two recurrent  nerves had been cut,
     cry very loud when they suffered  severe pain.  These
     sounds were very similar to  the sounds that would be
     produced mechanically with the larynx of the animal
     when dead, by blowing into the trachea, and bringing
     together tbe arytenoid cartilages.  This phenomenon
     is easily understood by the distribution of the nerves
     of the larynx. The recurrenu being cut,  the thyro-
     arytenoid muscles do not contract, and thence resulu
     the loss  of voice; but the arytenoid  muscle, that re-
     ceives iu nerves from the superior laryngeal, contracu,
     and brings together, in  the instant of a strong expira-
     tion, the arytenoid cartilages, and tbe slit of the glottis
     becomes sufficiently narrow  for the air to throw tlie
     thyro-arytenoid muscles, though they are not contract-
     ed, into vibration.
       Intensity or volume of the voice. The intensity of
     the voice, like that of all other sounds, depends upon
     the extent of the vibrations.
       The vibrations ofthe vocal chords will be in propor-
     tion to the force with  which tbe air is expelled  from
     the breast; and the longer the chords are, that to, the
     more voluminous the larynx is, the more considerable
     will be the extent of tlie vibrations.  A strong person,
     with a large chest, and a larynx of large dimensions,
     presents the most advantageous condition  for the in-
     tensity of the voice.  If such a person becomes  sick,
     his voice, on account of his weakness, loses much  of
     ite intensity, because it to no longer expelled with the
     same force from the chest.
       Children, women, and eunuchs, whose larynx is pro-
     portionably less than that of a man in adult age, have
     also much less intensity of voice.
       In  the  ordinary production of the voice, it resulu
     from the simultaneous motions of the two sides of the
     glottis.   Were one of these sides to lose the faculty of
     causing the oir to vibrate, the voice would lose, neces-
     sarily, half iu intensity, the  force of expiration being
     the same.  This may  be proved in cutting one of the
     recurrent nerves of a dog, or in paying attention to the
     vuice of a person  who has had  a  complete attack of
     hemiplegia.
       Tone of the voice.—Every individual has a particu-
     lar tone of voice by which he to known: there to also a
     particular tone which belongs to the different sexes and
     age.  The tone of the voice presenU an infinite num-
     ber of modifications.   Upon  what circumstances do
     these depend 1  Thto is  unknown.  The feminine
     tone, however, which is found in children and eunuchs,
     generaUy agrees with the state of the cartilages of the
     larynx.  On the contrary, the masculine tone which
     women  sometimes possess,  appears to be connected
     Willi ihe state of these cartilages, and particularly
     with lhat of the thyroids.  Tone to a modification of
     sound, of which philosophers have by no means given
     an exact explanation.
       Of the extent of ths  voice.—The sounds wbich the
     human lorynx to capable of  producing are very nume-
     rous.  Many celebrated authors have endeavoured  to
     explain the manner of  their formation; but they bave
     rather given us comparisons than explanations.
       We have exomined the reed of the orgon of voice;
     we shall now consider the  tube that the vocal sound
     traverses after having  been  produced.   In  proceeding
     froui below upwards, tbe tube to composed, 1st, of tiie
     interval between the epiglottis before, iu lateral  liga-
     menU upon the sides, and of the posterior side of the
     pharynx;  2dly, of the pharynx behind, and  laterally,
     and of the: most posterior part of the base of the tongue
     before;  3dly, sometimes of tbe mouth, and sometimes
     of the nasal cavities; at other times, of these two
     cavities together.
       This tube, capable of being prolonged or shortened!
 of being made wider or narrower; being susceptible of
 assuming an infinite variety of forms, ought to be very
 capable of performing all the functions of the body of
 a reed instrument;—that  is, to be capable  of harmo-
 nizing with the larynx, nnd of thus favouring the pro-
 duction of the numerous tones  of which the voice is
 susceptible;  of increasing tlie intensity of the  vocal
 sound, by taking a conical form, with the base out-
 wards ; of giving a roundness and agreeableness  to the
 sound, by suitably exposing iu exterior opening, or by
 almost entirely shutting it, Sec
   Until the influence of the tube of reed instruments
 has been  determined with  precision, it is evident that
 we  can form only probable conjectures respecting the
 influence of the tube of the organ of voice.  In this
 respect we can make only a small number of observa-
 tions, wbich relate particularly  to the most apparent
 phenomena.
   A. The larynx is raised  in the production of acute
 sounds; it is lowered, on the contrary, in the formation
 of those that are grave; consequently, the vocal tube
 is shortened  in  the first  case, and lengthened in the
 second.
   We suppose that a short  tube  to  more favourable to
 the transmission of acute sounds, while a long one is
 more so for those that are grave.  The tube changes its
 length at  the same time that it changes its breadth;
 and this is remarkable, as we have seen above that the
 breadth of the tube has a great influence  upon  ita
 facility of transmitting sounds.
  When the  larynx descends, that is, when the vocal
 tube is prolonged, the thyroid cartilage descends, and
 removes from the os hyoides the whole height of the
 tbyro-hyoid membrane.  By this separation the gland
 ofthe epiglottis to carried forward, and places itself in
 the cavity of the posterior aspect of the os  hyoides;
 this gland  draws after it the epiglottis: from this re-
 sulu a considerable enlargement of the inferior part of
 the vocal tube.
  The contrary phenomenon happens when the larynx
 to  raised.  The  thyroid  cartilage then rises,  and
 becomes engaged behind the os hyoides, by displacing
 and pushing backward theepiglottid gland; this pushes
 the epiglottis, and the vocal tube is much contracted.
 By imitating the motion upon the dead body, we may
 easily ascertain  that the  narrowing moy proceed  to
 five-sixths of tbe breadth of the tube.  Now., we adopt
 a large tube  to  a reed for the purpose of producing
grove sounds; on the contrary,  it is a narrow  tube
 wliich to generally employed for the purpose of trans-
 mitting acute sounds.  We con then, to a certain de-
gree, account for the utility of the changes of breadth
which take  place in the inferior part of the vocal
 tube.
  B. The  presence  of  the  ventricles of the larynx
immediately above the inferior ligaments of the glottis,
appears intended^ to isolate  those ligamenu,  so  that
they may  vibrate freely in the  air.   When foreign
bodies enter the ventricles, or when a false membrane,
or  mucosities are formed, the voice is generally ex-
tinguished, or much weakened.
  C. From iu form, iu position, iu  elasticity; from
 the motions which  iu muscles  impress upon it, the
epiglottis appears to belong essentially to the apparatus
of the voice; but what are its uses t We have already
seen that it contributes powerfully to the narrowing
of the vocal tube; it may  be supposed that  it has a
 more important function.
  D. The vocal tube has visibly an Influence upon the
 intensity of  the voice.  The most  intense  sounds
 which the voice can produce, cause the mouth to be
 opened very  wide,  the tongue to be drawn  a  little
 back, and the velum of the palate raised  into o hori-
 zontal position, and to become elastic, closing nil com-
 munication with the nostrils.
  In this cose the pharynx and  the mouth evidently
 perform the office of a speaking trumpet, that to to  say
 they represent very exactly a tube wilh a reed, wMch
 increases in wideness outwards, the effect of  which is
 to augment the intensity ofthe sound produced by tha
 reed.   If the  mouth to in part closed, the lips carried
 forward and  turned towards each other, the sound
 will acquire rotundity, and an agreeable expression;
 but it will  lose part of iU intensity':  this result is easily
 explained  after what we have said of tlie influence of
 the form of lubes in reed instrumenu.
  For the same reasons, whenever the vocal sount 
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passes Into the nose, it will become dull, for the form
ofthe cavities of tlie nose is well fitted for diminishing
the intensity of sounds. • If the mouth and nose are
shut at the same time, no sound can be produced.
  E.  We have seen, in considering the production of
voice, that a great number of modifications relative to
expression arise from changes ofthe thickness, and of
the elasticity of the lips of the glottis.  The tube may
produce  a number of others, according to its different
degrees of length or breadth; according to iu form, the
contraction of the pharynx, the position of the tongue,
or ofthe velum of the palate;  according as the sound
passes wholly or in part through the mouth, or the nose,
or both together; according to the individual disposition
of the mouth or nose; the existence or non-existence
of teelh  ; the size of the tongue, Stc; the expression
of the voice is continually modified according  to all
these circumstances.   For  example, whenever the
sound traverses the nasal cavities,  it  becomes dis-
agreeably nasal.
  Those  persons are mistaken, who think that the in-
tensity of vocal sound may be augmented by repercus-
sion, in passing through the nasal cavities; these cavi-
ties produce quite a contrary  effect.  Whenever the
voice is introduced into them, from whatever  couse, it
becomes  dull.
  F. Besides the numerous modifications which the
tube ofthe vocal organ causes  in the intensity and the
expression of the voice, in  alternately permitting or
intercepting its productions: there to another very im-
portant  kind of  modification  produced by  it  By
means of thto the vocal sound is divided into very
small portions, each  possessing a distinct character,
because  each of them to produced by a distinct motion
of the tube.  Thto sort of influence of the vocal tube to
colled the faculty  of articulating, which  presenU,
beside?,  on infinite variety  of individual differences
suitable  to the peculiar organization of the  vocal
tube.
.  We have hitherto  treated of the  human  voice in
a general manner; we now  proceed to speak of its
principal modifications; namely,  the cry or native
voice; the voice properly so called, or acquired voice;
speech,  or articulate voice ;  singing, or appreciable
voice.
   The ery, or native voice.—The cry to a sound which
cannot be appreciated; it to, like all those sounds pro-
duced by the larynx, susceptible of variation in tone,
intensity,  and expression.  The cry  to easily distin-
guished  from all other vocal sounds;  but as its charac-
ter depends upon the expression, it  is impossiblo to
account  physically for  the  difference between it and
the latter.   Whatever to the condition of  man, or
whatever his age, he is capable of crying.  The new-
born child, the idiot, the person deof from birth, the
savage,  the civilized, the decrepit old man, all are
capable  of producing cries.  We ought, then, to con-
sider the cry ss particularly attoched to organization;
 indeed,  we may be convinced of this  in examining its
 uses.
   By the cry we express vivid  sensations, whether they
 proceed  from without or within; whether  they are
 agreeable or painful:—there are cries of pleasure and
 of pain.  By the cry we express our  most simple in-
 stinctive wanu, the natural passions.  There is a cry
 of fury, another of fear, &c.
   The social wants and passions, not being  an indis-
 pensable consequence of organization, and the state of
 civilization being necessary fortheir developement, they
 have no peculiar cry.  Thecry comprehends, generally,
 the most intense sounds that the organ of voice can
 produce; its expression has often something in it which
 offends  the ear, and it has  a  strong action upon those
 who are near it.
   By means of the cry, important relations are estab-
 lished among  mankind.  The cry of joy inclines  to
joy;  the cry of pain excites pity; the cry produced by
 terror causes fear, even in those at a distance, &c.
 This sort of language is found in most animals; it to
 almost the only language which has been given them;
 the song of birds ought to be considered as a  modifica-
 tion of their cry.
   Acquired voice, or voice properly so called.—in tne
 usual state of man, that is, when he lives in society,
 and when he is possessed of the faculty of hearing, he
 knows, from earliest youth, that mankind utter sounds
 which are not cries  he very soon finds that he can
produce the same sort of sounds with his larynx, and
immediately, what  to called acquired voice, is deve-
loped in him, by the effect of imitation, and the advan-
tages he derives from it.   A deaf child cannot make
any remark  with regard to sound, and, therefore, he
never acquires it.  There seems  to  be no difference
between tbe voice and the cry, except in intensity and
expression, for it to likewise formed of inappreciable
sounds, or of sounds whose intervals are not exactly
distinguished by the ear.
  Since the voice is tbe consequence of hearing, and
of an intellectual process,  it cannot be developed if
those circumstances, by which it  to  produced, do not
exist.  In fact, children born deaf, who have never had
any  idea of sound; idiots, lhat establish no relation
between the sounds wbich they hear, and those which
their larynx con produce, hove no voice, though the
vocal apporatus of both may be fit to form and modify
sounds as well as that of individuals perfectly formed.
  For  the same reason those whom we improperly
term savages, because they have been found wandering
in forests since their infancy, can  have no voice; the
understanding not being developed in a solitary state,
but only in social life.
  The  expression, the intensity, the tone of the voice,
are susceptible of numerous modifications on the part
of the  larynx; the  vocal tube  also exerts a powerful
influence upon the voice: speech and singing are only
modifications of the social voice.
  Modifications of the voice by age.—-The larynx is in
proportion very small in the foetus, and the new-born
infant; iu small volume forms a contrast with thot of
the  os hyoides, with the tongue and other  organs of
deglutition, which are  already much developed.  Be-
sides, it is round, and tbe thyroid cartilage  forms no
projection in the neck.
  The lips of tiie  glottis, the  ventricles,  the superior
ligamenu, are very short in proportion to what they
become afterward; for the thyroid cartilage not being
much  developed, they consequently occupy a  smaK
space.  The cartilages are flexible, and have not nearly
the solidity which they possess afterword.
  The larynx preserves  these characters almost tiff
puberty;  at this  period a  generol revolution  takes
place in the economy. The developement  of the ge-
nital organs determines a sudden increase in the nutri-
tion of many of the organs, of which that of the voice
to one.
   The greatest activity of nutrition to first remarked in
the muscles; afterward, but more slowly, it to seen in
the  cartiloges: the general form of the  larynx is  then
modified; the thyroid cartilage becomes developed in
its anterior part, it  forms a projection in the  neck, but
greater in the male than in the female.  From thto cir-
cumstance resulu  a considerable prolongation of the
lips of the glottis, or  thyro-arytenoid muscles; and
this phenomenon to much more worthy of remark than
 the general increase of the glottis which hanjuens at tiie
same time.
   Though these changes in the lorynx  ore rapid, they
 do not happen all at once; sometimes it is six or eight
 months before they terminate.
   After puberty the larynx does  not suffer  any other
 remarkable changes; its volume and the projection of
 the thyroid cartilage continue  to increase, and become
 more  strongly marked.  The cartilages become par-
 tially ossified in manhood.
   In old age the ossification of the cartilages continues,
 and becomes almost complete;  the epiglottid  gland
 diminishes considerably, and the internal muscles, but
 those  particularly that form the lips of the glottis, dimi-
 nish in volume, assume a colour less deep, and lose
 their elasticity ; in a word, they take the  same modifi-
 cations as the muscular system in general.
   The production of voice, as it supposes the passage
 of air to and from  the lungs to take place, cannot exist
 in the foetus, plunged as It is in the liquor amnii; but
 the child is capable of producing very acute sounds at
 the instant of birth.
   Vagitus is the  name tha: to given to this voice, or
 cry of children, by which they express their wants and
 feelings.  We must recollect that this  is the object of
 the cry.
   Towards the end of  the first year, the child begins to
 form sounds that are easily distinguished from the va-
 gitus.  These sounds, at first vague and irregular, very
 soon become more distinct and connected; nurses then 
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begin to make them pronounce the most simple words,
and afterward, those tbat are more complicated.
  The pronunciation of children has very little resem-
blance to that of adulu; but there is also a great dif-
ference between them.  In children, the teeth have not
yet quitted their  alveoli;  the tongue is comparatively
very large; when the lips are closed  they are larger
than is necessary for covering anteriorly the gums; the
nasal cavities are not much developed, Sec
  Children advance only by degrees, and in proportion
as their organs of pronunciation approach those ofthe
adult, to articulate exactly the different combinations
of letters.   They are not  capable of forming appreci-
able sounds, or of singing, until long after they have
acquired the faculty of"speech.   This sort of sounds is
the voice properly so called, or acquired : they could not
exist in tiie child were it deaf.  They ought not  to be
considered ss a modification of the vagitus.
  Until the period of puberty, the larynx  remains pro-
portionabiy very small, as weU as the lips of the glottis :
the voice is also composed entirely  of acute sounds.
It is physically impossible that  the larynx should pro-
duce grave ones.
  At puberty, particularly in males, the voice under-
goes a remarkable modification: it acquires in a few
days, often all at once, a gravity, and a dull or deaf ex-
pression, that it was for from having before.
  It sinks in general about an octave.   The voice of a
young man is said to mouU, according to  the common
expression.   In certain cases tbe voice to almost en-
tirely  lost for some  weeks; it  frequently contracu a
marked hoarseness.   Sometimes it happens that the
young man produces involuntarily a very acute sound
when he  wishes  to  produce a  grave one; it  is then
scarcely possible for him to produce appreciable sounds,
or to sing true.
  This state of things  continues sometimes nearly a
year, after which the voice becomes more clear, and
remains so  during life:  but some individuals lose en-
tirely, during the moulting of the voice, the faculty of
singing; others, who  having a fine extensive voice
before the moulting, have afterward  only a very ordi-
nary one.
  The gravity that the voice acquires depends evidently
upon tne developement of the larynx, and particularly
on the prolongation of the lips of the glottis.  As these
parts cannot stretch  backward,  they come forward:  it
is also ot this time that the larynx projecu in the neck,
and the pomum adami appears.   In the female, the
lips of tlie glottis do not present ot puberty this increase
in breadth ; the voice also generally remains acute.
  The voice generally preserves the  same characters
until after adult age; at least the modifications that  it
undergoes  in the interval  aie but inconsiderable, and
affect principally the expression, and the volume.  To-
wards  the  beginning of  old age, the voice changes
anew, iu expression alters, and  its extent  diminishes:
singing is more difficult, the sounds become noisy, and
their production painful and fatiguing.  The organs of
pronunciation being changed by the  effect of age, the
teeth  become shorter, and frequently being lost, the
pronunciation  to sensibly changed.  All these  pheno-
mena ore more noted in continued old age.  The voice
to weak, shaking, and broken ;  singing has the same
characters which depend on impaired muscular  con-
traction.  Speech also undergoes remarkable modifica-
tions ; tbe slowness of the motions of the tongue, the
want  of the teeth, the lips proportionably longer, &c.
necessarily influence the pronunciation*"—Magendie's
Physiology.
  VOLATICUS.  (Volatieus;  from volo, to fly.)  Vo-
latile; thot  goeth or flieth, os it were, away suddenly.
  VOLATILE.  See Volatieus.
  Volatile alkali.  See Ammonia.
  Volatile caustic, alkali.  See Ammonia.
  VOLATILITY.   The propertiesof bodies by which
tbey ore disposed  to assume tlie vaporous or elastic
state, and quit the vessels in which they are placed.
  VOLCANITE.   See Augite.
  Volse'lla.  A probang, or  instrument to remove
bodies sticking in tlie throat.
  VOLUBIL1S.  Twining.  Botanlsu apply it to stems
which  twine round  other plants by  their own spiral
form, either from left to right, supposing tbe observer
in the centre (or, in  other words, according to the ap-
parent motions of the sun);  as in Tamus communis,
and the hpneisucklc: or from right to left contrary to
 the  sun, as  with Convolvulus  sapium, the  Frencii
 bean, Sec.
   VOLVA.  (Volvo, <s, f.j»from volva.)  The wrap
 per or covering of the fungous tribe, of a membranous
 texture, concealing their paru of fructification, and in
 due  time bursting oil round, forming a riiw upon the
 stalk, as in Agaricus campestris.  Such is the original
 meaning of this term, as explained by Linneus; but it
 has  become more generally used by Linneus himself
 for the fleshy external covering of some  other fungi,
 which is scarcely raised out of tbe ground, and enfolds
 the whole plant when young.  It  is  simple, double, or
 stellated, very much cut; as in Lycopodium stdlatum.
   VO'LVULUS.  (From volvo, to roll up.l   The iliac
 passion, or inflammation in the bowels, called twisting
 of the guU.  See Iliac passion.
   Volvulus terrestris.   Smell  bind-weed.  The
 Convolvulus minor.
   VO'MER.  Named from its great resemblance to a
 ploughshore.  It to o slender thin bone, separating the
 nostrils from each other, consisting of two plates much
 compressed together, very dense and  strong, yet so thin
 as to be transparent; these two plates seem at every
 edge to separate from  eocn other, and thus a groove is
 formed  at  every side.—1. This groove on the  upper
 edge, or, as it may be called,  its base, is wide, and re
 ceives into it the projecting poinu of the ethmoid and
 sphenoid bones, and thus it stands very firmly and se-
 curely on the skull, and capable of resisting blows of
 considerable violence.—2. The groove, upon the lower
 port, is norrower,  ond receives the rising line in  the
 middle of tlie palate plate, where the bones join to form
 the palate suture.  At the forepart it is  united by a
 ragged surface, and by something like a groove, to the
 middle cartilage of Ihe nose, and as the vomer receives
 the other bones into its grooves, it is, as it were, locked
 in on all sides, receiving support and strength from
 each, but more particularly from the thick and strong
 membrane which covers  the whole, and  which is so
 continuous  as to resemble a periosteum,  or  rather a
 continued ligament, from ite strength; thus the slender
 vomer possesses sufficient strength to avert from it all
 those evils which must inevitably have occurred, had
 it been less wisely or less strongly constructed.
  VO'MICA.   (From vorno, to  spit  up;  because it
 discharges a sanies.)   An abscess of  the lungs.
  VOMITING.  Vomitio.  A forcible ejection of food,
 or any other substance from tiie stomach,  through the
 oesophagus  and mouth.
  "That internal sensation which announces the ne
 cessity of vomiting to called nausea; It consisu of a
 general uneasiness,  with a feeling of dizziness in the
 heod, or in the epigostric region:  the lower lip trem-
 bles,  and the saliva flows in  abundance. Instantly,
 and  involuntarily, 'convulsive contractions of the ab-
 dominal muscles, and at the same  time, of the dia-
 phragm, succeed to thto state; the first are not very
 intense, but those that follow are more so; they at
 last  become such, that the matters  contained  in  the
stomach surmount the resistance ofthe cardia, and ore
 thus  darted, as it were, into the oesophagus and mouth;
the same effect to produced many limes in  succession;
it ceases for a time, and begins again after some in-
terval.
  At the instont that the matters  driven  from  the
stomach traverse the  pharynx and  the  mouth,  the
glottis shuts, the velum ofthe palate rises, and becomes
horizontal, as in deglutition;  nevertheless, every time
 that  one vomits, a certain quantity of liquid  is intro-
duced either into tiie larynx, or the nasal canals.
  Vomiting  was long believed to depend upon the
 rapid convulsive contraction  of the stomach;  but it
has been shown, by a series of experimenu, that, in
the process, this viscus is nearly passive; and thai the
true  agenu  of vomiting are, on the one hand, the dia-
phragm, and, ontheother, the large abdominal  muscles.
  In  the ordinary state, the diaphragm and the muscles
of the abdomen  co-operate in vomiting; but eoch of
them con, nevertheless, produce it separately.  Thus,
an animal still vomits, though the diaphragm has been
rendered  immoveable by cutting tiie diaphragmatic
nerves;  it vorniu the  same, though  the whole abdo-
minal muscles hove been taken  awoy by the  knife,
with the precaution of leaving the linea alba and the
peritoneum untouched."
   Vomiting of blood.  See Hamatemesis.
  Vo'MITfg cruentus.  See Hamatemesis. 
WAR
WAT
  Voracious appetite.  See Bulimias,
  Vox abscissa.  Hoarseness, and also a loss of voice.
  Vuloa'oo.  The  asariauacca was  so called.  See
Asarum.
  VULNFRA'RIA.  (From vulnus, a wound;)  Me-
dicines wliich heal wounds.  An herb  named from iu
use in healing wounds.
  Vulneraria aqua.   Arquebusade.
  VU'LNUS.   A wound.
  Vulnus scLoriTiciiM.  A gun-shot wound.
  VULPENITE.  A mineral of a grayish-white co-
lour, found along with granular  foliated limestone, at
Vulpino, in Italy.
  VU'LVA.   (Quasi valva, the aperture to the womb;
or quasi volva, because the foetus is wrapped up in it.)
The pudendum muliebre, or paru of generation proper
to women; also a foramen in the brain.
  VULVA'RIA.  (From vulva,  the womb; so named
from its smell, or use in disorders of the womb.) Stink
ing orach. See Chenopodium vulvaria.
w
\\J
    rACKE.  A mineral substance  intermediate be-
      tween clay and basalt.
  WADD.  A name of plumbago.
  Wadd, black.   An ore of manganese: so called in
Derbyshire.
  WAKE ROBIN.  See Amm.
  WALL-FLOWER.  See Chdranthus cheiri.
  WALL-PELLITORY.  See Parietaria.
  WALL-rEPPER.  See Sedum acre.
  WALNUT.  See Juglans.
  WALTHER, Augustine Frederic, a physician,
was appointed, in 1723, professor  of anatomy and sur-
gery at Leyden. Several of his  dissertations on ana-
tomical subjects are  commended, and have been re-
printed by Haller.  The best of his larger pieces is
"De  Lingua Humana Libellus," in quarto.   As  a
botanist he published a Catalogue of the Planu in his
own garden,  and a work on the Structure of Plants.
He died about the year 1746.
  WALTON.  A  town, near Tewkesbury in Glou-
cestershire, where there to a mineral spring, containing
a small portion of iron dissolved in fixed air; of ab-
sorbent earth combined with hepatic air; of vitriolated
magnesia, and  muriated mineral alkali;  but the pro-
portions of these constituent parts have not been accu-
rately  ascertained.   Walton  water is chiefly effica-
cious in obstructions and other affections ofthe glands.
  [WARREN,  Da. Joseph, was horn in Roxbury,
near Boston, in 1741.  He was a distinguished physician
and patriot ofthe American Revolution, and was killed
early in the contest, at the battle of Bunker's Hill, June
17, 1775.   The  following to from Thacher's Life of
Warren:
  " The calmness and indifference of the  veteran ' in
clouds of dust and seas of blood,' can only be acquired
by  long acquaintance with the trade of death;  but the
heights of Charlestown will  bear eternal testimony,
how suddeuly in the cause of freedom  the peaceful
citizen  can become the invincible warrior; stung by
oppression, he springs forward from his tranquil pur-
suits,  undaunted by opposition  and undismayed by
danger, lo  fight  even  to death for the defence of his
rights.  Parents, wives, children, ond country, oil the
hallowed properties of existence, are to him the talisman
that takes fear from his heart and nerves hto arm to
victory. In the requiem over those who have fallen in
the cause of their country, which 'Time, with his own
eternal lips shall sing,'  the praises of Warren shaU be
distinctly heard.
   The blood of those patriots who have  fallen in de-
fence of republics has  often 'cried from  the ground,'
against the ingratitude ofthe country for whicli it was
shed.  No monument  was reared to their fame; no
record of their virtues written ; no fostering hand ex-
tended to their offspring; but they and their deeds were
neglected and forgotten.  Towards Warren there was
no ingratitude,—our country is  free from this  stain.
Congress were  the guardians of hto honours,  and re-
membered that  his children were unprotected orphans.
Within a year after hto death, Congress passed the fol-
lowing resolution :
   'That  a monument  be  erected to the memory of
General Warren, in the town of Boston,  with the fol-
lowing inscription:—                 __
   ' In Honour of JOSEPH WARREN, Major-General
of Massachusetu Bay.   He devoted hto life to the liber-
ties of his country;  and in bravely defending  them,
&U an early victim  in the  battle  or bunker  hill,
June 17,1775.  The Congress of the United States, as
an acknowledgment of hto services and distinguished
merit, have erected this monument to his memory."
  It was resolved, likewise,  ' That the eldest son of
General Warren should be educated from that time at
the expense of the United States.'   On the  first of
July, 1780, Congress, recognising these former resolu-
tions; further resolved,' That it should be recommended
to the executive of Massachusetts Bay, to make provi-
sion for the maintenance  and education  of hto  three
younger children; and that Congress would defray the
expense to the amount of the half-pay of a major-gene-
ral ; to commence at  the time of his death, and con
tinue till the youngest of the children should be of age.'
The part of llie resolutions relating to the educating of
the children, was carried into effect accordingly.   The
monument is not yet erected, but it is not too late.  The
shade of Warren will not repine at thto neglect, while
the ashes of Washington  repose without gravestone or
epitaph."   TAacA. Med. Biog.  A.]
  WATER.  Aqua.  This fluid is so well known, as
scarcely to require any definition.
  It is transparent, without colour, smeU, or tasie; in
a very  slight  degree  compressible;  when pure, not
liable to spontaneous change;  liquid in the common
temperature of our atmosphere, assuming  the  solid
form  at 32° Fahrenheit, and the gaseous at 212°, but
returning unaltered to iu  liquid state on resuming any
degree of heat between  these points: capable of dis-
solving a greater number of natural  boJies than ally
other flu.d whatever, and especially those known by
the name of tlie saline;   performing the most impor-
tant functions in the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
and entering largely into their composition as a con-
stituent part.
   "Native water is seldom, if ever, found perfectly
pure.  The waters that flow within  or  upon the sur-
face of the earth, contain various earthy, saline, me-
tallic, vegetable, or  animal particles, according  to the
substances over or through which they pass.   Rain
and snow waters ore much purer than these, although
they  also contain whatever floats in the air, or has
been  exhaled along with the watery vapours.
   The purity of water may be known by the following
marks or properties of pure water:—
   1. Pure water is lighter than water that is not pure.
   ■*. Pure water is more fluid than water that  is not
pure.
   3. It has no colour, smell, or taste.
   4. It weU more easily  than the waters containing
metallic and earthy salu, called hard waters, and feels
softer when touched.
   5. Soap, or a solution of soap in alkohol, mixes easily
and perfectly with it.
   6. It is not rendered turbid by adding to it a solution
 of gold in aqua regia, or a solution of silver, or of lead,
 or of mercury, in nitric acid, or a solution of acetate
 of lead in water.
   Water was, till modern times, considered as an ele-
 mentary or simple substance.
   Previous to the month of October, 1776, the cele-
 brated Macquer,  assisted by Sigaud de la Fond, made
 an experiment by  burning hydrogen  gas in a bottle,
 without explosion, and holding a white china saucer
 over the flame.  His intention appears to have been
 that of ascertaining whether any fuliginous smoke was
[ produced, and he observes, that the saucer remained
 perfectly clean and white, but was moistened wjh per-
&a 
WAT
WAT
  similar resulu, the water  disappearing and hydrogen
  being disengaged.  These capital experimenu were
  accounted for by Lavoisier, by  supposing the water
  to be decomposed into Ite component parte, oxygen and
  hydrogen, the former of which unites with the ignited
  substance, while the latter is disengaged.
   The grand experiment of the composition of water
  by Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Seguin, was begun on
  Wednesday, May 13,1790, and was finished on Friday,
  tlie 22d of the same month.  The combustion was
 kept up 185 hours with little interruption, during which
 time the machine was not quitted for a moment  The
 experimenters alternately refreshed themselves when
 fatigued, by lying for a few hours on mattresses in tlie
 laboratory.
   To obtain  the hydrogen, 1.  Zinc was  melted and
 rubbed into a powder in a very hot mortar.  2. Thto
 metal was dissolved  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid
 diluted with seven poru of water.  The air procured
 was mode to pass through  caustic alkali.  To obtain
 the oxygen,  two pounds and a  half of crystallized
 hyperoxymuriate of potassa were distilled, and  the air
 was transferred through caustic alkali.
   The volume  of hydrogen employed was 25063.568
 cubic inches, and the weight was 1039.358 grains.
   The volume of oxygen was 12570.942, and the weight
 was 6209.869 grains.
   The total weight of both  elastic fluids was 7240.227.
   The weight of water obtained was 7244 grains, or
 12 ounces 4 gros 45 giains.
   The weight of water which should have been ob-
 tained was 12 ounces 4 gros 49.227 grains.
   The deficit was 4.227 grains.
   The quantity of azotic air before the experiment
 was 415.256 cubic inches, and at  the close of it 467.
 The  excess  after the  experiment was  consequently
 51.744 cubic inches. This augmentation is to be attri
 buted, the academicians think, to the small quantity of
 atmospheric air in the  cylinders  of the gasometers at
 the time the other airs were introduced.   These addi-
 tional 51 cubic inches could  not urise from the hydro-
 gen, for experiment showed, that it contained no azotic
 air.   Some addition of  this last fluid, the experi-
 menters think, cannot  be avoided, on account of the
 construction of the machine.
  The water being examined, was found to be as pure
 as distilled water.   Iu specific gravity to distilled water
 was as 18671:  18670.
  The decomposition  of water  is most elegantly ef-
 fected by electricity.
  The composition of water is best demonstrated by
 exploding 2 volumes of hydrogen and 1 of oxygen, in
the eudiometer.   They  disappear totally, and pure
 water results.   A cubic  inch of  this liquid, at 60°
 weighs 252.52 grains, consisting of                   •
          28.06 grains hydrogen, and
          224.46      oxygen.
The bulk of the former gas to 1325 cubic inches.
That of the latter is         662
 rrptihle drops of a dear fluid, resembling water; and
 which, in fact, appeared to him and his assistant to  be
 nothing but pure water.  He does not say whether any
 test was applied to ascertain this purity, neither does
 he make any remark on the fact
   In the month of September, 1777,  Bucquet and La-
 voisier, not being acquainted with the fact which is
 incidentally ond concisely  mentioned  by Mocquer,
 made an  experiment to discover what is produced by
 he combustion  of hydrogen.  They fired five or six
 pints of hydrogen in on open and wide-mouthed bottle,
 and instantly poured two ounces of lime-water through
 the flame, agitating the bottle during tbe time the com-
 bustion lasted.  The result of this experiment showed,
 that carbonic acid was not produced.
   Before  the  month of April, 1781, Mr. John Warf-
 are, encouraged by Dr. Priestley, fired a mixture of
 common air and hydrogen gas in a close copper vessel,
 and found iu  weight diminished.  Dr. Priestley, like-
 wise, before the same period, fired a  Uke mixture of
 hydrogen and  oxygen gas in a closed glass vessel, Mr.
 Warltire  being  present.  The inside of the vessel,
 though clean and dry before, became dewy, and was
 lined with a  sooty substance.  These  experimenu
 were afterward  repeated by Mr. Cavendish  and Dr.
 Priestley; and it was found, that the diminution of
 weight did not take place, neither was the sooty mat-
 ter perceived.  These  circumstances, therefore, must
 have arisen from some imperfection in the apparatus
 or  materials with wbich the former experimenu were
 made.
   It was the summer of the year 1781, that Mr. Henry
 Cavendish was  busied  in examining  what becomes
 of the air lost by combustion, and made those valuable
 experimenu which were read before tiie Royal Society
 on the  15th of  January, 1784.  He burned 500,000
 grain meosures of hydrogen gas, with about two and
 a  half times  the quantity of common  air, and by
 causing the burned air to pass through  a glass tnbe
 eight feet In  length, 135 grains of pure water were
 condensed.  He. also exploded a  mixture of 19,500
 grain measures of oxygon gas, and 37,000 of hydrogen,
 in a close vessel.  The condensed liquor was found to
 contain n small portion of nitric ocid,  wlien the mix-
 ture of the air was such, that the burned air still con-
 tained  o  considerable  portion of oxygen.   In this
 case it moy he presumed, that some  of the oxygen
 combines with a  portion of nitrogen present
   In the mean time, Lavoisier continued his researches,
 and during the winter of 1781-1782, together with Gin-
 gembre, he filled  a bottle of six pinu with hydrogen,
 which  being  fired, and two  ounces  of lime-water
 poured in, was instantly stopped with a cork, through
 wliich a flexible  tube communicating with a vessel of
 oxygen was passed.  The inflammation ceased, except
 at the orifice of  the tube, through which tbe oxygen
 was pressed, where a beautiful flame appeared.  The
 combustion continued  a considerable time, during
 which  the lime-water  was agitated  in  tbe  bottle.
 Neither this, nor the same experiment repeated with
 pure water, ond with a weak solution of alkali instead
 pf lime-water, afforded the information sought after,
 for these substances were not at all altered.
  The inference of Mr. Warltire, respecting the moist-
 ure on the inside of the glass in which Dr. Priestley
 first fired hydrogen and common air, was, that these
 airs, by combustion, deposited the moisture they con-.
 tained.   Mr.  Watt,  however, inferred  from these
 experiments, that water to a compound of the burned
 airs, wbich have given out their latent heat by com-
 bustion ;  and  communicated  hto sentimenu to Dr.
 Priestley in a letter dated April 26,1783.
  It does  not  appear, that the composition of water
 was known or admitted in France, till the summer of
 1783, when Lavoisier and De la Place, on the 24th of
 June, repeated the experiment of burning hydrogen and
 oxygen in a glass vessel over mercury, in a still greater
 quontity than had been burned  by Mr.  Cavendish.
 The result was nearly five  gross  of pure water.
 Monge made a similar experiment at Paris nearly at
 the same time, or perhaps before.
  Thto assiduous and accurate philosopher then pro-
ceeded,  in conjunction  with  Meusnier,  to pass the
steam of water through a red-hot iron tube, and found
that the iron was oxydized, and hydrogen  disengaged ;
 and the steam of water being passed over  a variety of
other combustible or oxidable substances  produced
                           1987

  Hence there to a condensation of nearly two thousand
volumes into one; and one volume of water contains
662 volumes of oxygen.   The  prime equivalent of
water is 1.125 ; composed of a prime of oxygen = 1.0+
a prime of hydrogen = 0.125; or 9 parte by weight of
water, consisting of 8 oxygen +1 hydrogen."
  The simple waters  are the following:
  1.  Distilled water.   This is the lightest of all others,
containing neither solid nor gaseous substances in solu-
tion, is perfectly void of taste and  smell, colourless
and beautifully transparent, has a soft feel, and wets
the fingers more readily than any other.  It mixes
uniformly with  soap  into a smooth opaline mixture,
but may be added to a solution of soap in spirit  of
wine without injuring its transparency.  The clearness
of distilled water is not impaired by the most delicate
chemical reagents, such as lime-water, a solution of
barytes in any ocid, nitrated silver, or ocid  of sugar.
When  evaporated in  a silver  vessel  it  leaves no
residuum ; if preserved from occess of foreign motter
Hooting in the air, it may be kept for ages unaltered in
vessels upon  which it has  no action, as it  does  not
Iiossess within itself the power of decomposition.  As
it freezes exactly at  32° of Fahrenheit, and boils at
212° under the atmospherical pressure of 29.8 inches 
WAT
Wat
  these poinU are made use of as the standard ones for
  thermometrical division; and Its specific weight being
  always the same under the mean pressure and tempe-
  rature, it is employed  for the comparative standard of
  specific gravity.
    Pure distilled water can only be procured from water
  Which contains no volatile matters that will rise in dis-
  tillation, and continue still in union with the vapour
  when condensed.  Many substances are volatile during
  distillation, but most of the gases, such as common
  air,  carbonic acid, and  the  like, are incapable of
  uniting with water  at a high  temperature:  other
  bodies, however, such as vegetable  essential oil, and,
  in general, much of that which  gives the peculiar
  odour to vegetable and animal matter, will remain
  in water after distillation.  So the steam of many
  animal and vegetable decoctions has a certain flavour
  which distinguishes  it  from pure  water;  and  the
  aqueous exhalation  from living bodies, which  is a
  kind of distillation, has a similar impregnation.
    To obtain distilled water perfectly pure, much stress
  was laid by former chemists on repeating the process
  a great number of times; but it was found  by Lavoi-
  sier, that  rain water once distilled, rejecting the first
  and  last  products, was as pure a water as could be
  procured by any subsequent distillations.
    Distilled water appears to  possess a higher power
  than any other as a resolvent of all animal  and  vege-
  table matter, and these it holds in solution as little as
  possible  altered  from the slate  in which  they existed
  in the body that yielded them.   Hence the great  prac-
- tical  utility of that kind of chemical  analysis which
   SresenU  the proximate  constituent  paru  of  these
   odies, and which is effected particularly by the assist-
  ance  of  pure water.  On the  other  hand, a saline,
  earthy, or  otherwise impure water, wHl  alter  the
  texture of some of the parts, impair  their  solubility,
  produce material changes on the colouring matter, and
  become a  less accurate analyzer on  account of the
  admixture of foreign contents.
    Distilled water to seldom employed to any extent m
  the preparation of food, or in manufactures, on account
  of the trouble of procuring it in large quantities ;  but
  for preparing o  greot number  of medicines, and in
  almost every one of the nicer chemical processes thot
  are carried on in the liquid way, this water to an es-
  sential requisite.  The only cases in which it has been
  used largely as an article of drink, have been in  those
  important  trials made of the  practicobility of pro-
  curing it by condensing  the steam of seo  water by
  means of a simple apparatus adapted to a ship's boiler;
  and these have fully shown the ease with which a large
  quantity of fresh water,  of the purest kind, may be
  had  at sea, at a moderate expense, whereby one of
  the most distressing  of  all  wants  may  be relieved.
  There are one or  two circumstances  which seem to
  show that water, when not already loaded with foreign
  matter, may  become a  solvent for  concretions in
  urinary passages.   At least, we know that very ma-
  terial advantage has been derived in these cases from
  very pure natural  springs, and  hence a course of dis-
  tilled  water has been recommended as a fair subject
  of experiment
    2.  Rain water, the next in purity to distilled water,
  is that which has undergone a natural distillation from
  -Hie earth, and is condensed in the form of rain.   This
  is j water so nearly approaching to absolute purity as
  probably to be equal to distilled water for every pur-
  pose except  in the nicer  chemical experimenu.  The
  foreign contente of rain water appear  to vary accord-
  ing to the state of the air through which it falls.  The
  heterogeneous atmosphere of a smoky town will give
  some  impregnation to rain as it passes through, and
  this, though it may  not be at once  perceptible on
  chemical examination, will yet render it liable to spon-
  taneous change; and  hence, rain water, if long  kept,
  especially in  hot climates, acquires a strong smell,
  becomes fuU of animalcula, and in some degree putrid.
  According to Margraaff, the constant foreign contents
  of rain water appear to be some  traces  of the muriatic
  and nitric acids; but as this water is always very soft,
  it to admirably adapted for dissolving soap,  or for the
  solution of alimentary or colouring matter, and it is
  accordingly used largely for these purposes.  The spe-
  cific gravity of rain water is  so nearly the same as
  that of distilled water,  that it requires the most delicate
  instrumenu to ascertain  the difference.   Rain, that
falls in towns, acquires a small quantity of lime and
calcareous matter from the  mortar and plaster of the
bouses.
  3. Ice and snoto water.   This equals rain water in
purity, and, when fresh melted, contains no air, which
is expelled during freezing. In cold climates and in
high latitudes, thawed snow forms the constant drink
of the inhobitouu during winter;  and the vast masses
of ice wliich float on the polar saes afford an abundant
supply to the mariner.  It is  well known, that in a
weak brine, exposed to a moderate freezing cold, it is
only the watery part that congeals, leaving the unfrozen
liquor proportlonably stronger of the  salt.  The same
happens with a dilute solution of vegetable acids, with
fermented liquors, and the like; and advantage is taken
of this property to reduce the saline part to a more con-
centrated form.  Snow water has long Iain under the
imputation of occasioning those strumous swellings in
the neck which deform the  inhabitants of many of the
Alpine volleys; but thto opinion is not supported by any
well-authenticated, indisputable facts, and to rendered
still more improbable, If not entirely overturned, by the
frequency of the disease in Sumatra, where  ice and
snow are  never seen, and iu being quite unknown in
Chili and in Thibet, though the rivers of these coun-
tries are chiefly supplied by the melting of the snow,
with which the mountains are covered.
  4. Spring water.  Under this comprehensive class
are included all waters that spring from some  depth
beneath the soil, and are used at the fountain head, or
at least before they have run any considerable distance
exposed to the air.  It to obvious that spring water will
be as various in ite contenu as the substances that com-
pose the soil through which it flows.  When the ingre-
dienu are not such as to give any peculiar medical or
sensible properties, and the water is used for common
purposes,  it is distinguished as a  hard or soft spring,
sweet or brackish, clear or turbid, and the like.   Ordi-
nary springs insensibly pass into mineral springs, as
their foreign contenu become more  notable and un
common;  though sometimes waters have acquired great
medical reputation from mere purity.
  By far the greater number of springs are cold; but as
they take  their origin at some depth from the surface,
and below the influence of the external atmosphere,
their temperature to, in general, pretty uniform during
every vicissitude of season,  and always several degrees
higher than tbe freezing point  Others, agoin, arise
constantly hot, or with a temperature always exceeding
the summer heat; and the warmth possessed  by the
water is entirely independent of that of the atmosphere,
and varies little, winter or summer.
  One of  the principal incoi.veniences in almost every
spring water, to ite hardness, owing to the presence of
earthy salts, which, In by far the greater number of
cases, are only tbe insipid substances, chalk, and sele-
nite, which do not impair the taste of the water; while
the oir which it contains, and its grateful coolness, ren-
der it a most agreeable, and generally a perfectly inno-
cent drink;  though sometimes, in weak stomachs, it to
apt to occasion an uneasy sense of weight in that organ,
followed by a degree of dyspepsia.  The quantity of
earthy salu varies considerably; but, in general, it ap-
pears that the proportion of five grains of these in the
pint will constitute a hard water, unfit for washing with
soap, and  for many other purposes of household use oi
manufactures.  The  water  of deep wells is always,
ceteris paribus, much harder than that of springs which
overflow  their  channel; for much agitation and ex--
posure to air produce a gradual deposition of tlie calca-
reous earth; and hence spring water often inCrusts to a
considerable thickness the inside of any kind of tube
through which  it flows, as it  arises  from the  earth.
The specific gravity of these waters is also, in general,
greater than that of any other kind of water, that of the
seo excepted.  Springs that overflow their channel, and
form to themselves a limited bed,  pass insensibly into
the state of stream or river water, and become thereby
altered in  some of their chemical properties.
  5. River water.—This is in general much softer and
more free  from earthy salu than the last, but contains
less air of  any kind: for, by the agitation of a long cur-
rent, and in most cases a great increase of temperature,
It loses common air and carbonic  acid, and, with this
last, much af the lime whit:h it held in solution.  The
specific gravity thereby becomes less, the taste not so
harsh, but less fresh and agreeable, and out of a hu*d 
WAT                                          WHE
apring is often made a stream of sufficient purity for
most of the purposes where a soft water ia required.
Some streams, however, that arise from a'clean sili-
cious rock, ;md flow in a sandy or stony bed, are from
the outset  remarkably pure.  Such are the mountain
lakes and rivuleu in the rocky districU of Wales, the
source of the beautiful waters ofthe Dee, and number-
less other rivers that flow through the hollow of every
valley.  Switzerland has long been celebrated for the
purity and excellence of iu waters, which pour in co-
pious  streams from  the mountains,  and give  rise to
some of the finest  rivers  in Europe.   An excellent
abserver and naturalist, the illustrious  Haller, thus
speaks of the Swiss waters:—" Vulgaribus aquis Hel-
vetia super onines fere Europe regiones excellit  Nus-
quom liquidas illas aquas et crystalli simillimasse mihi
obtulisse memini postquom ex  Helvetia excessi.  Ex
scopulto enim nostra: per puros silices percolate) nulla
terra vitiontur."  Some of them never freeze in the
severest winter,  the cause of which to probably, as
Haller conjectures, tbat they spring  at once out of o
subterraneous reservoir so deep as to be out of the reach
of frost; and during their short course, when exposed
to day, they have not time to be cooled down from 53°,
their original temperature, to below the  freezing point.
  Some "river waters, however, thot do not take their
rise from a rocky soil, and are indeed at first consider-
ably charged with foreign matter, during a long course,
even over  a rich cultivated plain, become remarkably
pure as to saline contenu, but often fouled with mud,
and vegetable or animal exuvio-, which  are rather sus-
pended than held iu  true solution.  Such is that of the
Thame.-', which, taken up at London at low water, is a
very soft and good water, and, after rest and filtration,
it holds but a very small portion of any thing that could
prove noxious or impede any manufacture.  It is also
excellently fitted for sea-store; but it here undergoes a
remarkable spontaneous change.  No water  carried
to seo becomes putrid sooner than that of the Thames.
When a cask is opened  after being  kept a month or
two, a quantity of inflammable air  escapes,  and the
water to so black and offensive as scarcely to be borne.
Upon racking it off, however, into large earthen vessels
(oil jars ore commonly used for the  purpose), and ex-
posing it to tlie oir, it gradually deposites a quantity of
black slimy mud, becomes cleor as crystal, and remark-
ably sweet and palatable.  The Seine  has as high a
reputation in France, and appeors from accurate expe-
rimenu to be a river of great purity. It might be ex-
pected that a river whicli has passed by a large town,
and received all iu impurities, and been used by nume-
rous dyers, tanners, halters, and the like, tbat crowd to
its hanks for the convenience of plenty of water, should
thereby  acquire such a foulness os to be very percep-
tible to  chemical examination for a  considerable dis-
tance below the town; but it appears,  from the most
accurate examination, that where the stream  is at all
considerable, these kinds of  impurity have but little
influence in permanently altering the  quality of the
water, especially as they are for tlie most part only sus-
pended, and not truly dissolved;  and, therefore, mere
rest, and especiaUy filtration, will  restore  the water to
iu original purity.  Probobly, therefore, the most accu-
rate chemist would find it difficult lo distinguish water
taken up at London from  that procured  at Hampton
Court, after each has been purified by simple filtration.
  6. Stagnated waters.—The waters that present the
greatest impurities to the senses, are those of stagnant
pools, and low marshy countries.  They are filled witb
the remains of animal and vegetable maUer undergoing
decomposition, and, during that process,  becoming in
part soluble in  water, thereby affording a rich nutri-
ment to the succession  of living planu and  insecu
which is  supplying the place of those thot perish.
From tbe want of sufficient agitation in these waters,
vegetation goes on  undisturbed, end the surface be-
comes covered with  conferva and other aquatic planu;
and as  these standing waters are in general shallow,
they receive the full influence of the sun, which further
promotes  all the changes that  are  going on within
them.   The taste to generally vapid, and destitute of
that freshness and agreeable coolness which distinguish
spring water.  However, it should be remarked, that
stagnant waters are generally  soft,  and  many of the
impurities are only suspended, and therefore separable
by filtration;  and perhaps  the unpolotobleness of this
drink has caused it to be  in worse  credit than it de-
serves, on the score of salubrity.  The decidedly nox-
ious effects produced by the air of marshes and stag
nant pools, hove been often supposed  to extend to the
internal use of these waters; and often, especially in
hot climates, a residence near these places has been as
much condemned on the one account as on the oilier;
and, in like manner, an improvement in health has been
as much attributed to a change of water as of air.
  WATER-BRASH.  See Pyrosis.
   Water-cress. See Sisymbrium nasturtium.
   Water-dock.  See Rumex hydrolapathum.
   Water-flag, ycUow.  See Iris pseudacorus.
   Water-germander.  See Teucrium scordium.
   Water-hemp. See Eupatorium.
   Water-lily, white.  See Nymphaa alba.
   Water-lily, yeUow.  See Nymphaa lutea.
   Water-parsnip.  See Sium nodiflorum.
   Water-pepper.  See Polygonum hydropiper.
   Water-zizania.   See Zizania aquatica.
   Waters, mineral.  See Mineral waters.
  WAVELITE.   (So nomed after Dr. Wavcll, who
first discovered it at Barnstable, in Devonshire^   A
mineral of a grayish-white colour, composed of alu-
mina, 70;  lime, 1.4; water, 26.2;  as hard  as fluor
spar.
  WAX.  See Cera.
  WEDEL, Gkorok Wolffoanq, was oorn in 1645,
at Golzan in Lusatia, and graduated at Jena in 1667;
where, after a temporary exercise of his profession at
Gotha, he became medical professor; in which station
he continued with reputation for almost half a century.
He combined with his skill in medicine a considerable
acquaintance with mathematics and philology, as well
as with the oriental and classical languages.  He was
an associate to the Academy Nature Curiosorum, nnd
to the  Royal Society of Berlin, physician to several
German sovereigns, a count palatine, and an imperial
counsellor.   Notwithstanding these high offices and
numerous  engagements, he was attentive to the poor.
and assiduous in his literary labours.  He is celebrated
for his pharmaceutical knowledge, and his elegance of
prescription, so that many of his compositions have
been adopted in dispensatories.   Of his works, besides
his academical dissertations, the principal are  "Opio-
logia;" " Pharmacia in Artis formain redacta ;" "  De
Medicomentorum  Facultatibus;" " De Morbis Infan-
tum ;"  nnd " Exercitationes Medico-Philologica;."
  WELD.   Woold.  The Reseda luteola of Linnoms,
which to used as a yellow dye.
  WEPFER, John James, was born in 1620, at Schaff-
hausen, and after visiting several universities in Italy,
graduated at Basil, and settled in his native place. His
reputation was extensive there and in Germany, and
he attained, by his dissections and experiments, a high
rank among those  who hove  contributed to improve
medicol science.  In 1658, he  published o  celebrated
work, entitled " Observotiones Anatomies," Sec, since
often reprinted with the title of " Historia Apoplecti-
coruni."  In on epistle " De Dubiis Anatomicis,"  he
asserted the entire glandular structure of the liver,
prior to Malpighi.   Another valuable  work to called
" Cicutae Aquatics Historia ct Noxse."  His constitu-
tion wos Injured by attendance, at an advanced age, on
the duke of Wurtemburg, and the imperial army under
his command; and he was carried off by a dropsy in
1695.  His papers were published by two of his grand-
sons, in a work entitled " Observotiones Medico-Proc-
tiae,"&c.   To the Ephemerides Nature Curiosorum
he mode several  valuable  communications,  being a
member of that society.
  WERNERITE.  Foliated scapolite.
  WHARTON, Thomas,  was born in Yorkshire  in
1610, and educated at Cambridge.   He afterward be-
came a private tutor at Oxford: but on the commence-
ment of the civil  wars, he removed to London, and
engaged in  the practice of physic.  On the surrender
of Oxford  to the  parliament in  1646, he obtained a
doctor's degree there, became'a member of the College
of Physicians  in  London, and got into considerable
practice. In 1652, he read lectures on the glonds before
ihe College; and he afterward published a work  on
lhat subject, entitled " Adenographia."  The descrip-
tions cannot be relied upon, being  chiefly taken from
brutes; yet  there are some useful observations on  the
diseases of those  organs.  His name has been affixed
to the salivary ducu on the side of  the tongue.
   WHEAT.  Triticum.  The seeds of tlie Triticum 
WHE
WHI
tuVrnum, and astivum, of Linnseus, are so termed.  It
is to these plants, therefore, we ore indebted for our
breod, and the various kinds of pastry.  Wheat is first
ground between mill-stones, and then sifted to obtain
iu farina or flour.  The flour of wheat may be sepa-
rated into iu  three constituent parts, in the following
manner.   Tlie flour to to be kneaded into a paste with
water in an  earthen vessel, and the water continue
pouring upon it from a cock; this liquid, as  it falls
upon the paste,  takes  up  from it  a very fine white
powder, by means of which it acquires the colour and
consistency of milk.  This  process is to be  continued
till the water run off clear, when the flour will be sepa-
rated into three distinct paru: 1. A gray elastic matter
that sticks to the hand, and on account of iu properties
has gained the name of the glutinous, or vegeto-auimal
part. 2.  A white powder which falls to the bottom of
the water, and is the faculum or starch.  3. A  matter
which remains dissolved in the water, and seems to be
a sort of mucilaginous extract.
  Flour, from whatever species of corn  obtained, is
likewise  disposed to vinous fermentation, on account
of iu saccharine contents.   The aptitude for fermen-
tation of fhese  mealy seeds  increases if they be first
converted into malt; insomuch as by thto process, the
gluten  which forms the germ is  separated, and the
starchy part appears to be  converted 4nto saccharine
matter.    The  making  of  malt, for which purpose
barley and wheat are generally chosen, to as follows:
The grains are put in the malting tub, and immersed
in cold water, in a temperate and warm season,  chang-
ing this fluid several times, especially in hot weather,
and they are thus kept soaking till  they be sufficiently
soft to the touch. Upon this they are piled up in heaps
on a roomy, clean, airy floor, where, by the heat spon-
taneously taking place, the vegetation  begins, and the
groins germinate.  To couse the germination to go on
uniformly, the  heaps are frequently turned.   In this
state the  vegetation to suffered to continue till the
germs have about two-thirds  or  three-fourths of the
length of the corn.  It is carried too far when the leafy
germs have begun to sprout
  For this  reason, iimite are set to  the germination by
drying the malt, which is effected by transferring it  to
the kiln, or by spreading it about in spacious airy lofts.
Dried in the last way, it is called air-dried malt; in the
first, kiln-malt  In drying this latter, care must be
token that it does not receive a burned smell, or be in
part converted into coal.
  From thto  malt,  beer is  made by extraction with
water and fermentation.
  With thto  view, a quantity of malt freed from iu
germs, and  sufficient for  one intended brewing,  is
coarsely bruised by grinding, and in the mash-tub first
well mixed with some cold, then scalded  witli hot
water, drawn upon it from the boiler.  It is afterward
strongly and uniformly stirred.   When the whole mass
hos stood quietly for o certain time, the extract, (mash,)
or Bweetwort, is brought into the boiler, and the malt
remaining in  the tub to once more extracted by infusion
with hot water.
  This second extract, treated in like manner, is added
to the first, and both are boiled together.
  This clear  decoction is now drawn off,  and called
boiled wort.  To make  the beer more fit for digestion,
and at the same time te deprive it of its too great and
unpleasant sweetness, the wort is mixed with a decoc-
tion of hops, or else these are  boiled with it.  After
which it  ought  to be  quickly cooled, to  prevent its
transition into  acetous fermentation,  which  would
ensue if it were kept too long in a high temperature.
  On this account the wort is transferred into the
cooler, where it is exposed with a large surface to cold
air, and from this to the fermenting tub, that by addi-
tion of a sufficient portion of recent yest it may begin
to ferment.   When  this fermentation has  proceeded
to a due degree, and the yest ceases to rise, the beer is
conveyed into  casks  placed in cool cellars, where It
finishes its fermentation, ond where it to well kept and
preserved, under the name of barrelled beer, with the
precaution of  filling up  occasionally the vacancy
caused in the vessels by evaporation; or the beer to bot-
tled before it  has done fermenting, and the bottles are
stopped  a little before the fermentation is completely
owr. By so  doing the bottled beer is  rendered spark-
ling.  In  this state it frequently bursu flie  bottles, by
tbe disengagement of the carbonic  acid gas which it
                                     Kkk2
contains, and it strongly froths, like champaign, when
brought into contact with  air on  being poured into
another vessel.
  Beer weU prepared should be limp.id and clear, pos-
sess a  due quantity of spirit, ond excite no disagree-
able sweet toste, and contain no disengaged acid.  By
these properties it is a species of vinous beverage, and
is distinguished from wine in the strict sense, and other
liquors of that kind, by the much greater quantity  of
mucilaginous matter which  it has received by extrac-
tion from the malted grains, but which also makes it
more nourishing.   Brown beer derives its colour from
malt strongly roasted in the  kiln, and its bitterish toste
from the hops.  Pole beer is brewed from malt dried
in the oir, or but slightly roasted, with but little or no
hops ot all.  See Beer-
  Wheat, buck. See Polygonum fagopyrum.
  Wheal,  eastern buck.    See Polygonum  divarica-
tum.
  Wheat, Indian.   See Zea mays.
  Whkat, Turkey. The Turkey wheat to a native
of America, where it is much cultivated, as it is also in
some parts of Europe, especially in Italy and Germany.
There are many varieties, which differ in the colour of
the grain, and are frequently raised in our gardens by
way of curiosity, whereby the plant to well known.   It
to the chief bread-corn in some of the southern parU
of America, but since the  introduction of rice into
Carolina, it is but little used in die  northern colonies.
It mokes a main part too of the food of the poor peo-
ple in Italy and Germany.  This is the sort of wheat
mentioned  in the book of  Ruth, where it is said that
Boaz treated Ruth with parched ears of corn dipped in
vinegar.  Thto method of eating  the roasted ears  of
Turkey wheal to still practised in the East; they gather
in the cars  when about half ripe, and having scorched
them to their minds, eat  them with as much satisfac-
tion as we do the best flour-bread.
  In several parts of South America they parch the ripe
corn, never making it into bread,  but grinding it be-
tween two stones, mix it with water in a calabash, and
so cat it.  The Indians make a sort of drink from this
grain, which they call 6iei.  This liquor is very windy
and intoxicating, and has nearly the toste of sour small
beer: but they do not use it in common, being too lozy
to make it often, and therefore it is chiefly kept for the
celebration of fcasu and weddings,  at  which times
they mostly get intolerably drunk with it.  The man-
ner of making this precicTus  beverage, is to steep a
parcel of corn in a vessel of water, till it grows sour,
then the old women being provided with calabashes fot
the purpose, chew some grains of the corn in their
mouths, and spitting it into the calabashes, empty them,
spittle  and all, into the sour liquor, having previously
drawn off the latter into another vessel.
  The  chewed grain soon  raises a fermentation, and
when this ceases, the liquor is let off from the dregs,
and set by till wanted.  In some of the  islands in the
South Sea, where each individual is his own lawgiver,
it is no uncommon thing for a near relation  to excuse
a murderer for a good drunken bout of ciri.
  [Turkey wheat to the Indian corn of America.   It
makes  a rich, wholesome, and nutritious bread-corn,
and may be cooked in a greater variety of ways than
any other grain.  Dr. Hooper to mistaken in supposing
it is but little used in the northern parts of the United
States  (formerly colonies).  There is  not  a farm or
plantation in any part ofthe country without a portion
planted in Indian  corn.  A portion of Indian  meal
mixed  with wheat or rye  flour, improves  the bread
made in that way.   A.]
  WHET-SLATE. A greenish  gray-coloured mine-
ral, used to sharpen ateel instruments.
  WHEY.  The fluid part of milk which remains after
the curd has been separated.  It contains a saccharine
matter, some butter, and a small portion of cheese.
  WHISKEY.  A dilute olkohol  obtained by distilling
malt.
  [Whiskey is obtained in thto country from rye, Indian
corn, potatoes, Ace.   It is a spirit which, when concen-
trated  by  repeated distillation, produces alkohol, and
may be obtained from various fruiu, roote, seeds, Sec
See Fruits, affording spirit. A.]
  WHISPERING.  A lowness of speech,  cnused  by
uttering the words so feebly,  as not to produce any
vibration of the larynx.
  White-swelling.  See Arthropuosut9.tA Hydarthrut 
WIN
WIN
  WHITES.  See Leucorrhoa.
  WHITING.  See Gadus.
  Whortleberry, bears'.  See Arbutus uva ursi.
  Whortleberry, red.  See Vaccinium vitis idaa.
  WHYTT, Robert, was born in 1714, at Edinburgh,
where he studied physic, and ufter visiting the medical
schools  at London, Paris, and Leyden, settled in the
exercise of hto profession, became a fellow, then presi-
dent of tlie college, and chairman ofthe Institutions of
Medicine in that university.   As a medical practitioner
and teacher, and also as a writer,  he acquired deserved
celebrity.  The first of his publications was an " Essay
on the Vital and other involuntary Motions of Animals,"
1751, in which  he opposed the Stahlian Theory,  and
ascribed them to the operation of stimuli.  Four years
after, hto " Physiological Essays" appeared, in which
he supposes  the circulation assisted by an oscillatory
motion of the minute vessels, and treats of sensibility
and  irritability.  He  also wrote on the Use of Lime-
water in Calculous ComplainU;  and on Nervous Dis-
eases; and contributed likewise  some papers  to the
Edinburgh Essays.  The Observations on Hydrocepha-
lus, were published after his death, which occurred in
ITtifi,  after labouring long under a complication  of
chronic  complainU.
  WIDOW-WAIL.  See Daphne mezereum.
  Wild carrot.  See Daucus sylvestris.
  Wild cucumber.   See Momordica elaterium.
  [ Wild hoarhound.  See Eupatorium teucrium.
  Wild lettuce.  See Lactuca virosa.  A.]
  Wild navew.  See Brassica napus.
  WILLIS,  Thomas, was born in Wiltshire, about the
year 1621, and entered at Oxford, with a view to the cle-
rical profession; but he afterward changed to physic,
took his bachelor's degree in  1646, and commenced
 §ractice at the  university.  He distinguished himself
 y hto steady attachment to the church of England, and
also by his love of science, so that  he became one of the
first members of tbat philosophical society at Oxford,
which laid the foundation of the Royal Society of Lon-
don.  He was ambitious of excelling as a chemist, and
published, in 1659, a treatise on Fermentation, and an-
other on Fever,  with a Dissertation on the Urine. After
tlie Restoration he was appointed to tbe Sedleion pro-
fessorship of Natural Philosophy, and received his doc-
tor's degree.   In 1664, be published hto celebrated work
" Cerebri Anotome," with a description of the nerves;
which was followed, after three years, by his " Patho-
logic Cerebri et Nervosi Generis," in which he treats
of Convulsive Diseases, and the Scurvy.  In the mean
time he hod settled in London, ond being nominated a
physician  in ordinary to the king, was advancing to
the first rank in practice.  His next publication was on
Hysteria and Hypochondriasis.   In 1672, he produced
another work, " De Anima Brutorutn;" which he sup-
posed like the vital principle in man of a corporeal na-
ture.  The year following he began to print his " Phar-
maceutice Rationalto," which he  did not live to com-
plete, being carried off by a pleurisy in his fifty-fourth
year.  Hto works  engaged great attention at first, and
are  still admired,  though modem  improvements hove
diminished their value.  Tbey are written in  an ele-
gant Latin style.
  WILLOW.   See Salix.
  Willow, crack.  Bee Salts fragilis.
  Willow, awed.  See Myrica gale.
  WiUov, white.  See Salix fragilis.
  Willow-herb.  See Lythrum salicaria.
  Willow-herb,  roeebay.  See Epilobium  angustifo-
Uum.
  Willow-leaved oak.  See Quercus phellos.
  WINE.  Vinum.  " Chemists give the name of wine
in general to all liquors that have become spirituous by
fermentatiou.  Thus  cider, beer, hydromel  or  mead,
and other similar liquors, are wines.
  The principles and theory ofthe fermentation which
produces these liquors are essentially the same.
  All those  nutritive, vegetable,  and animal matters
which contain  6ugar ready formed, are susceptible of
the spirituous fermentation.  Thus wine may be made
of all the juices of plants, the sap of trees, the infusions
and decoctions of farinaceous vegetables, the milk of
frugiverous animals; and, lastly, it may be made of all
ripe succulent fruiu;  but  all these substances are not
equally  prouer to be changed into a good and generous
wine.
  As the production of alkohol is the result ofthe spi-
rituous fermentation, that wine may be considered as
essentially the best, which contains most alkohol.  But
of all substances susceptible of the spirituous fermenta-
tion, none is capable  of being converted  into so good
wine, as the juice of  the grapes  of France, or of other
countries that are nearly in Ihe same latitude, or in the
same temperature. The grapes of hotter countries, and
even those of the southern provinces of France, do in
deed furnish wines that have a more agreeable, that is,
more of a saccharine taste;  but these wines, though
they are sufficiently  strong, are  not so  spirituous as
those of the  provinces near tlie middle of France: nt
least  from these latter wines  the  best  vinegar  and
brandy are made.  As nn example, therefore, of spirit-
uous  fermentation in general,  we shall  describe the
method of making wine from the juice of tlie grapes of
France.
  This juice,  when newly expressed, and  before it has
begun to ferment, to called must, and in common  lan-
guage sweet wine. It is turbid, has an agreeable ami
very saccharine taste.  It Is very laxotive; and when
drunk too  freely, or by persons disposed to diarrhoeas,
it is apt to occasion these disorders,   its consistence to
somewhat less fluid than that of water, and il becomes
almost of a pitchy thickness when dried.
  When the must is  pressed from the grapes, and but
into a proper  vessel nnd place, witb  a temperature be-
tween fifty-five and sixty degrees, very sensible effects
are produced  in it, in a shorter or longer time accord-
ing to the nature ofthe liquor, and the exposure of the
place.  It  then swells, and is so rarefied, that it  fre-
quently overflows the  vessel  containing  it, if  this be
nearly full.   An intestine motion is excited among its
paru, accompanied with a small hissing noise and  evi-
dent ebullition.  The bubbles rise to the  surface,  and
at the same lime is disengaged  a quantity of carbonic
acid of such  purity, and so subtle and dangerous, that
it is capable of killing instantly  men and  animals ex-
posed to It in a  place  where the air is not renewed.
The  skins, stones, and other grosser matters  of the
grapes, are buoyed up by the particles of disengaged air
that adhere to their surface, are variously agitated, and
are raised in form of a scum, or soft and spongy crust,
that  covers the whole liquor.  During the fermenta-
tion, this crust is frequently raised, and broken by the
air disengaged from  the liquor  which forces iu way
through it; afterword the crust  subsides, and becomes
entire as before.
  These effecu  continue  while  the fermentation is
brisk, and  at last gradually cease:  then the crust, being
no longer supported, falls in pieces to the bottom ofthe
liquor.  At this time, if we would have a strong and
generous wine,  all  sensible fermentation mint  be
stopped.  This is done by putting  the wine into close
vessels, and carrying  these into a cellar or other cool
place.
  After thto first operation, an interval of  repose takes
place, as to indicated by tbe cessation of the sensible
effecu of the spirituous fermentation; and thus enables
us to preserve a  liquor no less agreeable  in iu taste,
than useful for iu reviving and nutritive qualities, when
drunk moderately.
  If  we examine the wine produced by this first fer-
mentation, we Bhall  find, that  it differs  entirely and
essentially from  the juice of grapes before fermenta-
tion.  Its sweet and saccharine taste is changed into
one that to very different, though still agreeable, and
somewhat spirituous and piquant. It has not the laxa-
tive quality of must, but affects the head, and occa-
sions, as is well known, drunkenness.  Lastly, if it be
distilled, it yields, instead ofthe  insipid water obtained
from must by  distillation with the heat of boiling water.
a volatile, spirituous, and inflammable liquor, called
spirit of wine, or alkohol.  Thto spirit is consequently
a new being, produced by the  kind of fermentation,
called the vinous or spirituous.
  When any  liquor undergoes the spirituous fermenta-
tion, all iu parts seem not to ferment at the same time,
otherwise  the fermentation would  probably be very
quickly completed, and the appearances would be much
more striking: hence, in a liquor much disposed io fer-
mentation, this motion is more quick and simultaneous
than in another liquor less disposed.  Experience has
shown, that a wine, the fermentation of wliich is very
slow and tedious, to never good or very spirituous; and
therefore, when the weather to too cold, the fermenta-
tion is usually accelerated by healing the place lu  whkh 
WIN
WIN
the wine is made.  A proposal has been made by a person
very intelligent in economical afl'airs, to apply a greater
than the usual heat to accelerate the fermentation of
the wine, in those years in wliich grapes have not been
sufficiently ripened, and  when the juice to not  suffi-
ciently disposed to fermentation.
  A  too hosty and violent fermentation to perhaps also
hurtful, from the  dissipation  and loss of some of the
spirit; but of thto we are not certain.  However, we
may distinguish,  in the  ordinary  method of making
wines of gropes, two  periods in the fermentation, the
first of which losu during tbe appearance of the sensi-
ble effects above  mentioned, in which  the  greatest
number of fermentable particles ferment.  After this
first  effort of fermentation, these effecu sensibly dimi-
nish, and ought to be stopped, for reasons  hereafter to
be mentioned.  The fermentative motion of the liquors
then ceases.  The heterogeneous parts that were sus-
pended  in the wines by thto motion,  and render it
inuddy,  are separated  and form a sediment, called the
lees; after which the wine becomes clear; but though
the operation to then  considered as finished,  and the
fermentation apparently ceases, it does not really cease;
and it ought to be continued in some degree, if we would
have good wine.
  In this  new wine a part of the  liquor probably re-
mains that has not fermented,  and which afterward
fermenU, but so very slowly, that none of the sensible
effecu produced in the first fermentation are here per-
ceived.  The fermentation, therefore, still continues in
the wine, during a longer or shorter time, although in
an imperceptible  manner; and this is  the second pe-
riod  of the spirituous fermentation, which  may be
called the imperceptible fermentation. We may easily
perceive that the effect of this imperceptible fermenta-
tion  is the gradual increase of the quantity of alkohol.
It hasnlso another effect  no less advantageous, namely,
the separation of the acid salt called tartar  from the
wine.  This matter is, therefore, a second sediment,
that is formed in the wine,  and  adheres to the sides of
the containing vessels. As the  taste of tartar to harsh
and disagreeable,  it is  evident that the wine, which by
means of the insensible fermentation has  acquired
more alkohol, and has disengaged iuelf of the greater
part of its tartar,  ought  to be much better and  more
agreeable; and for this reason chiefly old  wine is uni-
versally preferable to new wine.
   But  insensible  fermentation can only ripen and
meliorate the wine, if the sensible fermentation  have
regularly  proceeded,  and  been stopped  in due  time.
We  know certainly that  if a  sufficient  time  have not
been allowed for the first period of the fermentation,
the unfermented matter that remains, being in too large
a quantity, will then ferment  in the bottles, or  close
Vessels, in which  the  wine to put  and will occasion
effecu so much more sensible, as the  first fermenta-
tion shall have been  sooner  interrupted: hence  these
wines are always turbid, emit bubbles,  and sometimes
break the bottles from the large quantity  of air disen-
gaged during the fermentation.
   We have an instance of these effecu in the wine of
Champaign, and  in others of  the  same kind.   The
sensible fermentation of these wines is interrupted, or
rather suppressed, that  they may  have this sparkling
quality.   It to well known that these wines make the
corks fly out of the bottles; that they sparkle and froth
when  they are poured  into  glasses; and lastly, lhat
they have a taste much more lively and more piquant
than wines that  do not sparkle;  but this sparkling
quality, and all tiie effecu depending  on it, are only
caused  by a considerable  quantity  of carbonic acid
gas, which is disengaged during the confined fermenta-
tion that the wine has undergone in close vessels.
This air, not having an opportunity of escaping, and
of being  dissipated as fast as it  is disengaged, and
being interposed  between  all the  parte  ofthe wine,
combines in some measure with them,  and adheres in
the same manner as it does to certain mineral waters,
in which it produces nearly the same effecu.  When
this  air to entirely disengaged  from these wines, they
no longer sparkle, they  lose their piquancy of  taste,
become mild, and even almost insipid.
  Such are the  qualities that wine acquires in  time,
when  its first fermentation  bas not continued  suffi-
ciently long. These qualities are  given  purposely to
certain  kinds of wine, to indulge taste or caprice; but
such wines are supposed to be unfit for daily use.
Wines for daily use ought to have undergone so com-
pletely the sensible fermentation, that the succeeding
fermentation shall be insensible, or at least exceedingly
little perceived.  Wine, in  wliich tlie first fermenta-
tion has been too far advanced, is liable to worse in-
conveniences than that in which the first fermentation
has been too quickly suppressed;  for  every lermenta-
ble liquor to, from  iu nature, in a continual  intestine
motion, more or less strong according to circumstances,
from the first instant of the spirituous fermentation,
till it is completely purified:   hence, from the time of
the completion of the spirituous fermentation, or even
before, the wine begins to undergo the acid or acetous
fermentation. This acid fermentation is very slow and
insensible, when the wine  is included in very close
vessels, and in a cool place; but it gradually advances,
so that in a certain tune the  wine,  instead  of being
improved, becomes at  last sour.  This evil cannot be
remedied ; because the fermentation may advance, but
cannot be reverted.
  Wine-merchanU, therefore, when their wines become
sour,  can only conceal or absorb this acidity by certain
substances, as by alkalies and absorbent earths.  But
these  substances give to wine  a dark-greenish colour,
and a taste which,  though not acid, to  somewhat dis-
agreeable.  Besides, calcareous earths accelerate con-
siderably the total destruction and putrefaction  of the
wine.  Oxides of lead, having the property of forming
with the acid of vinegar a salt of an agreeable saccha-
rine taste, which does not alter the colour of tbe wine,
and which besides has  the advantage of stopping fer-
mentation and  putrefaction, might be  very well em-
ployed to remedy the acidity of wine, if lead and all
its preparations were not pernicious to health, as they
occasion most  terrible colics, and even death, when
taken internally.  We cannot  believe that any  wine-
merchant, knowing the evil  consequences  of lead,
should, for the sake of  gain, employ it for the purpose
mentioned; but if there be any such persons, they must
be considered as tlie poisoners and  murderers  of the
public.  AtAlicant, where very sweet wines are made,
it is the practice to mix a little lime with the  grapes
before they are pressed.  This, however, can only neu-
tralize the acid already existing in the grape.
  If wine contain litharge, or any  other oxide of lead,
it may be discovered by evaporating sOine pints of it to
dryness, and melting the residuum in a crucible, at the
bottom of wliich a small button of lead may be found
after  the fusion:  but an easier and more expeditious
proof is by pouring into the wine some liquid sulphu-
ret.  If the precipitate occasioned by this addition of
the sulphuret be white, or only coloured by  the wine,
we  may know that no lead is contained in it;  but if
the  precipitate  be dark coloured,  brown,  or  blackish,
we moy conclude, that  it contains  lead or iron.
  The only substances that cannot absorb or destroy,
but cover and  render supportable the sharpness of
wine, without any inconvenience, are, sugar,  honey,
and other saccharine alimentary matters;  but they can
succeed only when the wine is very little  acid, and
when an exceeding small quantity only of thepe sub-
stances is sufficient to produce the desired effect; other-
wise the wine would  have a sweetish, tart, and not
agreeable taste.
  From what to here said concerning  the acescency of
wine, we may conclude that when this accident bap-
pens,  it cannot by any good  method be  remedied and
that nothing remains to be done with sour wine  but to
sell it to vinegar-makers,  as all honest wiue-mer-
chants do.
  As the must of the grape  contains a greater propor-
tion of tartar than our currant or gooseberry juices
do, Dr. Ure has been  accustomed, for many  years, to
recommend, in hto lectures, the  addition of a small
portion of that salt to our must,  to make it ferment
into a more genuine wine.  Dr. M'CulIoch has lately
prescribed the same addition in his popular treatise on
the art of  making wine.
  The following is Brande's valuable table of the quan
tity of spirit in different kinds of wine :—
                                       Proportion ej'
                                       •pin per coat
                                        iwcim
   1.  Lusa..................  K  .......    2U.47
      Ditto....................   ..          24.35
                     Average...  .........  25.41
   2.  Raisin wine........  .   . .            26.49
      Ditto..................,  «  ...  .... ,  25.77 
WIN
WIN
    Raisin wine.........................  23-20
                   Average.............  25.12
 3. Marsala.............................  2630
   Ditto................................  25.05
                   Average.............  25.09
 4.  Madeira.............................  24.42
   Ditto ...............................  23.93
   Ditto (Sircial).......................  21.40
   Ditto................................  19-24
                   Average.............  22.27
 5. Currantwine........................  20.55
 6. Sherry..............................  19-81
   Ditto................................  19-83
   Ditto................................  18-79
   Ditto................................  1825
                   Average.............  19.17
 7. Teneriffe............................  a979
 B. Colares..............................  19-75
 9. Lachryma Christi....................  1970
10. Constantia, white....................  1975
11. Ditto.red............................  18.92
12. Lisbon..............................  1894
13. Malaga (1666).......................  18.94
14. Bucellas............................  18.49
15. RedMadeira........................  22.30
    Ditto...............................  18.40
                   Average.............  20.35
16. Cape Muschat.......................  18.25
17. Cape Madeira.......................  22.94
    Ditto................................  20.50
    Ditto................................  18.11
                   Average.............  20.51
18. Grapewlne..........................  18.11
19. Calcavella...........................  19.20
    Ditto................................  iaio
                   Average.............  18.65
20. Vidonia.............................  19.25
21.  AlbaFlora...........................  17.26
22.  Malaga..............................  17.2G
23.  White Hermitage....................  17.43
94.  Rousillon............................  19.00
    Ditto................................  17.26
                   Average.............  18.13
25.  Claret..............................  17.11
    Ditto................................  16.32
    Ditto................................  14 08
    Ditto...............................  12.91
                   Average.............  15.10
26.  Malmsey Madeira....................  16.40
27.  Lunel...............................  15.52
28.  Sherooz.............................  15.52
29.  Syracuse............................  15.28
30.  Souterne...........................  14.22
31.  Burgundy............................  16.60
    Ditto................................  15.22
    Ditto................................  14.53
    Ditto................................  1195
                   Average.............  14.57
32.  Hock................................  14.37
    Ditto................................  13.00
    Ditto (old in cask)...................   8.88
                   Average.............  12.08
33. Nice................................  14.63
34. Barsac..............................  13.86
35. Tent................................  13.30
36. Chnmpoign (still)....................  13.80
    Ditto (sparkling).....................  12.80
    Ditto (red)...........................  12.56
    Ditto (ditto).........................  11.30
                   Average.............  12.61
37. Red Hermitage.....................  12.32
38  VindeGrave........................  13.94
     Ditto...............................  12.80
                   Average.............  13.37
39. Frontignac..........................  12.79
40. CoteRotie...........................' 12.32
41. Gooseberry wine.....................  11.84
42. Orange  wine—average of six samples
      made by o London monufocturer....  11.26
43. Tokay..............................   9.88
 44. Elder wine..........................   9.87
45. Cider, highest overage................   9.87
    Ditto, lowest ditto....................   521
 46. Perry, average of four samples........   7.26
 47. Mead...............................   7.32
 48  AlevBurton).........................   8.88
     Ditto (Edinburgh).....................  6-3)
     Ditto (Dorchester!.....................  5.56
                     Average..............  6.87
  49. Brown Stout.........................  6 80
  50. London Porter (average)...............  4.20
  51. Ditto small beer (ditto)................  1.28
  52. Brandy............................... 53.39
  53. Rum................................. 53.68
  54. Gin................................... 51.60
  55. Scotch whiskey....................... 54 32
  56. Irish ditto............................53.90'
  The  wines principally used  in  medicine ore, tiw
vinum album hispanicum, or sherry, vinum  canarium
canary or sack wine, the vinum rhenanum, or Rhenish
wine, and the vinum rubrum, or  port wine.  These
differ from each other in the proportion of their con
stituent principles, and particularly in that of alkohol,
which  they contain.  The qualities of wines depend
not only  upon the difference of the  grapes, us contain-
ing more or less of saccharine juice and the acid mat-
ter which accompanies it, but also upon circumstances
attending the process of fermentation.  New wines are
liable to a strong degree of acescency when taken into
the stomach, and  thereby occasion much  flatulency
and eructations of acid matter;  heortburn and violent
pains in  the stomach from spasms  are also often pro-
duced; and the acid matter, by passing into the intes-
tines and mixing with the bile, is apt to occasion colics
or excite  diarrhoeas.  Sweet wines are likewise more
disposed  to become  acescent  in the stomach than
others; but as the quantity of alkohol which they con-
tain is more considerable than appears sensibly to the
taste, their  acescency is thereby In a great measure
counteracted.  Red port, and most of the red wines,
have an  adstringent quality,  by which they strengthen
the stomach, and prove useful in restraining immode-
rate evacuations; on the contrary, those which'are of
an acid nature, ns Rhenish, poss freely by the kidneys,
and gently loosen the belly.  But this, and perhaps all
the thin or weak wines, though of an agreeable flavour,
yet as containing little alkohol, are  readily disposed to
become acid in the stomach, and thereby to aggravate
all arthritic and calculous complaints, as well as to pro-
duce the effects of new wine.  The general effects ol
wine are, to stimulate the stomach,  exhilarate  the spi-
rits, warm the habit, quicken the circulation, promote
perspiration, and, in large quantities, to prove intoxi-
cating, and powerfully sedative.  In many, disorders,
wine is universally admitted to be of important service,
and especially in fevers of tlie typhus kind, or of a pu-
trid tendency; in which it is found  to raise the pulse,
support the strength, promote a diaphoresis, and to
resist putrefaction;  and in many cases it  proves of
more immediate advantage  than the Peruvian bark.
Delirium, which is the consequence of excessive irri-
tability, ond o defective stole of nervous  energy, is
often entirely removed by the free  use of wine.  It is
also a well-founded observation, that those who indulge
in the use of wine are less subject to fevers of the ma-
lignant end intermittent kind. In the putrid sore throat,
in the  small-pox, when attended with  great debility
and symptoms of putridity,  in  gangrenes, and in the
plague, wine to to be considered as a principal remedy;
and in almost oil cases of languor, and of great, pros.
tration of strength, wine is experienced  to lie a more
grateful and efficacious cordial than can be furnished
from the whole class of aromatics.
  WING.  See Ala.
  WINSLOW, Jambs Benionus, was born  in 1669, in
the isle of Funeit, and having studied a year under
Borrichius, was sent with a pension from the king of
Denmark, to seek improvement  in  the  principal uni-
versities of Europe.   In 1698, he became a pupil of the
celebrated Duverney, at Paris, where he was induced
to abjure the Protestant religion; and the patronage of
Bossuet, who converted him, procured for him the de-
gree of doctor in 1705.  He afterward read lectures of
anatomy  and surgery at the Royal Gardens; and i?
1743 was promoted to the professorship in that lnstitu
tion.  In  the mean  time, he communicated several
papers on anatomical and physiological subjecu to the
Academy of Sciences, by whom,  as  well  as by the
Royal Society of Berlin, he wos admitted an associate
Hto great work, mentioned by Haller as superseding all
former compositions  of anatomy, and entitled " Expo-
sition Anatomique de la Structure du Corps Humam," 
woo
WOR
 Brat appeared at Paris in 1732,4to.  It was frequently
 reprinted, and translated into various languages;  ond to
 ■till regarded as of standard authority. It was intended
 as a plan of a larger work, which, however, he did not
 finish.  He reached the advanced age of ninety-one.
    Winter-bark.  See Winteranus cortex.
    Winter-cherry.  Sec Physalis alkekengi.
   WINTE'RA.   (Named  after Captain Winter, who
 brought the bark from the  stroiu  of Magellan in 1579,
 and introduced it to the knowledge of physicians as
 useful in scurvy, Sec)
   Wintera aromatica.  The systematic name ofthe
 Winter-bark tree.  The bark is called Cortex wintera-
 nus;  Cortex mageUanicus ; Cortex canella alba ;  and
 the tree, Winteranus spurius ;  Canella cubana ; Win-
 lerania eandla, and Winteria  aromatiaa—pedunculis
 aggregatis  terminalibus,  pistalis quatuor, of Liri-
 nceus.  It is a native of the West Indies.   The bark
 is  brought into  Europe  in long  quills,  somewhat
 thicker  than cinnamon.  Their  taste to  moderately
 warm, aromatic,  and bitterish, and  of an  agreeable
 smell  somewhat resembUng that of cloves.  Canella
 nlba has been supposed to possess considerable  me-
 dicinal powers in the cure of scurvy and some other
 complaints.  It is now merely considered as a  useful
 and cheap aromatic, and to chiefly employed for the
 purpose of correcting and  rendering less disagreeable
 the more powerful  and nauseous drugs; with which
 View it is used in the tinctura amara, vinum amarum,
 vinum rhai, Sec of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.
   Winteranus cortex.  See Wintera aromatica.
   Wintira'nus spurius.   See Canella alba.
   [Winter green  See Pyrola  umbellata.  A.]
   WISEMAN, Richard, was  first known  as a  sur-
  feon in the civil wars of Charles I., and accompanied
  rince Charles, when a fugitive, in France, Holland,
 and Flanders. He served for three years in the Spanish
 navy, and, returning with the prince to Scotland, was
 made  prisoner  in the battle of Worcester.  After his
 liberation  in  1652,  he  settled in London.  When
 Charles II. was restored,  he became eminent  in his
 profession, and was made one ofthe sergeant-surgeons
 to the king.  In 1676, he appears, from the preface to
 hto  works, to have  been a sufferer by ill health for
 twenty years: but the time of his death is not known.
 The result of his experience was given  in  "Several
 Surgical Treotises on Tumouns,  Ulcers, Diseases of
 the Anus, Scrofula, Wounds, Gunshot Wounds, Frac-
 tures and Luxations, and Syphilis."  He seems to have
 given  a faithful account  of more than  six hundred
 cases, recording his failures as well as hto cures.  He
 advocated the efficacy of the royal touch in scrofula,
 though the fallacy is evident even from his own nar-
 ration. His writings have long been regarded as stand-
 ard authority.         •
   WITHERING, William, was bom  in 1741, and
 finished his medical education at Edinburgh, where he
 took his degree at  twenty-five.  From Stafford, where
 he first settled and married, ne removed to  Birming-
 ham, and speedily obtained a very extensive practice by
 hto skill and assiduity, without neglecting his scientific
  SursuiU, which were chiefly in botany and chemistry.
  Ie was author of several valuable  publications: "A
 Botanical Arrangement of British Plants," which  ap-
 peared at first in 1776, in two volumes, 8vo., but pro-
 gressively increased  to  four; a translation  of  Berg-
 man's " Sciagrophio Regni Mineralis;" and some che-
 mical  and mineralogical  papers  contributed to  the
 Royal Society, of which he wos o fellow.  " Account
 of the Scarlet  Fever,  &c.;" "Account of the  Fox-
 glove," with Practical Remarks on the Dropsy and
 other Diseases, published  in 178o.  His lungs being
 weak, he found it necessary, in the winter of 1793, to
 go to Lisbon, and  afterward to relax from his profes-
 sional exertions.  His death occurred in 1799.
  WITHERITE.  See Heavy-spar.
  WOAD.  See Isatis lindoria.
  WOLFRAM.   An ore of tungsten.
  WOLF'S-BANE.  See Aconitum napellus.
  WOMB.  See Utems.
  Womb, inflammation of.   See  Hysteritis.
  Wood-louse.  See Oniscus asellus.
  Wood-sorrd.   See Oxalis acetosella.
  Wood-sione.  See Hornstone.
  WOODVILLE,  William, was born  at Cocker-
mouth  in 1752.  After serving a short apprenticeship
loan apothecary he graduated at  Edinburgh in  1775.
 Then passing some time on the Continent,  he' settled
 near his native place, and practised  there for five or
 six years.  He next  came to London, and  was soon
 appointed  a physician to the Middlesex Dispensary.
 In 1790, be published the first part, which was after-
 ward completed in  four  quarto volumes, of a highly
 valuable work, entitled " Medical Botany."  The  fol-
 lowing year he was elected physician  to the Small-pox
 Hospital; and in executing the duties of tbat office he
 displayed the highest zeal.  He gave  a manifest proof
 of his attention to the subject, by publishing iu  1796 the
 first part of a " History of the Small-pox in Great Bri-
 tain, &c.;" but the discovery of vaccination superseded
 the necessity of completing that work.  Dr. Woodville
 was duly impressed with the importance of  what had
 been announced  by  Dr. Jenner; but  feeling a proper
 degree of skepticism at first, he was anxious to inves-
 tigate the practice fully, before he gave it hto sanction.
 Unfortunately he was  led into an error at the outset,
 by not keeping in recollection, that the atmosphere of
 the  hospital  wos loaded  with variolous contagion,
 whence some unpleasant results appeared; but  this
 being suggested to him, he was induced, on  more ma-
 ture consideration, strenuously to advocate  the prac-
 tice of vaccination; and by the excellent opportunities
 he enjoyed, he contributed very materially to iu rapid
 success.  He died in 1805.
   WOODWARD, John, was born in Derbyshire in
 1664, and put apprentice to some trade in London;  but
 evincing an ardour for science, Dr. Barwick took him
 into his family, and  for four years instructed him in
 medicine and anatomy; after which he  procured him
 the  medical professorship at Gresham College.   He
 published about thto time an  essay towards a  Natural
 History of the Earth, wliich, though executed  wilhout
 sufficient preparation,  procured his election into  the
 Royal Society.   In 1695,  he  was created  M.D. by
 Archbishop Tenison, and the year after obtained  the
 same degree from Cambridge; whence he was admitted
 into the College of Physicians os a fellow,  in 1702.
 He however pursued his  inquiries into natural history
 and antiquities for some time with great zeal.  In 1718,
 he published a work entitled " The State of Physic and
 of Diseases," containing some fanciful theories, which
 were ably confuted by Dr. Freind, both ludicrously and
 seriously.  He died  at Gresham College in 1727,  be-
 queathing  his personal property to the University of
 Cambridge, for the endowment of an annual  lecture-
 ship, on some subject  taken from his own writings.
 Soon after his death,  a catalogue  of his fossils w as
 published in 1737, his " Select Cases and Consultations
 in Physic," containing some  valuable  observations.
 He supposed tlie vital principle to reside not iu  the
 nerves, but in the blood, and other parts of  the body;
 and he made many experimenu to  establish the vis
 insita of muscles.
   Woody nightshade.  See Solanum dulcamara.
   WORL.   See Verticillus.
   WORM.  Vermis.  There are several kinds of ani-
 mals which infest the  human  body.  Their usual di-
 vision is into  those which inhabit only  the intestinal
 canal, os the ascarides, Sec.; and those  which  are found
 in other paru, as hydatids, &c.  Such is the nature and
 office of the human  stomach  and intestines, that in-
 secu and worms, or their ovula, moy not unfrequently
 be conveyed into that canal with those things that are
 continually taken os food; but such insects, or  worms,
 do not live long, and  seldom, if ever, generate in a
 situation so different from their natural one.  Besides
 these, there are worms that are never found  in any
 other situation than the human stomach or intestines,
 and which  there generate and produce their species.
 Thus it appears that the human stomach and intestines
 are the seat for animalcula, which are translated from
 their natural situation,  and also for worms proper to
 them, which live in no other situation.
  First Class.  Thto contains those which are gene-
 rated and nourished in the human intestinal canal, and
 wliich there propagate their species.
  Second Class, comprehends those insecu or  worms
 that accidentally enter the human prima; viae  ab extra,
 and which never propagate their species in that canal,
 but are soon eliminated from the body.  Such  are se-
 veral species of Scarabai, the  Lumbricus terrestris
the Fasciola,  the Gordius intestmalis, and  others
The second class belongs to the province of natural his-
tory.  The consideration of the  first class belongs to
/>? 
XER
XYL
the physician, which, from the variety it affords, may
be divided into different orders, genera, and species.
  Order I. Round worms.
  Genus I. Intestinal ascarides.
  Character.   Body round, head obtuse, and furnished
with three vesicles.
  Species 1. Ascaris lumbricoides.  The long round
worm, or lumbricoid ascaris.
  Character.   When  full grown, a foot  in length.
Mouth triangular.
  2. Ascaris  vermicularis.  The  thread  or maw-
worm.
  Character.  When full grown, half an inch in length.
Tail terminates in a fine point
  Genus II. Intestinal  trichurides.
  Character.  Body round, tail three times the length
of the body, head without vesicles.
  Speciee.  Trichuris vulgaris.  Thetrichuris.or long
thread-worm.
  Character.  The head furnished with a proboscis.
  Order II. The flat worms.
  Genus I. Intestinal tape-worm.
  Character.  Body flat and jointed.
  Species 1.  Tania osculis marginalibus.   The long
tape-worm.
  Character.  The oscula are situated upon the margin
of the joints.
  2. Tanio osculis superficialibus.  Tbe broad tape-
worm.
  Character.  The oscula are placed upon the flattened
surface.
  These worms were all  known to the ancients, the
trichuris  only excepted, and are  mentioned in the
works of Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Paulus iEgineta,
and Pliny.
  When worms  are generated in the  intestines, they
often produce the following symptoms, viz. variable
appetite,  foetid breath,  acrid eructations and pains in
the stomach, grinding of the teeth during sleep, picking
of the nose, paleness of the countenance;  sometimes
dizziness,  hardness and fulness of the  belly; slimy
stools, with occasional griping pains, more particularly
about the navel, heat and itching about the anus; short
dry cough; emaciation of the body; slow fever, witb
evening exacerbations  and irregular pulse, and some-
times convulsive fits.
   Worm-bark.  See Geoffraa jamaicensis.
   Worm-grass, perennial.  See Spigdia.
   Worm, Guinea.  See Dracunculus.
   Worm, ring.   See Herpes.
  WORMSEED.  See .Artemisia santonica,
  WORMWOOD.  See Artemisia absinthium.
   Wormwood, common. See Artemisia absinthium.
   Wormwood, mountain.  See Artemisia glacialis. —
yiT Ata'ppa.  (From the province of Xalappa, in New
■"*■  Spain, whence it comes.)  Jalap.
  XA'NTHIUM.  (From \avBos, yellow:  so  named
because it is said to make the hair yellow.)   The
name of a genus of  planu in the Linnean system.
Class, Monada ; Order, Pentandria.   The less bur-
dock.
  Xanthium strumariux. The systematic nome of
tbe less burdock. This herb of Linneus was once
esteemed in the  cure of scrofula, but like most other
remedies against this disease, proves ineffectual  The
seeds are administered internally  in some countries
against erysipelas.
  [Xanthoxylum fraxineum.  See Prickly-ash.  A.l
  XERA'SIA.   (From fepoc, dry.)  An excessive te-
nuity, or softness of the hairs, similar to down.
   Wormwood, Roman.   See Artemisia absinthium.
   Wormwood, eea.  See Artemisia maritima.
   Wormwood, Tartarian.  See Artemisia santonica.
  WORT.  An infusion of malt.   This has been found
 useful in the cure of the scurvy.  Dr. Macbride, in his
 very ingenious experimental essays, hoving laid down
 as a principle, " that the cure of the scurvy depends on
 the fermentative quality in the remedies made use of,"
 was led to inquire after a substance capable of being
 preserved during a long sea-voyage, and yet containing
 materials by which a fermentation might occasionally
 be excited in the bowels.  Such a one appeared to him
 to be found in  malt, which is well known to be the
 grain of barley, brought suddenly to a germinating
 state by heat and moisture, and then dried, whereby its
 saccharine principle is developed, and rendered easy of
 extraction by watery liquors.  The sweet infusion of
 this he proposed to give as a dietic article to scorbutic
 persons, expecting that It would ferment in their bowels,
 and give out  iu fixed air, by the antiseptic  powers of
 which the strong tendency to  putrefaction in thto dis-
 ease might be corrected.
  It was some time before a fair trial of thto purposed
 remedy could be obtained; and different  reports were
 made concerning it.  By some cases, however, pub-
 lished in a postscript of the second edition of the doc-
 tor's work in 1767, it appears that scorbutic complaints
 of the most dangerous  kind have actually been cured
 at sea by the use of wort.  Its general effecu were to
 keep the patient's bowels open, and to prove highly nu-
 tritious and strengthening.  It sometimes purged too
 much, but thto effect was easily obviated by the tinctura
 thebaica.  Other unquestionable cases of its success in
 this disease are  to be seen in the London Medical  Es-
says and Inquiries.
  The use of wort has hence  been adopted in other
cases where a strong and putrid disposition in the fluids
 appeared to prevail, as in cancerous and phagedenic
ulcers; and instances are published, in the fourth volume
of the work above mentioned, of its remarkable good
effects in these cases.
  As the efficacy of Ihe ma)t infusion depends upon its
producing changes  in  the whole mass of fluids, it is
obvious that it must be  taken in large quantities for a
considerable length of time, and rather as an article of
diet than medicine.   From one to four pints daily have
generally been directed.  The proportion recommended
in preparing it, is one measure of ground malt to three
equal  measures of boiling water.   The mixture must
be weU stirred, and left  to stand, covered, three or four
hours.  It should be made fresh every day.
  WOUNDWORT.  See Laserpitium chironium.
  WRAPPER.  See Valva
  WRIST. See Carpus.
  Xerocolly'rium.  (From \npos, dry, and K-iXXvpiov,
a collyrium.)  A dry collyrium.
  Xeromy'rum.  (From i-r/poj, dry, and pvpov, an
ointment.)  A dry ointment
  XEROPHTHA'LMIA.  (Hnpoc, dry, and otbdaXpta,
an inflammation of the eye.)  A dry inflammation of
the eye without discharge.       ...
  Xi'phium.  (From lidos, a sword: so named from
the sword-like shape of iu leaves.)   Spurgewort.
  XIPHOID.   (Xiphoides; from Iji^oc, a sword, and
eir5oj, likeness.)  A term given by anatomisu to parts
which had some resemblance to an ancient sword, as
the xiphoid cartilage.
  Xiphoid cartilago.  See Cartilago ensiformis.
  Xyloa'loes.  See Lignum aloes.
  Xyloba'lsaudm.  See Amyris gileadensis.
X 
Y
YTT
YUC
    YAM.  See Dioscorea.
  .,  YANOLITE.  See ./izinite.
  YARROW.  See Achillea millefolium.
  YAWS.  1. The Africon name for raspberry.
  2. The  name of a  disease which resembles a rasp-
berry.  See Frambasia.
   Yayama.  The Brazilian name of the pine-apple.
  YELLOW  EARTH.  An ochre yeUow-coloured
mineral, found in. Upper Lusatia.
   Yellow fever.  See Febris continua.
   Yellow saunders.  See Santalum album.
  YENITE.  See Lievritc.
  YEST.  See Fermentum.
   Yoked leaf.  See Conjugatus.
  YOLK.  See Vitellus.
   Yorkshire sanicle.  See Pinguicula.
  Ypsiloqlo'ssus.  (From  vipiXouSts, the ypsiloid
bone, and  yXiaooa, the tongue.)   A muscle originating
in the os hyoides, and terminating in the tongue.
  Ypsiloi'des.  (From v, the  Greek  letter, called
ypsilon, and tiSos, a likeness.)   The os hyoides: so
named from iu likeness to the Greek letter ypsilon.
  YTTRIA.  This to a new earth discovered in 1794,
by Professor Gadolin,  in a stone from Ytterby, in
Sweden.
  It may be obtained most readily by fusing the gado-
linite with two paru of caustic potassa, washing  the
mass with boiling water, and filtering the liquor, which
is of a fine green.  This liquor is to be evaporated, ti.l
no more oxide of manganese falls down from it in a
blaek powder; after which the liquid is to be saturated
wilh nitric acid.  At the same time digest the sediment
that was  not  dissolved, in very dilute nitric  ocid,
which will dissolve the earth with much heat, leaving
the silex, and the highly oxided iron, undissolved.  Mix
the two liquors, evaporote them to dryness, redissolve
ond filter,  which will  separate any silex or oxide of
iron that may hove been left.  A few drops of a solu-
tion of carbonate of potassa will separate any lime
that may be present, and a coutious addition of hydro-
sulphuret of potassa  will throw down  the oxide of
manganese that may hove been left; but if too much
be employed, it will throw  down the yttrio likewise.
Lastly, the yttrio is to be precipitated by pure ammo-
nia, well washed and dried.
  Yttria is perfectly  white, when not  contaminated
with oxide of manganese, from which it is not easily
freed.  Iu  specific gravity is 4.842.  It has neither
taste nor smell.  It is infusible alone; but with borax:
melu into a transparent glass, or opaque white, if the
borax were in excess.  It to insoluble in water, and in
caustic fixed alkalies; but it dissolves in carbonate of
ammonia, though it requires five or six times as much
as glucine.   It is soluble in most of the acids.   The
oxalic acid, or oxalate of ammonia, forms precipitates
in its solutions  perfectly resembling the muriate of
silver.  Prussiate of potassa, crystallized and redis-
solved in water, throws it down in white grains; phos-
phate of soda, in white gelatinous flakes; infusion of
galls, in brown flocks.
  Some chemists are inclined to consider yttria rather
as  a  metallic  than  as an earthy substance: their
reasons, are, its specific gravity, iu forming  coloured
salu, and iu property of oxygenizing  muriatic  ocid
ofter it hos  undergone a long calcination.
  When yttrio is treated with potassium in the some
manner as  the  other earths, similar resulu are ob-
tained ; the potassium becomes potassa, and the earth
gains  appearances of metallization; so  that  it to
scarcely to  be doubted, says Sir H. Davy, that yttria
consists of inflammable matter, metallic in iu nature,
combined with  oxygen.  The salu of yttria  have the
following general characters:—
  1. Many of them are insoluble in water.
  2. Precipitates are occasioned in those which  dis
solve, by phosphate of soda, carbonate of soda, oxalate
of ammonio, tartrate of potassa, and ferroprussiaie of
potassa.
  3. If we except the sweet-tasted soluble sulphate of
yttria, the other  salts of thto earth resemble those with
the base of lime in their solubility.
  YTTRO-CERITE.  A mineral of a reddish, grayish
white, and  a violet-blue colour, consisting of oxide of
cerium, yttria, lime, and fluoric acid, found hitherto
only at Finbo, in Sweden.
  YTTRO-TANTALITE.  An ore of tantalum, from
which the columbic acid is procured.
  YUCCA.  (Yucca, Yuca, or lucca, of the original
inhabitants of America.)   The name of a genus ot
plants  in the Linnaean system.  Class,  Hexandria i
Order, Monogynia.
  Yucca gloriosa.  See Adam's needle.
Z
                      ZEA

    Za'ccharum.  See Saccharum.
     ZACCHIA, Paolo, an eminent physician, was
born at Rome in 1585, and became distinguished by his
learning and accomplishments, as well as by hto pro-
fessional skill.  He was physician  to Pope  Innocent
X., and  celebrated among  hto  contemporaries by
various pubUcations, of which the principal is entitled,
" ttutestiones Medico-legales," and has been often
reprinted.   He wos also the author, in Italian,  of two
esteemed works, on the  Lent diet,  and on hypochon-
driocol affections.  He died in 1659.
  Za'tfran.  (Arabian.)  Saffron.
  ZAFFRE  Saffre.  The residuum of cobalt after
the sulphur, arsenic, and other volatile matters  of this
mineral have been expelled by calcination.
  Zai'bac.  (Arabian.)  Quicksilver.
  Za'rza.  An ancient  and  provincial name  of the
sarsaparilla.
  ZE'A.   (Zea, a,  f.;  a name borrowed from the
ancient Greeks, whose Itta appears to have been some
kind of 7Viticum or Hordeum, agreeing with this genus
only as being a  grain cultivated for the use of man.)
The maize.
                      ZEO

  Zea mays.  The  systematic name of the Indian
wheat-plant, the common maize, or Indian  corn, a
native of America and cultivated  in Italy and several
ports of Europe, for its groin, which is ground for the
same purposes as our wheat, to which it is very little
inferior.
  ZEDOA'RIA. 1. The nome of a genus of.planU in
the Linnaean system. ' Class, Monandrio; Orde.-; Mo-
nogynia.  Zednory.
  2. The pharmacopoeial name of a Kampfera.   See
Kampfera rotunda.
  Zedoaria lonoa.  The long rooU of the Kampfera
rotunda, of Linnaeus.
  Zedoaria rotunda.  The round  root  of the ze-
doary plant. See Kampfera rotunda.
  ZEDOARY.  See Zedoaria.
  ZEINE.   A  yellow substance,  having the appear
ance of wax, obtained from maize or Indian corn.
  ZEOLITE.  The name of a very extensive mineral
genus, containing the following species:
  1. Dodecahedral zeolite, or leucite.
  2. Hexahedrai zeolite, or analcime.
  3. Rhomboidal zeolite, chabasite, or chabaslo
f 
ZIN
ZLN
  4. Pyramidal zeolite, or cross stone.
  5. Diprisinatic zeolite, or laumonite.
  6. Prismatic zeolite, or mesotype, divided into three
subspecies: natrolite; mealy zeolite, of a white colour,
of various shades; and fibrous zeolite, of which there
are two kinds.
  a. The acicular, or needle zeolite, the mesotype of
Haiiy.  This to of a grayish, yellowish, or reddish-
white colour.   It is found in Scotland.
  6. Common fibrous zeolite, of a white colour.
  7. Prismatoidal zeolite, or stilbite, comprehending,
  a. Foliated zeolite, stilbite of Hady of a white and
red colour, beautiful specimens of which are found in
Stirlingshire.
  b. Radiated zeolite, of a yellowish-white, or grayish-
white colour.
  8. Axifrangible zeolite, or apophyllite.
  Ze'rna.   An ulcerated impetigo.
  ZERO.  The commencement of a scale marked 0:
thus we say, the zero of Fahrenheit,  which  is 32°
below the melting point of ice; the zero of the centi-
grade scale, which coincides with the freezing of
water.  The absolute zero is the imaginary point in
the scale of temperature, when tho whole  heat  is
exhausted: the term of absolute cold or privation of
caloric.
  ZI'BETHUM.  (From Zobeth, Arabian.)  Civetta.
Civet. A soft,  unctuous, odoriferous substance, about
the consistence  of honey or butter, of a whitish, yel-
lowish, or  brownish colour, sometimes blackish, con-
tained in some excretory follicles near the anus of the
Viverra  zibetha, of Linneus.  It has a grateful  smell
when diluted, and an  unctuous subacrid  taste, and
possesses  stimulating,  nervine,  and   antispasmodic
virtues.
  ZIMMERMAN, John George, was born in 1728, at
Brug, in the canton of  Bern, and studied medicine
under Haller at  Gottingen, where he took his degree at
23.   Having married a  relation of Haller, at Bern,
he settled as a physician in hto native town; the re-
tirement  of which gave him an  opportunity of com-
posing many pieces in prose and verse, and particularly
a sketch of his popular work "On Solitude."   His
treatise " On the Experience of Medicine," appeared
in 1763, and three  years after, that on dysentery.  In
1768, he accepted the post of physician to the king of
England  for Hanover, whither he removed.  Here the
accumulation of business tended in some measure to
allay the irritability of his temper ; and being obliged
about three years after, to put himself under the core
of o surgi-on at Berlin for some local complaint, the
notice that was taken of him, even by the king, con-
tributed much to improve his health  and spiriu, and
if course his happiness.   Having lost hto first wife, he
formed  a second matrimonial  connexion  in 1762;
which helped much to alleviate the afflictions to which
he was afterward exposed.  In 1786 he was sent for to
attend the  great Frederick in his lost illness:  and he
published on account of the conversations which he
had  with that celebrated  prince.  He was led, too, to
defend the character of Frederick against the censures
of Count de Mirabeau,  which suffered him  to severe
criticisms.  His political and religious principles in-
duced him also  to  attack those societies which paved
the way to  the French revolution; and he advised tbe
Emperor Leopold  to suppress them  by force;  and
hoving laid on unavowed publication to the charge of
a particular person, he subjected himself to n prosecu-
tion for a libel.  His mind bod orrived to such o state
of irritation, tbot the approach of the French towards
Hanover almost subverted his reason; he abstained
from food,  and died absolutely worn out in 1795.
  ZIMOME.  See Gluten, vegetable.
  ZINC.  (Zincum, a Germon word.)   A metal found
In nature combined with oxygen, carbonic  acid, ond
sulphuric acid;  and mineralized by sulphur.  Native
oxide of  zinc is commonly colled calamine.  It occurs
in a loose, and in a compact form, amorphous, of a
white, gray, yellow, or  brown colour, without lustre,
or transparency.  Combined with carbonic acid, it is
called vitreous zinc ore, or native carbonate of zinc.  It
is found in solid masses, sometimes in six-sided com-
pressed prisms, both ends being covered with pentagons.
Its colour is generally grayish inclining to black.  It  is
often transparent   Sulphate of zinc is found efflores-
cent in the form of stalactites, or_m rhombs.  Sulphu-
ret of zinc, ot blende, to the most abundant  ore.   It is
found of various  colours; brown, yellow, hyacinth,
black, Sec, and with various degrees of lustre and
transparency.  This zinc ore is contaminated with iron,
lead, argillaceous  and silicious earths, &c.  It occurs
both  in amorphous masses and crystallized in a diver-
sity of polygonal figures.
  It is of a bluish-white colour, somewhat brighter than
lead ; of considerable hardness, and so malleable as
not to be broken with the hammer, though it cannotbe
much extended in this way.   It to very easily extended
by the rollers of the flatting mill.  Iu sp. gr. is from
6.9 to 7.2.  In  a temperature between 210° and 300°
of F., it  has so much ductility that it can be drawn
into wire, as well as laminated.
  When broken by bending, its texture appears  as if
composed of cubical grains.   On account of its imper-
fect  malleability, it to difficult to reduce it into small
paru by  filing or hammering; but it may he granu-
lated, like the  malleable  metals, by pouring it, when
fused, into cold  water; or, if it be  heated nearly to
melting, it is then sufficiently brittle to be pulverized.
  It  melts long before  ignition, at  about the 700th de-
gree of Fahrenheit's thermometer; and, soon after it
becomes red-hot, it burns with a dazzling white flame,
of a bluish  or yellowish  tinge, and  is oxidized with
such  rapidity, that it flies up  in  the  form of white
flowers,  called  the flowers of zinc,  or philosophical
wool.  These arc generated so plentifully, that the ac-
cess of air is soon intercepted; aud the  combustion
ceases, unless the matter be stirred, and a considerable
heat kepi up.  The white oxide of zinc.is not volatile,
but isdrrven up merely by the force of the combustion.
When it  is again  urged by a strong heat, it becomes
converted into a clear yellow glass.  If zinc be heated
in closed vessels, it rises without decomposition.
  When  zinc is burned in chlorine, a solid substance
is formed of a whitish-gray colour, and  semitrans-
parent.  Thto is the only chloride of zinc, as there is
only one oxide of the metal.   It may likewise be made
by heating together zinc filings andcorrosive sublimate.
It is  as soft as wax, fuses at  a  temperature a little
above 212°,  and rises  in the  gaseous form at a heat
much below ignition.  Ite  toste is  intensely acrid, and
it corrodes the skin. It acts upon water, and dissolves
in it, producing  much heat;  and  its solution decom-
posed, by an alkali, affords the white hydroted oxide
of zinc.  This chloride has been called butter of zinc,
and muriate of zinc.
  Blende  is the native sulphuret of zinc.  The two
bodies are difficult to  combine  artificially.  The salu
of zinc possess the following general characters:—
  1.  They generally yield colourless solutions  with
woter.
  2.  Ferroprussiate of potassa, hydrosulphuret of po-
tassa, hydriodate of potassa, sulphuretted hydrogen,
and alkalies, occasion white precipitates.
  3.  Infusion of gall produces no precipitate.
  The diluted sulphuric  acid dissolves zinc: at the
some time thot the temperoture of the solvent is in-
Creased, and much hydrogen  escapes, an undissolved
residue is left, which has  been  supposed to consist of
plumbago.   Proust, however, says, that it is a mixture
of arsenic, lead, and copper.   As the combination of
the sulphuric acid and the oxide proceeds, the tempera-
ture  diminishes, and the sulphate of zinc, which to
more soluble in hot than cold water, begins to sepa-
rate, and  disturb the tronsporency of the fluid.  If
more water be added, the salt may be obtained in fine
prismatic four-sided  crystals.  The white vitriol, or
copperas,  usually sold, to  crystallized hastily, in the
same manner as loaf-sugar, which on this account it
resembles in appearance; it is slightly efflorescent.
The white  oxide of zinc  is soluble" in the sulphuric
ocid, and  forms the same salt as  to afforded  by zinc
itself.
  The hydrogen gas that  is extricated from water by
the action of sulphuric acid, carries up with it a por
lion of zinc, which is apparently  dissolved in  it; but
this is deposited spontaneously, at least in part, if not
wholly, by standing.   It burns with a  brighter flame
than common hydrogen.
  Sulphate of zinc is prepored in  the large way from
some varieties of the native  sulphuret.  The ore to
roosted, wetted with water, and  exposed  to  the air.
The sulphur attracts oxygen, and is converted into sul-
phuric acid; ond the  rnetal, being at tlie same time
oxidized, combines with the acid. After some time, iho 
ZIN                                             ZIN
sulphate is extracted by solution in water; and the
solution being evaporated to dryness, the mass is run
into moulds.  Thus the white vitriol of the shops
generally contains a small portion of iron, and some-
times of lead.
  Sulphurous  acid  dissolves zinc, and sulphuretted
hydrogen is evolved.  The solution, by exposure to the
air,  deposites needly  crystals,  which, according  to
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, are sulphuretted sulphite of
zinc.  By dissolving oxide of zinc in sulphurous acid,
the  pure sulphite is obtained.  This  is soluble, and
crystallizable.
  Diluted nitric acid combines rapidly with zinc, and
produces much  heat, at the same time that a large
quantity of nitrous air flies off.  The solution is very
caustic, and affords  crystals  by evaporation and cool-
ing,  which slightly detonate upon hot coals, and leave
oxide of zinc behind.  Thto salt to deliquescent.
  Muriatic acid acts very strongly upon zinc, and dis-
engages much hydrogen; the solution, when evapo-
rated, does not afford crystals, but becomes gelatinous.
By a strong heat it  is partly decomposed, a portion  of
the acid being expelled, and partof the muriate  sub-
limes and condenses in a congeries of prisms.
  Phosphoric acid dissolves zinc.  The phosphate does
not  crystallize, but  becomes gelatinous, and may  be
fused by a strong heat The concrete  phosphoric acid
heated with zinc filings is decomposed.
  Fluoric acid likewise dissolves zinc.
  The boracic acid digested with zinc becomes milky;
and if a solution of borax be added to a solution  of
muriate or nitrate of zinc, an insoluble borate of zinc
is thrown down.
  A solution of carbonic acid in water dissolves a small
quantity of zinc, and more  readily its oxide.  If the
solution be exposed  to the air, a thin iridescent pellicle
forms on iu surfacf.
  The acetic acid readily dissolves zinc, and yields  by
evaporation crystals of acetate of zinc, forming rhom-
boidal or hexagonal plates.   These are not altered by
exposure to the air, are soluble in water, and burn with
a blue flame.
  The  succinic  acid  dissolves zinc  with efferves-
cence, and the  solution yields  long, slender, foliates'
crystals.
  Zinc to readily dissolved in benzoic acid, and the  so-
lution yields needle-shaped crystals, which are soluble
both in water and in alkohol.  Heat decomposes them
by volatilizing their ocid.
  The oxalic acid attacks zinc with o violent efferves-
cence, and a white powder soon  subsides, which is
oxalate of zinc.  If oxalic acid he dropped into a solu-
tion of sulphate, nitrate, or muriate of zinc, the same
salt is precipitated; it being scarcely soluble in water
unless an excess of acid be present. It contains seventy-
five per cent of metal.
   The tartaric acid likewise dissolves zinc with effer-
 veM:ence, and forms a salt difficult of solution in woter.
   The citric acid attacks zinc with effervescence, and
small brilliant crystals of citrate of zinc are gradually
deposited, which  are  insoluble  in water.  Their taste
is styptic and metallic, and they are composed of equal
paru of the acid and of oxide of zinc.
   The malic  acid dissolves zinc, and affords beautiful
crystals by evaporation.
   Lactic acid acu upon zinc with effervescence, and
produces a crystallizable salt.
   The metallic acids likewise combine with zinc.   If
arsenic acid be poured on  it, an effervescence takes
place, arsenical hydrogen gas is emitted,  and a block
powder follsdovvn, which to orsenic in the metallic stole,
the  zinc having deprived a portion of the  arsenic, as
well as the water, of iu oxygen. If one (part of zinc
filings, and two parU of dry arsenic acid be distilled  in
a retort, a violent detonation takes place when the  re-
tort becomes red, occasioned by the sudden absorption
 of tbe oxygen of the acid by the zinc. The arseniate
 ot zinc may be precipitated by pouring arsenic acid into
 the solution of acetate of zinc, or by mixing a solution
 of an alkaline arseniate with that of sulphate of zinc.
 It is a vjiite powder, insoluble in water.
   By a similar process zinc may be combined with the
 molybdic c^j^ and  with the oxide of tungsten, the
  tungstic aciu 0f some, with both of which it forms o
  white insolubi compound;  ond with the chromic ocid,
  the result of whcJi  compound to equally insoluble, but
 of  an orange-red olour.
  Zinc likewise forms some triple salte.  Thus, if the
white oxide of zinc be boiled in a solution of muriate
of ammonia, a considerable portion to dissolved ; and
though part of the oxide is again deposited as the solu-
tion cools, some of it remains combined  with the ocid
and alkali in the solution, and to not precipitable either
by pure alkalies or  their carbonates.  This triple salt
does not crystallize.
  If the acidulous tartrate of potassa be boiled in water
with zinc filings, a triple compound will  be formed,
which is very soluble in water, but not easily crystal-
lized.  This,  like  the preceding, cannot be precipitated
from its solution either by pure or carbonated alkalies.
  A triple sulphate of zinc and iron may be formed by
mixing together the sulphates of iron and of zinc dis-
solved in water, or by dissolving iron and zinc in dilute
sulphuric acid.   This salt  crystallizes in rhomboids,
which nearly resemble the sulphate of  zinc in figure,
but are of a pale green-colour.  In taste, and in degree
of solubility, it differs  little from the sulphate of zinc.
It contains' a much larger  proportion of zinc than of
iron.
  A triple sulphate of zinc and cobalt, as first noticed
by Linjc, moy be obtained by digesting zoffre in o solu-
tion of sulphate of zinc.  On evaporation, large quad-
rilateral prisms  are obtained, which effloresce on  ex-
posure to the air.
  Zinc is precipitated from acids by the soluble earths
and the alkalies:  the latter redissolve the precipitate, if
they be added in excess.
  Zinc decomposes, or alters, the neutral sulphates isj
the  dry way. When fused with sulphate of potassa,
it converts that salt into a  sulphuret: the zinc at the
same time being  oxidized,  ond portly dissolved in  tha
sulphuret  When  pulverized  zinc is added  to fused
nitre, or projected together with that salt into a red-hot
crucible, a very violent detonation takes  place ; inso-
much that it is necessary for the operator to be careful
in using only small quantities, lest the burning niattei
should  be thrown  about.  The zinc is oxidized, and
part of the oxide combines with the alkali, with which
it forms a compound soluble in water.
   Zinc decomposes common salt, and also  sal ammo-
niac, by combining with the muriatic acid. The filings
of zinc likewise decompose alum, when boiled  in a
solution of Ciat  salt, probably by combining with it*
excess of acid.
   Zinc may  be combined with phosphorus, by project-
ing smoll pieces of phosphorus on the zinc melted in St
crucible, the zinc being covered with o little resin, lo
 prevent its  oxidation.   Phosphuret of zinc is white.
with a shode of bluish gray, has a metallic lustre,  and
is a little malleable.  When zinc  and phosphorus ore
exposed to heat in a retort, a red sublimate rises,  and
likewise a bluish sublimate in needly  crystals with a
metallic lustre.  If zinc and phosphoric acid be heated
together, with or without a little charcoal, needly crys-
tals are sublimed, of a silvery-white colour.   All these,
according to Pelletier, are phosphuretted oxides of zinc,
   Most of the metallic combinations of zinc hove been
already treated of.   It forms a brittle compound with
antimony; and its effects on manganese, tungsten,  and
molybdena, have not yet been ascertained.
   Zinc, vitriolated.  See Zinci sulphas.
   Zi'nci acetas.  See Acetas zinci.
   Zinci oxidum.  Zincum calcinatum.  Oxide of zinc.
Flowers of zinc.  Nihil album; Lanaphilosophorum.
" Throw gradually little pieces of zinc into a large deep
crucible placed  obliquely and made of a white heat,
another crucible being placed over it, so  that the zinc
moy be exposed to the air, and that it may be frequently
stirred  with an  iron  spatula; take  out directly  the
oxide, which is  formed from time to lime; then pasi
the white ond   lighter  part  of  it through a sievn
Lastly, pour water upon this, that a very fine powder
maybe formed, in the same manner os cholk is directed
to  be prepared."  The properties of  this  oxide  are
analogous to those of the sulphate, (except that it it
hardly  active enough to excite vomiting,) if given in
larger doses: but it is more precarious in iu effects;
and chiefly used  at present as an external astringent
   Zinci sulphas.  Zincum  vitriolatum.  Vitriolum
 album.  Sulphate of zinc.  White vitriol.   This or,-
curs native,  but not sufficiently pure for niedical use:
It is thus prepared  in the  pharmacopoeia.  "Takeof
zinc, broken to  little pieces, three ounces; sulphuris
acid, by weight,  five ounces- water, four pints.  Mi*
V/y 
ZIR.
ZOO
 them In a glass vessel, and when  the effervescence is
 over, filter the solution through  paper;  then boil it
 down, tiU a pellicle appears, and set it by to crystal-
 lize."  This preparation to given internally in the dose
 of from 3j to 3 ss, as a vomit  In small doses it cures
 dropsies, intermitting headaches, and  some nervous
 diseases ; and is a powerful antispasmodic and  tonic.
 A solution of while vitriol is also used to remove gleets,
 gonorrhoeas, and for cleaning foul ulcers, having an as-
 tringent or stimulant effect, according to iu strength.
  ZINCUM.  See Zihc.
  Zincum calcinatim.  See Zinci oxidum.
  Zincum vitriolatum.   See Zinci sulphas.
  Zincum vitriolatum purificatum.  See  Zinci
 sulphas.
  Zinoi.  An ancient name of the  stellated  aniseed.
 See Illicium anisatum.
  ZI'NGIBER.  (Zingiberie,is, t.  Zingiber, cris, n.
 Zingiberi; indec. ZiyytStpis, of Dioscorides, ft name
 which tiie Greeks seem to have token from the Ara-
 bians, when they got the plant.)  The name of a genus
 of planu, according to Roscoe.   Class, Monandria;
 Order, Monogynia.
  Zingiber album.   Ginger-root when deprived of iu
 radicles and sordes.
  Zinoibkr commune.  See Zingiber officinale.
  Zingiber nigrum.  The root of the zingiber offid-
 nale to so called when suffered to dry with its radicles
 and the sordes which usually hang to it.
  Zingiber officinale.  The systematic name ofthe
ginger-plant   Zingiber album;  Zingiber nigrum;
 Zingiber commune;  Zinziber ; Amomum zingiber, of
 Linnxus.  The white and black ginger  are both the
 produce of the same plant, the difference depending
 upon the mode of preparing them.  Ginger is generally
considered as an aromatic,  and less pungent and heat-
 ing  to the system  than might be expected  from  its
 effecu upon the organ of taste.  It is used as an anti-
 spasmodic and carminative.  The cases in whicli it is
 more immediately serviceable are flatulent colics, de-
 bility, and Inxity of the stomach and intestines; and
in torpid and phlegmatic constitutions to excite brisker
 vascular action.  It to seldom given but in combination
 with other  medicines.   In the pharmacopoeias it is
directed in the form of a syrup and condiment, and in
 many compositions ordered as a subsidiary ingredient.
  ZINN, John  Godfrey, was born in 1726, studied
under Haller at Gottingen, and became botanical pro-
fessor in that university.  His first experiments  were
undertaken to ascertain the  sensibility of different
ptiru of the brain ; he then proceeded to the examina-
 tion of the eye, on which he published a work iu much
 estimation.   The result of his botanical  labours ap-
 peared in  several papers,  and in  a catalogue of the
 plante about Gottingen, arranged according to the plan
 of bis  preceptor.  He died prematurely in 1758.  He
 was a member of several-learned societies.
  Zinziber.  See Zingiber.
  ZIRCONIA.  Zircon.  An earth discovered in the
 year 1793, by Klaproth of Berlin, in the Zircon or Jar-
 gon, a gem first brought from tiie island of Ceylon, but
 also found in France,  Spain, and  other parU of Eu-
 rope.  Iu colour to  cither  gray, greenish, yellowish,
 reddish-Iirown, or purple.  It has little lustre, and is
 nearly opaque.  Zircon  to likewise  found in another
 gem called the hyacinth.  Thto stone is of a yellowish-
 red colour, mixed with brown.  It  possesses lustre and
 transparency.  To obtain it, the stone should be cal-
 cined and thrown into cold water, to render it friable,
 and then  powdered in  an agate  mortar.  Mix the
 powder with nine parts of pure potassa, and project
 the mixture by spoonfuls into a red-hoi crucible, taking
 care that eoch portion is fused before another is added.
 Keep the whole in fusion, with an increased heat,  for
 an  hour and a half.  When cold, break the crucible,
 separate iu contents, powder and boU in water, to dis-
 solve the alkali.  Wash the insoluble part; dissolve in
 muriatic acid; heat the solution, that tiie silex may
 fall down;  and precipitate the ziicon by caustic fixed
 alkali.  Or the zircon maybe precipitated by carbonate
 of soda, and the carbonic acid expelled by heat
  New process for preparing pure zirconia.—Powder
 the  zircons  very fine, mix them  with two parts  of
 pure potassa, and heat them red-hot in a silver cru-
 cible, for an hour.  Treat the substance obtained wilh
 dis:i||ed water,  pour it on a filter,  and wash the inso-
 luble part well; it  will be a compound  of zirconia,
silex, potassa, and oxide of iron.  Dissolve it In on;
riatic acid, and evaporate  to dryness, to separate the
silex.  Redissolve the muriates of zirconia  and iron in
water; aud to separate the zirconia whicli adheres to
the silex, wash it with weak muriatic acid, and add
this to the solution.   Filter the  fluid, and  precipitate
the zirconia and iron by  pure  ammonia; wash tlie
precipitates  well,  and then  treat the hydrates with
oxalic acid, boiling them well together, that the acid
may act on the iron, retaining it in solution, while an
insoluble oxalate of zirconia to formed.  It is  then  to
be  filtered, and the oxalate washed, until no iron con
be detected in the water that passes.  The earthy oxa-
late is, when dry, of an opaline colour.  After  being
well washed, it is to be decomposed by heat in a pla-
tinum crucible
  Thus obtained, the zirconia is perfectly pure, but is
not affected by acids.  It must bo reacted on by po-
tassa  as before, aud  then washed until the alkali is
removed.  Afterward dissolve it in muriatic acid, and
precipitate by ammonia.  The hydrate thrown down,
wlieu well washed, to perfectly pure, and easily soluble
in acids.
  Zircon is  a fine white  powder, without taste or
smell, but somewhat harsh to the  touch.  It is  inso-
luble  in water; yet if slowly dried, it coalesces into
a seniitranspareiit yellowish mass, like  gum-arabic,
which retains one-third its weight of water.  It unites
with all the acids.  It  to Insoluble In pure alkalies; but
the alkaline carbonates dissolve it.  Heated with the
blowpipe, it does not melt, but emits a yellowish phos-
phoric light  Heated in a crucible of charcoal,  bedded
in charcoal powder, placed in a stone crucible, and ex-
posed to a good forge fire for some hours, it undergoes
a pasty fusion, which unites iu particles into a gray
opaque  mass, not truly vitreous, but more  resembling
porcelain.  In this state it is sufficiently hard to strike
(ire with steel, and scratch glass;  and to of the specific
gravity of 4.3.
  There is the same evidence for believing that zirco-
nia is a compound of a metal  and oxygen, as that
afforded by the action of potassium on the other earths.
The alkaline metal,  when brought into contact with
zirconia ignited to whiteness, is, for  the  most  part,
converted  into  potassa, and dork  particles,  which,
when examined by a magnifying glass, appear metallic
in some parts, of a  chocolate-brown in  others, are'
found diffused through  the potassa and the  decom-
pounded earth.
  According to Sir II.  Davy, 4.66 to the prime bquivri.
lent of zirconium on tlie oxygen scale, and 5.G6  that of
zirconia.
  ZIZA'NIA.  (An  ancient name, ijigaviov,  of the
Greeks, synonymous with infelix lolium, of the Latins.)
The name of a genus of planu in the Linmean system.
Class, Monacia; Order, Hexandria.
  Zizania aqvatica.  The systematic name of a reed,
the grain of which is much  esteemed in Jamaica and
Virginia.  The Indians ore exceedingly fond of it, ond
account it  more delicious than rice.
  [The zizania aquatica is a native of most of the
northern parts of the United States, but  it has disap-
peared in the settled and cultivated parts of the coun-
try.  It  is now principally found on the streams and
Bhoal  waters of the  north-western lakes and  rivers,
where it grows spontaneously in the water, like rice in
the southern states.   During seed-time, the aborigines
of the country collect  it for food ;  whicli they use by
parching with tire, and then iKiunding with a stone.
The meal thus  produced  tastes much  like parched
Indian corn.   The plant is the Fausse avoine, or  false
oau of the  French Canadians.  The grain is black
and from half an inch  to an inch  in length, with much
ofthe appearance, when growing, of oau or rice.   A.l
  Zizyphus.  The jujubes were formerly  so  called.
See Rhamnus zizyphus.
  ZOISITE.  A subspecies of prismatic augite, whi«n
is divided into two kinds:
  1. Common zoisite^of a yellowish-gray colour, f/Und
in Corinthia.
  2. Friable zoisite, of a reddish colour, whic' comes
also from Corinthia.
  ZONA.   (From ^tavwpt, to surround.VTne shin-
gles.  See Erysipelas.
  ZOOLOGY.  (Zonlogia; from $uov.'n animal, and
Xoyos, a discourse.) Thai part of natu^* history  which
treats of animals. 
ZYG
ZZ
  ZOON1C ACID.  In the liquid procured by distilla-
tion from animal substances, which had been supposed
to contain only carbonate of ammonia and an oil. Ber-
thollet imagined he had discovered a peculiar acid, to
which he gave the name of zoonic.  Thenard, how-
ever,  has demonstrated that  it is merely acetic acid
combined with animal matter
  ZOONO'MIA.  (From  §uov, an animal, and vopos,
a law.)   The laws of organic life.
  ZOOPHYTE.  (Zoophyte, i, n.; from \iaov, an ani-
mal, and'tbvTov, a plant.)   A kind of intermediate
body, supposed to partake both ofthe nature of on ani-
mal and a vegetable.  In the l.inna?an system, zoophytes
constitute an order ofthe Class Vermes.
  ZOOTOMY.  (Zootomia; from guov, an animal,and
rtpvto, to cut)  The dissection of animals.
  ZO'STER.  (From guivvvpt, to gird.)  A kind of ery-
sipelas which goes round the body like a girdle.
  Zu'char.   (Arabian.)  Sugar.
  ZUMATE.  A compound of tlie zumic acid, with a
salifiable basis.
  ZUMIC ACID.   (Acidum zumicum, from t,vpn, lea-
ven.)   An  acid produced from vegetable  substances
which nave undergone the acetous fermentation.  Its
claim io be considered as a distinct compound is doubt-
ful.  See Nanceic acid.
  ZUNDERERZ.  Tinder ore.  An ore of silver.
  ZYGO'MA.  (From tyyos, a yoke: because it trans-
miu the tendon of the temporal muscle like a yoke.)
The cavity under the zygomatic process of the tempo-
ral bone, and os mala;.
THE
  ZYGOMATIC.  (Zygomaticus; from zygoma.) Be*
longing to the zygoma.
  Zygomatic process. An apophysis of the osjugale,
and another ofthe temporal bone, are so called.
  Zyoomatic suture. Suturazygomatica.  Theunion
of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to the
cheek bone.
  Zygomaticus major.  Thto muscle arises from the
cheek bone near the zygomatic suture, taking a direc-
tion downwards and inwards to the angle of the mouth.
It is a long slender muscle, which  ends by  mixing its
fibres with the orbicularis oris,  and the  depressor of
the lip.
  Zygomaticus minor.  This  muscle arises  a little
higher up than the zygomaticus major, upon the cheek
bone, but nearer the nose;  it is much more slender
than thot muscle, and is often wonting.  It is the zygo-
matic muscle thot marks the face with thot line which
extends from the cheek bone to the corner of the mouth,
which is particularly distinguishable  in some persons.
The zygomatic muscles pull  the angles of the  mouth
up as in laughter, and from, in this woy, rendering the
face distorted, it has obtained the name of'distortor
oris.   The strong action of this muscle is mere parti-
cularly seen in laughter, rage, or  grinning.
  Zytho'gala.   ZvBoyaXa.   Beer and  milk,  whicli
make together what we commonly call posset-drink,
a term often to be met wilh in Sydenham.
  ZZ.  The  ancienu signify Myrrh by these two let-
ters, from t,pvpvn, a name for it common among them.
They have also been used for Zingiber.
END
m 
APPENDIX.
   [THE following obsolete terms have been omitted in the body  of  the  work, but to
preserve Dr. Hooper's Dictionary perfect, they are inserted in the present place and form.]
  A'abak.  An obsolete term  used by some ancient
alchemists for lead.
  A'banet.  (Hebrew.  The girdle worn by the Jew-
ish priests.)  A girdle-like bandage.
  Aba'rtamkn.  Lead
  A'bas.   An Arabian term for  the scald-head, and
also for epilepsy.
  Abo'it.   An Arabic term for white lead.
  A'bric   An Arabic term for sulphur.
  Abstracti'tius.  (From abstraho, to draw away.)
An obsolete term formerly applied to any native spirit,
not produced by fermentation.
  Aca ca.   (Kkokos ; from a, neg., and kokos,  bad.)
Formerly applied to those diseases, which ore rather
troublesome than dangerous.
  Aca'lai.  (Arabian.)   Common salt
  Aca'lcum.  Tin.
  Aca'nor.  (Hebrew.)  A furnace.
  Aca'zoir.  Tin.
  A'ccib.  An obsolete term for lead.
  A'CESIS.   (From axtopai, to cure.)  1.  A remedy
or cure.
  2. The herb water-sage ; so called from iu supposed
healing qualities.
  Ace storis.  (From axtopai, to cure.)  It strictly
signifies a female physicion, and is used for a midwife.
  Achka'dium. Antimony.
  A'CHNE.   An obsolete term applied to
  1. Chaff.
  2. Scum or froth of the sea.
  3. A white mucus in the fauces, thrown up from the
lungs, like  froth.
  i. A whitish mucilage in the eyes of those who  have
fevers, according to Hippocrates.
  5. It signifies also lint.
  ACONITUM.  (jJconitum,  i,  m.  Of this name
various derivations are given by etymologisU; as, axovn,
a whetstone or rock, becouse it to usually found in bar-
ren and rocky places: axoviros,a,neg., and xovis, dust;
because il grows without earth, or on barren situations;
agreeable to Ovid's description, " Qua: quia nascuntur
duro vivocia caule, Agrestes aconita vocant:" axovato,
tr sharpen; because it was used in medicine intended
to quicken the sight' aKuiv,axn,a dart; because they
poison daru therewith : or, axovi^ouac,  to accelerate;
for it hastens death.)  Aconite.  1. A genus of plants in
the Linnieon system, oil the species of which hove  pow-
eiful effecu on the human body.   Class, Polyandria;
Order, Trigynia.
  2. The pharmacopceial nome of the common, or blue
wolfsbane.  See Aconitum napdlies.
  Aco'nium.  A little mortar.
  ACOBI'TES. (From axopov, galangal.)  Acorites
vinum.  A wine mentioned by Dioscorides, made  with
galangal, liquorice, &c. infused wilh wine.
  Acortisus.   A  lupin.
  A'cra.   (An Arabian word.)  Acrai.
  1. Excessive venereal appetite.
  2. The time of menstruation.
  ACTON  A village four miles from London, where
is a well that affords a purging water. Thto to one of
the  strongest  purging waters near London; and has
been drank in ihe quantity of from one to three pinu in
a morning, against scorbutic and cutaneous affections.
This medical spring is no longer resorted to by the
public.
  AnAicss.  Sal-ammoniac.
  Adamitum.  Sec Adamita.
  Adari'ges.  An ammoniacal salt
  A'deo.   Sour milk, or buttermilk.
  Amathoroscs.  A spirit dtotiUed from tartar  Ob-
solete.
  Adlbat.  Mercury.
I   A'dick.  Ar5i*i7.  Anettie.
   Adi'rige.  Ammoniacal salt.
   A'doc  Milk.
   A'dram.  Fossil salt.
   Aei'gluces. (From ati, always, and yXvxvs, sweet)
 A sweetish wine, or must. •
   jE'ON.  The spinal marrow.
   iEONE'SIS. A washing or sprinkling the whole body.
   A^schromythe'sis. The obscene language of tiie
 delirious.
   A^seca'vum.  Brass.
   A^sta'tes.   Freckles in the face;  sunburnings.
   Mtas crepita. See Age.
   ./Etas virilis.  See Age.
   jE'thna.  A chemical furnace.
   ATtiioces.   JBtholices.  Superficial pustules in the
 skin, raised  by heat, as boils, fiery pustules.
   jEthya.  A mortar.
   AS'ttioi phlebes.  Eagle veins.   The veins which
 pass through the  temples to the head, were so called
 formerly by  Rufus Ephesius.
   AStolium.  See JEtocion.
   A'rfion.  An Arabic name for opium.
   A'ffium.  An Arabic name for opium.
   Agera'tus  lapis.   (Ageratus, common.)  A stone
 used by cobblers
   A'GES.   (From ayris, wicked: so  called  because it
 is generally the instrument of wicked acts.)  The palm
 of the hand.
  A'GIS. The thigh or femur.
   A'oma. Agme.     A fracture.
  Ago'ce.   1  The deduction or reasoning upon dis-
 eases from their symptoms and appearances.
  2. The order, state, or tenour of a disease or body.
  Ago'stos.  (From ayia, to bring, or lead.)  That
 part of the arm from the elbow to the fingers;  also the
 palm  or hollow of the  hand.
  AGRE'STA.  (Aypws,  wild.)   1.  The  immature
 fruit of the vine.
  2. Verjuice, which to made from the wild apple.
  Aorb stkn.   Common  tartar
  AGUIA.  (From a, priv., and yvwv, a  member.)
 Paralytic weakness of  a limb.  Where the use of the
 members is defective or lost.
  A'gul.  Alhagi.  An Arabian name for the Syrian
 thorn.  The leaves are purgative
  Aoyion.   See Aguia.
  AGY'RTjE.  (From ayvpis, a crowd of  people, or
 a mob; or from aytipta, to  gather together.)  It for-
 merly expressed certoin strollers,  who  pretended to
strange things  from supernatural assistances- it was
 afterward applied to all illiterate dabblers in  medicine.
 Now obsolete.
  Ahaloth. The Hebrew name of Lignum aloes,
 Bee Lignum aloes.
  Ahame'lla.  See Achmella,
  Aho'vai theveticlush. A chesnut-like fruit of
Brazil, of a poisonous nature.
  Ahu'sal.  Orpiment
  Ai'lmad.  Antimony.
  Ai'tmad.  Antimony.
  Ajura'rat.   Lead.
  Ala'bari.  Lead.
  A'lacar.  Sal ammoniac.
  A'lapi. Alafor.  Alafort.  Alcaline.
  A lam ad.  Alamed.   Antimony.
  Ala'mbic  Mercury.
  Alapou'li.  See Bilimbi.
  Alasalrt.  Closet.  Ammoniacum.
  Alasi.  Alafor. An alcaUne salt
   Ala'strob.   Lead.
  A'latam.  Litharge.
  Alau'rat.  Nitre. 
APPENDIX.
  Albadal.  An Arabic name for the sesamoid bone
of tlie first joint of the great toe.
  Albaoe'nzi.  Albagiazi.  Arabic names for the os
sacrum.
  Alba'ra.  (Chaldean.)  The white leprosy.
  Albaras.  1. Arsenic.
  2. A white pustule.
  A'lberas.  (Arabian.)  White pustules on the face:
also, staphisagriu, because its juice was said to remove
these pustules.
  Ai.be'ston.  Quicklime.
  A'lbktad.  Galbanum.
  A'lbi sublimati.   Muriated mercury.
  A'lbimec  Orpiment.  See Arsenic.
  A'lbor.  Urine.
  Albo'rea.  Quicksilver.
  A'lbot.  A crucible.
  Albo'tai.  Turpentine.
  A'lbotar.  Turpentine.
  A'LnoTAT.  White lead.
  A'lbotim.  Turpentine.
  A'LBOTIS.  A cutaneous phlegmon or boil.
  Albuhar.  White lead.
  A'lckbar.  See Lignum aloes.
  A'lcebris vivum.  This signifies, according to Ru-
landus, Sulphur vivum.
  A'lchabric.  Sulphur vivum.
  A'lchachil.  Rosemary.
  A'lciiaritr.   Quicksilver.
  A'lchibric.  Sulphur.
  A'lchiks.  This word occurs in theTheatrum Che-
mictun, and seems to signify that  power in nature by
which  all corruption and generation are  effected
  Alchimelec. '(Hebrew.)  The Egyptian melilot.
  A'LCHLYS.   A speck  on the pupil of the eye,
somewhat obscuring vision.
  A'lchutk.  The mulberry.
  A'lcimad.  Antimony.
  A'lcob.   Sal ammoniac.
  Alco'calum.  Most probably the Indian name of
the artichoke.
  A'lcofol.  Antimony.
  A'lcola.  (Hebrew.)  1. The thrush.
  2. Paracelsus gives this name to tartar, or excrement
of urine, whether it appears as sand, mucilage, &c.
  Alcoli'ta.  Urine.
  Alco'nb. Brass.
  A'lcor.  JEs ustum.
  A'lctk.  The name of a plant mentioned by Hip-
pocrates, supposed to be the elder.
  Alcu'brith.   Sulphur.
  Alkara.  A cucurbit.
  Ale'bria.  (From alo, to nourish.)   An obsolete
term for that which is nourishing.
  A'lec  Alech.  Vitriol.
  Ale'charith.  Mercury.
  Alki'mma.  (From aXtttbta, to anoint.)   Anointment.
  Ale'mzabar.  Sal ammoniac.
  ALE'MZAnAT.  Sal ammoniac.
  Alfa'cta.  Distillation.
  A'tFAnAS.  Alfides.  Cerusse.
  Alfa'sra.  Alphesara.   Arabie terms for tlie vine.
  Alfa'tide.  Sal ammoniac.
  A'lfol.  Sal ammoniac.
  A'lfusa.  Tutty.
  A'lgali.  A catheter.  Also nitre.
  A'lgarah.  See Anchilops.
  Alge'ri^c.  Algirie.  Lime.
  A'lgeroth.  See Algaroth.
  A'lgibic.  Sulphur vivum.
  Alguada.  A white leprous eruption.
  Alinde'sis.  (AXivSnois;  from aXivSovpat,  to be
turned about.)  A  bodily exercise whicli seems to be
rolling on the ground, or rather in the dust, after being
anointed with oil.  Hippocrates soys it hath nearly the
same effect as wrestling.
  Alip.e'nos.  (From a, neg. and Xiiratvta, to be fat.)
Alipanum; AlipanUs.  An external remedy, without
fat or moisture.
  Alipe.  Remedies for wounds in the cheek, to pre-
vent inflammation.
  Ai.i'stelis.  (From aXc, the sea.)  Sal ammoniac.
  Alkafi'al.  Antimony.
  A'lkant.  Quicksilver.
  Alka'nthum.  Arsenic.     i
  Alkasa.  A crucible.
  Alke'rva.   (Arabian.)   Castor oil.
  A'lki plumbi.  Supposed to be the sugar or acetate
of lead.
  A'lkosor.  Camphire.
   Alksoal.  A crucible.
  Alkymia.  Powder of basilisk.
  A'i.labor.  Lead.
  A'llicar.  Vinegar.
  Alli'coa.  Petroleum.
  Alliratu'ra.  A ligature or bandage.
  ALLIO'TICUM.  (From aXXtoia, to alter, or vary.)
An alterative  medicine, consisting of various antiscor-
butics.—Galen.
  ALLO'CHOOS.  (From aXXos, another, and vtta, to
pour.)  Hippocrates uses this word to mean delirious.
  A'lmaora.   Bolum cuprum.  1. Red earth, or ochre,
used by the ancients as an astringent.
  2.  Rulandus says it is the same as Lotio.
  3.  In the Theatrum Cheniicum, it to a name for the
white sulphur of the alchemists.
  Almara'nda.  Almakis.  Litharge.
  Alma'rcab. An Arabian word for litharge of silver.
  Almarca'rida.  Litharge of silver.
  Alma'rgen.  Almarago.  Coral.
  Almarkasi'ta.  Mercury.
  Alma'rtak.  Powder of litharge.
  Almata'tica.  Copper.
  Almeaile'tu.  A word  used by Avicenna, to ex-
press a preternatural heat less than  that of fever and
which may continue after a fever.
  Almeca'site.  Almechasite.  Copper
   Almi'sa.  Musk.
  Almiza'dar.   Sal ammoniac.
  Ai.miza'dir.   Verdigris.
  A'lnec.  Tin.
  A'lnkric  Sulphur vivum.
  A'lohar.  (Arabian.)  Alohoc.  Mercury.
   Alo'mba.  (Arabian.)  Alooe.  Lend.
  Alphaee'tumchemicum. Raymond Lullyhcthgiven
the world this alphabet, but to what end to difficult to say:
      A  significal Deum.
      B---------Mercurium.
      C---------Salis petram.
      D--------- Vitriolum.
      E---------Menstruale.
      F-------y— Lunam claram.
      G---------Mercurium nostrum.
      H---------Salem purum
      I ---------Compositum luna.
      K---------Compos Hum solis.
      L--------- Terram compositi luna.
      M---------Aquam compositi luna.
      N---------JErem compositi luna.
      O---------Terram compositi solis.'
      P---------Aquam compositi solis.
      Q----—— JErem compositi solis.
      R---------Ignem compositi solis.
      S---------Lapidem  album.
      T---------Medicinam corporis rubei.
      U---------Culorem fumi secreti.
      X---------Ignem siccum cineris.
      Y---------Calorem balnci.
      Z---------Separationem liquorum.
      Z ---------Alembicum cum cucurbitd. «
   A'lphanic. Alphenic.  An Arabian  word, signify
ing tender, for barley-sugar, or sugar-candy.
   A'lrachas.  Lead.
   Alra'tica. An Arabic word used by Albucasis, to
signify a partial or a total imperforation of the vagina.
   Alsa'mach.  An Arabic name for the great hole in
the os petrosum.
   A'ltafor.   Camphire.
   Altha'naca.  Althanaca.   Orpiment.
   Althebe'gium.  An  Arabian name  for a sort of
swelling, such as to observed  in cachectic and leuco-
phlegmatic habiu.
   Altimit. So Avicenna calls the Laserpitium ofthe
ancients.
   A'Lun.  Arabian  aloes.
   Alvsar.  Manna.
   Alze'mafor.  Cinnabar.
   A'MBE. (ApSv, the edge of a rock; from apSatvia,
to ascend.) An old chirurgical machine for reducing
dislocations of the  shoulder, and so called, becouse iu
extremity projects like the prominence of a rock.  Its
invention is imputed to Hippocrates. The ambe is the
most ancient mechanical  contrivance for the above
purpose, but is not used at present 
APPENDIX.
   Ambela.  (Arabian.)  The cornered hazel-nut, the
 bark of which is purgative.
   A'mbulo.  (From apBaXXta, to cast forth.)  Flatus
 funosus.   A periodical  flatulent  disease caused, ac-
 cording to Michoelis, by vapours shooting  through
 various ports of the body.
   Amy'ctcia.  (From auvoata, to velllcote.)   Medi-
 cines wliich stimulate ond vellicate the skin, according
 to Ctelius Aurelianus.
   Ana'tris. Mercury.  Ruland.
   A'neric  Anerit.  Sulphur vivum.
   Antaris.  Mercury.
   Anti'ades.  (From avliata, to meet.)   1. The ton-
 sils are so culled because they answer one another.
   2. The mumps.—JVic Piso.
   Archima'gia.   (From apxv, the chief, and magaa,
 the Arabian for meditation.)  Chemistry, as being the
 chief of sciences.
   A'rfar.   Arsag.  Arsenic.—Ruland, tec
   A'ssac  (Arabian.)  Gum ammoniacum.
   A'ssala.  The nutmeg.
   A'ssanus.  The name of an old weight, consisting
 of two drachms.
   A'suar.  Indian myrobolans, or purging nut
   A'sugar. Verdigris.
   Asu'oli.  Soot
   A'tao.   Nitre.
   Ata'xir.  (Arabian.)  1.  A tenesmus.
   2. A disease of the eyes.
   Ata'xmir. (Arabian.) Removal of preternatural
 hair growing under the natural ones of the eyelids.
   A'tebras. A chemical subliming vessel.
 1  Atha'nor. (Arabian.) A chemical digesting furnace.
   Athena.  A plaster in much repute among tlie an-
 cients.
   Athenato'rium.   A thick glass cover formerly used
 for chemical purposes.
   Athemo'kis catapotium. The name of a  pill in
 Celsus's writings.
   Atheni'ppon. Athenippum. The name of a collyrium.
   Atho'nor.  (Arabian.)  A chemical furnace.
   Ati'mcar.  (Arabian.)  Borax.
   Atrame'ntum sutorium.  A name of green vitriol.
   Aurus braziliensis.   An obsolete name  of the
 Calamus aromaticus.
   AUTOLITHO'TOMUS.   (From  avros, himself,
 XiBos, a stone, and rtpvia, to cut.1   One who cuU  him-
 self for the stone.
   Ava'nsis.  Avante. Indigestion.

   Ba'iac   White lead.
   Ba'rac   (From 6ora4, Arabian, splendid.)   Ba-
 rach panis.  Nitre.
   Ba'ras.   (Arabion.) In M. A. Severinus, it is sy-
 nonymous with Alphus, or Leuce.
   Bara'thrum.   (Arabian.) Any cavity  or hollow
 place.
   Barba'ma.  Barbaricum.  An obsolete term for-
 merly applied to rhubarb.
   Baro ptis. A black stone, said to be an antidote to
 venomous bites.
   Bacda.   A vessel for  distillation was formerly so
 called.
   Bau'rach. (Arab.  Bourach.)   A nome formerly
 applied to nitre, borax, soda,  and many other salu.
   Bbe'llus.  (From  PStta, to break wiud.)  A dis-
 charge  of wind by the anus.
   Bdily'omia.  (From fiStta, to  break wind.)   Any
 filthy and nauseous odour.
   Bellu'tta tsjampacam.  (Indian.)  A tree of Ma-
 labar, to which many virtues  ore attributed.
  Belu'zzar.  Beluzaar. The Choldee word for anti-
 dote.
  Bi'nath.  (Arabian.)  Small pustules produced by
 sweatings in the night
  Bere'drias.  An ointment
  Berna'rvi.  An electuary.
  Berrio'nis.  A name of black resin
  Bery'tion.  (From Berytius, ito inventor.)   A col-
 lyrium  described by Galen.
  Bes. _ An eight ounce measure.
  Besa'cuar.  A sponge.
  Bes'asa.   Formerly applied to wild rue.
  Besease.  An old name for mace.         ,
  Bese'nna.  (An Arabian word.)  Muscarum fun-
gus. Probably a sponge, which is the nidus of some
 •orto of flies.
   Bezoas.  An obsolete chemical epithet.
   Bla'nca mulierum.  White lead.
   Bo'sa.  An Egyptian word for an inebriating mass,
 made of the meal of damel, hempseed, and water.
   Bo'smoros.  (From Pooxta, to eat, and popos, a part;
 because it is divided for food by the miU.)  Bosporus.
 A  species of meal.
   Bo'thor.  (Arabian.)   Tumours; pimples in tha
 face: also the small-pox or measles.
   Bo'tia.  A name given to scrofula.
   Bo'tin.  A name for turpentine.
   Bo'tium.  Boetum.  1.  A bronchocele.
   8. Indurated bronchial glands.
   Botothi'num. The most evident symptom of disease.
   Bo'tus.  Botia.  Botus barbatus.  A cucurbit oi
 the chemists.
   Bra'cium.  Copper.  Verdigris.
   Bvrac.  (An Arabian word.)   Borax, or any kind
 of salt.

   C, in the chemical alphabet, means nitre.
  Ca'lcaton.  White arsenic.  Troches of  arsenic.
 An obsolete term.
  Calce'na.  Calcenonius; Cdlcetus.  Paracelsus uses
 these words to express the tartarous matter in the blood;
 or that the blood is impregnated with the tartarous prin-
 ciples.
  Calchoi'drs.  (From %aXt\, a chalk stone,  and
 tiSos, form.)  An obsolete name ofthe cuneiform bones.
  Calcioi'cium.  The  name of a  medicine in which
 arsenic is an ingredient.
  Calcita'ri.  Alkaline salt
  Calcite'a.  Vitriol.
  Calciteo'sa. Litharge.
  Ca'lcithos.  Verdigris.
  Calcitre'a.  Vitriol.
  Ca'lcotar.  Vitriol.
  Ca'rabe.   See Capyridion.
  Ca'rabk.   (Persian)  Amber.
  Chk'bur.  Sulphur.

  Diami'syos.  (From Sia, and ptov, misy.)   A com
 position in which misy to an ingredient.
  Dysra'chitis.  The name of a plaster.

  Ebel.  The seeds of sage, or of juniper.
  Ebe'shrcii.  Quicksilver.
  Ebsemech.   Quicksilver.
  Eccatha'rtica.  (From exxadatpta, to purge out-
 wards.)   According to Gorraus, eccathartics are medi-
 cines which open the pores of the skin; but in  general
 they are understood to be deobstruent.   Sometimes
 expectornnu are thus called, and also purgatives.  An
 obsolete term.
  Edes.  Amber.
  Ems'ssenum.  An eye-water of tragacanth, gum
 arable, opium, See.                          ' "
  E'detz.  Amber.
  E'mc.   Edich;  Eder. Iron.

 recto"11*'  A fracture;  abo  the  ,ower  Pari  of the
  E'pfides.   Ceruss.
  Ela'nula.  Alum.
  E'lao.uir.  Red vitriol.
  E'las maris.  Burnt lead.
  Ele'rsna.  An old term for black lead.
  Elb smatis.  An old term for burnt lead.
  Ens martis.  An oxide of iron.
  Ens primum solare.  Antimony.
  Ens vbneris.  The muriate of copper.

  Fumus albus.  Mercury.
  Fumus citrinus.  Sulphur.
  Fumus duplex.   Sulphur and mercury
  Fumus rubens.   Orpiment.


plants!""'  A term °f barbaT0UI, or'g^ »PP»ed to two
  Gk'ryon.  Quicksilver.


mente1 J"'r.  *" ** SpDgyrlC lanBU»W » » *e «le-
La'rbason.  Antimony.

Satanusdkvorans.  Antimony
Sath«.  The penis.           ' 
 
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